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f ^ f . ■ -■ ' -i ' "^yii?jM.iMN ^
THE
ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA
ELEVENTH EDITION
FIRST
•dldoo, pablUhcd la thrat
fdnM,
I7«8-X77i.
SECOND
»f $f
ten
f*
1777—1784.
THIRD
n w
eighteoi
n
1788-1797.
FOURTH
>• »i
twenty
If
1801— 1810.
HFTH
$9 n
twenty
If
18x5—1817.
SIXTH
u >•
twenty
If
1833—1824.
SEVENTH
t> f«
twenty-one
fi
1830-1843.
EIGHTH
>t tf
twenty-two
ft
1853-1860.
NINTH
n *•>
twenty-five
M
1875-1889.
TENTH
„ ninth nditinn and eleven
WPf
ilemcntery Tolumes,
igoa-igoj.
ELEVENTH
poUiahcd in twenty-nine volttnci, 19x0— xgxx.
THE
ENCYCLOPiEDIA BRITANNICA
A
DICTIONARY
OF
ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL
INFORMATION
ELEVENTH EDITION
VOLUME XIX
MUN to ODDFELLOWS
NEW YORK
THE ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA COMPANY
1911
5
Copyright, in the United Sutcs of Americe, 1911,
TheEncycbpadin Britannica Conptny.
INITIALS USED IN VOLUME XIX. TO IDENTIFY INDIVIDUAL
CONTRIBUTORS,* WITH THE HEADINGS OF THE
ARTICLES IN THIS VOLUME SO SIGNED.
A.A.W.H.
A.Ch.
A.K.S.
A.F.P.
A.Gtu
A.Oa«
A.Bk
A.SA
A.J.O.
A.U
A.LLSk
A.JLa
A.P.H.
A.R.&
A.ft.B.
Amxosius AsKOiD Willem Hubiecht, LL.D., D.Sc., Pb.D. f
Profenor of Zoolocy, and Director oC the loititute of Zoology b th« UmverMty <
ot UtrechL Author of Ntmertiius. t
AiTHUi Caylky, LL.D., F.R.S.
See the biognphkal article: Catlbt, AsTBUt.
AxTHUi EvEXETT Sbipuey, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.
Master of Christ's CoUm, Cambridge. Reader in Zoology, Cambridge Unavcrsity. '
Jmnt-editor of the CamMdge Natural History.
AlBEBT FSEDEUCE POLLAID, M.A., F.R.HIST.S.
Profes s or of English History in the Univerrity of London. Fellow of All Souls
CoUege, Oxford. Aasisunt Editor of the Dictwmary t^ National Biography, 1893- -
1901. Lothian Prixeman, Oxford, iSoa; Arnold Pnxeman. 1898. Author of
Bt^and undtr tko Frdedor SoiMrsd; Hmtry VllL ; LiSo ^ Tkamu Oommt; &c
Sn AscBZBAiD Gedoe, K.C.B. J
See the biographical article : Cbuub, Sii AlCBiBALa \
Rev. Alezandee Gobdom, MiA.
Leaurer in Church History in the Univenitxillt Manchestcn
Adolf Habnacs, Ph.D.
See the biographical artide: Habmace, Aoolf.
Sn A. HOUTUM-SCHXNDLEB, CLE.
Genexal in the Persian Army. Author of fatfem Peritoii /raJL
Rev. Alezamdbb Takes Gbieve, M.A., B.D.
Professor of New Testament and Church History at the United Independent.
College, Bradford. Sometime Registru' of Madras University and Member of
Mysore Educational Sendee.
Ajobew Lano, LL.D.
See the biogiBphical artide: Lang, Andbew.
Abtbub Llewexxtn Davies (d. 1907).
Trinity College, Cambridge; Barrister-at-Law, Inner Temple. Formerly Assistant
Reader in Common Law under the Council of Legal Education.
Agves Mubiel Clat (Mrs Edward Wilde).
Late Resident Tutor of Lady BCaigaret Hall, Oxfbcd. Joint-editor of Somhm* of
Rman History, /jj-70 B.C.
AiiBED Newton, F.R.S.
See the biognphkal article: NEWtON, Alfbeo.
illlimlMn*
impart).
PtfttttOBOL
(in part);
(in 'part).
Moithnoibtrlud, John Dudky*
duki oL
AiFBED Peteb Hxlueb, M.D., M.P.
President. South African Medical Congress, 1893. Author of SotUk Afriean Stmdies ;
Ac Served in Kaffir War, 1878-1879. Partner with Dr L. S. Jameson in medical .
practice in South Africa till 1896. Member of Reform Committee, Johannesburg, ^
and Political Prisoner at Pcetoria, 1895-1896. M.P. for Hitchin division of Herts,
191a
Sib Alesandeb Russell Sdcpson, M.D.. LL.D., D.Sc., F.R.S. (Edln.).
Emeritus Professor of Midwifery. Edinourgh University. Dean of the Faculty of
Medicine and Professor in the University, 1870-1905.
Abtbub Stanley Eodincton, M.A., M.Sc., F.R.A.S.
Chief Asnstant at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich. Fellow of Trinity College,
Cambridge.
* A oomplete fist diowing all individual contributon^ BppCBn In the final ^rolumck
llireoBliii. FMtditeh;
Ll^ooBlnit OswbH.
impart)
{in part);
Hostortiis {in fart);
Hew JeniSBleBi Chonh;
meholas of BbmL
Hytbology;
Hbbm {Locai and Personal
Names).
MegUsraet.
HoBlelpliUB.
HidlfleattoB (in part);
mghtlDgBto; noddy;
Hnteraekar; HBthateh;
Katal {in part).
Ohfttetrlei.
VI
A.Tk
A.W.H.*
A.W.HIL
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
B.S.P.
O.F.H.B.
C.H.Ha.
C.H.W.1.
C.K.8.
CWL
an.
aPL
aB.B.
D.B.IIIL
D.r.T.
iLaH.
Amdiew Setb Pkingle-Pattison. ma., LL.D., D.C.L.
Profeaaor of Logic and MeUpnyaict in the University of Edinbarsh.
^ . , ^_ GIffoniJ
Ijecturer in the Untventty of Aberdeen, 1911. Fellow of the British Academy. I
Aixthor oi Mau*M Ptau in tk» Cosmos; The PkitcwpUcal RttdicaUi &C. ^
AlSEKT T^OKAS. f- • w
Member of the French Chamber of Depotiea. Contributor to VoL sL of tbe-f lltpOtoon UL
Cambridijs Modtm History, Aatbor ci L$ soeond Empiro, doc I
Akthuk William Holland. f»._ ,.
Formerly Scholar of St John's CoUcge, Oxford. Bacon Scholar of Gra/s Inn. 1900. \ WBjnwn.
A&THUK Wollaston Hutton.
Rector of Bow Church, Cheapside, London. Formeriy Librarian of the Nattonal J
Liberal Club. Author of Lifo of Cardinal Manning. Editor of Newman's Lioes 1
of tkoEnt^isk Saints, ac I
LoBD Balcasbss, F.SJV., M.P.
Trustee of National Portrait Gallery. Hon. Secretary of Society for Protection
of Andent Buildings *, Vice-Chainpan of National Trust. Junior Lord of the'
Treasury, 1901-1905. M.P. for Chorley division of Lanes from 1895.
heir of the aotn earl of Crawford.
Son and
OudlaiL
«CAii.
SB BovEXTON RiDWOOO, D.S&, F.ILS. (Edin.), FJ.C., A8s0c.I2ffiT.CX.,
M.INST.M.E.
Adviser on Fetroktim to the Admirslty, Home Cntice, India Office, Corporation of
London, and Pbrt of London Authority. President of the Society of Chemical
Industry. Member of the Council of the Chemical Society. Membo- of Council of
Institute of Chemistry. Author of QuUor Ltetnns on Fotroknmi Pttroknm and
pZKTHA SuxTEES Phxlpotts, M.A. (DubUn).
Formerly Librarian of Girton College, Cambrid^B.
BlCKLES WILL8ON.
Author of Th* Hudson's Bay Company; Thi Romanc* of Canada; Ac.
CHARLES FSEOEUC MOBEILY BSLt.
Managing Director of Tko Times. Correspondent in Egypt, i86s-l89a Author of
Khedioes and Pashas; From Pharaoh to Fatah; &c
Caelton Huhtlbt Hayes. A.M., Ph.D.
Aisisunt Professor of History at Columbia Univernty, New York Qty. Member
of the American Historical Association.
Rsv. Claude Heekann Walter Johns, M.A., Litt.D.
Master of St Catharine's College, Cambridfe. Canon of Nocvich. Author of
Clement King Shorter.
Editor of the Sphero, Author of ChariolU Bronti andHor CtnU; Th$ Brontls:
Ufo and Lttttrs; &c
Carl T^odor Mirbt, D.Tb.
Professor of Church History in the University of Marburg. Author of PnUioistih
im Zeitalter Cregor VJJ. ; QueUen snr CeschiehU des Papstthnms; &c.
CbEDOHILLE MnATOVICB.
Senator of the Kingdom of Servia. Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Pleni-
poteotiarv of the King of Servia to the Court of St James's, 1895-1900, and 1909-
1903.
Christian VnsTER, D.-is L.
Professor at the Sorbonne, Paris. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Author of
£tM'l€S sur U ripu do Robert le Pienx,
Charles Raymond Beazley, M.A., D.Litt.
Professor of Modem History in the University of Birmingham. Formerly Fellow
of Merton College, Oxford, and University Lecturer in the History of Geography.
Author of Henry the Naoigator; The Dawn of Modem Geography; &c
Charles Scott Sherrington, D.Sc., M.D., M.A., F.R.S., LL.D.
Professor of Physiology, University of Uverpo(rf. Foreini Member of Academies
of Rome, Vienna, Brussels, GOttingen, Ac Author of Tfts Jntegratioe Actiou of
the Nervous System,
Duncan Black Macdonald, M.A.. D.D.
Professor of Semitic Languages, Hartford Theological Seminary, U.S. A. Author of
Development of Muslim Theology, Jurisprudence and Co nstihtti ofta i Thmryi Setae-
ticnsfrom Ihn Khaldun; Rdigious Attitude and Life in Islam; Ac.
Donald Francis Tovey.
Balliol College, Oxford. Author of Essays in Musical Analysis: comprising The
Classical Concerto, The Goldberg Variations, and analyses of many other classical
works.
David George Hogarth. M.A. I
Keeper of the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford Fellow of Masdal^n College. Oxford.
Fellow of the British Academy. Excavated at Paphos, i88iB: Naucnids.i89Q and 1
1903: Ephcsus, 1904-190S'. Assiut. 1906-1907. Director, British School at
Athens, 1897-1900. Director, Cretan Exploration Fund, 1899. I
|Kannf: Early History.
llQbtf
Nleliolas. UL, IV.
ipopet).
i V.
Ittustraled Papen,
RleMi, Ootmell oL
HlkitlB:
■Bdltrw.
ItaAKQiUlL
Vyn.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
vu
aM.w.
BLB.T.
B.r.flL
K.1LfB.
K.nr.
B.P.&
&ft.a
&Wa.
S.W.H.*
r.s.B.
p.as.&
p.&r.
Davd HAmtAY.
Fonneriy British Vice-Contul at Buodona.
Msvjf ; Ltft pf BmUic Castdari &c
Author of Skeri Hiskfj tf Om Eoyal
Su DowALD Mackenzie Wallace, K.C.I.E., K.C.V.O.
Extra Groom-in-WaitioK to H.M . King Gcocge V. Director of the Fomen Depart*
meat of Tht Tinus, 1891-1899. Joint-editor of new volumet (loth edition) of the
EMcyt»opa€dia Britannua, Author of Rusna; Egypt and tk» Bgjfptian QutstiMi
TktwSrfEmpini^c,
DiARiUD Noel Paton, M.D., F.R.C.P. (Edin.).
fU^ios ProfeMor 01 PhyUology in the Univenity of Giaagow. FormeHy Super-
intendent of Research Laboratory of Royal CoUm of Phyaidans, Edinburgh.
Biological Fellow of Ediobuigh Untveraity, 1884. Author of Etttnlial$ tf Humam
Phystohgyi &c
Daniel Wbicbt. M.D.
Tranalated tlie History ef Ntpaml, from the Pkrbatiya, with an " Introductory
Sketch of the Country and Ptople of NepauL'*
EoWAED AucosTUS Freeman, LL.D.
See the biographical article: Fubman, E. A.
Edwabd BiriNETT Tylos, D.C.L., LL.D.
See the biographical article : Tylok, Eowaeo .Buiiibtt.
Eowabd Fairbsotbee Stbance.
Aaaiaunt Keeper. Victoria and Albert Muaeum. South Keoainfton. If ember of
Council, japan Society. Author of numeroua worka on art subjecta. Joint-editor '
Natal operations',
Havariiio, Battle of; Ktvy
Kikb Battle of the.
Hotiltioii.
(in part).
of BeU'a '* Cathedral '' Series.
Eomumd Gosse. LL.D.
See the bk)paphical article: GossB, Eomumd.
Ernest Arthur Gardner, M.A.
See the biographical article: Carombr, Percy.
Edward Heawooo. M.A.
Gooville and Caiua College. Cambridge. Librarian of the Royal Geographical
Society, London.
Ellb Hovell Minns. M.A.
Univenity Lecturer in Palaeogni^y. Cambridge. Lecturer and Aasiatant Librarian
at Pembroke College. Cambridge. Formerly Fellow of PMnbioke College.
Edward Meyer. Ph.D., D.LrrT. (Oxon.). LL.D. f
Profeaaor of Ancient History in the University of Berlin. Author of GeschukU des <
AUertktami GtsekkhU its ailt» Aegyptens; Dm Isradiion mid ikn Nackbarstdmmt. {
Eustace Neville-Rolfe. C.V.O. (1845-1908). J
Fonneriy H.M.Cbnaul-General at Napka. Author d NapUsititho' Nineties iStc \
Edgar Prestace.
Lecturer in
Hnnkaeqr.
Horton, Thomae;
Rorwajr: Norwegian Literature:
Hjaa.
{King oj Persia).
... Portugueae Literature in the Univenity of
in Portuguese in the Univenitiea of London, Manchester, ftc.
mendador, Portuguese Order of S. Thiago. "
Royal Academy « Sciences, Lisbon Geograj
^ a Fortugatse Nun; Aaurara'a Ckronute qf
Manchester.
- - J &c. Com-
0. Corresponding Member of Lisbon '
iphical Society. Ac Editor of Letters
Guinea\9tc.
E. p. Catbcart. M.D.
Grieve Lecturer in Chemi cal Physiology, University of Gbi^gow.
Sn Edwin Ray Lanxester, K.C.B^ F.R.S.. M.A.. D.Sc.. LL.D.
Hon. FeOow of Exeter CoUm. Oxford. President of the British Aiaodation. IQ06.
Profeaaor of Zocdogy and Comparative Anatomy in University College, London,
1874-1890. Linacre Professor of Comparative Anatomy at Oxford. 1 891-1898.
Director of the Natural History Departments of the British Museum, 1898-1907.
Mioe-VxtMieaX. of the Royal Society. 1896. Romanes Lecturer at Oxford, 1905.
Author of DegpieraUen; The Adnncement sf Scienux The Kingdom of Man; Ac.
Edwin Stephen Goodrich, M.A.. F.R.S.
Fellow and Librarian of Merton College. Oxford. Aldrichian DemooaMtor of Com-
parative Anatomy, Univenity Muaeum, Oxford.
Rev. Edmond Warre, M.A^ D.D., D.C.L., C.B. CV.O.
Provost of Eton. Hon. Fellow of Balliol College, Oxford. Headmaster of Eton •
College, 1884-1905. Author of G^aaniiar tf Rowtng ; &c.
Sir Edward Walter Havilton, G.C.B.. K.C.V.O. (1847-1908).
Joint Permanent Secretary to H.M. Treasury. I9(»-19(^. Author of National.
J)eU Coneersion and Redemption^
FiANX EvERS Beddard. M.A., F.R.S.
Prosector of the Zoological Society. London. Tormcrly Lecturer ui Biokwy at
Guy's Hospital, London. Naturalist to *' Challenger ** Expedition Commisswn,
1882-1884. Author of Ttxt-Boolt of Zoogtog^pky; Animal Coloration ; ftc.
FuDERiCK George Meeson Beck, M.A.
Fellow and Lectutcr of Clare College, Cambridge.
Frederick Gymer Parsons, F.R.C.S., F.Z.S.. F.R.Anthrof.Inst.
Vice-President. Anatomical Society of Great Britain and Ireland. Lecturer on
Anatomy at St Thomas's Hospital and the London School of Medidne for Women. '
Formeriy Hunterian Profeaaor at the Royal College of Surgeons.
/imtiltfam {in part).
(m part).
Oar.
national Debt:
Conversions {in parfi.
{in part).
RofthiuntebL
Renrovi System.
F.L.L.
F.I.B.
p.B.a
P.W.Ha..
P.W.Ho.
G.A.C*
G.B.a.
G.C.L.
vlii INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
F. J. EL Feamos John Ravektield, M.A.. LL.D., F.S.A. f
Camden Professor of Ancient Histoiy in the University of Oxford. Fellow of I
Breaenoae College. Fellow of the British Academy. Senior Censor, Student, Tutor <
and Librarian of Christ Church. Oxford. 1891-1907. Author of MooQgniphs on
Roman History, especially Roman Britain ; oc. [
F. £L G« FKAMcaa Llewellyn GximTB, M.A., Pr.D.. F.S.A. f
Reader in Egyptology, Oxford University. Editor of the Archaeological Survey and J
Archaeological Reports of the Egypt Exploration Fund. Fellow of Imperial ]
German Archaeological Institute. I
Lady Litgaxo. /Ifoaaiawi;
See the bicgnphical articles Lucaid, Sift F. J. D. \ Mlgtlll.
Col. Fkedesic Natusch Maude, C.B. f WMoiMiiite
Lecturer in MiUtary History. Manchester University. Author of War OMd Aei t^,lZ
World's Policy', The Leiput Campaigit ; Tko Jena Campaign ; Ac I ^UUary.
Fkane R. Cana. r Hltal (in part); lifBT;
Author of South Africa from the Great Treh to the Union. \ Mlb (w fiarth
Feedesick Wxluah Haslitck, M.A. f
Assistant Director, British School of Archaeology, Athens. Fellow of King's -{ Myili.
College, Cambridge. Browne's Medallist. 1901. L
FsEDEsicx Walker MoTT, F.R.S., M.D., F.R.C.P. C ._. « ^^
Physician to Charing Cross Hospital, London. Patholofpst to the London County J munlgia; HeiingtlMIIUi;
Asylums. FuUerian Professor 01 Physiology, Royal Institutioa, Editor of Archiees | Msiiropatliotogy*
of Neuroloiy, I
Rev. Geoigb Albekt Cooks, M.A., D.D. f
Oriel Professor of the Interpretation of Holy Scripture. Univerrity of Oxford. J
Fellow of Oriel CoUege: Canon of Rochester. Hon. Canon of St Mary^s Cathedral, |
Edmbuxgb. Formeny Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. I
Gborce Ballaxo Matbsws, M.A., F.R.S. f
Professor of Mathematics, University College of N. Wales, Bangor, I884-1896. \ HlllDlNr.
Formeriy Fellow of St John's CoUege, Cambridge. I
Gbokce Collins Levey. C.M.G. [
Member of Board of Advice to Agent-Genera! for Victoria. Formerly Editor and -_ «,...„. ~,^
Proprietor of the Mdboume Herald. Secretary. Colonial Committee of Royal Com- \ MW Sonib WaM: Hitkfry^
mission to Paris Exhibition, loop. Secretaiy to Commissioners for Victoria at the I
Exhibitions in London, Paris, Vienna, Philadelphia and Melbourne. '^
0.& Kxv. George Edicun^on, M.A., F.R.Hist.S. I
Formerly Fellow and Tutor of Brasenose CoUege, Oxford. Ford's Lecturer, 1900^ J
1910. Employed by British Government in preparation of the British Case in the \
British Guiana- Venezuelan and British Guiana-Brazilian Boundaxy Arbitrations. \
G. F. H.* George Francts Hill, M.A. f
Assutant in the Department of Coins, British Museum. Corresponding Member of J
the German and Austrian Archaeological Institutes. Author of Coins of Ancient \
Sicily; Historical Greeh Coint\ Histortcal Roman Coins; &c L
G. H. Bo. Rev. George Herbert Box, M.A. f
Rector of Sutton Sandy, Bedfordshire.. Lecturer in Faculty of Theology. Uni- J
versity of Oxford, I90fr-I909. Author of Short Introduction to Literature tjihe Old \
Testament; &c. I
G. H. CL George Herbert Carpenter, B.Sc. (Lend.). f^ ,
Professor of Zoology in the Ruyal CoUege of Sdenoe, Dublin. Author of Insects: < HMinptalt.
their Structure and Life, [
G. J. T. George James Turner. f
Barrister-at-Uw, Lincoln's Inn. Editor of Sdea Pleat ef the ForesU for the SeMen \ HortllUiylailt Avto oL
Society. I
G. K. G. Grove Karl Gilbert. LL:D. r
Geologist. U.S. Geological Survey< President of the American Geological Society. J wt-nr*
1802-1893 ^i^d iQOO-ioio. Formeriv Soecial Lecturer at Cornell. Columbia And 1 <*'■•■■■•
Johns Hop
Bq3 and 1909-1910. Formeriy Special Lecturer at Cornell, Columbia and 1
tlopkins Universities. Author of O^terj aiu<G^ta^i0fi',&c I
O.W.T. I^EV. GRirriTHES Wheeler Thatcher, M.A., B.D. Twvi-fc. i*i.«fc-««».
Warden of Camden College. Sydney, k.S.W. Formeriy Tutor in Hebrew and Old J ^^^ ™*™5?^
Testament History at Mansfield CoUege. Oxford. \ ■AWiWi; Hosalns.
~ ' ~ ~ ;rbert Afpold Grueber, F.S.A. r
Keeperof Coins and Medals. British Museum. Treasurer of the Egypt Exploration I , «. /. _Jk
Fund. Vice-President of the Royal Numismatic Society. Author of Coins of the i aa inlim il M i (m panh
Roman Republic; &c \
H.Ch. Hugh Chisholit, M.A. rflfttfiMial Datat (in «AtV
Formerly Scholar of Corpus Christi CoUege. Oxford. Editor of the lith edition of 4 5*°^ff "7 ^ '^''
the Encyclopaedia Britannica; Co-editor (tf the loth edition. [ new^spaiB.
H. D. T. H. Dennis Taylor. / -.ki^^^-
Inventor of the Coohe Photographic Lenses. Author of A System ef Applied Optics. |
H. B» Karl Hermann Eth£, M.A., Ph.D.
Professor of Oriental Languages. University College. Aberystwyth (University of J HIST Khosn;
Wales). Author of Catalogue of Persian Mannscrtpts in the India Offiu Lihrary^ '^ — --— -
London (Clarendon Press) ; &c
■■I
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
IX
ar.o.
{■:
Nt^amiCtiUm-
B.r.r.
B.LBL
H.M.G
S.B.ft.
fl.M.T.
H.B.a
&B.IL
LA.
JLA.a
J.A.H.
1.A.UB.
I.A.P.*
Hams Frieouch Gadow. F.R'.S., Ph.D.
ScrkkhodCuntor and LectuiwoQ Zoology in the Univcraity of CaabridCB. Audior
cC " Amphibia and Repdlet." in the ComM^ Natanl Hulary.
Hembt FkANCB Pelham, LL.b., D.C.L.
See the biogiaphical article: Pklham, Hbnet Fbakos.
Hams Lien Bsaekstad. f
V ice-Co nsul for Nonniy hi Loodon. Author o£ He Cnuffihitfni <^ II0 JTAffdoNi o/-{ lonraj: SiMory, i8t4'tg07.
Sector Mointo CHia>wxcK, M.A. f
Libcariaa and Fellow of CUre Collen. Cambridse, and UnivefBity Lectorer ml tmUL
Scandioavian. Author U Shidus om Anifo-^axM InUUuliouu I
Bzmv Morse Stephens, M.A. f
BaOiol College. Oxford. Profeseor of History and Director of Univenity Ezteneion, J »anfcM^ /^ ^^a
Univernty of California. Author of History ef tk» F^mek Rnalm^i Modem\ **""^ ^^ '^^*
Etvoptam History; &c.
Henry Marttn Tayior. M^A^ F-R-S., F.R.A.S.
Fetlov of Trinity College. Cambridge: formerly Tutor and Lectmw. Smith'
Priaeman, 1865. Editor of the Pitt Prem £acftd.
Henry Newton Dicrson, M.A., D.Sc., F.R,S. CEdin.), F.R.G.S.
Profeaapr of Geography at Univernty Collese. Reading. Formeriy Vice-President,
,*s|lMon» ar bii
>ity.|MonraftaBfl«.
iinfart).
{impart).
Royal Meteorological Society. Lecturer in Physical Geography, Chdotd Univerrity.
Author of Mdeerolocyi Blemtntt ef Wtatktr and aimalt; Ac.
Hugh Robert Mill, D.Sc., LL.D.
Director of British Rainfall OrBanization. Formeriy Pnsideot of tha Royal
Meteorological Society. Hon. Member of Vienna Geographical Society. Hon.
Corresponding Member of Geographical Societies of Paris. Beriin. Budapest, St
PietersDuig, Amsterdam, Ac British Delegate to International Conference on the
Exploration of the Sea at Christiania, 1901. Author of Tkt Roalm of Natmrt: Tho
Ctydt Sea Arm; Tha Engfisk Laktsi Tka Inttmo H oHo l Ceograpky. Editor cC
British RaimfaU.
Henry Sturt, M.A. J
Author of Jdola Tkeairi; Tho Moa of a Fttt dtvd; Ptrumdl Meatism, 1
Henry William Carless Davis, M.A. 1
FeOov and Tutor of Balliol College. Oxford. Feilov of All Souls' College, Oxford, A
1895-1902. Author of Eagtoad under tka NorwuMSOMdAmtieokui C kar Umap io. \
mjOR-GSNERAL HeNRY WyLIE, CS.I. I
Oflkiating Agent to the Govemor-Genexal of Ia^ for Balnchiitan, l89ft-i9oaH
Resident at Nepal, 1891-1900. I
Rev. Henry Wheeler RobinsOn. M.A.
Professor of Church History in Rawdon College, Leeds. Senior Kennicott Schohir.
(Mord, 1901. Author of '* Hebrew Psychology in Relation to Pauline Anthrop-
ology,'* in Mansfield CoUef Essays; &c
Uiael Abrahaks, ma.
Reader in Talmudic and Rabbinic Literature, University of Cambridge. President,
Jewish Historical Society of England. Author of A Short Histfy ofjomish LiterO'
imn\ Jemish Life in the Middte Ag/u,
Sir Joseph Archer Crowe, K.C.M.G.
See the biographical article: Crowe, Sir Jossni Archer.
JOBN Allen Howe, B.Sc. (Lond.). f
Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Pnctkal Geology, London. Author cii
The Geology of Buildini Stones. L
John Atbelstan IjitTRiE Rhey, M.A. f
Ftaibroke College, Oxford. Author of i4llM,erll0irMMlaui<^lArJkrMJb;ftc. \
Rev. Janes Alexander Paterson, M.A.. D J>.
Professor of Hebrew and Old Testament Exegesis, New College, Edutbttigh. Editor
of Booh of Numbers in the " Polychrome " Bible; Ac 1.
James David Bourcuier, M.A^ F.R.G.S. r
King's College. Cambridge. Correspondent of The Times in Sooth-Eastem Europe. J HlehollS (JtMg 0/ Moid§'
Commander of the Ordere of Prince Danilo of Montenegro and of the Saviour of 1 lutro)
Greece, and Officer of the Order of St Alexander of Bulgaria. [ ^^^''
jAMES FnZMAURICE-KELLY, LiTT.D., F.R.HlST.S. f
Gilmour Professor of Sipanish Language and Uterature, Liverpool Univernty. I
Norman McCoIl Lecturer, Cambridge University. Fellow of the British Academy. \ luHei ds AfOt.
llajug;
{iMT, Van d« (di-^optf).
(m parii.
If ombMi, Book oL
It Commander of the Order of
Member of the Royal Spanish Academy. Knieht Command
Alphonso XI L Author 01 A History of Spanish LUerature; &c
JOBN HOLUNGSHEAO (1827-1904). I
Founder of the Gaiety Theatre, London. Member of Theatrical lirfming Reform H
Committee, 1866 and 1892. Author of Gaiety Chrouieles; Ac I
John Henry Freese. M.A. J
Fonnerty Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge.
John Henry Middleton, M.A., Lrrr.D., FS.A., D.C.L. (1846-1896).
Slade Prof essor of Fine Art in the Univenity of Cambridge. 1886-1895. Director
of the Fttxwilliam Museum, Cambridge, 1889-1892. Art Director of the South.
Kensington Museum, 1892-1896. Author of 7m Entraved Gems of Classical Times;
Illuminated Manuscripts in Classical and Mediaemd Times,
[Mtme: Creth and Roman
Names;
HorleuiiL
(In part);
z
J.H.B.
J.HLB.
J.Jft.
J.J.Lr.
J. L. B. D.
J.1L1L
J.P.Flk
X8L*
J. 8. p.
J.8.K.
J.T.Be.
J.T.O.
J.W.
J.W.*
J110.W.
I.W.O*
J.W.I..O.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
JOBM HOSACB ROUMD. M^., LLJ^. f
Author of Feudai Btufand; StuHts m Pesntt amd Family Hutaryi Pmoi^ amd\ KaflllB (FoMMljr).
John Houamd Rose, M.A.. Lm.D. f
Chmt'a Collet Cambridge.^ Lecturer on Modern Hi^ory^ to the Camfafidge^ Uni- J
verrity Local Lectures Syndicate. Author ol t«/r ef Napoleom /.. Napoleank]
Sitidiu; Tlu DepdopmeiU 9/ Ihg Etiroptan NaUausi Tk* U^ </ PiU; Ac
JosKFB Jacobs. Lnr-D.
Pro(e«or 01 Engluh Literature in the New York lewuh Tbeolorical Semuiary oT
^ '" •* — =-*— -^ -*-- ' — Hh Historical Society of Eoglaod. Corre-
o( History. Madrid. Author of /<»« «/
America. Fonneriy President d the levish Historical Society of England.
monding Member of the Rani Academy of History,
Angmn Emglandi SiMdiu m Biblical ilrctaMf^gy; Ac
JosEFH Jackson Lxstbk, M.A., F.R.S.
Fellow of St John's College. Caflibcklge.
John Louis Eiol Drzyek.
Director of Annagh Observatory.
Author of Plamaary SfsHms from Tkaks loi Obswvatoiy.
{'
{
IN Malcolm Mitchell. r
Sometime Scholar of Queen's Collen, Oxford. Lecturer in Classics, East London <
College (University oCLondon). Jomt-editor of Grate's ffiKory^GrscM. {
J. M. Brydon.
Architect of Chelsea Town Hall and Polytechnic,
John Malcolm Mitchell.
(in part).
Rev. John Punnett Peteis. Ph.D., D.D,
^ -^ ■ iry.P.ETCai
ity of Pennsyhrani , , .-
1888-1895. Author of Nipputt or BxploraHoiu aad AdoaUures ou lAs EmpkraUs.
C^non Residentiary, P. E. Cathedral of New Yoric Pormeriy Profei
the Univerrity of Pennsylvania. Director of the Univernty Expedition to Babylonia,
r of Hebrew in ^
Rev. James Sibree, F.R.G.S.
Principal Emeritus, United College (L.MS. and F.F.M.A.),' Antananarivo,
Eascar. Member de I'Acadteiie Majgache. Author of Madagascar
Madagascar bejorc Iks Qmquesi\ A Madagascar Bibliog^pky; ftc
Rev. John Suthekland Black, M.A., LL.D.
Assistant-editor of the oth edition of the EMcychpaadia Brttannica. Joint-editor of
the Eucychpaedia Bibliea,
■ytonlto;
Meek; Mephelliie-Syeiilte:
ObddiML
John Smith Flett, D.Sc., F.G.S.
Pelrographer to H.M. Geological Survey. Pormeriy Lecturer on Petrology in J
Edinburgh University. Neill Medallist of the Royal Society of Edinbufgh. Bigsby ]
Medallist of the Geological Society of London. '
John Scott. Keltie, LL.D., F.S.S., F.S.A. (Scot.).
Secreury, Royal Geographical Society. Knight of Swedish Order of North Sur. , _ _
Commander of the Norwegian Order of St Olaf. Hon. Member. Geogiaphical •( RallODal Debt (tn part).
Societies of Paris, Beriin. Rome. Ac. Editor of SlaUsmam^s Ytar Book, Editor of
the Geotraphical Journal. '
John Thomas Bealby. rRlkoIiiiV (t» part);
Joint-author of Stanford's Europe. Pormeriy Editor of the SeottiskGtqgrapkual \ Rlshnij-Roviorod (m part);
Magasine, Translator of Sven Hedin's Through Asia, Control Asia and Tibet ; ftc [ RovgOfOd (m part).
Joseph Thomas Cunnincham, M.A., F2.S. f mbsuI rf« aa*<V
Lecturer on Zoology at the South-Westem Polytechnic. London. Pormeriy J T^mL ^ '^
Fellow of Universi^ Collen, Oxford. Assistant Professor of Natural History in 1 "•Vuiu;
the University of Edinbuiv>- Naturalist to the Marine Biological Association. i. f
irinJ
nia, I
'. L
Lnarivo, Mada- J
ondtCf Pso^: I
{
■■{
Rejef;
Rlppor.
(mi part).
James Thomson Shotwell, Ph.D.
Professor of History in (>>lumbia University, New York Qtv
James Williams, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D. r
All Soub* Reader in Ronian Law in the University of Oxford, and Fellow of Lincoln J
College. \
James Ward. LL.D. /
Sec the biographical article: Ward,. Jambs. \
JciHN Westlake. K.C., LL.D., D.C.L.
Professor of International Law. Cambridge, 1888-1908. One of the Members for
United Kingdom of International Court of Arbitration under the Hague Cbnventbn. .
1900-1906. Author of A Treatise ou PrieaU international Lam. or the Conflia ef^
Jjomsi Chapters on Iho Prindples of international Lam: part L '* Pteace ": part it.
(in part).
RavlfEtloB U«8.
John Walter Gregory, D.Sc., F.R.S.
Professor of, GeolMy. at the University of Glasgow.
Profei
Mineraioffy in the Oniversity of Melbottrne, 1900-1904. Author of The ijSd Heart '
James Whitbread Lee Giaisber, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.
Fellow of Trinity College. Cambridge. Pormeriy President of the Cambridge
Philosophical Society, and the Royal Astronomical Society. Editor of Messongor
of Mathematia and the Quarltrly Journal ef Pure amd Applied Mathematics.
Kathleen Schleswcbr.
Editor of the Portfolio ef Musical Ardutology. Author of The inslrumonts ef Iho'
Orchestra. ' ' •^
Ifow Smifh Wilis: Geologyi
' Geohgy.
Mmletl Boi;
RrQ Vlollnr
Hsy; Oboe («fi part).
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
IfcJ.S. LsoNABD James Spences, MA. fMiiiflovlte*
Assistant ia Departinent of Mineralogy, British Miueora. Formerly Scholar of J m^^mZitmlt
Sidney Sussex College, Cambridffe, and HarknsM Scholar. Editor of the Minera- 1 "f '"^P"*
L. B. F. Lswis RiCBABO Fasnexx, M.A., Lrrr.D.
Fellow and Senior Tutor o( Exeter College, Oxford Univenity Lecturer in Claseica]
Archaeology; Wilde Lecturer in Comparative Religion. Corresponding Member
of Imperial German Archaeological Institute. Author o( Etolutiou of Raigion; Ac
L. v.* LUICI ViLLASI.
Ifc W. K. Leonaed WauAii King, M.A., F.S.A.
I-
SI VILLASI. f
Italian Foreign OflSce (Emimtion Dept.). Formerly Newspaper Correspondent J -._,^ ,
b East of Europe. Italian Vice-Consul in New Orieans, 1906. Philadelphia, 1907, 1 M^iMi <
and Boston, U.SA., 1907-1910. Author of Jialiau UJe in Town and Comntryx &c. t
NAED WauAii King, M.A., F.S.A. r
King's Collen. Cambridge. AssisUnt in Department of Egyptian and Assyrian J wtmn.** rt- n^..^ jr.^.^^«
AntHjuitiesTfiritish Museum; Lecturer in As^n at King's College and Undon 1 «'W"« ^*« ^^i*^ PFagmmt.
University. Author of Tk* Seven TabUU of Creaiion; Ac I
■• Ja. Mouus Jasteow, Pr.D f ||.|^. wm«i- iniini<
Professor of Semitic Languages, Univenity of Ptonsylvania. Author of Religion i 2 "?!. "r**"* ninw,
of ike Babylonians and Assynam; ice. [Mosku;
H. ■. T. Mabcus Niebubr Tod, M.A. r
Fellow and 'Tutor d Oriel College, Oxford. Univenity Lecturer in Epigraphy. <
Joint-author of Catalogue of tke Sparta Musenm. [
K. The Rt. Hon. Lord Noktbcuffe. f
Founder of the Daily Mail; Chief Proprietor of The Times, and other papers and J ■•WSpEpen: Priu of News-
periodicals. Chairman of the Associated Newspapen, Ltd., and the Amalgamated ] papers^
K. D. H. Newton Dennison Mereness, A.M., Ph.D. f «k. ymA tim hnw/\
Author of Maryland as a Proprietary Prooince. \ ™ "" ^"* ^^f''
0. J. k. H. OsBERT John Radcutfe Howarth, M.A. f Harwav n^M^^hh^ nmA
Christ Church. Oxford. Geographical Scholar. 1901. Assistant Secretary of the i ^^l-^f^^^
British AiKxnation. p ^ 7 ^ Staiutta.
Ooeui ud OflttBOgm^ (in
part).
New SIMrhi Arehipebigo;
NlkolayfV(ifi^/);
Nlthniy-RovgofOd (m part);
Kovgorod {in part).
0. K. Otto KrOvmel, Ph.D.
Professor of Geography In the University of Kiel, and Lecturer in the Imperial
Naval Academy. Author of Handbuch der Oteanographie.
F. A. K. Prince Fvter AixxEivncn Kropotkin.
See the biographical article: Keofotun, Prince P. A.
P. G. Percy Gardner, LL.D., Lrrr.D., F.S.A.
See the biographical article: Gardner, Percy.
F. GL Pbter Giles, M.A., LL.D., Litt.D. f
Fellow and Classical Lecturer of Emmanuel College, Cambridge, and University J H*
Reader in Comparative Philology. Formeriy Secretary of the Cambridge Philo- | 0.
logical Society. Author ol Manual of ComparaHoe Philology, I
F. C S. Paul George Konody. f
Art Critic of the Observer and the Daily MaU. Formeriy Editor of Tke ArtisL i Heer, Van der (m parO>
Author of Tke Art of Waller Crane; Velasquez, Life and Work; Ac. I
F. la. ' Philip Lake, M.A., F.G.S. f
Lecturer on Physical and Regional Geography in Cambridge University. Formerly J m, ,_ pi«-.v^f /-^-,« al«
of the Geological Survey of India. Author of Monograpk 0/ BrUuk Cambrian] ■"'*y« -r*yw« Oeograpky,
Trilobites. Translator and Editor of Keyser's Comparattoe CeMogy. L
B. A. W. Robert Alexander Wahab, C.6., C.M.G., CLE. f
Colonel, Royal Engineers. Formerly H.M. Commissioner, Aden Boundaiy De-J nMi
limitation, and Superintendent, Survey of India. Served with Tirah Expeditionary 1 ^^
Force, 1897-1898; Anglo-Russian Boundary Commission, Pamirs, 1895; &c. I
B. C. T. SxK Richard Carnac Temple, Bart., CLE. f
Lieut.-Colonel. Formeriy Chief Commissioner, Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Hoa.< RloolMr Uands.
Fellow of Trinity Hall, Cambridge. Joint-author of iiiufamaiMM lanciiace: &c. [
B. G. Richard Garnett, LL.D., D.C.L. / Mewmjui, Vtaneb Wmiun;
See the biographical article: Garmstt. Richard. \ Xewtoa, Sir C. T.
B. J. H. Ronald John MacNeill. M.A. f
Christ Church, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law. Formeriy Editor ci tht St James's < Homy. Loid George.
CatetU, LoaAaa. I
B. L.* Richard Lydekxeb, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.Z.S. f Honf]ae;
Member of the Staff 01 the Geological Survey of India, l874'l882. Author of J Musk Ox*
Catalogue of Fossil Mammals, Reptiles and Birds in Britisk Museum; Tke Deer] w^J^^ '
efAUlands; Tke Game Animals of Africa; Ac. I ■y»aoiL
B. Ia* Robert Latouche. f
Archivist of the department of Tarn et Garonne. Author of Histoire dm eonM du •{ NonnaildF.
Maine auX.etau XI, sikde, I
Xll
R.8.&
as. P.
B.S.T.
8.A.C.
sta
8.H.V.*
8.K.
8.1.
T.Al*
T.A.C.
T.A.L
T.A.J.
T.B».
T.Ra
T.H.
T.ILI..
T.W.B.a
V.H.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
RoBEST Nbbet Bain (d. igog).
AnisUnt Librarian,. British Muteam, 188A-1909. Author of Scandinttwia: the
Poliiical History of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, titJ-lQOO: The First Romances, <
J6i3~t7i<( : Slaponic Eairope: Ike Political His/ory of Poland and Russia from '4^
tot7fiO;SK.
Sa RoBEXT Staweu Ball, F.R.S., LL.D.
Lowndean Professor of Astronomy and Geometry. Univeruty of Cambridec. .
I^rector of the Cambridge Observatory and Fellow of King's College. Royal
" ' '-^ " "keHi
nuudji
Mibular TI1M17.
i MnmlniaUa (m par(^.
Astrooomer of kdand, i874-i89a. Author of Tke Story of the Heaeens; &c
Rbginald Stvakt Poolb, LL.D.
See the biosraphica article: Pools, Rbcmald Stuakt.
Ralph STOcxicAif Tabs.
Professor of Physical Geography. Cornell University. Special Field Assistant of the < M«W York (tn parO'
VS. X;eoloKiaa Survey. Author of Pkyskal Geography of New York SlaU. '
SlAlfLBY AkTHXTB COOK, M^
Lecturer in Hebrew and Syriac, and formeriy Fellow, Gonville and Caius College.
Cambridge. Editor for the Palestine Exploration Fund. Examiner in Hebrew and Nabataeans (m parf^i
Aramaic. London University. 1904-1908. Council of Royal Asiatic Society, 1904- ' Maiailte (in Parti
1905. Author of Glossary of Aramaic Inscriptions ; The Law of Moses and the Code of \ r^ 1
Hammurabix Critical Notes on Old Testament History; Rdigjun ef Ancient
Palestine', &c
Viscoxmr St Cyres. f
See the biographical article, iDDSSLBroB, ist Earl of. \
Sydney Howabd Vimes, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.L.S. f
Professor of Bouny in the University of Oxford. Fellow of Magdalen College, J
Oxford. Hon. Fellow of Christ's College. Cambridge. Fellow of the University of 1
London. Author of Slwdgnfi Text Book of Botany; Ac «>
Sten Konow, Ph.D. r
Professor of Indian Philology in the University of Christiania. Ofikier de 1* Acadtoie J
Francaise. Author of Stamaoidkana Braktnana\ Tko Karpnramat^jari', Munda )
and Draoidian, «>
SncoN Newcomb, D.Sc., LL.D. f
See the biographical article: NBBrcoiCB.Stlioii. \
THOMAS AsBBY, M.A., Lnr.D. fwi.it • m -
Director of British School of Archaeology at Rome. Formeriy Scholar of Christ "•»? Bomenttlll, VU;
Church, Oxford. Craven Fellow. 1897. Conington Prizeman. 1906. Member of the* Momentum; Hon; Norba;
Imperial Gernuin Archaeological Institute. Alithor of The C l assi cal Topography of Hovafi; Haeerfa AUateroi;
ike Roman Campa^na. I Mnon.
'HkOTHY AuCirSTXNE COCBLAN, I.S.O. f M ««!.»•
Agent-General for New South Wales. Government Stattstidan. New South Wales. J "•* SOQfh Walw:
1886-190S. Author of Wealth and Progress of New South Wales ; Statistical Account | Geography and Statisttct,
of Australia and New Zealand; Ac I
TtoOMAS Allan Incsam. M.A., LLJ). / Mame: Law;
{FlaneO.
lOctroL
Hon. Sec. Anthropo- \ Ifagro {in parti*
Trinity College. Dublin.
TtoOMAS Atbol Joyce, M.A.
Assisunt in I>epartment of Ethoognphy, Britlah Museum.
logical Society. 1
Sib Thomas Barclay. I
Member of the Institute of International Law. Member of the Supreme Council of J
the Congo Free State. Officer of the Legion of Honour. Author of ProUems of 1
International Practice and Diplomacy; &c M.P. for Blackburn. 1910. |
TtoEoooRE Freylinchuysen Coluer. Ph.D.
Assistant Professor of History, Williams College. Williamstown, Mai
TtoouAS HoDCKiN. LL.D.. Lrrr.D.
See the biographical article: HoocKiN. Thomas.
Sn Thomas Hungerpord Holdxch, K.C.M.G., K.C.I.E., D.Sc.. F.R.S. I
Colonel in the Royal Engineers. Superintendent. Frontier Surveys. India. 1893- J
1898. Gold Medallist, R.G.S. (London), 1887. H.M. Commissioner for the Perso- 1
Beluch Boundary, 1896. Author of The Indian Borderland; The CaUs of India; Ac '
Rev. Thomas Martin Lindsay, M.A., D.D,
Principal and Professor of Church History. United Free Church College, Glasgow.
Author of Life of Luther; Ac
RentraUty;
North Saa FlilierlaB Comaii-
|lfeo-Ca0sana, 9yD0d oL
I Kanas {Roman General^.
Unseal;
North-Wast Vtontlar Pito-
•(
Oeeam, WUDam oL
T&omas Wiluam Rhys Davids, LL.D., Ph.D.
Professor of Comparative Religion, Manchester University. President of the Pali I
Text Society. Fellow of the British Academy. Secretary and Librarian of Royal < Nlglrjaiia; MlUiya.
Asiatic Society. 1885-1903. Author of Buddhism: Sacred Books of the Buddhtsts;
Early Buddhism; Buddhist India; Dialogues of the Buddha; &c
4
Victor Charles MAnaLON.
Principal of the Conservatoire Royal de Masque at Bruseeli.
Legion of Honour.
Chevalier of the \ ObM {in part^.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
xUi
W.A.B.a
W.A.F.
W.BL
W.B.O.
W.F.C.
W.F.B.
W.F.W.
w.a*
W.ILBe.
W.ILF.
W.ILP.
W.J.IL
W.LF.
w.i-a
W.Sb.
W.X.D.
W.H.B.
w.aiL
W.F.R.
W.S.S.B,
Rev. WxLZJAii Aucustos Bxkvoobt Cooudgb, M.A., F.R.G.S.. Pa.D. (Bern).
Fellow ol Magdalen CoUwe. Oxford. Profenor of Enfl^ish History. St David'*
College, Lampeter. 1880-1881. Author of Gmds dm Haut Dampkini; The Rangii of
Ikt T6di: Gmdt to Grinddwaid: Gmdo la SwiiMertand: The Alps in Natwre and i»
History; Ac Editor of The Alpim Joumat, 1880-1881 ; Ac
Waltek Alison Przllifs. M.A.
Formerly Exhibitioner of Merton Colkgie and Senior Scholar of St John's G>Ucce.
Oxford. Author of Afotfem Europe ;&c.
William Blaxm, C.B. (d. 1908)
Principal Clerk and First Treasury Officer of Aooottoti* 1903-1908.
Walter Csane.
See the biographical aztide: Cranb. Waltbe.
Sn William Edmumd Garstin. G.C.M.G.
Govemiiw Director, Sues Canal Co. Formerly Inspector-General of Irrigation,
Egypt. Adviser to the Ministry of Public Works in Egypt, 1904-1908.
William Feuoem Csaies. M.A.
Barristcr-at-Law, Inner Temple. Lecturer on Criminal Law, IGng't Cblkgei
London. Editor of Archbokl's Crimmal Pleading (a3rd edition).
William Fidoiam Reddaway, M.A.
Censor of Noo-CoUenate StudenU, Cambridge. Fellow and Lecturer of King's
College. Author of ^Scandinavia." in Vol. £ of the Cambridts Modern History.
Walter Francis Wnxcox, LL.B., Pb.D.
Chief Sutistidan, Umted States Ctasus Bureau. Professor of Sodal Science and
Statistics. Cornell University. Member of the American Social Sdenoe Aasodation
1 Secretary of the American
UemtAMy
Protiemtt t
Economical Association. Author of The Dioorce
in Staiistiesi Social StaUslia oj tke United Slates; &c
Waixx)t Gibson. D.Sc., F.G.S.
H.M. Geological Survey. Author of The Gold-Bearint Rocks of th» S. TVamsaaf;
Mineral Wealth of Africa; Tke Geology of Coal and Caci-wnnini; &c
Rev. William Henry Bennett, M.A., D.D.. D.Litt.
Pr o fessor of Okl Testament Exegesis in New and Hackney Colleges, London.
Formerly Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge: Lecturer in Hebrew at Firth
College. Sheffidd. Author of Religion of the Post-Exilic PropkeU; Ac
Sn William Henry Flower. F.R3.
Sec the biogra^phical article: Flower. Sir W. H.
Walter Herries jcolloce. M.A.
Trinity College, Cambridse. Editor of Salnrday Review, 1 883-1 894. Author of
LeUnras on French Poets; Impressions of Henry Irving; Ac
WnxiAM Jacob Holland, A.M.. D.D., LL.D.. D.Sc., Pb.D.
Director of the Carnegie Institute, Pittsbun President of the American Association
of Museums, 1907-1909. Editor of Annali and Memain of CameB^ Museum.
Walter Lynwood Tlmmiho, A.M.. Ph.D.
Professor of History in Louisiana State University^ Author of Docnmenlary
History rf Raconsiniekom;da:m
William Lawson Grant. M.A.
Professor of Cokmial History, Queen's University. Kinraton, Canada. Formerly
Beit Lecturer in Colonial History, Oxford University. Editor of AcU of the Privy
CMMof (Canadian Series). ' ^ ^
WmiAM MORRB.
See the biographical article: Morris, WaUAM.
WmxAM Morris Davis, D.Sc., Pb.D.
Professor of Geology in Harvard University. Fonnerly Professor of Phyrical
Geography. Author of PAystcol Gso£rapAjr; &c
WnxiAM Michael Rossettl
See the biognaphkal article: Rossbtti. Dante G. *
WniiAM O'Connor Morrb (d. i904>.
Formerly Judge of County Courts, Ireland ; and Professor of Law to the King's
Inns, Dublin. Author of Great Commamdets of Modem Times; Irish History;
Irdandt 1798-1898; Ac.
Tte Hon. William Pember Reeves. |
Director of London School of Economics. Agent-General and High Commissioner
for New Zealand, 1896-1909. Minister of Education, Labour, and Justice. New-^
Zealand. 1891-1896. Author of The Long White Cloud: a Hutory of Now Zealand;
MOe (m ^orO.
ineholisLCtf/ifatMia).
RalloDil IMM: Cmnv^Mt
{im parti.
{inpa^.
GbiOMiitF.
Honnif: HiOerf, t39T'tSt4.
Rtgro {Unitad States).
Xtiil: Goolag,.
miiirod;
Rsw BmnsvlSk (Canada),
Hani Diaontloa (•• pari^.
Horth
WnxiAM RiCBARD Eaton Hodoeinson, Ph.D., F.R.S. (£din.), F.C.S.
Professor of Chemistry and Physics. Ordnance College, Woolwich. Formerly
Professor of Chemistry and Physics, R.M JC, Woolwich. Put-author of Valentin<
Hodgkinsoo's Practice Chomistry; &c
riyj
in. I
W.ILH,
W.B.1L*
W.B.8.
W.8.1L
W.T.
W.W.
A.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
'{
WnxjAM RicHAso Mosmx, M^ (d. 1910).
Fonnerty Profowr of Rubbuui and other Slavonic Languages !n the Univenlty
Oxfocd. Curator of the Taytorfan Imtitutioa* Oxford. Aathor ci Russia; Slaoomic
Litenluni&c.
WiLLiAX Robert Maitin.
Captain, R.N. Formerly Lecturer at the Royal Naval College, Greenwich. Author
of lYtaUse cm NamiiUiam and NasUkal Astronomy i &c
WnXIAK ROBEKTSON SlOTB, LL.D.
See the biographical article: SmitBi Wouam RoBBRTaoN.
HaTlgiUloii.
WxuiAic Syiunoton M'Couock, M.A., LL.D. f
Secretary to the Camnie Trust of the Scottish Universities. Formerly Professor •{ OeelsVB.
of English, Univenity College, Dundee. Author of L<ctaruMLtfera<ifr<;&c L
Wauzr Taixmadoe Abndt, M JL
WnxiAX Waixbr Rockwbxx, LicTheol.
Assistant r rofcssor of Church History. Union Theological Seminary. New York.
{inparth
JUMMMXttib (in part);
Mnmaral;
(in part).
j V«ir York (in part).
Hand.
PRINCIPAL UNSIGNED ARTICLES
ManottoB.
Mai
Htmaslto, Dnkat oL
MlOB.
Morth Dakota.
MiakBL
Morthamkariaiid*
HewBnglaDd.
MlghtlBcab, noranea.
DidMoL
MewGoliieB.
MlllMi.
Morthnmbariaad.
HewnuBiMhln.
Morwieb.
Mew HehrtdM.
MltrogML
MotttofkaBL
Mbw Jtrwy.
Motfolk. Bun aitf DnkM
Mbw MoiIm.
oL
Movaya ZMBHa.
Maw OrlMUMk
Morfolk.
Munmbafff.
Maw York Qtf.
Mofthamptoiw Buk and
Munliv.
Mqr.
MarqnMMi of.
Mat
Mluk-Mlam.
Oak.
MlBaiifaa.
Morfh Guolloa.
Oataiilltaa.
ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
ELEVENTH EDITION
VOLUME XIX
HUH, ADRIEN ALBERT MARIB DB, Count (1841- ),
French politician, was born at Lumigny, in the department of
Seine-et-Manie, on the 28th of February 1841. He entered the
army, saw much service in Algeria (i86a), and took part in
the fighting around Metz in x87a On the surrender of Metz,
he was sent as a prisoner of war to Aix-Ia-Chapelle, whence he
retomed in time to assist at the capture of Paris from the
Commone. A fervent Roman Catholic, he devoted himself
to advocating a patriarch type of Christian Socialism. His elo-
qneiKe made him the most prominent member of the Cerdes
Catholiqucs d'Ouvriers. and his attacks on Republican social
policy at last evoked a prohibition from the minister of war.
He thereupon resigned his commission (Nov. 1875), and in the
following February stood as Royalist and Catholic candidate
for Pontivy. The influence of the Church was exerted to secure
his election, and the pope during its progress sent him the order
of St Gregory. He was returned, but the election was declared
invalid. He was re-elected, however, in the following August,
and for many years was the most conspicuous leader of the
anti-Republican party. " We form," he said on one occasion,
*' the irreconcilable Countcr-Revolution." As far back as 1878 he
had declared himself opposed to imiversal suffrage, a declaration
that lost him his seat from 1879 to x88i. He spokt strongly
against the expulsion of the French princes, and it was chieffy
through his influence that the support of the Royalist party was
given to General Boulanger. B ut as a faithful Catholic he obeyed
the encydical of 1892, and declared his readiness to rally to a
Repabtican government, provided that it respected religion.
In the following January he received from the pope a letter
comnxxuiing his action, and encouraging him in his social
retonu. He was defeated at the general election of that
year, but in 1894 was returned for Finistere (Morlaix). In
idQ7 be succeeded Jules Simon as a member of the French
Academy. This honour he owed to the purity of style
and remarkable eloquence of his speeches, which, with a few
pamphlets, form the bulk of his published work. In Ma voca-
tian socraU (1908) be wrote an explanation and justification of
his career.
mm, THOMAS (1571-1641), English writer on economics,
was the third son of John Mim, mercer, of London. He began
by enga^ng in Mediterranean trade, and afterwards settled
down in London, amassing a large fortune. He was a member
of the committee of the East India Company and of the standing
commission on trade appointed in 1622. In 1621 Mun published
A Disantrse of Trade from Engfand unto the East Indies. But
it is by his En^ond's Treasure by Forraign Trade that he is
remembered in his history of economics. Although written
possibly about 1630, it was not given to the public until 1664,
when it was " published for the Common good by his son John,"
and dedicated to Thomas, earl of Southampton, lord high
treasurer. In it we find for the first time a clear statement of
the theory of the balance of trade.
MUNCHAUSBN, Bakon. This name is famous in literaxy
history on account of the amusingly mendadous stories known as
the Adventures of Baron Munchausen. In 1785 a little shilb'ng
book of 49 pages was pubb'shed in London (as we know from the
Critical Review for December 1785), called Baron Munchausen's
Narrative of his Marvellous Travds and Campaigns in Russia.
No copy is known to exist, but a second edition (apparently
identical) was printed at Oxford early in 1786. The publisher
of both these editions was a certain Smith, and he then sold it
to another bookseller named Kearsley, who brought out ia
1786 an enlarged edition (the additions to which were stated in
the 7th edition not to be by the original author), with illustra-
tions under the title of Gulliver Revived: the Singular Travels,
Campaigns, Voyages, and Sporting Adventures of Baron Munnih-
houson, commonly pronounced Munchausen; as he rdates them
over a bottle when surrounded by his friends. Four editions
rapidly succeeded, and a free German translation by the poet
Gottfried August BQrger, from the fifth edition, was printed
at Gdttingen in 1786. The seventh English edition (1793),
which is the usual text, has the moral sub-title. Or the Vice of
Lying properly exposed, and had further new additions. In 1 792 a
Sequel appeared, dedicated to James Bruce, the African traveller,
whose Travels to Discover the Nile (1790) had led to incredulity
and ridicule. As time went on Munchausen increased in popu-
larity and was translated into many languages. Continuations
were published, and new illustrations provided (e.g. by T.
Rowlandson, 1809; A. CrowquiU, 1859; A. Cruikshank, 1869; the
French artist Richard, 1878; Gustave Dor6, 1862; W. Strang
and J. B. Clark, 1895). The theme of Baron Munchausen,
the " drawer of the long-bow " par excellence, has become part
of the common stock of the world's story-telling.
The original author was at first unknown, and until 1824
he was generally identified with Biirger, who made the German
translation of 1786. But Burger's biographer, Karl von Rein-
hard, in the Berb'n Gesellschafter of November 1824, set the
matter at rest by stating that the real author was Rudolf Erich
Raspe iq.v.). Raspe had apparently become acquainted at
Gdttingen with Hieronymus Karl Friedrich, Freiherr von
MUnchhausen, of Bodenwerder in Hanover. This Freiherr von
MQnchhausen (17 20-1797) had been in the Russian service and
MUNCH-BELLINGHAUSEN— MUNDAS
served against the Turks, and on retiring in 1760 he lived on
his estates at Bodenwerder and used to amuse himself and his
friends, and puzzle the quidnuncs and the dull-witted, by
relating extraordinary instances of his prowess as soldier and
sportsman. His stories became a byword among his drcle,
and Raspe, when hard up for a living in London, utilized the
suggestion for his little brochure. But his narrative owed much
also to such sources, known to Raspe, as Hetnrich Bebel's
Facetiae bebelianae (1508), J. P. LAnge's Ddkiae academicae
(1665), a section of which is called Mendacia ridicula,
Castiglione's Cortegiano (1528), the Travels of the Fittkenritter,
attributed to Lorenz von Lauterbach in the x6th century, and
ot'uer works of this sort. Raspe can only be held responsible
for the nucleus of the book; the additions were made by book-
sellers* hacks, from such sources as Lucian*s Vera historia, or
the Voyages tMaginaires (1787), while suggestions were taken
from Baron de Tott's Memoirs (Eng. trans. i785)« the contem-
porary aeronautical feats of Montgolfier and Blanchard, and any
topical " sensations " of the moment, such as Bruce's explora-
tions in Africa. Munchausen is thus a medley, as we have
it, a classical instance of the fantasUcal mendacious literaiy
genre.
See the introduction by T. Seccombe to Lawrence and Bullen's
edition of 189^. Adolf Ellisen, whose father visited Freiherr von
Munchhauaen in 1795 and found him very uncommunicative, brousht
out a German edition in 1649. with a valuable essay on paeudolotfy
in general. There is useful material in Cari MuUer-Fraureuth's ute
deutuhen LUgendicktungen auf Munchhausen (i 881 ) and in Griesboch's
edition of BQrger's translation (1890).
KONCH-BBLUNGHAUSEN, EUGIUS FRAMZ JOSEPH.
Freihesr von (1806-187 i), Austrian poet and dramatist (who
wrote under the pseudonym " Friedrich Halm "), was bom at
Cracow on the and of April 1806, the son of a district judge.
Educated at first at a private school in Vienna, he afterwards
attended lectures at the university, and in 1826, at the early
age of twenty, married and entered the government service.
In 1840 he became Rcgierungsrat, in 1845 Hofrat and custodian
of the royal library, in 1861 life member of the Austrian Herren-
haus (upper chamber), and from 1869 to 1871 was intendant
of the two court theatres in Vienna. He died at Hatteldori
near Vienna on the 22nd of May 1871. MUnch-Bellinghausen's
dramas, among them noUbly Griseldis (1835; publ. 1837; nth
ed., 1896), Der Adept (1836; pubL 1838), Camoens (1838), Der
Sohn der Wiidnis (1842; loth ed., 1896), and Der Pechter von
Ravenna (1854; publ. 1857; 6th ed., 1894), are distinguished by
elegance of language, melodious versification and clever constmc-
tion, and were for a time exceedingly popular.
His poems, CedkkU, were published in Stungart, 1850 (new ed..
Vienna. 1877). His works, Sdmtiicke Werke, were published in
eight volumes (1856-1864), to which four posthumous volumes were
added in 187a. Tkusgewdhlte Werke, ed. by A. Schbssar, 4 vols.
(1904). See F. Pachler. Jueend und Leknahre des Dichlers F. Halm
(1877): J. Simiani, Cedenkbl&Uer an P. Halm (1873)- Halm's
correspondence with Enk von der Burg has been published by
R. Schachinger (1890).
MUNCIB. a dty and the cotmty-seat of Delaware county,
Indiana, U.S.A., on the West Fork of the White river, about
S7 m. N.E. of Indianapolis. Pop. (1880), 5210; (1890), 11,345;
(1900) ao,942, of whom 1235 were foreign-bom; (19x0 census)
24,005. It is served by the Central Indiana, the Chicago,
Cincinnati & Louisville, the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago &
St Louis, the Pittsburgh, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis, the Fort
Wayne, Cincinnati & LouisvUle, and the Lake Erie & Western
railways, and by the Indiana Union Traction, the Dayton &
Munde Traction, and the Munde & Portland Traction (electric
inter-urban) railways. The dty is built on le\'el ground (altitude
950 ft.), and has an attractive residential section. It is one
of the prindpal manufacturing centres in Indiana, owing largdy
to its situation in the natural gas bdt. In 1900 and in 1905
it was the largest producer of glass and glassware in the
United Sutes, the value of its product in 1905 bdng $2,344,462.
Munde (named after the Munsee Indians, one of the three
prindpal divisions of the Delawarcs) was settled about 1833
and was chartered as a dty in 1865.
MUNDiS. The Mundl (Mu^dd) family is the least numerous
of the linguistic families of India. It comprises several, dialects
spoken in the two Chota Nagpur plateaux, the adjoining districts
of Madras and the Central Provinces, and in the Mahadeo hills.
The number of speakers of the various dialects, according to
the census of 1901, are as follow: Santlll, i. 795.1 13; Mundirt,
460,744; Bhumij, 111,304; Birh&r, 536; K6di. a3.873; H6.
371,860; TQif, 3880; Asurl, 4894; Korwt, 16,442; KorkO, 87,675:
Kharil, 82,506; Julng, 10,853; Savara, 157.136; Gadabft, 37,230;
total, 3>i64>036. Santlll, MundArl, Bhumij. Birh&r. K6dfl, H6,
TOrl, Asuif and Korwg are only slightly differing forms of one
and the same language, which can be called Kherwflrt, a name
borrowed from SanttU tradition. Kherwirf is the prindpal
Mund& language, and quite 88% of all the speakers of Mundfl
tongues bdong to it. The Korwi dialect, spoken in the western
part of Chota Nagpur, connects Kherwirl with the remaining
Mund& languages. Of these it is most dosdy related to the
KQrkQ language of the Mahadeo hills in the Central Provinces.
KQrkQ, in its tum, in important points agrees with Kharift and
Juftng, and Kharii leads over to Savara and GadabS. The
two last-mentioned forms of speech, which are spoken in the
north-east of the Madras Presidency, have been much influenced
byDravidian languages.
The MundA dialects are not in sole possession of the territory
where they are spoken. They are, as a rale, only found in the
hills and jun^^es, while the plains and valleys are inhabited by
people speaking some Aryan language. When brought into
close contact with Aryan tongues the Mundl forms of speech are
apt to give way, and in the course of time they have been
partly superseded by Aryan dialects. There are accordingly
some Aryanized tribes in northern India who have formerly
belonged to the Mundl stock. Such are the Cheros of Behar
and Chota Nagpur, the Kherwars, who are found in the same
localities, in Mirzapur and elsewhere, the Savaras, who formerly
extended as far north as Shahabad, and others. It seems
possible to trace an old Munda clement in some Tibeto-Burman
dialects spoken in the Himalayas from Bashahr eastwards.
By race the MundAs are Dra vidians, and thdr langxiage was
likewise long considered as a member of the Dravidian family.
Max MtUler was the first to distinguish the two families. He
also coined the name Mundft for the smaller of them, which haa
later on often been spoken of under other denominations, such as
Kolarian and Kherwarian. The Dravidian race is generally
considered as the aboriginal population of southern India. The
Mundfts, who do not appear to have extended much farther
towards the south than at present, must have mixed with
the Dravidians from very early times. The so-called Nah&II
dialect of the Mahadeo hills seems to have been originally a
MundA form of speech which has come under Dravidian influ-
ence, and finally passed under the spell of Aryan tongues. The
same is perhaps the case with the numerous dialects spoken by
the Bhils. At all events, MundA languages have apparently
been spoken over a wide area in central and north India. They
were then early superseded by Dravidian and Aiyan dialects,
and at the present day only scanty remnants are found in the
hills and jungles of Bengal and the Central Provinces.
Though the MundA family is not connected with any other
languages in India proper, it does not form an isolated group. It
bdongs to a widdy spread family, which extends from India in
the west to Easter Island in the eastem Pacific in the east. In
the first place, we find a connected language spoken by the
Khasis of the KbasI hills in Assam. Then follow the M6n-
KhmCr languages of Farther India, the dialects spoken by the
abori^nal InhabitanU of the Malay Peninsula, the Nancowry
of the Nicobars, and, finally, the numerous dialects of Austro-
nesia, viz. Indonesic, Mdanesic, Polynesic, and so on. Among
the various members of this vast group the MundA languages
are most dosely related to the MOn-RhmCr family of Farther
India. KtirkO, KhariA, JuAng, Savara and GadabA are more
dosely related to that family than is KherwAxf, the prindpal
MundA form of speech.
We do not know if the MundAi entered India from without.
MUNDAY
If »» they can only have immignted from the cast At aU
events ihty must have been settled in India from a very early
period. The Sabaias, the ancestois of the Savaras, are already
mentioocd tk old Vcdic literature. The MundA languages
seem to have been influenced by Dravidian and Aryan forms
of speech. la most characteristics, however, they differ widely
from the neighbouring tongues.
The MandK languages abound in voweb, and alio ponese a richly
developed syitefli of oonaonanta. Like the Dravidian languaees,
they avoid begixmins a word with more than one conaonant. While
those latter forms oTqwech shrink fiom pronouncing a short conao-
nant at the end of words, the MundSs have the opponte tendency,
viz. to shorten such sounds still more. The usual stopped consonants
— 'vix. k, c (Le, English ci), I and ^— are formed bv stopping the
current of breath at different points m the mouth, and then letting it
pass oot with a kind of explosion. In the MundA language this
operation can be abruptly checked half-way, so that the breath does
not touch the organs of speedi in passing out. The result is a sound
that makes an aonipt impreaBion on the ear, and has been described
as an abrupt tone. SuchfloundsarecomroonintbeMundftUnguages.
Tbey are usually written k\ e\ f and p'. Stmibr sounds are also
fosnd in the Moa-KJbAiiir languages and in Indo-Chinese.
The vowels of consecutive syllables to a certain extent approach
each other in aound. Thus in KhCrwiri the onen sounds d (ncariy
Eiwlish a in all) and d (the a in care) agree with each other and not
with the cor r e sp onding close sounds o (the o in pole) and « (the * in
pen). The SantiS paadve suffix (A* accordingly becomes ah* after
d or d ; canpaie idn-dl', go, but doA^ik*. to be itfuck.
Words are formed from mooo»vIlabic bases by means of various
' AS, niffixes (such as are added after the base), prefixes (whkrh
t the base) and infixes (whkh are inserted into the bare ttselO*
> play a great r61e in the inflexion of words, while prefixes and
are of greater importance as formative additions. Compare
Korku k-im^ Savara As, son; Kharia fo-mcug, Kherwiri m4, nose;
SaatSli ter, to Icar; bo4o^t feu; dal, to strike; da-pa4t to strike each
other.
The various daases of words ase not cleariy distinguished. The
same base can often be used as a noun, an adjective or a verb. The
simply denote some being, object, quality, action or the like,
ey do not tell us how they are oonoeivied.
bnttkey
laflexioo is effected in the usual agglutinative way by means of
additians which are ** glued " or |utncd to the unchanged base,
lo many respects, however, Mundi mflcxion has struck out peculiar
Kaes. Thus there b no grammatical distinction of gender. Nouns
can be (fivided into two classes, vis. those that denote animate
beings and those that denote inanimate otHects respectively. There
are three numbers— the singular, the dual and the plural. On the
other hand, there are no real cases, at least in the most ts'pical
Mnndft languages. The direct and the indirect object are indicated
by means of certain additions to the verb. Certain relations In
tune and space, however, are indicated by means of suffixes, which
have probably from the beginning been separate words with a definite
meaning. The genitive, which can be considered as an adjective
pcecetfittg the governing word, is often derived from such forms
: locality. Compare Santlli Adr-rd, in a man; Adr-rda, of
Hwher numbers are counted b twenties, and not in tens as in the
DnvMfian bnguages.
The pronouns abound in different forms. Thus there are double
■cs of the dual and the plural of the pronoun of the first person, one
mrliuling and the other excluding the person addressed. The Rev.
A, Nettrott aptly illustrates the importance of this distinction by
remarking bow it b necessary to uie the exclusive form if telling the
aerraot that " we shall dine at seven." Otherwise the speaker will
BBvite the servant to partake of the meal. In addition to the usual
personal pronouns there are also short forms, used as suffixes and
mfixes, which denote a direct object, an indirect object, or a genitive.
There b a cormponding richness in the case of demonstrative
pRMoans. Thus the pronoun " that " in SantUi has different forms
to denote a living being, an inanimate object, something seen, some-
tbiag heard, and so on. On the other hand, there is no rebtive
praooan. the want being supplied by the use of indefinite forms of the
verbal bases, which can m this connexion be called rebtive participles.
The most characteristic feature of Mundft grammar is the verb.
eipecially in Kherwiri. Every independent word can perform the
foaction of a verb, and every vertial form can, in its turn, be used as a
noun or an adjective. The bases of the different tenses can there-
lore be dcsrriLcd as indifferent words which can be used as a noun,
as an adject ive. and as a verb, but which are in reality none of them.
Each dmoies simply the root meaning as modified by time. Thus
in Sam&li the base dst-kef. struck, whkh b formed from the base
isi, by adding the suffix kef of the active past, can be used as a noun
fooenpare dal-ket-ko, strikers, those that struck), as an adjective
(compare iai-kef-kHr, struck man, the man that struck), and as a
verb. In the bst case it b necessary to add an a if the action really
Ukes pboe: thus, dal-kef-a, somebody strack.
It has already been remarked that the cases of the direct and
iadbvct object aic tadkated by adding forms of the personal
pronouns to tiie verb. Siich pronominal affixes are inserted before
the assertive particb a. Thus the affix denoting a direct object of the
third perron singular is e, and by inserting it in do/-Jbl'<a we arrive
at a form dal-km-t-a, romebody struck him. Similar affixes can be
added to denote that the object or subject of an action belongs to
somebody. Thus SantiU Mpdir-tg-s dai-Jbl'-<aJfco-/»g-o, ron-my-he
struck-theirs-mine, my son who belongs to me struck theirs.
In a sentence such as kar kihH^ dat-ked-t'ii, man boy-he struck-
htm, the man struck the boy, the Santab first put together the ideas
man, boy. and a striking in the past. Then the « telb us that the
striking affects the boy, and finally the -a indicates that the whole
action really takes pbce. It will he seen that a singb verbal form
in thb way often corresponds to a whole sentence or a series of sen-
tences in other bnguages. If we add that the most developed
Mundl bnguages possess different bases for the active, the middb
and the passive, that there are different causal, intensive and recipro-
cal bases, which are conjugated throughout, and that the person of
the subject b often mdicated in the verb, it will be understood that
Mundl conjugation presents a romewhat bewildering aspect. It
is, however, quite regubr throughout, and once the mind becomes
accustomed to these peculiarities, they do not present any difficulty
to the undersunding.
Bibliography.— -Max MQller, Letter to Chevaiier Bunsen en the
Classification 9/ the Turttman LantftafjU, Reprint from Chr. K. I.
Bunsen. Christianity and Mankind, vol. lii. (London. 1854),
especblly pp. I7S and sqq.; Fricdrich MQller, Crundriss der Sprack-
wtssenuhan, vol iiL part 1. (Wien, 1884), pp. 106 and sqq.. vol. iv.
part L (Wien. 1888), p. 239: Sten Konow, " Mundil and Dravidian
Languages " in Grierson's Ltagimfic Survey of India, iv. i and sqq.
(Ca&it&, 1906). (S.K.)
HUVDAT (or Monday), AMTHONT (c. 1553-1633)1 English
dramatist and miscellaneous writer, son of Christopher Monday,
a London draper, was bom in X553~i554' He had already
appeared on the stage when in 1576 be bound himseU
apprentice lor eight yean to John Mde, the stationer, an
engagement from which he was speedily released, for in
1578 he was in Rome. In the opening lines of bb English
Roputyne Lyfe (1582) he avers that in going abroad he
was actuated solely by a desire to see strange cotmtrics and
to learn foreign languages; but he must be regarded, if
not as a spy sent to report on the English Jesuit College in
Rome, as a joumalbt who meant to make literary capital out of
the designs of the English Catholics resident in France and'
Italy. He says that he and hb companion, Thomas Nowell,
were robbed of all they possessed on the road from Boulogne to
Amiens, where they were kindly received by an English priest^
who entrusted them with letters to be delivered in Reims.
These they handed over to the English ambassador in Paris,
where under a false name, as the son of a well-known English
Catholic, Munday gained recommendations which secured hb
reception at the Englbh College in Rome. He was treated with
special kindness by the rector, Dr Morris, for the sake of bb
supposed father. He gives a detailed account of the routine of
the place, of the dispute between the English and Webb students,
of the carnival at Rome, and finally of the martyrdom of Richard
Atkins (? 1 559-1 581). He retuVned to England in 1 578-1 579, and
became an actor again, being a member of the Earl of Oieford's
company between 1579 and 1584. In a CathoKc tract entitled
A True Reporte of the death of Af. Campion (1581), Munday
b accused of having deceived his master Allde, a charge which
he refuted by publishing AUde's signed declaration to the con*
trary, and he is also said to have been hissed off the stage. He
was one of the chief witnesses against Edmimd Campion and
bb assocbtcs, and wrote about thb time five anti-popbh
pamphlets, among them the savage and bigoted tract entitled A
Discoverie of Edmund Campion and his Confederates— Vfhereto
is added the execution of Edmund Campion, Raphe Sherwin, and
Alexander Brian, the first part of' which was read aloud from
the scaffold at Campion's death m December 1 581. Hb political
services against the Catholics were rewarded in 1 584 by the post
of messenger to her Majesty's chamber, and from thb time he
seems to have ceased to appear on the stage. In 1 598-1 599, when
he travelled with the earl of Pembroke's men in the Low
Coyntries, it was in the capacity of playwright to furbish up old
pbys. He devoted himself to writing for the booksellers and
the theatres, compiling religious works, translating Amadis de
Gaule and other French romances, and putting words to popular
airs. He was the chief pageant-writer for the City from 1605
MUNDELLA— MUNDT
to 1616, and it is likely that he supplied most of the pageants
between 1593 and 1605, of which no authentic record has been
kept. It is by these entertainments of his, which rivalled in
success those of Ben Jonson and Middleton, that he won his
greatest fame; but of all the achievements of his versatile talent
the only one that was noted in his epitaph in St Stephens,
Coleman Street, London, where he was buried on the loth of
August 1633, was his enlarged edition (1618) of Stow's Survey of
London. In some of his pageants he signs himself " citizen and
draper of London," and in his later years he is said to have
followed his father's trade.
Of the eighteen plays between the dates of 1584 and 1603 which
are assigned to Munday in collaboration with Henry Chettle, Michael
Drayton. Thomas Dekker and other dramatists, only four are cxunt.
John a Kent and John a Cumber, dated I59<;, is supposed to be the
same as Wiseman of West Chester, produced by the Admiral's men
at the Rae Theatre on the 2nd of December 159!. A ballad of British
Sidanen, on which it may have been founded was entered at
Stationers' Hall in 1 579. The Downfall of Robert Earl of Huntingdon,
afterwards called Robin Hood of merrie Sherwodde (acted in February
9) was followed in the same month by a second part, The Deaut
1 Earl of Huntingdon (printed 1601), in which he collaborated
with Henry Chettle. Munday also had a liiare with Michael Dray-
ton, Robert Wilson and Richard Hathway in the First Part of the
history oj the life 0' "• '^ /-- f,. f^rtr^ t--^ ^>Vi was
printed m 1600, witii tfic nninLr of Wjtium l^liAkL^^iK.ire. wlnth was
speedily withdrawn^ on the titl* paj^c. Will ia in Wtbbe {Diitourse
<i English Poetrie, ipSO) praiwd him for his p^Eior^iU. of which there
remains only the titk. Sict€i Si^hs. and Amarcui Campfiiini.% of Shep-
herds and Nymphs; and Francis, Mrrc* {Ptithdii Tamia. isgji) fftves
him among dramatic wTitcra the cxag^ented praiie of bcing^ " our
best plotter." Ben JoD=on rjdicuk»d him in Ttu^ Cast u Aih'red
as Antonio Balladina, pcii^cant pocL Munda>''« works luvti.illy
appeared under his ou^-n n^me^, but he totneiimos ufod thf pscudoiii/m
of '' Lazarus Piot." A. H. BuUcn idcniifiea him with the Shepherd
Tony " who contribute ** Beauty t^t Ljjthin^^y a spring " «nd six
other lyrics to £«f /a T.i"t/fp/ifrjn (cd. BuHt-n, 1699, p- ij)-
The completest a * i:.f An horny Munday ta T. Seccombe's
article in the Diet, j .-, A life and bthliog^raphy t-^v pre6wd
to the Shakespeare '■•- irprint of John a Kent and Jahn a
Cumber (ed. J. P. C.r.,.i, ,6^,1). His two " RoWr Hood" plays
were edited by J. P. i: other in (^d Plays fi^^a), and hiRi Exglish
Romayne Lyfe vras printed in the HaHevan Miscfitany, vil 136 $isi.
(cd. Park, 181 1). For an arrount of hia city fagi^ant^ '-f-f F W.
Fairholt,£orilfay0r': Ftigiranii [Percy Soc., No. jfl, t&;^y
MUNDELLA, ANTHONY JOHN (1825-1897), English educa-
tional and industrial reformer, of Italian extraction, was bom at
Leicester in 1825. After a few years spent at an elementary
school, he was apprenticed to a hosier at the age of eleven; He
afterwards became successful in business in Nottingham, filled
several civic offices, and was known for his philanthropy. He
was sheriff of Nottingham in 1853, and in 1859 organized the
first courts of arbitration for the settlement of disputes between
masters and men. In November 1868 he was returned to
parliament for Sheffield as an advanced Liberal. He represented
that constituency until November 1885, when he was returned
for the Brightside division of Sheffield, which he continued to
represent until his death. In the Gladstone ministry of 1880
Mundella was vice-president of the coundl, and shortly after-
wards was nominated fourth charity commissioner for England
and Wales. In February 1886 he was appointed president
of the board of trade, with a seat in the cabii>et, and was sworn
a member of the privy council. In August 1892, when the
Liberals again came into power, Mundella was again appointed
president of the board of ' trade, and he continued in this
position until 1804, when he resigned office. His resignation
was brought about by his connexion with a financial company
which went into liquidation in circumstances calling for the
official intervention of the board of trade. However innocent
his own connexion with the company was,. it involved him in
unpleasant public discussion, and his position became untenable.
Having made a dose study of the educational systems of Germany
and Switzerland, Mundella was an early advocate of compulsory
education in England. He rendered valuable service in con-
nexion with the Elementary Education Act of 1870, and the
educational code of 1882, which became known as the " Mundella
Code," marked a new departure in the regulation of public
elementary schools and the conditions of the Government
grants. To his initiative was chiefly due the Factory Act
of 187 s, which established a ten-hours day for women and
children in textile factories; and the Conspiracy Act, which
removed certain restrictions on trade tmions. It was he
also who established the labour department of the board of
trade and founded the Labour Gazette. He introduced and
passed bills for the better protection of women and children in
brickyards and for the limitation of their labours in factories;
and he effected substantial improvements in the Mines Regula-
tion Bill, and was the author of much other useful legislation.
In recognition of his efforts, a marble bust of himself, by Boehm,
subscribed for by 80,000 factory workers, chiefly women and
children, was presented to Mrs Mundella. He died in London
on the 3ist of July 1897.
HUNDEN, JOSEPH SHEPHERD (1758-1832), English actor,
was the son of a London poulterer, and ran away from home
to join a strolling company. He had a long provincial experience
as actor and manager. His first London appearance was in
1790 at Covent Garden, where he practically remained until
x8ii, becoming the leading comedian of his day. In 1813 he
was at Drury Lane. He retired in 1824, and died on the 6th
of February 1832.
MONDBN, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of
Hanover, picturesquely situated at the confluence of the Fulda
and the Werra, 21 m. N.E. of Cassel by rail. Pop. (1905),
xo,755* It is an ancient pkce, mimidpal rights having been
granted to it in 1 247. A few ruins of its former walls still survive.
The large Lutheran church of St Blasius (i4th-i5th centuries)
contains the sarcophagus of Duke Eric of Bnmswick-Calenberg
(d. 1540). The 13th-century Church of St Aegidius was injured
in the siege of 1625-26 but was subsequently restored. There is
a new Roman Catholic church (1895). The town hall (1619),
and the ducal castle, built by -Duke Eric II. about 1570, and
rebuilt in 1898, are the principal secular buildings. In the
latter is the munidpal museimi. There are various small
industries and a trade in timber. Mtlnden, often called " Hanno-
versch-Mtinden " (t.e. Hanoverian Mtlnden), to distinguish it
from Prussian Minden, was founded by the landgraves of
Thuringia, and passed in 1247 to the house of Bnmswick. It
was for a time the residence of the dukes of Brunswick-Ltineburg.
In 1626 it was destroyed by Tilly.
See Willigerod, GeschichU von MUnden (Gfittingen, 1808): and
Henze, FOhrer dutch Munden und Umgegend (MOnden. 1900).
HUNDRUCUS, a tribe of South American Indians, one of the
most powerful tribes on the Amazon. In 1788 they completely
defeated their andent enemies the Muras. After 1803 they
lived at peace with the Brazih'ans, and many are dvilized.
MUNDT, THEODOR (1808-1861), German author, was bom
at Potsdam on the 19th of September 1808. Having studied
philology and philosophy at Beriin, he settled in 1832 at Leipzig,
as a joumalist, and was subjected to a rigorous police supervision.
In 1839 he married Rlara Mtiller (1814-1873), who imder the
name of Luise MUhlbach became a popular novelist, and he
removed in the same year to Berlin. Here his intention of
entering upon an academical career was for a time thwarted
by his collision with the Prussian press laws. In 1842, however,
he was permitted to establish himself as privatdocent. In 1848
he was appointed professor of literature and history in Brcslau,
and in 1850 ordinary professor and librarian in Beriin; there he
died on the 30th of November 1861. Mundt wrote extensively
on aesthetic subjects, and as a critic he had considerable influence
in his time. Imminent among his works ane Die Kunst der
deutschen Prosa (1837); Gcschichle rfcr Liter atur der Gegenwart
(1840); Aesthelik; die Idee der Schfinheit und des Kunstwcrks im
LichU unserer Zeit (1845, new ed. 1868); Die Gdttenvelt der
alien Vdlher (1846, new ed. 1854). He also wrote several
historical novels; Thomas MUnzer (1841); Mendoza, der Voter
der Schelmen (1847) and Die Matadore (1850). But perhaps
Mimdt's chief title to fame was his part in the emandpation of
women, a theme which he daborated in his Madonna, Unter-
haltungen mil einer Heiligen (1835).
MUNICH
■UmCU' (Ger. MUneUn)^ a city of Gennany, capital of
the kingdom of Bavaria, and the third largest town in the
German Empire. It is situated on an elevated plain, on the
river Isar, 25 m. N. of the foot-hills of the Alps, about midway
between Strassburg and Vienna. Owing to its lofty site (i 700 ft.
above the sea) and the proximity of the Alps, the climate is
changeable, and its mean annual temperature, 49** to 50** F.,
h little higher than that of many places much farther to the
Dorth. The annual rainfall is nearly 30 in. Munich lies at
the centre of an important network of railways connecting
it directly with Strassburg (for Paris), Cologne, Leipzig, Berlin,
Rosenheim (for Vienna) and Innsbruck (for Italy via the Brenner
pass), which converge in a central station.
Munich is divided into twenty-four municipal districts, nine-
teen of which, including the old town, lie on the left bank of the
Isar, while the suburban districts of Au, Haidhausen, Giesingi,
Bogenhausen and Ramexsdorf are on the opposite bank. The
old town, containing many narrow and irregixlar streets, forms a
semkirde with its diameter towards the river, while round
its periphery has sprung up the greater part of modem Munich,
induding the handsome Maximilian and Ludwig districts.
The walb with which Munich was formerly surrounded have
been palled down, but some of the gates have been left. The
nsost interesting is the Isartor and the Karlstor, restored in
iSjs and adorned with frescoes. The Siegestor (or gate of
victory) is a modem inu'tation of the arch of Constantine at
Rome, while the stately Propylaea, built in 1854-1862, is a
reproduction of the gates of the Athenian Acropolis.
Munich owes its architectural magnificence largely to Louis I.
of Bavaria, who ascended the throne in 1825, and his successors;
while its orflections of art entitle it to rank with Dresden and
Berlin. Most of the modem buildings have been erected after
celebrated prototypes of other countries and eras, so that, as
has been said by Moria Carridre, a walk through Munich affords
a picture of the architecture and art of two thousand years.
In carrying out his plans Louis I. was seconded by the architect
Leo von Klenae, while the external decorations of painting and
sculpture were mainly designed by Peter von Cornelius, WUhelm
von gfniKarh and Schwanthalcr. As opportum'ty offers, the
narrow streets of the older city are converted into broad, straight
boulevards, lined with palatial mansions and public buildings.
The hygienic improvement effected by these changes, and by
a new and excellent water supply, is shown by the mortality
a ^tiages 4 0-4 per thousand in 1871-1875, 30-4 per thousand
in 1881-1885, and 20-5 per thousand in 1903-1904. The archi-
tectural style which has been principally followed in the later
pabfic buikiings, among them the law courts, finished in 1897,
the German bank, St Martin's hospital, as well as in numerous
private dwdlings, is the Italian and French Rococo, or Renais-
sance, adapted to the traditions of Munich architecture in the
17th aad i8th centuries. A large proportion of the most notable
boBdings in Munich are in two streets, the Ludwigstrasae and
the Maximalianstrasse, the creations of the monarchs whose
names they bear. The former, three-quarters of a mile long
and 40 yds. wide, chiefly contains buildings in the Renaissance
style by Friedrich von G&rtner. The most striking of these are
the palaces of Duke Max and of Prince Luitpold; the Odeon, a
large building for concerts, adorned with frescoes and marble
biuts; the war office; the royal library, in the Florentine palatial
^yle; the Ludwigikirche, a succosful reproduction of the
Ita&an Romanesque style, built in 1829-1844, and containing
a huge fresco of the Last Judgment by Cornelius; the blind
asjriom; and, lastly, the university. At one end this street {«
tcniinated b^ the Siegestor, while at the other is the Fddher-
raballe (or lutll of the marshals), a copy of the Loggia dd Land
at Fbrenoe, containing statues of Tilly and Wrede by Schwan-
tbaJer. Adjacent is the church of the Theatines, an imposing
tboq^ somewhat over-ornamented example of the Italian
Rococo style; it contains the royd burid vault. In the Maxi-
wwiwitytrai^ which cxtcttds from Haidhausen on the right bank
of the Isar to the Max- Joseph Platz, King Maximilian II. tried
Co intTDdttce an entirely novd style of domestic architecturei
formed by the combination of older forms. At the east end it
is closed by the Madmilianeum, an extensive and impodng
edifice, adomed externdly with large sculpturd groups and
internally with huge paintings representing the chief scenes in
the history of the world. Descending the street, towards the
west are passed in succession the old buildings of the Bavarian
nationd museum, the government buikiings in which the Com-
podte style of Madmilian has been most consistently carried
out, and the mint. On the north dde of the Max- Joseph Plata
lies the royd pahce, consisting of the Alte Residenz, the
Kbm'gsbau, and the Festsadbau. The Alte Residenz dates
from 160X to 1616; its apartments are handsomely fitted up
in the Rococo style, and the private chapel and the treasury
contain severd crowns and many other interesting and vduable
objects. The Festsadbau, erected by Klenze in the Itdian
Renaissance style, is adorned with murd pdntings and scdp-
tures, while the RSnigsbau, a reduced copy of the Pitti Palace
at Florence, contains a series of admirable frescoes from the
Niebdungenlied by Julius Schnorr von Carolsfcld. Adjoining
the palace are two theatres, the Reddenz or private theatre,
and the handsome Hof theater, accommodating 2500 spectators.
The Allerheiligen-Hofkirche, or cuurt-church, is in the Byzantine
style, with a Romanesque facade.
The Ludwigstrasse and the Madmilianstrassc both end at
no great distance from the Frauenplatz in the centre of the old
town. On this square stands the Frauenkirche, the cathedrd
church of the archbishop of Munich-Freising, with its lofty cupola
capped towers dominating the whole town. It is imposing from
its size, and interesting as one of the few examples of indigenous
Munich art. On the adjacent Marienplatz are the old town-
hall, dating from the 14th century and restored in 1865, and
the new town-hall, the latter a magnificent modern Gothic
erection, freely embellished with statues, frescoes, and stained-
glass windows, and edarged in 1 900-1 905. The coluihn in the
centre of the square was erected in 1638, to commemorate the
defeat of the Protestants near Prague by the Bavarians during
the Thirty Years* War.
Among the other churches of Munich the chief place is due to
St Boniface's, an admirable copy of an early Christian basilica.
It is adomed with a cyde of religious pdntings by Heinrich
von Hess (1798-1863), and the dome is supported by sixty-
four monoliths of grey Tyrolese marble. The parish church of
Au, in the Early Gothic style, contains gigantic stained-glass
windows and some excellent wood-carving; and the church
of St John in Hddhausen is another fine Gothic stmcture.
St Michad's in the Renaissance style, erected for the Jesuits in
1 583-1595, contains the monxmient of Eugdne Bcauharaais by
Thorwd<bien. The facade is divided into storeys,- and the
generd effect is 'by no means ecclesiastical St Peter's is inter-
esting as the oldest church in Munich (12th century), though no
trace of the origind basilica remains. Among newer churches
the most noticeable are the EvangeUcd church of St Luke, a
Transitiond building, with an imposing dome, finished in 1896,
and the (}othic parochid church of the Giesing suburb, with a
tower 3x2 ft. high and rich interior decorations (1866-1884).
The vduable collections of art are enshrined in handsome
buildings, mostly in the Maximilian suburb on the north side
of the town, lie dd Pinakothek, erected by Klenze in 1826-
1836, and somewhat resembling the Vatican, is embellished
externally with frescoes by Cornelius and with statues of twenty-
four celebrated painters (rom sketches by Schwanthder. It
contains a vduable and extensive collection of pictures by the
earlier masters, the chief treasures bdng the early German
and Flemish works and the unusually numerous examples of
Rubens. It also affords accommodation to more than 300,000
engravings, over 20,000 drawings, and a brge collection of
vases. Opposite stands the new Pinakothek, built 1846-1853,
the frescoes on which, designed by Kaulbach, show the effects of
wind and weather. It is devoted ^o works by painters of the
last century, among which Karl Rottmann's Greek landscapes
are perhaps the most important. The Glyptothek, a building by
Klenze in the lomc style, and adorned with severd groups and
MUNICH
single statues, contains a valuable series of sculptures, extending
from Assyrian and Egyptian monuments down to works by
Thorwaldsen and other modem masters. The celebrated
Aegiuetan marbles preserved here were found in the island of
Aegina in 1811. Opposite the Glyptothek stands the exhibition
building, in the Corinthian style, it was finished in 1845, and is
used for periodic exhibitions of art. In addition to the museum
of plaster casts, the Antiquarium (a collection of Egyptian, Greek
and Roman antiquities under the roof of the new Pinakothek)
and the Maillinger collection, connected with the historical
museum, Munich also contains several private galleries. Fore-
most among these stand the Schack Gallery, bequeathed by
the founder, Count Adolph von Schack, to the emperor William
II. in i8q4, rich in works by modem German masters, and the
Lotzbeck collection of sculptures and paintings. Other struc-
tures and institutions are the new buildings of the art association;
the academy of the plastic arts (1874-1885), in the Renaissance
style; and the royal arsenal (Zeughaus) with the military
museum. The Schwanthaler museimi contains models of most
of the great sculptor's works.
The immense scientific collection in the Bavarian national
museum, illustrative of the march of progress from the Roman
period down to the present day, compares in completeness
with the similar collections at South Kensington and the Muste
de Cluny. The building which now houses this collection was
erected in 1894- 1900. On the waUs is a series of well-executed
frescoes of scenes from Bavarian history, occupying a space of
16,000 sq. ft. The ethnographical museum, the cabinet of
coins, and the collections of fossils, minerals, and physical
and optical instruments, are also worthy of mention. The art
union, the oldest and most extensive in Germany, possesses a
good collection of modem works. The chief place among the
scientific institutions is due to the academy of science, founded
in 1759. The royal library contains over 1,300,000 printed
volumes and 30,000 manuscripts. The observatory is equipped
with instmments by the celebrated Josef Fraunhofer.
At the head of the educational institutions of Munich stands
the university, foimded at Ingolstadt in 1473, removed to
Landshiit in 1800, and transferred thence to- Munich in 1826.
In addition to the four usual faculties there is a fifth — of political
economy. In connexion with the university are medical and
other schools, a priests' seminary, and a library of 300,000
volimies. The polytechnic institute {Tecknische Hochsckuk) in
1899 acquired the privilege of conferring the degree of doctor
of technical science. Munich contains several gymnasia or
grammar-schools, a military academy, a veterinary college, an
agricultural college, a school for architects and builders, and
several other technical schools, and a conservatory of music.
The general prison in the suburb of Au is considered a model
of its kind; and there is also a large military prison. Among
other public buildings, the crystal palace {Glas-pclasl)^ 765 ft.
in length, erected for the great exhibition of 1854, is now used,
as occasion requires, for temporary exhibitions. The Wittelsbach
palace, built in i843~x85o, in the Early English Pointed style, is
one of the residences of the royal family. Among the numerous
monuments with which the squares and streets are adomed,
the most important are the colossal statue of Maximilian II.
in the Maximilianstrasse, the equestrian statues of Louis I. and
the elector Maximilian I., the obelisk erected to the 30,000
Bavarians who perished in Napoleon's expedition to Moscow,
the Wittelsbach fountain (1895), the monimient conunemorative
of the peace of 1871, and the marble statue of Justus Liebig,
the chemist, set up in 1883.
The English garden {Engliscker CttrUn)t to the north-east of
the town, is 600 acres in extent, and was laid out by Count
Rumford in imitation of an English park. On the opposite bank
of the Isar, above and below the Maximilianeum, extend the
Gasteig promenades, conunandlng fine views of the town. To
the south-west of the town is the Tlieresienwiese, a large common
where the popular festival is celebrated in October. Here is
situated the Ruhmeshalle or hall of fame, a Doric colonnade
containing busts of eminent Bavarians. In front of it is a
colossal bronie statue of Bavaria, 170 ft. high, designed by
Schwanthaler. The botanical garden, with iu large palm-house,
the Hofgarten, surrounded with arcades containing frescoes of
Greek landscapes by Rottmann, and the Maximilian park to
the east of the Isar, complete the list of pubUc parks.
The peculation of Munich in 1905 was 538,393. The per-
manent garrison numbers about 10,000 men. Of the population,
84% are Roman Catholic, 14% ProtesUnts, and 2% Jews.
Munich is the seat of the archbishop of Munich-Freising
and of the general Protestant consistory for Bavaria. About
twenty newspapers are published here, including the AUgemeine
ZeUung. Some of the festivals of the Roman Church are cele*-
brated with considerable pomp; and the people also cling to
various national f€tes, such as the Metzgersprung, the SchiLffler-
tanz, and the great October festival.
Munich has long been celebrated for its artistic handicrafts,
such as bronze-founding, glass-staining, silversmith's work, and
wood-carving, while the astronomical instruments of Fraunhofer
and the mathematical instrxmients of Traugott Lieberecht von
Ertel (1778-1858) arc also widely known. Lithography, which
was invented at Munich at the end of the i8th century, is
extensively practised here. The other industrial products
include wall-paper, railway plant, machinery, -gloves and
artificial flowers. The most charaaeristic industry, however,
is brewing. Four important markets are held at Munich
annually. The city is served by an extensive electric tramway
system.
History.— The Villa Munichen or Porum ad monackos, so
called from the monkish owners of the ground on which it lay,
was first called into prominence by Duke Henry the Lion, who
established a mint here in 11 58, and made it the emporium for
the salt coming from Hallein and Reichenhall. The Bavarian
dukes of the Wittelsbach house occasionally resided at Munich,
and in 1255 Duke Louis made it his capital, having previously
surrounded it with walls and a moat. The town was almost
entirely destroyed by fire in 1327, after which the emperor Louis
the Bavarian, in recognition of the loyalty of the citizens,
rebuilt it very much on the scale it retained down to the beginning
of the X9th century. Among the succeeding rulers those who did
most for the town in the erection of handsome buildings and the
foundation of schools and sdenufic institutions were Albert V^
William V., Maximilian I., Max Joseph and Charles Theodore.
In 163a Munich was occupied by Gustavus Adolphus, and in^
1705, and again in 1742, it was in possession of the Austrians.
In 179X the fortifications were razed.
Munich's importance in the history of art is entirely of modem
growth, and may be dated from the acquisition of the Aeginttan
marbles by Louis I., then crown prince, in 1812. Among the
eminent artists of this period whose names are more or less
identified with Munich were Leo von Klenze (1784- 1864),
Joseph Daniel Ohlmiiller (i 791-1839), Friedrich von Girtncr
(1792-1847), and Georg Friedrich Ziebland (1800-1873), the
architects; Peter von Comelius (1783-1867), Wilhelm von Kaul-
bach (1804-1874), Juh'us Schnorr von Carolsfeld (1794-1872),
and Karl Rottmann, the painters; and Ludwig von Schwanthaler,
the sculptor. Munich is still the leading school of painting in
Germany, but the romanticism of the earlier masters has been
abandoned for drawing and colouring of a realistic character.
Karl von Piloty (1826-1886) and Wilhelm Diez (1839-1907) long
st<^'--! .-ii iW held f.r ilii^ school*
h-tc .Urj'.'Ji.-u'rrFTifru .f-, 3:r.t:'.thcin'« Burrav-t dfr Siadt Mfimhfn (vols.
i.-v , lS^5-f833); Srijkl, Mtimkfn mii jfMrt i'mirbtt*tftn M«54):
Rt "i.^r^ Biiui^Jiitijt htf FukF£f durch dU Stadi Afiinthtit {%iijb) ; Daniel,
Hondhtick dtf Cenifdt'kif (citw «Lh IP*J5): Frantl, Geichnhte der
Ltdu-is-Mtij'fni'iftat Univtrsitct Ofiumch^ ift^j); GocfinK, w Jahre
MuTihfn (Municti. 1004); ¥00 Ari motif Di^ Grrmd ww ^timken
geiii:'ff'i:h tfithihit^ri (Xlijnicrh^ (^5^^ Kroncsji, lllttilfttrlt GrstkickU
dtr j^i-sJi Munf^n (MunJcti, J 905): the Jakfbxik Jvlr M^nthener
Gt'-^ufiit^ cditcrj by Rein hard atSttficr nnd TrautrnaDn {Munich,
l8":7-iS<)4\; Aufl'OStcf and TrsutmannK Ait'^f1inthrn in Bti4 una
W.^f fMunlrh^ 1895)1 Rohttird^r, Mum km ah Handihstoit (Munich,
V. rrtfjt, Gfichinhie iir ttiuftthener Kanit tm i^t Jahrkvndtft\\^^xn^c\^,
l8?rr&) ; flMfJ Triutwcirt, Fultrtr dank Munchm both cd,, 1906). There
u fin En^li>b book vn Munich by H^ R. WiiUttieh (igio).
MUNICIPALITY— MUNICIPIUM
MUnCIPAIJnr, a modem tenn (derived from Lat. mMfi*-
tipium; see below), now used both for a dty or town which
is organized t<x sdif-govermnent under a municipal corporation,
and also for the governing body itself. Such a corporation
in Great Britain consists of a head as a mayor or provost, and
of superior members, as aldermen and coundllors, together with
the simple corporators, who are represented by the governing
body; it acts as a person by its common seal, and has a perpetu J
succession, with power to hold lands subject to the restrictions
of the Bfortmain laws; and it can sue or be sued. Where
necessary for its primary objects, every corporation has power
to make by-laws and to oiforce them by penalties, provid^ they
are not unjust or unreisonable or otherwise inconsistent with
the objects of the charter or other instrument of foundation.
See BoBOUGB, Cobcmonb, CoapoaAnoK, Local GovEaNMSNT,
FciAMCB, Sec, and for details of the funciions of the municipal
govcnuzKOt we the sections under the ^neral headings of the
different countries and the sections on the history of these countries.
■UnGPnJM (Lat. munus, a duty or privilege, capere, to
take), in az^ent Rome, the term api^ed primarily to a status,
a certain rdation between individuals or communities and the
Roman state; subsequently and in ordinary usage to a com-
munity, standing in such a relation to Rome. Whether the
name signI6es the taking up of burdens or the acceptance of
• privileges is a disputed point. But as andent authorities are
unanimous in giving munus in this connexion the sense of
"duty" or "service," it is probable that the chief feature
of munidpafity was the performance of certain services to
Rome.* This view is confirmed by all that we know about
the towns to which the pame was applied in republican times.
The status had its origin in the conferment of dtizenship upon
Tusculum in 381 B.C. (Livy vi. 36; d. Cic pro Plane. 8, xg),
and was widdy extended in the settlement made by Rome at
the dose of the Latin War in 338 B.C. (see Rome, History).
Italian towns were then divided into three dasses: (i) Coloniae
ciriuM Romanorumf whose members had all the rights of dtizen-
ship; (2) mmnidpiaf which recdved partial dtizenship; (3) feeder-
atae ciataies (induding the so-called Latin colonies), which
remained entirely separate from Rome, and stood in relations
with her which were separatdy arranged by her for each state by
treaty (Joedus). The mumcipia stood in very dififcrent degrees
of dqiendence on Rome. Some, such as Fundi (Livy viii. 14;
d. ibii. 19), enjoyed a local self-government only limited in the
matter of jurisdiction; others, such as Anagnia (Livy ix. 43;
Festos, 4* verb, significatione, s.v. ** munidpium," p. 127, ed.
MfiQer), were governed directly from Rome. But they all had
certain features in common. Their dtizens were called upon
to pay the same dues and perform the same service in the legions
as full Roman dtizens, but were deprived of the chief privileges
of dtizenship, those of voting in the COmitia (;m suffragii^j and
of holding Roman magistracies (jus konorum). It would also
appear from Festus {op. cU. s.v. praefeclura, p. 233) that juris-
dkikfu was entrusteid in every municipium to praefecii juri
Hamd^ sent out from Rome to represent the Praetor Urbanus.'
The conferment of munidpality can therefore hardly have been
icprded as other than an imposing of burdens, even in the
case of those dties which retained control of their own affairs.
But after the dose of the second Punic War, when Rome had
become the chief power, not only in Italy, but m all the ndgh-
booring lands round the Mediterranean, we can trace a growing
tendency among the Italian dties to regard dtizenship of this
great state as a privilege, and to daim complete dtizenship as
a reward of their services in hdping to build up the Roman
power. During the 2nd century b.& the Jus sufragii and jus
ha iur mm were conferred upon numerous mumcipia (Livy xxxviiL
36* 37)t vhose dtizens were then enrolled in the Roman tribes.
They can have ezerdsed thdr public rights but seldom, owing to
their distance from Rome; but the consulships of C Marius,
f For a contrary view, however, see Marquardt, Rihn, Staatsoera.
L pL 26k n. a (and ed., Lnpaa. 1881). and authoritks there dted.
<For a diffeient view seTwU' - ■■
(Loavaai, 1874)*
Villems, DroU ptMU romaim. p. 381
a mumetps/A Arpinum (between 107 and 100 B.a), and the
strength of the support given to Tiberius Gracchus in the
assembly by the voters from Italian towns (133 B.c) ^ow what
an important influence the members of these municipia could
occasionally exercise over Roman politics. The dties thus
privileged, however, though recdving complete Roman dtizen-
ship, were not, as the k>gic of public law might seem to demand,
incorporated in Rome, but continued to exist as independent
urban units; and this anomaly survived in the munidpal system
which wss devdoped, on the basis of these grants of dtizen-
ship, after the Social War. That system recognized the municeps
as at once a dtizen of a self-governing dty community, and
a member of the dty of Rome, his dual capadty being illustrated
by his right of voting both in the election of Roman magistrates
and in the election of magistrates for his own town.
The result of the Social War which broke out in 91 B.a
(see Roue: History) was the establishment of a new uniform
munidpality throi^out Italy, and the obliteration of any
important distinction between the three classes established
after the Latin War. By the Lex Julia of 90 B.C. and the
Lex Pkutia Papiria of 89 B.C every town in Italy which made
application in due form recdved the complete dtizenship.
The term municipium was no k)nger confined to a particular
class of Italian towns but was adopted as a convenient name
for all urban communities of Roman dtizens in Italy. The
organization of a munidpal system, which should regulate the
governments of all these towns on a uniform basis, and define
thdr relation to the Roman government, was probably the work
of Sulla, who certainly gave great impetus to the foundation
in the provinces of dtizen colonies, which were the earliest
municipia outside Italy, and enjoyed the same status as the
Italian towns. Julius Caesar extended the sphere of the Roman
munidpal system by his enfranchisement of Cisalpine Gaul,
and the consequent indusion of all the towns of that region
in the category of municipia. He seems also to have given
a more definite organization to the municipia as a whole. But,
excepting those in Cisalpine Gaul, the munidpsl system still
embraced no towns outside Italy other than the dtizen colonies.
Augustus and his successors adopted the practice of granting
to existing towns in the provinces either the full dtizenship,
or a partial citiias known as the jus LatiL This partial civitas
does not seem to have been entirdy repUced, as in Italy, by
the grant of full privileges to the communities possessing it,
and the distinction survived for some time in the provinces
between coloniae, municipia juris Romans, and municipia juris
Latini. But the uniform system of administration gradually
adopted in all three classes rendered the disUnction entirely
unimportant, and the general term municipium is used of all
alike. The incorporation of existmg towns, hitherto non-Roman,
in the uniform munidpal system of the prindpate took place
mainly in the eastern part of the Empire, where Greek dviliza-
tion had long fostered urban life. In the west dty commu-
nities rapidly sprang up under direct Roman influence. The
devdopment of towns of the munidpal type on the sites where
legions occupied permanent quarters can be traced in sev^al
of the western provinces; and it cannot be doubted that this
devdopment became the rule wherever a body of Roman
subjects settled down together for any purpose and permanently
occupied a region. At any rate by the end of the ist century
of the prindpate municipia are numerous in the western as
well as the eastern half of the Empire, and the towns are every-
where centres of Roman influence.
Of the internal life of the municipia very little is known
before the Empire. For the period after Julius Caesar, however,
we have two important sources of information. A series of
munidpal laws gives us a detailed knowledge of the constitution
imposed, with slight variations, on all the municipia] and a
host of private inscriptions gives particulars of thdr social life.
The munidpal constitution of the ist century of the prindpate
is based upon the type of government common to Greece and
Rome from earliest times. The government of each town
consists of magistrates, senate and assembly, and is entirely
8
MUNICIPIUM
independent of the Roman government except in certain cases
of higher dvil jurisdiction, which come under the direct cog-
nisance of the praetor urbanus at Rome. On the other hand,
each community is bound to perform certain services to the
Imperial government, such as the contribution of men and
horses for military service, the maintenance of the imperial
post through its neighbourhood, and the occasional entertain-
ment of Roman of&cials or billeting of soldiers. The citizens
were of two classes: (i) cives, whether by birth, naturalization
or emancipation, (2) inadae, who enjoyed a partial citizenship
based on domicile for a certain period. Both classes were
liable to civic burdens, but the incdae had none of the privi-
legeaL of citizenship except a limited right of voting. The
citizens were grouped in either tribes or curiae^ and accordingly
the assembly sometimes bore the name of Comitia Tributa,
sometimes that of Comitia Curiata. The theoretical powers
of these comitia were extensive both in the election of magis-
trates and in legislation. But the growing influence of the
senate over elections on the one hand, and on the other hand the
increasing reluctance of leading citizens to become candidates
for office (see below), gradually made popular election a mere
form. The senatorial recommendation of the necessary number
of candidates seems to have been merely ratified in the comitia;
and a Spanish munidpal law of the ist century makes special
provision for occasions on which an insuffident number of
candidates are forthcoming. In Italy, however, the reality of
popular elections seems to have survived to a later date. The
inscriptions at Pompeii, for instance, give evidence of keenly
contested dections in the 2nd century. The local sexuite, or
curia, always exercised an important influence on. munidpal
poKtics. Its members formed the local nobility, and. at an
early date special privileges were granted by Rome to provindals
who were senators in their native towns. For the composition,
powers, and history of the provindal senate see Decukio.
The magistrates were dected annually, and were six in number,
forming three pairs of colleagues. The highest magistrates
were the Ilviii {Duonrt) juri dicundc, who had charge, as their
name implies, of all local jurisdiction, and presided over the
assembly. Candidates for this office were required to be over.
95 years of age, to have hdd one of the minor magistrades,
and to possess all the qualifications required of members of the
local senate (see Decuxio). Next in dignity were the Ilviri
aediles, who had charge of the roads and public buildings, the
games and the com-sup]^y, and exercised police control through-
out the town. They appear to have been regarded as sub-
ordinate colleagues {ccUegae minores) of the Ilviri juri dicundo,
and in some towns at least to have had the right to convene
and preside over the comitia in the absence of the latter. Indeed
many inscriptions speak of IVviri (Quattuoniri) consisting of
two IVviri Juri dicundo and two IVviri aediUs; but in the
majority of cases the former are regarded as distinct and
superior magistrates. The two quaeslores, who appear to have
controlled finance in a large number of municipia, cannot be
traced in others; and it is probable that in the municipia, as
at Rome, the quaestorship was locally instituted, as need arose,
to relieve the supreme magistrates of excessive business. Other
munidpal magistrates frequently rderred to in the inscriptions
are the quin4tuennales and pra^edi. The quinguetmaUs super-
seded the Ilviri or IVviri juri dicundo every five years, and
differed from them only in possessing, in addition to thdr other
powers, those excrdsed in Rome before the time of Sulla by the
censors. Two dasses of praefedi are foimd in the munidpidities
under the Empire, both of which are to be distinguished from
the officials who bore that name in the municipia before the
Sodal War. The first dass consists of those praefedi who were
nominated as temporary ddegates by the Ilviri, when through
illness or compulsory absence they were unable to discharge
the duties of their office. The second dass, referred to in
inscriptions by the name of praefedi ah decurionibus creaii
lege Petronia, seem to have been appointed by the local senate
in case of a complete absence of higher magistrates, such as
would have led in Rome to the appointment of an tnterrex.
From a sodal point of view the municipia of the Roman Empire
may be treated under three beads: (i) as centres of local kU-
govemment, (2) as religious centres, (3) as industrial centres, (i)
The chief feature of the local government of the towns is the wide-
spread activity of the munidpal authorities in improving the general
conditions of life in the town. In the municipalities, as in Rome,
provision was made out of the public funds for feeding the poorest
part of the population, and providing a supply of com whicn could
be bought bjr ordinary dtizens at a moderate price. In Pliny's
time there existed in many towns public schools contfX)lled by the
munidpal authorities, concerning which Pliny remarks that they
«ere a source of considerable disturbance in the town at the times
when it was necessary to appoint teachers. He himself encourag^
the establishment of another kind of munidpal school at Como,
where the leading townspeople subscribed for the maintenance of
the school, and the control, mduding the appointment of teachers,
remained in the hands of the subscribers. Physidans seem to have
been maintained in many towns at' the public enwnse. The water-
supply was also providcdout of the munidpal budget, and controUed
by magistrates appointed for the purpose. To enable it to bear the
expense involved m all these undertaking the local treasury was
eenerally asasted by large benefactions, either in money or in works,
from individual dtizens; but direct taxation for muniand purposes
was hardly ever resorted to. The treasury was filled out of the
proceeds ol the landed posoesaons of the community, especially such
fruitful sources of revenue as mines and quarries, and out of import
and export duties. It was occasionally subsidiied by the emperor
on occasimis of sudden and exceptionaicalamity.
2. The chief feature in the religious life ot the towns was the
important position they occupied as centres for the cult of the
emperor. Caesar-worship as an organized cult devdoped sponta-
neously in many provindal towns during the fdgn of Augustus,
and was fostered by him and his successors as a means of promoting
in these centres of vigour and prosperity a strong loyalty to Rome
and the emperor, which was one of the firmest supports of the latter's
power. The order of AugustaUs, officials appointed to regulate the
worship of the emperor in the towns, occupied a position of dimity
and importance in provindal sodety. It was composed of the lead-
ing and the wealthiest men among the lower classes of the popula-
tion. By the organization, of the order on these lines Augustus
secured the double object of maintaining Caesar-wor^tp in all the
most vigorous centres of provincial life, and attracting to himself
and his successors the special devotion of the industriafdaas which
had its origin in the munidpia of the Roman Empire, and baa beoome
the greatest political force in modem Europe.
3. The development of this free industrial class is the chief feature
of the municipia considered as centres of industry and handicraft.
The rise to power of the equestrian order in Rome during the last
century of the Republic had to some extent modified the old Roman
prindple that trade and commerce were beneath the dignity of
the governing class ; but long after the fall of the Republic the aristo-
cratic notion survived in Rome that industry and handicrafts were
only fit for slaws. In the provincial towns, however, this idea was
rapidly disappearing in the early years of the Empire, and even in
the country towns of Italy the inscriptions give evidence not much
later of the existence of a large and flourishmg free industrial dasa,
proud of its occupation, and bound together by a strong esprit da
corps. Already the members of this class show a strong tendency
to bind themselves together in gilds (coUegiat sodalitatetj, and the
existence of countless associations of the kind is revealed by the
inscriptions. The formation of sodeties for religioua and other
purposes was frequent at Rome from the earliest times in all dasses
of the free population. After the time of Sulla these aodetiea were
regarded by the govemment with suspicion, mainly on account (rf the
political uses to which they were tumed, and various measures were
passed for their suppression in' Rome and Italy. This policy was
continued by the early emperors and extended to the whole Empire,
but in spite of opposition thej^lds in the provindal towns grew and
flourished. The ostensible objects of nearfy all 1 * " ' ' - - -
we have any knowledge were twofold,
such collegia of which
the maintenance of the
worship of some god, and proviaon for the performance of proper
funerary rights for its members. But under cover of these two main
objects, the only two purposes for which such combinations were
allowed under the Empire, associations of all kinds grew up. The
organization of the gilds was based on that of the munidpality.
Each elected its officers and treasurers at an annual meeting, and
every five years a revision of the list of members was held, correspond-
ing to that of the senators held quinquennially by the dty magia-
tratea. It is doubtful how far these sodeties served to organize
and improve particular industries. There is no evidence to ahcyw
that any sodeties during the first three centuries conasted solely
of workers at a nngle cralt. But there can be little doubt that the
later craft gilds were a development, through the industrial gilda
of the provindal towns, of one of the most andent features of Roman
Ufe.
Remarkable concord seems generally to have existed in the
municipia between the various dasses of the population. This
is accounted for partly by the strong dvic feeling which fonned
a bond of unity stronger than most sources of fdctioQ, mnd
MUNIMENT— MUNKACS
partly to the general i»osperity of the towns, which removed
any acute discontenL The wealthy citizen seems always to
have had to bear heavy financial burdens, and to have enjoyed
in reiom a dignity and an actual political preponderance which
made the genual character of mnniripal constitutions distinctly
timocratic
The policy adopted by the early emperors of encovraging,
within the limits of a uniform system, the independence and
civic patriotism of the towns, was superseded in the 3rd and
4th centuries by a deliberate effort to use the towns as instru*
nients of the imperial government, under the direct control of
the emperor or his representatives in the provinces. This
policy was accompanied by a gradual decay of civic feeUng and
municipal enterprise, which showed itself mainly in the un-
willingness of the townsmen to become candidates for local
magistrades, or to take up the burdens entailed in membership of
the municipal senate. Popular control of the local government
of the towns was ceasing to be a reality as ^ly as the end of
the ist century of the Empire. Two centuries later local
government was a mere form. And the self-governing com-
munities of the middle ages were a restoration, rather than a
development, of the flourishing and independent municipalities
of the age of Augustus and his immediate successors.
AuTBOKiTiBS. — C. Bmns. Pontes juris nmani, c. III., No. 18.
and c IV. (FreiburKt i8^3)> for Municipal Laws and references to
Monrasea's commentary in C.I.L. ; E. Kuhn, Siddtische u. bUrgerlicke
VerfassKHg des rdm. Reicks (Ldpzig, i8^« Marquardt. R6miuh$
StaaisaersBoUuni, I. t. (Leipriff, 1S81); Toutain, in Darcmbcr^-
Saglio Dictunstudre des anii^ifius grecques et romaines, s.v. " Munici*
pium ": S. Dill. Raman Societvfrom Nero to Marcus Aurdius, c 2
and 3 (London. 1904). For the gilds ace Moromsen, Dt coUegiis et
sodaSciis Ramanorum (Keil, 1843); Licbenam, CeschickU u: Organi-
— -~i d€S rdm. Yeremswesens (Leipxig, 1890). (A. M. Cl.)
• a word chiefly used in the plural, as a collective
term for the documents, charters, title-deeds, &c. relating to
the property, rights and privileges of a corporation, such as a
allege, a family or private person, and kept as " evidences "
fior defending the same. Hence the medieval usage of the word
muMitnentum, in classical Latin, a defence, fortification, from
fluniire, to defen d.
MUHI RIVER 8BTTLE1IEIITI, or Spanish Gxtinea, a Spanish
protectorate on the Guinea Coast, West Africa, rectangular
in form, with an area of about 9800 sq. m. and an estimated
population of 150,000. The protectorate extends inland about
175 miles and b bounded W. by the Atlantic, N. by the German
colony of Cameroon, E. and S. by French Congo. The coast-
fine, 75 m. long, stretches from the mouth of the Campo in
s* 10^ N. to the mouth of the Muni in i** N., on the north arm
of Corisco Bay. The small islands of Corisco {q.v.\ Elobey
Grande, Elob^ Chioo and Bana in Corisco Bay also belong
to Spain.
From the estuaxy of the Campo the coast trends S.S.W. in
a series of shallow indenUtions, until at the bold bluff of Cape
San Juan it turns eastward and forms Corisco Bay. The coast
plain, from 12 to 35 m. wide, is succeeded by the foot-hills of
the Co"*^ Mountains, which traverse the country in a north
to south direction. Tliese are a table-land, from which rise
granitic hills 700 to zaoo ft. above the general level, which is
about 2500 ft. above the sea. The mountainous region, which
extends inland beyond the Spanish frontier, contains many
narrow valleys and marshy depressions. The greater part of
the country forms the basin of the river Benito, which, rising
la French Congo a little east of the frontier, flows through the
centre of the Spanish protectorate and enters the sea, after a
onuse of 300 m., about midway between the Campo and Muni
estuaries. The southern bank of the lower course of the Campo
axd the northern bank of the lower course of the Muni, form
part of the protectorate. The mouths of the Campo and
Benito are obstructed by sand bars, whereas the channel leading
to the Muni is some 36 ft. deep and the river itself is more than
double that depth. It is from this superiority of access that
the country has been named after the Muni River. The course
ef all the rivers is obstructed by rapids in their descent from
the table-land to the plain.' The greater part of the country
is covered with dense primeval forest. This forest growth is
due to the fertility of the soil and the great rainfall, Snanish
Guinea with the neighbouring Cameroon country possessing
one of the heaviest rain records of the world. Tttt humidity
of the climate joined to the excessive heat (the average tempera-
ture is 78** F.) makes the climate trying. In the' eastern parts
of the protectorate the forest is succeeded by more open country.
Among the most common trees are oil-palms, rubber-trees, ebony
and mahogany. The forests are the home of monkeys and of
innumerable birds and insects, often of gorgeous colouring
In the north-east of the country elephants arc numerous.
The inhabitants are Bantu-Negroid, the largest tribe repre-
sented being the Fang (?.«.), called by the Spaniards Famues.
They are immigrants from the Congo basin and have pushed
before them the tribes, such as the Benga, which now occupy
the coast-lands. The villages of the Fang arc usually placed
on the top of small hills. Tliey cultivate the yam, banana and
manioc, and are expert fishers and hunters. The European
settlements are confined to the coast. There are trading stations
at the mouths of the Campo, Benito and Muni rivers, at Bata,
midway between the Campo and Benito, and on Elobey Chico.
There are cocoa, coffee and other plantations, but the chief
trade is in natural products, rubber, palm oil and palm kernels,
and timber. Cotton goods and alcohol are the principal imports.
Trade is largely in the hands of British and German firms. The
annual value of the trade in 1903-1906 was about £100,000.
Spain became possessed of Fernando Po at the end of the
i8tb century, and Spanish traders somewhat later established
" factories " on the neighbouring coasts of the mainland, but
no permanent occupation appears to have been contemplated.
During the 19th century a number of treaties were concluded
between Spanish naval oflicers and the chiefs of the lower
Guinea coast, and when the partition of Africa was in progress
Spain laid daim to the territory between the Campo river and
the Gabun. Germany and France also claimed the territory,
but in 1885 Germany withdrew in favour of France. After
protracted negotiations between France and Spain a treaty
was signed in June 1900 by which France acknowledge^! Spanbh
sovereignty over the coast region between the Campo and
Muni rivers and the hinterUnd as far east as zx** 20' E. of
Greenwich, receiving in return concessions from Spain in the
Sahara (see Rio de Org), and the right of pre-emption over
Spain's West African possessions. In Z90Z-1902 the eastern
frontier was delimited, being modified in accordance with
natural feattires. The newly acquired territories werepbced
under the superintendence of the governor-general of Fernando
Po, sub-governors being stationed at Bata, Elobey Chico and
Corisco.
See R. Beltrin y R6zpide, La Guinea espailola (Madrid, t90i),
and Guinea continental espafiola (Madrid, 1903) ; H. Lorin, " Lcs
colonies cspsupnoles du goffe de Guinde " in QiusL dip, et cot., vol.
xxi. (1906) ; E. L. Perea, " Estado actual de los territorios cspafiolcs .
de Guinea " in Reoista de geog. colon, y mercantil (Madrid, 1905) ; J. B.
Roche, Aupays des Pahouins (Paris, 1904). A good map compiled
by E. d' Almonte on the scale of i :200,ooo was published in Madrid
in t903. Consult also the works cited under Fbrnanoo Pa
MUNKAcS, a town of Hungary, in the county of Bcreg,
220 m. E.N.E. of Budapest by raJL Pop. (t90o), Z3,640. It
is situated on the Latorcza river, and on the outskirts of the
East Beskidcs mountains, where the hills touch the plains. Its
most noteworthy buildings are the Greek Catholic cathedral
and the beautiful castle of Coubt Schonbom. In the vicinity,
on a steep hill 580 ft. high, stands the old fort of Munk&cs,
which played an important part in Hungarian history, and was
especially famous for its heroic defence by Helcne Zrinyi, wife
of Emeric Tdkdii and mother of Francis Rik6czy II., for three
years against the Austrians (Z685-Z688). It was afterwards
used as a prison. Ypsilanti, the hero of Greek liberty, and
Kozinczy, the regenerator of Hungarian letters, were confined in
it. According to tradition, it was near Munkics that the
Hungarians, towards the end of the 9th century, entered the
country. In 1896 in the fort was built one of the " miilesnial
lO
MUNKACSY— MUNRO, R.
tttabltthcd at Mven different poinu of the
monuments
kingdom.
MUNKACSY, MICHAEL VON (1844-1900), Hungarian painter,
whose real name was Michael (Miska) Leo Lies, was the third
son of Michael Lieb, a collector of salt-tax in Munkics, Hungary,
and of Qlcilia Rdck. He was bom in that town on the 20th
of February 1844. In 1848 his father was arrested at Miskolcz
for complicity in the Hungarian revolution, and died shortly
after his release; a little earlier he had also lost his mother,
and became dependent upon the charity of relations, of whom
an uncle, Rflck, became mainly responsible for his maintenance
and education. He was apprenticed to a carpenter, Langi, in
1855, but shortly afterwards made the acquaintance of the
painters Fischer and Szamossy, whom he accompanied to Arad
in 1858. From them he received his first real instruction in
art. He worked mainly at Budapest during 1863-1865, and
at this time first adopted, from patriotic motives, the name by
which he is always known. In 1865 he visited Vienna, returning
to Budapest in the following year, and went thence to Munich,
where he contributed a few drawings to the Fliegende BUUUr.
About the end of 1867 he was workhig at Diisseldorf, where he
was much influenced by Ludwig Knaus, and painted <i868-
1869) his first picture of importance, "The Luist Day of a
Condemned Prisoner," which was exhibited in the Paris Salon
in 1870, and obtain^ for him a midailte unique and a very
considerable repuution. He had already paid a short visit to
Paris in 1867, but on the 35th of January 187a he took up his
permanent abode in that city, and remained there during the
rest of his working life. Munkacsy's other chief pictures are
"Milton dicuting Paradise Lost to his Daughters" (Paris
Exhibition, 1878), " Christ before Pikte " (1881), " Golgotha "
(1885), " The Death of Mozart " (1884), " Arpad, chief of the
Magyars, taking possession of Hungary," painted for the new
House of Parliament in Budapest, and exhibited at the Salon
in 1893, and ** Ecce Homo." He had hardly completed the
latter work when a malady of the brain overtook him, and he
died on the 30th of April 1900, at Endenich, near Bonn. Just
before his last illness he had been offered the directorship of
the Hungarian State Galleiy at Budapest. Munkacsy's masterly
characterization, force and power of dramatic composition
secured him a great vogue for his works, but it is doubtful if
hb reputation will be maintained at the level it reached during
his lifetime. " Christ before Pilate " and " Golgotha " were sold
for £33|Ooo and £35,000 respectively to an American buyer.
Munkacsy received the following awards for his work exhibited
at Paris: Medal, 1870; Medal, 2nd class; Legion of Honour,
1877; Medal of Honour, 1878; Officer of the Legion, 1878; Grand
Prix, Exhibition of 1889; Commander of the Legion, 1889.
See F. Walther Ilgcs. " M. von Munkacsy." KUusOer Mono-
rrapkien (1899): C. Scdelmever, Christ before Pilate (Paris, 1886);
J. Beavington Atkinson, " Michael Munkacsy," Maganne of Art
I1881). (E.F. S.)
MUNNICH. BURKHARD CHRISTOPH, Count (1683-1767),
* Russian soldier and statesman, was bom at Neuenhuntorf , in
Oldenburg, in 1683, and at an early age entered the French
service. Thence he transferred successively to the armies of
Hesse-DarmsUdt and of Saxony, and finally, with the rank of
general-in-chief and the title of count, he joined the army of
Peter II. of Russia. In 173a he became field-marshal and
president of the council of war. In this post he did good
service in the reorganization of the Russian army, and founded
the cadet coipa which was destined to supply the future genera-
tions of officers. In 1734 he took Danzig, and with 1736 began
the Turkish campaigns which made MOnnich's repuUtion as a
soldier. Working along the shores of the Bbck Sea from the
Crimea, he took Ochakov after a celebrated siege in 1737, and
in 1739 won the battle of Stavutachina, and took Khotin (or
Choczim), and established himself firmly in Moldavia. Marshal
Mannich now began to take an active part in political affairs,
the particular tone of which was given by his rivalry with Biron,
or Bieren, duke of Courland. But his activity was brought to
a close by the revolution of 1741; he was arrested on his way
to the frontier, and condemned to death. Brought out for
execution, and withdrawn from the scaffold, lie was later sent to
Siberia, where he remained for several years, until the accession
of Peter III. brought about his release in 176a. Catherine II.,
who soon displaced Peter, employed the old field-marshal
as director-general of the Baltic ports. He died in 1767. Feld-
marschall Mannich was a fine soldier of the professional type,
and many future commanders, notably Loudon and Lacy,
served their apprenticeship at Ochakov and Khotin. As a
statesman he b regarded as the founder of Russian Philhellenism.
He had the grade of count of the Holy Roman Empire. The
Russian 37th Dragoons bear his name.
He wrote an Ebaucke pour donner une idie de la forme de Vempire
de Russie (Leipzig. 1774), and hu voluminous diaries have appeared
in various publications— Herrmann, Beitrdee tur Cesehickle des russi-
scken Reicks (Leipzig. 1843). See Hempcl, LeboH Munmehs (Bremen.
1742); Halcm. CeukUhU des P, if. Craien Minnick (Okienburg.
1803 : and ed.. 1838) ; Kostomarov, Peidmarschail MUnmck {RussiseMe
Cesckickte inBiogra^iieu,v, 2).
MUNRO. SIR HECTOR (1726-1805), British general, son of
Hugh Munro of Novar, in Cromarty, was bom in I7a6, and
entered the army in 1749. He went to Bombay in 1761, in
command of the 89th regiment, and in that year effected the
surrender of Mah£ from the French. Later, when in command of
the Bengal army, he suppressed a mutiny of sepoys at Patna,
and on the a3rd of October 1764 won the victory of Buxar
against Shuja-ud-Dowlah, the nawab wazir of Oudh, and Mir
Kasim, which ranks amongst the most decisive battles ever
fought in India. Returning home, he became in 1768 M.P.
for the Inverness Burghs, which he continued to represent in
parliament for more than thirty years, though a considerable
portion of this period was spent in India, whither he returned
in 1778 to take command of the Madras army. In that year
he took Pondicherry from the French, but in 1 780 he was defeated
by Hyder Ali near Conjeevcrara, and forced to fall back on
St Thomas's Mount. There Sir Eyre Coote took over command
of the army, and in 1781 won a signal victory against Hyder Ali
at Porto Novo, where Munro was in command of the right
division. Negapatam was taken by Munro in November of'
the same year; and in 1782 he returned to England. He died oa
the 27th of December 1805.
MUNRO. HUGH ANDREW JOHNSTONE (1819-1885), British
scholar, was bora at Elgin on the X9th of October 1819. He
was educated at Shrewsbury school, where he was one of
Kennedy's first pupils, and proceeded to Trinity College, Cam-
bridge, in 1838. He became scholar of his college in 1840.
second classic and first chancellor's medallist in 1842, and
fellow of his college in 1843. He became classical lecturer at
Trinity College, and in 1869 was elected to the newly-founded
chair of Latin at Cambridge, but resigned it in 1872. The
great work on which his reputation b mainly based is his
edition of Lucretius, the fruit of the labour of many years (text
only, I vol., i860; text, commentary and translation, 2 vols.,
1864). As a textual critic his knowledge was profound and
his judgment unrivalled; and he made close archaeological
studies by frequent travels in Italy and Greece. In 1867 he
published an improved text of Aetna with commentary, and
in the following year a text of Horace with critical introduction,
illustrated by specimens of ancient gems selected by C. W. King.
His knowledge and taste are nowhere better shown than in his
CrUidstns and Elucidations of Catullus (1878). He was a master
of the art of Greek and Latin verse composition. Hb contri-
butions to the famous volume of Shrewsbury verse, Sabrinae
corolla, are among the most remarkable of a remarkable coUec*
tion. Hb Translations into Latin and Greek Verse were privately
printed in 1884. Like hb translations into English, they are
characterized by minute fidelity to the original, but never cease
to be idiomatic. He died at Rome on the 30th of March 1885.
. See Memoir by J. D. Duff, prefixed to a re-ts«ie of the trans, of
Lucretius in " Bohn's Classical Library " (1908).
MUNRO. MoNBO or Monsob, ROBERT (d. c, x68o), Scots
general, was a member of a well-known family in Ross-shire,
the Munroes of Foulis. With several of hb kinsmen he served
in the continental wars under Gustavus Adolphua; and he
MUNRO, SIR T.— MUNSTER
II
appears to have returaed to Scotland about 1638, and to have
taken some part in the early incidents of the Scottish rebellion
against Charles I. In 1642 he went to Ireland, nominally as
second in command under Alexander Leslie, but in fact in chief
command of the Scottish contingent against the Catholic rebels.
After taking and plundering Newry in April 1642, and ineffec-
tually attempting to subdue Sir Phelim O'Neill, Munro succeeded
in taking prisoner the earl of Antrim at Dunluce. The arrival
of Owen Roe O'Neill in Ireland strengthened the cause of the
rebels (see O'Neill), and Munro, who was poorly supplied with
provisions and war materials, flowed little activity. Moreover,
the dvil war in England was now creating conf uaon among parties
in Ireland, and the king was anxious to come to terms with
the Catholic rebels, and to enlist them on his own behalf against
the parliament. The duke of Ormonde, Charles's lieutenant-
general in Ireland, acting on the king's orders, signed a cessation
of hostilities with the Catholics on the xsth of September 1643,
and exerted himself to despatch aid to Charles in England.
Munro in Ulster, holding his commission from the Scottish
parliament, did not recognize the armistice, and his troops
accepted the solemn league and covenant, in which they were
joined by many English soldiers who left Ormonde to join him.
In April 1644 the English parliament entrusted Munro with the
command of all the forces in Ulster, both English and Scots.
He thereupon seized Belfast, made a raid into the Pale, and
nnsucrrssfully attempted to gain possession of Dundalk and
Dro^tedA. His force was weakened by the necessity for sending
troops to Scotland to withstand Montrose; while Owen Roc
O'Neill was strengthened by receiving supplies from Spain and
the pope. On the 5th of Jime 1646 was fought the battle of
Benbuxb, on the Blackwater, where O'Neill routed Munro, but
suffered him to withdraw in safety to Carrickfergus In 1647
Ormonde was compelled to come to terms with the English
parliament, who sent commissioners to Dublin in June of that
year. The Scots under Munro refused to surrender Carrick-
fergus and Belfast when ordered by the parliament to return
to Scotland, and Munro was superseded by the appointment of
M«ik to the chief command in Ireland. In September 1648
Carrickfergus was delivered over to Monk by treachery, and
Munro was taken prisoner. He was committed to the Tower
of London, where he remained a prisoner for five years. In
1654 he was permitted by Cromwell to reside in Ireland, where
he had estates in right of his wife, who was the widow of Viscount
Montgomery of Ardes. Munro continued to live quietly near
Comber, Co. Down, for many yeais, and probably died there
about 16S0. He was in part the original of Dugald Dalgetty in
Sir Walter Scott's Legend of Montrose.
Sec Thomas Carte, History of the Life of James, Duke of Ormonde
(6 vola., Oxford, 1851); Sir J. T. Gilbert, ConUmporary History of
Afairs in Ireland 1641-1652 (3 vols., Dublin. 1879-1880) and
History of the Irish Confederation and the War in Ireland (7 vols..
Dublin. 1881-1891): John Spalding, Memorials of the Troubles in
ScetUnd and Engfand (3 vols.. Aberdeen, 1850); T%e Montgomery
MSS^ 1603-1703, edited by G. Hill (Belfast. 1869); Sir Walter
Scott, TkelLegend of Montrose, author's preface.
HUHRO. SIR THOMAS (X76X-X827), Anglo-Indian soldier and
statesman, was bom at Glasgow on the 27th of May 1761, the
son of a merchant. Educated at Glasgow University, he was
at first intended to enter his father's business, but in 1789 he
was appointed to an infantry cadetship in Madras. He served
with his regiment during the hard-fought war against Hyder
All (1780-83), and again in the first campaign against Tippoo
(1790-92). He was then chosen as one of four military
officers to administer the Baramahal, part of the territory
acquired from Tippoo, where he remained for seven years,
Utin»t«g the principles of revenue survey and assessment which
he afterwanb applied throughout the presidency of Madras.
After the final downfall of Tippoo in 1799, he spent a short time
restoring order in Kanara; and then for another seven years
(1800-1807) he was placed in charge of the northern districts
"ceded*' by the nizam of Hyderabad, where he introduced
the ryohoari system of land revenue. After a long furlough
in England, during which he gave valuable evidence upon
matters connected with the renewal of the company's charter,
he returned to Madras ini8i4 with special instructions to reform
the judicial and police systems. On the outbreak of the Pindari
War in 18x7, he was appointed as brigadier-general to conunand
the reserve division formed to reduce the southern territories of
the Peshwa. Of his signal services on this occasion (inning
said in the House of Commons: " He went into the field with
not more than five or six hundred men, of whom a very small pro-
portion were Europeans. . . . Nine forts were surrendered to him
or taken by assault on his way; and at the end of a silent and
scarcely observed progress he emerged . . . leaving everything
secure and tranquil behind him." In 1820 he was appointed
governor of Madras, where he founded the systems of revenue
assessment and general admixiistration which substantially
remain to the present day. His official mmutes, published by
Sir A. Arbuthnot, form a manual of experience and advice for
the modem civilian. He died of cholera on the 6th of July X827,
while on tour in the " ceded " districts, where his name is preserved
by more than one memorial An equestrian statue of him, by
Chantrey, stands in Madras dty.
See bioRraphics by G. R. Gleig (1830), Sir A. Arbuthnot (1881)
and J. Bradshaw (1894).
MUNSHI, or Moonshx, the Urdu name of a writer or secretary,
used in India of the native language teachers or secretaries
employe d by Europeans.
MOnSTBR, GEORO, Count zu (1776-1844), (}erman palae-
ontologist, was born on the X7th of Febmary X776. He formed
a famous collection of fossils, which was ultimately secured by the
Bavarian state, and formed the nucleus of the palaeontological
museum at Munich. Count Mttnster assisted Goldfuss in his
great work Pctrefacta Cermaniae, He died at Bayreuth on the
23rd of December X844.
MONSTBR, SEBASTIAN (1489-1552), German geographer,
mathematician and Hebraist, was bom at Ingclheim in the
Palatinate. After studying at Heidelberg and Tubingen, he
entered the Franciscan order, but abandoned it for Luther-
anism about 1539. Shortly afterwards he was appointed court
preacher at Heidelberg, where he also lectured in Hebrew and
Old Testament exegesis. From 1536 he taught at Basel, where
he published his Cosmographia universalis in 1544, and where
he died of the plague on the 23rd of May 1552. A disciple
of Elias Levita, he was the first (German to edit the Hebrew
Bible (2 vols., fol., Basel, x 534-1535); this edition was accom-
panied by a new Latin translation and a large number of anno-
tations. He published more than one Hebrew gramnuu', and
was the first to prepare a Crammatica chaldaica (Basel, 1527).
His lexicographical labours included a Dictionarium chaldaicum
(1527), and a Dictionarium Irilingue, of Latin, Greek and
Hebrew (1530). But his most important work was his Cosmo-
graphiOf which also appeared in German as a Besckreibung alia
Ldnder, the first detailed, scientific and popular description of
the world in Mtinster's native language, as well as a supreme
effort of geographical study and literature in the Reformation
period. In this MUnster was assisted by more than one hundred
and twenty collaborators.
The most valued edition of the Cosmographia or Beschreibung
is that of 1550, especially prized for its portraits and its city ano
costume pictures. Besides the works mentioned above we may
notice MQnster's (7crmanta« descriptioof 1530. his Nonts orbis ol
1^33. his Ma^pa Eurotae of 1536, his Rhaetta of 1538. his editions
of Solinus, Mela and Ptolemy in 1538-1540 and among non-
geographical treatises his Horciogiographia, 1531, on dialling (see
Dial), his Organum uranicum of 1536 on the planetary motions, and
his Rudimenta mathematica of 1551. His published maps numbered
14a.
See V. Hantzsch. Sebastian M&nster (1898). in vol. xviii. of the
Publications of the Royal Society of Sciences of Saxony, Histoncal-
Philological Section).
HONSTER, a town of Germany, In the district of Upper
Alsace, 16 m. from Colmar by rail, and at the foot of the Vosges
Mountains. Pop. (1905), 6078. Its principal industries arc
spinning, weaving and bleaching. The town owes its origin
to a Benedictine abbey, which was founded in the 7th century,
and at one time it was a free city of the empire. In Us
12
MUNSTER— MUNSTERBERG, H.
ndghb«urhood is the ruin of Schwarzenberg. The Mdnstertal,
or Gregoriental, which ii watered by the river Fecht, is famous
for its cheese.
See Rathgeber. Munsler-tm-CregorieiUal (Strassburg, 1874) and
F. Hcclcer, Die Stadt und das Tat tu MAnster im S Gregoriental
(MQnstcr, 1890).
MOnSTER* a town of Germany, capital of the Prussian pro-
vince of Westphalia, and formerly the capital of an important
bishopric. It lies in a sandy plain on the Dortmund-Ems canal,
at the junction of several railways, 107 m. S.W. of Bremen
on the line to Cologne. Pop. (1885), 44i06o; (1905) 81,468.
The town preserves its medieval character, especially in the
" Prinzipal-Markt " and other squares, with their lofty gabled
houses and arcades. The fortifications were dismantled during
the 1 8th century, their place being taken by gardens and prome-
nades. Of the many churches of Mttnster the most important
is the cathedral, one of the most striking in Germany, although
disfigured by modem decorations. It was rebuilt in the 13th
and 14th centuries, and exhibits a combination of Romanesque
and Gothic forms; its chapter-house is specially fine. The
beautiful Gothic church of St Lambert (14th century) was
largely rebuilt after 1868; on its tower, which is 313 ft. in height,
hang three iron cages in which the bodies of John of Leiden
and two of his followers were exposed in x 536. The church of
St Ludger, erected in the Romanesque style about 11 70, was
extended in the Gothic style about 200 years later; it has a
tower with a picturesque lantern. The church of St Maurice,
founded about 1070, was rebuilt during the 19th century, and
the Gothic church of Our Lady dates from the 14th century.
Other noteworthy buildings are the town-hall, a fine Gothic
building of the 14th century, and the Stadtkeller, which contains
a collection of early German paintings. The room in the town-
hall called the Friedens Saal, in which the peace of Westphalia
' was signed in October 1648, contains portraits of many ambas-
sadors and princes who were present at the ceremony. The
Schloss, built in 1767, was formerly the residence of bishops of
MQnstcr. The private houses, many of which were the winter
residences of the nobility of Westphalia, are admirable examples
of German domestic architecture in the i6th, 17th and i8th
centuries. The university of MQnster, founded after the Seven
Years' War and closed at the beginning of the X9th century,
was reopened as an academy in 181 8, and again attained the
rank of a universiiy in 1902. It possesses faculties of theology,
philosophy and law. In connexion with it are botanical and
zoological gardens, several scientific collections, and a library of
120,000 volumes. Miinster is the seat of a Roman Catholic
bishop and of the administrative and judicial authorities of
Westphalia, and is the headquarters of an army corps. The
Wcstphalian society of antiquaries and several other learned
bodies also have their headquarters here. Industries include
weaving, dyeing, brewing and printing, and the manufacture of
furniture and machines. There is a brisk trade in cattle, grain
and other products of the neighbourhood.
His/ory.— Munster is first mentioned about the year 800,
when Charicmagnc made it the residence of Ludger, the newly-
appointed bishop of the Saxons. Owing to its distance from
any available river or important highway, the growth of the
settlement round the monasterium was slow, and it was not
until after 11 86 that it received a charter, the name MQnster
having supplanted the original name of Mimcgardevoord about
a century cariier. During the 13th and X4th centuries the
town was one of the most prominent members of the Hanseatic
League. At the time of the Reformation the citizens were
inclined to adopt the Protestant doctrines, but the excesses
of the Anabaptists led in 1535 to the armed intervention of
the bishop and to the forcible suppression of all divergence
from the older faith. The Thirty Years* War, during which
Miinster suffered much from the Protestant armies, was ter-
minated by the peace of Westphalia, sometimes called the peace
of Monster, because it was signed here on the 34th of October
1648. The authority of the bishops, who seldom resided at
Monster, was usually somewhat limited, but in x66i Bishop
Christoph Bemhard von Galen took the place by force, buflt a
citadel, and deprived the dtizens of many of their privileges.
During the Seven Years' War MUnster was occupied both
by the French and by their foes. Towards the close of the
i8th century the town was recognized as one of the intellectual
centres of Germany.
The bishopric of MOnster embraced an area of about 2500 sq. m.
and contained about 350,000 inhabitants. Its bishops, who
resided generally at Ahaus, were princes of the empire. In
the 17th century Bishop Galen, with his army of 20,000 men,
was so powerful that his alliance was sought by Charles II. of
England and other European sovereigns. The bishopric was
secularized and its lands annexed to Prussia in 1803.
See Getsbeig. MerkwUrdigkeiten der Sladt Munster (1877): Erhard,
GesckickU Munsters (1837): A.Tibut. Die Stadt Jl/iiiisler (MOnster,
1862): Helltnghaus, QuiUen und Forschungen tur GesckickU der
Stadt MUnsUr (MOnster. 1898); Picper. Die alte Universitdt MUnster
t773-t8i8 (MOnster. 190a). See also TOcking. Gesckickte des Stifts
Miinster unter C. B. von Gaien (MOnster. 1865).
MUNSTER, a province of Ireland occupying the S.W. part of
the island. It includes the counties Clare, Tippcrary, Limerick,
Kerry, Cork and Waterford {q.v. for topography, &c.). After,
the occupation of Ireland by the Milesians, Munster (AfttmAa)
became nominally a provincial kingdom; but as the territory was
divided between two families there was constant friction and
it was not until 237 that Oliol Olum established himself as king
over the whole. In 248 he divided his kingdom between his
two sons, giving Desmond (7.9., Des-Mumka) to Eoghan and
Thomond {Tuadh-Mumka) or north Munster to Cormac. He
also stipulated that the rank of king of Munster should belong
in turn to their descendants. In this way the .kingship of
Munster survived until 1x94; but there were kings of Desmond
and Thomond down to the i6th century. Munster was originally
of the same extent as the present province, excepting that it
included the distria of Ely, which belonged to the O'Carrols
and formed a part of the present King's County. During the
1 6th century, however, Thomond was for a time included in
Connaught, being declared a county under the name of Clare
iq.v.) by Sir Henry Sidney. Part of Munster had been included
in the system of shiring generally attributed to King John. In
1570 a provincial presidency of Munster (as of Connaught)
was established by Sidney, Sir John Perrot being the first
president, and lasted until 1672. Under Perrot a practically
new shiring was carried out.
MONSTER am STEIN, a watering-place of Germany, in the
Prussian Rhine province, on the Nahe, 2} m. S. of Kreuznach,
on the railway from BingerbrOck to Strassburg. Pop. (1905),
915. Above the village are the ruins of the castle of Rhein-
grafenstein (12th century), formeriy a seat of the count palatine
of the Rhine, which was destroyed by the French in 1689, and
those of the castle of Ebernburg, the ancestral seat of the lords
of Sickingen, and the birthplace of Franz von Sickingen, the
famous landsknecht captain and protector of Ulrich von Huttcn,
to whom a monument was erected on the slope near the ruins
in 1889. The spa (saline and carbonate springs), specific in
cases of feminine disorders, is visited by about 5000 patients
annually.
See Welsqh. Das Sol- und Tkermalbad Munster am Stein (Kreuz-
nach, 1886) and Messcr. Fukrer durck Bad Kreuznack und Munster
am Stein (Kreuznach, 1905).
MONSTERBERG, HUGO ( 1 863- ) , German- American psycho-
physiologist, was bom at Danzig. Having been extraordinary
professor at Freiburg-im-Breisgau, he became in 1892 pro-
fessor of psychology at Harvard University. Among his more
important works are Beitrdge zur experimentellen Psyckotogie
(4 vols., Freiburg, 1889-1892); Psyckology and Life (New
York, 1899); Crundziige der Psychdogie (Leipzig, 1900);
American Trails from the Point of View of a German (Boston,
1901); Die Amerikaner (several ed.; Eng. trans. 1904); Science
and Idealism (New York, 1906); Philosophie der Werte (Leipzig,
1908); Aus Deutsch-Amerika (Beriin, 1908); Psychology and
Crime (New York, 1908). He has been prominently identified
with the modem developments of experimental psychology
MUNSTERBERG— MUNZER
13
(Ke Psychology), and his sodologlal writings display the
acotenesB oC a Gennan philosophic inind as applied to the study
of American life and manners.
MOMSTERBERO, a town of Germany, in the Prussian pro-
vince of Silesia, on the Ohlau, 36 m. by rail S. of Brcslau. Pop.
(igos), 8475. It *s partly surrounded by medieval walls. It
has manufactures of drain-pipes and fireproof bricks; there are
also sulphur brings. M&nsterberg was formerly the capital
of the principality of the same name, which existed from the
14th century dovm to 1791, when it was purchased by the
Prussian crown. Near the town is the former Cistercian abbey
of Heinrichau.
■UHTANEB* RAMON (i 265-1336?), Catalan historian, was
born at Pcralada (Catalonia) in 1265. The chief events of his
career axe recorded in his chronicle. He accompanied Roger dc
Flor to Sicily in 1300, was present at the siege of Messina,
served in the expedition of the Almogavares against Asia Minor,
and became the first governor of Galiipoli. Later he was
appointed governor of Jcrba or Zerbi, an island in the Gtilf of
Gabes, and finally entered the service of the infante of Majorca.
On the 15th of May 1325 (some editions give the year 1335) he
began his Ckronica, descripcio dels fdSt e kcaatuu dd iiulyt
rey Don laupte Primer, in obedience, as he says, to the express
command of God who appeared to hhn in a vision. Muntaner's
hocAi, which was first printed at Valencia in 1558, is the chief
authority lox the events of his period, and his narrative, though
occasionally prdix, uncritical and egotistical, is faithful and
vivid. He is said to have died in 1336.
His chronicle is most accessible in the edition published by Karl
Lanz at Stuttgart in 2844.
MUittiAC, the Indian name of a small deer typifying the
genus Cemdus, all the members of which are indigenous to the
southern and eastern parts of Asia and the adjacent islands,
and are separated by marked characters from all their allies.
For the distinctive features of the genus see Deer. As regards
general characteristics, all muntjacs are small compared with
the majority of deer, and have long bodies and rather short
Embs and neck. The antlers of the bucks are small and simple;
The Indian Muntjac {Cemdus muntjac).
the main stem or beam, after giving off a short brow-tine, in-
dizung backwards and upwards, being unbranched and pointed,
and when fuUy developed curving inwards and somewhat down-
wards at the tip. These small antlers are supported upon
pedicles, or processes of the frontal bones, longer than in any
other deer, the front edges of these being continued downwards
ts strong ridges passing along the sides of the face above the
eyes. From this feature the name rib-faced deer has been
suggested for the muntjac The upper canine teeth of the males
are lax^ge and sharp, jwojecting outside the mouth as tusks, and
loosely implaated in their sockets. In the females they are
m qrfh smaller.
Muntjacs are solitary' animals, even two being rarely seen
together. They are fond of hilly ground covered with forests,
in the dense thickets of which they pass most of their time, only
coming to the skirts of the woods at morning and evening to
graze. They cany the head and neck low and the hind-quarters
high, their action in running being peculiar and not elegant,
somewhat resembling the pace of a sheep. Though with no
power of sustained speed or extensive leaping, they are remaric-
able for flexibility of body and facility of creeping through
tangled underwood. A popular name with Indian sportsmen
is " barking deer," on account of the alarm-cry— a kind of short
shrill bark, like that of a fox, but louder. When attacked by
dogs, the males use their sharp canine teeth, which inflict deep
and even dangerous wounds.
In the Indian muntjac the height of the buck is from 20 to 22 in. ;
allied types, tome of which have received distinct names, occur in
Burma and the Malay Peninsula and Islands. Among these, the
Burmese C. muntjac trandicomis is noteworthy on account of its
large antlers. The Tibetan muntjac (C. tachrymans), from Moupin
in eastern Tibet and Hangchow in China, is somewhat smaller than
the Indian animal, with a bright reddish-brown coat. The smallest
member of the genus (C. reevesi) occurs in southern China and has a
reddish-chestnut coat, speckled with yellowish grey and a black
band down the nape. Tne Tcnasserira muntjac (C. feae), about the
uze of the Indian species, is closely allied to the hairy-fronted
muntjac (C. crinifrons) of eastern China, but lacks the tuft of hair
on the forehead. The last-mentioned species, by its frontal tuft,
small rounded ears, general brown coloration, and minute antlers,
connects the typical muntjacs witK the small tufted deer or tufted
muntjacs of the genus Elapkodus of eastern China and Tibet. These
last have coarse bristly hair of a purplish-brown colour with light
markings, very large head-tufts, almost concealine the minute
antlers, of which the pedicles do not extend as ribs down the face.
They include £. uphalophus of Tibet, E. mickianus of Ninepo, and
E. ickangensis of the mountains of Ichang. (K. L.*)
MOnZER, THOMAS {c. 1489-1525), German religious enthu-
siast, was bom at Stolberg in the Harz near the end of the xsth
century, and educated at Leipzig and Frankfort, graduating in
theology. He held preaching appointments in various places,
but his restless nature prevented him from remaining in one
position for any length of time. In 1520 he became a preacher
at the church of St Mary, Zwickau, and his rude eloquence,
together with his attacks on the monks, soon raised him to
influence. Aided by Nicholas Storch, he formed a sodety the
principles of which were akin to those of the Taborites, and
claimed that he was under the direct influence of the Holy
Spirit. His zeal for the purification of the Church by casting
out all unbelievers brought him into conflict with the governing
body of the town, and he was compelled to leave Zwickau. He
then went to Prague, where his preaching won numerous ad-
herents, but his violent language brought about his expulsion
from this dty also. At Easter 1523 MUnzer came to Aibtedt,
and was soon appointed preacher at the church of St John,
where he made extensive alterations in the services. His
violence, however, aroused the hostility of Luther, in retaliation
for which MUnzer denoimced the Wittenberg teaching. His
preaching soon produced an uproar In Allstedt, and after holding
his own for some time he left the town and went to MUhlhausen,
where Heinrich Pfeiffer was already preaching doctrines similar
to his own. The union of MOnzer and Pfeifler caused a disturb-
ance in this dty and both were expelled. Manzer went to
Nuremberg, where he issued a writing against Luther, who had
been mainly instrumental in bringing about his expulsion from
Saxony. About this time his teaching became still more violent.
He denounced established governments, and advocated common
ownership of the means of life. After a tour in south Germany
he returned to MOhlhausen, overthrew the governing body of
the dty, and established a communistic theocracy. The
Peasants' War had already broken out in various parts of
Germany; and as the peasantry around MUhlhausen were imbued
with MUnzer's teaching, he collected a large body of men to
plunder the surrounding country. He established his camp at
Frankenhausen; but on the xsth of May 1525 the peasants were
dispersed by Philip, landgrave of Hesse, who captured MUnzer
and executed him on the 27th at MUhlhausen. Before his
1+
MUNZINGER— MURAD
death be is said to have written a letter admitting the jusU'ce of
his sentence.
Hb AussteMlckU BmpUssuni des faluken Clanbtns has been
edited by R. Jordan (MQhlhausen, 1901). and a life oC MQiuer.
Die Histori von Thome M6ntier des Anf enters der duringischen
Uffrnr, has been attributtKi to Philip Mclanchtnon (Hagenau, 1525).
See G. T. Strobcl, Leben, Schriften und Lehren ThomA MUnteers
MUNZINGER, WERNER (1832-1875), Swiss linguist and
traveller, was bom at Olten in Switzerland, on the axst of April
1833. After studying natural science, Oriental languages and
history, at Bern, Munich and Paris, he went to Egypt in 1852
and spent a year in Cairo perfecting himself in Arabic. Entering
a French mercantile house, he went as leader of a trading expe-
dition to various parts of the Red Sea, fixing his quarters at
Massawa, where he acted as French consul. In 1855 he removed
to Keren, the chief town of the Bogos, in the north of Abyssinia,
which country he explored during the next sue years. In x86i
he joined the expedition under T. von Heuglin to Central Africa,
but separated from him in November in northern Abyssinia,
proceeding along the Gash and Atbara to Khartum! Thence,
having meantime succeeded Heuglin as leader of the expedition,
he travelled in 1862 to Kordofftn, failing, however, in his attempt
to reach Darfur and Wadaj. After a short stay in Europe in
1863, Munzinger returned to the north and north-east border-
lands of Abyssinia, and in 1865, the year of the annexation of
Massawa by Egypt, was appointed British consul at that town.
He rendered valuable aid to the Abyssinian expedition of
1867-68, among other things exploring the almost unknown
Afar country. In acknowledgment of his services he received the
C.B. In 1868 he was appointed French consul at Massawa, and
in 1 87 1 was named by the khedive Ismail governor of that town
with the title of bey. In 1870, with Captain S. B. Miles, Mun-
zinger visited southern Arabia. As governor of Massawa he
annexed to Egypt the Bogos and Hamiuen provinces of northern
Abyssinia, and in 1872 was made pasha and governor-general
of the eastern Sudan. It is believed that it was on his4idvice
that Ismail sanctioned the Abjrssinian enterprise, but on the war
assuming larger proportions in 1875 the command of the Egyptian
troops in northern Abyssinia was taken from Munzinger, who was
selected to command a small expedition intended to open up
communication with Menclek, king of Shoa, then at enmity with
the negus Johannes (King John) and a potential ally of Egypt.
Leaving Tajura Bay on the 27th of October 1875 Munzinger
started for Ankober with a force of 350 men, being accompanied
by an envoy from Menelek. The desert country to be traversed
was in the hands of hostile tribes, and on reaching Lake Aussa
the expedition was attacked during the night by Gallaa— Mun-
zinger, with his wife and nearly all his companions, being
killed.
Mufizine^'e comtrlbuHoru to the knowWge of the country,
pteplc &nd la^^£<^« of north esitcm Africi nre of solid value.
bcc Ptec. RrC.Sii vol ml\ Jj^nrn. itG.S^, vok. ^txix., xlL and xlvi.
(abittiary Ciotictn Pft^rmanws MiittiJungm lot 1858, 1867, 1872
et fpq.: DieCschi anrJ Wcbcr, Werner }t't»'-- er, ein Lebensbild
iiajSl; J- V, Kc!lcf-Z*chokki;, Wemj-r ter Pasha (1890).
luojins^r published the folia Kin^ wrir. aie SiUen und das
fiti.hu dtr Ba(;Of (i ftgrj) ; Osi^Jrikaniuhe S-.-. - I64; 2nd ed., 1 883 ;
hH cnoH valt»ab]t^b«>kJ : Die dcuisfAe ExpeAUmK mOstafrika (1865}:
YfitaHlaire de la hintve de Fij^rl (il3f6s). b^itl^ papers in thegeo-
fmptijcal «cHiiIi referred td, And a meniDir on tiT* northern boraera
of XbyRsiaiA in tbe Zeiisiiuifi /wr aHi^meiite Efdhmde, new series,
voU m-
MURAD, or Amitrath, the name of five Ottoman sultans.
MiTKAD I., sumamed Khudavendighiar (1319-1389), was the
son of Orkhan and the Greek princess Nilofer, and succeeded
his father in 1359, He was the first Turkish monarch to obtain
a definite footing in Europe, and his main object throughout
his career was to extend the European dominions of Turkey.
The revolts of the prince of Caramania interfered with the
realization of this plan, and trouble was caused from this quarter
more than once during his reign until the decisive battle of Konia
(1387), when the power of the prince of Caramania was broken.
The sute of Europe facilitated Murad's projects: dvfl war and
anarchy prevailed in most of the countries of Central Europe,
where the feudal system was at its last gasp, and the small
Balkan states were divided by mutual jealousies. The capture
of Adrianople, followed by other conquests, brought about a
coalition under the king of Hungary against Murad, but his able
Ueutenant Lalashahin, the first beyUrbey of Rumtiia, defeated
the allies at the battle of the Maritsa in 1363. In 1366 the
king of Servia was defeated at Samakov and forced to pay
tribute. Kustendil, Philippopolis and Nish fell into the hands
of the Turks; a renewal of the war in 1381 led to the capture
of Sofia two yeais later. Europe was now aroused; Lazar,
king of Servia, formed an alliance with the Albanians, the
Hungarians and the Moldavians against the Turks. Murad
hastened back to Europe and met his enemies on the field of
Kossovo (1389). Victory finally inclined to the side of the
Turks. When the rout of the Christians was complete, a Servian
named Milosh Kabilovich penetrated to Murad's tent on pretence
of communicating an important secret to the sultan, and stabbed
the conqueror. Murad was of independent character and
remarkable intelligence. He was fond of pleasure and luxury,
cruel and ctmning. Long relegated to the command of a distant
province in Asia, while h^ brother Suleiman occupied an enviable
post in Europe, he became revengeful; thus he exercised great
cruelty in the repression of the rebellion of his son Prince &iuji,
the finl instance of a sultan's son taking arms against his father.
Murad transferred the Ottoman capital from Brusa to Adrianople,
where he built a palace and added many embellishments to
the town. The development of the feudal system of timan and
aamets and its extension to Europe was lar^y his work.
MusAD II. (1403-1451) succeeded his father Mahommed L
in X421. The attempt of hb uncle Prince Mustafa to usurp
the throne, supported as it was by the Greeks, gave trouble at
the outset of his reign, and led to the unsuccessful siege of
Constantinople in 1422. Murad maintained a long struggle
against the Bosnians and Hungarians, in the course of which
Turkey sustained many severe reverses through the valour of
Janos HunyadL Accordingly in 1444 he concluded a treaty at
Szegedin for ten years, by which he renounced all claim to Servia
and recognized George Brancovich as its king. Shortly after
this, being deeply affected by the death of his eldest son Prince
Ala-ud-din, he abdicated in favour of Mahommed, his second
son, then fourteen years of age: But the treacherous attack, in
violation of treaty, by the Christian powers, imposing too hard
a task on the inexperienced young sovereign, Murad returned
from his retirement at Magnesia, crushed his faithless enemies
at the battle of Varna (November 10, 1444), and again withdrew
to Magnesia. A revolt of the janissaries induced him to return
to power, and he sptni the remaining sue years of his life in
warfare hi Europe, defeating Hunysdi at Kossovo (October
17-19, X448). He died at Adrianople in 1451, and was buried
at Brusa. By some considered as a fanatical devotee, and by
others as given up to mysticism, he is generally described as
kind and gentle in disposition, and devoted to the interests of
his country.
MusAD ni. (1546-1595), was the eldest son of Selim II.,
and succeeded his father in 1574. His accession marks the
definite bejeiinning of the decline of the Ottoman power, which
had only been maintained under Seh'm II. by the genius of the
all-powerful grand vizier Mahommed SokoUL For, though
Sokolli remained in office until his assassination in October 1578,
his authority was undermined by the harem influences, which
with Murad IIL were supreme. Of these the most powerful
was that of the sultan's diief wife, named Safi£ (the pure), a
beautiful Venetian of the noble family of Baffo, whose father
had been governor of Corfu, and who had been captured as a
child by Turkish corsairs and sold into the harem. This Udy,
in spite of the sultan's sensuality and of the efforts, temporarily
successful, to supplant her in his favouri retained her ascendancy
over him to the last. Murad had none of the qualities of a
ruler. He was good-natured, though cruel enough on occasion:
his accession had been marked by the murder, according to the
MURAENA
15
tlm established, of hit five bfothen. Hb will-power
bad early been uzidermined by the opium habit, and was further
weakened by the sensual excesses that ultimately killed him.
Nor had he any taste for rule; his days were spent in the sodety
of ransldans, buffoons and poets, and he himself dabbled in
viose-iziaking d a mystic tendency.
His one attempt at reform, the order forbidding the sale of
intoxicants so as to stop the growing intemperance of the
janissaries, broke down on the opposition of the soldiery. He
was the first sultan to share personally in the proceeds of the
comiptioQ which was undermining the state, realizing especially
large sums by the sale of offices. This corruption was fatally
apparent in the army, the feudal basis of which was sapped by
the confiscation of fids for the benefit of nominees of favourites
of the harem, and by the intrtision, through the same influences
of foreigners and rayahs into the corps of janissaries, of which
the discipline became more and more relaxed and the temper
increasini^y turbulent. In view of this general demoralization
not even the victorious outcome of the campaigns in Georgia,
the Crimea, Daghestan, Yemen and Persia (157^x590) could
prevent the decay of the Ottoman power; indeed, by weakening
the Mussulman sUtes, they hastened the process, since they
facilitated the advance of Russia to the Black Sea and the
Ca^ian.
Murad, who had welcomed the Persian War as a good oppor-
tunity for ridding himself of the presence of the janissaries,
whom he dreaded, had soon cause to fear their triumphant
return. Incensed by the debasing of the coinage, which robbed
them of part of their. pay, they invaded the Divan clamouring
for the heads of the sultan's favourite, the beylerbcy of Rumelia,
and of the dtjterdar (finance minister), which were thrown to
tbem (April 3, 1589). This was the first time that the janissaries
had invaded the palace: a precedent to be too often followed.
The outbreak of another European war in 1592 gave the sultan
an opportunity of ridding himself of their presence. Murad died
in X 595, leaving to his successor a legacy of war and anarchy.
It was undo- Murad IIL that England's relations with the
Porte began. Negotiations were opened in 1579 with Queen
Elizabeth through certain British merchants; in 1580 the first
Capiiulations with England were signed; in 1583 William
Harebone, the first British ambassador to. the Porte, arrived
at Constantinople, and in 1593 commercial Capitulations were
signed with England granting the same privileges as those
enjoyed by the French. (See Capitulations.)
MiTKAD IV. (X61X-X640) was the son of Sultan Ahmed I.,
and succeeded his uncle Mustafa L in 1623. For the first nine
years oC his reign his youth prevented him from taking more than
an observer's part in affairs. But the lessons thus learnt were
saffidcntly striking to mould his whole character and policy.
The miiKyrity of the sultan gave full play to the anarchic elements
in the state; the soldiery, q>ahis and janissaries, conscious of
\\ssiT power and reckless through impunity, rose in revolt
vhtnever the whim seized them, demanding privileges and the
faeadb of those who displeased them, not sparing even the
Kilian's favourites. In 1631 the spahis of Asia Minor rose in
revc^, in protest against the deposition of the grand vizier
Khosrev; their representatives crowded to Constantinople,
stoned the new grand vizier, Hafiz, in the court of the palace,
aztd pursued the sultan himself into the inner apartments,
ciamouring for seventeen heads of his advisers and favourites,
on penalty of his own deposition. Hafiz was surrendered, a
voluntary martyr; other ministers were deposed; Mustafa
Pasha, aga of the janissaries, was saved by his own troops.
But Murad was now beginning to assert himself. Khosrev was
executed in Asia Minor by his orders; a plot of the spahis to
depose him was frustrated by the loyalty of Koes Mahommed,
aga of the janissaries, and of the spahi Rum Mahommed
(Mahommed the Greek); and on the 29th of May 1632, by a
SQCcessfui personal appeal to the byaJty of the janissaries,
Murad crushed the rebels, whom he surrounded in the Hippo-
drome. At the age of twenty he found himself possessed of
edective autocratic power.
Eb severity has remained legendary. Death was the penalty
for the least offence, and no past services^as Koes Mahonuned
was to find to his cost — ^were admitted in extenuation. The use
of tobacco, coffee, opium and wine were forbidden on pain
of death; eighteen persons are said to have been put to death in
a sin^e day for infringing this rule. During his whole rdgn,
indeed, supposed offenders against the sultan's authority were
done to dMth, singly or in thousands. The tale of his victims is
said to have exceeded xoo,ooo.
But if he was the most cruel, Murad was also one of the most
manly, of the later sultans. He was of gigantic strength, which
he maintained by constant physical exercises. He was also
fond of hunting, and for this reason usually lived at Adrianople.
He broke through the alleged tradition, bequeathed by Suleiman
the Magnificent to his successors, that the sultan should not
conunand the troops in person, and took command in the
Persian war which led to the capture of Bagdad (1638) and the
conclusion of an honourable peace ( May 7, 1639). Early in 1640
he died, barely twenty-nine years of age. The cause of his death
was acute gout brought on by excessive drinking. In spite of
his drunkenness, however, Murad was a bigoted Stmni, and the
main cause of his campaign against Persia was his desire to
extirpate the Shia heresy. In the intervals of his campaignings
and cruelties the sultan would amuse his entourage by exhibit-
ing feats of strength, or compose verses, some of which were
published under the pseudonym of MuradL
See. for detaibof the lives of the above. J. von Hammer-PurfataQ,
Cesckicku des osmaniscken Reickez (Pest, 1840), where further
authorities are cited.
MtTRAD V. (1840-1904), eldest son of Sultan Abd-uI-Mejid,
was bom on the 21st of September 1840. On the accession of
his uncle Abd-ul-Aziz, Prince Mahonuned Murad Effendi —
as he was then called — ^was deprived of all share in public
affairs and imprisoned, owing to his opposition to the sultan's
plan for altering the order of succession. On the deposition of
Abd-ul-Aziz on the 30th of May 1876, Murad was haled from his
prison by a mob of softas and soldiers of the " Young Turkey "
party under Suleiman Pasha, and proclaimed " emperor by the
grace of God and the will of the people." Three months later,
however, his health, undermined by his long confinement, gave
way; and on the 31st of August he was deposed to make room
for his younger brother, Abd-ul-Hamid U. He was kept in
confinement in the Cheragan palace till his death on the 29th of
August X904.
See K^ratry, Mourad V., prince, sultan, prisonnier d'SbU 1840-
2876 (Paris. 1878): Djemaleddin Bey, Sultan Murad 7., the Turkish
Dynasty Mystery, 1876-J8QS (London, 1895).
MURAENA, the name of an eel common in the Mediterranean,
and highly esteemed by the ancient Romans; it was afterwards
Muraena picta, from the Indo-Pacific
applied to the whole genus of fishes to which the Mediterranean
species belongs, and which is abundantly represented in tropical
and sub-tropical seas, especially in rocky parts or on coral reefs.
Some ninety species are knoiKTi. In the majority a long fin
runs from the bead along the back, round the tail to the vent.
i6
MURAL DECORATION
but all are destitute of pectoral and ventral fins. The skin is
scaleless and smooth, in many species ornamented with varied
and bright colours, so that these fishes are frequently mistaken
for snakes. The mouth is wide, the jaws strong and armed with
formidable, generally sharply pointed, teeth, which enable the
Muraena not only to seize its prey (which chiefly consists of
other fishes) but also to inflict serious, and sometimes danger-
ous, wounds on its enemies. It attacks persons who approach
its places of concealment in shallow water, and is feared by
fishermen.
Some of the tropical Murdenas exceed a length of xo ft., but
most of the species, among them the Mediterranean species,
attain to only half that length. The latter, the " morena " of
the Italians and the Muraena Helena of ichthyologists, was
considered by the ancient Romans to be one of the greatest
delicacies, and was kept in large ponds and aquaria. It is not
confined to the coasts of southern Europe, but is spread over the
Indian Ocean, and is not uncommon on the coasts of Australia.
Its body is generally of a rich brown, marked with large yellowish
spots, each of which contains smaller brown spots.
MURAL DECORATION, a general term for the art of ornament-
ing wall surfaces. There is scarcely one of the numerous
branches of decorative art which has not at some time or other
been applied to this purpose.* For what may be called the
practical or furnishing point of view, see Wall-coverincs.
Here the subject is treated rather as part of the history of art.
' I. Reliefs sculptured in Marble or Stone. — ^This is the oldest
method of wall-decoration, of which numerous examples exist.
The tombs and temples of Egypt are rich in this kind of mural
ornament of various dates, extending over nearly 5000 years.
These sculptures are, as a nile, carved in low relief; in many cases
they arc " counter-sunk," that is, the most projecting parts of
the figures do not extend beyond the flat surface of the ground.
Some unfinished reliefs discovered in the rock-cut tombs of
Thebes show the manner in which the sculptor set to work.
The plain surface of the stone was marked out by red lines into a
number of squares of equal size. The use of this wab probably
twofold: first, as a guide in enlarging the design from a small
drawing, a method still commonly practised; second, to help the
artist to draw his figures with just proportions, following the
strict canons which were laid down by the Egyptians. No
excessive realism or individuality of style arising from a careful
study of the life-model was permitted.* When the surface had
been covered with these squares, the artist drew with a brush
dipped in red the outlines of his relief, and then cut round them
with his chisel.
When the relief was finished, it was, as a rule, entirely painted
over with much minuteness and great variety of colours. More
rarely the ground was left the natural tint of the stone or marble,
and only the figures and hieroglyphs painted. In the case of
sculpture in hard basalt or granite the painting appears often
to have been omitted altogether. The absence of perspective
effects and the severe self-restraint of the sculptors in the matter
of composition show a sense of artistic fitness in this kind of
decoration. That the rigidity of these sculptured pictures did
not arise from want of skill or observation of nature on the part
of the artists is apparent when we examine their representations
of birds and animals; the special characteristics of each creature
and species were unerringly caught by the ancient Egyptian,
and reproduced in stone or colour, in a half-symbolic way,
suggesting those peculiarities of form, plumage, or movement
which are the " differentia " of each, other ideas bearing less
directly on the point being eliminated.
The subjects of these mural sculptures are endless; almost
every possible incident in man's life here or beyond the grave
is reproduced with the closest detail. The tomb of Tlh at
Sakkarah (about 4500 B.C.) has some of the finest and eariiest
specimens of these mural sculptures, especially rich in illustra-
* SeealsoCERAMics; Mosaic; Paintikc;Sculpture;Tapestry:
Tiles; also Egypt ; Art and Archaeology iGueek Art ; Roman Art ;
&c.
• During the earliest times — more than 4000 years before our era
—there appear to have been exceptions to this rule.
tionsof the domestic life and occupations of the Egyptians.
The latter tombs, as a rule, have sculptures depicting the religious
ritual and belief of the people, and the temples combine th.-se
hieratic subjecU with the history of the reigns and victories of
the Egyptian kings.
The above remarks as to style and manner of execution may
be applied also to the wall-sculptures from the royal palaces of
Nineveh and Babylon, the finest of which are shown by inscrip-
tions to date from the time of Sennacherib to that of Sardana-
palus (from 705 to 625 B.C.). These are carved in low relief with
almost gem-like delicacy of detail on enormous slabs of white
marble. The sacred subjects, generally representing the king
worshipping one of the numerous Assyrian gods, are mostly
large, often colossal in scale. The other subjects, illustrating
the life and amusements of the king, hb prowess in war or
hunting, or long processions of prisoners and tribute-bearers
coming to do him homage, are generally smaller and in some cases
very mbute in scale (fig. x). The arrangement of these reliefs
FiC. I.— Assyrian Relief, on a Marble Wall-slab from the Palace
of Sardanapalus at Nineveh.
in long horizontal bands, and their reserved conventional treat-
ment are somewhat similar to those of ancient Egypt, but they
show a closer attention to anatomical truth and a greater
love for dramatic effect than any of the Egyptian reliefs. As in
the art of Egypt, birds and animals are treated with greater
realism than human figures. A relief in the British Museum,
representing a lioness wounded by an arrow in her spine and
dragging helplessly her paralysed hind legs, affords an example
of wonderful truth and pathos. Remarkable technical skill is
shown in all these sculptures by the way in which the sculptors
have obtained the utmost amount of effect with the smallest
possible amount of relief, in this respect calling strongly to mind
a similar peculiarity in the work of the Florentine Donatello.
The palace at Mashita on the tajj road in Moab, built by the
Sasam'an Chosroes II. (a.d. 614-627), is ornamented on the
exterior with beautiful surface sculpture in stone. The designs
are of peculiar interest as forming a link between Assyrian and
Byzantine art, and they are not remotely connected with the
decoration on Moslem buildings of comparatively modern
date.'
Especially in Italy during the middle ages a similar treatment
' Among the Mashita carvings occurs that oldest and most widely
spread of all forms of Aryan ornament— the sacred tree between two
animals. The sculptured slab over the " lion-gate " at Mycenae
has the other common variety of this motive— the fire-alur between
the beasts. These designs, occasionally varied by figures of human
worshippers instead of the beasts, survived long after their meaning
had been forgotten; even down to the present day they frequently
appear on carpets and other textiles of Oriental manufacture.
MURAL DECORATION
17
cf marble in low relief was frequently used for wall-decoration.
The most notable example is the beautiful series of reliefs on the
west front of Orvieto Cathedral, the work of Giovanni Pisano and
his pupils in the early part of the 14th century. These are small
reliefs, illustrative of the Old and New TestamenU, of graceful
design and skilful execution. A growth of branching foliage
serves to unite and frame the tiers of subjects.
Of a widely different class, but of considerable importance in
the history of mural decoration, are the beautiful reliefs, sculp-
tured in stone and marble, with which Moslem buildings in
many parts of the world are ornamented. These are mostly
geometrical patterns of great intricacy, which cover large
uufaces. frequently broken up into pands by bands of more
flowing ornament or Arabic inscriptions. The mosques of
Cairo, India and Persia, and the domestic Moslem buildings of
Spain are extremely rich in this method of decoration. In
vesiem Europe, especially during the xsth century, stone
paneUed-work with rich tracery formed a large part of the scheme
of decoration in all the more splendid buildings. Akin to this,
though without actual relief, is the stone tracery — inlaid flush
into rough flint walls — which was a mode of ornament largely
used for enriching the exteriors of churches in the counties of
Norfolk and Suffolk. It is almost peculiar to that district, and
is an example of the skill and taste with which the medieval
builders ada p ted their method of ornamentation to the materials
in hand.
2. iiarbU Veneer. — Another widely used method of mural
decoration has been the application of thin marble linings to
wall -surfaces, the decorative effect being produced by the natural
beauty of the marble itself and not by sculptured reliefs. One of
the oldest buildings in the world, the so-^lled " Temple of the
Sphinx " among the Giza pyramids, is built of great blocks of
granite, the inside of the rooms being lined with slabs of semi-
transparent Afriaui alabaster about 3 in. thick. In the ist cen-
tury thin veneers of richly coloured marbles were largely used
by the Romans to decorate brick and stone walls. Pliny (H. N.
xxxvL 6) speaks of this practice as being a new and degenerate
invention in his time. Klany examples exist at Pompeii and in
other Roman buildings. -Numerous Byzantine churches, such
as St Saviour's at Constantinople, and St George's, Thessalonica,
have the lower part of the internal walls richly ornamented in
this way. It was commonly used to form a dado, the upper part
of the building being covned with mosaic. The cathedral of
Monreale and other Sicuk>-Norman buildings owe a great deal
of their splendour to these linings of richly variegated marbles.
In most cases the main surface is of light-coloured marble or
alabaster, inlaid bands of darker tint or coloured mosaic being
used to divide the surface into panels. The peculiar Italian-
Gothic of northern and central Italy during the X4th and 15th
centuries, and at Venice some centuries earlier, relied greatly
for its effecu on this treatment of marble. St Mark's at Venice
and the cathedral of Florence are magnificent examples of this
work used externally. Both inside and out most of the richest
examples of Moslem architecture owe much to this method of
decoration; the mosques and palaces of India and Persia are in
many cases completely lined with the most brilliant sorts of
marble of contrasting tints.
3. Watt-lMUttgs ^ CUued Bricks or TUes.—Th^ is a very
important dass of decoration, and from its almost imperishable
nature, its richnen of cobur, and its brilliance of surface is
capable of producing a splendour of effect only rivalled by glass
mosaics. In the less important form— that of bricks modelled
or stamped in relief with figures and inscriptions, and then coated
with a brilliant cokmr in siliceous enamel— it was largely used
by the andent Egyptians and Assyrians as well as by this later
Sasanians of Persia. In the x xth and x 2th centuries the Moslems
of Peista bfougbt this art to great perfection, and used it on a
large sole, chiefly, though not invariably, for internal walls.
The main surfaces were covered by thick earthenware tiles,
overlaid with a white enamel. These were not rectangular, but
9i various shapes, mostly some form of a star, arranged so as t^
fit ck)sely together. Delicate aod minute patterns were then
painted on the tiles, after the first firing, in a copper-like colour'
with strong metallic lustre, produced by the deoxidization of
a metallic salt in the process of the second firing. Bands and
friezes with Arabic inscriptions, modelled boldly in hig^ relief,
were used to break up the monotony of the surface. In these,
as a rule, the projeaing letters were painted blue, and the flat
ground enriched with very minute patterns in the lustre-colour.
This combination of bold relief and delicate painting produces
great vigour and richness of effect, equally telling whether viewed
in the mass or closely examined tile by tile. In the xsth century
lustre-colours, though stUl largely employed for plates, vases and
other vessels, especially in Spain, were little used for tiles; and
another class of ware, rich in the variety and brilliance of its
colours, was extensively used by Moslem builders all over the
Mahonunedan world. The most siunptuous sorts of tUcs used
for wall-coverings are those of the so-called "Rhodian"and
Damascene wares, the work of Persian potters at many places.
Those made at Rhodes are coarsely executed in comparison with
the produce of the older potteries at Isfah&n and Damascus
(see Cekamics). These are rectangular tiles of earthenware,
covered with a white " slip," and painted in brilliant colours with
slight conventionalized representations of various flowers,
especially the rose, the hyacinth and the carnation. The red
used is applied in considerable body, so as to stand out in slight
relief. Another class of design is more geometrical, forming
regular repeats; but the most beautiful compositions are those
in which the natural growth of trees and flowers is imitated, the
branches and blossoms spreading over a large surface covered by
hundreds of tiles without any repetition. One of the finest
examples is the " Mecca* wall " in the mosque of Ibrahim Agha,
Cairo; and other Egyptian mosques are adorned in the same way
(fig. 2). Another variety, the special production of Damascus,
Fio. 2.— One of the Wall-tiles from the Mosque of Ibrahim
Agha, Cairo, (ro in. square.)
has the deagn almost entirely executed in blue. It was about
A.D. 1600, in the reign of Shah Abbas I., that this class of jittery
was brought to greatest perfection, and it is in Persia that the
most magnificent examples are found, dating from the X2th to
the. X 7th centuries. The most remarkable examples for beauty
and extent are the mosque at Tabriz, built by All Khoja in the
12th century, the ruined tomb of Sultan Khodabend (a.d. 1303^
13 16) at SulUniyas, the palace of Shah Abbas I. and the tomb
of Abbas 11. (d. a.d. 1666) at Isfahftn, all of which buildings are
covered almost entirely inside and out.
Another imporUnt class of wall-tHes are those manufactured
by the Spanish Moors, called " azulejos," especially during the
X4th century. These are in a very different style, being designed
la
i6
MURAL DECORATION
but all are destitute of pectoral and ventral fins. The skin is
scalelcss and smooth, in many species ornamented with varied
and bright colours, so that these fishes are frequently mistaken
for snakes. The mouth is wide, the jaws strong and armed with
formidable, generally sharply pointed, teeth, which enable the
Muraena not only to seize its prey (which chiefly consists of
other fishes) but also to inflict serious, and sometimes danger-
ous, wounds on its enemies. It attacks persons who approach
its places of concealment in shallow water, and is feared by
fishermen.
Some of the tropical Uurdenas exceed a length of lo ft., but
most of the species, among them the Mediterranean species,
attain to only half that length. The latter, the " morena " of
the Italians and the Muraena Helena of ichthyologists, was
considered by the ancient Romans to be one of the greatest
delicacies, and was kept in large ponds and aquaria. It is not
confined to the coasts of southern Europe, but is spread over the
Indian Ocean, and is not uncommon on the coasts of Australia.
Its body is generally of a rich brown, marked with large yeUowish
spots, each of which contains smaller brown spots.
MURAL DECORATION, a general term for the art of ornament-
ing wall surfaces. There is scarcely one of the numerous
branches of decorative art which has not at some time or other
been applied to this purpose.* For what may be called the
practical or furnishing point of view, see Wall-coverings.
Here the subject is treated rather as part of the history of art.
I. Reliefs sculptured in Marble or Stone. — This is the oldest
method of wall-decoration, of which numerous examples exist.
The tombs and temples of Egypt are rich in this kind of mural
ornament of various dates, extending over nearly 5000 years.
These sculptures are, as a nile, carved in low relief; in many cases
they are " counter-sunk," that is, the most projecting parts of
the figures do not extend beyond the flat surface of the ground.
Some unfinished reliefs discovered in the rock-cut tombs of
Thebes show the manner in which the sculptor set to work.
The plain surface of the stone was marked out by red lines into a
number of squares of equal size. The use of this ^is probably
twofold: first, as a guide in enlarging the de^gn from a small
drawing, a method still commonly practised; second, to help the
artist to draw hb figures with just proportions, following the
strict canons which were laid down by the Egyptians. No
excessive realism or individuality of style arising from a careful
study of the life-model was permitted.' When the surface had
been covered with these squares, the artist drew with a brush
dipped in red the outlines of his relief, and then cut round them
with his chiseL
When the relief was finished, it was, as a rule, entirely painted
over with much minuteness and great variety of colours. More
rarely the ground was left the natural tint of the stone or marble,
and only the figures and hieroglyphs painted. In the case of
sculpture in hard basalt or granite the painting appears often
to have been omitted altogether. The absence of perspective
effects and the severe self-restraint of the sculptors in the matter
of composition show a sense of artistic fitness in this kind of
decoration. That the rigidity of these sculptured pictures did
not arise from want of skill or observation of nature on the part
of the artists is apparent when we examine their representations
of birds and animals; the special characteristics of each creature
and species were unerringly caught by the ancient Egyptian,
and reproduced in stone or colour, in a half-symbolic way,
suggesting those peculiarities of form, plumage, or movement
which are the " differentia " of each, other ideas bearing less
directly on the point being eliminated.
The subjects of these mural sculptures are endless; almost
every possible incident in man's life here or beyond the grave
is reproduced with the closest detail. The tomb of Tlh at
Sakkarah (about 4500 B.C.) has some of the finest and eariicst
specimens of these mural sculptures, especially rich in illustra-
* SeealsoCERAMics:MosAic: Painting;Sculpture:Tapestry:
Tiles; also Egypt \Art and Archaeology; Cheek Art ; Roman Art ;
&c.
• During the earliest times — more than 4000 years before our era
—there appear to have been exceptions to this rule.
tbnsof the domestic life and occupations of the Egyptians.
The latter tombs, as a nde, have sculptures depicting the religious
ritual and belief of the people, and the temples combbe th .-se
hieratic subjects with the history of the reigns and victories of
the Egyptian kings.
The above remarks as to style and manner of execution may
be applied also to the wall-sculptures from the royal palaces of
Nineveh and Babylon, the finest of which are shown by inscrip-
tions to date from the time of Sennacherib to that of Sardana-
palus (from 705 to 625 B.C.). These are carved in low relief with
almost gem-like delicacy of detail on enormous slabs of white
marble. The sacred subjects, generally representing the king
worshipping one of the numerous Ass3rrian gods, are mostly
large, often colossal in scale. The other subjects, illustrating
the life and amusements of the king, his prowess in war or
hunting, or long processions of prisoners and tribute-bearers
coming to do him homage, are genmlly smaller and in some cases
very minute in scale (fig. i). The arrangement of these reliefs
Fig. I.— Assyrian Relief, on a Marble Wall-slab from the Palace
of Sardanapalus at Nineveh.
in long horizontal bands, and their reserved conventional treat-
ment are somewhat similar to those of ancient Egypt, but they
show a closer attention to anatomical truth and a greater
love for dramatic effect than any of the Egyptian reliefs. As in
the art of Egypt, birds and animals are treated with greater
realism than human figures. A relief in the British Museum,
representing a lioness wounded by an arrow in her spine and
dragging helplessly her paralysed hind legs, affords an example
of wonderful truth and pathos. Remarkable technical skill is
shown in all these sculptures by the way in which the sculptors
have obtained the utmost amount of effect with the smallest
possible amount of reUef , in this respect calling strongly to mind
a similar peculiarity in the work of the Florentine DonateUo.
The palace at Mashita on the ^jj road in Moab, built by the
Sasanian Chosroes II. (a.d. 614-627), is ornamented on the
exterior with beautiful suriace sculpture in stone. The designs
are of peculiar interest as forming a link between Assyrian and
Byzantine art, and they are not remotely connected with the
decoration on Moslem buildings of comparatively modern
date.'
Especially in Italy during the middle ages a similar treatment
* Among the Mashiu carvings occurs that oldest and most widely
spread of all forms of Aryan ornament — the sacred tree between two
animals. The sculptured sbb over the " lion-gate " at Mycenae
has the other common variety of this motive — the fire-altar between
the beasts. These designs, occasionally varied by figures of human
worshippers instead of the beasts, survived long after their meaning
had been forgotten; even down to the present day they frequently
appear on carpeU and other textiles of Oriental manufacture.
MURAL DECORATION
17
of maxUe in low relief was frequently used for wall-decoration.
The moat notable example is the beautiful series of reliefs on the
west front of Ovieto Cathedral, the work of Giovanni Pisano and
his pupib in the early part of the 14th century. These are small
reliefs, illustrative of the Old and New Testaments, of graceful
design and skilful execution. A growth of branching foliage
serves to unite and frame the tiers of subjects.
Of a widely different dass, but of considerable importance in
the history of mural decoration, are the beautiful reliefs, sculp-
tured in stone and marble, with which Moslem buildings in
many parts of the world are ornamented. These are mostly
geometrical patterns of great intricacy, which cover large
surfaces, frequently broken up into panels by bands of more
flowing ornament or Arabic inscriptions. The mosques of
Cairo, India and Persia, and the domestic Moslem buildings of
Spain are extremely rich in thb method of decoration. In
western Europe, especially during the 15th century, stone
panelled-work with rich tracery formed a large part of the scheme
of decoration in all the more splendid buildings. Akin to this,
though without actual relief, is the stone tracery — inlaid flush
into rough flint walls — which was a mode of ornament largely
used for enriching the exteriors of churches in the counties of
Norfolk and Suffolk. It is almost peculiar to that district, and
is an example of the skill and taste with which the medieval
builders adapted their method of ornamentation to the materials
in hand.
>. iiarbU Veneer, — Another widely used method of mural
decoration has been the application of thin marble linings to
wall-surfaces, the decorative effect being produced by the natural
beauty of the marble itself and not by sculptured reliefs. One of
the oldest buildings in the world, the so-called " Temple of the
Sphinx '* among the Ciza pyramids, is built of great blocks of
granite, the inside of the rooms being lined with slabs of semi-
transparent Afriaui alabaster about 3 in. thick. In the ist cen-
tury thin veneers of richly coloured marbles were largely used
by the Romans to decorate brick and stone walls. Pliny (H. N.
xxxvL 6) speaks of this practice as being a new and degenerate
invention in his time. NIany examples exist at Pompeii and in
other Roman buildings. -Numerous Byzantine churches, such
as St Saviour's at Constantinople, and St George's, Thessalonica,
have the lower part of the internal walls richly ornamented in
this way. It was commonly used to form a dado, the upper part
of the building being covned with mosaic. The cathedral of
Monreak and other Sicuk>-Norman buildings owe a great deal
of their ^lendour to these linings of richly variegated marbles.
In roost cases the main surface is of light-coloured marble or
alabaster, inlaid bands of darker tint or coloured mosaic being
used to divide the surface into panels. The peculiar Italian-
Gothic of northern and central Italy during the X4th and xsth
centuries, and at Venice some centuries earlier, relied greatly
for its effects on this treatment of marble. St Mark's at Venice
and the cathedral of Florence are magnificent examples of this
work used externally. Both inside and out most of the richest
examples ol Moslem architecture owe much to this method of
decoration; the mosques and palaces of India and Persia are in
many cases oompleuly lined with the most brilliant sorts of
marble of contrasting tints.
5. WaO-Linings of Claud Bricks or Tiles.— ThSa is a very
important dass of decoration, and from its almost imperishable
nature, its richness of cokmr, and iu brilliance of surface is
capable of producing a splendour of effect only rivalled by glass
mosaics. In the less important form — ^that of bricks modelled
or sumped in relief with figures and inscriptions, and then coated
with a brilliant colour in siliceous enamel— it was Urgely used
by the andent Egyptians and Assyrians as well as by the later
^f^nian^ of PcTsia. In the I ith and i >th centuries the Moslems
of Peoia brought this art to great perfection, and used it on a
large scale, chiefly, though not invariably, for internal walls.
The main surfaces were covered by thick earthenware tiles,
overlaid with a white enamel These were not rectangular, but
of various shapes, mostly some form of a star, arranged so as t^
fit dosdy together. Delicate and minuU patterns were then
XIX t*
painted on the tiles, after the first firing, in a copper-like colour'
with strong metallic lustre, produced by the deoxidization of
a metallic salt in the process of the second firing. Bands and
friezes with Arabic inscriptions, modelled boldly in high relief,
were used to break up the monotony of the surface. In these,
as a rule, the projecting letters were painted blue, and the flat
ground enriched with very minute patterns in the lustre-colour.
This combination of bold relief and delicate painting produces
great vigour and richness of effect, equally telling whether viewed
in the mass or dosely examined tile by tile. In the xsth century
lustre-coburs, though still largely empbyed for plates, vases and
other vessels, espedally in Spain, were little used for tiles; and
another class of ware, rich in the variety and bxilliance of its
colours, was extensivdy used by Moslem builders all over the
Mahommedan world. The most sumptuous torts of tiles used
for wall-coverings are those of the so<alled " Rhodian " and
Damascene wares, the work of Persian potters at many places.
Those made at Rhodes are coarsdy executed in comparison with
the produce of the older potteries at IsfahAn and Damascus
(see Cekaiocs). These are rectangular tiles of earthenware,
covered with a white " slip," and painted in brilliant colours with
slight conventionalized representations of various flowers,
especially the rose, the hyacinth and the canuttion. The red
used is applied in considerable body, so as to stand out in slight
rdief. Another class of design is more geometrical, forming
regular repeats; but the most beautiful compositions are those
in which the natural growth of trees and flowers is imitated, the
branches and blossoms spreading over a large surface covered by
hundreds of tiles without any repetitioxL One of the finest
examples is the " Mecca wall " in the mosque of Ibrahim Agha,
Cairo; and other Egyptian mosques are adorned in the same way
(fig. 3). Another variety, the special production of Damascus,
Fig. 3.— One of the Wall-tiles from the Mosque of Ibrahim
Agha, Cairo. (10 in. square.)
has the design almost entirely executed in blue. It was about'
A.D. 1600, in the reign of Shah Abbas I., that this class of jittery
was brought to greatest perfection, and it is in Persia that the
most magnificent examples are found, dating from the X2th to
the .17th centuries. The most remarkable examples for beauty
and extent are the mosque at Tabriz, built by All Khoja in the
1 2th century, the ruined tomb of Sultan Khodabend (a.d. 1303-
13x6) at Sultaniyas, the palace of Shah Abbas I. and the tomb
of Abbas II. (d. a.d. x666) at Isfahftn, all of which buildings ars
covered almost entirdy inside and out.
Another imporUnt class of wall-tHes are those manufactured
by the Spanish Moors, called " azulejos," especially during th«
X4th century. These are in a very different style, bdng designed
i8
MURAL DECORATION
to suggest or Imitate mosaic They have intricate inter-
lacing geometrical patterns marked out by lines in slight
relief; brilliant enamel colours were then burned into the tile,
the projecting lines forming boundaries for the pigments. A
rich effect is produced by this combination of relief and colour.
They are mainly used for dadoes about 4 ft. high, often sur-
mounted by a band of tiles with painted inscriptions. The
Alhambra and Generalife Palaces at Granada, bcgim in the
13th century, but mainly built and decorated by YOsuf I. and
Mahommed V. (a.d. 1333-1391), and the Alcazar at Seville have
the most beautiful examples of these " azulejos." The latter
building chiefly owes its decorations to Pedro the Cruel (a.d.
1364), who employed Moorish workmen for its tile-coverings
and other ornaments. Many other buildings in southern Spain
are enriched in the same way, some as late as the x6th century.
Almost peculiar to Spain are a variety of wall-tile the work of
Italians in the i6th and 17th centuries. These are effective,
though rather coarsely painted, and have a rich yellow as the
predominant colour. The Casa dc Pilatos and Isabel's Chapel
in the Alcazar Palace, both at Seville, have the best specimens
of these, dating about the year 1500. In other Western countries
tiles have been used more for pavements than for wall-decoration.
4. Wan-Coverings of Hard Stucco^ frequatUy enriched Vfith
Reliefs.— The Greeks and Romans possessed the secret of making
ajiard kind of stucco, creamy in colour, and ci^ble of receiving
a polish like that of marble; it would stand ejqaosure to the
weather. Those of the early Greek temples which were built,
not of marble, but of stone, such as the Doric temples at Aegina,
Phigaleia, Paestum and Agrigentum, were all entirely coated
inside and out with this material, an admirable surface for the
further polychromatic decoration with which all Greek buildings
seem to have been ornamented. Another highly artistic use
of stucco among the Greeks and Romans, for the interiors of
buildings, consisted in covering the walls and vaults with a
smooth coat, on which while still wet the outlines of figures.
Fig. 3.— Modelled Stucco Wall-Relief, from a Tomb in Magna
Graecia. (About half full size.)
groups and other ornaments were sketched with a point; more
stucco was then applied in lumps and rapidly modelled into
delicate relief before it had time to set. Some tombs in Magna
Graecia of the 4th century B.C. are decorated in this way with
figures of nymphs, cupids, animals and wreaths, all of which are
models of grace and elegance, and remarkable for the dexterous
way in which a few rapid touches of the modelling tool or thumb
have produced a work of the highest artistic beauty (fig. 3).
Roman specimens of this sort of decoration are common, fine
examples have been foimd in the baths of Titus and ntmierous
tombs near Rome, as well as in many of the houses of PompeiL
Fig. 4.— Stucco Wall-Relief, from the Alhambra.
These are mostly executed with great skill and frequently
with good taste, though in some cases, especially at Pompeii,
elaborate architectural compositions with awkward attempts at
effects of violent perspective, modelled in slight relief on flat
wall-suriaces, produce an unpleasing effect. Other Pompeian
examples, where the surface is divided into flat panels, each
containing a figure or group, have great merit for their deh'cate
richness, without offending against the canons of wall-decoration,
one of the first conditions of which is that no attempt should be
made to disguise the fact of its being a solid wall and a fiat
surface.
The Moslem architects of the middle ages made great use ot
stucco ornament both for external and internal walls. The
stucco is modelled in high or low relief in great variety of geo-
metrical patterns, alternating with bands of more flowing
ornament or long Arabic inscriptions. Many of their buildings,
such as the mosque of Tuliin at Cairo (a.d. 879), owe nearly all
their beauty to this fine stucco work, the purely architectural
shell of the structure being often simple and devoid of ornament.
These stucco reliefs were, as a nde, further decorated with
delicate painting in gold and colours. The Moorish tower at
Segovia in Spain is a good example of this class of ornament used
externally. With the exception of a few bands of brick and the
stone quoins at the angles, the whole exterior of the tower is
covered with a network of stucco reliefs in simple geometrical
patterns. The Alhambra at Granada and the Alcazar at Seville
have the richest examples of this ^K'ork. The lower part of the
walls is lined with marble or tiles to a height of about 4 ft. and
above that in many cases the whole surface is encrusted with
these reliefs, the varied surface of which, by producing endless
gradations of shadow, takes away any possible harshness from
the brilliance of the gold and colours (fig. 4).
During the i6th century, and even earlier, stucco wall-reliefs
were used with considerable skill and decorative effect in Italy,
England and other Western countries. Perhaps the most graceful
MURAL DECORATION
19
emnpics arte the reliefs with which Vasari in the i6th centiuy
encnxsted piUars and other parts of the court in the Florentine
Palazzo Vecchio, built of plain stone by Michelozzo in 1454.
Some are of flowing vines and other plants winding spirally
roand the columns. The English examples of this work are
effectively df^gned, though coarser in execution. The outside
of a half-timbered house in the market-place at Newark-upon-
Trcnt has high reliefs in stucco of canopied figures, dating from
the end of the x 5th century. The counties of Essex and Suffolk
are rich in exaihplcs of this work used externally; and many
x6th-€entary houses in Engkuid have fine internal stucco
decoration, especially Hardwicke Hall (Derbyshire), one of the
room of which has the upper part of the wall enriched with
life-sized stucco figures in high relief, forming a deep frieze all
iouxkL
5. SgraJUc—Tba is a variety of stucco work used chiefly in
Italy from the x6th century downwards, and employed only for
exteriors of buildings, especially the palaces of Tuscany and
northern Italy. The wall is covered with a coat of stucco made
black by an admixture of charcoal; over this a second thin coat
of white stucco is laid. When it is all hard the design is produced
by cutting and scratching away the white skin, so as to show the
black under-coat. Thus the drawing appears in black on a white
ground. This work is effective at a distance, as it requires a
bold style of handling, in which the shadows are indicated by
cross-hatched lines more or less near together.^ Flowing ara-
besques mixed with grotesque figures occur most frequently in
Sgraffito. In recent years the sgraffito method has been revived;
and the result of Mr Moody's experiments may be seen on the
east wall of the Royal College of Science in Exhibition Road,
London.
6. Stamped Leather. — ^This was a magnificent and expensive
form of wall-hanging, chiefly used during the x6th and X7th
centuries. Skins, generally of goats or calves, were well tanned
and cut into rectangular shapes. They were then covered with
Fig. 5.~Italiatt Stamped Leather; x6th century,
filver leaf, which was varnished with a transparent yellow lacquer
Bukii^ the silver look like gold, llie skins were then stamped
or embossed with patterns in rdief, formed by heavy pressure
from metal dies, one in relief and the other sunk. The reliefs
were then painted by hand in many colours, generally brilliant
* A food dncriptioo of the process b given by Vasari. Tre arti id
— n, cap. XXVI
in tone; Italy and Spain (especially (Cordova) were important
seau of this manufacture; and in the 17th centitry a large
quantity was produced in France; Fig. $ gives a good example
of Italian stamped leather of the i6th century. In England,
chiefly at Norwich, this manufacture was carried on in the
17 th and x8th centuries. In durability and richness of effect
stamped leather surpasses most other forms of movable wall-
decoration.
7. Fainted Clotk. — ^Another form of wall-hanging, used most
largely during the 1 5th and x6th centuries, and in a las extensive
way a good deal evlier, is canvas painted to imitate tapestry.
English medieval inventories both of ecclesiastical and domestic
goods frequently contain items such as these: " stayned cloths
for hangings," ** paynted doths with stories and batailes," or
" paynted cloths of beyond sea work," or " of Flaunder's work."
Many good artists working at Ghent and Bruges during the first
half of the 15th century produced fine work of this class, as well
as designs for real tapestzy. Several of the great Italian artists
devoted their skill in composition and invention to the paintixig
of these wall-hangings. The most important existing example
is the series of paintings of the triumph of Julius Caesar executed
by Andrea Mantegna (148 5-1493) for Ludovico Gonzaga, duke
of Mantua, and now at Hampton Court These are usually,
but wrongly, called " cartoons," as if they were designs meant
to be executed in tapestry; this is not the case, as the paintings
themselves were used as wail-hangings. They are nine in nimiber
and each compartment, 9 ft. square, yrts separated from the next
by a pilaster. They form a continuous procession, with life-
sized figures, remarkable for their composition, drawing and
delicate colouring — the latter unfortunately much disgiiiscd by
"restoration." Like most of these painted wall-hangings,
they are executed in tempera, and rather thinly painted, so
that the pigment might not crack off through the doth falling
slightly into folds. Another remarkable series of painted doth
hangings are those at Reims Cathedral. In some cases dyes
were used for this work. A* MS. of the xsth century give^i
recdpts for ** painted cloth," showing that sometimes they were
dyed in a manner similar to those Indian stuffs which were
afterwards printed, and are now called chintzes. These
receipts are for real dyes, not for pigments, and among them
is the earliest known description of the process called "setting"
the woad or indigo vat, as well as a receipt for removing or
" discharging " the colour from a cloth already dyed. Another
method employed was a sort of " encaustic " process; the doth
was rubbed aU over with wax, and then painted in tempera;
heat was then applied so that the colours sank into the mdting
wax, and were thus firmly fixed upon the doth.
8. Printed Hangings and Wall- Papers.— Tht printing of
various textiles with dye-colours and mordants is probably one
of the most andent arts. Pliny (H. N. xxxv.) describes a
dydng process employed by the andent Egyptians, in which
the pattern was probably formed by printing from blocks.
Various methods have been used for this work— w^od blocks in
relid, engraved metal plates, stencil plates and even hand-
painting; frequently two or more of these methods have
been employed for the same pattern. The use of printed stuffs
is of great antiquity among the Hindus and Chinese, and
was certainly practised in western Europe in the 13th century,
and perhaps earlier. The Victoria and Albert Museum has
X3th-century specimens of block-printed silk made in Sicily, of
beautiful design. Towards the end of the 14th century a
great deal of block-printed linen was made in Flanders, and
largely imported into England.
WaJl-papers did not come into common use in Europe till the
18th century, though they appear to have been used much
earlier by the Chinese. A few rare examples exist in England
which may be as early as the x6th century; these are imitations,
generally in flock, of the fine old Florentine and Genoese cut
velvets, and hence the style of the design in no way shows the
date of the wall-paper, the same traditional patterns bdng
reproduced for many years with little or no change. Machinery
enabling paper to be made in long strips was not invented till
20
MURAL DECORATION
the end of the x8th century, and up to that time wall-papers
were printed on small square pieces of hand-made paper, difficult
to hang, disSgured by numerous joints, and comparatively
costly; on these accounts wall-papers were slow in superseding
the older modes of mural decoration. A little work by Jackson
of Batteraea, printed in London in 1744, throws some light on
the use of wall-papers at that time. He gives reduced copies
of his designs, mostly taken from Italian pictures or antique
sculpture during his residence in Venice^ Instead Of flowing
patterns covering the wall, his designs are all pictures— land-
scapes, architectural scenes 6r statues— treated as panels, with
plain paper or painting between. They are all printed in oil,
with wooden blocks worked with a rolling press, apparently an
invention of his own. They are all in the worst possible taste,
and yet are offered as great improvements on the Chinese papers
which he says were then in fashion. Fig. 6 is a good English
Fig. 6.— Early 18th-century Wall-Paper. (22 in. wide.)
example of tSth-century wall-paper printed on squares of stout
hand-made paper 72 in. wide. The design is apparently copied
from an Indian chintz.
In the 19th century in England, a great advance in the
designing of wall-papers was made by William Monis and his
school.
9. Painting.— Thia is naturally the most important and the
most widely used of all forms of wall-decoration, as well as
perhaps the earliest.
Egypt (see Egypt: Art and Archaeology) is the chief store-
house of ancient specimens of this, as of almost all the arts.
Owing to the intimate connexion between the
sculpture and painting of early times, the remarks
above as to subjects and treatment under the head
of Egyptian wall-scxilpture will to a great extent apply also to
the paintings. It is an important fact, which testifies to the
antiquity of Egyptian dvilizatton, that the earliest paintings,
dating more than 4000 years before our era, are also the cleverest
both in drawing and execution. In later times the influence of
Egyptian art, especially in painting, was important even among
Egypilam
distant nations. In the 6th century b.c. Egyptian colonists,'
introduced by Cambyses into Persepolis, influenced the painting
and sculpture of the great Persian Empire and throughout the
valley of the Euphrates. In a lesser degree the art of Babylon
and Nineveh had felt considerable Egyptian influence several
centuries earlier. The same influence affected the early art of
the Greeks and the Etrurians, and it was not till the middle of
the 5th century B.C. that the further development and perfecting
of art in Greece obliterated the old traces of Egyptian mannerism.
After the death of Alexander the Great, when Egypt came into
the possession of the Lagidae (320 B.C.), the tide of influence
flowed the other way, and Greek art modified though it did not
seriously alter the characteristics of Egyptian painting and
sculpture, which retained much of their early formahsm and
severity. Yet the increased sense of beauty, especially in the
human face, derived from the Greeks was counterbalanced by
loss of vigour; art under the Ptolemies became a dull copyism
of earlier traditions.
The general scheme of mural painting in the buildings of
ancient Egypt was complete and magnificent. Columns,
mouldings and other architectural features were enriched with
patterns in brilliant colours; the flat wall-spaces were covered
with figure-subjects, generally in horizontal bands, and the
ceilings were ornamented with sacred symbols, such as the vulture
or painted blue and studded with gold stars to symbolize the
sky. The wall-paintings are executed in tempera on a thin skin
Fig. 7. — Egyptian Wall-Painting of the Ancient Emjure
in the Bulak Museum.
of fine lime, laid over the brick, stone or marble to form a smooth
and slightly absorbent coat to receive the pigments, which were
most brilliant in tone and of great variety of tint. Not employing
fresco, the Egyptian artists were not restricted to " earth colours,"
but occasionally used purples, pinks and greens which would
have been destroyed by fresh lime. The blue used is very
beautiful, and is generally laid on in considerable body — it is
frequently a " smalt " or deep-blue glass, coloured by copper
oxide, finely powdered. Red and yellow ochre, carbon-black,
and powdered chalk-white are most largely used. Though in
the paintings of animals and birds considerable realism is often
seen (fig. 7), yet for human figures certain conventional colours
are employed, e.g. white for females' flesh, red for the males, or
black to indicate people of negro race. Heads are painted in
profile, and little or no shading is used. Considerable knowledge
of harmony is shown in the arrangement of the colours; and
otherwise harsh combinations of tints are softened and brought
into keeping by thin separating lines of white or yellow. Though
at first sight the general colouring, if seen in a museum, nnay
appear crude, yet it should be remembered that the intern^
paintings were much softened by the dim light in Egyptian
buildings, and those outside were subdued by contrast with the
brilliant sunshine under which they were always seen.
The rock-cut sepulchres of the Etrurians supply the only
existing specimens of their mural painting; and, unlike the
tombs of Egypt, only a small proportion appear to
have been decorated in this way. The actual dates ni^c^j
of these paintings are very uncertain, but they range
possibly from about the 8th century B.C. down to almost the
Christian en. The tombs which possess these paintings are
MURAL DECORATION
21
mostly square-shaped rooms, with slightly-arched or gabled roofs,
excavated in soft sandstone or tufa hillsides. Th^ earlier ones
show Egyptian influence in drawing and in composition: they
are broadly designed with flat unshaded tints, ^e laces in profile,
except the eyes^ which are drawn as il seen in front. Colours, as
in Egsrpt, are used conventionally^— male flesh red, white or
pale ydlow for the females, black for demons. In one respect
these paintings differ from those of the Egyptians; few colours
are Taed — ^red, brown, and yellow ochres, carbon-black, lime or
chalk-white, and occasionally blue are the only pigments. The
nxk-waOs are prepared by being covered with a thin skin of
lime stucco, and lime or chalk is mixed in small quantities with
all the coioun; hence the restriction to " earth pigments," made
necessary by the dampness of these subterranean chambers.
Hie ptooeas employed was in fact a kind of fresco, though jthe
stucco ground was not applied in small patches only sufficient
for the day's work; the dampness of the rock was enough to
keep the stucco skin moist, and so allow the necessary infiltration
o£ cokMir from the surface. Many of these paintings when first
discovered were fresh in tint and uninjured by time, but they are
soon dulled by exposure to light. In the course of centuries
great changes of style naturally took place; the early Egyptian
influmrr, probably brought to Etruria through the Phoenician
traders, was succeeded by an even more strongly-marked Greek
influence — at first archaic and stiff, then developing into great
beauty of drawing, and finally yielding to the Roman spirit, as
the degradation of Greek art advanced under their powerful but
nartistic Roman conquerors.
Tbiooglioot this succession of styles— Egyptian, Greek and
Graeco-Roman — there runs a distinct undercurrent of individu-
ality doe to the Etruscans theznselves. This appears not only
in the drawing but also in the choice of subjects. In addition
to pktoics of banquets with musicians and dancers, hunting
aad radng scenes, the workshops of different craftsmen and other
dom e stic subjects, all thoroughly Hellenic in sentiment, other
ftwtiwgK occur which are very un-Greek in feeling. These
represent the judgment and punishment of souls in a future life.
M antns, Charun and other infernal deities of the Rasena,
hideous in aspect and armed with hammers, or furies depicted
as black-beaided demons winged and brandishing. live snakes,.
.terrify or torture shrinking human souls. Others, not the earUest
in date, represent human sacrifices, such as those at the tomb of
Patrodos — a dass of subjects which, though Homeric, appears
rarely to have been selected by Greek painters. The constant
import into Etruria of large quantities of fine Greek painted
vaaes appears to have contributed to keep up the supremacy of
Hrilmir influence during many centuries, and by their artistic
superiority to have prevented the development of a more original
sad native school of art. Though we now know Etruscan
paJBltng only from the tombs, yet Pliny mentions (H. N. xxzv. 3)
that fine wall-paintings existed in his time, with colours yet
bah, on tbe walls of ruined temples at Ardea and Lanuvium,
caeoited, be says, before the founding of Rome. As before men-
tioaed, the actual dates of the existing paintings are uncertain.
It cannot therefore be asserted that any existing specimens are
math older than 600 B.C., though some, especially at Veii,
certain^ appear to have the characteristics of more remote
aattqaity. The most important of these paintings have been
diitowied in the cemeteries of Veii, Caere, Tarquinii, Vuld,
CcTvctri and other Etruscan dties.
Even in Egypt the use of colour does not appear to have been
aoieimiversal than it was among the Gredu (see Greek Ast),
- - who applied it fredy to their marble statues and
pSL^ idiefi, the whole of their buildings inside and out,
mB wdl as for the decoration of flat wall-suriaces.
lliey appeal to have cared little for pure form, and not to have
vahsed the delicate ivory-like tint and beautiful texture of their
fiaoe Pieatdic and Parian marbles, except as a ground for coloured
cnkamc&L A whole dass of artists, called iyakiiATUip lyanvtfrai,
were occupied in colouring marble sculpture, and their services
were very highly valued.' In some cases, probably for the sake of
'Thispnoai, oirvfMifMb, is mentkmed by Pliny (H. N. xxxv. 40).
hiding the joints and getting a more absorbent surface, the
marble, however pure and fine in texture, was covered with a
thin skin of stucco made of mixed lime and powdered marble.
An alabaster sarcophagus, found in a tomb near Cometo, and
now in the Etruscan museum at Florence, is decorated outside
with beautiful purely Greek paintings, executed on a stucco
skin as hard and smooth as the alabaster. The pictures represent
combats of t^e Greeks and Amazons. The colouring, though
rather brilliant, is simply treated, and the figures are kept
strictly to one plane without any attempt at complicated
perspective. Other valuable spedmens of Greek art, found at
Herctflaneum and now in the Naples MuseUm, are some small
paintings, one of girls pbiying with dice, another of Theseus and
the Minotaur.. These are painted with miniature-like delicacy on
the bare surface of marble slabs; they are almost monochromatic,
and are of the highest beauty both in drawing and in gradations
of shadow— quite unlike any of the Gr^k vase-paintings. The
first-mentioned painting is signed AAEHANAP02 A6HNAI0Z.
It is probable that the strictly archaic paintings of the Greeks,
such as those of Polygnotus in the 5th century B.C., executed
with few and simple colours, had much resemblance to those on
vases, but Pliny is wrong when he asserts that, till the time of
Apelles (c. 35o->3io BX.), the Greek painters only used black,
white, red and yellow.* Judging from the peculiar way in which
the Greeks and their imitators the Romans used the names of
cobuis, it appears that they paid more attention to tones and
reiaticru of colour than to actual hues. Thus most Greek and
Latin colour-names are now untranslatable. Homer's " wine-
like sea " (oCro^), Sophodcs's ** wine<oloured ivy " ((Ed. Col.),
and Horace's " purpureus olor '* probably refer less to what we
should call colour than to the chromatic strength of the various
objects and their more or less strong powers of reflecting Ught,
either in motion or when at rest. ' Nor have we any word like
Virgil's " flavus," which could be applied both to a lady's hair
and to the leaf of an olive-tree.*
During the best periods of Greek art the favourite classes of
subjects were scenes from poetry, especially Homer and con-
temporary history. The names vinuooA^xif and orodi vocx^
were iiven to' many public buildings from their walls being
covered with paintings. Additional interest was given to the
historical subjects by the intraductk>n of portraits; e^g. in the
great picture of the battle of Marathon (490 b.c.), on the walls of
the 0roA roidhi in Athens, portraits were given of the Gredc
generals Miltiades, Callimachus, and others. This picture was
painted about forty srears after the battle by Polygnotus and
Micon. One of the earliest pictures recorded by Pliny (xxxv. 8)
represented a battle of the Magnesians (c. 7x6 B.a); it was
painted by Bularchus, a Lydian artist, and bought at a high
price by King Candaules. Many other important Greek
historical paintings are mentioned by Pausanias and earlier
writers. The Pompeian mosaic of the defeat of the Persians by
Alexander a probably a Romanised copy from some cdebrated
Greek painting; it obviously was not designed for mosaic
work.
Landscape painting appears to hav6 been unknown among the
Greeks, even as a background to figure-subjects. The poems
especially of Homer and Sophodes show that this was not through
want of appreciation of the beauties of nature, but partly,
probably, because the main object of Greek painting was to tell
some definite story, and also from their just sense of artistic
fitness, which prevented them from attempting in their mural
decorations to disguise the flat solidity of the walls by ddusive
effects of aerial perspective and distance.
It is interesting to note that even in the time of Alexander
the Great the somewhat archaic works of the eariier painters
werestHl appreciated. In particular Aristotle praises Polygnotus, -
* Pliny's remarks on subjects such as thu should be received with-
caution. He was neither a scientific archaeologist nor a practkal
artist.
* So also a meaning unlike ours is attached to Greek technical
words— by Hfoa they meant, not ** tone,*' but the gradationt of:
H^ht and shade, and by toiuy^ the relations of colour. See Pliny^
H. N. xxxv. 5; and Ruakin, Mod. Painlers, pt. iv. cap. 13.
22
MURAL DECORATION
both for bis power of combining truth with idealization
in his portraits and for his skill in depicting men's mental
characteristics; on this account be calb him 6 ifiayfA^.
Lucian too praises Polygnotus alike for his grace, drawing and
colouring. Later painters, such as Zeuxis and Apelles, appear
to have produced easel pictures more than mural paintings,
and these, being easy to move, were mostly carried off to Rome
by the early emperors. Hence Pausanias, who visited Greece
in the time of Hadrian, mentions but few works of the later
artists. Owing to the lack of existing specimens of Greek
painting it would be idle to attempt an account of their technical
methods, but no doubt those employed by the Romans described
below were derived with the. rest of their art from the Greeks.
Speaking of their stucco, Pliny refers its superiority over that
made by the Romans to the fact that it was always made of
lime at least three years old, and that it was well mixed and
pounded in a mortar before being laid on the wall; he is here
speaking of the thick stucco in many coats, not of the thin skin
mentioned above as being laid on marble. Greek mural painting,
like their sculpture, was chiefly used to decorate temples and
public buildings, and comparatively rarely either for tombs* or
private buildings— at least in the days of their early republican
simplicity.
A large number of Roman mural paintings (see also Roman
Art) now exist, of which many were discovered*in the private
houses and baths of Pompeii, nearly all dating
between a.d. 63, when the city was ruined by an
earthquake, and a.d. 79, when it was buried by
Vesuvius. A catalogue of these and similar paintings from Hcrcu-
laneum and Stabiae, compiled by Professor Hclbig, comprises 1966
specimens. The excavations in the baths of Titus and other
ancient buildings in Rome, made in the early part of the i6th
century, excited the keenest interest and admiration among the
painters of that time, and largely influenced the later art of the
Renaissance. These paintings, especially the " grotesques '*
or fanciful patterns of scroll-work and pilasters mixed with
semi-realistic foliage and figures of boys, animals and birds,
designed with great freedom of touch and mventive power, seem
to have fascinated Raphael during his later period, and many of
his ptipils and contemporaries. The " loggie " of the Vatican
and of the Famcsina palace are full of carefully studied
x6th-century reproductions of these highly decorative paintings.
The excavations in Rome have brought to light some mural
paintings of the ist century a.d., perhaps superior in execution
even to the best of the Pompcian series (see Plate).
The range of subjects found in Roman mural paintings is large
—mythology, religious ceremonies, genre, still life and even
landscape (the latter generally on a small scale, and treated in an
artificial and purely decorative way), and lastly history. Pliny
mentions several large and important historical paintings, such
as those with which Valerius Maximus Messala decorated the
walls of the Curia Hostilia, to commemorate his own victory over
Hiero tl. and the Carthaginians in Sicily in the 3rd century B.C.
The earliest Roman painting recorded by Pliny was by Fabius,
surnamed Pictor, on the walls of the temple of Salus, executed
about 300 B.C. {H.N, xxxv. 4).
Pliny (xxxv. i) laments the fact that tne wealthy Romans
of his time preferred the costly splendours of marble and por-
phyry wall-linings to the more artistic decoration of paintings
by good artists. Historical painting seems then to have gone
out of fashion; among the numerous specimens now existing
few from Pompeii represent historical subjects; one has the
scene of Massinissa and Sophonisba before Scipio, and another
of a riot between the people of Pompeii and Nocera, which
happened 59 a.d.
Mythological scenes, chieliy trom Greek sources, occur most
frequently: the myths of Eros and Dionysus are especial
iavourites. Only five or six relate to purely Roman mythology.
> One insunce only of a tomb-painting is mentioned by Pau^ntas
(vii. 32). Some fine specimens nave been discovered in the Crimea,
but not of a very early date; see Stephani, Compte rendut &c.,
(St Petersburg, 1878), &c.
We have reason to think that some at least of the Pompeian
pictures are copies^ probably at third or fourth hand, from
celebrated Greek originals. The frequently repeated subjects
of Medea meditating the murder of her children and Iphigenia
at the shrine of the Tauric Artemis suggest that the motive
and composition were taken from the originals of these subjects
by Timanthes. Those of lo and Argus, the finest example of
which is in the Palatine " villa of Livia " and of Andromeda
and >Pet3eus, often repeated on Pompeian walls, may be from
the originals by Nicias.
In many cases these mural paintings are of high artistic
merit, though they are probably not the work of the most
distinguished painters of the time, but rather of a humbler
class of decorators, who reproduced, without much original
invention, stock designs out of some pattern-book. They
are, however, all remarkable for the rapid skill and extreme
" verve " and freedom of hand with which the designs are, as
it wcre> flung on to the walls with few but effective touches.
Though in some cases the motive and composition are superior
to the execution, yet many of the paintings are remarkable
both for their realistic truth and technical skill. The great
painting of Ceres from Pompeii, now in the Naples Museum,
is a work of the highest merit.
In the usual scheme of decoration the broad wall-surfaces are
broken up into a series of panels by pilasters, columns, or other
architectural forms. Some of the panels contain pictures with
figure-subjects; others have conventional ornament, or hanging
festoons of fruit and flowers. The lower part of the wall is
painted one plain colour, forming a dado; the upper part some-
times has a well-designed frieze of flowing ornaments. In the
better class of painted walls the whole is kept flat in treatment,
and is free from too great subdivision, but in many cases great
want of taste is shown by the introduction of violent effects of
architectural perspective, and the space is broken up by com-
plicated schemes of design, studded with pictures in varying
scales which have little relation to their surroundings. The
colouring is on the whole pleasant and harmonious— unlike the
usual chromo-lithographic copies. Black, yellow, or a rich deep
red are the favourite colours for the main ground of the walls,
the pictures in the panels being treated separately, each with its
own background.
An interesting series of early Christian mural pamtings exists
in various catacombs, especially those of Rome and Naples.
They are of value both as an important link in the g^^
history of art and also as throwing light on* the r ' *
mental state of the early Christians, which was dis- ^
tinctly influenced by the older faith. Thus in the *^*
earlier paintings of about the 4th century we find Christ repre-
sented as a beardless youth, beautiful as the artist could make
him, with a lingering tradition of Greek idealization, in no degree
like the " Man of Sorrows " of medieval painters, but rather
a kind of genius of Christianity in whose fair outward form-
the peace and purity of the new faith were visibly symbolized,
just as certain distinct attributes were typified in the persons
of the gods of ancient Greece. The favourite early subject,
" Christ the Good Shepheni " (fig. 8), is represented as Orpheus
playing on his lyre to a circle of beasts, the pagan origin of the
picture being shown by the Phrygian cap and by the presence of
lions, panthers and other incongruous animals among the listen-
ing sheep. In other cases Christ is depicted standing with a sheep
borne on His shoulders like Hermes Criophoros or Hemes
Psychopompos — favourite Greek subjects, especially the former,
a statue of which Pausanias (ix. 32) mentions as existing at
Tanagra m Boeotia. Here again the pagan origin of the type
is shown by the presence in the catacomb paintings of the pan-
pipes and pedum, special attributes of Hermes, but quite forc^^
to the notion of Christ. Though in a degraded form, a good
deal survives in some of these paintings,^ especially in the earb'er
ones, of the old classical grace of composition and beauty of
drawing, notably in the above-mentioned representations where
old models were copied without any adaptation to their new
meaning. Those of the 5th and 6th centuries follow the classical
^rt R.\L DECORATIOX
L VMX rAfNInX^ LN
A|flUSAU«» AT fcOMlL. FUk>^ a MOUA.V Vli.i,A £*lSOJ%£AtU IN la?!*, CARLV U4f t^JLXL ^tVtl.
MURAL DECORATION
23
fines, though in « rapidly deteriorating style, until the introduc-
tion of a foreigtt'lhe Byzantine— element, which aeated a
fresh starting-point on different lines. The old naturalism and
survival of classical freedom of drawing is replaced by stiff,
conventionally hieratic types, superior in dignity and strength
to the feeble compositions produced by the degradation into
which the native art of Rome had fallen. The designs of this
second period of Christian art are similar to those of the mosaics,
Fig. 8. — Punted V»uU from the Catacombs of St Callixtus, Rome.
In the onitre Orpheus, to represent Christ the Good Shepherd,
and cxMmd are smaller paintings of various types of Christ.
such as many at Ravenna, and also to the magnificently illumi-
nated MSS. For some centuries there was little change or
dcvek^ment in this Byzantine style of art, so that it is impossible
in most cases to be sure from internal evidence of the date of
any painting. This to some extent applies also to the works
cf the earlier or pagan school, though, roughly speaking, it may
be said that the least meritorious pictures are the latest in
date.
These catacomb paintings range over a long space of time;
tome may possibly be of the ist or and century, e.g, those
b the cemetery of Domitilla, Rome; othen are as late as the
gib century, e.g. some full-length figures of St Cornelius and
St Cyprian in the catacomb of St Callixtus, under which earlier
paiotix^ may be traced. In execution they somewhat resemble
ibe Etruscan tomb-paintings; the walls of the catacomb passages
and chambers, excavated in soft tufa, are covered with a thin
skin of white stucco, and on that the mural and ceiling paintings
ire simply executed in earth colours. The favourite subjects
cf the earliest paintings are scenes from the Old Testament
wfaicfa were supposed to typify events in the life of Christ, such
as the sacrifice of Isaac (Christ's death), Jonah and the whale
(the Resurrection), Moses striking the rock, or pointing to the
oanna (Christ the water of life, and the Eucharist), and many
othecs. The later paintings deal more with later subjects,
diber events in Christ's life or figures of saints and the miracles
they performed. A fine series of these exists in the lower church
of S. Ckmente in Rome, apparently dating from the 6th to the
loih centuries; among these are representations of the passion
&od death of Christ— subjects never chosen by the earlier
Qristians, except as dimly foreshadowed by the Old Testament
tjpes. When Christ Himself is depicted in the early catacomb
paintings it is in glory and power, not in H& human weakness and
scSering.
Other early Italian pdntings exist on the walls of the church
of the Tre Footane near Rome, and in the CapeUa di S. Urbano
aHa r^fhf*^*, executed in the early part of (he nth century.
The atrmm <rf S. Lorenzo fuori le roura, Rome, and the church
cf the Quattro Santi Incoronatl have fnural paintings of the
first half of the 13th century, which show no artistic improve-
ment over those at S. Clemente four or five centuries older.
Jt was not in fact till the second half cf the 13th century
that stiff traditional Byzantine forms and colouring began
to be superseded by the revival of native art in Italy by
the painters of Florence, Pisa and Siena. During the first
thirteen centuries of the Christian era mural painting appears
to have been for the most part confined to the repre-
sentation of sacred subjects. It is remarkable that during
the earlier centuries council after council of the Christian
Church forbade the painting of figure-subjects, and especially
those of any Person of the Trinity; but in vain. In spite
of the zeal of bishops and others, who sometimes with their
own hands defaced the pictures of Christ on the walls of
the churches, in spite of threats of excommunication, the for-
bidden paintings by degrees became more numerous, till the walls
of almost every church throughout Christendom were decorated
with whole series of pictured stories. The useless prohibition
was becoming obsolete when, towards the end of the 4th century,
the learned Paulinus, bishop of Nola, ordered the two basih'cas
which he had built at Fondi and Nola to be adorned with wall-
paintings of sacred subjects, with the special object, as he says,
of instructing and refining the ignorant and drunken people.
These paint^ histories were in fact the books of the unlearned,
and we can now hardly realize their value as the chief mode of
religious teaching in ages when none but the clergy could read
or write.
During the middle ages, just as long before among the ancient
Greeks, coloured decoration was used in the widest possible
manner not only for the adornment of flat walls, BagOth
but also for the enrichment of sculpture and all the JHurmi
fittings and architectural features of buildings, ^''""v-
whether the material to be painted was pUister, stone, marble
or wood. It was only the damp and frosts of northern climates
that to some extent limited the external use of colour to the less
exposed parts of the outsides of buildings. The varying tints
and texture of smoothly worked stone appear to have given no
pleasure to the medieval eye; and in the rare cases in which the
poverty of some country church prevented its walls from being
adorned with painted ornaments or pictures the whole surface
of the stonework inside, mouldings and carving as well as
fiat wall-spaces, was coveted with a thin coat of whitewash.
Internal rough stonework was invariably concealed by stucco,
forming a smooth groimd for possible future paintings. Un-
happily a great proportion of mural paintings have been de-
stroyed, though many in a more or less mutilated state still exist
in England. It is difficult (and doubly so since the so-called
** restoration " of most old buildings) to realize the splendour
of effect once possessed by every important medieval church.
From the tiled floor to the roof aU was one mass of gold and
colour. The brilliance of the mural paintings and richly
coloured sculpture and mouldings was in harmony with the
splendour of the oak-work — screens, stalls, and roofs— all
decorated with gilding and painting, while the light, passing
through stained glass, softened and helped to combine
the whole into one mass of decorative effect. Colour was
boldly applied everywhere, and thus the patchy effect was
avoided which is so often the result of the modem timid and
partial use of painted otnament. Even the figure-sculpture
was painted in a strong and realistic manner, sometimes by a
wax encaustic process, probably the same as the circumlUio
of classical times.. In the accounts for expenses in decorating
Orvieto cathedral wax is a frequent item among the materials
used for painting. In one pbce it is mentioned that wax was
supplied to Andrea Pisano (in 1345) for the decoration of the
beautiful reh'efs in white marble on the lower part of the west
front.
From the nth to the 16th century the lower part of the walls,
generally 6 to 8 ft. from the floor, was painted with a dado—
the favourite patterns till the 13th century being either a sort
of sham masonry with a flower in each rectangular space
(fig. 9), or a conventional representation of a. curtain with
24
MURAL DECORATION
regular folds stiffly treated. Above this dado ranges o^
pictures with figure-subjects were painted in tiers one
— J .. - ^ V^ k^, L -J v^ ■ iBove the other, each picture
^^1 (T'\^L ^3\l?C 15 Y frequently surrounded by
V^^
painted frame with arch and
J gable of architectural design.
9 Painted bands of chevron or
other geometrical ornament
till the 13th century, and
flowing ornament afterwards,
usually divide the tiers of pic-
— j—j tures horizontally and form the
^ _ r> j» | top and bottom boimdaries of
Fio.9.-WaU.Paintingcfthei3th ^« ^\ In the case of a
century. " Masonry pattern." church, the end walls usuaUy
have figures to a larger scale.
On the east wall of the nave over the chancel arch there was
generally a large painting of the " Doom " or Last Judgment.
One of the conunonest subjects is a colossal figure of St Chris-
topher (fig. 10) usually on the nave wall opposite the principal
Pig. 10.— Wall-Pamting of St Christopher. (Large life-«ixe.)
entrance— selected because the sight of a picture of this saint
was supposed to bring good luck for the rest of the day. Figures
were also often painteid on the jambs of the windows and on the
piers and soffit of the arches, especially that opening into the
chancel.
The little Norman church at Kempley in Gloucestenhire (date
about 1 100) has perhaps the best-preserved specimen of the com-
plete eariy decoration of a chancel.^ The north and south walls
are occupied by figures of the twelve apostles in architectural
niches, six on each side. The east wall had single figures of saints
at the sides of the central window, and the stone barrel vault is
covered with a representation of St John's apocalyptic vision —
Christ in majesty surrounded by the evangelbtic beaists, the seven
candlestick* and other figures. The chancel arch itself and the
jambs and mouldings of the windows have stiff geometrical designs,
and over the arch, towards the nave, is a large picture of the
" Doom." The whole scheme is very complete, no |3art of the
internal plaster or stonework being undccorated with colour.
Though tne drawing is rude, the fij^ures and their drapery are
treatM broadly and with dignity. Simple earth colours are used,
painted in rempera on a i^n whire ground, which covers alike
both the plaster of the rough walls and. the smooth stone of the
ardhtes ana jambs.
In the 13th century the painters of England reached a high
point of artistic power and technical skill, so that paintings were
produced by native artists equal, if not superior, to those of
the same period anywhere on the Continent. The central
paintings on the walls of the chapter-house and on the retable
of the high altar of Westminster Abbey are not surpassed by
^ See ilrrAaeo^Cia, vol. xlvi. (1880).
any of the smaller works even of such men as Cimabue and Duccio
di Buoninsegna, who were living when these Westminster
paintings were executed. Unhappily, partly through the
poverty and anarchy brought about by the French wars and
the Wars of the Roses, the development of art in England made
little progress after the beginning of the 14th oentuiy, and it
Fig. 1 1.— 15th-century English Paintmg— St John the Evangelist.
was not till a time when the renaissance of art in Italy had fallen
into decay that its influence reached the British shores. In
the. Z5th century some beautiful work, somewhat affected by
Flemish influence, was produced in England (fig. 11), chiefly
in the form of figures painted on the oak panels of chancel
and chapel screens, especially in Noriolk and Suffolk; but these
cannot be said to rival Ihe works of the Van Eycks and other
painters of that time in Fhuiders. To return to the 13th
century, the culminating period of English art in painting and
sculpture, much was owed to Henry III.'s love for and patronage
of the fine arts; he employed a large number of painters, to
decorate his various castles and palaces, especially the palace of
Westminster, one large hall of which was known as the " painted
MURAL DECORATION
25
dtamber " from tlie rows of fine pictures with which its walls
were covered. After the x^th century the " masonry pattern "
was dwwted fw the lower parts of walls, and the cbevrony and
other stiff patterns for the borders were replaced by more flowing
designs. The character of the painted figures became less
moonmental in style; greater freedom of drawing and treatment
was adopted, and they cease to recall the archaic majesty and
grandeur ol the Byzantine mosaics.
It may be noted that during the r4th century wall-spaces
unoccupied by figure-subjects were often covered by graceful
flowing patterns, drawn with great
freedom and rather avoiding geo-
metrical repetition. Fig. 12, from
the church of Stanley St Leonard's,
Gloucestershire, is a good character-
istic specimen of X4th-century decora-
tion; it is on the walls of the chancel,
filling up the ^>aces between the
painted figures; the flowers are blue,
and the lines red on a white ground.
In some cases the motive of the
_ « • ou dwiff* i* taken from encaustic tiles,
tuvy WaU^^'aitttiiig. ^^^ ^"^i ^ divided into squares, each
containing an heraldic lion. This
iautative notion occurs during all periods— masonry, hanging
curtains, tiles and architectural features such as niches and
canopies being very frequently represented, though always
in a simple decorative fashion with no attempt at actual
deception — not probably from any fixed prindple that shams
were wrong, but because the good taste of the medieval
painters Uui^t them that a flat unrealistic treatment gave
the best and most decorative effect. Thus in the 15th. and
x6th centuries the commonest forms of unpictorial wall-
deooratioa were various patterns taken from the beautiful
^«— A* and cut velvets of Sidly, Florence, Genoa and other
l^aces in Italy, some form of the "pine-apple "or rather " arti-
choke " pattern being the favourite (fig. 1$), a design which,
Fia. i3.-»isth«enturv Wall-Painting. taken from a Genoese
or Fbrentine velvet design.
developed partly from Oriental sources, and coming to perfection
at the eod of the 15th century, was copied and reproduced in
textiles, printed stuffs and wall-papers with but little change
down to the present century— a remarkable instance of survival
in design. Fig. 14 is a specimen of 15th-century English decora-
tive painting, copied from a 14th-century Sicilian silk damask.
Diapers, powderingi with flowers, sacred monograms and
qxrays of blossom were frequently used to ornament large
florfaces in a simple way. Many of these are extremely beautiful
(fins).
Subjects ef Mtdiaal WaO-Paintints.—ht churches and domestic
buildings alike the usual subjects represented on the walls were
specially selected for their moral and religious teaching, cither
Fic. 14.— 15th-century Wall-Paintinff, the design copied from
a 13th-century Sicilian suk ^yr^TV.
stories from the Bible and Apocrypha, or from the fives of taints,
or, lastly, symbolical representations setting forth some important
thcologica] truth, such as figures of virtues and vices, or the Scala
kumanat sdvaiionis, showing the perils and temptations of the
human soul in its struggle to escape hell and gain paradise— a rude
foreshadowing of the great scheme worked out with such perfection
by Dante in his Conunedia, A fine example of this subject exists
on the walls of Chaldon church, Surrey.' In the selection of saints
for paintings in England,
those of English origin are
naturally most frequently
represented, and different
districts had certain local
favourites. St Thomas of
Canterbury was one of the
most widely popular; but
few examples now remain,
owing to Henry Vlll.'s
special dislike to this saint
and the strict orders that
were issued for all pictures
of him to be destroyed.
For a similar reason most
paintings of saintly popes
were obliterated.
Methods of Execution.-^
Though Eraclius. who
probably wrote before the
loth century, mentions
the use of an oil-medium,
yet till about the 13th
century mural paintings
appear to have been exe-
cuted in the most simple
way, in tempera mainly
with earth cMours applied
Fig. 15.— Powdering; used in 15th-
century WaU-Painting.
on dry stucco: even when a smooth stone surface was to be
painted a thm coat of whitening or fine gesso was laid as a
ground. In the 13th century, and perhaps earlier, oil was com-
monly uscxi both as a medium for the pigments and also to make
a varnish to cover and fix tempera paintings. The Van Eycks
introduced the use of dryers of a better kind than had yet been
used, and so laii|ely extended the application of oil-painting.
Before their time it seems to have been the custom ro dry wall-
paintings laboriously by the use of charcoal brasiers. if thi^were
in a position where the sun could not shine upon them. This is
* See CoikctioHS of Surrey Ar^haeol. Soc. voL v. pt. ii. (1871).
26
MURANO
specially recorded in the valuable series of accounts for the expenses
of wall-paintings in the royal oalace of Westminster during the
reign of Henry HI., printed in Vetusta monumenta, vol. vi. (1842).
All the materials used, including charcoal to dry the paintings and
the wages paid to the artists, are given. The materials mentioned
are plumbum album et rubieum, viridus, vermilio, synople^ ocre,
azura, aurum, argentum, collis, oleum, vemix.
Two foreign painters were employed — Peter of Spain and William
of Florenoe — at sixpence a day, but the English painters seem to
I
Fic. 16. — Pattern in Stamped and Moulded Plaster, decorated with
gilding and transparent colours; 15th-century work.
haw done most of the work and received higher pay. William,
an English monk in the adjoining Benedictme abbey of West-
minster, received two shillings a day. Walter of Durham and
various members of the Otho family, royal goldsmiths and rooneyers.
worked for many years on the adornment of Henry Hl.'s palace
and were well paid for their skill. Some fragments of paintings
from the royal chapel of St Stephen are now in the British
Museun). Tney are delicate and carefully tainted subjects from
the Old Testament, in rich colours, each with explanatory inscrip-
tk>n underneath. The scale is small, the figures being scarcely
a foot high. Their method of execution b curious. Firrt the
smooth stone wall was covered with a coat of red. painted in oil.
probably to keep back the damp; on that a thin skin of fine gesso
(stucco) has been applied, and the outlines of the figures marked
with a point; the whole of the background, crowns, borders of
dresses, and other ornamental parts have then been modelled and
stamped with very minute patterns in slight relief, impressed on
the surface of the gesso while it was yet soft. The figures have then
been painted, apparently in tempera, gold leaf has been applied
to the sUmped reliefs, and the whole has been covered with an oil
varnish. It is difficult to realize the labour required to cover large
halls such as the above chapel and the " pointed- chamber." the
latter about 83 ft. by 27 ft., with this style of decoratbn.
In many cases the grounds were entirely covered with shining
metal leaf, over which the paintings were executed; those parts,
such as the draperies, where the metallk lustre was wanted, were
painted in oil with transparent cok>urs. while the flesh was painted
tn opaque tempera. The effect of the bright meul shining through
the ricn colounng is magnificent. This minuteness of much of the
medieval wall-decoration is remarkabk:. Large wall-surfaces and
intricate mouldings were often comj^etely covered by elaborate
gesso patterns in relief of almost microscopic delicacv (fig. 16).
The cost of sUmps for this is among the items in the Westminster
accounts. These patterns when set and dry were further adorned
with gold and colours. So also with the architectural painting;
the artist was not content simply to pick out the various members
of the mouldings in different colours, but he also frequently covered
each bead or fillet with painted flowers and other patterns, as
delicate as those in an illuminated MS. — so minute and highly-
finished that they are almost invisible at a little distance, but yet
add greatly to the general richness of effect. All this is neglected
in modem reproductions of medieval painting, in which both
touch and colour are coarse and harsh— caricatures of the oki
work, such as disfigure the Sainte Chapelle in Paris, and many
crthcdrals in Franre. Germany and England. Ciold was never
uv-1 ill large quantities without the ground on which it was laid
being broken. up by tome such delicate reliefs as that shown m
fig. 16, so its effect was never dazzling. (W. Mo. ; J. H. M.)
Mural painting in England fell into disuse in the 1 6th century,
until attempts to revive it were made in the 19th century.
For domestic purposes wood panelling, sUmped leatheri and
tapestry were chiefly used as wall-coverings. In the reign of
Henry VIII., probably in part through Holbein's influence, a
rather coarse tempera wall-painting, German in style, appears
to have been common.^ A good example of arabesque painting
of this period in black and white, rudely though boldly drawn
and Holbeinesquein character, was discovered in i88x behind the
panelling in one of the canons' houses at Westminster. Other
examples past at Haddon Hall (Derbyshire) and elsewhere.
Many efforts have been made in England to revive fresco
painting. The Houses of Parliament bear witness to this, the
principal works there being those of William Dyce and Daniel
Madise. That of G. F. Watts, whose easel work also is generally
distinguished by its mural feeling, is full of serious purpose and
dignity of conception. " Buono fresco " (the p&inting in tempera
upon a freshly laid grotmd of plaster while wet), " spirit fresco "
or Gambier-Parry method (the painting with a ^irit medium
upon a specially prepared plaster or canvasground '),and "water-
glass " painting (wherein the method is similar to water-colour
painting on a prepared plastered wall, the painting when finished
being covered with a chemical solution which hardens and
protects the sturface), have all been tried. Other processes are
also in the experimental stage, such as that known as Keim's,
which has been successfully tried by Mrs Merritt in a series of
mural paintings in a church at Chilworth. Unless, however,
some means can be found of enabling the actual painted wall
to resist the natural dampness of the English climate, it does not
seem likely that true fresco painting can «ver be naturalized in
Great Britain. Of two of the few modem artists entrusted
with important mural work in England, Ford Madox Brown
and Frederick J. Shields, the former distinguished especially for
his fine series of mural paintings in the Manchester town-hall, in
the later paintings there adopted the modem method of painting
the design upon canvas in flat oil colour, using a wax medium^
and afterwards affixing the canvas to the wall by means of white
lead. This is a usual method with modem decorators. Mr
Shields has painted the panels of his scheme of mural decoration
in the chapel, of the Ascension at Bayswaur, London, also
upon canvas in oils, and has adopted the method of fixing them
to slabs of slate fadng the wall so as to avoid the risk of damp
from the wall^ itself. Friezes and frieze panels or ceilings in
private houses 'are usually painted upon canvas in oil and affixed
to the wall or inserted upon their strainers, like pictures in a
frame. (Walter Crane has used fibrous plaster panels, painting in
ordinary oil colours with turpentine as a medium, as in Redcross
Hall.) Recently there has been a revival of tempera painting,
and a group of painters are producing works on panel and canvas
painted in tempera or fresco secco, with yolk of egg as a medium,
according to the practice of the early Italian painters and the
directions of Cennino Cennini. A pure luminous quality of
colour is produced, valuable in xnural decoration and also
durable, especiaUy under varnish. (W. Cs.)
MURANO (anc. Ammariuno), an island in the Venetian lagoon
about I m. north of Venice. It is 5 m. in circumference,
and a large part of it is occupied by gardens. It contained 5436
inhabitants in 1901, but was once much more populous than
it is at present, its inhabitants numbering 30,000. It was a
favourite resort of the Venetian nobility before they began to
build their villas on the mainland; and in the 15th and i6tb
centuries its gardens and casinos, of which some traces remain,
were famous. It was here that the literary clubs of the Vigilanti.
the Studios! and the Occulti, used to meet.
» Shakespeare, JUnry IV., Part. II. act n. sc. I: " Pdlstaff. And
for thy walls, a pretty slight drollery, or the story of the prodigal,
or the German hunting in waUrwork, is worth a thousand of these
bed-hangings and these fly-bitten tapestries."
* It was in this method that the lunettes by Lord Ldghton at the
Victoria and Albert Museum were paintcdion the plaster wall. The
same painter produced a fresco at Lyndhurst Church, Hants.
MURAS— MURAT
27
Tbe town is built upon one broad: main canil, where the
tidal cQirent runs with great force, and upon leveral smaller
ones. The cathedral, S. Donato, is a fine basilica, of the lath
century. The pavement (of 11 11) is as richly inlaid as that of
St Mark's, and the mosaics of the tribune are remarkable. The
exterior of the tribune is beautiful, and has been successfully
ic^orcd. Tbe church of St Peter the Martyi (i 509) contains a
fine picture by Gentile Bellini and other works, and S. Maria degli
Aag^ also contains several interesting pictures. Murano has
from ancient times been celebrated for its glass manufactories.
When and bow the ait was introduced is obscure, but there
are notices of it as early as the xith century; and in 1250 Christo-
foro Bxiani attempted the imitation of agate and chalcedony.
From the labours of his pupil Bfiotto q>rang that branch of
the glass trade which is ooncenied with the imitation of gems.
In tbe X5th century the first oystals were made, and in the
]7tb tbe various gradations of coloured and iridescent glass
were invented, together with the composition called " aventu-
rine "; the manufacture of beads is now a main branch of the
tndt. The art of the glass-worken was taken under the
protection of the Government in 1375, and regulated by a special
code of laws and privileges; two fairs were held annually, and
tbe esport of all materials, such as alum and sand, which enter
into the composition of glass was absolutely forbidden. With
the decay of Venice the importance of the Murano glass-works
dedioed; but A. Sahdati (1816-2890) rediscovered many of the
old processes, and ei|^t firms are engaged in the trade, the
most i c no w ed being the Venezia Murano 0>mpany and Salviati.
Tbe municipal mtiseum contains a collection of glass illustrating
the histoiy and progress of the art.
The island of Murano was first peopled by the inhabitants
ol Altino. It oris^nally enjojred independence under the rule
of its tribunes and judges, and was one of the twelve confederate
islands of the lagoons. In the lath century the doge Vital
Micfaeli n. incorporated Murano in Venice and attached it to
the Sesticre of S. Croce. From that date it was governed by
a Venetian nobleman with the title of podesti whose office
lasted sixteen months. Murano, however, retained its original
constitution of a greater and a lesser council for the transaction
of nnmidpal business, and also the right to coin gold and silver
as wen as its judicial poweis. The interests of the town
wen watched at the ducal palace by a nundo and a solicitor;
and this constitution xemained in force till the fall of the
republic.
See Vemetia t It me Lapnu*, Paoletti. H Fiore di Venesia; Bu»-
solin, Cuida aUe fabbriche vttrarit di Murano i Romania. Storia
dccwmemiain di Vennia, L 41.
■UBAS, a tribe of South-American Indians Uving on the
Amazon, from the Madeira to the Funis. Formerly a powerful
people, they were defeated by their neighbours the Mundrucus
in 1788. They are now partly civilized. Each village has
a chief whose ofike b hereditary, but he has little power. The
Moras are among the lo west of all Amaxonian tribes.
■UilAT. JOACHIM (1767-18x5), king of Naples, younger
SOD of an innkeeper at La Bastide-Fortuni^ in the department
of Lot, France, was bom on the 2Sth of March 1767. Destined
for the priesthood, he obtained a bursary at the coUege of Cahors,
proceeding afterwards to the university of Toulouse, where
be studied canon law. His vocation, however, was certainly
not sacerdotal, and after dissipating his money he enlisted in a
cavalry regiment. In 1789 he had attained the rank of marlchal
des hfis, but in 1790 he was dismissed tbe regiment for in-
sttbordiiMtion. After a period of idleness, he was enrolled,
through the good offices of J. B. Cavaignac, in the new Constitu-
tional Guard of Louis XVI. (x79i)> In Paris he gained a reputa-
tion for his good looks, his swaggering attitude, and the violence
of his revolutionary sentiments. On the 30th of May 1792, tbe
fuard having been disbanded, he was appointed sub-lieutenant
in the sxst Chasseurs i cheval, with which regiment he served
in the Argonne and the Pyrenees, obtaining in tbe latter campaign
the ownmand of a squadron. After the 9th Thermidor, however,
and the proscription of the Jacobins, with whom he had
conspicuously identified himself, be feD under suspicion and
was recalled from the front.
Returning to Paris (i79s)> ^^ made the acquaintance of
Napoleon Bonaparte, another yoxmg officer out of employment,
who soon gained a complete ascendancy over his vain, ambitious
and unstable nature. On the xjth Vendfmiaire, when Bonaparte,
commissioned by Barras, beat down with cannon the armed
insurrection of the Paris sections against the Convention, Murat
was his most active and courageous lieutenant, and was rewarded
by tbe lieutenant-colonelcy of the 21st Chasseurs and the appoint-
ment of first aide de camp to General Bonaparte in Italy. In
the first battles of the famous campaign of 1796 Murat so
distinguished himself that he was chosen to carry the captured
flags to Paris. He was promoted to be general of brigade, and
retuxned to Italy in time to be of f^smtial service to Bonaparte
at Bassano, Corona and Fort St Gk>igio, where he was wounded.
He was then sent on a diplomatic mission to Genoa, but returned
in time to be present at Rivoli. In the advance into Tirol in
the summer of X797 he commanded the vanguard, and by his
passage of the Tagliamento hurried on the preL'minaries of
Leoben. In x 798 he was for a short time commandant at Rome,
and then accompanied Bonaparte to Egypt. At the battle
of the Pyramids he led his first famous cavalry charge, and so
distinguished himsdf in Syria that he was made general of
division (October, 1799). He returned to France with Bonaparte,
and on the 1 8th Brumaire led into the orangery of Saint Cloud
the sixty grenadiers whose appearance broke up the Council
of Five Himdrcd. After the success of the coup d*itai he was
made commandant of the consular guard, and on the 20th of
January x8oo he married Caroline Bonaparte, youngest sister
of the first consul. He commanded the French cavalry at
the battle of Marengo, and was afterwards made governor in
the Cisalpine Republic. As commander of the army of observa-
tion in Tuscany he forced the Neapolitans to evacuate the Papal
States and to accept the treaty of Florence (March 28, i8oi)-
In January 1804 he was given the post of governor of Paris,
and in this capacity appointed the miUtary commission by which
the due d'Enghien was tried and shot (Mut± 30) ; in May he was
made marshal of the empire; in February X805 he was made
grand admiral, with the title of prince, and invested with the
grand eagle of the Legion of Honoxir. He commanded the
cavalry of the Grand Army in the German campaign of X805,
and was so conspicuous at Austerlitz that Napoleon made him
grand duke of Berg and Cleves (March 15, x8o6). He com-
manded the cavalry at Jena, Eyiau, and Fricdland, and in
1808 was made general-m-chief of tbe French aimies in Spain.
He entered Madrid on tbe 2Sth of March, and on the 2nd of
May suppressed an insurrection in the city. He did much to
prepare the events which ended in the abdication of Charles IV.
and Ferdinand VII. at Bayonne; but tbe hopes he had cherished
of himself receiving the crown of Spain were disappointed. On
the ist of August, however, he was appointed by Napoleon to
the throne of Naples, vacated by the transference of Joseph
Bonaparte to Spain.
King Joachim Napoleon, as he styled himself, entered Naples
in September, his handsome presence and open manner gaining
him instantaneous popularity. Almost his first act as king
was to attack Capri, which he wrested from the British; but,
this done, he returned to Naples and devoted himself to establish-
ing his kingship according to his ideas, a characteristic blend
of the vulgarity of a parvenu ^ith the essential principles of
the Revolution. He daizled the lazzaroni with the extravagant
splendour of his costumes; he set up a sumptuous court, created
a new nobility, nominated marshals. With an eye to the over-
throw of his legitimate rival in Sicily, he organized a large army
and even a fleet; but he also swept away the last relics of the
effete feudal system and took effident measures for suppressing
brigandage. From the first his relations with Napoleon were
strained. The emperor upbraided him sarcastically for his
"monkey tricks" (singeries); Murat ascribed to the deh'berate
ill-will of the French generals who served with him, and even to
Napoleon, the failure of his attack on Sicily in x 8 1 o. He resent ed
28
MURAT
bis subordination to the emperor, and early began his pose as an
Italian king by demanding the withdrawal of the French troops
from Naples and naturalization as Neapolitans of all Frenchmen
in the service of thi sUte (i8x i). Napoleon, of course, met this
demand with a curt refusal. A breach between the brothers-
in-law was only averted by the Russian campaign of z8za and
Napoleon's invitation to Murat to take command of the cavalry
in the Grand Army. This was a call which appealed to all
his strongest military instincts, and he obeyed iL During the
disastrous retreat he showed his usual headstrong courage; but
in the middle of December he suddenly threw up his. command
and returned to Naples. The reason of this was the suspicion,
which had been growing on him for two years past, that Napoleon
was preparing for him the fate of the king of Holland, and that
his own wife. Queen Caroline, was plotting with the emperor
for his dethronement. To Marshal Davout, who pointed out to
him that he was only king of Naples " by grace of the emperor
and the blood of Frenchmen," he replied that he was king of
Naples as the emperor of Austria was emperor of Austria, and
that he could do as he liked. He was, in fact, already dreaiming
of exchanging his position of a vassal king of the French Empire
for that of a national Italian king. In the enthusiastic reception
that awaited him on his return to Naples on the 4th of February
there was nothing to dispel these illusions. All the Italian
parties flocked round him, flattering and cajoling him: the
patriots, because he seemed to them loyal and glorious enough
to assume the task of Italian unification; the partisans of the dk-
possessed princes, because they looked upon him as a convenient
instrument and as simple enough to be made an ea^ dupe.
From tliis moment dates the importance of Murat in the
histoiy of Europe during the next few years. He at once,
without consulting his minister of foreign affairs, despatched
Prince Cariati on a confidential mission to Vienna; if Austria
would secure the renunciation of his rights by King Ferdinand
and guarantee the possession of the kingdom of Naples to himself,
he would place his army at her disposal and give up his claims
to Sicily. Austria herself, however, had not as yet broken
definitively with Napoleon, and before she openly joined the
Grand Alliance, after the illusory congress of Prague, many
things had happened to make Murat change his mind. He was
offended by Napoleon's bitter letters and by tales of his sUghting
comments on himself; he was alarmed by the emperor's scarcely
veiled threats; but alter all he was a child of the Revolution
and a born soldier, with all the soldier's instinct of loyalty to
a great leader, and he grasped eagerly at any excuse for believing
that Napoleon, in the event of victory, would maintain him
on his throne. Then came the emperor's advance into Germany,
supported as yet by his allies of the Rhenish Confederation.
On the fatal field of Leipzig Murat once more fought on Napo-
leon's side, leading the French. squadrons with all his old valour
and dash. But this crowning catastrophe was too much for
his wavering faith. On the evening of the z6th of October,
the first day of the battle, Mettemich found means to open a
separate negotiation with him: Great Britain and Austria
would, in the event of Murat's withdrawal from Napoleon's
army and refusal to send reinforcements to the viceroy of Italy,
secure the cession to him of Naples by King Ferdinand, guarantee
him in its possession, and obtain for him further advantages
in Italy. To accept the Austrian advances seemed now his
only chance of continuing to be a king. At Erfurt he asked
and obtained the emperor's leave to return to Naples; " our
adieux," he said, '* were not over-cordial."
He reached Naples on the 4th of November and at once
informed the Austrian envoy of his wish to join the Allies,
suggesting that the Papal States, with the exception of Rome
and the surrounding district, should be made over to him as
his reward. On the jxst of December Count Neipperg, after-
wards the lover of the empress Marie Louise, arrived at Naples
with powers to treat. The result was the signature, on the nth
of January 1814, of a treaty by which Austria guxiranteed to
Murat the throne of Naples and promised her good offices to
•ecure the assent of the other Allies. Secret additional articles
stipulated that Atistria would use her good offices to secure the
renunciation by Ferdinand of his rights to Naples, in return
foe an indemnity to hasten the conclusion of peace between
Naples and Great Britain, and to augment the Neapolitan
kingdom by territory embracing 400,000 souls at the expense
of the sUtes of the Church.
The project of the treaty having been communicated to
Castlereagh, he replied by expressing the willingness of the
British government to conclude an armistice with *' the person
exercising the government of Naples " (Jan. as), and this was
accordingly signed on the 3rd oi February by Bentinck. It
was dear that Great Britain had no intention of ultimately
recognizing Murat's right to reign. As for Austria, she would
be certain that Murat's own folly would, -sooner or later, give
her an opportunity for repudiating her engagements. For the
present the Neapoh'tan alliance would be invaluable to the Allies
for the purpose of putting an end to the French dominion in
Italy. The plot was all but spoilt by the prince royal, of Sicily,
who in an order ox the day announced to his soldiers that their
legitimate sovereign had not renounced his rights to the throne
of Naples (Feb. 20); from the Austrian point of view it was
compromised by a proclamation issued by Bentinck at Leghorn
on the Z4th of March, in which he called on the Italians to rise
in support of the "great cause of their fatherland." From
Dijon Castlereagh promptly wrote to Bentinck (April 3) to say
that the proclamation of the prince of Sicily must be disavowed,
and that if King Ferdinand did not behave properly Great
Britain would recognize* Murat's title. A letter from Mettemich
to Manhal Bellegarde, of the same place and date, insisted
that Bentinck's operations must be altered; the last thing that
Austria desired was an Italian national rising.
It was, indeed, by this time clear to the allied powen that
Murat's ambition had o'erleaped the bounds set for them.
"Murat, a true son of the Revolution," wrote Mettemich,
in the same letter, " did not hesiute to form projecU of con-
quest when all his care should have been limited to simple
calculations as to how to preserve his throne. ... He dreamed
of a partition of Italy between him and us. . . . When we refused
to annex all Italy north of the Po, he saw that his calculaUona
were wrong, but refused to abandon his ambitions. His attitude
is most suspicious." " Press the restoration of the grand-duke
in Tuscany," wrote Castlereagh to Bentinck; " this is the trae
touchstone of Murat's intentions. We must not suffer him to
carry out his plan of extended dominion; but neither must
we break with him and so abandon Austria to his augmented
intrigues."
Meanwhile, Murat had formally broken with Napoleon, and
on the z6th of January the French envoy quitted Naples. But
the treason by which be hoped to save his throne was to make
Its loss inevitable. He had betrayed Napoleon, only to be made
the cat's-paw of the Allies. Great Britain, even when con-
descending to negotiate with him, had never recognized his
title; she could afford to humour Austria by holding out hopes of
ultimate recogjhition, in order to detach him from Napoleon; for
Austria alone of the Allies was committed to him, and Castle-
reagh well knew that, when occasion should arise, her obliga-
tions wquld not be suffered to hamper her Interests. With the
downfall of Napoleon Murat's defection had served its turn;
moreover, his equivocal conduct during the campaign in Italy'
had blunted the edge of whatever gratitude the powers may
have been disposed to feel; his ambition to unite all Italy south
of the Po under his crown was manifest, and the statesmen
responsible for the re-establishment of European order were
little likely to do violence to their legitimist principles in order
to maintain on his tlirone a revolutionary sovereign who was
proving himself so potent a centre of national unrest.
At the very opening of the congress of Vienna Talleyrand,
with astounding effrontery, affeaed not to know " the man "
* He had contributed to the defeats of the viceroy Prince Eugene
in January and February 1814. but did not show any eagerness to
press his victories to the advantase of the Allies, contenting himself
with occupying the principality of Be
iBeoevento.
MURAT
29
«iM> had been casoaDy refened to. as " the Ung of Naples ";
sad he made it the prime object of his policy in tlie weeks thftt
followed to secure the itptidiation by the poweia of Mont's
title, and the restoration of the Bourbon king. The powers,
indeed, were Yoy ready to accept at least the principle of this
polky. " Great Britain," wrote Castlereagh to Lord Liverpool
en the s*^ of September from Geneva, " has no objection^ but
the reverse, to the restoration of the Bourbons in Naples."^
PrxBsia saw in Murat the protector of the malcontents hi Italy."
Alexander L of Russa had no sympathy for any champion of
Liberalism bx Italy save himself. Austria confessed "sub
BgOlo " that she shared " His Most Christian Majesty's views
as to the icstoiation of andent dynasties."* The main difficul-
ties in the way were Austria's treaty obligations and the means
Igr which the desired result was to be obtained.
TaOeyrand knew well that Austria, in the loog fun, would
break faith with Murat and prefer a docile Bouibon on the throne
of Naples to this mcakukble child of the Revolution; but he
had his private reasons for desiring to " score off " Mettemich,
the continnance of whose quasadiplomatic Naisom with Caroline
Moral he ri^tly suspected.. He proposed boldty that, since
Austria, in view of the treaty of Jan. xx, X814, was naturally
rductant to undertake the task, the restored Bourbon king
of France should be empowered to restore the Bourbon king of
Naples by French aims, thus reviving once more the andent
Habsboig-Bouibon rivalry for dominion in Italy.*
Mettendcfa, with characteristic skHl, took advantage of this
sstaatkn at once to checkmate France and to disonbarrass
Aostria of its obligations to MuraL While secretly assuring
Louis XVin., through his confidant Blacas, that Austria was
in favour of a Bourbon restoration in Naples, he formally
intimated to Talleyrand that a French invasion of Italian soil
woold mean war with Austria.* To Murat, who had appealed
to the treaty of 18x4, and demanded a passage northward^ for
the troops destined to oppose those of Louis XVIII., he explained
that Aostria, by her ultimatum to France, had already done all
that was necessary, that any movement of the Neapolitan
troops oataide Naples would be a useless breach of the peace
of ItaJy, and that it would be regarded as an attack on Austria
and n rupture of the alliance. Murat's sospidons of Austrian
sincerity were now confirmed;* he realized that there was no
f^estkm now of his obtaining any extension of territory at the
expense of the states of the Church, and that m the Italy as
xecoostmcted at Vienna his own position would be intolerable.
Thns the very motives which had led him to betray Napoleon
now led him to break with Austria. He would secure his throne
by pnxlaiming the cause of united Italy, chasing the Austrians
> Fja Vieona Conncss. viL
*Mcm. of Uardenbeig, P.O. COng. Pnisau Ardi. sa Aug. 14-
Jane IS
•Mcnennch to BombeOea. Jan. 13, 18x5. enckvod in Caatle-
naoj^ to liverpoot of Jan. as F'O. Congr. Vieana, xL
•Sorel, viii4ix seq.
* Cf. a *' most aeciec " communication to be made to M. de Blacas
Oa Mctteraich to Bombelles, Vienna. Jan. 13, 1815). Murat's
apjUvmv L at titude , and the unrest in Italv. are largely due to the
tBraBtcniag attitude of France. ... H.I.M. is not prepared to
rnk a risina of Ita^ under " the natk>nal flag." How will France
coeree Naples? By sending an army iqto Italy acroos our states,
whkh wooSd thns beoome infected with revolutionary views? ....
The eaip cr u r ooold not allow such an expedition. When Italy is
«ctled-nnd we will not allow Murat to keep the Marches . . .
he wffl kMc prcstigew and then . . . will be the time for Austria to
eve cfoct to the views which, all the time, she shares with His
Most Chrtetan Maies^." (In Castleresgh to Liverpool, " private,"
Jan. 2S» 18x5. F.O. Vienna Congr. xL)
•That th^ were fully justified is dear from the following ex-
tract from a letter of Mettemich to Bombelles at Paris (dated
Vteaaa, Jan. 13, 18x3). *' Whether Joachim or a Bourbon reigns
at Mardes is for s« a very subordinate question. . . . When Europe
u *^«faB«»— ** on solid foundations the fate of Joachim will no longer
be iiiifJiniilii 111, but do not let us risk destroying Austria and
Ffiaoe and Europe, in order to solve this question at^ the worst
suannt it wooM be put on the tapis, . . . This u no business of
tibe CoineBS, but Ui us Bomrbam Pcwerr dedan that they maintain
ftnr cMu.** dn Castlereagh's private letter to Lord Uvcrpool.
Jaa. IS. X8X5, F.O. Vienna Congr. xi)
from the peninsula, and fstaWishfng himself as a national
king.
To contemporary observers in the best position to judge
the enterprise seemed by no mesns hopeless. Lord William
Bentinck, the commander of the English forces in Italy, wrote
to Castlereagh ' that, ** having seen more of Italy," he doubted
whether the whole force of Austria would be able to expel Murat ;
" he has said clearly that he will raise the whole of Italy; and
there is not a doubt that undergo standard of Italian indepen-
dence the whole of Italy will rally." This feeling, contmued
Bentinck, was due to the foolish and illiberal conduct of the
restored sovereigns; the inhabitants of the states occupied by
the Austrian troops were " discontented to a man "; even in Tus-
cany " the same feeling and desire " universally prevailed. AH
the provinces, moreover, were full of unemployed officers and
soldiers who, hi wpite of Murat's treason, would rally to his
standard, especially as he would certainly first put lusuelf into
communication wiUi Napoleon in Elba; while, so far as Bentinck
could hear of the disposition of the FWnch army, it would be
" dangerous to assemble it anywhere or for any puxpose." The
urgency of the danger was, then, fully realized by the powers
even before Napoleon's return bom Elba; for they were well
aware of Murat's correspondence with him. On the first news
of Napoleon's landing in France, the British government wrote
to Wellington* that this event together with " the proofs of
Murat's treacheiy " had removed ** all remaining scruples " on
their part, and that they were now " prepared to enter into a
concert for his removal," adding that Murat should, m the event
of his resigning peaceably, receive " a pension and all considera-
tion." The rapki triumph of Napoleon, however, altered this
tone. " BonafMUte's successes have altered the situation," wrote
Castlereagh to Wellington on the 94th, adding that Great Britain
would enter into a treaty with Murat, if he would give guarantees
" by a certain redistribution of his forces" and the like, and
that in spite of Napoleon's success he would be " true to Europe."
In a private letter enclosed Castlereagh suggested that Murat
might send an auxiliary force to France, where " his personal
presence would be unseemly."*
Qearly, had King Joachim played his cards well he had the'
game m his hands. But it was not in his nature to phiy them
well. He should have made the most of the chastened temper
of the Allies, either to secure favouiable terms from them, or
to hold them in phiy until Napoleon was ready to take the field.
But his head had been turned by the flatteries of the " patriots ";
he believed that aU Italy would rally to his cause, and that alone
he would be able to drive the " (Sermans " over the Alps, and
thus, as king of united Italy, be in a position to treat on equal
terms with Napoleon, should he prove victorious; and he
determined to strike without delay. On the a3rd the news
reached Mettemich at Vienna that the Neapolitan troops were
on the inarch to the frontier. The Allies at once decided to
commission Austria to deal with Murat; in the event of whose
defeat, Ferdinand IV. was to be restored to Naples, on promising
a general amnesty and giving guarantees for a " reasonable"
system of government.**
Meanwhile, in Naples itadf there were signs enous^ that
Murat's popularity had disappeared. In (Calabria the indiscrimi-
nate severity of (kneral Manhis in suppressing brigandage had
made the government hated; hi the capital the general dis-
affection had led to rigorous policing, while conscripts had to
be dragged m chains to join their regiments." In these circum-
stances an outburst of national enthusiasm for King Joachim
wss hardly to be expected; and the campaign in effect proved a
complete fiasco. Rome and Bologna were, indeed, occupied with-
out serious opposition; but on the xath of April Murat's forces
received a check from the advancing Austrians at Ferrara and
on the and of May were completely routed at Tolentino. The
* Letter dated Florence, Jan. 7. 18x5. P.O. Vienna Conor. xL
* P.O. Vienna Congr. xiu. Draft to Wellington dated Maxch la.
* P.O. Vienna Congr. xiL
* Ibid. Wellington to Ca«
" F.O. Cong. xL; Munster to
Vienna, March as.
'1, Naples, Jan. 29.
3°
MURATORI
AustiUns advanced on Naples, when Fetdinand IV. was duly
restored, while Queen Caroline and her children were deported to
Trieste.
Murat himself escaped to France, where his offer of service -
was contemptuously refused by NapoleOn. He hid for a
while near Toulon, with a price upon his head; then, after
Waterloo, refusing an asylum in England, he set out for Corsica
(August). Here he was joined by a few rash spirits who urged
him to attempt to recover his kingdom. Though Mettemich
offered to allow him to join his wife at Trieste and to secure
him a dignified position and a pension, he preferred to risk
aU on a final throw for power. On the 28th of September he
sailed for Calabria with a flotilla of six vessels carrying some
a$o armed men. Four of lus ships were scattered by a storm;
ofle deserted him at the last moment, and on the 8th of October
he landed at Pizzo with only 30 companions. Of the popular
enthusiasm for his cause which he had been led to expect there
was less than no sign, and after a short and uneqiial contest he
was taken prisoner by a captain named Trenu-Capilli, whose
brother had been executed by General Manhes. He was im-
prisoned in the fort of Pizzo, and on the 13th of October 18x5
was tried by court-martial, under a law of his own, for disturbing
the public peace, and was sentenced to be shot in half an hour.
After writing a touching letter of farewell to his wife and children,
he bravely met his- fate, and was buried at Pizzo.
Though much good may be said of Murat as a king sincerely
anxious for the welfare of his adopted country, his most abiding
title to fame is that of the most dashing cavalxy leader of the
age. As a man he was rash, hot-tempered and impetuously
bcave; he was adored by hi^ troopers who followed their
idol, the " golden eagle," into the most terrible fire and against
the most terrible odds. Napoleon lived to regret his refusal
to accept his services during the Hundred Days, dedaring that
Murat's presence at Waterloo would have given more con-
centrated power to the cavalry charges and mi^t possibly have
changed defeat into victory.
By his wife Maria Annundata Carolina Murat had two sons.
The elder, Napoleon Achille Murat (Z801-Z847), during his
father's reign prince royal of the Two Sicilies, emigrated about
x8az to America, and settled near Tallahassee, Florida, where
in 1826-1838 he was postmaster. In 1836 he married a
great-niece of Washington. He published Lettres d*un citoyen
des ^kUS'Unis dunde ses amis d* Europe (Paris, 1830); Es'quisse
morale et politiqve des £tats-Unis (ibid. x83a); and Exposition des
principes du gouvernemetU ripuUicain Id gu'U a iU perfecliontU en
Amirique (ibid. 1833). He died in Florida on the 15th of April
1847.
The second son. Napoleon Luoen Charles Mxtrat (1803-
1878), who was created prince of Ponte Corvo in 18x3, lived
with his mother in Austria after 18x5, and in 1824 started to
join his brother in America, but was shipwrecked on the coast
of Spain and hdd for a while a prisoner. Arriving in X825,
two years later he married in Baltimore a rich American,
Georgina Frazer (d. X879); but her fortune was lost, and for
some years his wife supported herself and him by keeping a
girls' schooL After several abortive attempts to return to
France, the revolution of 1848 at last gave him his opportunity.
He was elected a member of the Constituent Assembly and of
the Legislative Assembly (1849), was minister plenipotentiary
at Turin from October 1849 to March x8so, and after the coup
d*tUU of the and of December X85X was made a member of the
consultative commission. On the proclamation of the Empire,
he was recognized by Napoleon HI. as a prince of the blood royal,
with the title of Prince Murat, and, in addition to the payment
of a,ooo,ooo fr. of debts, was given an income of x 50,000 fr.
As a member of the Senate he distinguished himself in x86x
by supporting the temporal power of the pope, but otherwise
he played no conspicuous part. The fall of the Empire in Sep-
tember 1870 involved his retirement into private Ufe. He died
on the xoth of April 1878, leaving three sons and two daughters,
(x) Joachim, Prince Murat (1834-X90X), in 1854 married Maley
Berthier, daughter of the Prince de Wagram, who bore him a
son, Joachim (b. 1856), who succeeded him as head of the family,
and two daughters, of whom the younger, Anna (b. 1863),
became the wife >of the Austrian minister Count Goluchowski.
(a) Achille (X847-X895), married Princess Dadian of Mingrelia.
(3) Louis (b. Z85X), married in 1873 to the widowed Princess
Eudoxia Orbeliani (nie Somov), was for a time orderly officer
to Charles XV. of Sweden. (4) Caroline (b. X832), married in
Z850 Baron Charles de Chassiron and in X872 Mr John Garden
(d. 1885). (5) Anna (b. 1841), married in 1865 Antoine de
Noaillcs, due de Mouchy.
AcTHOKiTiBS.— See A. Sorel, VEurope et la r^vdutum fmngaise
(8 vols., i88^-i8q2) passim, but especially vol. viii. for Murat's
policy after the 1812; Helfert, Joachm Murat, seine Utsten Kdmpfe
und sein Ende (Vienna, 1878); G. Romano, Ricordi muratiani
(Pavia, 1800); Conespondatue de Joachim Murat, Juiilet irgi^
Juiliei 1808, ed A. Lumbroso (Nlilan, xSoo); Count Murat, Murat,
lieutenant de Fempereur en Espagne (Paris, 1807); Guardione,
Gioacchino Murat tn Italia (Palermo, 1890); M. H. Weil, Prince
Eughte et Murat (5 vols., Paris, X901-1904) ; Chavcnon and Saint-
Yves, Joachim Murat (Paris, 1905); Lumbroso, L'Ajonia di vn
rerno; doacchino Murat al Pisao (Milan, X904). See also the
bibliography to Napoleon I. (W. A. P.)
MURATORI. LUDOVICO AMTONIO (X672-X7S0), Italian
scholar, historian and antiquary, was bom of poor parents at
Vignola in the duchy of Modena on the axst of October x67a.
While young he attracted the attention of Father Bacchini,
the librarian of the duke of Modena, by whom his literary tastes
were turned toward historical and antiquarian research. Having
taken minor orders in x688, Muratori proceeded to his degree
of doctor ill $Uroqucjurehdon X694, was ordained priest in X69S
and appointed by Count Carlo Borromeo one of the doctors
of the Ambrosian library at Milan. From manuscripts now
placed under his charge he made a selection of materials for
several volumes (Anecdota), which he published with notes.
The reputation he acquired was such that the duke of Modena
offered him the situation of keeper of the public archives of the
duchy. Muratori hesitated, until the offer of the additional
post of librarian, on the resignation of Father Bacchini, deter-
mined him in X700 to return to Modena. The preparation of
numerous valuable tracts on the history of Italy during the middle
ages, and of dissertations and discussions on obscure points
of historical and antiquarian interest, as well as the publication
of his various philosophical, theological, legal, poetical and
other works absorbed the greater part of his time. These'
brought him into communication with the most distinguished
scholars of Italy, France and Germany. But they also exposed
him in his later years to envy. His enemies spread abroad
the rumour that the pope, Benedict XIV., had discovered in his
writings passages savouring of heresy, even of atheism. Muratori
appealed to the pope, repudiating the accusation. His Holiness
assured him of Ids protection^ and, without expressing his
approbation of the opinions in question of the learned antiquary,
freed him from the imputations of his enemies. Muratori
died on the 23rd of January 17 50, and was buried with much
pomp in the church of Santa Maria di Pomposa, in connexion
with which he had laboured as parish priest for many years.
His remains were removed in 1774 to the church of St Augustin.
Muratori is rightly regarded as the " father of Italian history."
This is due to his great collection, Rerum italicarum scriptcres,
to which he devoted about fifteen years* work (X723-X738).
The gathering together and editing some 25 huge folio
volumes of texts was followed by a series of 75 dissertations
on medievsLl Italy (Antiquitates italicae medii am, X738-X74a, 6
vols, folio). To these he added a Novus thesaurus inscripHonum
(4 vols., X 739-1743), which was of great importance in the develop-
ment of epigraphy. Then, anticipating the action of the learned
societies of the xoth century, he set about a popular treatment
of the historical sources he had published. These Annati
d'ltalia (1744-X749) reached xa volumes, but were imperfect and
are of little value. In addition to this national enterprise
(the Scriptores were published by the aid of the Sodeti palatina
of Milan) Muratori published Antcdota ex amhrosianae biblio-
thecaecodd. (a vols. 4to, Milan, 1697, X698; Padua, X7X3);
Anecdote graeca (3 vols. 4to, Padua, 1709); Antichita Esteas
MURAVIEV— MURCHISON
31
(» vols. foL, Modena, 17 17); Vi^^ t rimedi P. Fdrvca (17x1)1
and Vite ti operedi L. Castdvetro (1727).
la biblical scbolanhip Muntori a chiefly known at the ois-
covocr of the 8o<aUed Muratorian Canon, the name given t6 a
fragment (85 fines) of eariy Chiistian literature, which he found
in 1740, embedded in an Sth^entury codes which forms a
oompendiam of theoIogicBl tracts followed by the five early
Ouistian creeds. The document rontstnft a list of the books of
the New Testament, a fimilar list concerning the Old Testament
having apparently preceded it. It is in barbarous Latin which
has probably been translated from origimd Greek — the language
prevailing in Christian Rome until c. aoo. There is little doubt
that it was composed in Rome and we may date it about the
year 190. U^tifoot inclined to Hippolytus as its author. It
b the earliest document known whidi enumerates the books in
order.
The first line of the fragment is broken and speaks of the
Gospd of St Mark, but there is no doubt that its compiler
knew also of St Matthew. Acts is ascribed to St Luke. He
names thirteen letten of St Paul but says nothing of the Epistle
to the Hebrews. The alleged letters of Paul to the Laodiceans
and .Mezandrians he rejects, '* for gall must not be mixed with
booey." The two Epbtles of Peter and the Epistle of James
air not referred to, but that of Jude and two of John are accepted.
He includes the Apocaljrpse of John and also the Apocalypse
of Peter. The Shepherd of Hennas he rqects as not of apostolic
origin, but this test of canonidty is not consistently applied
for he allows the ** Wisdom written by the friends of Solomon in
fab honour." He rejects the writing of th« Gnostics Valentinus
and Basilides, and of Montanus.
The list b not an authoritative decree, but a private regbter
of what the author considers the prevailing Chrbtian sentiment
in fab neighbourhood. He notes certain differences among
the Gospels, because not all the evangelbts were eye-witnesses
of the life of Jesus; yet Mark and Luke respectively have behind
them the authority of Peter and of Paul, who b thus regarded
as 00 a footing with the Twelve. The Fourth Gospel was
written by John at the recpiest of the other apostles and the
btsfaops on the basb of a rcvelatk>n made to Andrew. The
letters of Paul are written to four individuab and to seven
dif erent churches, like the seven letters in the Apocalypse of
John.
It b interesting to notice the cofaiddence of hb Ibt with the
evidence gained from Tertullian for* Africa and firoip Irenaeus
for Gaul and indirectly for Asia Minor. Before the year soo
there was widc^wead agreement in the sacred body of apostolic
writings read in Chrbtian churches on the Lord's Da/ along with
theOld Testament
Mnratori** Letters, with a Lif9 prefixed, were published by Laezan,
(1 vob, Venice, 1783). Hu n«>hew, F. G. Muratori, also wrote
a Vtto del cdOire Ludoo. AnL Muratori (Venice, 1756). See also
A.G.SaindU** BtbliognphbdcIlelettereesUmoadtL. A. Muratori "
in BotUtimo deiF institmto storico italiano (1888), and Carducci's
meface to the sew Seriplores, The Muratorian Canon b siven
la fan with a ttansbtion in H. M. Gwatkin's Selections from Early
C^istian Writers, It b abo pobliahcd as No. I of H. UeUmann^
Kksme Texte /Or theeloriscke Vorlesunzen (Bonn, 1902). See abo
Jommal of Tkodopal Studies, viil. 537.-
MURAVnnr, HICHAEL mKOLAIWICH, Count (1845-1900),
RnsBian statesman, was bom on the xgth of April 1845. He
was the son of (general Count Nicholas Muraviev (governor of
Grodno), and grandson of the Count Michael Muraviev, who
beosme notorious for hb drastic measures in stamping out the
PoGsh insorrection of 1863 in the Lithuanian provinces. He was
cdocsted at a secondary school at Poltava, and was for a short
time at Heiddberg University. In 1864 he entered the chancel-
lery of the minister for foreign affairs at St PetersbuxK, and was
soon afterwards attached to the Russian legation at Stuttgart,
where be attracted the notice of Queen 01^ of Wttrttemberg.
He was transferred to Berlin, then to Stockholm, and back
a^ to Berlin. In 1877 he was second secretary at the Hague.
During the Russo-Turkish War of 1878 he was a delegate of the
Red Croas Sodety In charge of an ambulance train provided
by Queen (^ of Wttrttemberg. After the war he was succes>
sively first secretary at Parb, chancellor of the embassy at Berlin,
and then minbter at Copenhagen. In Denmark he was brought
much mto contact with the imperial family, and on the death of
Prince Lob&nov in 1897 he was appointed by the T^nr Nicholas II.
to be hb minbter of foreign affairs. The next three and a half
years were a critical time for European dipbmacy. The Chinese
and Cretan questions were dbturbing factors. As regards Crete,
Count Muraviev's policy was vadUating; in (^hina hb hands were
forced by (krmany's action at Kiaochow. But he acted with
singular Ugtreti with regard at all evenU to hb assurances to
Great Britain respecting the leases of Port Arthur and Talienwan
from China; he told the British ambassador that these would
be "open ports," and afterwards essentially modified tfab
pledge. MThen the Tsar Nicholas inaugurated the Peace Con-
ference at the Hague, Count Muraviev extricated hb country
from a situation of some embarrassment ; but when, subsequently,
Russian agents in Manchuria and at Peking connived at the
agitation which culminated in the Boxer rising of 1900, the
rebtions of the responsible foreign minbter with the tsar became
strained. Muraviev died suddenly on the sxst of June 1900,
of apoplexy, brought on, it was said, by a stormy interview
with the tsar.
■URGHISOlf, 8IR RODERICK IMPET (i79a-x87x), Britbh
geologist, was bom at Tarradale, in eastern Ross, Scotland, on
the 19th of February 1793. Bis father, Kenneth Murchison
(d. 1796), came of an old Highland clan in west Ross-shire, and
having been educated as a medical man, acquired a fortune in
India; iriiile still in the prime of life he returned to Scotland,
where, marrying one of the Mackenzies of Fairbum, he purchased
the estate of Tarradale and settled for a few years as a resident
Highland landlord. Young Murchison left the Highlands when
three years cJd, and at the age of seven was sent to the grammar
school of Durham, where he remained for six years. He was then
placed at the military college. Great Marlow, to be trained for
the army. With some difficulty he passed the examinations,
and at the age of fifteen was gaxetted ensign in the 36th regiment.
A year later (x8o8) he landed with Wellesley in Galida, and was
present at the actions of Rorica and Vimiera. Subsequently
under Sir John Moore he took part in the retreat to Corunna
and .the final battle there. Thb was hb only active service.
The defeat of Napoleon at Waterloo seeming to dose the prospect
of advancement in the military profession, Murchison, after
eight years of service, quitted the army, and married the daughter
of General Hugonm, of Nursted House, Hampshire. With her
he then spept rather more than two years on the Continent,
particularly in Italy, where her cultivated tastes were of signal
influence in guiding hb pursuits. He threw himself with all the
enthusiasm of hb character into the study of art and antiquities,
and for the first time in hb life tasted the pleasures of truly
intellectual pursuits.
Returning to England in x8x8, he soia ms paternal property
in Roaa^hire and settled in England, where he took to fidd
sports. He soon became one of the greatest fox-himters in the
midland counties; but at last, getting weary of such pursuits and
meeting Sir Humphry Davy, who urged him to turn hb energy
to sdence, he was induced to attend lectures at the Royal
Institution. Thb change in the current of hb occupations
was much helped by the sympathy of hb wife, who, besides her
artbtic acquirements, took much interest in natural hbtory.
Eager and enthusiastic in whatever he undertook, he was fasci-
nated by the young sdence of geology. He joined the Geological
Sodety of London and soon showed himself one of its most
active members, having as hb colleagues there such men as
Sedgwick, W. D. Conybeare, W. Buckland, W. H. Fitton and
Lyell. Exploring with hb wife the geology of the south of
England, he devoted spedal attention to the rocks of the north-
west of Sussex and the adjoining parts of Hants and Surrey, on
which, aided by Fitton, he wrote hb first sdentific paper, read
to the sodety in 1825. Though he had reached the age of thirty-
two before he took any interest in sdence, he devdoped his
taste and increased hb knowledge so rapidly that in the first
32
MURCIA
three yean of his scientific career he had explored large parts
of England and Scotland, had obtained materials for three
important memoirs, as well as for two more written in conjunction
with Sedgwick, and had risen to be a prominent member of the
Geologiad Society and one of its two secretaries. Turning his
attention for a little to Continental geology, he explored with
Lyell the volcanic region of Auvergne, parts of southern France,
northern Italy, Tirol and Switzerland. A little later, with
Sedgwick as his companion, he attacked the difficult problem
of the geological structure of the Alps, and their joint paper
giving the results of their study will always be regarded as one of
the classics in the h'terature of Alpine geology.
It was in the year 1831 that Murchison found the field in which
the chief work of his life was to be accomplished. Acting on
a suggestion made to him by Buckland he betook himself to
the borders of Wales, with the view of endeavouring to discover
whether the greywacke rocks underlying the Old RmI Sandstone
could be grouped into a definite order of succession, as the
Secondary rocks of England had been made to tell their story by
William Smith. For several years he continued to work vigor-
ously in that region. The result was the establishment of the
Silurian system— under which were grouped for the first time a
remarkable series of formations, each replete with distinctive
organic remains older than and very different from those of
the other rocks of England. These researches, together with
descriptions of the coal-fields and overlying formations in south
Wales and the English border counties, were embodied in The
Silurian System (London, 1839), a massive quarto in two parts,
admirably illustrated with map, sections, pictorial views and
plates of fossils. The full import of his discoveries was not at
first perceived; but as years passed on the types of exi&lcnce
brought to light by him from the rocks of the border counties
of England and Wales were ascertained to belong to a geological
period of which there are recognizable traces in almost all parts
of the globe. Thus the term "Silurian," derived from the
name of the old British tribe Silures, soon passed into the
vocabulary of geologists in every country.
The establishment of the Silurian system was followed by
that of the Devonian system, an investigation in which, aided
by the palaeontological assistance of W. Lonsdale, Sedgwick
and Murchison weres fellow-labourers, both in the south-west
of England and in the Rhineland. Soon afterwards Murchison
projected an important geological campaign in Russia with the
view of extending to that part of the Continent the classification
he had succeeded in elaborating for the older rocks of western
Europe. He was accompanied by P. E. P. de Vemeuil (1805-
1873) and Count A. F. M. L. A. von Keyserling (x8i 5-1891), in
conjimction with whom he produced a magnificent work on
Russia and the Ural Mountains. The publication of this mono-
graph in 1845 completes the first and most active half of Murchi-
son's scientific career. In 1846 he was knighted, and in the
same year he presided over the meeting of the British Association
at Southampton. During the later years of his life a large part
of his time was devoted to the affairs of the Royal Geographical
Society, of which he was in 1830 one of the founders, and he was
president 1843-1845, 1851-1853, 1856-1859 and Z863-1871. So
constant and active were his exertions on behalf of geographical
exploration that to a large section of the contemporary public he
was known rather as a geographer than a geologist. He particu-
larly identified himself with the fortunes of David Livingstone
in Africa, and did much to raise and keep alive the sympathy
of his fellow-countrymen in the fate of that great explorer.
The chief geological investigation of the last decade of his life
was devoted to the Highlands of Scotland, where he believed
be had succeeded in showing that the vast masses of qystalline
schists, previously supposed to be part of what used to be termed
the Primitive formations, were really not older than the Silurian
period, for that underneath them lay beds of limestone and
quartzite containing Lower Silurian (Cambrian) fossils. Subse-
quent research, however, has shown that thb infraposition of
the fossiliferous rocks is not their original place, but has been
brought about by a gigantic system of dislocations, whereby
successive masses of the oldest gneisses have been torn up from
below and thrust bodily over the younger formations.
. In 1855 Murchison was appointed director-general of the
geobgicrl survey and director of the Royal School of Mines and
the Museum of Practical Geology in Jermyn Street, London, in
succession to Sir Henry De la Beche, who had been the first to
hold these offices. Official routine now occupied mudi of his
tmie, but he found opportunity for the Highland researches
just alluded to, and also for preparing successive editions of his
work Siluria (1854, ed. 5, 187a), which was meant to present
the main features of the original Silurian System together with
a digest of subsequent discoveries, particularly of those which
showed the extension of the Silurian classification into other
countries. His official position gave him further opportunity
for the exercise of those social functions for which he had always
been distinguished, and which a considerable fortune inherited
from near relatives on his mother's side enabled him to display
on a greater scale. His house in Belgrave Square was one of the
great centres where science, art, literature, politics and social
eminence were brought together in friendly intercourse. In'
r863 he was made a K.C.B., and three years later was raised
to the dignity of a baronet. The learned societies of his own
country bestowed their highest rewards upon him: the Koyal
Sodety gave him the Copley medal, the Geological Society its
Wollaston medal, and the Royal Society of Edinburgh its
Brisbane medal. There was hardly a foreign scientific society
of note which had not his name enrolled among jta honorary
members. The French Academy of Sciences awarded him the
prix Cuvier, and elected him one of its eight foreign members in
succession to Faraday
One of the closing public acts of Muiduson's life was the
founding of a chair of geology and mineralogy in the university
of Edinburgh, for ^Hiiich he gave the sum of £6000, an aimual
sum of £300 being likewise provided by a vote in parliament for
the endowment of the professorship. While the negotiations
with the (k»vemment in regard to this subject were still in
progress, Murchison was seized with a paralytic affection on
3ist of November x87a He rallied and was able to take
interest in current affairs until the early autumn of the follow-
ing year. After a brief attack of bronchitis he died on the
23nd of October 187Z. Under his will there was established
the Murchison Medal and geological fund to be awarded
annually by the council of the Geological Sodety in London.
See the Life of Sir Roderick L Murchison, by Sir A. Geikie (2 vols..
X875). (A.GB.)
MURCIA. a maritime province of south-eastern Spain, bounded
on the E. by Alicante, S.E. and S. by the Mediterranean Sea, W.
by Almcrfa and Granada and N. by Albacete. Pop. (1900),
577(9^7; Area, 4453 sq. m. The extent of coast is about 75 m.;
from (iape Palos westwards to Villaricos Point (where Almerfa
begins) it is fringed by hills reaching their greatest devation
immediately east of Cartagena; northwards from Cape Palos
to the Alicante boundary a low sandy tongue endoscs the
shallow lagoon called Mar Menor. Eastward from the Mar
Menor and northward from Ca r tagena stretches the plain known
as El Campo de Ca r tagena, but the surface of the rest of the
province is diversified by ranges of hills, bdonging to the same
system as the Sierra Nevada, which coimect the mountains of
Almeria and Granada with those of Alicante. The general
direction of these ranges is from south-west to north-east; they
reach thdr highest point (5150 ft.*) on the Sierra de E^uf&a,
between the Mula and Sangonera vaUeys. They are rich m
iron, copper, argentiferous lead, alum, sulphur, and saltpetre.
Mineral springs occur at Mula^ Archena (hot sulphur), and
Albania (hot chalybeate). The greater part of the province
drains into the Mediterranean, chiefly by the Segura, which
enters it in the north-west bdow Hellin in Albacete, and leaves
it a little abdve Orihuela in Alicante; within the province it
receives on the Idt the Arroyo dd Jua, and on the right the
Caravaca, (^ipar, Muk, and Sangonera. The smaller streams
of Nogalte and Albujon fall directly into the Mediterranean and
the Mar Menor respectively. . The climate is hot and dry, and
MURCIA— MURDOCK
33
agricoltixre is krgdy dependent on irrigation, which, where
pncticable, lims been carried on since the time of the Moors.
Wheat, barley, maise, hemp, oil, and wine (the latter somewhat
roogfa in quality) are produced; fruit, especially the orange, is
abundant along the course of the S^gura; mulberries for seri-
culture are extensively grown around the capital; and the
number of bees kept is exceptionally large. Esparto grass is
gathered on the sandy tracts. The live stock consists chiefly of
asses, mules, goats and pigs; horses, cattle and sheep being
relatively few. Apart from agriculture, the principal industry
is miniq^ which has its centre near Cartagena. Large quantities
of lead and esparto, as well as of zinc, iron and copper ores, and
sulphur, are exported. The province is traversed by a railway
which connects Murda with Albacete and Valmda; from
AlrantarilU there is a branch to Lorca and Basa. Near the
capital and other large towns there are good roads, but the
c»ans of communication are defective in the remoter districts.
This deficiency has somewhat retarded the development of
mining, and, although it has been partly overcome by the
construction of Ught railways, many rich deposits of ore remain
unworked. The chief towns are Murda, the capital, Cartagena,
Lorca, La Uni6n, Mazarr6n, Yeda, Jumilla, Aguilas, Caravaca,
Totana, Cieza, MuU, Moratalla, and Cehegfn. Other towns
with more than 7000 inhabitants are Alhama, Bullas,- Fuente
Alamo, M<dina and Torre Facheco.
The province of Muida was the first Spanish possession of
the rarthaginlans, by whom Nova Carthago was founded. The
iUnnans induded it in Hispa.nia . Tarraconensis. Under the
Moots the province was known 'as Todmfr, which induded,
according to Edrisi, the dlies Murda, Orihuek, Cartagena,
Lorca, Mala and Chinchilla. The kingdom of Murda, which
cane into independent existence after the fall of Omayyads
(see Caupbate) induded the present Albacete as well as Murda.
It became subject to the crown of C^tile in the xjth century.
Until 1833 the province of Murda also induded Albacete.
ITDBCIA, the qapiul of the Spanish province of Murda;
dk the liver Segura, 35 m. W. of the Mediterranean Sea. Pop.
(1900), xxi,S39> Murda is connected by rail with all parts
of Spain, and b an important industrial centre, sixth in respect
of p<^u]ation among the dties of the kingdom. It has been an
cf^oopal see since 1291. It is built nearly in the centre of a
low-lying fertile plain, known as the kuerta or garden of Murda,
which ioidadcs the valleys of the Segura and its right-hand tribu-
tary the Sangonera, and is surrounded by mountains. Despite
the proximity of the sea, the climate is subject to great varia-
tioss^ the summer heat being severe, while frosts are common in
winter. The dty is built mainly on the left bank of the Segura,
whkh carves north-eastward after recdving the Sangonera bdow
Murda, and falls into the Mediterranean about 30 m. N.E. A
fine stone bridge of two arches gives access to the suburb of San
Benito, which contains the bull-ring. As a rule the streets are
broad, straight and planted with avenues of trees, but the
CaBe de Platexfa and Calle de la Traperia, which contain many
cf the prindpal shops, are more characteristically Spanish, being
Ened with old-fashioned balconied houses, and so narrow that
wheeled traffic is in most parts impossible. In summer these
tbofonghfazes are shaded by awnings. The Malecon, or embank-
ment. Is a. fine {womenade skirting the left bank of the Segura;
the river is here crossed by a weir and supplies power to several
aik-miQs. The prindpal square is the Arenil or Plaza de la
Congtituci6n, planted with orange trees and adjoining the
dorieU Park The cathedral, dating from Z38S-X467, is. the
vxk of many architects; in the main it is hite Gothic, but a
Renaissance dome and a tower 480 ft. high were added in X52X,
while a Corinthian fa^de was erected in the z8th century.
There axe some good paintings and fine wood-carvihg in the
interior. Other noteworthy buildings are the colleges of San
Folgencio and San Iridxo, the bishops' palace, the hospital of
San Joan de Dios, the Moorish Alhondiga, or grain warehouse,
the bmlding^ of the mtmidpal and provincial coundk and
the Contraste, which » adorned with sculptured coats-of-arms,
aad was oxii^aally designed to contain standard weights and
measures; it has become a picture-gallery. There are two
training schools for teachers, a provincial institute and a museum.
Since X875 the industrial importance of Murda has steadily
increased. Mulberries (for silkworms), oranges and other fruits
ure laigely cultivated in the kuerta, and the silk industry, which
dates from the period of Moorish rule, is still carried on. Manu-
factures of woollen, linen and cotton goods, of saltpetre, flour,
leather and hats, have been established in more modem times,
and Murda is the chief market for the agricultural produce of
a large district. A numerous colony of gipsies has settled in the
west of the dty.
Murda was an Iberian town before the Punic Wars, but its
nkme then, and under Roman rule, is not known, though some
have tried to identify it with the Roman Vergilia. To the Moors,
who took possession early in the 8th century, it was known as
Mcdinat Mursiya. Edrisi described it in the X2th century as
populous and strongly fortified. After the fall of the caliphate
of Cordova it passed successively under the rule of Almerfa,
Toledo and Seville. In x z 7 2 it was taken by the Almohades, and
from X223 to X243 it became the capital of an independent
kingdom. The Castilians took it at the end of this period,
when laige numbers of immigrants from north-eastern Spain
and Provence settled in the town; French and Catalan names are
still not uncommon. Moorish princes continued to rule in name
over this mixed population, but in x 269 a rising against the
suzerain, Alphonso the Wise, led to the final incorporation of
Murda (whkh then induded the present province of Albacete)
into the kingdom of Castile. During the War of the Spanish
Succession Bishop Luis de Belluga defended the dty against
the archducal army by flooding the kuerta. In x8xo and i8xs
it was attacked by the French under Marshal Soult. It suffered
much from floods in X65X, X879 and X907, though the construc-
tion of the Malecon has done much to keep the Segura within
its own channel In X829 many buildings, induding the
cathedral, were damaged by an earthquake.
MURDER, in law, the UiUawful killbig of a person with malice
aforethought (see HoiaciDE). The O. £ng. morVor comes ulti-
matdy from the Indo-European root mar-, to die, which has
also given Lat. mors, death, and all its derivatives in English,
French and other Rom. languages; d. Gr. ppor^, for itoprln,
mortal. The O. Eng. form. Latinized as murdrum, mmrlrum,
whence Fr. meurtre, is represented in other Teutonic languages
by a cognate form, e.g. Ger. Mord, Du. moord.
MURDOCK, WILUAM (1754-1839), British inventor,- was
bom near the village of AucMnleck in Ayrshire on the 21st of
August X754. His father, John Murdoch (as the name is spelt
in Scotland), was a millwright and miller, and William was
brought up in the same occupation. In X777 he entered the
employment of Boulton & Watt in the Soho works at Birming-
ham, and about two years afterwards he was sent to Cornwall to
superintend the fitting of Watt's engines. It is said that while
staying at Redruth he carried a series of experiments in the
distillation of coal so far that in X792 he was able to light his
cottage and offices with gas, but the evidence is not conclusive.
However, after his retum to Birmingham about 1799, he made
such progress in the discovery of practical methods for making,
storing and purifying gas that in 1802 a portion of the exterior
of the Soho factory was lighted with it in cdcbration of the peace
of Amiens, and in the following year it was brought into use
for the interior. Murdock was also the inventor of important
improvements in the steam-engine. He was the first to devise
an oscillating engine, of which he made a modd about X784; in
X786 he was busy^-somewhat to the annoyance of both Boulton
and Watt — ^with a steam carriage or road locomotive; and in
^799 he invented the long D slide valve. He is also believed to
have been the real deviser of the sun and planet, motion patented
by Watt in X 78 1. In addition his ingenuity was directed to
the utilization of compressed air, and in X803 he constructed
a steam gun. He retired from business in 1830, and died at Soho
on the X5th of November X839.
bust
oaumeot.
At the celebration of the centenary of fpa lightine in 1893. a t
of Murdock was unveiled by Lord Kelvin m the Wallace Moaunu
3+
MURE— MURGER
Stirling, and there it also a bust of him by Sir F. L. Chantrey at
Handsworth Church, where he was buried. His *' Account <M the
Application of Gas from Coal to Economical Purposes " appeared
in • he Fkil. Trans, for 1808.
MURE, SIR WILLIAM (1594-1657), Scottish writer, son of
Sir William Mure of Rowallan, was bom in 1594. His motker
was Elizabeth, sister of the poet Alexander Montgomcrie {g.v.).
He was a member of the Scottish parliament in 1643, and took
part in the English campaign of 1644. He was wounded at
Marston Moor, but a month later was commanding a regiment
at Newcastle. He died in 1657. He wrote Dido and Aeneas;
a translation (1628) of Boyd of Trochrig's Latin Hecalomhe
Christiana; The True Crucifixe for True Catholikes (1629); a
p&raphrase of the Psalms; the Historie and Descent of the
House of RowaUane; A Counter-buf to Lysimackus Nieanor;
The Cry of Blood and of a Broken Covenant (1650); besides much
miscellaneous verse and many sonnets.
A complete edition of his works was edited by William Tough
for the Scottish Text Society (3 vols., 1898). Mure's Lute-Book,
a musical document of considerable interest, b preserved in the
Laing collection of MSS. in the library of the university of
Edinburgh.
MURB, WILLIAM (X799-Z860), Scottish classical scholar,
was born at Caldwell, Ayrshire, on the 9th of July I7<99. He
was educated at Westminster School and the universities of
Edinburgh and Bcnn. From 1846 to 1855 he represented the
county of Renfrew in parliament in the Conservative interest,
and was lord rector of Glasgow University in 1847-1848. For
many years he devoted his leisure to Greek studies, and in
1 850-1 85 7 he published five volumes of a Critical History of
the Language and Literature of Ancient GreecCf which, though
uncompleted and somewhat antiquated, is still usefuL He died
in London on the ist of April x86o.
MURENA, the name of a Roman plebeian family from
Lanuvium, belonging to the Licinian gens, said to be derived
from the fondness of one of the family for lampreys {murenae).
The principal members of the family were Lucius Licinius
Murena, who was defeated by Mithradates in Asia in 81 B.C., and
his son Lucius Licinius Murena, who was defended by Cicero
in 62 B.C. against a charge of bribery (Cic. Pro Murena). The
son was for several years legate of Lucius Licinius Lucullus
in the third Mithradatic War. In 65 he was praetor and made
himself popular by the magnificence of the games provided by
him. As administrator of Transalpine Gaul after his praetorship
he gained the goodwill of both provincials and Romans by his
impartiality. In 62 he was elected consul, but before entering
upon office he was accused of bribery by Servius Sulpidus,an
unsuccessful competitor, supported by Marcus Pordus Cato
the younger and Servius Sulpicius Ruifus, a famous jurist and
son of the accuser. Murena was defended by Marcus Licinius
Crassus (afterwards triumvir), Quintus Hortensius and Cicero,
and acquitted, although it seems probable that he was guilty.
During his consulship he p&sstd a law (lex Junia Licinia) which
enforced more strictly the provision of the lex CaecUia Didia—
that laws should be promulgated three nundinae before they
were proposed to the comitia, and further enacted that, in order
to prevent forgery, a copy of every proposed statute should be
deposited before witnesses in the aerarium.
MURETUS, the Latinized name of Makc Antoine Muret
(i 526-1 585), French humanist, who was bom at Muret near
Limoges on the Z2th of April 1526. At the age of eighteen he
attracted the notice of the elder Scaliger, and was invited to
lecture in the archiepiscopal college at Auch. He afterwards
taught Latin at Villeneuve, and then at Bordeaux. Some time
before 1552 he delivered a course of lectures in the college of
Cardinal Lemoine at Pari5, which was largely attended, Henry
II. and his queen being among his hearers. His success made him
many enemies, and he was thrown into prison on a disgraceful
charge, but released by the intervention of powerful friends.
The same accusation was brought against him at Toulouse, and
he only saved his life by timely flight. The records of the town
show that he was burned in effigy as a Huguenot and as shame-
fully immoral (1554). After a wandering and insecure life of
some years in Italy, he received and accepted the invitation of
the Cardinal Ippolyte d'Este to settle in Rome in 1559. In
1561 he revisited France as a member of the cardinal's suite
at the conference between Roman Catholics and Protestants held
at Poissy. He returned to Rome in 1563. His lectures gained
him a European reputation, and in 1578 be received a tempting
offer from the king of Poland to become teacher of jurisprudence
in his new college at Cracow. Muretus, however, who about
1576 had taken holy orders, was induced by the Uberality of
Gregory XIII. to remain in Rome, where he died on the 4tli of
June 1585.
Cumptctfr edttloiu of his worki; cdiiio princeps, Verona (1727-
1750); tjy D- Ruhnlcen (1789), by C H. Frotschcr (1834-1841);
two votucnra of Scripta seUcta^ by J. Froy (1871); Variae Uction^s,
bv F. A. Wolf and J. 11. Fsisi (1791^132^). Murctuscdited a number
of cUukral authors with leamtd ai>d scholarly notes. His other
work^ include Jmvniiia rt ptvmalo paria, orationes and epistotae.
S« mofiggr^ph by C, Dviub (Vans, 1881); J. E. Sandys, /fu/.
MURBXIDB (NH4CsH4N|Oi,H30), the ammonium salt of
purpuric acid. It may be prepared by heating alloxantin in
ammonia gas to 100* C, or by boiling uramil with mercuric oxide
a. V. Liebig, F. Wdhler, Ann., 1838, 26, 319), 2C4H»NaOi+0-
NH4Cai4N,Oi+HaO. W. N. Hartley {Jour. Chem. Soc., 1905,
87, 1 791) found considerable difficulty in obtaining specimens
of murexide sufficiently pure to give concordant results when
examined by means of their absorption spectra, and conse-
quently devised a new method of preparation for murexide. In
this process alloxantin is dissolved in a large excess of boiling
absolute alcohol, and dry ammonia gas is passed into the solution
for about three hours. The solution is then filtered from the
precipitated murexide, which is washed with absolute alcohol
and dried. The salt obtained in this way is in the anhydrous
state. It may also be prepared by digesting alloxan with
alcoholic ammonia at about 78*^ C; the purple solid so formed
is easily soluble in water, and the solution produced is
indistinguishable from one of murexide.
On the constitution of murexide see also O. Piloty (Ann., 190^.
33;Si 30); R. Mohlau (Ber., 1904, 37, 2686); and M. Slimmer and J.
SticgUu {Amer. Chem. Jour., 1904, 31, 661).
MURFREESBORO. a city and the county-seat of Rutherford
county, Tennessee, U.S.A., near the Stone River, 32 m. S.E. of
Nashville. Pop. (1890), 3739; (1900), 3999 (2248 negroes);
(1910), 4679. It is served by the Nashville Chattanooga & St
Louis railway. It is in an agricultural region where cotton is
an important crop, and has a considerable trade in red cedar,
hardwood, cotton, livestock and grainy it has also various
manufactures. At Murfreesboro are Soule College for girls
(Methodist Episcopal South; 1852), Tennessee College for girls
(Baptist, 1906), Mooney School for boys (1901), and Bradley
Academy for negroes. Murfreesboro was settled in i8z i ; was
incorporated in 181 7, and from 1819 to 1825 was the capital
of the state. It was named in honour of Colonel Hardy
Murfree (1752-1809), a native of North Carolina, who served as
an officer of North Carolina troops in the War of Independence,
and after 1807 lived in Tennessee. About 2 m. west of the
city the battle of Murfreesboro, or Stone River (q.v.), was
fought on the 31st of December 1862 and the 2nd of January
1863.
MUROBR. HBNRT (1822-1861), French man of letters, was
bom in Paris on the 24th of March 2822. His father was a
German concierge and a tailor. At the age of fifteen Murgcr was
sent into a lawyer's office, but the occupation was uncongenial
and his father's trade still more so; and he became secretaiy to
Count Alexei Tolstoi. He published in 1843 a poem entitled
Via dolorosa, but it made no mark. He also tried journalism,
and the paper £e Castor, which figures in his Vie de Bohim€
as having combined devotion to the interests of the hat trade
with recondite philosophy and elegant literature, is said to have
existed, though shortlived. In 1848 appeared the collected
sketches called Schnes delaviede Bohime. This book describes
the fortunes and misfortunes, the loves, studies, amusements
and sufferings of a group of impectmious students, artists and
MURGHAB— MURILLO
35
meD of letters, of whom Rodolphe represents Mui^ger himself,
while the others have been more or less positively identified.
Murger, in fact, belonged to a clique of so-called Bohemians, the
most remarkable of whom, besides himself, were Privat d' Angle*
moot and Champfleiuy. La Vie de Bokhmtt atranged for the
stage in coUabontioa with Theodore Barri^, was produced
at the Vari£t£s on the ssnd of November 1849, and was a
triumphant success; it afterwards formed the basis of Puccini's
opera. La Bokime (1898). From this time it was easy for
Mttrger to live by journalism and general literature. He was
intxodxacedmiSsi to the Roue da deux mtondts. But he was a
slow, fastidious and capridous worker, and his years of hardship
and dissipation had impaired his health. He published among
other works Ciamde et Mariatme in 2851 ; a comedy, Le Bonkcmme
Jadis ia 1852; Le Pays LaHn in 1852; Adeline Protat (one of the
most graceful and innocent if not the most original of his tales)
in 1853; and Les Buvews d*eau in 1855. This last, the most
powerful of his books next to the Vie de Boktme, traces the fate
of certain artists and students who, exaggerating their own
powen and disdaining merely profitable work, come to an evil
end not less rapidly than by dissipation. Some years before
bis death, which took place in a maison de santi near Paris on
the 28th of January z86i, Murger went to live at Marlotte, near
Foatainebleau, and there he wrote an unequal book entitled
Lt Sabci rouge (i860), in which the character of the French
peasant is unoomplimentarily treated.
See an article by A. de Pontmartin in the Reeue des deux mmdes
(October 1861).
MtnOHAB. a river of Afghanistan, which flows into Russian
territory. It rises in the Firozkhoi highlands, the northern
Kaip of which is defined by the Band-i-Turkestan, and after
tzavcfsing that plateau from east to west it turns north through
deep defiks to Bala Murghab. Beyond this, in the neighbour-
hood of Mamchak, it fonns for a space the boundary-line between
A^ian and Russian Turkestan; then joining the Kushk river
si Pul-i-Khishti (Tash Kupri) it runs north to Mcrv, losing itself
is the sands of the Merv dcBert after a course of about 450 m.,
iu exact source being unknown. In the neighbourhood of
Bala Murghab it is 50 jrds. broad and some 3 ft. deep, with a
rapid current. In the lower part of its course it is flanked by
a remarkable network of canals. The ancient city of Merv,
which was on its banks, was the great centre of medieval Arab
trade, and Buddhist caves are found In the scarped cliffs of iU
right bank near Panjdeh.
MURI, a province of the British protectorate of Northern
Nigeria. It lies approximately between 9* and zx" 40' £. and
7* x</ and 9* 40' N. The river Benue divides it through iU
leogth, and the portion on the southern bank of the river is
watered by streams flowing from the Cameroon region to the
Besue. The province is bordered S. by Southern Nigeria,
S.E. by German territory (Cameroon), £. by the province of
Yolo, N. by Bauchi, W. by Nassarawa and Bassa. The district
of Katsena-Allah extends south of the Benue considerably
west of 9* £., the approximate limit of the remainder of the
province. Muri has an area of 25,800 sq. m. and an estimated
popolatioa of about 828,000. The province is rich in forest
products and the Niger Company maintains trading stations
GB the river. Cotton is grown, and spinning thread, weaving
and dyeing afford occupation to many thousands. The valley
cf the Benue has a climate generally unhealthy to Europeans,
but there are places in the northern part of the province, such
21 the Fula settlement of Wase on a southern spur of the
Murchison hills, where the higher altitude gives an excellent
climate. Muri includes the ancient Jukon empire together with
various small Fula states and a number of pagan tribes, among
whom the Monshi, who extend into the provinces of Nassarawa
and Bassa, are among the most turbulent. The Munshi occupy
aboet 4000 sq. m. in the Katsena-AIlah district. The pagan
tribes in the north of the province are lawless cannibals who by
cKotant outrages and murders of traders long rendered the main
trade route to Bauchi unsafe, and cut off the markets of the
Benue valley and the Cameroon from the Hausa states. Only
two routes, one via Wase and the other via Gatari, pass through
this belt. In the south of the province a similar belt of hostile
pagans dosed the access to the Cameroon except by two routes,
Takum and Bell. For Hausa traders to cross the Muri province
was a work of such danger and expense that before the advent
of British administration the attempt was seldom made.
Muri came nominally under British control in 1900. The
principal effort of the administration has been to control and
open the trade routes. In 1904 an expedition against the
northern cannibals resulted in the capture of their principal
fortresses and the settlement and opening to trade of a large
district, the various routes to the Benue being rendered safe.
In 1905 an expedition against the Munshi, rendered necessary
by an unprovoked attack on the Niger Company's station at
Abinsi, had a good effect in reducing the riverain portion of
this tribe to submission. The absence of any central native
authority delayed the process of bringing the province under
administrative control. Its government has been organised
on the same system as the rest of Northern Nigeria, and is under
a British resident. It has been divided into three administrative
divisions— east, central and west — with their respective head-
quarters at Lau, Amar and Ibi. Provincial and native courts
of justice have been established. The telegraph has been
carried to the town of MurL Muri is one of the provinces in
which the slave trade was most active, and its position between
German territory and the Hausa states rendered it in the early
days of the British administration a favourite route for the
smuggling of slaves.
MURILLO, BART0L0H6 ESTBBAN (1617-1682), Spanish
painter, son of Caspar Esteban Murillo and Maria Perez, was
bom at Seville in 16x7, probably at the end of the year, as he
was baptized on the first of January 1618. Esteban-Murillo
appears to have been the compound surname of the father,
but some inquirers consider that, in accordance with a frequent
Andalusian custom, the painter assumed the surname of his
maternal grandmother, Elvira Murillo, in addition to that of
his father. His parents (the father an artisan of a huml^le
class), having been struck with the sketches which the bpy
was accustomed to make, placed him under the care of their
distant relative, Juan del Castillo, the painter. Juan, a correct
draughtsman and dry colourist, taught him all the mechanical
parts of his profession with extreme care, and Murillo proved
himself an apt pupil. The artistic appliances of his master's
studio were not abundant, and were often of the simplest kind.
A few casts, some stray fragments of sculpture and a lay figure
formed the principal aids invailable for the Sevillian student of
art. A living model was a luxury generally beyond the means
of the school, but on great occasions the youths would strip in
turn and proffer an arm or a leg to be studied by their fellows.
Objects of still life, however, were much studied by Murillo,
and he early learnt to hit off the ragged urchins of Seville.
Murillo in a few years painted as well as his master, and as
stiffly. His two pictures of the Virgin, executed during this
period, show how thoroughly he had mastered the style, with all
its defects. Castillo was a kind man, but his removal to Cadiz
in Z639-1640 threw his favourite pupil upon his own resources.
The fine school of Zurbaran was too expensive for the poor
lad; his parents were either dead or too poor to help him, and
he was compelled to earn his bread by painting rough pictures
for the " feria " or public fair of Seville. The religious daubs
exposed at that mart were generally of as low an order as the
prices paid for them. A " pintura de la feria " (a picture for
the fair) was a proverbial expression for an execrably bad one;
yet the street painters who thronged the market-place with
their "clumsy saints and unripe Madonnas" not unfrequently
rose to be able and even famous artists. This rough-and-ready
practice, partly for the market-place, partly for converts in
Mexico and Peru, for whom Madonnas and popular saints
were produced and shipped off by the dozen, doubtless increa«ed
Murillo's manual dexterity; but, if we may judge from the
picture of the "Virgin and Child" shown in the Murillo-room at
Seville as belonging to this period, he made little improvement
36
MURILLO
in colouriDg or in general strength of design. Struck by the
favourable change which travel had wrought upon the style
of his brother artist Pedro de Moya, Murillo in 1642 resolved
to make a journey to Flanders or Italy. Having bought a large
quantity of canvas, he cut it into squares pf different sizes, which
he converted into pictures of a kind likely to sell. The American
traders bought up his pieces, and he found himself sufficiently
rich to carry out his design. He placed his sister, who was
dependent on him, under the care of some friends, and without
divulging his plans to any one set out for Madrid. On reaching
the capital he waited on Velazquez, his fellow-townsman — then
at the summit of his fortune— and asked for some introduc-
tion to friends in Rome. The master liked the youth, and
offered him lodging in his own house, and proposed to procure
him admission to the royal galleries of the capital. Murillo
accepted the offer, and here enjoyed the masterpieces of Italy
and Flanders without travelling beyond the walls of Madrid.
The next two years were chibfly spent in copying from Ribera,
Vandyck and Velazquez; and in 1644 he so astonished the latter
with some of his efforts that they were submitted to the king
and the court. His patron now urged him to go to Rome,
and offered him letters to smooth his way; but Murillo preferred
returning to his sister and his native Seville.
The friars of the convent of San Francesco in Seville had
about this time determined to adorn the walls of their small
cloister in a manner worthy of their patron saint. But the
brotherhood had no money; and after endless begging they found
themselves incapable of employing an artist of name to execute
the task. Murillo was needy, and offered his services; after
balancing their own poverty against his obscurity the friars
bade him begin. Murillo covered the walls with eleven large
pictures of remarkable power and beauty — displaying by turns
the strong colouring of Ribera, the Ufelike truthfulness of
Velazquez, and the sweetness of Vandyck. Among them were
to be found representations of San Francesco, of San Diego, of
Santa Clara and of San Gil. These pictures were executed
in his earliest style, commonly called hh frio or cold style. It
was based chiefly on Ribera and Caravaggio, and was dark with
a decided outline. This rich collection is no longer in Seville;
Marshal Soult carried off ten of the works. The fame of these
productions soon got abroad, and " £1 Claustro Chico " swarmed
daily with artists and critics. Murillo was no longer friendless
and unknown. The rich and the noble of Seville overwhelmed
him with their commissions and their praises.
In 1648 Murillo married a wealthy lady of rank, Dofia Beatriz
dc Cabrera y Sotomayor, of the neighbourhood of Seville, and
his house soon became the favourite resort of artists and
connoisseurs. About this time he was associated with the land-
scape-painter Yriarte — the two artists interchanging figures and
landscapes for their respective works; but they did not finally
agree, and the co-operation came to an end. Murillo now
painted the well-known " Flight into Egypt," and shortly
afterwards changed his earliest style of painting for his calido
or warm style. His drawing was still well defined, but his
outlines became softer and his figiu-es rounder, and his colouring
gained in warmth and transparency. His first picture of this
style, according to Cean Bermudez, was a representation of
" Our Lady of the Conception," and was painted in 1652 for
the brotherhood of the True Cross; he received for it 2500 reals
(£26). In 1655 he executed his two famous paintings of " San
Leandro " and " San Isidoro " at the order of Don Juan Federigo,
archdeacon of Carmona, which are now in the cathedral of
Seville. These are two noble portraits, finished with great care
and admirable effect, but the critics complain of the figures
being rather short. His next picture, the " Nativity of the
Virgin," painted for the chapter, is regarded as one of the most
delightful specimens of his calido style. In the following year
(1656) the same body gave him an order for a vast picture of San
Antonio dc Padua, for which he received xo,ooo reals (£104).
This is one of his most celebrated performances, and still hangs
in the baptistery of the cathedral. It was " repaired " in 1833;
the grandeur of the design, however, and the singular richness
of the colouring may still be traced. The same year saw him
engaged on four large semicircular pictures, designed by his
friend and patron Don Justino Neve y Yevenes, to adorn the
walls of the church of Santa Maria la Blanca. The first two
(now in Madrid) were meant to illustrate the history of the
Festival of Our Lady of the Snow, or the foundation of the
Roman basilica of Santa Maria Maggiore. The one represents
the wealthy but childless Roman senator and his lady asleep
and dreaming; the other exhibits the devout pair relating
their dream to Pope Liberius. Of these two noble paintings
the Dream is the finer, and in it is to be noticed the commence-
ment of Murillo's third and last style, known as the vaporoso or
vapoury. It should be noted, however, that the three styles
are not strictly separable into date-periods; for the painter
alternated the styles accordingly to his subject-matter or the
mood of his inspiration, the calido being the most frequent. In
the taporoso method the well-marked outlines and careful
drawing of his former styles disappear, the outlines are lost
in the misty blending of the light and shade, and the general
finish betrays more haste than was usual with Murillo. After
many changes of fortune, these two pictures now hang in the
Academy at Madrid. The remaining pieces executed for this
small church were a " Virgin of the Conception " and a figure of
" Faith." Soult laid his hands on these also, and they have hot
been recovered.
In 1658 Murillo undertook and consummated a task which
had hitherto baffled all the artists of Spain, and even royalty
itself. Thb was the establishing of a public academy of art. By
superior tact and good temper he overcame the vanity of Valdes
Leal and the presumption of the younger Herrera, and secured
their co-operation. The Academy of Seville was accordingly
opened for the first time in January z66o, and Murillo and the
second Herrera were chosen presidents. The former continued
to direct it during the following year; but the calls of his studio
induced him to leave it in other hands. It was then flourishing,
but not for long.
Passing over some half-length pictures of saints and a dark-
haired Madonna, painted in x668 for the chapter-room of the
cathedral of his native dty, we enter upon the most splendid
period of Murillo's tareer. In z66i Don Miguel Mafiara Vicen-
tdo de Leca, who had recently turned to a life of sanctity from
one of the wildest profligacy, resolved to raise money for the
restoration of the dilapidated Hospital de la Caridad, of whose
pious gild he was himself a member. Mafiara commissioned
his friend Murillo to paint eleven pictures for this edifice of San
Jorge. Three of these pieces represented the " Annunciation,"
the " Infant Saviour," and the " Infant St John." The remaining
eight are considered Murillo's masterpieces. They consist of
" Moses striking the Rock," the " Return of the Prodigal,"
" Abraham receiving the lliree Angels," the "Charity of San
Juan de Dios," the " Miracle of the Loaves and Fishes," " Our
Lord healing the Paralytic," " St Peter released from Prison by
the Angel," and " St Elizabeth of Hungary." These works
occupied the artist four years, and in 1674 he received for his
eight great pictures 78,xi5 reals or about £800. The " Moses, '*
the " Loaves and Fishes," the " San Juan," and the three
subjects which we have named first, are still at Seville; the
French carried off the rest, but the " St Elizabeth " and the
" Prodigal Son " are now back in Spain. For compass and
vigour the " Moses " stands first; but the " Prodigal's Return '*
and the "St Elizabeth" were considered by Bermudez the
most perfect of all as works of art. The front of this famous
hospital was also indebted to the genius of Murillo; five large
designs in blue glazed tiles were executed from his drawings.
He had scarcely completed the undertakings for this edifice
when his favourite Franciscans again solicited his aid. He
accordingly executed some twenty paintings for the humble
h'ttle church known as the Convent de los Capudnos. Seventeen
of these Capuchin pictures are preserved in the Museum of
Seville. Of these the f* Charity of St Thomas of Villanueva "
is reckoned the best. Murillo himself was wont to call it " su
lienzo " (his own picture). Another little piece of extraordinary
MURIMUTH— MURNER
37
ant, vfaidi ODoe liiing in (hb iimA, b the " Viigin of the
Napldii." bdieved to have been peinted on a " lervilleU " and
pRscBtcdto the cook of the Capnrhin brotherhood a» a piemorial
of the artist's pendL
In 1670 MuxiUo is aaid to have declined an invitation to ooort,
preferring to labour among the brown coats of Seville. Eight
years afterwards his friend the canon Justino again employed
him to paint three pieces for the Hospital de los Venerables:
the "Mystery of the Immamlstr Conception," "St Peter
Weeping," and the " Blessed Virgin." As a mark of esteem,
HniiOo iKxt painted a foll-length portrait of the canon. The
spaniel at the feet of the priest has been known to caU forth a
saail from a living dog. His portraits generally, thou^ few,
arc of great beanty. Towards the ckise of Us life MuiiUo
cnciited a series of pictures illustrative of the life of " the
gforkns doctor " for the Augustinian convent at Seville. This
faiinsi « to the last work of the artist Mounting a scaffolding
one day at Cadis (whither he had gone in z68i) to execute the
higher parts of a large picture of the " Espousal of St Catherine,"
on which he was engaged for the Capuchins of that town, he
starabfed, and fcU so violently that he received a hurt from which
he never r ecove r ed. The great picture was left unfinished, and
the artist returned to Seville to die. He died as Jie had lived,
ahnmble, pious, brave man, on the 3rd of April 2682 in the arms
<i the chevalier Pedro Nulkes de Villavicencio, an intimate
fiiend and one of his best piqals. Another of hb numerous
pupils was Sebastian Gomez, named "Muzillo's Muktto."
Mmiilo kft two sons (one of them at first an indifferent painter,-
afterwards & priest) and a daughter— his wife haidng died
before hini.
MoriDo has always been one of the most popular of painters—
not in Spain akme. His works show great terhmfal attainment
without much style, and a strong feeling for ordinary nature
and for truthful or sfntimmfsl expression without lofty boiuty
or ideal elevation, ffis entasies of Madonnaf and Saints are
the themes of some of his most celebrated achievements. Take
as an rrampl^ the " Immaculate Conception " (or " Assumption
of the Virghi," for the titles may, with reference to Murillo's
treatmenu of this subject, almost be interchanged) in the
Louvre, a picture for which, on iu sale from the Soult collection,
one of the largest prices on record was given in 1852, some
it^faoo. His subjects may be divided into two great groups—
the scenes from low life (which were a new experiment in Spanish
art, so far as the subjects of children are concerned), and the
Scriptural, legendary and religious works. The former, of
which some salient sperimens are in the Dulwich Gallery, are,
shboggh undoubtedly truthful, neither ingenious not sym-
pathetic; socdui unrightliness and roguish squalor are thdr
foeadation. Works of this dass belong mostly to the earlier
jtxn of MnriOo's pnctioe. The subjecU in which the painter
Bast exoeb are crowded compositions in which some act of
MistKnfss, involving the ascetic or self-morlifying element,
ii being performed— subjects which, while repulsive in some of
their details, miphawre the broadly human and the expressly
Calbolic conceptions of life. A famous example is the picture,
Bowia the Madrid Academy, of St Elizabeth of Hungary washing
pttients afiiicted with the scab or itch, and hence commonly
aaaied " El Tifloao." Technically considered, it unites his three
aiTles of pninfing, more especially the cold and the warm. His
power of giving a tmosp here to combined groups of figures is one
ef the marked charactoistics of MuriHo's art; and he may be said
to have excelled in this respect all hit predecessors or con-
tBBpQories of whatever school
SeriOe most still be visited by perwns who wish to study
If (BJBo tfaomghly. A large number of the works which used
to adorn this dty have, however, been transported else-
vhkher. In the Ptado Museum at Madrid are forty-five
Vedaens of Morilla— the " Infant Christ and the Baptist "
(su&ed " Los I>raios delU Concha ")« *' St Bdefonso vested with
aOiasubfe by the Madonna," &&; in the Museo della Trinklad,
"Qnit and the \lrgxn appearing to St Fnmds in a Cavern "
^BBBcnecompoeition)* and various otherk In the National
Gaflery, London, the chief example is the " Holy Family "; this
waa one of the master's Utest works, painted in Cadis. In
public galleries in the United Kingdom there are altogether
twenty-four examples by Murillo; in those of Spain, seventy-one.
Murillo, who was the last pre-eminent painter of Seville, was
an indef a ti ga b l e and prolific worker, hardly leaving his painting-
room save lor his devotions in church; he realized large prices,
according to the standard of his time, and made a great fortune.
His charscter is recorded aa amiable and soft, yet independent,
subject abo to sodden impulses, not unmixed with passion.
See Stiriing, Amub tf Om Artists sf Spam (3 vob., London.
1848): Richard Ford, Bamdbookfer Spmn O^ondon. 1855); Curtis,
CalaUpmcfAs Wcrkstf VSawtmand Murilh (iS8^)X Alfonso,
MmriOo, d AoMbv, Ac (18K); C. Jutti, MuriOe (iUustnted,
1893) : P. Lefort, limtUc tt $ts 4(W» (1893) ; P. M. Tubinq, Murillo,
su cAko. Ac (1864: Eog. tians.. 1870); Dr G. C. Williamson,
ir«rab(i9u):C.&Rkketts, rk« Aad0(i9O3). (W. M. R.)
■UHuiUTB, ADAM («. is74-x347)i EngUsh ecclesiastic and
chronicler, was bom in 1274 or 1375 and educated in the dvil
law at Oxford. Between 1312 and 1318 he practised in the
papal curia at Avignon. Edward IL and Archbishop Winchebey
were among hb dients, and hb legal services secured for him
canonries at Hereford and St Paul's, and the precentorship
of Exeter CathedrsL In 1331 he retired to a country living
(Wraysbury, Bucks), and devoted himself to writing the history
of hb own times. Hb ConHmiatio ckromcanm, begun not
earlier than 1335, starU from the year 1303, and was carried
up to Z347, the year of hb death. Meagre at first, it becomes
fuller about 1340 and b specially valuable for the hbtory of the
French wars. Murimuth has no merits of style, and gives a
bald narrative of events. But he inoorjwrates many, documents
in the latter part of hb book. The annab of St. Paul's which
have been edited by Bishop Stubbs, are closely related to the
work of Murimuth, but probably not from hb pen. The
OmtkiuaHo was carried on, after hb death, by an anonymous
writer to the year X38a
The only complete edition of the OmUnwOU ekronkantm b that
by E. M. Thomnon (Rolb series, 1889). The preface to this edition,
and to W. Stubbs's CknmcUs of Edward I. and II., vol i. (Rolb
series, 1883), shoukl be consulted. The anonymous continuation
b printed in T. Hog's edition of Murimuth (Esf . HisL Soe., London,
1846). 01. W. C D.)
■uiUBH, 1H01EA8 (Z475-1537?), German satirbt, was
bom on the 24th of December 1475 at Oberehnheim near Strsss-
buxg. In 1490 he entered the order of Franciscan monks, and
in Z495 bqjan a wandering life, studying and then teaching and
preadung in Freiburg in-Breisgau, Paris, Cracow and Strassburg.
The e mp eior Marimilian I. crowxied him in 1505 poeta laMreatus;
in Z506, he was created doctor theolopae, and in 1513 was ap-
pointed custodian of the Franciscan monastery in Strassburg,
an office which, on account of a scunilous publication, he was
forced to vacate the following year. Late in life, in 1518, he
began the study of jurisprudence at the university of Basel,
and in 1519 to<^ the degree of doctor juris. After journeys in
Italy and EngUnd, he again settled in Strassburg, but, disturbed
by the Reformation, sought an exOe at Lucerne in Switzerbnd
in 1536. In ZS33 he was appointed priest of Oberehnhdm,
where he died in Z537, or, according to some accounts, in Z536.
Mumer was an energetic and passioiute character, who niade
enemies wherever he went. There b not a trace of human
kindness in hb satires, which were directed against the cor-
ruption of the times, the Reformation, and especially against
Luther. Hb most powerful sathfe— and the most virulent
Cierman satire of the period— b Vam dem grossen lutkerischen
Narrm, trie ikn Dr Mwmer be s ckwor m haL Among othen
may be mentioned DU Narrmbesekwdrumg (1512); Die Sckdmen-
Munft (i5Z3); Die GSuckmaU, which treats of enamoured foob
(tsx9), and a translation of Vhgfl's Aetieid (15x5) dedicated to
the emperor Maximilian I. Mumer abo wrote the humor-
oua CkttriUsidutm lopcae (1507) and the Ludus studentum
freiburgfinrium (x$zx), besides a transbtion of Justinian's
InsHttUiones (15x9).
AH Muner's mora hnportant works have been republished in
J
38
MUROM— MURRAY, A. S.
critical editions: a adection waapubliabed by G. Bailee in KOracb-
ner's Deutsche NationaUiteratur O^Qo). Cf. W. Kawcrau, Mumer
und die Kirche des MitUlalters (1S90); and by the same writer,
Murner und die deutscke Reformatiou (1891}; aUo K. Ott, Vber
Mumers Verhcliniss tuGeiler (1896).
MUROM, a town of Russia, in the government of Vladimir,
on the craggy left bank of the Oka, close to its confluence with
the Tesha, xo8 m. by rail S.E. of the dty of Vladimir. Pop.
(1900), 12,874. Muron has an old cathedraL It is the chief
entrep6t for grain from the basin of the lower Oka, and carries
on an active trade with Moscow and Nizhniy^Novgorod. It is
famed, as in andent times, for kitchen-gardens, eq>eciaUy for
its cucumbers and seed for canaries. Its once famous tanneries
have lost their importance, but the manufacture of linen has
increased; it has also steam flour-mills, distiUedes, manufac-
tories of soap and of iron implements.
MURPHY, ARTHUR (1737-1805), Irish actor and dramatist,
son of a Dublin merchant, was bom at Clomquin, Roscommon,
on the 37th of December 1727. From 1738 to 1744, under
the name of Arthur French, he was a student at the English
college at St Omer. He entered the coimting-house of a mer-
chant at Cork on recommendation of his unde, Jeffery French,
in 1747. A refusal to go to Jamaica aUenated French's interest,
and Mivphy exchanged his situation for one in London. By
the autumn of 1752 he was publishing the Grays Inn Journal,
a periodical in the style of the Spectator, Two years later he
became an actor, and appeared in the title-r61es of Richard J2 1.
and Othdlo'f as Biion in Southerners Fatal Marriage\ and as
Osmyn in Congreve's Mourning Bride, His first farce, Tlu
Apprentice, was given at Drury Lane on the and of January
1756. It was followed, among other plays, by The Upholsterer
(1757), The Orphan of China (1759), The Way to Keep Him
(1760), AUinthe Wrong (1761), The Grecian Daughter (x772)»
and Know Your Own Mind (1777). These were almost all
adaptations from the French, and were very successful, securing
for their author both fame and trcalth. Murphy edited a
political periodical, called the Test, in support of Henry Fox, by
whose influence he was called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn,
although he had been refused at the Middle Temple in 2757
on account of his connexion with the stage. Murphy also
wrote a biography of Fielding, an essay on the life and graius
of Samud Johnson and translations of Sallust and Tadtus.
Towards the dose of his life the office of a commissioner of
bankrvpu and a pension of £200 were oonfened upon him
by government. He died on the i8th of June 1805.
MURPHY, JOHN FRANCIS (1853- ), American Umdscape
painter, was bom at Oswego, New York, on the xxth of
December X853. He first exhibited at the National Academy
of Design in 1876, and was made an associate in X885 and a
full aoademidan two years later. He became a memba of the
Sodety of American Artists (xgox) and of the American Water
Color Sodety.
MURPHY, ROBERT (X806-X843), British mathematician, the
son of a poor shoemaker, was born at Mallow, in Ireland, in
x8o6. At the age of thirteen, while working as an apprentice
in his father's shop, he became known to certain gentlemen in
the neighbourhood as a self-taught mathematician. Through
their exertions, after attending a classical school in his native
town, he was admitted to Caius College, Cambridge, in X825.
Third wrangler in 1829, he was elected in the same year a feUow
of his coUi^ A course of dissipation led him into debt; his
fellowship was sequestered for the benefit of his creditoxa, and
he was obliged to leave Cambridge in December 1832. After
living for some time with his relations in Ireland, he repaired
to London in X836, a penniless literary adventurer. In 1838
he became examiner in mathematics and physics at London
University. He had already contributed several mathematical
papers to the Cambridge Philosophical Transactions (i83X~x836),
Philosophical Magasine (1833-X842), and the Philosophioal
Transactions (1837), and had published Elementary Principles of
the Theories of Electricity (1833). He now wrote for the " Library
of Useful Knowledge " a Treatise on the Theory of Algfbrokal
Equations (1839). He died on the xath of March 2843.
MUBPHY8B0R0, a dty and the county-ceftt of Jackaoa
county, Illinois, U.S.A., m the south part of the state, on the
Big Muddy River, about 57 m. N. of Cairo. Pop. (1890), 3880;
(X900), 6463, induding 557 fordgn-bom and 456 negroes; (1910),
7485. It is served by the Illinois Central, the Mobile & Ohio
and the St Louis, Iron Mountain & Southem railwayi. It is
the centre for a fanning region, in which there are deposits of
coal, iron, lead and shale, and there are various manufactures
in the dty. Murphysboro was incorporated in 1867, and re-
incorporated in 1875.
MURRAIN (derived tfanm^ O. Fir. marine, from Lat. mori, to
die), a general term for various virulent diseases in domesticated
animals, synonymous with plague or epixooty. The prindpal
diseases are dedt with under Rimdespest; PixuBO-FMxmiONiA;
Anthrax; and Foot and Mouth Djdbeasb. See also Vetee-
IN AEY S cience.
MURRAY (or Mosay), BARL8 OF. The caxldomof Moray was
one of the seven original earldoms of Scotland, its lands corre-
sponding roughly to the modem counties of Inverneu axui Rosa.
Little is known of the earls until about 13x4, when Sir Thomas *
Randolph, a nephew of King Robert Brace, was created eazl
of Moray (q.v.), and the Randolphs held the earldom until 1346,
when the childless John Randolph, 3rd eari of this line -and a
soldier of repute, was killed at the battle of Neville's Cross.
According to some authorities the earldom was then held by
John's sister Agnes (c. 13x2-1369) and her husband, Patrick
Dunbar, earl of March or Dunbar (c. 1285-X368). However
this may be, in 1359 an £n|^ish prince, Henry Plantagenet,
duke of \anrHMrT (d. 1361), was made eul of Moray by King
David n.; but in 1372 John Dunbar (d. 139X), a grandson of
Sir Thomas Randidph and a son-in-law of Robort U., obtained
the earldom. The last of the Dunbar eaxls was James Dunbar,
who was murdered in August 1429, and after this date hi^
daughter Elizabeth and her husband, Archibald Douc^(d. 1455),
called themsdves earl and countess of Moray.
The next family to bear this title was an illfgitiroate branch
of the royal house of Stuart, James IV. creating his natural
son, James Stuart (e, 1499-*! 544), eari of Moray. James died
without sons, and after the title had been home for a short time
by (jeoige Gordon, 4th eari of Huntly (c. isi4-x562), who
was killed at (^orrichie in. 1562, it was bestowed in X562 by
Mary Qmea of Scots upon her half-brother, an illegitimate son
of James V. This was. the famous regent, James Stuart, eail
of Moray, or Murray (see below), who was murdered in January
X570; after this event a third James Stuart,. who had married
the regent's daughter Elizabeth (d. X59X), hdd the earldom.
He, who was called the " bonny earl," was killed by his heredi-
tary enemies, the (jordons, in February 1592, when Us son James
(d. X638) succeeded to the title. The earldom of Momy has
remained in the Stuart family since this date. Alexander, the
4th eari (d. 1701), was secretary of state for Scotland from x68o
to X689; and in 1796 Frands, the 9th earl (X737-X8X0), was
made a peer of the United Kingdom as Baron Stuart.
See vol. vL of Sir R. Douglas's Peerage of Scotland, new ed. by
Sir J. b. Paul (1909).
MURRAY. ALEXAHDER CTUART (X84X-X904), British
srchseobgist, was bom at Arbroath on the 8th of January 1841,
and educated there, at Edinburgh high school and at the
universities of Edinbtirgh and Berlin. In 1867 he entered the
British Museum tut an assistant in the department of Greek and
Roman antiquities under Sir Charies Newton, whom he suc-
ceeded in x8i36. His younger brother, George Robert Milne
Murray (b. X858), was made keeper of the botanical department
in X89S, the only instance of two brothers becoming heads of
departments at the museum. In X873 ^' Murray published a
Manual of Mythology, and in the following year contributed to
the Contemporary Renew two articles— one on the Homeric
question— which led to a friendship with Mr Gladstone, the
other on Greek painters. In 1880-1883 he brought out his
History of Creeh Sculpture, which at once became a stsndaid
work. In 1886 he was sdected by the Society of Antiquaries of
Scotland to deliver the Rhind iKturcs on archaeology, out of
MURRAY, D.— MURRAY, LORD GEORGE
39
which grew ids Handbook of Creek Archaeology (189a). In
1894-1896 Dr Murray directed some excav&tions in Cyprus
undertaken by means of a bequest of £2000 from Mjss Emina
Toumour Turner. The objects obtained are described and
Shsstrated in Excaoations m Cyprus, published by the trustees
of the muMum in 2900^ Among Dr Murray's other official
twblicadnns are three folio volumes on Terracotta Sarcophagi,
WkUa AthetuoM Vases and Designs from Greek Vases, In 1898
be wrote for the Portfolio a monog*tiph on Greek bronzes,
fo u n d ed oa lectures delivered at the Royal Academy in that
year, aod he contributed many articles on archaeology to
standard publications. In recognition of his services to archaeo-
logy be was made LLD. of Glasgow University in 1887 and
elected a corresponding member of the Bedin Academy of
Sc iences in 1900. He died in March 1904.
■UBRAT, DAVID (1849- ), Scottish painter, was bom in
Glasgow, and spent some years in commercial purniiu before
he piacdsed as an artist. He was elected an associate of the
Rcyyal Academy in 2891 and academician in 1905; and also
beoune an associate of the Royal Scottish Academy and of
the VUayil Society of Painters in Water Colours, and a member
of the Royal Scottish Water Colour Sodety. He is a Undscape
painter of disdnction, and two of his pictures* " My Love is
gone »«uUng " (1884) and " In the Country of Constable "
(i909)> have been bought for the National Gallery of British
Art. " Young Wheat," painted in 1890^ is one of his most
noteworthy works.
HURRAY. RD8TAGB CLARB QRBHVIUB (1824-1881),
English journalist, was bom in 1824, the natural son of the and
duke of Buckingham, Educated at Magdalen Hall (Hertford
CoOege), (Mocd, he entered the diplomatic service through the
wffwriwT of Lord Falmerston, and in 1851 joined the British
cmbusy at Vienna as attachA At the same time he agreed
to act as Viemia correspondent of a London daily paper, a
breach o< the conventions of the British Foreign Office which
cost ham his post. In 1852 he was transferrKi to Hanover,
and thence to Constantinople, and finally, in 1855, was made
ooDsal-gencnl at Odessa. In z868 he returned to England,
aad devoted himself to journalism. He contributed to the
culy nombeis of Vanity Fair, and in 1869 founded a clever but
abusive society paper, the Queen's Messenger. For a libel
FiHV»H in this paper Lord Carrington honewhipped him
on the doorstep of a London dub. Murray was subsequently
diaiged with perjury for denying on oath his authorship of the
artide. Remanded on bail, he escaped to Paris, where he
nbseqnently lived, acting as correspondent of various London
papeis. In 1874 he hdped Edmund Yates to found the World,
Monay died at Pas^ on the aoth of December 1881.
Hk aooiw of books, several of which were translated into French
1 in Parts, inclade FrentM Pictures in Eugfish Chalk
■TORAY, U>RD GBOROB (169^1760), Scottish Jacobite
general, fifth son of John, zst duke of AthoU, by his first wife,
Catherine, dajighter of the 3rd duke of Hamilton, was bom
at Hsntingtower, near Perth, on the 4th of October 1694.
He joined the army in Flanders in June 27x2; In 1715, contrary
to their father's wishes, he and his brothen, the marquis o£
TalEbaidiiie and Lord Charles Murray, joined the Jacobite rebels
aader the eari of Mar, each brother commanding a regiment of
men ol AthoO. Lord Charles was taken prisoner at Preston,
bat aficr the oollapie of the rising Lord George escaped with
TaJEbardiiie to Smith Uist, and thence to Fkanoe. In 1719
liarray biok part in the Jacobite attempt hi conjunction with
the Spantaxds in the western highlands, under the command of
Ts&banfine and the earl marischal, which terminated in *' the
affair of GlensbSd ' on the roth of June, when he was wounded
vUie ooimna&ding the right wing of the Jacobites. After
Udiag Jor aune months in the hif^ilands he reached Rotter-
dam ID May r72a ' There is no evidence for the statement that
Usinv sovscTIa the Sarrfiniiin aaajfajnd little it known of his
life on the continent till 1724, when he returned to Scotland,
where !n the following year he was granted a pardon. The duke
of AthoU died in 1 724 and was succeeded in the title by his second
son James, owmg to the atuinder of Tullibardine; and Lord
<jeorge leased from his brother the old family property of
Tullibardine in Stratheam, where he lived till 1745.
On the eve of the Jacobite rising of 1745 the duke of Perth
made overtures to Lord George Murray on behalf of the
Pretender; but even after the landing of Charles Edward in
ScotUnd in July, accompanied by Tullibardine, Murra/s attitude
remained doubtfuL He accompanied his brother the duke to
Crieff on the 2xst of August to pay his respects to Sir John Cope,
the commander of the government troops, and he permitted
the duke to appoint him deputy-sheriff of Perthshire. It has
been suggested that Murray acted with duplidty, but his
hesitation was natural and genuine; and it was not till early in
September, when Charles Edward was at Bhur Castle, which had
been vacated by the duke of AthoU on the prince's approach,
that Murray dedded to espouse the Stuart cause. He then
wrote to his brother ezpbuning that he did so for consdentious
reasons, whUe realizing the risk of ruin it involved. On joining
the Jacobite army Lord George received a commission as Ueu-
tenant-general, though the prince ostentatiously treated him
with want of confidence; and he was flouted by the Irish adven-
turers who were the Pretender's trusted advisers. At Perth
Lord George exerted himself with success to introduce disdpline
and organiaation in the army he was to command, and he gained
the confidence of the highland levies, with whose habits and
methods of fighting he was familiar. He also used his influence
to prevent the exactions and arbitrary interference with dvil
rights which Charles was too ready to sanction on the advice of
others. At Preslonpans, on the 2xst of September, Lord George,
who led the Jacobite left wing in person, was practically com-
mander-in-chief, and it was to his able generalship that the
victory was mainly due. During the six weeks' occupation of
Edinburgh he did useful work in the further organization and
disdplining of the army. He opposed Charles's plan of invading
England, and when his judgment was overruled he prevailed
on the prince to march into Cumberland, which he knew to be
favourable ground for highlander tactics, instead of advancing
against General Wade, whose army was posted at Newcastle.
He conducted the siege of Carlisle, but on the surrender of the
town on the X4th of November he resigned his command on
the ground that his authority had been insuffidently upbdd by
the prince, and he obtained permission to serve as a volunteer
in the ranks of the AthoU levies. The dissatisfaction, however,
of the army with the appointment of the duke of Perth to
succeed him compeUed Charles to reinstate Murray, who accord-
ingly commanded the Jacobites in the march to Derby. Here
on the 5th of December a council was hdd at which Murray
urged the necessity for retreat, owing to the failure of the English
Jacobites to support the invasion and the absence of aid from
France. As Murray was supported by the council the retreat
was ordered, to the intense chagrin of Charles, who never forgave
him; but the failure of the enterprise was mainly chargeable
to Charles himself, and it was not without justice that Mui ray's
aide de camp, the chevalier Johantone, dedared that "had
Prince Charles slept during the whole of the expedition, and
aUowed Lord George Murray to act for him according to his
own judgment, he would have found the crown of Great Britain
on his head when he awoke.'^ Lord George commanded the
rear-guard during the retreat; and this task, rendered doubly
dangerous by the proximity of Cumberland in the rear and Wade
on the flank, was made stiU more difficult by the incapadty
and petulance of the Pretender. By a skilfully fought rear-
guard action at Oifton Moor, Lord George enabled the army to
reach CarUsle safdy and without loss of stores or war material,
and on the 3rd of January X746 the force entered Stirling, where
they were jomed by remforcements from Perth. The prince
laid siege to StirUng Castle, while Murray defeated General
Hawley near Falkirk; but the losses of the Jacobites by sickness'
and desertion, and the aDsroachof Cumfaeiiandt.made retreat
MURRAY, JAMES— MURRAY, EARL OF
40
to the Highlands an immediate necessity, in which the prince
was compelled to acquiesce; his resentm en t was such that he
gave ear to groundless suggestions that Murray was a traitor,
which the tatter's failure to capture his brother's stronghold
of Blair Castle did nothing to refute.
In April 1746 the Jacobite army was in the neighbourhood
of Inverness, and the prince decided to give battle to the duke
of Cumberland. Charles took up a position on the left bank of
the Nairn river at CuUoden Moor, rejecting Lord George's Murray
advice to select a much stronger position on the opposite bank.
The battle of CuUoden, where the Stuart cause was ruined,
was fought on the x6th of April 1746. On the following day the
duke of Cumberland intimated to his troops that " the public
orders of the rebels yesterday was to give us no quarter";
Hanoverian news-sheets printed what purported to be copies
of such an order, and the historian James Ray and other con-
temporary writers gave further currency to a calumny that has
been repeated by modem authorities. Original cc^ies of Lord
George Murray's " orders at CuUoden " are hi existence, one of
which is among Cumberiand's own papers, while another was
in the possession of Lord Hardwicke, the judge who tried the
Jacobite peers in 1746, and they contain no injunction to refuse
quarter. After the defeat Murray conducted a remnant of the
Jacobite army to Ruthven, and prepared to organise further
resistance. Prince Charles, however, had determined to aban-
don the enterprise, and at Ruthven Lord George received an
order dismissing him from the prince's service, to which he replied
in a letter upbraiding Charles for his distrust and mismanage-
ment. Charles's belief in the general's treachery was shared
by several leading Jacobites, but there appears no ground for
the suqiidon. From the moment he threw in his lot with the
exiled prince's cause Lord George Murray never deviated in his
byalty and devotion, and his generalship was deserving of the
highest praise; but the discipline he enforced and jealousy of
his authority made enemies of some of those to whom Charles
was more inclined to listen than to the general who gave him
sound but unwelcome advice.
Murray escaped to the continent in December 1746, and was
graciously received in Rome by the Old Pretender, who granted
him a pension; but in the following year when he went to Paris
Charles Edward refused to see him. Lord George lived at
various places abroad until his death, which occurred at Medem-
blik in Holland on the rzth of October 1760. He married
in 1728 Amelia, daughter and heiress of James Murray of
Strowan and Glencarse, by whom he had three sons and two
daughters. His eldest son John became 3rd duke of AthoU in
1764; the two younger sons became lieutenant-general and
vice-admiral respectively in the British service.
See A Military History of Perthskirt, ed. by the marchioneas of
TuUibatdinc {2 vols.. London, 1908), ooataining a memoir of Lord
George Murray and a facnmile copy of hb ordera at CuUoden;
The AthoU Chronides, ed. by the duke of AthoU tprivatdy printed) :
The Chevalier James de Jjonnstone, Memoirs uf m« Rebdfion m I74<
(xrd ed., London. 182a) ; James Ray, Compleai Historit ef the Rebd-
hon, t/4S-J7A6 (London, 1734): Robert Patten, History rf tho lato
Rehdlton (2nd ed., London. 1717) • Memoirs of Sir John Murray ef
Broughton, cd. by R. F. Bell (Edinburgh, 1898); Andrew Henderson,
History pf the Rebellion, 1745-1746 (and ed., London, 1748).
(R. J. M.)
MURRAY. JAMBS (e, 17x9-1794), British governor of Canada,
was a younger son of Alexander Murray, 4th Lord Elibank
(d. 1736). Having entered the British army, he served with the
15th Foot in the West Indies, the Netherhmds and Brittany, and
became lieutenantpoolond of this rei^ent by purchase in 1751.
In 1757 he led his men to North America to take part in the
war against France. He commanded a brigade at the siege of
Louisburg, was one of Wolfe's three brigadiers in the expedition
against (^ebec, and commanded the left wing of the army in
the famous battle in September 1759. After the British victory
and the capture of the city, Murray was left in command of
Quebec; having strengthened its fortifications and taken
measures to improve the morsle of his men, he defended it in
April and May 1760 against the attacks of the French, who were
soon oonqwUed to raise the siege. .The British troops had been
dedmated by disease, and it was only a remnant that Murray
now led to join General Amherst at Montreal, and to be present
when the last batch of French troops in Canada surrendered.
In October 1760 he was appomted governor of Quebec, and he
became governor of Canada after this country had been formaUy
ceded to Great Britain in 1763. In this year he queUed a
dangerous mutiny, and soon after?rards his aUeged partiality for
the interests of the French Canadians gave offence to the British
settlers; they asked for his recaU, and in 1766 he retired from his
post. After an inquiry in the House of Lords, he was exonerated
from the charges wUch had been biou^t against him. In
1774 Murray was sent to Mmorca aa governor, and hi 1781,
while he was in charge of this island, he was besieged hi Fort
St PhiUp by a large force of French and Spaniards. After a
stubborn resistance, which lasted neariy seven months, he was
obUged to surrender the place; and on his return to Eng^d
he was tried by a court-martUd, at the histanoe of Sir WUliam
Draper, who had served under him hi Mmorca aa Ueutenant-
govemor. He was acquitted and he became a general hi 1783.
He died on the x8th of June 1794. Murrajr's only son was
James Patrick Mortay (1782-1834), a major-goiaal and member
of parliamenL
MURRAY. SIR JAMB AUQUSTUS HnRY (1837- ).
British lexicographer, was bom at Denholm, near Hawick,
Roxburgfashuie, and after a local elementary edncation.prooeeded
to Edmbmg^, and thence to the university of London, where
he graduated B.A. in 1873. Sir James Murray, who received
honorary degrees from several universities, both British and
foreign, was engaged hi scholastic work for thuty years, from
1855 to i88s, chiefly at Hawick and MiU HiU. During this time
his reputation as a philologist was increasing, and he was
assistant exandner hi English at the University of London from
1875 to r879 and president of the Phikkigical Society of London
from X878 to x88o, and again from 1882 to 1884. It was in
connexion with this society that he undertook the chief work
of his life, the editing of the Ifew EngUsk Dictionary^ bssed on
materials coUected by the sodety. These materials, which had
accumukted since 1857, when the sodety first projected the
pubUcation of a dictkinary on philological prindples, amounted
to an enormous quantity, of wl^ch an idea may be fonned from
ihe fact that Dr FumivaU sent in " some ton and three-quarters
of materials which had accumulated under his roof." After
negotiations extendmg over a considerable period, the contracts
between the sodety, the delegates of the Cbrendon Press, and
the editor, were signed on the xst of March 1879, and Murray
began the exammation and arrangement of the raw material,
and the stiU more troublesome work of re-animating and main-
tainhig the enthusUsm of " readers." In x88$ he removed from
MiU HiU to Oxford, where his Scriptorium came to rank among
the institutions of the University dty. The first volume of
the dictionary was printed at the Clarendon Press, Oxford,
in x888. A fuU account of its beginning and the manner of
working up the materials wiU be found m Murray 's presidential
address to the PhOological Sodety m 1879, whUe reporU of
iU progress are given m the addresses by hunself and other
presidents hi subsequent yeark In addition to his work n &
phUobgist, Murray was a frequent contributor to the transac-
tions of the various antiquarian and archaeological sodetles of
which he is a member; and he wrote the article on the Engliah
hmguage for this Encydopaedia. In z88$ he recdved the
honorary degree of M.A. from BaUiol CoUege; he was an origmal
feUow of the British Academy, and hi Z908 he was knif^ted.
MURRAY (or Mo»ay), JAMB STUART, Eau. or (c. ZS3X*
1570), regent of Scotland, was an Ulegitimate son of James V.
of Scotland by Margaret Erskine, daughter of John Erskine,
eari of Mar. In 1538 he was appomted prior of the abbey of
St Andrews hi order that James V. might obtam possession of
iU funds. Educated at St Andrews University, he attacked*
in September 1549, an EngUsh force which had made a descent
on the Fife coast, and routed it with great slaughter. In
addition to the priory of St Andrews, he recdved those abo of
PittcDweem and MAoon hi Fxuoe, but minifffltcd no jfocatioa.
MURRAY, JOHN
for a monastic life. The discounes of KnoXt which he heard
at Calder, won his approval, and shortly after the return of the
itforoKr to Scotland in 1559, James Stuart left the party of the
queen regent and joined Uie lords of the congregatbn, who
resolved forcibly to abolish the Roman service. After the
return of Queen Maxy in 15S1, he became her chief adviser, and
his cautious firmness was for a time effectual in inducing her
to adopt a policy of moderation towards the reformers. At the
beginning of 1563 he was created earl of Murray, a dignity also
held by George Gordon, earl of Huntly, who, however, had
lost the queen's favour. Only a few days later he was made earl
of Mar, but as this title was claimed by John, Lord Erskine,
Siuart resigned it and received a second grant of the earldom of
Murray, Hunily by this time having been killed in battle.
HeiKeforward he was known as the earl of Moray, the alternative
Murray being a more modem and less correct variant. About
this time the earl married Anne (d. 1583), daughter of William
Kdth. ist Earl MarischaL
After the defeat and death of Huntly, the leader of the
Catholic party, the pdicy of Murray met for a time with no
ohsude, but he awakened the displeasure of the queen by his
e£orts in behalf of Knox when the latter was accused of high
treas<ni; and as he was also opposed to her marriage with
Damlcy, he was after that event declared an outlaw and took
refuge in England. Returning to Scotland after the murder
of Rizzio, he was pardoned by the queen. He contrived,
however, to be away at the time of Damley's assassination,
asd avoided the tangles of the marriage with BothweU by going
to France. After the abdication of Queen Mary at Locblevcn,
in July ZS67, be was appointed regent of Scotland. When
IrXaiy escaped from Locbleven (May a, 1568), the duke of Ch&lcl-
hcrault and other Catholic nobles rallied to her standard,
bet Murray and the Protestant lords gathered their adherents,
defeated her forces at Langside, near Glasgow (May 13, 1568),
sad compelled her to flee to England. Murray displayed
prompiocss in baffling Mary's schemes, suppressed the border
thieves, and ruled firmly, resisting the temptation to place the
crown 00 his own head. He observed the forms of personal
piety; poasSbUy he shared the zeal of the reformers, while he
moderated their bigotry. But he reaped the fruits of the
ccQ^ades which led to the murders of Rizzio and Damlcy.
He amassed too great a fortune from the estates of the Church
to be deemed a pure reformer of its abuses. He pursued his
sbler with a cakubted animosity which would not have spared
her life had this been necessary to his end or been favoured by
Elizabeth. The mode of producing the casket letters and
the fahe charges added by Buchanan, deprive Murray of any
daim to have been an honest accuser. His reluctance to charge
Mary with complicity in the murder of Damley was feigned,
tad hs object was gained when he was allowed to table the
accusation without being forced to prove it. Mary remained
a captive under suspicion of the gravest guilt, while Murray
ruled Scotland in her stead, supported by nobles who had taken
{art in the steps which ended in BoihwcU's deed. During the
year between his becoming regent and his death several events
Gccuncd for which he has been censured, but which were
cecessary for his security: the betrayal to Elizabeth of the duke
cf Korfclk and of the secret plot for the liberation of Mary; the
imprisonment of the earl of Northumberland, who after the
(ulare of his rising in the north of En^^nd had Uken refuge'
is ScotlazKl; and the charge brought against Mailland of Lelh-
isgion of complicity in Damley's murder. Lethington was
Gocmiitcd to custody, but was rescued by Kirkaldy of Grange,
»bo held the castle of Edinburgh, and while there " the chame*
koa," as Buchanan named Maitbnd in his famous invective,
gained over those in the castle, including Kirkaldy. Murray
was afraid to pnxxed with the charge on the day of trial, while
Kirkaldy and Maitland held the castle, which became the
stronghold of the deposed queen's party. It has been suspected
that Maitland and Kirkaldy were cognizant of the design of
Hamiltoo of BothweUhaugh to murder Murray, for he had been
with. them In the castk. This has been ascribed to private
4«
vengeance for the ill-treatment of his wife, but the feud of the
Hamiltons with the regent is the most reasonable explanation.
As he rode through linlitbgow Murray was shot on the 21st of
January 1 570 from a window by Hamilton, who had made careful
preparation for the murder and bis own escape. He was buried
in the south aisle of St Giles Cathedral, Edinburgh, amid general
mourning. Knox preached the sermon and Buchanan furnished
the epitaph, both panegyrics. The elder of his two daughters,
Elizabeth, married James Stuart (d. 1592), son of James, 1st
Lord Doune, who succeeded to the earldom of Murray in right
of his wife.
The materials for the life of Murray are found in the records and
documents of the time, prominent among which arc the various
CeUndars ef State Papers. Mention must also be made of the many
books which treat of Mary. Queen of Scots, and of the histories of
the time— especially I. A Froude, Historf of England, and Andrew
Lang. History of Scotland.
MURRAY, JOHN, the name for several generations of a great
firm of London publishers, founded by John McMurray (1745-
1793), A native of Edinburgh and a retired lieutenant of marines,
who in 1768 bought the book business of William Sandby in
Fleet Street, and. dropping the Scottish prefix, called himself
John Murray. He was one of the twenty original proprietors
of the Morning Chronicle, and started the monthly English
Review (1783-1706). Among his publications were Mil ford's
Greece, Langhome's Plutarch's Lives, and the first part of Isaac
D'Israeli's Curiosities of Literature, He died on the 6th of
November 1793.
John Murray (2) (1778-1843), his son, was then fifteen.
During his minority the business was conducted by Samud
Highlcy, who was admitted a partner, but in 1803 the partner-
ship was dissolved. Murray soon began to show the courage
in literary speculation which earned for him later the name
given him by Lord Byron of " the Anak of publishers." In
1807 he took a share with Constable in publishing Marmion,
and became part owner of the Edinburgh Review, although with
the help of Canning he bunched in opposition the Quarterly
Review (Feb. 1809), with Willbm Gifford as its editor, and Scott,
Canning, Southey, Hookham Frere and John Wilson Croker
among its earliest contributors. Murray was closely connected
with Constable, but, to his distress, was compelled in 1813 to
break this assodation on account of Constable's business methods,
which, as he foresaw, led to disaster. In 181 1 the first two
cantos of Childe Harold were brought to Murray by R. C. Dallas,
to whom Byron had presented ihcm. Murray paid Dallas
500 guineas for the copyright. In 18x2 he bought the pub-
lishing business of William Miller (1769-1844), and migralcid to
so, Albemarle Street. Literary London flocked to his house, and
Murray became the centre of the publishing world. It was in
his drawing-room that Scott and Byron first met, and here, in
1824, after the death of Lord Byron, the MS. of his memoirs,
considered by Gififord unfit for publication, was destroyed.
A close friendship existed between Byron and his publisher,
but for political reasons business relations ceased after the
publication of the 5th canto of Don Juan. Murray paid Byron
some £20,000 for his various poems. To Thomas Moore he
gave nearly £5000 for writing the life of Byron, and to Crabbe
£3000 for Tales of the Hall. He died on the 27lh of June 1843.
His son, John Murray (3) (1808-1892), inherited much of
his business tact and judgment. " Murray's Handbooks " for
travellers were issued under his editorship, and he himself wrote
several volumes (see his article on the " Handbooks " in Murray's
Magazine, November 1889). He published many books of
travel; also Campbell's Lives of the Chancellors, The Speaker's
Commentary, Smith's Dictionaries; and works by Halbm,
Gbdstone, Lycll, Layard, Dean Stanley, Borrow, Darwin, Living-
stone and Samuel Smiles. He died on the and of April 1892,
and was succeeded by his eldest son, John Murray (4) (b. 1851),
under whom, in assodation with his brother, A. H. HaUam
Mumiy, the firm was continued.
See Samuel Smiles. A Publisher and his Friends, Memoirs and
Correspondence of the late John Murray . . . (1891), for the second
John Murray; a leries of three artides by F. Espir
pinasae on " The
4-2
House of Murray," in Tlte Critic (Tan. i860) ; and a |>aper by the
same writer in Harper's New Morohly Uagasine (Sept. 1885). See
the Letters and Journals of Byron (cd. Prothcro, 1 898-1901).
MURRAY, JOHN (1778-1820), Scottish chemist, was bom at
Edinburgh in 1778 and died there on the 2and of July 1820.
He graduated M.D. at St Andrews in 1814, agd attained some
reputation as a lecturer on chemistry and materia medica. He
was an opponent of Sir Humphry Davy's theory of chlorine,
supporting the view that the substance contained oxygen, and
it was in the course of experiments made to disprove his argu-
ments that Dr John Davy discovered phosgene or carbonyl
chloride. He was a diligent writer of textbooks, including
Elements oj Chemistry (1801); Elements of Materia Medica and
Pharmacy (1804); A System of Chemistry (1806), and (anony-
mously) A Comparative View of the Huttonian and Neptunian
Systems of Geology. He is sometimes confused with another
John Murray (1786-1851), a popular lecturer at mechanics'
institutes. The two men carried on a dispute about the inven-
tion of a miners' safety lamp in the Phil. Mag. for 181 7.
MURRAY, SIR JOHN (1841- ), British geographer and
naturalist, was bom at Coburg, Ontario, Canada, on the
3rd of March 1841, and after some years' local schooling studied
in Scotland and on the Continent. He was then engaged for
some years in natural history work at Bridge of Allan. In
1868 he visited Spitsbergen on a whaler, and in 1872, when the
voyage of the " Challenger " was projected, he was appointed
one of the naturalists to the expedition. At the conclusion of
the voyage he was made principal assistant in drawing up the
scientific results, and in 1882 he became editor of the Reports,
which were completed in 1896. He compiled a summary of the
results, and was part-author of the Narrative of the Cruise and of
the Report on Deep-sea Deposits. He also published numerous
important papers on oceanography and marine biology. In
1898 he was made K.C.B., and the received many distinctions
from the chief scientific societies of the world. Apart from his
work in connexion with the " Challenger " Reports, he went in
18S0 and 1882 on expeditions to explore the Facroc Channel,
and between 1882 and 1894 was the prime mover in various
biological investigations in Scottish waters. In 1897, with
the generous financial assistance of Mr Laurence Pullar and a
staff of specialists, he began a bathymclrical survey of the
fresh-water lochs of Scotland, the results of which, with a
fine series of illustrations and maps, were published in iqio
in six volumes. He took a leading part in the expedition
which started in April 1910 for the physiological and biological
investigation of the North Atlantic Ocean on the Norwegian
vessel " Michael Sars."
MURRAY, LINDLEY (i 745-1826), Anglo-American gram-
marian, was bom at Swatara, Pennsylvania, on the 22nd of
April 1745. His father, a (^aker, was a leading New York
merchant. At the age of fourteen he was placed in his father's
office, but he ran away to a school in Burlington, New Jersey.
He was brought back to New York, but his arguments against
a commercial career prevailed, and he was allowed to study
law. On being called to the bar he practised successfully in
New York. In 1783 he was able to retire, and in 1784 he left
America for England. Settling at Holgate, near York, he
devoted the rest of his life to literary pursuits. His first book
was Power of Religion on tlte Mind (1787). In 1795 he issued
his Grammar of the English Language. This was followed,
among other analogous works, by English Exercises, and the
English Reader. These books passed through several editions,
and the Grammar was the standard textbook for fifty years
throughout England and America. Lindley Murray died on
the i6th of January 1826.
Sec the Memoir of^ the Life and Writings of Lindley Murray
(partly autobiographical), by Elizabeth Frank (1826); Life of
Murray, by W. H. Eglc (New York, 1885).
MURRAY (or Moray). SIR ROBERT (c. 1600-1673)^ one of
the founders of the Royal Society, was the son of Sir Robert
Murray of Crafgie, Ayrshire, and was bom about the beginning
of the 17th century. In early life he served in the French army,
and, winning the favour of Richelieu, rose to the rank of colonel.
MURRAY, J.— MURREE
On the outbreak of the Civil War he retumed to Scotland and
collected recmits for the royal cause. The triumph of Cromwell
compelled him for a time to return to France, but he took part
in the Scottish insurrection in favour of Charles II. in 1650, and
was named lord justice clerk and a privy councillor. These
appointments, which on account of the overthrow of the royal
cause proved to be at the time only nominal, were confirmed at
the Restoration in 1660. Soon after this Sir Robert Murray
began to Uke a prominent part in the deliberations of a club
instituted in London for the discussion of natural science, or,
as it was then called, the " new philosophy." When it was
proposed to obtain a charter for the society he undertook to
interest the king in the matter, the result being that on the
15th of July 1663 the club was incorporated by charter under
the designation of the Royal Society. Murray was its first
president. He died in June 1673.
MURRAYt the largest river in Australia. It rises in the
Australian Alps in 36" 40' S. and 147^ E., and flowing north-west
skirts the borders of New South Wales and Victoria until it
passes into South Australia, shortly after which it bends south-
ward into Lake Alexandrina, a shallow lagoon, whence it makes
its way to the sea at Encounter Bay by a narrow opening at
SS" 35' S. and 138" 5 S' E. Near its source the Murray Gates,
precipitous rocks, tower above it to the height of 3000 ft.;
and the earlier part of its course is tortuous and uneven.
Farther on it loses so much by evaporation in some parts as to
become a series of pools. Its length till it debouches into Lake
Alexandrina is 11 20 m., its average breadth in summer is 240 ft.,
its average depth about 16 ft.; and it drains an area of about
270,000 sq. m. For small steamers it is navigable as far as
Albury. Periodically it overflows, causing wide inundations.
The principal tributaries of the Murray are those from New
South Wales, including the Edward River, the united streams of
the Murmmbidgce and Lachlan, and the Darling or Callewatta.
In 1829 Captain Sturt traced the Murmmbidgee River till it
debouched into the Murray, which he followed down to Lake
Alexandrina, but he was compelled, after great hardships, to
relum without discovering its mouth. In 1831 Captain Barker,
while attempting to discover this, was murdered by the natives.
MURRAY COD {Oligorus macquariensis), one of the largest
of the numerous fresh-water Perciform fishes of Australia, and
the most celebrated for its excellent flavour. It belongs to
the family Serranidae. Its taxonomic affinities lie in the direc-
tion of the perch and not of the cod family. The shape of the
body is that of a perch, and the dorsal fin consists of a spinous
^£^^''""""''"""" "
Murray Cod.
and rayed portion, the number of spines being eleven. The
length of the spines varies with age, old individuals having
shorter spines— that is, a lower dorsal fin. The form of the
head and the dentition also resemble those of a perch, but
none of the bones of the head has a serrated margin. The
scales are small. The colour varies in different localities; it
is generally brownish, with a greenish tinge and numerous
small dark green spots. As impUed by the name, this fish has
its headquarters in the Murray River and its tributaries, but it
occurs also in the northem parts of New South Wales. It is the
most important food fish, of these rivers, and is said to attain
a length of more than 3 ft. and a weight of 1 20 lb.
MURREE, a town and sanatorium of British India, in the
Rawalpindi district of the Punjab, 7517 ft. above the sea, about
five hours' joumey by cart-road from Rawalpindi town, and
the starting-point for Kashmir. The houses arc built on the
MURSHIDABAD— MUSCAT
43
sammit and skies of an irreguUr ridge, and command magnifi-
cent views over forest-clad hills and deep valleys, studded with
villages and cultivated fields, with the snow-covered peaks of
Kashmir in the background. The population in 1901 was 1844;
but these figures omit the summer visitors, who probably number
10,000. The garrison generally consists of three mountain
batteries. Since 1877 the summer offices of the provincial
government have been transferred to Simla. The Murrcc
bcewcry, one of the largest in India, is the chief industrial
establishment. The Lawrence Military Asylum for the children
of European soldiers is situated here.
MUBSHIDABAD. or Moossheedabad, a town and district
of British India, in the Presidency division of Bengal. The
administrative headquarters of the dbtrict axe at Berhampur.
The town of Murshidabad is on the left bank of the Bhagirathi
or oJd sacred channel of the Ganges. Pop. (1901), 15,168.
The city of Murshidabad was the latest Mahommedan capital
of Bengal. In 1704 the nawab Murshid Kulia Khan changed
the seat of government from Dacca to Maksudabad, which he
called after his own name. The great family of Jagat Seth
maintained their position as state bankers at Murshidabad
from generation to generation. Even after the conquest of
Bengal by the British, Murshidabad remained for some time
the seat of administration. Warren Hastings removed the
supreme dvil and criminal courts to Calcutta in 1773, but in
1775 the latter court was brought back to Murshidabad again.
In 1790^ uiKier Lord Cbmwallis, the entire revenue and judicial
staffs were fixed at Calcutta. The town is still the residence
of tfie nawab, who ranks as the first nobleman of the province
wkh tbe style of nawab bahadur of Murshidabad, instead of
nawab nazim of Bengal. His palace, dating from 1837, is a
ma^iificent building in Italian style. The city is crowded with
other palanes mosques, tombs, and gardens, and retains such
indostries as carving in ivory, gold and silver embroidery, and
sSk-veaving. A college is maintained for the education of the
nawab's family.
Tbe DisnacT or Mitsshidabad has an area of 2143 sq. m.
It is divided into two nearly equal portions by the Bhagirathi,
the ancient channel of the Ganges. The tract to the west,
known as tbe Rarh, consists of hard clay and nodular limestone.
The general level is high, but interspersed with marshes and
seamed by hill torrents. The Bagri or eastern half belongs to
alluvial {dains of eastern Bengal. There are few permanent
swamps; but the whole country is low-lying, and liable to annual
inundation. In the north-west are a few small detached hillocks,
said to be of basaltic formation. Pop. (zgoi), 1,333,184, show-
ing an increase of 6-6% in the decade. The principal industry
is that of silk, formerly of much importance, and now revived
with government assistance. A narrow-gauge railway crosses
the district, from the East Indian line at Nalhati to Azimganj
on the Bhagirathi, the home of many rich Jain merchants; and
a branch of the Eastern Bengal railway has been opened.
HUB. the name of a Roman family of the plebeian Dedan
gens, (i) PuBtius Decius Mus won his first laurels in the
Samnite War, when in 343 B.C., while serving as tribtme of the
scddiers, he rescued the Roman main army from an apparently
hopeless poaitk>n (Livy vii. 34). In 340, as consul with T.
Manlius Torquatus as colleague, he comnianded in the Latin
War. The decisive battle was fought near Mt Vesuvius.
The consuls, in consequence of a dream, had agreed that the
^neral whose troops first gave way should devote himself to
destruction, and so ensure victory. The left wing under Decius
became disordered, whereupon, repeating after the chief pontiff
the solemn formula of self-devotion he dashed into the ranks
of the Latins, and met his death (Livy viii. 9). (2) His son,
also called Pitblivs, consul for the fourth time in 295, followed
the omrni^e of his father at the battle of Scntinum, when the
left wing which he commanded was shaken by the Gauls (Livy
X. a8}. The story of the elder Decius is regarded by Mommsen
as an imhistorical " doublet te " of what is related on better
a uthori t y of the son.
■DlABirS, tbe name of three Greek poets, (i) The first was
a mythical seer and priest, the pupil or son of Orpheus, who was
said to have been the founder of priestly poetry in Attica.
According to Pausanias (i. 25) he was buried on the Museum hill,
south-west of the Acropolis. He composed dedicatory and
purificatory hymns and prose treatises, and oracular responses.
These were collected and arranged in the time of Pcisistratus
by Onomacritus, who added interpolations. The mystic and
oracular verses and customs of Attica, especially of Eleusis,
are connected with his name (Herod, vii. 6; viiL 96; ix. 43).
A TUatumachia and Thcogtmia are also attributed to him
(G. Kinkel, Epicorum graecorum /ragmenla, 1878). (2) The
second was an Ephesian attached to the court of the kings of
Pergamum, who wrote a Perscis, and poems on Eumenes and
Attalus (Suldas, s.v.). (3) The third (called Grammaticus in
all the MSS.) is of uncertain date, but probably belongs to the
beginning of the 6th century aj>., as his style and metre are
evidently modelled after Nonnus. He must have lived before
Agathias (530-582) and is possibly to be identified with the
friend of Procopius whose poem (340 hexameter lines) on the
story of Hero and Leandcr is by far the most beautiful of the age
(editions by F. Passow, 18 10; G. H. Schafcr, 1825; C. Dilthcy,
1874). The little love-poem Alpluus and Arclhusa {Anthol. pal.
ix. 362) is also ascribed to Musacus.
MUSA KHEL, a Pathan tribe on the Dcra Ghazi Khan border
of the Punjab province of India. They are of Kakar origin,
numbering 4670 fighting men. They enter British territory
by the Vihowa Pass, and carry on an extensive trade, but are
not dependent on India for the necessaries of life. They are
a peaceful and united race, and have been friendly to the British,
but at enmity with the Khclrans and the Baluch tribes to the
south of their country. In 1879 the Musa Khcls and other
Pathan tribes to the number of 5000 made a demonstration
against Vihowa, but the town was reinforced and they dispersed.
In 1884 they were punished, together with the Kakars, by the
Zhob Valley Expedition.
UUS&US. JOHANN KARL AUGUST (1735-1787). German
author, was born on the 29th of March 1735 at Jena, studied
theology at the university, and would have become the pastor
of a parish but for the resistance of some peasants, who objected
that he had been known to dance. In 1 760 to 1 762 he published
in three volumes his first work, Crandison dcr Zweite, afterwards
(in 1 781-1782) rewritten and issued with a new title, Dcrdeutsche
Crandison. The object of this book was to satirize Samuel
Richardson's hero, who had many sentimental admirers in
Germany. In 1763 MusSus was made master of the court pages
at Weimar, and in 1769 he became professor at the Weimar
gymnasium. His second book — Physiognomischc Rcisen — did not
appear until 1 778-1 779. It was directed against Lavatcr, and
attracted much favourable attention. In 1782 to 1786 he
published his best work VdksmHrchen der DeiUschen. Even
in this series of tales, the substance of which Musaus collected
among the people, he could not refrain from satire. The stories,
therefore, lack the simpUcity of genuine folk-lore. In 1785
was issued Freuttd Hetns Erscheinungcn in Holheins Manier by
J. R. Schellenberg, with explanations in prose and verse by
Musfius. A collection of stories entitled Slraussfedem, of which
a volume appeared in 1787, Musaus was prevented from com-
pleting by his death on the 28th of October 1787.
The Volksmarchen have been frequently reprinted (DOsseldori.
1903, &c.). They were translated into French in 1844, and three
of the stories are included in Cariylc's German Romance (1827);
Musaus's NackgeUusene Scriflen were edited by his relative, A. von
Kotzcbue (1 791). Sec M. Muller, J. K. A. Mus&us (1867), and an
essay by A. Stem in Beilrdge xur Literalurguchichte des 18. Jakr-
hunderts (1893).
MUSCAT, MtTSKAT or Maskat, a town on the south-east
coast of Arabia, capital of the province of Oman. Its value
as a naval base is derived from its position, which commands
the entrance to the Persian Gulf. The town of Gwadar, the
chief port of Makrin, belongs to Muscat, and by arrangement
with the sultan the British occupy that port with i
station of the Indo-Pcrsian telegraph service,
political residency is established at Muscat.
I by arrangement I
with a telegraph
ice. An Indian
■■"J
44
MUSCATINE— MUSCLE AND NERVE
position it is isolated from the interior of the continent. The
mountains rise behind it in a rugged wall, across which no road
esdsts. It is only from Matrah, a northern suburb shut off by
an intervening spur which reaches to the sea, that bmd com>
munication with the rest of Arabia can be maintained. Both
Muscat and Matrah are defended from incursions on the land-
ward side by a wall with towers at intervals. Muscat rose to
importance with the Portuguese occupation of the Persian Gulf,
and is noted for the extent of Portuguese ruins about it. Two
lofty forts, of which the most easterly is called JalAli and the
western Merini, occupy the summits of hills on either side the
cove ovef looking the town; and beyond them on the seaward
side are two smaller defensive works called Sirat. All these
are ruinous. A low sandy isthmus connects the rock and
fortress of Jal&ll with the mainland, and upon this isthmtis stands
the British residency. The sultan's palace is a three-storeyed
building near the centre of the town, a relic of Portuguese
occupation, caUcd by the Arabs El Jereca, a corruption of
Igrczia (church). This term b probably derived from the chapel
once attached to the buildings which formed the Portuguese
governor's residence and factory. The bazaar is insignificant,
and its most considerable trade appears to be in a sweetmeat
prepared from the gluten of maize. Large quantities of dates
are also exported.
History.— The early history of Muscat is the history of Portu-
guese ascendancy in the Persian Gulf. When Albuquerque first
burnt the place after destroying Kary&t in 1508, Kalhat was
the chief port of the coast and Muscat was comparatively
unimportant. Kalhat vas subsequently sacked and burnt, the
great Arab mosque being destroyed, before Albuquerque returned
to his ships, " giving many thanks to our Lord." From that
date, through 114 years of Portuguese ascendancy, Muscat was
held as a naval station and factory during a period of local
revolts, Arab incursions, and Turkish invasion by sea; but it
was not till 1622, when the Portuguese lost Hormuz, that Muscat
became the headquarters of their fleet and the roost important
place held by them on the Arabian coast. In 1650 the Portu-
guese were finally expelled from Oman. Muscat had been
reduced previously by the humiliating terms imposed upon the
garrison by the imam of Oman after a siege in 1648. For five
years the Persians occupied Oman, but they disappeared in
1 74 1. Under the great ruler of Oman, Said ibn Sultan (1804-
1856), the fortunes of Muscat attained their zenith; but on his
death, when his kingdom was divided and the African possessions
were parted from western Arabia, Muscat declined. In 1883-
1884, when Turki was sultan, the town was unsuccessfully
besieged by the Indabayin and Rchbayin tribes, led by Abdul
Aziz, the brother of Turki. In 1885 Colonel Miles, resident at
Muscat, made a tour through Oman, following the footsteps of
Wcllsted in 1835, and confirmed that traveller's report of
the fertility and wealth of the province. In 1898 the French
acquired the right to use Muscat as a coaling station.
. Sec Stiffe. " Trading Ports of Persian Gulf." vol. ix. Ceot. Journal,
and the political reports of the Indian eovcrn men t from the Persian
Gulf. Colonel Milcs's explorations in Oman will be found in vol. vil.
Ceog. Journal (1896). . (T. H. R*)
HUSCATINB, a dty and the county-seat of Muscatine county,
Iowa, U.S.A., on the Mississippi river (here crossed by a wagon
bridge), at the apex of the " great bend," in the south-east part
of the state. Pop. (1890), 11,454; (1900), 14,073, of whom
3352 were foreign-bom; (19x0 census) 16.178. It is served
by the Chicago Milwaukee & Saint Paul, the Chicago Rock
Island & Pacific, and the Muscatine North & South railways.
It is built on high rocky bluffs, and is the centre of a pearl-
button industry introduced in 189 1 by J. F. Boepple, a German,
the buttons being made from the shells of the fresh-water
mussel found in the neighbourhood; and there are other manu-
factures. Coal is mined in the vidnity, and near the dty are
large market-gardens, the water-melons growing on Muscatine
Island (below the city) and sweet potatoes being their most
important products. The munidpah'ty owns and operates the
waterworks. Muscatine began as a trading-post in 1833. It
was laid out in 1836; incorporated as a town under the name
of Bloomington in 1839, and first chartered as a dty, under its
present name, in 185 1.
UU8CHBLKALK, in geology, the middle member of the
German Trias. It consists of a series of .calcareous, marly
and dolomitic beds which lie conformably between the Bunter
and Keuper formations. The name Muschelkalk (Fr., catcaire
coquillier; cmuhylUn, formation of D'Orbigny) indicates a
characteristic feature in this series, viz. the frequent occurrence
of lenticular banks composed of fossil shells, remarkable in the
midst of a singularly barren group. In its typical form the
Muschelkalk is practically restricted to the German region
and its immediate neighbourhood; it is found in Thuringia,
Haiz, Franconia, Hesse, Swabia, and tlie Saar and Alsace
districts. Northward it extends into Silesia, Poland and Heligo-
land. Representatives are found in the Alps, west and south
of. the Vosges, in Moravia, near Toulon and MontpcUicr,
in Spain and Sardinia; in Rumania, Bosnia, Dalmatia, and
beyond this into Asia in the Himalayas, (^hina, Australia,
California, and in North Africa (Constantine). -From the nature
of the deposits, as well as from the impoverished fauna, the
Muschelkalk of the type area was probably laid down within
a land-locked sea which, in the earlier portion of its existence,
had only imperfect communications with the more open waters
of the period. The more remote representatives of the formation
were of coune deposited in divert conditions, and are only to
be correlated through the presence of some of the Muschelkalk
fossils.
In the '* German " area the Muschelkalk Is from 950-^350 ft.
thick; it is readily divisible into three groups, of which the
upper and lower are pale thin-bedded limestones with greenish-
grey marls, the middle group being mainly composed of
gypsiferous and saliniferotis marb with dolomite, lie Lower
Muschelkalk ojtasists, from bebw upwards, of the following
rocks, the ochreous Wellen Dolomit, lower Wdlen Kalk, upper
Wellcn Kalk (so called on account of the wavy character of the
bedding) with beds of " Schaumkalk " (a porous cellular lime-
stone), and Oolite and the Orbicularis beds (with Myopkoria
orbicularis). In the Saar and Alsace districts and north Eifd,
these beds take on a sandy aspect, the " Muschdsandstein."
The Middle Muschelkalk or Anhydrite group, as ahready indi-
cated, consists mainly of marls and dolomites with beds of
anhydrite, gypsum and salt. The salt beds are worked at
Hall, Friedrichshall, Heilbronn, Stettin and Erfurt. It is from
this division that many of the mineral springs of Thuringia and
south Germany obtain their saline contents. The cellular
nature of ' much of the dolomite has given rise to- the term
" ZeUendolomit." The Upper Muschelkalk iHauptmusckdkalk,
Priedrickshallkalk of von Albcrti) consists of regular beds of
shelly limestone alternating with beds of mari. The lower
portion or *' Trochitenkalk " is often composed entirely of the
fragmentary stems of Encrinus liliiformis; higher up come the
"Nodosus" beds with Ceratiks compressus, C. nodesus, and
C semipartitus in ascending order. In Swabia and Franconia
the highest beds are phity dobmites with Tringouodus Sander^
gensis and the crustacean Bairdia, Stylolites are common in
all the Muschelkalk limestones. The Alpine Muschelkalk differs
in many respects from that of the type area, and shows a doser
relationship with the Triassic Mediterranean sea; the more
important local phases will be found tabulated in the artide
Trias.
In addition to the fosals meintloncd above, the folk>wing are
.Muschdkalk forms: Terebrotulina ndgfuris, Spiriferina Mantwdi
and 5. kirsula, Myophoria vulgaris, RkynchoHtes ktnmdo, CeratiUs
MUnsteri, Ptychites studeri, BeJaUmites balatonicus, Aspidura scutH'
lata, DaoneUa Lommeli, and In the Alpine region several. rock-
forming Algae, Bactryllinm, Cyroporella, Diphpora, &c
MUSCLE AND NERVE (Pkysiolegy)} Among the properties
of living material there is one, widdy though not universally
present in it, which forms the pre-eminent characteristic of
> The anatomy of the muscles is dealt with under Muscular
System, and of the nerves under NsavB and Nbrvous System.
MUSCLE AND NERVE
45
nKBCDlar cdfa. Tlus property b the libentloa of some of
the enefsy contained in the chemical compounds of the cells
^ , in such a way as to pve mechanical woik. The
mechanical work is obtained by movement resulting
from a change, it is supposed, in the elastic tension of the
framework of the living oeU. In the fibrils existing in the
cdl a sudden alteration of elasticity occurs, resulting in an
increased tension on the points of attxurhment of the ccU to the
ndgfabooring elements of the tissue m which the cell is placed.
These jrield under the strain, and the cell shortens between
those points of its attachment. This shortening is called
C4mlracium. But the volume of the cell is not
Sy*^ appreciably altered, despite the change of its shape,
lor its one diameter increases in proportion as its-
otho" IS diminished. The manifestations of contractility by
muscle are variota in mode. By tonic contraction is meant
a prolonged and equable state of tension which yields under
analysis no element of intermittent character. Tins b mani-
fested by the muscular walls of the hollow viscera and of the
heart, where it is the expression of a continuous liberation of
energy in process in the muscular tissue, tho outcome of the
iatter's own intrinsic Ufe, and largely independent of any con-
nexion with the nervous system. The muscular wall of the
blood-vessels also exhibits tonic contraction, which, however,
seems to be mainly traceable to a continual excitation of the
muscle cells by nervous influence conveyed to them along their
nerves, and originating in the great vaso motor centre in the bulb.
In the ordinary striped muscles of the skeletal musculature, e.g.
tfistracnemius, tonic contraction obtains; but this, like the last
mentioned, b not autochthonous in the muscles themselves; it
b indirect and neural, and appears to be maintained reflexly.
The reeeptPK organs of the muscular sense and of the semi-
circular canab are to be regarded as the sites of origin of thb
riifEez tonus of the skeletal muscles. Striped muscles possessing
an autochthonous tonus appear to be the various sphincter
Another mode of manifestation of contractility by musaes
b the rkytknuc. A tendency to rhjrthmic contraction seems dis-
coverable in almost all muscles. In some it b very marked, for
examf^ in some viscera, the spleen, the bladder, the ureter, the
ntenis, the intestine, and especially in the heart. In several of
these it appears not unlikely that the recurrent explosive libera-
tions of energy in the muscle tissue are not secondary to recurrent
explosions in nerve celb, but are attributable to decompositions
arising sua sponte in the chemical substances of the muscle celb
themselves in the course of their living. Even small strips of
the maade of the heart, if taken immediately after the death of
the animal, continue, when kept mobt and warm and supplied
with oxygen, to " beat " rhythmically for hours. Rhythmic
CQotractioa b also characteristic of certain groups of skeletal
raiacles, e.^* the respiratory. In these the rhythmic activity b,
however, deariy secondary to rhythmic discharges of the nerve
crib constituting the respiratory centre in the bulb. Such
^charges descend the nerve fibres of the spinal cord, and through
the intermediation of various spinal nerve celb excite the
respiratory muscles through their motor nerves. A form of
oootraction intermedbte in character between the tonic and
the rhythmic b met in the auridc of the heart of the toad. . There
dowly successive phases of increased and of diminished tonus
Rgnbily alternate, and upon them are superposed the rhythmic
* beats " of the pulsating heart.
"The beat," f.«. the short-lasting explosive contraction of
the heart mvsdt, can be eh'dted by a single, even momentary,
a^ilicatioo of a stimulus, e.g. by an induction shock. Similarly,
aufa a sio^ stimulus elidts from a skeletal musde a single
* beat," or, as it b termed, a " twitch." In the heart muscle
during a brief period after each beat, that b, after each
sagb contraction of the rhythmic series, the musde becomes
■KsdtsMr. It cannot then be exdted to contract by any
•eeat, tlwugh the inexcitable period b more brief for strong
thia for weak stimuli But in the skdetal, voluntary or
ttxiped musdes a second stimulus succeeding a previous so
quickly as to fall even during the continuance of the contraction
exdted by a first, elidts a second contraction. Thb second
contraction starts from whatever phase of previous contraction
the musde may have reached at the time. A third stimulus
exdtes a third additional contraction, a fourth a fourth, and so
on. The increments of contraction become, however, less and
less, unto the succeeding stimuli serve merely to maintain, not
to augment, the exbting degree of contraction. We arrive thus
by synthesb at a summation of " beats " or of simple contrac>
tions in the compound, or " tetanic," or summed contraction of
the skeletal muscles. The tetanic or summed contractions are
more extensive than the simple, both in space and time, and
liberate more energy, both as mechanical work and heat. The
tension devdoped by their means in the musde is many times
greater than that devdoped by a simple twitch.
Musde celb respond by changes in thdr activity to changes
in their environment, and thus are said to be "exdtable."
They are, however, less exduble than are the nerve
celb which innervate them. The change which ^^
exdtes them b termed, a stimulus. The least
stimulus which suffices to exdte b known as the stimulus of
threshold value. In the case of the heart musde thb threshold
stimulus evokes a beat as extensive as does the strongest
stimulus; that b, the intensity of the stimulus, so long as it
b above threshold value, b not a function of the amount of the
muscular response. But in the ordinary skdetal muscles the
amount of the muscular contraction b for a short range of
quantities* of stimulus (of above threshold value) proportioned
to the intensity of the stimulus and increases with it. A value
of stimulus, however, b soon reached which evokes a maximal
contraction. Further increase of contraction does not follow
further increase of the intensity of the stimultis above that
point
Just as in a nerve fibre, when exdted by a localized stimulus,
the exdted state spreads from the exdted point to the adjacent
unexdted ones, so in musde the " contraction," when excited
at a point, spreads to the adjacent uncontracted paru. Both
in musde and in nerve this spread b termed conduction.
It b propagated along the musde fibres of the skeletal musdes
at a rate of about 3 metres per second. In the heart muscle
it traveb much more slowly. The dbturbance traveb as a
wave of contraction, and the whole extent of the wave-h'ke
dbturbance measures in ordinary musdes much more than the
whole length of any single musde fibre. That the exdted state
spreads only to previously unexdted portions of the musde
fibre shows that even in the skeletal variety of musde there
exists, though only for a very brief time, a period of inexcitability.
The duration of thb period b about j\^ of a second in skeletal
musde.
When musde that has remained inactive for some time b
exdted by a series of single and equal stimuli succeeding at
intervab too prolonged to cause summation the succeeding
contractions exhibit progressive increase up to a certain degree.
The tenth contraction usually exhibits the culmination of this
so-called "staircase effect." The explanation may lie in the
production of COi in the musde. That substance, in small
doses, favours the contractile power of musde. The musde
b a machine for utilizing the energy contained in its own chemical
compounds. It b not surprising that the chemical substances
produced in it by the decomposition of its living material should
not be of a nature indifferent for muscular life. We find that
if the series of excitations of the musde be prolonged beyond
the short stage of initial improvement, the contractions, after
being well maintained for a time, later decline in force and
speed, and ultimately dwindle even to vanishing point. This
decline b said to be due to muscular fatigue. The musde
recovers on being allowed to rest unstimulated for a while,
and more quickly on being washed with an, innocuous but non-
nutritious solution, such as '6%, NaG in water. The washing
Seems to remove excreta of the musde's own production, and
the period of repose removes them perhaps by diffusion, perhaps
by breaking them down into innocuous material. Since the
46
MUSCLE AND NERVE
musde produces lactic adds during activity, it has been sug-
gested that acids are among tlie "fatigue substances" with
which muscle poisons itself when deprived of circulating blood.
Muscles when active seem to pour into the circulation substances
which, of unknown chemical composition, are physiologically
recognizable by their stimulant action on the respiratory nervous
centre. The effect of the fatigue substances upon the contrac-
tion of the tissue is manifest especially in the relaitation process.
The contracted sute, instead of rapidly subsiding after dis-
continuance of the stimulus, slowly and only partially wears
off, the muscle remaining in a condition of physiological
"contracture." The alkaloid veratrin has a similar effect
upon the contraction of muscle; it enormously delays the
return from the contracted state, as also does epinephrin, an
alkaloid extracted from the suprarenal gland.
Nervous System.— The work of Camillo Golgi (Pavia, 1885
and onwards) on the minute structure of the nervous system has
led to great alteration of doctrine in neural physi-
55Ji^. ology. It had been held that the branches of the
nerve cells, that is to say, the fine nerve fibres—
since all nerve fibres are nerve cell branches, and all nerve cell
branches are nerve fibres— which form a close felt-work in the
nervous centres, there combined into a network actually con-
tinuous throughout. This continuum was held to render possible
conduction in all directions throughout the grey matter of the
whole nervous system. The fact that conduction occurred
preponderantly in certain directions was explained by appeal
to a hypothetical resistance to conduction which, for reasons
unascertained, lay less in some directions than in others. The
intricate felt-work has by Golgi been asceruined to bo a mere
interlacement, not an actual anastomosis network; the branches
springing from the various cells remain lifelong unattached and
unjoined to any other than their own individual cell. Each
neuron or nerve cell is a morphologically distinct and discrete
unit connected functionally but not structurally with its neigh-
bours, and leading its own life independently of the destiny of
its neighbours. Among the properties 6f the neuron is con-
ductivity in all directions. But when neurons are linked together
it is found that nerve impulses will only pass from neuron A to
neuron B, and not from neuron B to neuron A; that is, the
transmission of the excited state or nervous impulse, although
possible in each neuron both up and down its own cell branches,
is possible from one nerve cell to another in one direction only.
That direction is the direction in which the nerve impulses
flow under the conditions of natural life. The synapse, therefore,
as the place of meeting of one neuron with the next is called,
is said to valve the nerve circuits. This determinate sense
of the spread is called the law of forward direction. The synapse
appears to be a weak spot in the chain of conduction, or rather
to be a place which breaks down with comparative ease under
stress, e.g. imder effect of poisons. The axons of the motor
neurons are, inasmuch as they are nerve fibres in nerve trunks,
easily accessible to artificial stimuli. It can be demonstrated
that they are practically indefatigable — repeatedly stimulated
by electrical currents, even through many hours, they, unlike
muscle, continue to respond with unimpaired reaction.
JJJJbT*^ Yet when the muscular contraction is taken as index
* of the response of the nerve, it is found that unmis-
takable signs of fatigue appear even very soon after commence-
ment of the excitation of the nerve, and the muscle ceases
to give any contraction in response to stimuli applied indirectly to
it -through iu nerve. But the muscle will, when exdted directly,
e.g. by direct application of electric currents, contract vigorously
after all response on its part to the stimuli (nerve impulses)
applied to it indirectly through its nerve has failed. The
inference is that the "fatigue substances "generated in the
muscle fibres in the course of their prok>nged contraction injure
and paralyse the motor end plates, which are places of synapsis
between nerve cell and muscle cell, even earlier than they harm
the contractility of the muscle fibres themselves. The alkak>id
curarin causes motor paralysis by attacking in a selective way
this junction of motor nerve cell and striped muscular fibre.
Non-myelinate nerve fibres are as resistant to fatigue as are
the myelinate.
The neuron is described as having a cell body or perikaryon
from which the cell branches— dendrites and axon— extend,
and it is this perikaiyon which, as its name implies,
contains the nuckus. It forms the trophic centre of ^/SmwT
the cell, just as the nucleus-containing part of every
cell is the trophic centre of the whole cell. Any part of the cell
cut off from the nudeus^ontaining part dies down: this is as
true of nerve cells as of amoeba, and in regard to the neuron
it constitutes what is known as the Wallerian degeneration.
On the other hand, in some neurons, after severance of the axon
from the rest of the cell (spinal motor cell), the whole ner\'e
cell as well as the severed axon degenerates, and may eventu-
ally die and be removed. In the severed axon the degenera-
tion b first evident in a breaking down of the naked nerve
filaments of the motor end plate. A little later the breaking
down of the whole axon, both axis cylinder and myelin sheath
alike, seems to occur simultaneously throughout its entire
length distal to the place of severance. The complex fat of
the myelin becomes altered chemically, while the other com-
ponents of the sheath break down. This death of the sheath as
well as of the axis cylinder shows that it, Uke the axis cylinder,
is a part of the nerve cell itself.
In addition to the trophic influence exerted by each part
of tlie neuron on its other parts, notably by the perikaryon
on the cell branches, one neuron also in many instances in-
fluences the nutrition of other neurons. When, for instance,
the axons of the ganglion cells of the retina are severed by
section of the optic nerve, and thus their influence upon the
nerve cells of the visual cerebral centres is set aside, the nerve
ceUs of those centres undergo secondary atrophy (Gadden's
trophy). They dwindle in sixe; they do not, however, die.
Similarly, when the axons of the motor spinal cells are by
severance of the nerve trunk of a muscle broken through, the
muscle cells undergo " degeneration " — dwindle, become fatty,
and alter almost beyond recognition. This trophic influence
which one neuron exerts upon others, or upon the cells of aa
extrinsic tissue, such as muscle, is exerted in that
direction which is the one normally taken by the JjJJ^^
natural nerve impulses. It seems, especially in a^mmm.
the case of the nexus between certain neurons,
that the influence, loss of which endangers nutrition, is associ-
ated with the occurrence of something more than merely the
nervous impulses awakened from time to time in the leading
nerve cell. The wave of cbange (nervous impulse) induced
in a neuron by advent of a stimulus is after all only a sudden
augmentation of an activity continuous within the neuron —
a transient accentuation of one (the disintegrative) phase, of
the metabolism inherent in and inseparable from its life. The
nervous impulse is, so to say, the sudden evanescent glow of an
ember continuously black-hot. A continuous lesser " change "
or stream of changes sets through the neuron, and is distributed
by it to other neurons in the same direction and by the same
ftynapses as are iu nerve impulses. This gentle continuous
activity of the neuron is called iU tonus. In tracing the tonus
of neurons to a source, one is always led link by link against
the current of nerve force— so to say, " up stream " — to the
first beginnings of the chain of neurons in the sensifadent surfaces
of the body. From these, as in the eye, ear, and other sense
organs, tonus is constantly . initiated. Hence, when cut off
from these sources, the nutrition of the neurons of various
central mechanisms suffers. Thus the tonus of the motor
neurons of the spinal cord is much lessened by rupture of the
great afferent root cells which normally play upon them.
A prominent and practically important illustration of neural
tonus is given by the skeletal musdes. These musdes exhibit
a certain constant condition of slight contraction, which dis-
appears on severance of the nerve that innervates the muscle«
It is a muscular tonus of central source consequent on
the continual glow of exdtement in the spinal motor neuron »
whose outgoing end plays upon the musde cells, whose ingoing
MUSCLE AND NERVE
47
cad is played upoo by other neurons— spinal, cerebral and
ociebellar.
It a with the neural dement of muscle tonus that tendon pkeno-
mac axe imimatdy aHodated. The earliest-studied of these, the
" kme-jerk" may serve as example of the dass. It is a brief ex*
tcnsioa of the limb at the kiiee*joint, due to a simple contraction of
tbe extensor muscle, didted by a tap or other short mechanical
stimulus applied to the muscle fibres through the tendon of the
moKle. Inie jerk is obtainable only from rousde fibres possessed
of neural toousL If the sensory nerves of the extensor muscle be
severtd. the " jerk " is lost. The brevity of the interval between
tbe tap on the knee and the beginning of the resultant contraction
cf tbe mnsde seems such as to exclude the possibility of reflex
de%-dopment. A little experience in observations on the knee-jerk
impoits a notion of tbe average strength of tbe "jerk." wide
departures from tbe normal standard are met with and are sympto-
cutic of certain nervous conditions. Stretching of the muscles
antaeonistjc to the extensors — namdy, of the flexor muscles—
rrducrs tbe jerk by inhibiting the extensor spiiud nerve cdls through
tbe nervous impulses generated by the tense flesEor mufclea. Hence
a favourable pcMture of the limb for elidting the jerk is one ensuring
idaxation oT the hamstring muscles, as when tbe leg has been
cixMsed upon the other. In sleep the jerk is diminished, in deep
skep quite abolished. Extreme bodily lati^e diminishes it. Con-
versdy. a a>ld bath increases it. The turning of attention towards
tbe knee interferes with tbe jerk; hence the device of directing the
penoQ to perform vigorously some movement, which does not
involve tbe muscles of the lower limb, at the moment when the
Eeht blow is dealt upon the tendon. A slight degree of contraction
d musde seems the snbMtratum of all attention. The direction of
attention to the p e rf o r mance of some movement by the arm ensures
that l o osenes s and freedom from tension in the thigh muscles which
is essential tor the provocation of the jerk. The motor cdls of
tbe extensor muscles, when preoccupied by cerebral influence,
appear rdractory. T. Ziehen has noted exaltatMU of the jerk to
follow extirpation of a cortical centre.
Altboosb the cell body or perikaryon of the neuron, with
its conU^ied nucleus, is essential for the maintenance of the
c^^g^gg^^ ^* of the cell branches, it has become recognized
linn 11 SSI ^^^ ^^ actual process and function of "con-
duction '' in many neurons can, and does, go on
withovit the cell body bdng dircaly concerned in the conduction.
S. Ezner first showed, many years ago, that the nerve impulse
travels through the spinal ganglion at the same speed as along
the other parts of the nerve trunk— that is, that it suffers no
dr!ay in transit through the petikarya of the afferent root-
cruronsw Bethe has succeeded in isolating their perikarya
from certain of the afferent neurons of the antennulc of
Carcinus. Tbe conduction through the amputated cell branches
continues unimpaired for many hours. This indicates that
the conjunction between .the conducting substance of the
doidrons and thdt of the axon can be effected without the
ictermediation of the cell body. But the proper nutntion
of the conducting substance is indissolubly dependent on the
cdl branches being in continuity with the cell body and nucleus
it contains. Evidence Olustrating this nexus is found In the
v^ible changes produced in the perikaryon by prolonged
activity induced and maintained in the conducting branches
d tbe cell. As a result the fatigued cells appear shrunken,
£od their reaction to staining reagents alters, thus showing
chemical alteration. Most marked is the decrease in the
vohunc of the nudetis, amounting even to 44% of the initial
volume. In the myelinated cell branches of the neuron, that
is. in the ordinary nerve fibres, no visible change has ever been
demonstrated as the result of any normal activity, however
fTcat—a striking contrast to the observations obtained on
the pcfikarya. The chemical changes that accompany activity
io the nerve fibre must be very small, for the production of
COfe is barely measurable, and no production of heat is
observable as the result of the most forced tetanic activity.
The nerve cells of the higher vertebraU, unlike their blood
cdh, their connective tissue cells, and even their muscle cells,
early, and indeed in embryonic life, lose power of
multiplication. The number of them formed is
definitely closed at an early period of the individual
Ue. Ahhough, unlike so many other cells, thus early sterile for
rrpnxiuaton of their kind, they retain for longer than most cells
a hi«fa power of individual growth. They cootiooe to grow, and
to thrust out new branches and to lengthen existing branches,
for many years far into adult life. They simiUirly possess power
to repair and to regenerate their cell branches where these are
injured or destroyed by trauma or disease. This is the explana-
tion of the repair of nerve trunks that have been severed, with
consequent degeneration of the peripheral nerve fibres. As a
rule, a longer time is required to restore the motor than the
sensory functions of a nerve trunk.
Whether examined by functional or by structural features,
the conducting paths of the nervous system, traced from
beginning to end, never lermMo/e in the centres of
that system, but pass through them. All ultimatdy SUJIr
emerge as efferent channels. Every efferent
channd, after entrance in the central nervous system, sub-
divides; of its subdivisions some pass to efferent channek
soon, others pass further and further within the cord and brain
before they finally reach channels of outlet. All the longest
routes thus formed traverse late in thdr course the cortex of
the cerebral hemisphere. It is this relativdy huge development
of cortex cerebri which b the pre-eminent structural character
of man. This means that the number of "longest routes"
in man is, as compared with lower animals, disproportionately
great. In the lower animal forms there is no such nervous
struaure at all as the cortex cerebri. In the frog, lizard, and
even bird, it is thin and poorly developed. In the marsupials
it is more evident, and its exdtation by dectric currents evokes
movements' in the musculature of the crossed side of the body.
Larger and thicker In the rabbit, wheb excited it gives rise in
that animal to movements of the eyes and of the fore-limbs
and neck; but it is only in much higher types, such as the
dog, that the cortex yields, under experimental exdtation,
definitely localized fod, whence can be evoked movements
of the fore-limb, hind-limb, neck, eyes, ears and face. In
the monkey the proportions it assumes are still greater, and
the number of fod, for distinct movements of this and that
member, indeed for the individual joints of each limb, are
much more numerous, and together occupy a more extensive
surface, though relatively to the total surface of the brain a
smaller one.
Experiment shows that in the manlike (anthropoid) apes the
differentiation of the fod or "centres " of movement in the motor
field of the cortex is even more minute. In them areas are found
whence stimuli exdte movements of this or that finger alone,
of the upper lip without the lower, of the tip only of the tongue,
or of one upper eyelid by itself. The movement evoked from
a point of cortex is not always the same; its character is
determined by movements evoked from neighbouring points
of cortex immediately antecedently. Thus a point A will, when
excited soon subsequent to point B, which latter yields pro-
trusion of lips, itself yield lip-protrusion, whereas if exdtcd
after C, which yields lip-retraction, it will itself yield lip-retrac-
tion. The movements obtained by point-to-point excitation
of the cortex are often evidently imperfect as compared with
natural movements— that is, are only portions of complete
normal movements. Thus among the tongue movements
evoked by stigmatic stimulation of the cortex undeviated
protrusion or retraction of the organ is not found. Again,
from different points of the cortex the assumption of the
requisite positions of the tongue, lips, cheeks, palate and
epiglottis, as components in the act of sucking, can be pro-
voked singly. Rarely can the whole action be provoked, and
then only gradually, by prolonged and strong excitation
of one of the requisite points, e.g. that for the tongue, with
which the other points are functionally connected. Again,
no single point in the cortex evokes the act of ocular converg-
ence and fixation. All this means that the execution of natural
movements employs simultaneous co-operative activity of a
number of points in the motor fields on both sides of the brain
together.
The accompanying simple figure indicates better than any
verbal description the topography of the main groups of foci
in the motor field of a manlike ape (chimpanzee). It will be
48
MUSCLE AND NERVE
noted from it that there is no direct relation between the extent of
a cortical area and the mass of muscles which it controb.
The mass of muscles in the trunk is greater than in the leg» and
in the leg is greater than in the aim, and in the arm is many times
greater than in the face and head; yet for the last the cortical
area is the most extensive of all, and for the first-named is
the least extensive of alL
The motor field of the cortex is, taken altogether, relatively
to the size of the lower parts of the brain, larger in the anthropoid
than in the inferior monkey brains. But in the anthropoid
SuMB csrtiroUs.
come to be furnished more and more with fibres that are fully
myelinate. At the beginning of its history each is unprovided
with myelinate nerve fibres. The exduble foci of the cerebral
cortex are well myelinated long before the unexciuble are so.
The regions of the cortex, whose conduction paths are early
completed, may be arranged in groups by their connexions
with sense-organs: eye-region, ear-region, skin and somaesthetic
region, olfactory and taste region. The areas of intervening
cortex, arriving at structural completion later than the above
sense-spheres, are called by some association-sphereSf to indicate
the view that they contain the neural mechanisms of
reactions (some have said " ideas ") associated with
the sense perceptions elaborated in the several sense-
spheres.
The name " motor area ** is given to that region
of cortex whence, as D. Ferrier's investigations
showed, motor reactions of the facial and
limb muscles are regularly and easily
evoked. This region is often called the
sensori-motor cortex, and the term somaestk^ic has
also been used and seems appropriate. It has been
found that disturbance of sensation, as well as
disturbance of movement, is often incurred by its
injury, Patients in whom, for purposes of diagnosis,
it has been electrically exdted, describe, as the
initial effect of the stimulation, tingling and obscure
but locally-limited sensations, referred to the part
whose muscles a moment later are thrown into
co-ordinate activity. The distinction, therefore,
between the movement of the eyeballs, elicited from
the occipital (visual) cortex, and that of the hand,
elicited from the cortex in the region of the central
sulcus (somaesthetic), is not a difference between
/itatic^^^jn csiJtf motor and sensory, for both are sensori-motor in the
Diagram of the Topography of the Mdn Groups of Foci in the Motor Field nature of their reactions; the difference is only a
of Chimpanzee. difference between the kind of sense and sense-organ
brain still more increased even than the motor field are the great in the two cases, the muscular apparatus in each case being
regions of the cortex outside that field, which yield no definite
movements under electric excitation, and are for that reason
known as " silent.'' The motor field, therefore, though absolutely
larger, forms a smaller fraction of the whole cortex of the brain
than in the lowet forms. The statement that* in the anthropoid
(orang-ouUn) brain the groups of foci in the motor fields of the
cortex are Uiemselves separated one from another by sur-
rounding inexcitable cortex, has been made and was one of
great interest, but has not been confirmed by subsequent
observation. That in man the excitable fod of the motor
field are islanded in exdtable surface similarly and even more
extensivdy, was a natural inference, but it had its chief basis
in the observations on the orang, now known to be erroneous.
Ip the diagram there is indicated the situation of the cortical
centres for movement of the vocal cords. Their situation is
at the lower end of the motor fidd. That they should lie
there is interesting, because that place is close to one known
in man to be. associated with management of the movements
concerned in speech. When that area in man is injured, the
ability to utter words is impaired. Not that there is paralysis
of the musdes of speech, since these musdes can be used perfectly
for all acts other than speech. The area in man is known as
the motor centre for speech; in most persons it exists only in
the left half of the brain and not in the right. In a similar way
damage of a certain small portion of the temporal lobe of the
brain produces loss of intelligent apprehension of words spoken,
although there is no deafness and although words seen are
perfectly apprehended. Another region, " the angular region,"
is simiUriy related to intelligent apprehension of words seen,
though not of words heard.
When this differentiation of cortex, with its highest expres-
sion in man, is collated with the devdopment of the cortex
as studied in the successive phases of its growth and ripening
In the human infant, a suggestive analogy is obvious. The
nervous paths in the brain and cord, as they attain completion.
an appanage of the sensual.
That the lower types of vertebrate^ such as fish, e.g. carp,
possess practically no cortex cerebri, and neverthdess execute
" volitional " acts involving high co-ordination and suggesting
the possession by them of associative memory, shows that for
th^ existence of these phenomena the cortex cerebri is in them
not essential. In the dog it has been proved that after removal
from the animal of every vestige of its cortex cerebri, it still
executes habitual acts of great motor complexity requiring
extraordinarily delicate adjustment of muscular contraction.
It can walk, run and feed; such an animal, on wounding its
foot, will run on three legs, as will a normal dog under similar
mischance. But signs of associative memory are almost, if
not entirely, wanting. Throughout three years such a dog
failed to learn that the attendant's lifting it from the cage at a
certain hour was the preliminary circumstance of the feeding-
hour; yet it did exhibit hunger, and would refuse further food
when a sufficiency had been taken. In man, actually gross
sensory defects follow even limited lesions of the cortex. Thus
the rabbit and the dog are not absolutely blinded by removal
of the entire cortex, but in man destruction of the ocdpital
cortex produces total blindness, even to the extent that the
pupil of the eye does not respond when light- is flashed into
the eye.
Examination of the cerebellum by the method of Wallerian
degeneration has shown that a large number of spinal and
bulbar nerve cells send branches up into it. These p,|,|t,B^„
seem to end, for the most part, in the grey cortex
of the median lobe, some, though not the majority, of
them decussating across the median line. The organ seems
also to receive many fibres from the parietal region of the
cerebral hemisphere. From the organ there emerge fibres
which cross to the opposite red nudeus, and directly or
indirectly reach the thalamic region of the crossed hemi-
sphere. The pons or middle pedunde, which was .r^garded^
MUSCLE AND NERVE
49
on the luxntain ground of naked-eye dtssection of
uutomy, as comiidasanl between the two lateral lohea of
the ccrdwllom, is now known to constitute chiefly a cerebro-
cerefaeOar decussating path. Certain cerebellar ceDs send
pnoesies down to the cell-group* in the bulb known as the
Dsdeus of Dciters, which latter projects fibres down the
qjinal oofd. Whether there is any other or direct emergent
path from the cerebeUum into the spinal cord is a matter
oo whkh opinion is divided.
Injuries of the oerebdlum, if large, derange the power of
executing movements, without producing any detectable
denngement of sensation. The derangement gradually dis-
appears, unless the damage to the organ be very wide. A
ledlng gait, oscillations of the body which impart a zigzag
&ectkm to the walk, difficulty in standing, owing to unsteadi-
ness of fiflob, are common in cerebellar disease. On the other
kand, congenital defect amounting to absence of one cerebellar
hesB^idiere has bc«n found to occasion practically no symptoms
vfaatioever. Not a hundredth part of the cerebellum has
lemsined, afid jtX, there has eadsted ability to stand, to walk, to
handle and lift objects in a faidy normal way, without any trace
of impairxxient of cutaneous or muscular sensitivity. The
damage to the cerebdOnm must, it would seem, occur abruptly or
^nckiy in order to occasion marked derangement of function,
nd then tlie derangement falls on the execution of movements.
One aspect oi. this derangement, named by Ludani astasia,
a a txeosor hdghtened by or only appearing when the musdes
enter opoo actSoor-" intention tremor." Vertigo is a frequent
Rsolt of cexebeDar injury: animals indicate it by their actions;
patients desaribe it. To interpret this vertigo, appeal must
be made to disturbances, other than cerebellar, which like-
vise ocmirion vertigo. These indude, besides ocular squint,
many spatial positions and movements unwonted to the body:
the looking from a height, the gliding over ice, sea-travel, to
some persons even travelling by train, or the covering of one
eye. Cowimnin to all these conditions is the synchronous rise
of perceptions of spatial relations between the self and the
e avircmnimt which have not, or have rardy, before arisen in
syncfaroDOUS comhinatioiL The tactual organs of the soles, and
the muacoiar sense organs of limbs and trunk, are originating
perceptions that indicate that the self is standing on the
soiid earth, yet the eyes are at the same time originating
peroqrtiooa that indicate that, the solid earth is far away
bdow the sfanding self. The combination is hard to harmonize
a first; it is at kast not given as innately harmonised. Per-
cqjtions regarding the "me" are notoriously highly charged
viih " feeCng," and the conflict occasions the feeling insuffi-
ciently described as "giddiness." The cerebellum recdves
paths fnotn most, if not from all, of the afferent roots. With
certain of these it stands associated most dosdy, namely,
vith the vcstibolar, representing the sense< organs which fumisk
data §at appndziion of positions and movements of the head,
and. with the rtiannrh, conveying centripetal impressions from
the apparatus of skeletal movement. Disorder of the dere-
beOam sets at variance, brings discord into, the space-percep-
tions cootributory to the moyement The body's movement
beoamcs thus imperfectly adjusted to the q>atial requirements
of the set it would perform.
In the pfaysiokgical basts of sense exist many impressions
vhkh, apart from and devoid of psychical accompaniment,
TdSafy infiocnce motor (muscular) ixmervatioiL It is with
this sort of hahitnaUy apsychical reaction that the cerebellum
ii, it would seem, employed. That it is apparently devoid of
psyducal concomitant need not imply that the impressions
oiiiccmed in it are crude and indaborate. The seeming want
of reaction of so mudi of the cerebeUar structure under aritifidal
stimslatjon, and the complex rday system revealed In the
histokigy of the cerebdlimi, suggest tluit the impressbns are
daborate. Its reacti6n preponderantly hdps to secure co*
sn£nate innervation of the skdetal musculature, both for
■axnteoance of attitude and for execution of movements.
Sleep. — ^Ihe more obvious of the characters of sleep (j.v.) are
AK 2
essentially nervous. In deep sleep the threshold-value of the
stimuli for the various senses is very greatly raised, rising
rapidly during the first hour<and a half of sleep, and then declining
with gradually decreasing decrements. The musdes become less
tense than in thdr waking state: their tonus is diminished, the
upper eydid falls, and the knee-jerk is hi abeyance. The
respiratory rhythm is less frequent and the breathing leas deep;
the heart-beat is leas frequent; the secretions are las copious;
the pupil is narrow ; in the brain there exists arterial anarmia with
venous congestion, so that the blood-flow there is less than in the
waking state.
It has been suggested that the gradual cumulative result
of the activity of the nerve cells during the waking day is to
load the bndn tissue with "fatigue-substances" n§utggof
which dog the action of the ceDs, and thus period!- jj^
cally produce^ that loss of consdousness, &c., which
is sleq>. Such a drugging of tissue by its own excreta is known
in muscular fatigue, but the fact that the depth of sleep piogres-
sivdy incresses for an hour and more after iu onset prevents
complete explanation of sleep on sunilar lines. It has been
urged that the neurons retract during sleep, and that thus at the
synapses the gap between nerve cell and nerve cell becomes
wider, or that the supportmg ceDs expand between the nerve
cdls and tend to isolate the latter one from the other. Certainltis
that In the course of the waking day a great, number of stimuli
play on the sense organs, and through these produce disintegra-
tion of -the living molecules of the central nervous system.
Hence during the day the assimilatory processes of these cells
are overbalanced by their wear and tear, and the end-resuh is
that the cdl attains an atomic condition leas favourahle to
further dismtegration than to reintegration. That phase of
cell life which we are accustomed to call " active " is accompanied
always by dishitegration. When in the cdl the assimilative
processes exceed dlssimilativB, the estbmal manifestations of
energy are h'able to cease or diminish. Sleep is not exhaustion
of the neuron in the sense t|iat pfdonged activity has reduced
iu exdtability to aero. The nerve cdl just prior to sleep is still
wdl capable of response to sdmuli, although perhaps the thres-
hold-vdue of the stimulus has become rather high, whereas after
entrance upon sleep and contlnuanre of sleq> for several hours,
and more, when all spur to the dissimilation process has been
long withhdd, the threshold-valuft of the sensory stimulus
becomes enormously higher than before. The exdting cause
of deep is therefore no complete exhaustion of the available
material of the cdls, nor is it entirdy any paralysing of them by
their excreta. It is more probably abeyuce of external function
during a periodic internal asaimHatory phase.
Two pr oc c i a ca ooojotn to initiate the asBtmiUitory phase. There
is dose intetcoonexion between the two aspects ol the double
activity that in physiological theory constitute the chemical life of
protoplasm, between diwimilation and aasimilatioa. Hering has
long insisted on a sdf-regu!ative adjustment of the cdl metabolism,
so that action involves reaction, increaaed catabolism necesdtates
after-increase of anaboUsm. The long-continued indtement to
catabdism of the waking day thus of itself predispoaea the nerve
cdls towards rebound into the oppodte phaM; the increased cata-
bdism due to the day's stimuli induces increase of anabdism, and
though recuperation goes oo to a laxse extent during the day itself,
the recuperative process is dower than, and bas behind, the dis-
intnTBtive. Hence there occurs a cumulative effect, progrearivdy
dis-
fect, progrearivdy
The second
intq;xative.
•increasing from the opening till the dodng fa
factor inducing the assimilative diaiige is the withdrawal of the
nervous system from sensual stimuUtion. The eyes are doaed,
the maintenance of posture by active contraction is replaced bv the
recumbent pose which can be maintained by static action and the
mere mechanical oondstenra of the body, the ears are screened
from noise in the quiet chamber, the skin from localised pressure
by a soft, yidding couch. The ^ect of thus redudng the exdtant
action of the environment is to give cdnsdousness over more to
mere revivals by memory, and gradually consdousness lapses. A
remarkable case b wdl authenticated, where, owing to disease, a
young man had lost the use of all the senses save of one eye and of
one ear. If these last channels were seded, in two or three nunutea'
time he invariably fdl adeep.
If natural deep b this expreauon of a phase of decreased exdt-
ability due to thesettmg in of a tide of anabdism in the oelb of the
nervous system, what b the action of narcotics? They lower the
la
so
MUSCOVITE
external activitin of the cells, but do they not at the same time
lower the internal, reparative, aasimilative activity of the cell that
in natural sleep flt)es vigorously forward preparing the system for
the next day's drain on energy? In most cases they seem to
u ^^irm lower both the internal and the external activity of the
!«»•««.«. Qgj^yg ^^ fQ lessen the cdl's entire metabolism, to
reduce the speed of its whole chemical movement and life. Hence
it is not scrprinng that often the refreshment, the recuperation,
obtained from and felt after sleep induced by a drug amounts to
nothing, or to worse than nothing. But very often refreshment
b undoubtedly obtained from such narcotic sleep. It may be
supposed that in the latter case the effect .of the drug has been to
ensure occurrence of that second predisposing factor mentioned
above, of that withdrawal of sense impulses from the nerve centres
that serves to usher in the state of sleep. In certain conditions it
may be well worth while by means of narcotic drugs to close the
portals of the aenses for the salw of thus obtaining stillness in the
chambers of the mind: their enforced quietude may induce a
period in which natural rest and repair continue long after the
initial unnatural arrest of vitality due to the drug itaeuhaa passed
away.
HypHoHsm,— The physiology of this group of " sUtes " is,
as regards the real understanding of their production, eminently
vague (see also Hypnotism). The conditions which tend to in-
jduce them contain generally, as one element, constrained visual
attention prolonged beyond ordinary duration. Symptoms
attendant on the hypnotic state are closure of the eyelids by
the hypnotizer without subsequent attempt to open them by
the hypnotized subject; the pupils, instead of being constricted,
as for near vision, dUate, and there sets in a condition supezfidally
resembling sleep. But in natural sleep the action of all parts
of the nervous system is subdued, whereas in the hypnotic the
reactions of the lower, and some even of the higher, parts are
exalted. Moreover, the reactions seem to follow the sense
impressions with such fatality, that, as an inference, absence of
will-power to control them or suppress them is suggested. This
reflex activity with '* paralysis of will " is characteristic of the
somnambtdistU state. The threshold-value of the stimuli
adequate for the various senses may be extraordinarily lowered.
Print of microscopic size may be read; a watch ticking in another
room can be heard. Judgment of wdght and texture of surface
Is enlted; thus a card can In a dark room be felt and then
re-sdected from the re^huflied pack. Akin to this condition is
that in which the power of maintaining muscular effort is in-
creased; the individual may lie stiff with merely head and feet
supported on two chain; the limbs can be held ouUtretched for
boun at a time. This is the catakptie state, the phase of hypno-
tism which the phenomena of so-called " animal hypnotism "
resemble most. A frog or fowl or guinea-pig held in some
ufinatuial pose, and retained so forcibly for a time, becomes
" set " in that pose, or rather in a posture of partial recovery of
the normal posture. In this state it remains motionless for
various periods This condition is more than usually readily
induced when the cerebral hemispheres have been removed.
The decerebrate monkey exhibiu '' cataleptoid " reflexes.
Father A. Kircher's experimenhtm mirabiU with the fowl and
the chalk line succeeds best with the decerebraU hen. Tbe
attitude may be described as due to prolonged, not very intense,
discharge from reflex centres that regulate posture and are
probably intimately connected with the cerebellum. A sudden
intense sense stimulus usually suffices to end this tonic discharge.
It completes the movement that has already set in but had been
checked, as it were, half-way, though tonically maintained.
Coincidently with the persistence of the tonic contraction, the
higher and voh'tional centres seem to lie under a spell of
inhibition; their action, \^ich would complete or cut short the
posture-q>asm, rests in abeyance. Suspension of cerebral
influence exists even more markedly, of oouxae, when the
cerebral hemispheres have been ablated.
But a potent— according to some, the most potent— factor
in hypnotism, namely, suggestioHf is unrepresented in the
production of so-called animal hypnotism. We know that one
idea suggests another, and that volitional movements are the
outcome of ideation. If we assume that there is a material
process at the basis of ideation, we may take the analogy of the
concomitance between a spinal reflex movement and a skin
sensation. The physical " touch ** tbat initiates the psychical
" touch " initiates, through the very same nerve channels, a
reflex movement responsive to the physical " touch," just as the
psychical " touch " may be considered also a response to the
same physical event. But in the decapitated animal we have
good arguments for belief that we get the reflex movement alone
as response; the psychical touch drops out. Could, we assume
that there is in the adult man reflex machinery which is of higher
order than the merely spinal, which employs much more complex
motor mechanisms than they, and is connected with a much
wider range of sense organs; and could we assume that thi^
reflex machinezy, although usually associated in its action with
memorial and volitional processes, may in certain circumstances
be sundered from these latter and unattendant on them — may
in fact continue in work when the higher processes are at a
standstill— then we might imagine a condition resembling that
of the somnambulistic and cataleptic states of hypnotism.
Sudi assumptions are not wholly unjustifiibd. Actions of great
complexity and delicacy of adjustment are daily executed by each
of us without what is ordinarily understood as volition, and without
more than a mere shred of memory attached thereto. To take
one's watch from the pocket and look at it when from a familiar
dock-tower a familiar bdl strikes a familiar hour, is an instance of
a habitual action initiated by a sense perception outside attentive
consciousness. We may suddenljr remember dimly afterwards that
we have donfe so, and we quite fail to recall the difference between
the watch time and the dock time. In many instances hypnotism
seems to establish quickly reactions similair to such as usually
result only from long and dosdy attentive practice. The sleeping
mother rests undisturbed by the various noises of the house and
street, but wakes at a slight murmur from her child; The ship's
engineer, engaged in conversation with some visitor to the engine^
room, talks apparently undisturbed by all the multifold noise ami
rattle of the machinery, but let the nmse alter in some item which*
though unnoticeable to the visitor, betokens importance to the
trained ear, and his pasnve attention is in a moment caught. The
warders at an asylum have been hypnotized to sleep by the bedside
of dangerous patients, and " suggested " to awake the instant the
patients attempt to get out of bed, sounds which had no import for
them bdng inhibited by suggestion. Warders in this way worked
all day andperformed night duty also for months without showing
fatigue. This is akin to the " repetition '* which, read by the
schoolboy last thing overnight. Is on waking " known by heart.**
Most of us can wake •ooiewhere about a desired although unusually
early hour, if overnight we desire much to do io.
Two theories of a physiok>gical nature have been proposed
to account for the separation of the complex reactions of
these conditions of hypnotism from volition and from memory.
R. P. H. Hddenhain's view is that the cortical centres of the
hemisphere are inhibited by peculiar conditions attaching
to the initiatory sense stimulL W. T. Preyer's view Is that the
essential condition for Initiation is fatigue of the will-power
under a prolonged effort of undivided attention.
Hypnotic somnambulism and hypnotic catalepsy are not the
only or the most profound changes of nervous condition that
hypnosis can induce. The physiological derangement which
is the basis of the abeyance of volition may, if hypnotism be
profound, pass into more widespread derangement, exhibiting
itself as the hypnotic lethargy, lliis is associated not only with
paralysis of will but with profound anaesthesia. Proposals
have been made to employ hypnotism as a method of produdng
anaestheda for surgical purposes, but there are two grave
objections to such employment. In order to produce a suflkient
degree of hypnotic lethaiisy the subject must be made extremely
susceptible, and this can only be done by repeated hypnotization.
It is necessary to hypnotise patients every day for several weeks
before they can be got into a degree of stupor suflBdent to allow
of the safe execution of a surgical operation. But the state
itself, when reached, Is at least as dangerous to life as is that
produced by inhalation of ether, and it is more diflkult to
recover f roor. Moreover, by the processes the subject has gone
through he has had those physiological activities upon which
his voliticoal power depends excessivdy deranged, a&d not
improbabl y per manently enfeebled. (C. S. S.)
MUSOOVITB, a rock-forming mineral belonging to the mica
group (see Mica). It Is also known as potash-mica, bdng a
potassium, hydrogen and aluminium orthosUicate, H«£Ali(§iO«)«*
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
51
As the common white mica obtainable in thin, transparent
deava^ sheets of huge size it was formerly used in Russia for
window panes and known as " Muscovy gUss "; hence the name
nuscimte, proposed by J. D. Dana in 1850. It crystallizes in
the mooodinic system; distinctly developed crystals, however,
are rare and have the form of rough six-sided prisms or plates:
thin scales without definite crystal outlines are more common.
The most pnnninent feature is the perfect cleavage parallel to
the basal plane (c in the figure), on
which the lustre is pearly in character.
The hardneaw is 2-2}, and the spec,
grav. 2-S-2-9. The phme of the optic
axes is perpendicular to the plane of
symmetry and the acute bisectrix nearly normal to the cleavage;
the optic axial angle is 60-70**, and double refractioa is strong
and iwgative in sign.
Mosoovite frequently occurs as fine scaly to almost compact
aggregates, espedaDy when, as is often the case, it has resulted
by the alteration of some other mineral, such as felspar, topaz,
cyaniteiy &c.; several varieties depending on di£ferences in
stnutore have been distinguished. Fine scaly varieties are
damoorite, margarodite (from Gr. pap7aptn}Y, a pearl), gilber-
tite, secidte (from 0ifpui6f, silky), &C In seriate the fiine scales
are united in fibrous aggregates giving rise to a silky lustre:
this variety is a common constituent of phyllites and seridte-
sdusts. Oncosine (from 5Y«D<ns, intumescence) is a compact
variety forming rounded aggregates, which swell up when
heated bdore the blowpipe. Closdy related to oncosine are several
compact minerals, indudcd together under the name pinite,
whidi have resulted by the alteration of iolite, spodumene and
other minerals. Other varieties depend on differences in
fKpmifail compositiffli. Fuchsite or " chrome-mica " is a bright
green mnacovite containing chromium; it has been used as a
decorative stone. Oellacherite is a variety contaming some
bariuni. In phengite there is more silica than usual, the com-
position approximating to HsKAIi(Si«Ofe)i.
Muscovite is of wide distribution and is the commonest of the
micas. In igneous rocks it is found only in granite, never in
rckzmc rocks; but it is abundant in gneiss and mica-schist,
and in phyllites and day-slates, where it has been, formed at
the expend oi alkali-felspar by dynamo-metamorphic processes.
In pegmatite-veins traversing granite, gneiss or mica-schist it
oocnrs as large ^eets of commercial value, and is mined in India,
the United States and Brazil (see Mica), and to a limited extent,
topther with felspar, in southern Norway and in the Urals.
Large sheets of muscovite were formerly obtained from Solovetsk
Island, Archange L (L. J. S.)
■DSCULAR SYSTEM (Anatomy^), The muscular tissue
(Lat. mtucUlus, from a fancied resemblance of certain mtisdes
to a Cttle mouse) is of three kinds: (i) voluntary or striped
vmsde; (2) ineolwUary or unstriped musde, found in the skin,
«al]s of hollow viscera, coats of blood and lymphatic vessds, &c. ;
(3) heart mtusde. The miooscc^ical differences of these different
kinds are discussed in the artide on Conkectxve Tissues. Here
caily the vc^untary musdes, which are under the control of the
wSl, are to be considered.
The voluntary muscles form the red flesh of an animal, and
are the structures by which one part of the body is moved at
viQ upon another. Each muscle is said to have an origin and
aa insertion, the former bdng that attachment which is usually
core fixed, the latter that which is more movable. This
distinction, however, although convenient, is an arbitrary one,
aad an example may make this dear. If wetake the Ppctorelis
93J9r, which is attached to the front .of [the .<:htst <on the one
hand and to the upper part of the arm b6ne pn the other, the
eiect of its contraction will obviously be to draw the arm towards
the chest, so that its origin under ordinary drcumstances is said
to be from the chest while its insertion is into the arm; but if,
in climbing a tree, the hand grasps a branch above, the muscular
contraction will draw the chest towards the arm, and the latter
viQ then become the origin. Generally, but not always, a
> For l^ysiQlosyt see >f 99^m A|ID NEf^ys..
f,.
muscle is partly fleshy and partly tendhious; the fleshy conttactile
part is attached at one or both ends to cords or sheets of white
fibrous tissue, which in some cases pass round pulliet and to
change the direction of the musde's
action. The other end of these cords
or tendons is usually attached to the
periosteum of bones, with which it
blends. In some cases, when a
tendon passes round a bony pulley,
a sesamoid bone is devdoped in it
which diminishes the effects of fric-
tion. A good example of this is the
patella in the tendon of the rectni
femoris (fig. i. P.).
Every muscle is supplied with blood
vessels and lymphatics (fig. i, t, a, /)»
and also with one or more nerves.
The nerve supply is very important
both from a medical and a morpho-
logical point of view. The approxi-
mate attachments jure also important,
because unless they are realized
the action of the muscle cannot be
understood, but the exact attach-
ments are perhaps laid too great stress
on in the anatomical teaching of
medical students. The study of the
actions of musdes is, of course, a
physiological one, but teaching. the
subject has been handed over to the
anatomists, and the results have been
in some respects unfortimate. Until
very recently the anatomist studied
only the deaid body, and his one idea
of demonstrating the action of a
muscle was to expose, and then to Fic.i.— The Rectus Mus-
puU it, and whatever happened he de of the Thigh; to
said was the acUon of that muscle. "ho*' )*« constituent
It is now generally recognized that RP¥?4«hy bdly
no movement is so simple that only '-' •»• — • ' ~•-^-
one musde is concerned in it, and that
what a musde may do and what it
really does do are not necessarily the
same thing. As far as the deeper
musdes are concerned, we still have
only the anatomical method to depend
upon, but with the superficial mtisdes it should be checked by
causing a living person to perform certain movements and then
studying .which muscles take part in them.
For a modem study of muscular actions, see C. E. Beevor's
Croonian Leduresfor igoj (London, X904).
Musdes have various shapes: they may be fusiform, as in fig. i,
conical, riband-like, or flattened into triangular or quadrilateral
sheets. They may also be attached to skin, cartih^ or fascia
instead of to bone, while certain muscles surround openings
which they constrict and are called sphincters. The names of the^ .
musdes have gradually grown up, and no settled plan has been *
used in giving them. Sometimes, as in the coraco-brachiafif and •
tJtyro-hyoid, the name describes the origin. and insertion of the
musde, and, no doubt, for the student of human anatomy this '
is the most satisfactory plan,, since by learning ^he name the .
approximate attachments $ire also learnt. Sometimes the name .
pnly indicates some peculiarity in the shape of the musde and
l^ives no due to its position in the body or its attachments;
examples of this SLte biceps, semitendinosus and pyriformis.
Sometimes> as in the fiexor carpi ulnaris and corrugator supercilii,
the use of the muscle is shown. At other times the position in
the body is indicated, but not the attachments, as in the tibialis
anticus and peroneus longus, while, at other times, as in the case
of the pectineus, the name is only misleading. Fortunatdy the
names of the describers themselves are very sddom applied to
jnusdes; among the few examples ztt Horner^ s muscle jind the
Tendon of origin.
Tendon of insertion.
Nerve of supply.
Artery of supply.
Vdn.
Lymphatic vessel.
The patella.
52
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
muscular hand of Treilx. The Geraum anatomists at the Basel
conference lately proposed a uniform Latin and Greek nomencla-
ture, which, though not altogether satisfactory, is gaining ground
on the European continent. As there are some four hundred
trantvene wrinkles in the forehead. The amterior, posterior and
superior auricular musdes are present but are almost functionleas
in man. The orbicularis palpebrarum fonna a sphincter round the
eyelids, whkh it ck)ses. though there u little doubt that parts of the
muscle can act separately and cause various expressions. Thesideof
TvumtM
Qk.fr.K: ETUUtB Ota
ETJWTNAnm
Fkom A. IL Pstaaoo, Canaia^ham's Tat Botk tfAmhmif.
Fig. 2.— The Muscles of the Face and S^p (muscles of expression).
muscles on each side of the body it will be impossible here to
attempt more than a mere sketch of them; for the details the
anatomical textbooks must be consulted.
MuscLBS OP THK Hbad AND Facb (see fig. 3).— The scalp b
moved by a large flat muscle called the ouipUo-frontalis^ which has
two muscular bellies, the occipitalis SLodfroiUalis, and an mtervening
epicramal aponeurosis; this muscle moves the scalp and causes the
the nose has several muscles, the actions of whkh are indicated by their
names; they are the compressor^ two dilatores and the depressor aloe
nasif while the levator laoii superioris et alae na- i sometimes goes to
the nose. Raising the upper lip, in addition to the Last named, are
the levator labii superions proprius and the levator anguli oris, while
the aytomaticus major draws the angle of the mouth outward. The
lower Tip is depressed by the depressor labH inferioris and depressor
anguli oris, while the oroictdaris oris acu as a 4>hincter to the mouth.
fTnii|wnl bmncbaof
jtUcnor muJIkiy wim
^^ IxiTMMhL iTllVC«&
BA.If.
Fig. 3.— Pterygoid Region.
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
S3
The hmeeimalar mmseU in the wfastanoe of the cheeks rites from the
vpftee and lower jaws and runs forward to blend with the orbicularis
ons. AD the fonsotng are known as muscles of expression and all
are siqyplied by the seventh or facial nerve. The temporal muscle
at the side of the cranium (fig. 3) and the masseter (fip. 3), which
rises fnMB the sygoma, close the mouth, since both are inserted into
the^cuntts of the mandible; while, rising from the ptei
are the eatiermal wad idtemal tterygoid muscles (f
which polls forward the condyle, and so the whv«: ••••••uiuic. «....«
the Utter helps to close the moutn by acting on the angle of the k>wer
jaw. This mop of muscles forms the masticatory set, all of which
are soppfied by the third division of the fifth nerve. For the
muscles of the ortxt, see Etv; for those of the soft palate and pharynx.
He P&uiTVX; and lor those of the tongue, see ToNCtxi
the pterygoid plates,
(fig- 3). the former of
rhole mandible, while
both triangles to the hyoid bone. Where it passes deep to the
stemo-mastoid it has a central tendon which is bound to the first
rib by a loop of cervical fascia. Rising from the styloid process are
three muscws, the stylo-glossus, styUhhyoid and st^o-pkarynteuSt
the names of which mdicate their attachments. Covering these
muscles of the anterior triangle is a thin sheet, close to the skin,
called the platysma. the upper fibres of which run back from the
mouth over the cheek and are named the risorius (Bg. 2) ; this sheet
b one of the few remnants in man of the skin musculature or pamni-
cuius camosus of bwer Mammals. With regard to the nerve supply
of the anterior triangle muscles, all those which go to the tongue
are supplied by the hypoglossal or twelfth cranial nerve, while the
muscles below the hyoid bone are apparently supplied from thu
nerve but really from the upper cervical nerves (see NitVB,
Fig. 4.— The Triangles of the Neck (muscles).
Mijscxas or rm Neck (fig. 4).— Just bek>w the mandible b the
ii^ssiric, wfaidi. as its name shows, has two bellies and a central
leadoa; the anterior belly, supplied by the fifth nerve, is attached to
the mandible near the symphysis, the posterior supplied by the
seveath qf dte. mastoid process, while the central tendon u bound
to the favoid bone. Stretching across from one side of the k>wer jaw
CO tiie ooier and f ooning a floor to the mouth b the m^tf- A>iMi flPii(w<r ;
p ost e ri u rt y thb reaches the hyoid bone, and in the mid-line has a
vmiiMW raphe sepantii^ the two halves of the muscle. Rising
tram the manubrium stemi and inner part of the clavicle b the
nrm dtidi t mar toid, which b inserted into the mastoid process and
sDperior curved fines of the occipital bone; when it contracts it
Bskcs the face look over the opposite shoulder, and it b supplied
bjr the aoiaal accesaory nerve as well as by branches from' the
' plexna. It b an important surgical landmark, and forms a
I across the quadrihtteral outline of the side of the neck.
Ending it into an anterior tKanvle with its apex downward and a
' r with its apex upward. In the anterior triangle the reUtive
' the hvoid bone, thyroid cartilage and sternum should
and then the hyo-ihssus, tkyro-kyoid, stemo-kyoid and
1 muades are exphuned bjr their "^
IfOBi the uppct' border
vmiMMm of the hvoid bone, thyroid cartilage and sternum should
be nafiaed. and then the hyo-ihssus, tkyro-kyoid, stemo-kyoid and
I are exphuned by their names. The omo-kyoid
r of the scapula and nins across
Cranial: and Nbrve, Spinal). The posterior triangle b formed
by the stemo-mastoid in front, the trapezius behind, and the clavicle
below ; in its floor from above downward part of the following muscles
are seen: complexus, sptenius^ leoator anguli scatulae, scalenus
medius and scalenus anticus. Sometimes a smaU piece of the
scalenus posticus is caught sight of behind the scalenus mediats. The
splemtu rotates the head to its own side, the levator anguli scapulae
raises the upper angle of the scapula, while the three scalenes n^n
from the transverse processes of the cervical vertebrAe atid fix or
raise the upper ribs. The Irapenus (fig. 5) arises from the spines
of the thoracic vertebrae and the ligamentum nuchae, and b inserted
into the outer third of the clavicle and the spine of the scapula: it b
used in shrugging the shoulders and in drawing the upper part of the
scapula toward the mid-dorsal line. Its nerve MipplY b the spinal
accessory and third and fourth cervical nerves. When the super-
ficial muscles and complexus are removed from the back of the neck,
the sub-occipital triangle b seen beneath the occipital bone. Exter-
nally it b bounded by the superior oblique, running from the trans*
verse process of the atlas to the lateral part of the occipiul bone,
internally by the rectus capitis posticus major, passing from the spine
of the axis to the Uteral part of the occipital bone,'and inferioriy by
the inferior oblique joining the spine of the axb to the transverse
5+
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
iprocew of the fttlat. These muadet move the bead on the atlu
and the atlas on the axis. They are supplied by the posterior branch
of the first cervical nerve.
MuscLis OP THB Trunk.— The trapanus has already been de-
scribed as a superficial muscle of the upper part of the back; in the
loin region the latissimns dorsi (fig. 5) is the superficial muscle, its
origin being from the lower thoradc q>inss, lower ribs and lumbar
forming the semispinalit and mnUifidus spinat musdea. The
latissimus dorsi and rhomboids are supplied by blanches of the
brachial plexus of nerves, while the deeper muscles get their nerves
from the posterior primary divisions of the spinal nerves (see Nbbve.
Spinal). On the anterior part of the thoracic region the fmtoralis
major runs from the clavicle, sternum and ribs, to the humerus (fig. 6) ;
deep to this IS the pectcraiis minor, passing from the upper ribs to
Ffoa A. II. Patoaoa. daaiaKham'* Tcrf Bttk tf AuUmj.
Fig. 5.— Superficial Muscles of the Back.
fascia, and it is inserted into the upper part of the arm bone or
humerus. When the trapezius it cut. the rhomboid muscles (major
and minor) passing from the upper thoracic spines to the vertebral
.border of the scapula are seen, and deep to these u the serratus
posticus superior passing from neariy the same spines to the upper
ribs. On reflecting the latissimus dorsi the serratus posticus inferior
is seen running from the lower thoracic spines to the lower ribs.
When these muscles are removed the great mass of the erector spinae
is exposed, familiar to every one as the upper cut of the sirioin or ribs
of beef; it runs all the way up the dorsal side of the vertebral column
from the pelvis to the occiput, the complexus already mentioned
being its extension to the head. It is longitudinally segmented
into many different bundles to which special names are given, and it
is attached to the various vertebrae and ribs as it goes up, thus
straightening the spinal column. Deep to the erector spinae are
found shorter bundles passing from one vertebra to another and
the coracofd process. The serratus magnus Is a laii^ muscle riainc,
by serrations from the upper eight ribs, and running back to the
vertebral border of the scapula, which it draws fon*ard as in the
fencer's lunge. Between the ribs are the external and interMtl imUr-
costal muscles; the former beginning at the tubercle and ending at
the junctions of the ribs with their cartilages, while the latter only
begin at the angle of t|ie ribs but are protonged on to the sternum, ao
that an interchondral as well as an mtercostal part of each muscle
is recogniced. The fibres of the external intercostals ran downward
and forward, those of the internal downward and backward (aee
Respiration). The abdominal walls are formed of three aheeta
of muscle, of which the most superficial or external obUgue (fig. 6)
is attached to the outer surfaces of the k>wer ribs; its fibres run
downward and forward to the pelvis and mid-line of the abdomen,
the middle one or internal oblique b on the same plane as the riba,
and iu fibres run downward aiod backward, while the m mt m rs alis
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
55
b cttached to the deep sorfacai of the ribt. and tt» fibres run horuon-
tafiyiorwanL Below, all these miMcfes are attached to the crest of
the Oimn and to Poupart's ligament, which is really the lower free
cdce of the eztemal oblique, while, behind, the two deeper ones,
at all events. Mend with the fascia lumborum. As they approach
the raid-vential line they become aponeurotic and form the sheath
of the ndms. The rtOms abdominis (6g. 6) b a flat muscular band
whkh runs up on each side of the lineaalba o^ nud-ventral kne of the
ab4pni'»ti irom the pubb to the ribs and sternum. Thb muscle
stain tendinous iatersections or Uneae transversae, the positions
rotating muscles pass from the scapula to the upper end of the
humerus: these are the subscapvlaris passing in front of the shoulder
joint, the ) •• • -. • - --^. ^
terts minor I
'i supraspinatus above the joint, and the infraspinatus and
or behind. The teres major (fig. S) comes from near the
bwer angle of the scapula, and b inserted with the latisumus doni
into the iront of the suigii
brachialis (fig. 7) passes irc— ,
the humerus in front of the shoulder joint, while the hrackialtt
into the Iront of the 'surgical neck of the humerus. The coraco-
I from the coracotd process to the middle of
anticus passes in front of the elbow from tne humerus to the coronoid
process of the ulna. Passing in front of both shoulder and elbow b
nasi A. U. PftUnaa, CsBoIofhsm't Tul B^t ^ Aaaltmf.
Fig. 6.— Anterior Muscles of the Trunk.
of which are noticed in the article Anatomt (Superficial and Artistic),
sad the nMrphology of which b referred to Uter. In front of the
bwetf part of the rectus b sometimes a small trbngular muscle
calk4 the pyramiialis. The ouadratus lumborum b a muscle at the
bsdc of the abdominal wall wnich runs between the last rib and the
csett of the tUunu In front of the bodies of the vertebrae b a
psevcrtebrtl or hypaaial. musculature, of which the rectiu capitis
V and MUMT muscles and ((mfaii coUt in the neck and the
i kxns form the diief parts, the latter being familbr as
t of the sirkxn of beef, while the pdvb b doeed bckm by
r Boor formed by the levator am and coccygeus muscles.
The dbphiagm b fTpbinrd in a separate article.
Uv9CLMa or ths Umt Extkbmitt.— The ddtoid (see figs.7and8^
m the onade whUi forms the shoulder cap and b used in abaucting
the ans to a right angle with the trunk; it runs from the clavicle.
' pcooeaa and spine of the scapub. to the middle of the
w and i» anpplbd by the dicumfler nerve. Several short
the bicePs ffiff. 7). the long head of which rises £n>m the top of the
SfnSdS^^ iSwe tiSl&nt, while the i^«t bead ccm^^
ooraooid process. The insertion b into the tubercle of the radtus.
These thm muscles are all supplied by the same (muKnUojCutaneous)
nerve. At the back of the arm is the trtufs^ ^H'^l7!^!^'._
behind both shouMer and elbow jomts »«>.»• ^.««*L**^°!5J
muscle of them; its bnff head nsea from }»1^Z^t^^^^
cavity of the scapula, whfle the inner and outer heads come from the
back of the humerus. It b inserted into the olecranonjnocess of
the uba and b supplied by the musculo-spinal nerve. The musdn
of the front of the forearm form superficial and deep sets (tee ng. jY
Most of the suoerfidal muscles come from the internal condyle d
of
fOdM
the humerus. Trom without inward they are the frcnaiorndu
teres going to the radius. the>I«»r carPt raduUts to the base of Uie
index meracaipal bone, the palmaris Imgusto the palmar fasda.
the>toa»r sublwUs digitorum to the middle phalanges of the fin^^
and the Jlexor carpi ulmaris to the pbiform bone. The important
58
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
and the fiaaar tongus kattucis from within outward. Their tendon*
all paM into the sole, that of the flexor longua dighonim being
inserted into the terminal phabnges of the four outer toes, the flexor
longut hallucis into the terminal phalanx of the big toe. while the
tibialn posticus sends expansions to most of the tarsal bones. The
nerve supply of this group is the posterior tibial. On the dorsum of
Che foot M the extensor brevis digitorum (fig. 1 1). which helps to extend
Fran A. If. Puenoo, Ouuuoghun'a Tal Bttk tf Amatmy.
Fig. II.— Muscles of the Front of the Right Leg and Dorsum
of the Foot,
the four inner toes, while in the sole are four layers of short muscles,
the most superficial of which consists of the abductor kaUiuis, the
flexor brevis dicUorum, and the abductor minimi digiti, the names of
which indicate their atuchments. The second layer is formed by
muscles which are attached to the flexor longus digitorum tendon;
they are the auessorius, running forward to the tendon from the
lower surface of the calcaneum, and the four lumbricaUs, which rise
from the tendon after it has split for the four toes and pass
between the toes to be inserted uito the tendons of the extensor
longus digitorum on the dorsum. The third laver comprises the
flexor brevis kaUucis, adductor oidiquus and adductor Iransversus
hallucis and the flexor brevis minimi dtgiti. The fourth layer contains
the three plantar and four dorsal interosseous muscles, rising from
the metatarsal bones and inserted into the proximal phsilangcs
and extensor tendons in such a way that the plantar muscles draw
the toes towards the line of the second toe while the dorsal draw
them away from that line. Of these sole muscles the flexor brevis
digitorum, flexor brevis hallucis, abductor hallucb and the innermost
lumbrical are supplied by the internal plantar nerve, while all the
rest are supplied by the external plantar.
Bmbfycloiyt
The development of the muscular tyttera Is partly known from
the resulu of direct observation, and partly inferred from the study
of the part of the nervous system whence the innervation u derived.
The unstriped muscle is formed from the mesenchyme cells of the
somatic and splanchnic layers of the mesoderm (see Ejibbyolocy).
but never, as far as we Imow, from the mesodermic somites. The
heart muscle u also developed from mesenchymal cells, though the
chanees producing its feebly striped fibres are more xompbcsted.
The skeletal or real striped muscles are derived either from the meao>
dermic somites or from the branchial arches. As the mesodermic
somites are placed on each side of the neural canal in the eariy
embryo, it is obvious that the sreater part of the trunk musculature
spreads gruiually round the Body from the dorsal to the ventral
side and consists of a series of plates called myotomes (fig. la). The
muscle fibres in these plates run in the long axis of the embryo, and
are at first separated from those of the two neighbouring plates by
thin fibrous intervals called myocommata. In some cases these
Froo A. M. PstcaoQ. Cuaniacham'* Text Book tifAwakmy
Fig. la.— Scheme to Illustrate the Disposition of the Myotomes
in the Embryo in Relation to the Head, Trunk and Umbs.
A. B, C. First three cephalic myotomes.
N, I, 3, 3. 4, Last persisting cephalic myotomes.
C. T. L. S, Co.. The myotomes of the cervical, thoracic, lumbar.
sacral and caudal regions.
I., II., III.. IV., v.. VI.l^II.. VIll.. IX., X., XI.. XII.. Refer to
the cranial nerves and the structures with which they may be
embryologically associated.
myocommata persist and even become ossified, as in the ribs, but
more usually they disappear early, and the myotomes then unite with
one another to form a great muscular sheet. In the whole length of the
trunk a longitudinal cleavage at right angles to the surface occurs,
splitting the musculature into a dorsal and ventral part, supplied
respectively by the dorsal and ventral primary divisions of the spinal
nerves. From the dorsal part the various muscles of the erector
spinae scries are derived by further longitudinal clea^'agcs either
tangential or at right angles to the surface, while the ventral part
is again longitudinally split into mesial and lateral portions. A
transverse section of the tnmk at this stage, therefore, would show
the cut ends of three longitudinal strips of muscle: (1) a mesial
ventral, from which the rectus, pyramidalis stemo-hyoid. omo-
hyoid and stemo-thyrotd muscles are derived: (2) a lateral ventral
forming the flat muscles of the abdomen, intercostals and part of
the stemomastoid and trapezius; and (3) the dorsal portion already
noticed. The mesial ventral part is remarkable for the persistence
of remnants of myocommata in it, forming the lineae transversae
of the rectus and the central tendon of the omo-hyoid. The lateral
part in the abdominal region splits tangentially mto three layers.
MUSES, THE
59
iIk exteraftl and internal obOqne and the tnntvenalit, the fibres
flf vliifch become differently directed. In the thoracic rcgbn the
intcrcQetala probably indicate a funher tangential •pUtting of the
middle or internal oblique layer, because toe external oblique is
continued beadward super6ciaily to the ribs and the transvenalis
deeply to tbem. The more cephalic part oC the external oblique
layer probably disappears by a process oC pressure or crowding out
ovii^ to the encroachment of the serratus magnus, a muscle which
its nerve supply indicates is derived from the lower cervical myo-
tomes^ Tbe dwper parts of the lateral mass of muades spread to
the ventral surface of the bodies of the vertebrae, and iurm the
kypfjnal mmdn — such as the psoas, longus colli and recti capitis
antid. The nerve supplv indioites that the lowest myotomes taking
part in the formation of the abdomtnal walls are those supplied by
the first and second lumbar nerves, and are represented by the
oemaster muscle in the scrotum. In the perineum, however, the
third and fourth sacral myotomes are represented, and these muscles
axe differentiated lar^ly from the primitive sphincter which sur-
fouads the doacal orifice, though partly from vestigial tail muscles
(see P. Thompson, Joum, Anat, and Phys., vol. xxxv; and R. H.
Puamore, Lamxt, May 3i, loio). In the head no distinct myotomes
have beea demonstrated In the mammalian embryo, but as they are
present in more lowly Tertebrates, it is probable that their develop-
ment has been slurred over, a process often found in the embryolocy
of the hsher forms. Probably nine cephalic myotomes originally
exisKed. oi which the fint raves rise to the eye muscles supplied by
tbe third nerv«, the second to the superior oblique muscle supplied
by the fourth nerve, and the third to the external rectus supplied by
the sntb nerve. The fourth, fifth and sixth myotomes are sup-
pressed, but the seventh, elshth and ninth possibly form the muscles
of the toogiie supplied by the twelfth cranial nerve.
Tanans nosr to the branchial arches, the first branchiomere is
ittMrvatea by the fifth cranial nerve, and to it beloiw the masseter,
temfoal, pterygoids, anterior belly of the dieastnc, mylo-hyoid,
lensor tympam and tensor palati, while from the second branchio-
aere, snpplied bv the seventh or facial nerve, all the facial muscles
of I us I' Minn and the etylo-hyoid and posterior belly of the digastric
are d er ive d, as well as tbe platysma, which is one of the few remnants
of die pannimlus camosus or skin musculature of the lower num-
malsL Fran tbe third branchiomere, the nerve of which is the ninth
or gloasopharyngeal, the stylo-pharyneeus and upper part of the
pharyngeal ooostrictora are formed, while the fourth and fifth gill
aicbes 0nre rise to the muscles of the larynx and the lower part of
the constrictors supplied by the vagus or tenth nerve. It is possible
that paits of the stemo-mastoid and traperius are also branchial
in their origin, nnce they are supplied by. the spinal accessory or
' ierv<e, but this is unsettled. The limb musculature is
arded as a sleeve*like outpushlng of the external oblique
J the lateral ventral musculature of the trunk, and it is
believed that parts of several myotomes are in this way pushed out
is the growth of the limb bud. This process actually occurs in the
bwer vertebrates, and the nerve supplies provide strong presumptive
e > id en c e that this is the real i^ylocieneticnistory of the hieher forms,
thoBgh direct observation shows that the limb muscles ol mamnuils
are lormed from tbe central mesoderm of the limb and at first are
<^3ite daadnct from the myotomes of the trunk. A possible expbna-
tMQ of the diflBcuky is that this is another example of the slurring
over of stages in phykjgenv, but this is one of many obscure morpho-
k)gtcal points. The muscles of each limb are divided into a dorsal
aad ventral series, supplied by dorsal and ventral secondary divisions
of the nerves in the limb plexuses, and these correspond to the original
positioo of the limbs as they grow out from the embryo, so that in
the upper extremitv the back of the arm. forearm and dorsum of the
hand are dorsal, while in the lower the dorsal surface is the front of
the thkh and leg and the dorsum of the foot.
For fnrther details see Development of the Human Body, by J. P.
McMurrich (London. 1906), and the writings of L. Bolk, Morphol.
Jakrb. vols, xxi-xxv.
Comparatne Anatomy,
la the aciania (r.g. ampbioxus) the simple arrangement of myo-
tomes and myocommau seen in the early human embryo is perma-
aeau The myotomes or muscle plates are < shaped, with their
apices pointing towards the head end. each being supplied by its
own spinal nerve. In the fishes this arrangement is largely persis-
tent, but each limb of the < is bent on itself, so that the myotomes
have now the shape of a $. the central angle of which corresponds
to tbe lateral Goe of the fish. In the abdominal region, however,
the oiyotoraes fuse and rudiments of the recti and obliqui abdominis
nmsrles of hsgber types are seen. In other regions too, such as the
fiasof fish and the tongue of the Cyclostomata (lamprey), specialized
noscahr bundles are separated off and are coincident with the
aoquirnnent of movements of these parts in different directions.
la the Amphibia the limb musculature becomes much more complex
■Btheioints ate formed, and manv of the muscles can be homologized
nrith tnose of mammals, thou^ this is by no means always the case,
wUe. in the abdominal region, a superficial delamination occurs,
so that in many forms a superficial ana deep rectus abdominis occurs
as wcQ as a culaneus abdcminis delaminated from the external
o*)fique. It b probable that this delamination is the precursor of
the penniculos camotus or skin muscubture of mammals. The
branchial musculature also becomes much more complex, and the
mylo-hyoid muscle, derived from the first branchial areh and lying
beneath the floor of the mouth, is very noticeable and of great
importance in breathing.
In the reptiles further differentiation of the muscles Is seen, and
with the acquirement of costal respiration the external and internal
intercostals are formed by a delaminatk>n of the internal oblique
stratum. In the dorsal region several of the longitudinal musoea
which together make up the erector q>inae are distinct, and a very
definite sphincter cloacae is formed round and ck>aad aperture.
In mammals certain muscles vary in their attachments or presenoei
and absence in different orders, sub-orders and families, so that,
were it not for the large amount of technical knowledge required
in recognizing them, they might be useful from a classificatory point
of view. There is, however, a neater gap between the musculature
of Man and that of the other Primates than there is be tw een many
different orders, and this is usually traceable dtber direct^ oc
indirectly to the assumption of the erect position.
The chief causes which produce changes of mnsralature are:
ii) splitting, (2) fusion. (3) suppression either partial or complete,
4) shifting of ori^n, (5) shifting of insertion, (6) new formation,
7) transference oipart of one muscle to another. In many of these
cases the nerve supply gives an important clue to the change which
has been effected. Splitting of a muscular mass b often (be result
of one part of a muscle being used separately, and a good example
of this IS the deep flexor mass of the forearm. In the lower mammals
this mass rises from the flexor surface of the radius and ulna, and
supplies tendons to the terminal phalanges of all five digits, but in
man the thumb is used separately, and, in response to this, that
part of the mass which eoes to the thumb is comfdetely wpWt off into
a separate muscle, the flexor k>ngus pollkis. Tlw process, however,
is going farther, for we have acquired the habit 01 using our index
finger alone for many purposes, and the index slip of the flexor
profundus digitorum is in us almost as distinct a muscle as the flexor
longus pollicis. Fusion may be either collateral or longitudinal.
The former is seen in the case of the flexor carpi ulnaris. In many
mammals (e.g. the dog), there are two muscles inserted separately
into the pisiform bone, one rising from the Internal condyle of the
humerus, the other from the olecranon process, but in many others
(e.g. man) the two muscles have fused. Longitudinal fusion is seen
in the digastric, where the anterior belly is part of the first (man-
dibular) branchbl areh and the posterior of the second or hyoid areh ;
in this case, as one would expect, the anterior belly is supplied by
the fifth nerve and the posterior by the seventh. Partial suppression
of a muscle is seen in the rhomboid sheet; in the lower mammab
this rises from the head, neck and anterior toephalic) thoracic q>ines,
but in man the head and most of the necic part b completely sup-
pressed. Complete suppression of a muscle b exemplified m the
omo-trachclian, a muscle which runs from the cervkal vertebrae
to the-acromian process and fixes the ecapob for the strong action
of the triceps in pronograde mammals; in man this strong action
of the triceps is no longer needed for prcvression, and the fixins
muscle has disappeared. Shifting of origin is seen in the short head
of the biceps femoris. Thb in many kywer mammab {e.g. rabbit)
is a muscle running from the tail to the lower leg; in many othere
(e.g. monkeys and man) the origin has slipped down to the femur,
and in the great anteater it is evident that the agitator caudae has
been used as a muscle slide, because the short head of the biceps
or tenuisstmus has once been found rising from the surface of this
muscle. Shitting of an insertion is not neariy as common as shifting
of an origin ; it is seen, however, in the pcroneus tertius of man, in
which part of the extensor longus digitorum has acquired a new
attachment to the base of the fifth metatarsal bone. The new
formation of a muscle is seen in the styio-hyoideus alter, an occasional
human muscle; in this the stylo-hyoid ligament has been converted
into a muscle. The transference of part of one muscle to another
is well shown by the human adductor magnus; here the fibres which
pass from the tuber ischii to the condyle of the femur have a nerve
supply from the great sdatk instead of the obturator, and in most
lower mammals are a separate part of the hamstrings known as the
presem imembranosus.
For further details see Bronn's Classen und Ordnunffm des Tkier'
reichs; " Tbe Muscles of Mammals," by F. G. Parsons, Jour, Anat.
and Phys, xxxii. 428; also accounts of the muscubture of mammala,
by VVindle and Parsons, in Proc. Zool. Soc (1894, seq.); Humphry,
Observations in Myology (1874). (F. G. P.)
MUSES, THB (Or. MoMreu, the thinkers), in Greek myth-
ology, originally nymphs of springs, then goddesses of song, and,
later, of the different kinds of poetiy and of the arts and sciences
generally. In Homer, who says nothing definite as to their
names or number, they are simply goddesses of song, who dwell
among the gods on Olympus, where they sing at their banquets
under the leadership of Apollo Musagetes. According to Hesiod
(Tkeog. 77), who first gives tbe usually accepted names and
number, they were the daughters of Zeus and Mnemosyne, the
personification of memory; others made them children of
6o
MUSET— MUSEUMS OF ART
Uranus and Gaca. Three older Muses (Mneme, Melete, Aoide)
were sometimes distinguished, whose worship was said to have
been introduced by the Aloidae on Mt Helicon (Pausanias iz. 29).
It is probable that three was the original number of the
Muses, which was increased to nine owing to their arrangement
in three groups of three in the sacred choruses. Round the
altar of Zeus they sing of the origin of the world, of gods and men,
of the glorious deeds of Zeus; they also honour the great heroes;
and celebrate the marriages of Cadmus and Peleus, and the
death of Achilles. As goddesses of song they protect those who
recognise their superiority, but punish the arrogant — such as
Thamyris, the Thradan bard, who for having boasted himself
their equal was deprived of sight and the power of song. From
their connexion with ApoUo and their original nature as inspiring
nymphs of springs they also possess the ^t of prophecy. They
are closely related to Dionysus, to whose festivals dramatic
poetxy owed its origin and development The worship of the
Muses had two chief seats— on the northern slope of Mt
Olympus in Pieria, and on the slope of Mt Helicon near
Ascra and Thespiae in Boeotia. Their favourite haunts were the
springs of Castalia, Aganippe and Hippocrene. From Boeotia
their qilt gradually spread over Greece. As the goddesses who
presided over the nine principal departments of letters, their
names and attributes were: Calliope, epic poetry (wax tablet and
pendl); Euterpe, lyric poetry (the double flute); Erato, erotic
poetry (a small lyre); Melpomene, tragedy (tragic luask and ivy
wreath); ThaUa, comedy (comic mask and ivy wreath); Pdly-
hymnia (or Polymnia), sacred hymns (veiled, and in an attitude
of thought); Terpsichore, choral song and the dance (the lyre);
Clio, history (a scroll); Urania, astronomy (a celestial globe).
To these Arethusa was added as the muse of pastoral poetry.
The Roman poets identified the Greek Muses with the Italian
Camenae (or Casmenae), prophetic iiymphs of springs and god-
desses of birth, who possessed a grove near the Porta Capena
at Rome. One of the most famous of these was Egeria, the
counsellor of King Numa.
See H. Deiters, Ueber die Venkrung der Musen M den Griechen
(1863): P. Decharme, I«i Muses (i860); J. H. Krauae. Die Musen
(1871): F. Rddiger, Die Musen (187^); O. Navarre in Darembers
ana Saglio's DtcUonnaire des aniiqutUs, and O. Hie in Roacher^
Lexikon der Mylhologiet the latter chiefly for repreaentations of the
Muses in art.
- MUSBT, COLIN (fi. 1200), French troinhre, was poet and
musician, and made his living by wandering from castle to castle
singing his own songs. These are not confined to the praise of
the conventional love that formed the usual topic of the tromhes,
but contain many details of a singer's life. Colin shows naive
gratitude for presents in kind from his patrons, and recommends
a poet repulsed by a cruel mistress to find consolation in the
bans morceaux qu*on mange devant nn g^and feu. One of his
patrons was Agn^ de Bar, duchess of Lorraine (d. 1 226).
Set Hist. lilt, de la France, xxiii. 547-553 ; ako a thesis, De Nicolas
Museto (1893). by J. Bddier.
MUSEUMS OP ART.* The kter rgth century was remarkable
for the growth and development of museums, both in Great
Britain and abroad. This growth, as Professor Stanley Jevons
predicted, synchronises with the advancement of education.
Public museums are now universally required; old institutions
have been greatly improved, and many new ones have been
founded, lie British parliament has passed statutes conferring
upon local authorities the power to levy rates for library and
museum purposes, while on the continent of Europe the collection
and exhibition of objects of antiquity and art has become a
recognized duty of the state and mum'dpality alike.
A sketch of the history of museums in general is given bdow,
under Musedms or Science. The modem museum of art differs
essentially from its earlier prototypes. The aimless collection
of curiosities and bric-4-brac, brought together without metliod
. * Under the term *' museum " (Gr. nanouam, temple of the muses)
we accept the ordinary distinction, by which it covers a collection of
all ioru of art objects, while an art gallery (s.s.) confines itself
practically to pictures.
or system, was the feature of certain famous coDectioos in by-
gone days, of which the Tradescant Museum, formed in the 17th
century, was a good example. This museum was a miscellany
without didactic value; it contributed nothing, to the advance-
ment of art; its arrangement was unscientific, and the public
gained little or no advantage from its existence. The modem
museum, on the other hand, should be organized for the public
good, and should be a fruitful source of amusement and instruc-
tion to the whole community. Even when Dr Waagen described
the collections of En^and, about 1840, private individuab
figured chiefly among the owners of art treasures. Nowadays in
rnaking a record of this nature the. collections belonging to the
puhlic would at tract most attentioiL This fact is hffoming more
obvious every year. Not only are acquisitions of great value
constantly made, but the principles of museum administration
and development are being more closely defined. What Sir
William Flower, an eminent authority, called the " new museum
idea " {Essays on Musdums, p. 37) is pervading the treatment of
all the chief museums of the world. Briefly stated, the new
principle of museum development— first enunciated in 1870, but
now beginning to receive general support — is that the first aim of
public collections ,shaU be education, and their second recreation.
To be of teaching value, museum arrangement and da^fication
must be carefully studied. Acquisitions must be added to -their
proper sections; random purdiase of " curios " must be avoided.
Attention inust be given to the proper display and cataloguing
of the exhil>its, to their housing and preservation, to the lighting,
comfort and ventilation of the galleries. Furthermore, facilities
must be allowed to those who wish to make spedal study of
the objects on view. " A museum is like a living organism:
it requires continual and tender care; it must grow, or it will
perish " (Flower, p. 13).
Great progress has been made in the classification of objects,
a hi^y important branch of museum work. There are three
possible systems— luunely, by date, by matirial and
by nationality. It has been fotmd possible to ^^^^*^
combine the systems to some extent; for instance,
in the ivory department of the Victoria and Albert Museun%
South Kensington, London, where the broad classification ii
by material, the objects being further subdivided according to
their age, and in a minor degree according to their nationality.
But as yet there is no general preference of one system to another.
Moreover, the principles of classification are not easOy laid down;
e.g. musical instruments: should they be included in art exhibits
or in the ethnographical section to which they also pertain?
Broadly speaking, objects must be rlawifird according to the
quality (apart from their nature) for which they are most remark-
able. Thus a musket or bass viol of the i6th century, inlaid
with ivory and highly decorated, would be properiy induded in
the art section, whereas a conunon flute or weapon, noteworthy
for nothing but its interest as an instrument of music or destruc-
tion, would ht suitably classified as ethnographic. In England,
at any rate, there is no uniformity of practice in this respect,
and though it is to be hoped that the ruling desire to daaaify
according to strict sdentific rules may not become too preva-
lent, it would nevertheless be a distinct advantage if, in one or
more of the British museums, some attempt were made lo
illustrate the growth of domestic arts and crafu according to
cl assi fic ation by date. Examples of this classification in Munich,
Amsterdam, Basd, ZOrich and elsewhere afford excellent lessons
of history and art, a series of rooms being fitted up to show
in chronological order the home life of our ancestors. In the
National Museum of Bavaria (Munich) there is a superb suite of
rooms illustrating the progress of art from Merovingian times
down to the 19th century. Thus classification, though studied,
must not check the elastidty of art museums; it should not be
allowed to interfere with the mobility of the exhibits— that is to
say, it should always be possible to withdraw spedmens for the
doser inspection of students, and also to send examples on loan
to other museums and schools of art— an invaluable system long
in vogue at the Victoria and Albert Museum, and one whith
should be still more widdy adopted. An axiom of museum law
MUSEUMS OF ART
6i
is that the exhibits shall be properly shown. ** The value of a
museoin is to be tested by the treatment of Its contents"
(Flower, p. 24). But in many museums the chief hindrance to
study aikd enjoyment Is overcrowding of exhibits. Although
a tiuism, it is necessary to sute that each object should be
properly seen, dcaned and safeguarded; but all over the world
this rule is forgotten. The rapid acqui^lion of objects Is one
cause of overcrowding, but a faulty appreciation of the didactic
purpose of the collection is more frequently responsible.
In Great Britain, museum progress is satisfactory. Visitors
are niunbered by millions, access is now permitted on Sundays
cj«— ffcjjj"*^ week-days alike, and entrance fees arc being con-
^^^^^^ sisteniiy reduced; in this the contrast between Great
Britain and some fordgn countries is singular. A
generation or so ago the national collections of Italy used to be
always open to the public Pay-days, however, were gradually
established, with the result that the chief collections arc now
only visible without payment on Sundays. In Dresden payment
is obligatory five days a week. The British Museum never
charges for admission. On the other hand, the increase in
continental collections b more raiHd than in Great Britain, where
acquisitkHis arc only made by gift, purchase or bequest. In
other European countries enormous collections have been
obtained by revolutions and conquest, by dynastic changes, and
by secularizing rdigioua foundations. Some of the chief
treasures of provincial museums in France were spoils of the
Napi^eonic armies, though the great biUk of this loot was returned
in 18x5 to the original owners. In Italy the conversion of a
monastery into a museum is a simple process, the Dominican
house of San Biaroo in Florence offering a typical example. A
further stimulus to the foundation of museums on the continent
is the comparative ease with which old buildings are obtained
and adapted for the collections. Thus the Germanisches Museum
of Nuremberg is a secularized church and convent ; the enormous
coUectJons belongmg to the town of Ravenna arc housed in an
old Camaldulenslan monastery. At Louvain and Florence
municipal palaces of great beauty arc used; at Nlmes a famous
Roman temple; at Urbino the grand ducal palace, and so on.
There are, however, certain disadvantages in securing both
building and colIectx>n ready-made, and the special care devoted
to museums in Great Britain can be traced to the faa that their
cost to the community is considerable. Immense sums have
been spent on the buildings alone, nearly a million sterling being
de\noted to the new buildings for the Victoria and Albert Museum
in London. Had it been possible to secure them without such
an outlay the colleaions themselves would have been much
increased, though in this increase itself there would have been a
danger, prevalent but not yet fully realized in other countries,
of crowding the vacant space with specimens of inferior quality.
The result is that fine things are badly seen owing to the masses
of second-rate examples; moreover, the ample space available
induces the authorities to remove works of art from their original
places, in order to add theAi to the museums. Thus the statue
of St George by Donatello has been taken from the church of Or
San Michde at Florence (on the plea of danger from exposure),
and is now placed in a museum where, being dwarfed and under
cover, its chief artistic value Is lost. The desire to make financial
profit from works of art is a direct cause of the noodern museum
n»vement in Italy. One result is to displace and thus depredate
many works of art, beautiful in their original places, but quite
iifsignififaftt when put into a museum. Another result is that,
owing to high entrance fees, the humbler class of Italians can
rardy see the art treasures of thdr own country. There are
other coEections, akin to art museums, which would best be
called biogiaphical museums. They illustrate the life and work
of great artisu or authors. Of these the most notable are the
muenms commemorating Diirer at Nuremberg, Beethoven at
Boon, Thorwaldsen at Copenhagen, Shakespeare at Stratford
and Micbdangdo at Florence. The sacristies of cathedrals often
ocmtain ecclesiastical objects of great value, and are shown
to the public as museums. Cologne, Aachen, Milan, Monza and
I lave famous treasuries. Many Italian cathedrals have
small museums attached to them, usually known as ".Opera del
Duomo."
United KingdoM.^The influence and rcpuUtion of the British
Museum are so great that its original purpose, as stated in th*
preamble of the act by which it was founded (i7S3f ......^
c. 33), may be quoted: " Whereas all arU and sdences
have a connexion with each other, and discoveries
in natural philosophy and other branches of speculative know-
ledge, for the advancement and improvement whereof the said
museum or collection was intended, do, or nuiy in many instances
give help and success to the most useful experiments and under-
takings . . ." The "said museum " above mentioned referred
to the collection of Sir Hans Sloanc, to be purchased under the
act just quoted. Sir Hans Sloane is therein stated, " through
the course of many years, with great labour and expense, to
have gathered together whatever could be procured, dther in
our own or foreign countries, that was rare and curious." In
order to buy his collections and found the museum a lottery of
£300,000 was authorized, divided into 50,000 tickets, the prizes
varying from £10 to £10,000. Provision was made for the
adequate housing of Sir Robert Cotton's books, already bought in
1700 (x3 and X3 Win. III. c. 7). This act secured for the nation
the famous Cottonian manuscripts, "of great use and service for
the knowledge and preservation of our constitution, both in
church and state." Sir Robert's grandson had preserved the
collection with great care, and was willing that It should not be
" disposed of or embeziled," and that it should be preserved for
public use and advantage. This act also sets forth the oath to
be sworn by the keeper, and deals with the appointment of
trustees. This is still the method of internal govetnment at the
British Museum, and additions to the Board of Trustees are made
by statute, as in 1824, In acknowledgment of a bequest. The
trustees are of three classes: (a) three prindpal trustees, namely
the Primate, the Lord Chancellor and the Speaker; {b) generd
trustees, entitled ex officio to the position in virtue of ministerial
office; (c) family, bequest and nominated trustees. A standing
committee of the trustees meets regularly at the museum for the
transaction of business. The great departments of the museum
(apart from the sdentific and zoological collections, now placed
in the museum in Cromwell Road, South Kensington) are of
printed books, MSS., Oriental books, prints and drawings,
Egyptian and Assyrian antiquities, British and medieval
antiquities, coins and medals. Each of these eight departments
is under a keeper, with an expert staff of subordinates, the head
executive officer of the whole museum bdng styled director and
chief librarian. The museum has been enriched by bequests
of great importance, especially in the library. Recent legacies
have included the porcelain bequeathed by Sir Wollaston Franks,
and the valuable collection of works of art (chiefly enamels and
gold-smithery) known as the Waddesdon bequest — a legacy of
Baron F. de Rothschild. The most important group of acquisi-
tion by purchase in the history of the museum is the series of
Greek sculptures known as the Elgin Marbles, bought by act of
parliament (56 Geo. III. c. 99).
There are four national museums controlled by the Board of
Education, until recently styled the Department of Sdence and
Art. The chief of these is the Victoria and Albert MaM«m« Af
Museum at South Kensington. This museum has a t^ Board at
dependency at Bethnal Green, the Dublin and*|*'^*
Edinburgh museums having been now removed from its direct
charge. There is. also a museum of practical geology in Jermyn
Street, containing valuable specimens of pottery and majolica.
The Victoria and Albert Museum owed its inception to the
Exhibition of 1851, from the surplus funds of which xa acres of
land were bought in South Kensington. First known as the
Department of Practical Art, the musetmi rapidly established
itself on a broad basis. Acquisitions of whole collections and
unique spedmens were accumulated. In 1857 the Sheepshanks
gallery of pictures was presented; in 1879 the India Office trans-
ferred to the department the collection of Oriental art formerly
bdonging to the East India Company; in i88a the Jones bequest
of French furniture and decorative art (1740-X810) was recdvcd;
62
MUSEUMS OF ART
in 1884 the Patent Museum was handed over to the department.
Books, prints, MSS. and drawings were bequeathed by the Rev.
A. Dyce and Mr John Forster. Meanwhile, gifts and purchases
had combined to make the collection one of the most important
in Europe. The chief features may be summarized as consisting
of pictures, 'nduding the Raphael cartoons lent by the king;
textiles, silks and tapestry; ceramics and enamels; ivory and
plastic art, metal, furniture and Oriental collections. The
guiding principle of the museum is the illustration of art applied
to industry. Beauty and decorative attraction is perhaps the
chief characteristic of the exhibits here, whereas the British
Museum is largely archaeological. With this object in View,
the museum possesses numerous reproductions of famous
art treasures: casts, facsimiles and electrotypes, some of
them so well contrived as to be almost indistinguishable
from the originals. An art library with 75,000 volumes
and 35,000 prints and photographs is at the disposal of
students, and an art school is also attached to the museum.
The museum does considerable work among provincial schools
of art and museums, *' circulation " being its function in
this connexion. Works of art are sent on temporary loan to
local museums, where they are exhibited for certain periods
and on being withdrawn arc replaced by fresh examples. The
subordinate museum of the Board of Education at Belhnal
Green and that at Edinburgh call for no comment, their contents
being of slender value. The Dublin Museum, though now
controlled by the Irish Department, may be mentioned here as
having been founded and worked by the Board of Education.
Apart from the fact that it is one of the most suitably housed
and organized museums in the British Isles, it is remarkable for
its priceless collection of Celtic antiquities, belonging to the
Royal Irish Academy, and transferred to the Kildare Street
Museum in 1890. Among its most famous specimens of early
Irish art may be mentioned the shrine and bell of St Patrick,
the Tara brooch, the cross of Cong and the Ardagh chalice. The
series of bronze and stone implements is most perfect, while
the jewels, gold ornaments, torques, fibulae, diadems, and so
forth are such that, were it possible again to extend the galleries
(thus allowing further classification and exhibition space), the
collection would surpass the Danish National Museum at
Copenhagen, its chief rival in Europe.
The famous collections of Sir Richard Wallace (d. 1890) having
been bequeathed to the British nation by his widow, the public
1^^^ has acquired a magnificent gallery of pictures,
NaiiQata together with a quantity of works of art, so important
madQuuh as to make it necessary to include Hertford House
iHifMtfau. *"**"8 national museums. French art predominates,
and the examples of bronze, furniture, and porcelain
are as fine as those to be seen in the Louvre. Hertford House,
however, also contains a most remarkable collection of armour,
and the examples of Italian faience, enamels, bijouterie, &c.,
are of first-rate interest. The universities of Cambridge and
Oxford have museums, the latter including the Ashmolean collec-
tions, a valuable bequest of majolica from D. Fortnum, and some
important classical statuary, now in the Taylorian Gallery.
Christ Church has a small museum and picture gallery. Trinity
College, Dublin, has a miniature archaeological collection,
containing some fine examples of eariy Irish art. The National
Museum of Antiquities of Scotland, controlled by the Board of
Manufactures, was formed by the Scottish Society of Antiquaries,
and has a comprehensive collection of Scottish objects, lay and
religious. The Tower of London contains armour of historic
and artistic interest, and the Royal College of Music has an
invaluable collection of musical instruments, presented by Mr
George Donaldson. Art museums are also to be found in several
public schools in the United Kingdom.
The Museums Act of 1845 enabled town councils to found and
maintain museums. This act was superseded by another passed
Mankiaai ^" '*^®* ^^ ^^ William Ewart, which in its turn has
mHaZu, ^^^^ replaced by amending statutes passed in 1855,
1866, x868 and 1885. The Museums and Gymna-
siums Act of 1891 sanctioned the provision and maintenance of
museums for the reception of loatl antiquities and other objects
of interest, and allows a |d. rate, irrespective of other acts.
Boroughs have also the right to levy special rates under private
municipal acu, Oldham affording a case in point. Civic museums
must still be considered to be in their infancy. Although
the movement is now firmly established in mimicipal enterprise,
the collections, taken as a whole, are still somewhat nondacript.
In many cases collections have been handed over by local
societies, particularly in geology, zoology and other scientific
departments. There arc about twelve museums in which Roman
antiquities are noticeable, among them being Leicester, and the
Civic Museum of London, at the Guildhall. British and Anglo-
Saxon relics are important features at Sheffield and Liverpool;
in the former case owing, to the Bateman collection acquired in
1876; while the Mayer collection presented to the latter city
contains a highly important scries of carved ivories. At Salford,
Glasgow and Manchester industrial art is the chief feature of the
collections. Birmingham, with perhaps the finest provincial
collection of industrial art, is supported by the rates to the extent
of £4 300 a year. Its collections (indudiag here, as in the majority
of great towns, an important gallery of paintings) are entirely
derived from gifts and bequests. Birmingham has made a
reputation for special exhibitions of works of art lent for a time
to the corporation. These loan exhibitions, about which
occasional lectures are given, and of which cheap illustrated
catalogues are issued, have largely contributed to the great
popularity and efficiency of the museum. Liverpool, Preston,
Derby and Sheffield owe their fine museum buildings to private
generosity. Other towns have museums which are chiefly
supported by subscriptions, e.g. Chester and Newcastle, where
there is a fine collection of work by Bewick the engraver. At
Exeter the library, museum, and art gallery, together with
schools of science and art, are combined in one building. Other
towns may be noted as having art museums: Stockport, Notting-
ham (Wedgwood collection), Leeds, Bootle, Swansea, Bradford,
Northampton (British archaeology), and Windsor. There are
museums at Belfast, Lame, Kilkenny and Armagh. The cost
of the civic museum, being generally computed with the mainten>
ance of the free library, is not easily obtained. In many cases
the librarian is also curator of the museum; elsewhere no curator
at aU is appointed, his work being done by a caretaker. In
some museums there is no classification or cataloguing and
the value of existing collections is impaired both by careless
treatment and by the too ready acceptance of worthless
gifts; often enough the museums are governed by committees
of the corporation whose interest and experience are not
great.
Foreipt Museums. — Art museums are far more numerous
on the continent of Europe than in England. In Germany
progress has been very striking, their educational aspect being
closely studied. In Italy public collections, which are ten times
more numerous than in England, are chiefly regarded as financial
assets. The best examples of classification are to be found
abroad, at Vienna, Amsterdam, Zurich, Mimich and Gizeh in
Egypt. The Mus^ Camavalet, the historical collection of the
city of Paris, is the most perfect civic museum in the world.
The buildings in which the objects can be most easily studied are
those of Naples, Berlin and Vienna. The value of the aggregate
collections in any single country of the great powers, Russia
excepted, probably exceeds the value of British collections. At
the same time, it must be remembered that masses of foreign
collections represent expropriations by the dty and the state,
together with the inheritance of royal and semi-royal collectors.
In Germany and Italy, for instance, there are at least a dozen
towns which at one time were capitals of principalities. In
some countries the public holds over works of art the pre-emptive
right of purchase. In Italy, under the law known as the Editto
Pacca, it is illegal to export the more famous works of art.
Speaking generally, the cost of maintaining municipal museums
abroad is very small, many being without expert or highly-paid
officials, while admission fees are often considerable. Nowhere
in the United Kingdom are the collections neglected in a manner
MUSEUMS OF ART
63
tbooi^ which ceruin towns in Italy and Spain have gained an
ooenviable name.
Berlin and Vienna have collections of untold richness, and the
puUic are freely admitted. Berlin, besides its picture gallery
Ottmmmy *^ architectural museum, has a collection of Christian
— < antiquities in the university. The old museum, a
^"^if^ royal foundation, is renowned for its classical sculp-
ture and a remarkable collection of medieval statuary, in
which Italian art is wdl represented. The new museum is
also n o t ew ort hy for Greek marbles, and contains bronzes and
engravings, tofj^ther with one of the most typical collections of
Egyptian art. Schliemann's discoveries are housed In the
Ethnographic Museum. The Museum of Art and Industry,
dosdy similar in object and arrangement to the Victoria and
Albert Moseum in London, contains collections of the same
character— enamels, furniture, ceramics, &c. Vienna also has
one of these museums (Knnstgewerbe), in which the great value
of the examples is enhanced by their judicious arrangement.
The Historical Museum of this city is interesting, and the
Imperial Museum (of which the structure corresponds almost
exactly with a plan of an ideal museum designed by Sir William
Flower) is one of the most comprehensive extant, containing
annoor of world-wide fame and the choicest specimens of indus-
trial art. Prague, Innsbruck and Budapest arc respectively
the homes of the national museums of Bohemia, Tirol and
Hungary. The National Museum of Bavaria (Munich) has been
oompleted, and its exhibition rooms, loo in number, show the
most recent methods of classification, Nuremberg, with upwards
of eighty rooms, being its only rival in southern Germany.
Mainz auKi Trier have Roman antiquities. Hamburg, Leipzig and
Breslan have ^xkI ^ Knnstgewerbe " collections. In Dresden
there are fonr great museums — the Johanneum, the Albertinum,
the Zwinger and the Grflne Gewolbc — in which opulent art can
best be appreciated; the porcelain of the Dresden galleries is
superb, and few branches of art are unrepresented. Gotha is
remarkable for its ceramics, Brunswick for enamels (in the
ducal cabinet). Museums of minor importance exist at Hanover,
dm, Wflrtburg, Danzig and Liibeck.
The central museum of France, the Louvre, was founded
as a public institution during the Revolutionary period. It
j^,, contains the collections of Francois I., Louis XIV.,
and the Napoleons. Many works of art have been
added to it from royal palaces, and collections formed by dis-
tingtrished connoisseurs (Campana, Sauvageot, La Caze) have
been incorporated in it. The Greek sculpture, including the
. Venus of Melos and the Nik£ of Samothrace, is of pre-eminent
fame. Other departments are well furnished, and from a
technical point of view the manner in which the officials have
overcome structural difficulties in adapting the palace to the
needs of an art museum is most instructive. The Cluny
Museum, bought by the dty in 1842, and subsequently
transfefTcd to the state, supplements the medieval collections
of the Louvre, being a storehouse of select works of art. It
su&i^ however, from being overcrowded, while for purposes
of study it is badly lighted. At the same time the Maison
Cluny b a wcU-fumished house, decorated with admirable
things, and as such has a special didactic value of its own,
correspooding in this respect with Hertford House and the
i*oldi-Pezzo!i Gallery at Milan — collections which are more than
museums, since they show in the best manner thcadaptation of
artistic taste to domestic life. The French provincial museums
are numerous and important. Twenty-two were established
eaiiy in the 19th century, and received 1000 pictures as gifts
from the state, numbers of which were not returned in 181 5 to
the coontries whence they were taken. The best of these
museums are at Lyons; at Dijon, where the tombs of Jean sans
Pear and Philip the Bold are preserved; at Amiens, where the
capital Mnsfe de Picardie was built in 1850; at Marseilles and at
Bajreux, where the " Tapestry " is wdl exhibited. The collcc-
tiims of Lille, Bordeaux, Toulouse, and Avignon are also impor-
tant. The objects shown in these museums are chiefly local
, consisting largely of church plate, furniture, together
with sculpture, carved wood, and pottery, nearly everything
being French in origin. In many towns Roman antiquities and
early Qiristian relics are preserved (e.;. Autun, Nlmes, Aries
and Luzeuil), Other collections controlled by munidpalities
are kept at Rouen, Douai, Montpellier, Chartres (14th-century
sculptures), Grenoble, Toulon, Ajaccio, £pinal (CaroUngian
objects), Besancon, Bourges, Le Mans (with the remarkable
enamd of Geoffrey of Anjou), Nancy, Aix and in many other
towns. As a rule, the public a admitted free of charge, spedal
courtesy bdng shown to fordgners. In many cases the collections
are ill cared for and uncatalogued, and little money is provided
for acquisitions in the dvic museums; indeed, in this respect the
great national institutions contrast unfavourably with British
establishments, to which purchase grants are regularly made.
The national, dvic and papal museums of Italy are so numerous
that a few only can be mentioned. The best arranged and best
classified collection is the Museo Nazionale at Naples, ^^
containing many thousand examples of Roman ^^'
art, chiefly obtained from the immediate neighbourhood. For
historical importance it ranks as primus inter pares with the
collections of Rome and the Vatican. It is, however, the only
great Italian museum where scientific treatment is consistently
adopted. Other museums of purdy dassical art arc found at
Syracuse, Cagliari and Palermo. Etruscan art is best displayed
at Arezzo, Perugia (in the university), Cortona, Florence (Museo
Archeologico), Volterra and the Vatican. The Florentine
museums arc of great importance, consisting of the archaeological
museum of antique bronzes, Egyptian art, and a great number of
tapestries. The Museo Nazionale, housed in the Bargello (a.d.
1260), is the central depository of Tuscan art. Numerous
examples of Delia Robbia ware have been gathered together,
and are fixed to the walls in a manner and position which reduce
their value to a minimum. The plastic arts of Tuscany are
represented by Donatdlo, Verrocchio, Ghiberti, and Cellini,
while the Carrand collection of ivories, pictures, and varied
medieval spedmens is of much interest. This museum, like so
many others, is becoming seriously overcrowded, to the lasting
detriment of churches, market-places, and streets, whence these
works of art are being ruthlessly removed. The public is admitted
free one day a week, and the receipts are devoted to art and
antiquarian purposes (" tasse . . . destinate . . . alia conver-
sazione dei monument!, all' ampliamento dcgli scavi, ed' all*
increraento dei instituti . . . nella cittiL."— Law of 1875, (5).
The museums of Rome are numerous, the Vatican alone contain-
ing at least six— Museo Clementino, of classical art, uith the
Laocoon, the Apollo Belvedere, and other masterpieces; the
Chiaramonti, also of classical sculpture; the Gallery of Inscrip-
tions; the Egyptian, the Etruscan and the Christian museums.
The last is an extensive coUcction corresponding with another
papal museum in the Lateran Palace, also known as the Christian
Museum (founded 1843), and remarkable for its sarcophagi and
relics from the catacombs. The Lateran has also a second
museum known as the Museo Profano. Museums belonging
to the state arc equally remarkable. The Kirchcr Museum deals
with prehistoric art, and contains the " Prencste Hoard." The
Museo Nazionale (by the Baths of Diocletian), the Museo Capi-
tolino, and the Palazzo dei Conservatori contain innumerable
spedmens of the finest classical art, vases, bronzes, mosaics,
and statuary, Greek as well as Roman. Among provincial
museums there are few which do not possess at least one or two
objects of signal merit. Thus Brescia, besides a medieval
collection, has a famous bronze Victory. Pcsaro, Urbino, and
the Museo Correr at Venice have admirable examples of majolica;
Mflan, Pisa and Genoa have general archaeology combined with
a good proportion of mediocrity. The civic museum of Bologna
is comprehensive and well arranged, having Egyptian, classical,
and Etruscan collections, besides many things dating from the
"Bella Epoca" of Italian art. At Ravenna alone can the
Byzantine art of Italy be properly understood, and it is most
deplorable that the superb collections in its fine galleries should
remain uncatalogued and neglected. Turin, Siena, Padua, and
other towns have dvic museums.
6+
MUSEUMS OF SCIENCE
The Ryks Museum at Amsterdam, containing the national
collections of Holland, is a modern building in which a series
of historical rooms are furnished to show at a glance
the artistic progress of the Dutch at any given period.
Nine rooms are also devoted to the chronological
display of ecclesiastical art. Besides the famous paintings, this
museum (the sole drawback of which is the number of rooms
which have no top light) contains a library, many engravings, a
comprehensive exhibit of armour, costume, metal-work, and a
department of maritime craftsmanship. Arnhem and Haarlem
have municipal collections. At Leiden the university maintains
a scholarly collection of antiquities. The Hague and Rotterdam
have also museums, but everything in Holland is subordinated
to the development of the great central depository at Amsterdam,
to which examples are sent from all parts of the country. In
Belgium the chief museum, that of ancient industrial art, is at
Brussels. It contains many pieces of medieval church furniture
and decoration, but in this xespea differs only in size from the
civic museums of Ghent and Luxemburg and the Archbishop's
Museum at Utrecht. In Brussels, however, there is a good show
of Frankish and Carolingian objects. The dty of Antwerp
maintains the Mus^ Flantin, a printing establishment which has
survived almost intact, and presents one of the most charming
and instructive museums in the world. As a whole, the
museums of Belgium are disappointing, though, per contra^ the
churches are of enhanced interest, not having been pillaged for
the benefit of museums.
New museums are being fotmded in Russia every year.
Rharkoff and Odessa (the university) have already large coUec-
ffonli. ^><>^> ^^^ ^^ ^h® mo&l remote parts of Siberia it is
curious to find carefully chosen collections. Krasno-
yarsk has X 2,000 specimens, a storehouse of Buriat art. Irkutsk
the capital, Tobolsk, Tomsk (university), Khabarovsk, and
Yakutsk have now museums. In these Russian art naturally
predominates. It is only at Moscow and St Petersburg that
Western art is found. The Hermitage Palace in the latter city
contains a selection of medieval objects of fabulous value, there
being no less than forty early ivories. But from a national point
of view these collections are insignificant when compared with
the gold and silver objects illustrating the primitive arts and
ornament of Scythia, Crimea and Caucasia, the high standard
attained proving an advanced stage of manual skill. At Moscow
(historical museum) the stone and metal relics are scarcely less
interesting. There is also a museum of industrial art, the speci-
mens of which are not of unusual value, but being analogous to
the Kunstgewcrbe movement in Germany, it exercises a whole-
some influence upon the designers who study in its schools.
American museums are not oonunitted to traditional systems,
and scientific treatment is allowed its fullest scope. They exist
MB9rkM, *° great numbers, and though in some cases their
exhibits are chiefly ethnographic, a far wider range
of art objects is rapidly being secured. The National Museum
at Washington, a bmnch of the Smithsonian Institution (9.9.),
while notable for its American historical and ethnological
exhibits, has the National Gallery of Art. The Metropolitan
Museum of Art (held by trustees for the benefit of the city
of New York) has in the Ccsnola collection the most complete
series of Cypriot art objects. It has also departments of coins,
Greek sculpture and general examples of European and American
art. The Museum of Fine Arts at Boston is very comprehensive,
and has a remarkable collection of ceramics, together with good
reproductions of antique art. There are museums at St
Louis, Chicago, Pittsburg, Brooklyn, Cincinnati, Buffalo and
Washington, as well as Montreal in Canada; and the universities
of Harvard, Chicago, Pennsylvania and Yale have important
collections.
The Swiss National Museum is situated at Ztlrich, and though
of medium siae (50 rooms), it is a model of arrangement and
vmrkmm <>'S<'^°i^^<'°* Besidcs the special feature of rooms
CaaaSn, ^Uustrating the historical progress of art, its collection
of stained glass is important. Basel also (historical
museum) is but little inferior in contents or system to the Zttxich
it (Geneva has three collections. Lausanne holds
the museum of the canton, and Bern has a municipal collection.
All these institutions are well supported financially, and are
much appreciated by the Swiss public The art museums of
Stockholm, Christlania and Copenhagen rank high for their
intrinsic excellence, but still more for their scientific and didactic
value. Stockholm has three museums: that of the Royal
Palace, a collection of costume and armour; the Northern
Museum, a large collection of domestic art; the National
Museum, containing the prehistoric collections, gold omamenta,
&c., classified in a brilliant manner. The National Museum
of Denmark at Copenhagen is in this respect even more famous,
being probably the second national collection in the world. The
arrangement of this collection leaves little to be desired, and it
is to be regretted that some British collections, in themselves of
immense value, cannot be shown, as at Copenhagen, in a manner
which would display their great merits to the fullest degree.
There is also at Copenhagen a remarkable collection of antique
busts (Gamie Glyptotek), and the Thorwaldsen Museum con-
nected with the sculptor of that name. Norse antiquities are
at Christiania (the university) and Bergen. Athens has three
museums, all devoted to Greek art: that of the Acropolis, that
of the Archaeological Society (vases and terra-cotta) and the
National Museum of Antiquities. The state owns all discoveries
and these are accumulated at the capital, so that local museums
scarcely exist. The collections, which rapidly increase, are of
great importance, though as yet they cannot vie with the
aggregate in other European countries. The Museum of
Egyptian Antiquities (Cairo), founded by Mariette Bey at Bulak,
afterwards removed to theGiza palace and developed by Maspero,
is housed in a large building erected in 1902, wdl classified, and
h'berally supported with money and fresh acquisitions. Minor
museums exist at Carthage and Tunis. At Constantinople the
Turkish Museum contains some good classical sctilpture and a
great deal of rubbish. The Museo del Prado and the Archaeo-
logical Museum at Madrid are the chief Spanish collections,
containing niunerous classical objects and many specimens of
Moorish and early Spanish art. In Spain museums are badly
kept, and their contents are of indifferent value. The museums
of the chief provinces are situated at Barcebna, Valencia,
Granada and Seville. Cadiz and Cordova have also sadly
neglected dvic collections. The National Museum of Portugal at
Lisbon requires no special oonunent. The progress of Japan
is noticeable in its museums as in its industrial enterprise. The
National Museum(Weno Park, TOkyO) is large and well arranged
in a new building of Western architecture. KiOtG and Nara
have excellent museums, exclusively of Oriental art, and two or
three other towns have smaller establishments, induding oom-
merdal museums. There are several museums in India, the
chief one being at Calcutta, devoted to Indian antiquities.
The best history ctf museums can be found in the prefaces and
introductions to their official catalogues, but the following works
will be useful for reference: Annual Reports presented to Parliament
(official) of British Museum and Board of Education; Civil Service
Estimates, Class IV., annually presented to Parliament; Second
Report of Select Committee of House of Commons on Museums of
Science and Art Department (offidal: i vol., 1898); Annual Reports
of the Museum Association (London); Edward Edwards, The Fine
Arts in England (London, 1840); Professor Stanley Jevons, " Use
and Abuse of Museums," printed in Methods of Social Reform
(London, 1882); Report of Committee on Provmdal Museums.
Report of British Association (London, 1887): Thos. Greenwood,
Museums and Art Galleries (London, 1888) ; Professor Brown Goode,
Museums of the Future, Report on the National Museum for 1889
. --^-,. - ___,,-_ ,..' ror^itisatit..
dans les musies de la Grande Bretatne (offidal; Pans, 1805);
^r William Flower, Essavs on Museums f London, 1898); Le CclUrie
nazionali Haliane h vols., Rome, 1894); D. Murray, Museums:
Their History and Use, wttk Bibliography and List of Museums in
the United Kingdom (3 vols., 1904). (B.)
MUSEUMS OF SCIENCE. The ideal museum should cover
the whole fidd of human knowledge. It should teach the
truths of all the sdences, induding anthropology, the sdence
which deals with man and all his works in every age.- All the
MUSEUMS OF SCIENCE
6S
idcBces and all the arts are correlated. The wide separation
of collections iUustrative of the arts (see MusEOUS or AaT above)
ftom tboae illustrative of the sciences, and their treatment as
if bdonging to a wholly different sphere, is arbitrary. Such
■epaiation, which is to-day the rule rather than the exception,
b doe to the circumstances of the origin of many collections,
or in other cases to the limitations imposed by poverty or lack
of space. 3iany of the national museums of continental Europe
had their heginningt in collections privately acquired by
monardis, who, at a time when the modem sciences were in their
infancy, entertained themsdves by assembling objects which
sppralrri to their love of the beautiful and the curious. The
pictoics, marbles, bronzes and bric^brac of the palace became
the nndietts of the museum of to-day, and in some nouble cases
the palace xtsdf was converted into a museum. In a few instances
these museums, in which works of art had the first place, have
been eofiched and supplemented by collections illustrative of
the advancing sciences of a later date, but in a majority of cases
these collections have remained what they were at the outset,
mere exponents of human handicraft in one or the other, or all
of its various departments. Some recent great foundations
have copied the more or less defective models of the past, and
nmscuras devoted exdusivefy to the illustration of one or the
other narrow segment of knowledge will no doubt continue to
be multiplied, and in spite of their limited range, will do much
good. A notable illustration of the influence of lack of space
in bringing about a separation of anthropological collections
from ooOectioas illustrative of other sciences is afforded by the
natiooal collection in London. For many years the collections
of the British Museum, literary, artistic and scientific, were
assembled in ideal relationship in Bkwmsbury, but at last the
accomulation of treasure became so vast and the difiiculties of
administiation were so pressing that a separation was decided
upon, and the natural history collections were finally removed
to the separate museum in Cromwell Raid, South Kensington.
But the student of museums can never fail to regret that the
liKTisitirt of space and financial considerations compelled this
irparation, which in a measure destroyed the ideal relationship
wliidi had for so many years obtained.
The ancient world knew nothing of museums in the modem
sense of the term. There were collections of paintings and
statuary in the temples and palaces of Greece and Rome; the
homes of the wealthy were everywhere adorned by works of art;
curious objects of natural histoiy were often brought from afar,
as the skins of the female gorillas, which Hanno after his voyage
on the west coaU of Africa hung up in the temple of Aslarte at
Carthage; Alexander the Great granted to his illustrious teacher,
Aristotle, a large sum of money for use in his scientific researches,
sent him natural history collections from conquered 'lands, and
pot at Us service thousands of men to collect specimens, upon
vfakh be based his work on natural history; the museum of
Alexandria, which included within its keeping the Alexandrian
Gbrary, was a great university composed of a number of associated
cotte«es; but there was nowhere in all the andent world an
nistitQtion which exactly corresponded in its scope and purpose
to the modem museum. The term "museum," after the
beming of the great institution of Alexandria, appears to have
fallen into disuse from the 4th to the X7th centuiy, and the idea
which the word represented sh'pped from the minds of men.
The revival of learning in the isth century was accompanied
by an awakening of interest in classical antiquity, and many
penens laboured eagerly upon the collection of memorials of
the past. Sutuary, inscriptions, gems, coins, medals and manu-
aaipts were assembled by the wealthy and the learned. The
leaden in this movement were presently followed by others who
devoted themselves to the search for minerals, plants and curious
aaimab. Among the more famous early collectors of objects
of oatoral histoiy may be mentioned Georg Agricola ( 1490-1 sss),
mho has been styled "the father of mineralogy." By his
hbofms the elector Augustus of Saxony was induced to establish
the Kmmsi umd Naivralien Kammer, which has since expanded
hito the TarioQS museums at Dresden. One of his contempo-
raries was Conrad Gesner of ZOrich (1516-1565), " the German
Pliny," whose writings are still resorted to by the curious.
Others whose names are familiar were Pierre B^ion (1517-1564),
professor at the CoU^c de France; Andrea Cesalpini (1519-1603),
whose herbarium is still preserved at Fbrence; Ulissi Aldrovandi
(i52»-x6o5), remnanu of whose collections still exist at Bologna;
Oie Worm (1588-1654), a Danish physician, after whom the so-
called " Wormian bones " of the skull are named, and who was
one of the first to cultivate what is now known as the science
of prehistoric archaeology. At a later date the collection of
Albert Seba (1665-1736) of Amsterdam became famous, and
was purchased by Peter the Great in 17 16, and removed to
St Petersburg. In Great Britain among early collectors were
the two Tradescants; Sir John Woodward (1665-1728), a portion
of whose collections, bequeathed by him to Cambridge University
is still preserved there in the Woodwardian or Geological Museum ;
Sir James Balfour (1600-1657), and Sir 'Andrew Balfour (1630-
1694), whose work was continued in part by Sir Robert Sibbald
(1641-1722). The first person to elaborate and present to modem
minds the thought of an institution which should assemble
within its walls the things which men wish to see and study was
Bacon, who in his Neto Atlantis (1627) broadly sketched the
outline of a great national museum of science and art.
The first surviving scientific museum established upon a
substantial basis was the Ashmolean Museum at Oxford,
founded by Elias Ashmole. The original collection had been
made by the Tradescants, father and son, gardeners who were
in the employment of the duke of Buckingham and later of King
Charles I. and his queen; it consisted of " twelve cartloads of
curiosities," principally from Virginia and Algiers, which the
younger Tradescant bequeathed to Ashmole. and which, after
much litigation with Tradescant's widow, he gave to Oxford
upon condition that a suitable building should be provided.
Tliis was done in 1682 after plans by Sir Christopher Wren.
Ashmole in his diary makes record, on the 17th of February
1683, that " the last load of my rareties was sent to the barge,
and this afternoon I relapsed into the gout."
The establishment of the German academy of Naturae
Curiosi in 1652, of the Royal Society of London in 1660, and of
the Acad^mie des Sciences of Paris in 1666, i;«iparted a powerful
impulse to scientific investigation, which was reflected not only
in the labours of a multitude of persons who undertook the
formation of private scientific collections, but in the initiation
by crowned heads of movements looking toward the formation
of national collections, many of which, having their beginnings
in the Utter half of the 17th century and the early years of the
x8th century, survive to the present day.
The most famous of all English collectors in his time was
Sir Hans Sloane (1660-1753), whose vast collection, acquired at
a great outlay of money, and including the collections of Petiver,
Courten, Merret, Plukenet, and Buddie — ^all of which he had
purchased— was by his will bequeathed to the British nation on
condition that parliament should pay to his heirs the sum of
£20,000, a sum far less than that which he had expended upon it,
and representing, it is said, only the value of the coins which it
contained. Sloane was a man who might justly have said of
himself " humani nihil a me alienum puto "; and his collection
attested the catholicity of his tastes and the breadth of his
scientific appetencies. The bequest of Sloane was accepted
upon the terms of his will, and, together with the library of
George II., which had likewise been bequeathed to the nation,
was thrown open to the public at Bloomsbury in 1759 as the
British Museum. As showing the great advances which have
occurred in the administration of museums since that day, the
following extract taken from A Guide- Book to the General
Contents of the British Museum, published in 1 761, is interest-
ing: ". . . fifteen persons are allowed to view it in one Company,
the Time allotted is two Hours; and when any Number not
exceeding fifteen are inclined to see it, they must send a List of
their Christian and Siroames, Additions, and Phices of Abode, to
the Porter's Lodge, in order to their being entered in the Book;
in a few Days the respective Tickets will be nuRe out, specifying
66
MUSEUMS OF SCIENCE
the Day and Hour in which they are to come, which, on being
sent for, are delivered. If by any Accident some of the Parties
■are prevented from coming, it is proper they send their
Ticket back to the Lodge, as nobody can be admitted with it
but themselves. It is to be remarked that the fewer Names there
are in a LLt, the sooner they are likely to be admitted to see it."
The establishment of the British Museum was coincident in
time with the development of the systematic study of nature,
of which Linnaeus was at that time the most distinguished
exponent. The modem sciences, the wonderful triumphs of
which have revolutionized the world, were just emerging from
their infancy. Museums were speedily found to furnish the
best agency for preserving the records of advancing knowledge,
so far as these consisted of the materials upon which the investi-
gator had laboured. In a short time it became customary for
the student, either during his lifetime or at his death, to entrust
to the permanent cuistody of museums the collections upon
which he had based his studies and observations. Museums were
thenceforth rapidly multiplied, and came to be universally
regarded as proper repositories for scientific collections of all
kinds. But the use of museums as repositories of the collec-
tions of the learned came presently to be associated with their
use as seats of original investigation and research. Collections
of new and rare objects which had not yet received attentive
study came into their possession. Voyages of exploration
into unknown lands, undertaken at public or private expense,
added continually to their treasures. The comparison of newer
collections with older collections which had been already made
the subject of study, was undertaken. New truths were thus
ascertained. A body of students was attracted to the museums,
who in a few years by their investigations began not only to add
to the sum of human knowledge, but by their publications to
shed lustre upon the institutions with which they were connected.
The spirit of inquiry was wisely fostered by private and public
munificence, and museums as centres for the diffusion of scientific
truth came to hold a well-recognized position. Later still,
about the middle of the 19th century, when the importance of
popular education and the necessity of popularizing knowledge
came to be more thoroughly recognized than it had heretofore
been, museums were found to be peculiarly adapted in certain
respects for the promotion of the culture of the masses. They
became under the new impulse not merely repositories of scientific
records and seats of original research, but powerful educational
agencies, in which by object lessons the most important truths of
science were capable of being pleasantly imparted to multitudes.
The old narrow restrictions were thrown down. Their cfoors
were freely opened to the people, and at the beginning of the
20th century the movement for the establishment of museums
assumed a magnitude scarcely, if at all, less than the movement
on behalf of the diffusion of popular knowledge through public
libraries. While great national museums have been founded and
all the large municipalities of the world through private or civic
gifts have established museums within their limits, a multitude
of lesser towns, and even in some cases villages, have established
museums, and museums as adjuncts of universities, colleges and
high schools have come to be recognized as almost indispensable.
The movement has assumed its greatest proportions in Great
Britain and her colonies, Germany, and the United States of
America, although in many other lands it has already advanced
far.
There are now in existence in the world, exclusive of museums
of art, not less than 2000 scientific museums which possess in
themselves elements of permanence, some of which are splendidly
supported by public munificence, and a number of which have
been richly endowed by private benefactions.
Great Britain and Ireland. — The greatest museum in London
is the British Museum. The natural history department at
South Kensington, with its wealth of types deposited there,
constitutes the most important collection of the kind in the
world. The Museum of Practical Geology in Jermyn Street
contains a beautiful and well-arranged collection of minerals
and a very complete series of specimens illustrative of the
petro^phy and 'the invertebrate paleontology of the British
Islands. The botam'cal collections at Kew are classic, and are
as rich in types as are the zoological collections of the British
Museum. The Hunterian Museum of the Royal College of
Surgeons contains a notable assemblage of specimens illustrating
anatomy, both human and comparative, as well as pathology.
In London also a number of private owners possess large collec-
tions of natural history specimens, principidly ornithological,
entomological and conchological, in some instances destined to
find a final resting place in the national collection. One of the
most important of these great collections is that formed by F..
Ducane Godman, whose work on the fauna of middle America,
entitled BMogia cenirali^mericana, is an enduring monument
to his leammg and generosity. The Hon. Walter Rothschild
has accumulated at Tring one of the largest and most important
natural history collections which has ever been assembled by a
.single individual. It is particularly rich in rare species which
are either already extinct or verging upon extinction, and the
ornithological and entomological collections are vast in extent
and rich in types. Lord Walsingham has at his country seat,
Merton Hall, near Thetford, the largest and most perfect
collection of the microlepidoptera of the world which is in
existence.
The Ashmolean Museum and the University Museum at Oxford,
and the Woodwardian Museum and the University Museum at
Cambridge, are remarkable collections. The Free Public Museum
at Liverpool is in some respects one of the finest' and most
successfully arranged museums in Great Britain. It contains
a great wealth of important scientific materia], and is rich in
types, particularly of birds. The Manchester Museum of Owens
College and the museum in Sheffield have in recent years
accomplished much for the cause of science and popular educa-
tion. The Bristol Museum has latterly achiev«l considerable
growth and has become a centre of much enh'ghtened activity.
The Royal Scottish Museum, the herbarium of the Royal
Botanical Garden, and the collections of the Challenger Expe-
dition Ofiice in Edinburgh, are worthy of particular mention.
The museum of the university of Glasgow and the Glasgow
Museum contain valuable collections. The museum of St
Andrews University is very rich in material illustrating marine
zoology, and so also are the collections of University College at
Dundee. The Science and Art Museum of Dublin and the
Public Museum of Belfast, in addition to the works of art which
they contain, possess scientific collections of importance.
There are also in Great Britain and Ireland some two hundred
smaller museums, in which there are collections which cannot be
overlooked by specialists, more particulariy by those interested
in geology, paleontology and archaeology.
India. — ^The Indian Museum, the Geological Museum of the
Geological Survey of India, and the herbarium of the Royal Botanic
Garden in Calcutta, are richly endowed with collections illustrating
the natural history of Hindostan and adjacent countries. The
finest collection of the vertebrate fossils of the Siwalik Hills is that
found in the Indian Museum. The Victoria and Albert Museum in
Bombay and the Government Museum in Madras are institutions
of importance.
A^iftnilta.—Ths Queensland Museum, and the museum of the
Gt. I ::;':-iJ SuT^xy of Queensland located in Brisbane, and the
Ni Milium at Melbourne, Victoria, represent important
be S>-dncy, ihe capital of New South VValcs, is the centre
of r >]j|c scientific activity. The museums connected with
tht ur!i^M^i!y of Sydney, the museum of the Geological Sur\'ey of
New Sotiih Walci, and ihe Australian Museum, all possess valuable
col k L'tion*. T he muK u m at Adelaide is noteworthy.
jV«ff Ztiiland. — Good collections are found in the Otago Museum,
Dyntf lift, thv Otnicrbury Museum at Christ Church, the Auckland
MiK'^ifm ?.K AM4rkhflil and the Colonial Museum at Wellington.
-i "ji.'X -V ..^.-T!._ South African Museum at Capetown is a
flourishing and important institution, which has done excellent
work in the field of South African zoology. A museum has been
established at Durban, Natal, which gives evidence of vitality.
£Fy;>/.— Archaeological studies overshadow all others in the land
of the Nile, and the splendid collections of the great museum of
antiquities at Cairo find nothing to parallel them m the domain of
the purely natural sciences. A geological museum was, however,
established in the autumn of 1903, and in view of recent remarkable
paleontological discoveries in Egypt possesses brilliant opportunities
MUSEUMS OF SCIENCE
67
Cwiiig— In coonexioo vMi the UnmrsUi Laval in-
die McGill Univenity in Mootrenl, and the univenity of Tocxmto
ia Ontario, beginninw oC ttgniScance have been nuule. The Peter
Redpath Museum oTMcGiir College oootains important collections
ia all bnacbea of natural history, more particularly botany.
The provincial museum at Victoria, British OMumbia^ is growinf m
iaportance. A movement has bec» begun to establish at Ottawa
a muenm which {fbaH in a aense be for the Dominion a national
tinliliiliinf nf
Framee. — Paris aboonds in institutions for the promotion pf culture,
la pustinion of many of the institutions of learmng, such as the BcoU
Ifatitattle Smptrintn dts Mmes^ the InstihU Natwnal Agronomiaue,
sod the -rarioiis learned societies, are collections of greater or less
importaone wfaicfa must be consulted at times by specialists in the
vaiioiBS s c i cncca . The Mmium d^Hist^ire Naturme in the Jardin
do Jnamies is the most comprehensive and important collection of
its load in the French metropolis, and while not as rich in types as
the Bcitiafa Museum, nevertheless contains a vast assemblage of
ng the labours of former aenecations of
_ iortunately, much of the best material,
_ of the types of species obtained by the naturalists of
French vovagea of eaqdoration, have been too long exposed to the
incense hm. which fills the great building and have oecome bleached
and £aded to a great degree. The seal to popularise knowledge by
the display ol i^irrimrns has conflicted with the purpose to preserve
the recioflTk of science, a fact which French naturalists themselves
BsvernOy admit. As in England, so also in France, there are a
Bon^ier oif wrfaori, who have amassed fine private collections.
One of the v«y largest and finest of all the entomological collections
of the world ia that at Rennes, belonging to the brothers OberthOr,
•poa which they have expended princely sums. The MusSum du
Satmta NatmnOti of Lyons is in some respects an important
-Brands has been called " a dty of museums." The
dm Csiifs and the Mnsit Royal d^Histoin Nakmlkdu Bdtiqwe
are the two most important institutions from the standpoint ol the
aaturalist. The former is rich in ethnographic and aoological material
fasoc^ht from the Congo Free State, aflid the latter contains very
' ' ^ paleoatological collections.
L — The aoological museum of the KomtMijk Zoelogisch
tp, affiliated with the university at Amsterdam, is well
The royal museums connected with the university of
Leiden are centres of much scientific activity.
Daamark.—The National Museum at Copenhagen is particuhrly
rich ia Scandinavian and Danish antiquities.
Swedtn. — In Stockholm, the capital, the Nordiska Musut is
devoted to Scandinavian ethnology, and tt^ NaiurhisUyriska Riks-
Umstmm is rich in palecmtological, bounical and archaeological
ooOectiooa. Great scientific treasures are also contained in the
■Hiwums co nn ected with the university of UpsiilA.
Nmwaj. — Classir collections especially interesting to the strident
of onrine aoolKy are contained in the tmiverE it y of Oristia EiLa-
Cermemy. — Gormany is rich in museums, Bome gr which arf of
very |Teat importance. The Museum JUr NiUurbuwU, ihc cihno-
gn^^Kal musenin, the anthropological museum^ the mincrab^ical
otGaraa and tltt agricultural museum in Berlin arenoUeinAtluicuvnB,
the first mentioned being particularly rich in classical cc^INvh.qs.
Haa^vs boasts an excellent lutural history mujicqm arjct < cl^no-
^phjcalmiiaeuro. the Museum GodefFroy ami eKc Mu&eum Va;iviB,
There are a number of iirportant jprivate a>t]^tJopj in H^tml.L^rg.
The asaaicipal museum in Bremen is important froni the st^irnl^iint
of the natoralist and ethnologist. The Roetncr Museum at nj<ies-
heia is ooe of the best provincial museums in Germavsy. Lfi'. r..lcn
even moce justly than Brussels may be called " n oly of mu> > i
aad the nnneraMgical^ archaeological, 20ologij:::il and! 3rLtbru;xil
asaseanw are exceedm^y important from ihe fiiandpcinL 1
aacezaSst. Here also m private hands is the greatest cu-l'
of palaearctk lepictoptera in Europe, belonging to the htiri^
Cmo Scaodinger. The ethnographical museum at Lc-ipz^u i
m coQectioos brcmght togethtf trom South and Cenira]: Am
The nataral history museum, the anatomical niii^-um ar.d th> r
r*pliir»l 1
ju-s,
cLcal
1 the
^ I ion
..I Dr
^ rich
iTica.
I i; rio-
I in Munich are important insiLuuLii^iib» ih's lirst
bc-cng particularly rich in paleontological treasures.
The attttial history museum of Stuttgut is likewise noted for
its tamortant paleontological collections. The Senckenbertische
^hsarfsrsckgada Cesellsckaft museum at Frankfort-on-the-Main
I a very important collection of ethnographical, aoological
and botanical matoiaL The museum of the university at Bonn,
axai caore parriculariy the anatomical museum, are noteworthy.
la monnrion with alinost all the German universities and in almost
an the larg!er towns and cities are to be found museums, in many of
vtech there are important assemblages illustrating not only the
natural history of the immediate netghbourhood, but in a multitude
of cues containing imporunt material collected in foreign kinds.
Ose of the most interestinf; of the smaller museums lately established
B xkmt at Lfibecfc, a model in its way for a provincial museum.
Amxtr^Hnmgary. — ^The Imperial Natural HistoryMuseum in Vienna
is one of the noblest institutions of its kind in Europe, and possesses
one of the finest mineralogical collections in the world. It is rich
also ca botanical and coocbotogical collections. There are important
ethnographical and aathropok)gical collections at Budapest The
natural hiatory coUectiona of the Bohemian national museum at
Prague are well arFanged, though not remarkably extensive.
icamo.— The Rumiantsof Museum in Moscow possesses splendid
buildings, with a library of over 700,000 volumes in addition to
splendid artistic treasures, and is nch in natural history specimens.
It is one of the most magnificent foundations oHts kind in Europe.
There are a number of magnificent museums in St Petersburg whic
contain stores of important materiaL Foremost among these is
the museum of the Imperial Academy of Sciences, rich in oallec-
tions illustrating the aoology, paleontology iand ethnology, not only
of the Russian Empirei but also of foreign lands. There are a numbcT
of provincial museums in the larger cities of Russia which are growing
in importance.
Italy.— Itafy is rich in museums of art, but natural history
collections are not as stroo^y represented as in other hinds. Con-
nected with the various universities are collections which possess
more or less importance from the standpoint of the specialist.
The Mnseo Civico di Storia Naiurale at G«ioa, and the collections
preserved at the marine biological station at Naples, have most
interest fof the aoologist.
S^in. — ^There are no natural history collections of first importance
in Spain, though at all the universities there are minor collections,
which are in some instances creditably cared for and arranged.
P0ff«ca/.— The natural history museum at Lisbon contains
important ornithological treasures.
Eastern Asia. — ^Tbe awakening of the emjure of Japan has resulted
among other things in the cultivation of the modem sciences, and
there are a number of scientific studentau mosUy trained in European
and American universities, who are doing excellent work in the
bi<riogical and allied sdencea. Very creditaole beginnings have been
made in connexion with the Imperial University at Tokio for the
establishment of a museum of natural history. At Shanghai there
is a collection, gathered by the Chinese branch of the Royal Asiatic
Society, whidi is in a decadent state, but contains much good
material. Otherwise as yet the movement to establish museums has
not laid strong hold upon the inhabitants of eastern Asia. At
Batavia in Java, and at Manila in the Philippine Islands, there are
found the nuclei of important collections.
United Stales. — The movement to establish museums in the
United States is comparatively recent. One of the very earliest
collections (1802), which, however, was soon dispersed, was
made by Charles Willson Peale (q.v.). The Academy of Natural
Sciences In Philadelphia, established in 18x3, is the oldest society
for the promotion of the natural sciences in the United States.
It possesses a very important library and some most excellent
collections, and is rich id ornithological, conchological and
botanical types. The dty of Philadelphia also points with pride
to the free museum of archaeology connected with the university
of Pennsylvania, and to the Philadelphia museums, the latter
museums of commerce, but which incidentally do much to pro-
mote scientific knowledge, especially in the domain of ethnology,
botany and mineralogy. The Wistar Institute of Anatomy
is well endowed and organized. The zoological museum at
Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts, is associated
with the names of Louis and Alexander Agasslz, the former of
whom by his learning and activity as a collector, and the latter
by his munificent gifts, as well as by his important researches,
not only created the institution, but made it a potent agency
for the advancement of science. The Peabody Museum of
American Archaeology and Ethnology, likewise connected with
Harvard University, is one of the greatest institutions of its
kind in the New World. The Essex Institute at Salem, Massa-
chusetts, is noteworthy. The Butterfield Museum, Dartmouth
College, Hanover, New Hampshire, and the Fairbanks Museum
of Natural Science (1891) at St Johnsbury, Vermont, are im-
portant modem institutions. In the museum of Amherst
College are preserved the types of the birds described by J. J.
Audubon, the shells described by C. B. Adams, the mineralogical
collections of Charles Upham Shepard, and the paleontological
collections of President Hitchcock. In Springfield (1898)
and Worcester, Massachusetts, there are excellent museums.
The Peabody Museum of Natural History at Yale University,
New Haven, Connecticut, contains much of the paleontological
material described by Professor O. C. Marsh. The New
York State Museum at Albany is important from a geological
and paleontological standpoint. The American Museum of
Natural History in New York City, founded in i86q, provision
for the growth and enlargement of which upon a scale of the
68
MUSEUMS OF SCIENCE
THE CARNEGIE INSTITUTE
Pittsburg, Penn,U.S.A.
Plan of First Floor.
Aicokbl
Open Court
jaiiciy VI Lr— ' *~^ — ' ' »*
I I f
Gallery of
Fishes
.: 1.
• • • ft
Gallery of Birds
if
Refereact.
A. Main intranet to institute
Entrance to Main Auditorium
Main Entrance to Library
Administration Roome of institute
Public Comfort Rooms
3, Adininistratiue Rooms o/UOrary
■r\
4 Children's Library
o
1
o
I
■J-
U3
I
m
Open
Court
Open Court
J-
^ ^ U Loan Department of
Is
Library t
Gallery of Useful Arts,
Ceramics, etc.
rii^iHE?Eig
Greenroom of |
Audjtoriam
IS^SS
MUSGRAVE— MUSH
69
vtmoflt mignifimicc has been made, ii liberally fupportcd
both by public and private mnnificrncr. The ethnographical,
paleoatalogical and archaeological material gathered within
its mils is immenvt in extent and superbly displayed. The
mnaeum of the New York botanical garden In Bronx Park is
a worthy rival to the museums at Kew. The Brooklyn Institute
of Alts and Sciences combines with collections illustrative of
the arts excellent collections of natural history, many of which
are classic.
Tbe United States National Museum at Washington, under
the control of the Smithsonian Institution, of which it is a depart-
ment, has been made the repository for many years past of the
scientific and artistic collections coming into the possession of
the government. The growth of the material entrusted to its
keeping has, more particularly in recent years, been enormous,
and tlie odlections have wholly outgrown the space provided
in the wiginal building, built for it during the incumbency
of Professor Spencer F. Baird as secretaiy of the Smithsonian
Institatiott. The congress of the United States has in recent
years made provision for the erection of a new building upon
the Han in Washington, to which the natural history collections
are ultimately to be transferred, the old buildings to be retained
for the display of collections illustrating the progress of the arts,
until replaced by a building of better constructk>n for the same
purpose. The United Sutes National Museum has published
a great deal, and has become one of the most important agencies
for the diffusion of idcntific knowledge in the country. It is
Hberally snpported by the government, and makes use of the
scientific men connected with all the various departments of
actnrity under government control as agents for research. The
oollectiotts of the United States Geological Survey, as well as
many of the more important scientific collections made by the
Department of Agriculture, are deposited here.
As the result of the great Columbian international exposition,
which took place in 2893, a movement originated in the city of
Chicaflo, where the exposition was held, to form a permanent
ooOection of large proportions. The great building in which
the Intemational exposition of the fine arts was displayed
was preserved as the temporary home for the new museum.
Marshall Field contributed Sx ,000,000 to the furtherance of
the enterprise, and in his honour the institution was called
"The Fidd Columbian Museum." The growth of this
institntion was very rapid, and Mr. Field, at his death, in
1906, bequeathed to the museum $8,000,000, half to be
Mipplied to the erection of a new building, the other half to consu-
late an endowment fund, in addition to the revenues derived
from the endowment already existing. The city of Chicago
provides liberally for the support of the museum, the name
cf whichy in the spring of 1906, was changed to " The Field
Moseum of Natural History." The dty of St Louis has taken
stcps» as the result of the intemational exposition of 1904, to
emulate the example of Chicago, and the St Louis Public Musetun
was founded under hopeful auspices in X905.
Probably the most magnificent foundation for the advance-
ment of science and art in America which has as yet been created
is the Carnegie Institute in the city of Pittsburg. The Carnegie
Institnfe is a complex of institutions, consisting of a museum
of art, a museum of sdence, and a school for the education of
jfooth in the elements of technology. Affiliated with the
Bisseams of art and sdence, and under the same roof, is the
Central Free Library of Pittsburg. The buildings erected
for the accommodation of the institute, at the entrance to
Scbenley Park, cost $8,ooo/)oo, and Mr Andrew Carnegie
provided Hberally for the endowment of the museums of art
asd science and the. technical school, leaving to the city of
Pittsburg the maintenance of the gen»al library. The natural
history collections contained in the museum of sdence, although
the ittstitation was only founded in 1896, are large and
haportant, and are particularly rich in mineralogy, geology,
paleontology, botany and soology. The entomok>gicaI collections
sie among the most Important in the new world. The concho-
logkal collections are vast, and the paleontological collections
are among the most Important in America: The great Bayet
collection is the largest and most complete collection represent-
ing European paleontology in America. The Carnegie Museum
contains natural history collections aggregating over 1,500,000
specimens, which cost approximately £125,000, and these are
growing rapidly. The ethnological collections, particularly
those illust^ting the Indians of the plains, and the archaeologicid
collections, representing the cultures more particulariy of Costa
Rica and of Colombia, are large.
In connexion with almost all the American colleges and
universities there are museums of more or less importance.
The Bernice Pauahi Bishop museum at Honolulu is an institution
established by private munificence, which is doing excellent
work in the field of Polynesian ethnology and zoology.
Otktr Ammcan Countnts. — ^The national museum in the dty of
Mexico has in recent years been recdving iiitdligent cncoucageoient
and support both from the govemment and by (xivate indrviduals,
and is coming to be an institution of much importance. National
museums have been cstabUshed.at the capitals of most of the Central
American and South American states. Some of them represent
considerable progress, but most of them are in a somewhat languish-
ing condition. Notable exceptions are the national museum in
Rio de Janeiro, the Museu Paraenst (Museu Goekli). at Par&, the
Miueu Patdisia at Sfto Paulo, and the national museum in Buenos
Aires. The latter institution b jMUticulariy rich in paleontdoncal
collections. There b an excdlent miueura at Valparaiso in Chile,
which in lecent years has been doing good work. (W. J. H.)
■U8QRAVB, SAMUEL (1732-1780), English dassical scholar
and physician, was born st Washfield, in Devonshire, on the
29th of September 1732. Educated at Oxford and dected
to a Raddiffe travelling fellowship, he spent several years
abroad. In 1766 he settled at Exeter, but not meeting with
professional success removed to Plymouth. He ruined his
prospects, however, by the publication of a pamphlet in the
form of an address to the people of Devonshire, in which he
accused certain members of the English ministry of having been
bribed by the French government to conclude the peace of 1763,
and declared that the Chevalier d'Eon de Beaumont, French
minister plenipotentiary to England, had in his possession
documents which wotild prove the truth of his assertion. De
Beaumont repudiated all knowledge of any citch transaction
and of Musgrave himself, and the House of Commons in 1770
dedded that the charge was unsubstantiated. Thus discredited,
Musgrave gained a precarious living in London by his pen until
hts death, in reduced drcumstances, on the 5th of July 1780.
He wrote several medical works, now forgotten; and his edition
of Euripides (i 778) was a considerable advance on that of Joshua
Barnes.
See W. Munk, J?a0 <!f lb i20^ Ofi^ie <^ PAyndaM, iL (1878).
MUSH* the chief town of a sanjak of the same name of the
Bitlis vilayet of Asiatic Turkey, and an important military
station. It is situated at the mouth of a gorge in the mountains
on the south side of the plain, the surrounding hills being covered
with vineyards and some oak scrul>. There are few good houses;
the streets are Ul-paved and winding, while the place and its
surroundings are extremdy dirty. The castle, of which there
are some remains, is said to have been built by Mushig, an
Armenian king of the province Daron, who founded the town.
A khan, with two stone lions (Arab or Sdjuk) in bas-relief,
deserves notice, but the bazaar is poor, although pretty
embroidered caps are produced. Good roads lead to Erzerum
and Bitlis. There are 1400 inhabitants, consisting of Kurds
and Armenians, about equally divided. The climate is healthy
but cold in winter, with a heavy snow fall. Mush is the seat
of the Gregorian and Roman Catholic Armenian bishops and
some American mission schools. Some mOes to the west at
tBe edge of the plain is the celebrated monastery of Surp
Garabed or St John the Baptist, an important place of Armenian
pilgrimage.
Mush plain, 35 m. long by 12 broad, is very fertile, growing
wheat and tobacco, and is dotted with many thriving Armenian
villages. The Murad or eastern Euphrates traverses the western
end of the plain and disappears into a narrow mountain gorge
there. Vineyards are numerous and a fair wine is produced.
70
MUSHROOM
Wood is scarce and the usual fuel is teuk or dried co«r-dung.
There are several sulphur springs, and earthquakes are frequent
and sometimes severe. It was on the plain of Mush that
Xenophon first made acquaintance with Armenian houses,
which have little changed since his day.
MUSHROOM.^ There are few more useful, more easily
recognized, or more ddidous members of the vegetable kingdom
than the common mushroom, known botanically as Agaricus
campestris (or PsaUiola campestris). It grows in short grass
in the temperate regions of all parts of the world. Many
edible fungi depend upon minute and often obscure botanical
characters for their determination, and may readily be con-
founded with worthless or poisonous species; but that is not the
case with the conunon mushroom, for, although several other
species of Agaricus somewhat closely approach it in form and
colour, yet the true mushroom, if sound and freshly gathered, may
be distinguished from all other fungi with great ease. It almost
invariably grows in rich, open, breezy pastures, in places where
the grass is kept short by the grazing of horses, herds and flocks.
Although this plant is popularly termed the " meadow mush-
room," it never as a rule grows in meadows. It never grows in
wet boggy places, never in woods, or on or about stumps of trees.
An exceptional specimen or an uncommon variety may sometimes
be seen in the above-mentioned abnormal places, but the best,
the true, and common variety of the table is the produce of short,
upland, wind-swept pastures. A true mushroom is never large in
size; its cap very sddom exceeds 4, at most 5 in. in diameter.
The large examples measuring from 6 to 9 or more in. across
the cap belong to Agaricus arvensis, called from its large size and
coarse texture the horse mushroom, which grows in meadows
and damp shady places, and though generally wholesome is
coarse and sometimes indigestible. The mushroom usually
grown in gardens or hot-beds, in cellars, sheds, &c., is a distinct
variety known as Agaricus hortcnsis. On being cut or broken the
flesh of a true mushroom remains white or nearly so, the flesh
of the coarser horse mushroom changes to bu£f or sometimes to
dark brown. To sununarize the characters of a true mushroom
— it grows only in pastures; it is of small size, dry, and with
unchangeable flesh; the cap has a frill; the gills are free from the
stem, the spores brown-black or deep purple-black in colour,
and the stem solid or slightly pithy. When all these char-
acters are taken together no other mushroom-like ftmgus —
and neariy a thousand species grow in Britain— can be con-
founded with it.
The parts of a mushroom consist chiefly of stem and cap;ithe stem
has a ciothy ring round its middle, and the cap is furnished under-
neath mnth numerous radiating coloured gills. Fig. I (i) re p r es en ts
a section through an infant mushroom, (2) a mature example,
and (3) a lon^tudinal section through a fully developed mushroom.
The cap d, b is fleshy, firm and white within, never thin and watery ;
externally it ispale brown, dry, often slightly silky or floccose,
never viscid. The cuticle of a mushroom readily peeb away from
the flesh beneath, as shown at F. The cap has a narrow dependent
margin or frill, as shown at c, and in section at h ; this dependent
frill originates in the rupture of a delicate continuous wrapper,
which in the infancy of the mushroom entirely wraps the young
plant; it b shown in its continuous state at j, and at the moment
of rupture at k. The gilb underneath the cap L, M, N are at first
white, then rose-colourcdj at length brown-black. A point of great
importance b to be noted m the attachment of the gills near the stem
at o, p: the gilb in the true mushroom are (as shown) usually more
or less free from the stem, they never grow boldly against it or run
down it; they may sometimes just touch the spot where the stem
joins the bottom 01 the cap, but never more; there is usually a slight
channel, as at P, all round the top of the stem. When a mushroom
b perfectly ripe and the gilb are orown-black in colour, they throw
down a thick dusty deposit of fine brown-black or purple-black
spores; it is esscntui to note the colour. The spores on germination
make a white felted mat, more or less dense, of mycelium; thb,
when compacted with dry, half-decomposed dung, is the mushroom
spawn of gardeners. The stem is firm, lightly pithy up the middle,
but never hollow; it bears a floccose ring near its middle, as
illustrated at Q, Q; this ring originates by the rupture of the thin
general wrapper k of the inuint pbnt.
like all widely spread and much-cultivated plants, the edible
'The earlier I5th<entury form of the word was musseroun,
muuheron, &c., and was adapted from the French mouss€nm» which
b generally connected with moufUt mom.
mushroom has numerous varieties, and it differs In differoit
places and under different modes of culture in much the same
way as our kitchen-garden plants differ from the type they have
been derived from, and from each other. In some instances
these differences are so marked that they have led some
botanbts to regard as distinct q)edes many fonns usually
esteemed by others as varieties only.
Fig. I. — Pasture Mushroom (Agaricus campestris).
A small variety of the common mushroom found in pastures has
been named A. pratensis; it differs from the tyjie in having a pale
reddish-brown scaly top, and the flesh on being cut or broken
changes to pale rose<oiour. A variety still more marked, with a
darker brown cap and the flesh changing to a deeper rose, and
sometimes bkxxi-red, has been described as A, ruftsceus. The
well-known compact variety of mushroom-growers, with its white
cap and dull purplish clay-coloured Rilb, b A, kortensis. Two
sub-varieties 01 thb have been described under the names of A,
Buckanani and A, doneatus, and other dbtinct forms are known to
botanbts. A variety also grows in woods named A, silvicola; thb
can only be dbtinguished from the pasture mushroom by its dkmgated
bulbous stem and its »temally smooth cap. There b also a fungus
well known to botanbts and cultivators which appears to be inter-
medute between the pasture variety and the wood variety, named
A. vaporarius. The large rank horse mushroom, now generally
referred to as A. arvensis, b probably a variety of the pasture mush-
room ; it grows in rings in woody places and under trees and hedges
in meadows; it has a large scaly round cap, and the flesh ouickly
changes to buff or brown when cut or broken ; the stem too b hoUow.
An unusually scaly form of thb has been described as A. pitioHcus
and another as A. augustus.
A species, describra by Berkeley and Broome as distinct from
both the pasture mushroom and horse mushroom, has been pub-
lished under the name of A. ehensis. Thb grows under oaks, in
clusters— a most unusual character for the mushroom, and b said
to be excellent for the uble. An allied fungus peculiar to woods,
with a less fleshy cap than the true mushroom, with holk>w stem,
and strong odour, has been described as a close ally of the pasture
mushroom under the name of A, siivaticus; its qualities for the ti^^
have not been recorded.
Many instances are on record of symptoms of potsonliw, and
even death, having followed the consumption of plants whkm have
passed as true mushrooms; these cases have probably arisen from
the examples consumed being in a state of decay, or fiom some mis-
take as to the spedes eaten. It shouki always be specially noted
whether the fungi to be consumed are in a fredi aiid wfaokaocne
condition, otherwise they act as a poison in oredsely the same way
as does any other semi-putrid vegetable. Many instances are oa
record where mushroom-beds have been invaded by a growth of
strange fungi and the tnie mushrooms have been ousted to the advan-
tage of the new-comers. When mushrooms are gathered for sale
by persons unacquainted with the different species mistakes are of
frequent occurrence. A very common spurious mushroom ta
markets b A. vdiUinus, a slender, ringless, hoUow-stemmed, black-
gilled fungus, common in gardens and about dung and stumps; it
IS about the size of a mushroom, but thinner in alTits parts and far
more brittle; it has a black hairy fringe hanging round the edge of the
cap when fresh. Another spurious mushroom, and equally oommoa
in dealers* baskets, b A. lacrymalmndus; thb grows in the same posi-
tions as the last, and b somewhat fleshier and more like a true mush-
room ; it has a hollow stem and a slight ring, the gilb are black-brown
mottled and generally studded with tear-like drops of moisture.
In both these species the gills distinctly touch and grow on to the
stem. Besides these there are numerous other black-gilled speciea
which find a place in baskets— aome species far too small to bear
MUSHROOM
7'
any resemblance to a mushroom, others large and deliquescent.
feneraDy bdooging to the stump> and dung-borne genus Coprinus.
The true mushroom itself is to a great extent a dung-borne vptda,
tlKrriore mushroom-beds are alwavs liable to an invasion from other
dang-bonw forms. The spores of all fungi are constantly floating
ab«jt in the air, ami when the n)ores of dung-infesting
slight oo a mushroom-bed they find a nidus already prepai
czacdy suits them; and if the spawn of the new-comer becomes
ranre profuse than that of the mushroom the stranger takes up his
pontsoo at the expense of the mushroom. There is also a fungus
umed Xykuria vaporaria^ which sometimes fixes itself on mushroom-
beds and produces such an enormous quantity of string-like spawn
that the entire destruction oC the bed results. This spawn is some-
times so profuse that it is pulled out of the beds in enormous masses
and carted away in barrows.
Somedmes cases of poisoning fellow the consumption of what
have really appeared to gardeners to be true bed-mushrooms, and
to country f<HiEs as small horse mushrooms. The case is made more
complicated by the fact that these highlv poisonous forms now and
then appear npoa mudiroom-beds to the exclusion of the mush-
nx>m». This' dangerous counterfeit is A, fastibilu, or sometimes A.
cnuiwiimiformist a dose allv if not indeed a mere variety of the first.
A descripdon of one will do for both, A. fasiihilis being a little the
mote deader of the two. Both have fleshy caps, whitish, moist and
dsmmy to the touch; instead of a pleasant odour, they have a dis-
agreeable one; the stems are rin^ess, or nearly so; and the gills,
nich are palish-day-brown, distmctly toudi and grow on to the
sotkl or piuiy stem. These two fungi usually grow in woods, but
•ooetinies in hedges and in shady pbioes in meadows, n- ^ has
been said, as invaders on mushroom-beds. The pale ed
gffls, offensive odour, and clammy or even viscid to
characters. A reference to the accompanying illusti
vhkh is about one-half natural size, will give a go :
fAttAUis\ the difference in the nature of the attachmt r,t « i i
Mar the stem » seen at ft, the absence of a true ring .h i t^. jj
pendent frill at t. The colour, with the exception ^>l L^'
■ot ttnU]« that of the mushroom. In determining iwn-^i r. „..
character must be relied upon as conclusive, but all the characters
stase be taken together. Sometimes a beautiful, somewhat slender,
f Bogus v*^*'^*r to stumps in woods is mistaken for the mushroom in
A. ctmmui it has a tall, solid, white, ringless stem and somewhat
this brown cap, furnished underneath with beautiful rose-coloured
glib, wluch are free from the stem as in the mushroom, and which
±
ills
fa
is
ile
Fto. 24 — Poisonous Mushroom {Agaricus fastibUis).
r turn black. It is probably a poisonous plant, bdonging, as it
does, to a dazwerous cohmt. Many other species of Agaricus more
or less resemble A. cam^esHst notably some of the plants found
■B<kr the sub-genera Lepiala, Voharia, Pholiota and PsaUiota;
bat when the characters are noted they may all with a little care
be caaly distinguished from each other. The better plan is to
<Lacard at once all funzi which have not been eathered from open
pastures: by this act alone more than nine-tenths of worthless and
pobooous species will be excluded
la cases of poisoning bv mushrooms immediate medical advice
dbookl be secured. The dangerous principle is a narcotic, and the
sjaptocns are usually great nausea, drowsiness, stupor and pains
ta tae joints. A good palliative is sweet oil; this will allay any
cprrodve irritation of the throat and stomach, and at the same
tiiae cause vomiting.
Paris mnshrooms are cultivated in enormous quantities in dark
onderground cellars at a depth of from 60 to 160 ft. from the surface.
The naUe manure is taken into the tortuous passages of these cellars,
a^ the spawn introduced from masses of dry dung where it occurs
satucaBy. In France mushroom-^wers do not use the compact
Bocks or bricks of spawn so familiar in England, but much smaller
taken or " leaves " of dry dung in which the spawn or mycelium can
be seen to exist. Less manure b used in these cellars than we
ftasnSky see in the mushroom-houses of England, and the surface
of each bed is covered with about an inch of fine white stony soil.
The b»i8 are kept artificially moist by the application of water
hrooght from the surface, and the different galleries bear crops in
saccesskNE.^ As one is exhausted another is in full bearing, so that
by a systematic arrangement a single proprietor will send to the
surface from 300 lb to 3000 tt> of mushrooms per day. The passa^
sometimes extend over several miles, the bods sometimes occupying
over 20 m., and^ as there are many proprietors of cellars, the produce
of mushrooms is so large that not only is Paris fully supplied, but
vast quantities are forwarded to the different large towns of Europe;
the mushrooms are not allowed to reach the fully expanded condi-
tion, but are gathered in a large button sute, the whole growth of
the mushroom being removed and the hole left in the manure
covered with fine earth. The beds remain in bearing for six or
eight months, and then the spent manure is uken to the surface
again for garden and fieki purposes. The equable temperature of
these cellars and their freedom from draught is one cause of their
neat success; to this must be added the natural virgin spawn,
for by continually using spawn taken from iriushroom-producing
beds the potencv for reproduction is weakened. The beds produce
mushrooms in about six weeks after this spawning.
The common mushroom {Agariau campestris) b propagated by
spores, the fine bkck dust seen to be thrown off when a mature speci-
men b hud on white paper or a white dish; these give rise to what
b known as the " spawn " or mycelium, which consists of whitish
threads permeating dried dung or similar substances, and which,
when planted in a proper medium, runs through the mass, and even-
tually develops the fructificatk>n known, as the mushroom. This
spawn may be obtained from old pastures, or decayed mushroom
beds, and b purchased from nurserymen in the form of bricks
charged with the mycelium, and technically known as mushroom
spawn. When once obtained, it may be indefinitely preserved.
It may be ]3roduced by placing quantities of horse-dune saturated .
with the urine of horoes, espedally of stud horses, witn alternate
layers of rich earth, and covering the whole with straw, to exclude
ram and air; the spawn commonly appears in the heap in about
two months afterwards. The droppings of stall-fed horses, or of
such as have been kept on dry food, should be made use of.
The old method of growing mushrooms in ridges out of doors, or
on prepared beds either level or sloping from a back wall in sheds or
cellars, may generally be adopted with success. The beds are formed
of horse-droppings which have been slightly fermented and frequently
turned, and may be made 3 or 3 ft. broad and of any length. A byer
of dung about 8 or 10 in. thick is first deposited, and covered witn a
Ught dryish earth to the depth of 3 in.; and two similar layers with
simibr coverings are added, the whole being made narrower as it
advances in hnght. When the bed is finbhed, it is covered with
straw to protect it from tain, and also from parching influences.
In about ten days, when the mass is milkwarm. the bed will be
ready for spawning, which consists of inserting small pieces of spawn
bricks into the sk>ping sides of the bed, about 6 in. asunder. A layer
of fine earth is then placed over the whole, and well beaten down,
and the surface is covered with a thick coat of straw. When the
weather b temperate, mushrooms will appear in about a month after
the bed has been made, but at other times a much longer period may
ebpse. The principal things to be attended to are to preserve a
moderate state of moisture and a proper mild degree of warmth;
and the treatment must vary according to the season.
These ordinary ridge beds furnish a good supply towards the end
of summer, and in autumn. To command a regular supply, how-
ever, at all seasons, the use of a mushroom-house will be found very
convenient. The material employed in all cases is the droppings of
horses, which should be collected fresh, and spread out in thin layers
in a dnr place, a portion of the short litter being retained m-ell mois-
tened by horse-urine. It should then be thrown together in ridges
and frequently turned, so as to be kept in an incipient state of ier-
menution, a little dryish friable loam being mixed with it to retain
the ammonia given off by the dung. With this or a mixture of
horse-dung, loam, old mushroom-bed dung, and half -decayed leaves,
the beds are built up in successive layers of about 3 in. thick, each
layer being beaten firm, until the bed is 9 or 10 in. thick. If the heat
exceeds 8o*, holes should be made to moderate the fermentation.
The beds are to be spawned when the heat moderates, and the surface
is then covered with a sprinkling of warmed loam, which after
a few days is made up to a thickness of a in., and well beaten down.
The be(M made partly of old mushroom-bed dung often contain
sufficient spawn to jricld a crop, without the introduction of brick or
cake spawn, but it is advisable to spawn them in the regular way.
The spawn should be introduced an inch or two below the surface
when the heat has declined to about 75*, indeed the bed ought never
to exceed 8o*. The surface is to be afterwards covered with hay or
litter. The atmospheric temperature should range from 6o* to 65*
till the mushrooms appear, when it may drop a few degrees, but not
lower than 55*. If the beds require watering, water of about 8o*
should be usol, and it is preferable to moisten the covering of litter
rather than the surface of the beds themsclvt». Jt is also beneficial,
especially in the case of partially exhausted beds, to water with a
dilute solution of nitre. For a winter supply the beds should be
made towards the end of August, and the end of October. Slugs
and woodlice are the worst enemies of mushroom crops.
The Fair^ring Champigrum. — ^This fungus, Marasmius Oreades,
is more universally used in France and Italy than in England,
although it b well known and frequently used tx>th in a fresh and in
a dry state in EngUtnd. It b totally different in appearance from the
72
MUSIC
pasture mushroom, and, like it. its characters are to distinct that
there b hardly a possibility of making a misuke when iu pecuhan-
ties are once comprehended. It has more than one advantage
over the meadow mushroom in iu extreme commonness, its profuse
growth, the length of the season in which it may be gathered, the
total absence of varietal forms, iu adaptability for being dnedand
preserved for years, and its perustent delicious taste. It is bv many
esteemed as the best of all the edible fungi found in Great Bntam.
Like the mushroom, it grows in short open pastures and amongst
the short grass dt open roadsides; sometimes it appears on lawns,
but it never occurs m woods or in damp shady places. Its natural
habit is to grow in rings, and the grassy fauy-rings so frequent
amongst the short grass of downs and pastures in the spnng are
generally caused by the nitrogenous manure applied to^ the soil
in the previous autumn by the decay of a circle of these fun|^. Many
other fungi in addition to the fairy*ring champignon grow m arclca,
so that tms habit must merely be Uken with its other characters in
cases of doubt.
A glance at the illustration (fig. 3) will show how entirely the fairy-
ring champignon differs from the mushroom. In the first place, it
FtG. 3. — ^Thc Fairy-ring Champignon {Marastnius ortatUs).
is about one-half the size of a mushroom, and whitish-buff in every
part, the gills always retaining this cobur and never becoming
salmon-coloured, brown or black. The stem is solid and corkv.
much more solid than the flesh of the cap, and perfectly smooth.
never being furnished with the slightest trace of a ring. The buff-
gills are far apart (v). and in this they greatly differ from the some-
what crowded gills of the mushroom : the junction of the gills with
the stem (w) also differs in character from tlie similar junction in the
mushroom. The mushroom b a semi-deliquescent fungus which
rapidly falls into putridity in decay, whilst the champignon dries
up into a leathery substance in the sun, but speedily revives and takes
its original form again after the first shower. To thb character the
fungus owes its generic name {Aiarasmius) as well as one of its most
valuable qualities for the table, for examples may be gathered from
June to November, and if carefully dried may be hung on strings
for culinary purposes and preserved without deterioration for several
years; indeed, many persons assert that the rich flavour of these
fungi increases with years. Champignons are highly esteemed (and
especially b thb the case abroad) for adding a most delicious flavour
to stews, soups and gravies.
A fungus which may carelessly be mistaken for the mushroom is
M. peronatus, but this grows in woods amongst dead leaves, and has a
hairy base to the stem and a somewhat arnd taste. Another is M.
urens; this also generally grows in woods, but the gills arc not nearly
so deep, they soon become brownish, the stem b downy, and the taste
is acrid. An Agaricus named A. dryophUus has sometimes been
gathered in mistake for the champignon, but this too grows in woods
where the champignon never grows; it has a hollow instead of a solid
stem, gills crowded together instead of far apart, and flesh very
tender and brittle instead of tough. A small esculent ally of the
champignon, named M. scovodonius, is sometimes found in pastures
in Great Britain ; this is largely consumed on the Continent, where
it is esteemed for its powerful flavour of garlic. In England, wlwre
gariic is not used to a large extent, this fungus is not sought for.
Another small and common species, M. porreus, is pervaded with a
garlic flavour to an equal extent with the last. A third species,
M. aUtacfus, is also strongly impregnated with the scent and taste
of onions or garlic. Two species. M. impudicus and Af. foelidus,
are in all stages of growth highly foetid. The curious little edible
Agaricus esctuentus, although placed under the sub-eenus CoUybia,
is allied by its structure to Marasmius. It is a small bitter species
common in upbnd pastures and fir plantations early in the season.
Although not gathered for the table in England, it is greatly prized
in some parts of the Continent.
MUSIC— The Greek /lowu^ (*c. rtxrri), from which thb
word b derived, was used very widely to embrace all those
arts over which the Nine Muses (MoDaat) were held to preside.
Contrasted with YtyiMtfru^ (gymnastic) it included those
branches of education concerned with the development of the
mind as opposed to the body. Thus such widely different arts
and sciences as mathematics, astronomy, poetry and literature
generally, and even reading and writing would all fall under
ftavcucli, besides the singing and setting of lyric poetry. On
the educational value of music in the formation of character
the philosophers laid chief stress, and thb biased their aesthetic
analysis. *KpiuMa (harmony), or hfiiumdi (sc. tcxi^), rather
than iwocudi, was the name given by the Greeks to the art of
arranging sounds for the purpose of creating a definite aesthetic
impression, with which thb article deab.
I. — Genebal Sketch
X. Inlroduclum, — As a mature and independent art music
b unknown except in the modem forms realised by Western
civilization; ancient music, and the non-European music of the
present day, being (with insignificant exceptions of a character
which con&ins the generalization) invariably an adjunct of poetry
or dance, in so far as it b recognizable as an art at alL The
modem art of music bin a unique position; for, while its language
has been wholly created by art, thb language b yet so perfectly
organized as to be in itself natural; so that though the music
of one age or style may be at first tmintelligible to a Ibtener
who b accustomed to another style, and though the listener
may help himself by acquiring information as to the char-
acterbtics and meaning of the new style, he will best leara to
understand it by merely divesting hb mind of prejudices and
allowing' the music to make itself intelligible by its own self-
consistency. The understanding of music thus finally depends
neither upon technical knowledge nor upon convention, but
upon the Ibtener's immediate and familiar experience of it;
an experience which technical knowledge and custom can of
course aid him to acquire more rapidly, as they strengthen
his memory and enable him to fix impressions by naming
them.
Beyond certain elementary facts of acoustics (see Sound),
modem music shows no direct connexion with nature inde-
pendently of art; indeed, it b already art that determines the
selection of these elementary acoustic facts, just as in painting
art determines the selection of those facts that come under the
cognizance of optics.* In music, however, the purely acoustic
principles arc incomparably fewer and simpler than the optical
principles of painting, and their artbtic interaction transforms
them into something no less remote from the laboratory
experiments of acoustic science than from the unorganized
sounds of nature. The result b that while the ordinary non-
artbtic experiences of sight afford so much material for plastic
art that the vulgar conception of good painting b that it is
deceptively like nature, the ordinary non-artistic experience
of sound has so little in common with music that musical
realism b, with rare though pc^ular exceptions, generally
regarded as an eccentricity.
Thb contrast between music and plastic art may be partly
explained by the mental work undergone, during the earliest
infancy both of the race and of the individual, in interpreting
sensations of space. When a baby learns the shape of objects
by taking them in hb hands, and gradually advances to the
discovery that hb toes belong to him, he goes through an
amount of work that b quite forgotten by the adult, and its
complexity and difficulty has perhaps only been fully realized
through the experience of persons who have been bom blind
but have acquired sight at a mature age by an operation. Such
work gives the facts of normal adult vision an amount of organic
principle that makes them admirable raw material for art.
The power of dbtinguishing sensations of sound b associated
with no such mental skill, and b no more complex than the
power of distingubhing colours. On the other hand, sound
is the principal medium by which most of the higher animals
both express and excite emotion; and hence, though until
* Thus Chinese and Japanese art has attained high organization
without the aid of a veracious perspective; while, on the other hand,
its carefully formulated decorative principles, though not realistic,
certainly rest on an of>tical and physiological basb. Aeain, many
modem impressionists justify their methods by an appeal to pheno-
mena of complementary colour which earlier artists possibly aid not
perceive and certainly did not select as artbtic materials.
GENERAL SKETCH]
MUSIC
73
codified into human speech it does not give Any nw material
lor art, yet so powerful are its primitive effects that music
(in the bird-song sense of sound indulged in for its own attractive*
oess) is as long prior to language as the brilliant colours of
animals and flowers are prior to painting (see SoNo). Again,
sound as a warning or a menace is eminently important in the
history of the instinct of self-preservation; and, above all, its
production is instantaneous and instinctive.
All these facts, while they tend to make musical expression
an eariy phenomenon in the history of life, are extremely
unfavourable to the early development of musical art. They
invested the first musical attempts with a mysterious power
over listener and musician, by re-awakening instincts more
powerful, because more ancient and necessary, than any that
could ever have been appealed to by so deliberate a process
as that of drawing on a flat surface a series of lines calculated
to remind the eye of the appearance of solid objects in space.
It b hardly surprising that music long remained as imperfect
as its legendary powers were portentous, even in the hands of
so supzcmely artistic a race as that of classical Greece; and what-
ever wonder this backwardness might still arouse in us vanishes
when we realize the extreme difficulty of the process by which
the principles of the modem- art were established.
3. Nott-karmonk and Greek Musk, — Archaic music is of
two kinds — ^the unwritten, or spontaneous, and the recorded,
or scientific The earliest musical art-problems were far too
difficult for conscious analysis, but by no means always beyond
the reach of a lucky hit from an inspired singer; and thus folk-
music often shows real beauty where the more systematic music
of the time is merely arbitrary. Moreover, folk-music and the
present^ music of barbarous and civilised non-European races
fumish'the study of musical origins with material analogous to
that given by the present manners and customs of different races
in the study of social evolution and ancient history. We may
mentsoQ as examples the accurate comparison of the musical
scales of non-European races undertaken by A. J. ElUs {On
tk€ MMsical Scales of Various Nations, 1885); the parallel
nesearches and acute and cautious reasoning of his friend and
coUaborator, A. J. Hipkins {Dorian and Phrygian reconsidered
from a Non-hamumk Point of View, 1902); and, pvhaps most
di an, the study of Japanese music, with its remarkable if
uncertain sig;ns of the beginning of a harmonic tendency, its
logical coherence, and its affinity to Western scales, points
ia which it seems to show a great advance upon the Chinese
music from which most of it is derived {Musk and Musical
Instnaments cf Japan, by J. F. Piggott, 1893). The reader will
find detailed accounts of ancient Greek music in the article
on that subject in Grove's Dictionary of Musk and Musicians
(new ed., iL 223) and in Monro's Modes of Ancient Greek Musk
(Oarendoa Press, 1894), while both the Greek music itself,
and the steps by which it passed through Graeco-Roman and
early Christian phases to become the foundation of the modem
art, are traced as dearly as is consbtent with accuracy in
The Oxford History of Musk, vol. i., by Professor Wooldridge.
Sir Hubert Parry's Evolution of the Art of Musk (" International
Sdcotific Series," originally published under the title of Tke
Art of Musk) presents the main lines of the evolution o( modem
musical ideas in the clearest and^most readable form yet
attained.
Sir Hubert Parry illustrates in this work the artificiality of
our modem musical conceptions by the word " cadence,"
which to a modem musician belies its etymology, since it
DomiaJly means for him no " falling " close but a pair of final
chords rising from dominant to tonic. Moreover, in consequence
d cai harmonic notions we think of scales as constmcted from
the bottom upwards; and even in the above-mentioned article
in Grove's Dictionary all the Greek scales are, from sheer force
c£ habit, written upwards. But the ancient and, almost
Qonretsally, the primitive idea of music is like that of speech,
m which most inflections are in fact cadences, while rising
inflexions express less usual sentiments, such as surprise or
interrogaticn. Again, our modem musical idea of "high"
and " low " is probably derived from a sense of greater and less
vocal effort; and it has been much stimulated by our harmonic
sensej which has necessitated a range of sounds incomparably
greater than those employed in any non-harmonic system.
The Greeks derived their use of the terms from the position
of notes on their instruments; and the Greek kypati was what
we should call the lowest note of the mode, while netB was the
highest. Sir George Macfarren has pointed out {Ency. Brit.,
9th ed., art. " Music ") that Boethius {c, aj>. 500} already fell
into the trap and tumed the Greek modes upside down. *
Another radical though less grotesque misconception was
also already well exploded by Macfarren; but it still frequently
survives at the present day, since the study of non-harmonic
scales is, with the best of intentions, apt rather to encourage
than to dispel it. The more we realize the importance of
differences in position of intervals of various sizes, as producing
differences of character in scales, the more irresistible is the
temptation to regard the ancient Greek modes as differing from
each other in this way. And the temptation becomes greater
instead of less when we have succeeded in thinking away our
modem harmonic notions. Modem harmonization enormously
increases the differences of expression between modes of which
the melodic intervals are different, but it does this in a fashion
that draws the attention almost entirely away from these
differences of interval; and without harmony we find it extremely
difficult to distinguish one mode from another, unless it bie
by this different arrangement of intervals. Nevertheless, all
the evidence irresistibly tends to the conclusion that while the
three Greek ^CTMro— diatonic, chromatic, and enharmonic —
were scales differing in intervals, the Greek modes were a series
of scales identical in arrangement of interval, and differing,
like our modem keys, only in pitch. The three genera were
applied to all these modes or. keys, and we have no difficulty
in understanding their modifying effects. But the only clue
we have to the mental process by which in a preharmonic age
different characteristics can be ascribed to scales identiod in
all but pitch, is to be found in the limited compass of Greek
musical sounds, corresponding as it does to the evident sensitive-
ness of the Greek ear to differences in vocal effort. We have
only to observe the compass of the Greek scale to see that in
the most esteemed modes it is much more the compass of speaking
than o( singing voices. Modem singling is normally at a much
higher pitch than that of the speaking voice, but there is no
natural reason, outside the peculiar nature of modem music,
why this should be so. It is highly probable that all modern
singing wotild strike a dassical Greek ear as an outcry; and
in any case such variations of pitch as are inconsiderable in
modem singing are extremely emphatic in the speaking voice,
so that they might well make all the difference to an ear un-
accustomed to organized sound beyond the speaking compass.
Again, much that Aristoxenus and other ancient authorities
say of the character of the modes (or keys) tends to confirm
the view that that character depends upon the position of the
mese or keynote within the general compass. Thus Aristotle
{Politics, v. (viii.) 7, 1342 b. 20) states thai certain low-pitched
modes suit the voices of old men, and thus we may conjecture
that even the position of tones and semitones might in the
Dorian and Phrygian modes bring the bolder portion of the
scale in all three genera into the best regions of the average
young voice, while the Ionian and Lydian might lead the voice
to dwell more upon semitones and enharmonic intervals, and
so account for the heroic character of the former and the sensual
character of the latter (Plato, Republk, 398 to 400).
Of the Greek genera, the chromatic and enharmonic (especially
^ It b worth adding that in the i6th century the great contrapun-
Ul compoaer Costanzo Porta had been led by doubu on the subject
to the wonderful condusion that andent Greek music was poly-
phonic, and oo constructed as to be invertible ; in illustration of which
theory he andA^ncentino composed four-part motets in each of the
Greek genera (diatonic, chromatic and enharmonic), Porta's being
constructed like the 12th and 13th fugues in Bach's Kunsl der Fugc
so as to be equally euphonious when sung upside downl (See
Hawkins's History of Musk, i. 1 12.)
J
7+
MUSIC
(GENERAL SKETCH
the latter) show very clearly the origin of so many primitive
scales in the interval of the downward fourth. That interval
{e.g. from C to G) is believed to be the earliest melodic relation-
ship which the ear learnt to fix; and most of the primitive scales
were formed by the accretion of auxiliary notes at the bottom
of this interval, and the addition of a similar interval, with
similar accretions, below the former. In this way a pentatonic
scale, like that of so many Scotch melodies, can easily be formed
(thus, C, A, G; F, D, C) ; and though some primitive scales seem
to have been on the nucleus of the rising fifth,'while the Siamese
now use two scales of which not a single note within the octave
can be accounted for by any known principle, still we may
•consider that for general historic purposes the above example
is typical. The Greeks divided their downward fourth into
four notes, called a Mrackord; and by an elaborate system of
linking tetrachords together they gave their scale a compass
of two octaves. The enharmonic tetrachord, being the most
ancient, gathered the lower three notes very closely to the
bottom, leaving the second note no less than a major third
irom the top, thus— C,Ab, G', G; (where G' stands for a note
2)etween Ab and G). The chromatic tetrachord was C, Bbb,
Ab, G; and the diatonic tetrachord was C, Bb, Ab, G. It is this
last that has become the foundation of modem music, and the
Greeks themselves soon preferred it to the other genera and
found a scientific basis for it. In the first place they noticed
that its notes (and, less easily, the notes of the chromatic scale)
could be connected by a series of those intervals which they
recognized as concordant. These were, the fourth; its converse,
or inversion, the fifth; and the ocUve. The notes of the enhar-
monic tetrachord could not be connected by any such series.
In the articles on Harmony and Sound account is given of
the historic and scientific foundations of the modem conception
of concord; and although this harmonic conception applies
to simultaneous notes, while the Greeks concemed themselves
only with successive notes, it is nevertheless permissible to
regard the Greek sense of concord in successive notes as con-
taining the germ of our harmonic sense. The stability of the
diatonic scale was assured as early as the 6th century B.q. when
Pythagoras discovered (if he did not leam from Egypt or India)
the extremely simple mathematical proportions of its intervals.
And tips discovery was of unique importance, as fixing the
intervals by a criterion that could never be obscured by the
changes of taste and custom otherwise inevitable in music that
has no conscious harmonic principles to guide it. At the same
time, the foundation of a music as yet immature and ancillary
to drama, on an acoustic science ancillary to a priori mathe-
matics, was not without disadvantage to the art; and it is
arguable that the great difficiilty with which during the
medieval beginnings of modem harmony the concords of the
third and sixth were rationalized may have been increased by
the fact that, the Pythagorean system left these intervals con-
siderably out of tune. In preharmonic times mathematics
could not direct even the most obsetvant ear to the study of
those phenomena of upper partials of which Helmholtz, in
1863, was the first to explain the significance; and thus though
the Greeks knew the difference between a major and minor
lone, on which half the question depended, they could not
possibly arrive at the modem reasons for adding both kinds
of tone in order to make the major third. (See Soxtnd.)
Here we must digress in order to illustrate what is implied
by our modem harmonic sense; for the difference that this
makes to our whole musical consciousness is by no means uni-
versaUy realized. Music, as we now understand it, expresses
Itself ia the interaction of three elements— rhythm, melody and
barmony. The first two are obviously as ancient as human
consciousness itself. Without the third a musical art of per-
manent value and intelligibility has not been known to attain
independent existence. With harmony music assumes the
existence of a kind of space in three dimensions, none of which
can subsist without at least implying the others. When we
bear an unaccompanied melody we cannot help interpreting
it in the light of its most probable harmonies. Hence, when
it does not imply consistebt harmonies it seems to us quaint
or strange; because, unleu it is very remote from our harmonic
conceptions, it at least implies at any given moment some
simple harmony which in the next moment it contradicts.
Thus our inferences as to the expression intended by music
that has not come under European influence are tmsafe, and
the pleasure we take in such music is capricious. The effort of
thinking away our harmonic preconceptions is probably the
most violent piece of mental gymnastics in all artistic exi>erience,
and furnishes much excuse for a sceptical attitude as to the
artistic value of preharmonic music, which has at all events
never become even partially independent of poetry and dance.
Thus the rhythm of c lassical Greek music seems to have been
entirely identical with that of verse, and its beauty and ex-
predion appreciated in virtue of that identity. From the modem
musical point of view the rhythm of words is limited to a merely
monotonous uniformity of flow, with minute undulations which
are musically chaotic (see Rhytioi). The example of Greek
tragedy, with the reports of its all-pervading music (in many
cases, as in that of Aeschylus, composed by the dramatist
himself) could not fail to fire the imaginations of modem pioneers
and reformers of opera; and Monteverde, Gluck and Wagner
convinced themselves and their contemporaries that their work
was, amongst other things, a revival of Greek tragedy. But all
that is known of Greek music shows that it represents no such
modem ideas, as far as their really musical aspect is concerned.
It represents, rather, an organization of the rise and fall of the
voice, no doubt as elaborate and artistic as the organization
of verse, no doubt powerful in heightening the emotional and
dramatic effect of words and action, but in no way essential
to the understanding or the organization of the works which it
adorned. The classical Greek preference for the diatonic scale
indicfl^tes a latent harmonic sense and also that temperance
which is at the foundation of the general Greek sense of beauty;
but, beyond this and similar generalities, all the research in the
world will not enable us to understand the Greek musician's
mind. Non-harmonic music is a world of two dimensions, and
we must now inquire how men came to rise from this " flatland **-
to the solid world of sound in which Palestrina, Bach, Beethoven
and Wagner live.
3. Harmonic Origins. — Although the simultaneoos blending
of different sounds was never seriously contemplated by the
Greeks, yet in classical times they were fond of singing with
high and low voices in octaves. This was called magadittng,
from the name of an instrument on which playing in octaves
was rendered easy by means of a bridge that divided the strings
at two-thirds of their length. While the practice was esteemed
for the beauty of the blending of different voices, it was tolerated
only because of the peculiar effect of identity furnished by
the different notes of the octave, and no other interval was so
used by the Greeks. In the article on Harmony the degrees of
identity-in-diff^rence which characterize the simpler hiurmonic
intervals are analysed, and the main steps are indicated by which
the more complicated medieval magadizing uses of the fourth
and fifth (the sympkonia, diaphonia or organum of Hucbald)
gave way (partly by their own interchange and partly through
experiments in the introduction of ornaments and variety)
to the modem conception of harmony as consisting of voices
or parts that move independently to the exclusion of such parallel
motion. In The Oxford History of Music, vols, L and ii., will
be found abundant examples of every stage of the process,
which begins with the organum or diaphony that prevailed
until the death of Guido of Arezzo (about Z050) and passes
through the discant, or measured music, of the 13th century,
in which rhythm is first organized on a sufficiently firm basis to
enable voices to sing contrasted rhythms simultaneously,
while the new harmonic criterion of the independence of parts
more and more displaces and shows its opposition to the old
criterion of parallelism.
The most extraordinary example of these conflicting principles
is the famous rota " Sumer is icumen in," a Z3th-century round
in four parts on a canonic ground-bass in two. Recent researches
CENEKAL SKETCH]
MUSIC
75
bave brou^t to Eg^t a number of norics la tBe foRBi o? nulei,
coKdrndus, rondd (neither the later rondo nor the round, but a
kind ci triple connteipomt), which show that " Sumer is icumen
in " contaiiw no unique technical feature; but no work within
two centniies of its date attains a style so nearly intelUgible
to XBodetn eaxs. Its richness and firmness of harmony are
soch that the frequent use of consecutive fifths and octaves,
in stxkt accordance with X3th-century principles, has to our
cars an the effect of a series of grammatiol blunders, so sharply
does it contrast with the smooth counterpoint of the rest. In
what light this smooth countezpoint struck contemporaries,
or how its author (who may or may not be the writer of the
Reading MS., John of Fomsete) arrived at it, is not dear,
tboo^ W. S. Rockstro's amTisIng article, *' Sumer is iciuicn
In," in Grove's DicHonary, is very plausible. All that we know is
that music in England in the 13th century must have been at
a comparatively high state of development; and we may also
conjecture that the tuneful character of this wonderful rota
has something in common with the unwritten but famous
soQS^ of the aristocratic troubadours, or (roffo^er, of the 12th
and xjth centuries, who, while disdaining to practise the art of
accompaniment or the art of scientific and written music,
ondoabtedly set the fashion in melody, and, being themselves
poets as wdl as ringers, formed the current notions as to the
idations between musical and poetic rhythm. The music
of Adam de la Bale, sumamed Le Bossu d'Arias (c xajo-iaSS),
shows the transformation of the troubadour into the learned
mosician; and, neariy a century later, the more ambitious
efforts of a greater French poet (like his contemporary Petrarca,
one of Chaucer's modeb in poetic technique), Guillaume dc
Msfhault {fl. 1350), mark a further technical advance, though they
are not ^ipredaUy more intelligible to the modem ear.
In the viaX century we find an Englishman, John Dunstable,
who had as early as 1437 acquired a European repuution;
while his works were so soon lost sight of that until recently
he was almost a legendary character, sometimes revered as the
** inventor " of counterpoint, and once or twice even identified
with St Dunstanl Recently a great deal of his work has come
to fight, and it shows us (especially when taken in connexion
with the fact that the early Netherlandish master, G. Dufay,
did not die until i474t twenty-one years after Dunstable) that
English oounterpoint was fully capable of showing the composers
of the Netherlands the path by which they were to reach the
art of the " (jolden age." In such examples of Dunstable's work
as that appended to the article "Dunstable" in Grove's
DkUanary (new ed., L 744) we see muric approaching a style
more or les consistently intelligible to a m(xiem ear; and in
En^ish Carols of the 15th Century (1891) several two-part
compositions of the period, in a style resembling Dunstable's,
have been made accessible to' modem readers and filled out into
four-part music by the editor "in accordance with the rules
of the time." And though it may be doubted whether Mr
Eockstro's skill would not have been held in the 15th century to
savour overmuch of the Black Art, still the success of his attempt
shows that the musical conceptions he is dealing with are no
kscger radically different from those of our modem murical
4. The CMen i4^.— The struggle towards the realization
of mature musical art seems incredibly- slow when we do not
realize its difficulty, and wonderfully rapid as soon as we attempt
to imagine the effort of first forming those harmonic conceptions
vhich are second nature to us. Even at the time of Dunstable
sad Dufay the development of the contrapuntal idea of inde-
pendence of parts had not yet so transformed the harmonic
cerasdnianess that the ancient parallelisms or consecutive
{earths and fifths that were the backbone of discant could
be seen in their tme light as contradictory to the contrapuntal
method. By the beginmng of the x6th century, however, the
Uws <rf counterpoint were substantially fixed; practice was
for a iriule imperfect, and aims still uncertain, but skill was
and soon became marvellous; and in i6th-cenlury
: we leave the archaic world altogether. Henceforth music
may show Virions phenomena of cnideness, decadence and
tranrition, but its transition-periods will always derive light
from the past, whatever the darkness of the future.
In the best music of the i6th century we have no need of
research or mental gymnastics, beyond what is necessary in
all art to secure intelligent presentation and attention. Its
materials show us the " three dimensions " of muric in thdr
simplest state of perfect balance. Rhythm, emancipated from
the tyranny of verse, is free to coK>rdinate and contrast a multi-
tude of mekKlies which by the very independence of their flow
produce a mass of harmony that passes from concord to concord
through ordered varieties of tranritional discord. The criterion
of discord is no longer that of mere harshness, but is modified
by the conception of the simplicity or remoteness of the steps
by which the flux of independent simultaneous melodies passes
from one concord, or point of repose, to another. When the
muric reaches a climax, or its final conclurion, the point of
repose is, of course, greatly emphasized. It is accordingly the
" cadences " or full closes of x6th-century muric that show
the greatest resemblance to the harmonic ideas of the present
day; and it is also at these points that certain notes were most
frequently raised so as to modify the ecdesiasrical modes which
are derived more or less directly from the melodic diatonic
scale of the Greeks, and misnamed, according to inevitable
medieval misconceptions, after the Greek modes.*
In other passages our modem ears, when unaccustomed to
the style, feel that the harmony is strange and lacking in definite
direction; and we are apt to form the hasty conclurion that the
mode is an archaic survivaL A more familiar acquaintance
with the art soon shows that its shifting and vague modulations
are no mere survival of a scale inadequate for any but melodic
purposes, but the natural result of a state of things in which only
two species of chord aro available as points of repose at all. If
no succesrions of such chords wero given prominence, except those
that define key according to modem notions based upon a much
greater variety of harmony, the resulting monotony and triviality
would be intolerable. Moreover, there is in this muric just
as much and no more of formal antithesis and sequence as its
harpnony will suffice to hold together. Lastly, we shall find,
on comparing the masterpieces of the period with works of
inferior rank, that in the masterpieces the most archaic modal
features are expresrive, varied and beautiftil; while in the inferior
works they are often avoided in favour of ordinary modem
ideas, and, when they occur, are always accidental and monoto-
nous, although in strict conformity with the rules of the time.
The consistent limitations of harmony, form and rhythm have
the further consequence that the only artistic muric possible
within them is purely vocal The use of instmments is little
more than a necessary evil for the support of voices in case of
insufficient opportunity for practice; and although the origins
of instrumental muric are abeady of some artistic interest in
the x6th century, we must leave them out of our account if our
object is to present mature artistic ideas in proper proportions.
The principles of x6th-century art-forms are diKussed in
more detail in the arride on Contsapuntal Forms. Here we
will treat the formal criteria on a general basis; especially as
with art on such rimple principles the distinction between one
art-form and another is apt to be either too external or too
subtle for stability. With muric there is a stronger probability
than in any other art that merely mechanical devices will be
self-evident, and thus they may become dther dangerous or
effective. With the masters of the Netherlands they speedily
became both. Two adjacent groups of illustrations in Burney's
'The technical nature of the subject forbids us to discuss the
origin and characteristics of the preat Ambrosian and Gregorian
collections of mdodic church music on which nearly all mraieval
and 16th-century polyphony was based, and from which the eccleri-
astical modes were derived. Professor Wooldridge in The Oxford
History of MusiCt i. 20-4^^ has shown the continuity of this early
Christian music with the Graeco- Roman music, and the origin of its
modes in the Ptolemaic modification (c. a.d. 150) of the Greek
diatonic scale; while a recent defence of the ecclesiastical tradi-
tion of a revision by St Gregory will be found in the artide on
" Gregorian music " in Grove s Dictionary (new cd.)» ii> 335.
76
MUSIC
CGENERAL S KE TC H
Histdry of Musk will show on the one hand the astonishing
way in which early polyphonic composers learnt to " dance
in fetters," and, on the oUier hand, the expressive power that
they attained by that discipline. Bumey quotes from the
venerable X5th<century master Okeghem, or Okenheim, some
canons so designed as to be singable in all modes. They are
by no means extreme cases of the ingenuity which Okenheim
and his pupils often employed; but though they are not very
valuable artistically (and are not even correctly deciphered
by Bumey)* they prove that mechanical principles may be a
help rather than a hindrance to' the attainment of a smooth
and plastic style. Bumey most appropriately follows them
with Josquin Des Prds's wonderful Deploration de Jekan Okenkeimf
in wUch the tenor sings the plain chant of the Requiem a degree
below its proper pitch, while the other voices sing a pastoral
dirge in French. The device of transposing the plain chant a
note bwer, and making the tenor sing it in that position through-
out the whole piece, is obviously as mechanical as any form of
acrostic: but it is happily calculated to impress our ears, even
though, unlike Josquin's contemporaries, most of us are not
familiar with- the [Jain chant in its normal position; because
it alters the position of all the semitones and gives the chant
a phiintive minor character which is no less impressive in itself
than as a contrast to the orthodox form. And the harmonic
superstructure is as fine an instance of the expressive possibilities
of the church modes at their apogee from modem tonality as
could be found anywhere. A still nobler example, which we
may perhaps acclaim as the earliest really sublime masterpiece
in music, is Josquin's Miserere, which is accessible in a modem
edition. In this monumental work one of the tenor parts is
called Vagans, because it sings the burden Miserere mei Deus
at regular intervals, in an almost monotonous wailing figure,
wandering through each successive degree of the scale throughout
the composition. The effect, aided as it is by consummate
rhetorical power in every detail of the surrounding mass of
harmony and counterpoint, is extremely expressive; and the
device lends itself to every shade of feeling in the works of the
greatest of all Netherland masters, Orlando di Lasso. Palestrina
is less fond of it. Like all more obvious formal devices it is
crowded out of his Roman art by the exquisite subtlety of his
sense of proportion, and the exalted spirituality of his style
which, while it allows him to set the letters of the Hebrew alphabet
in the Lamentations of Jeremiah in much the same spirit as
that in which they would be treated in an illuminated Bible,
forbids him to stimulate a sense of form that might distraa
the mind from the sense of mystery and awe proper to objects
of devout contemplation. Yet in one of his greatest motets,
Tribularer si nescirem, the burden of Josquin*s Miserere appears
with the same treatment and purpose as in its prototype.
But with the lesser Flemish masters, and sometimes with
the greatest, such mechanical principles often became not only
inexpressive but absolutely destmctive to musical effect. The
ingenuity necessary to niake the stubbom material of music
plastic was not so easily attainable as the ingenuity necessary
to tum music into a mathematical game; and when Palestrina was
in his prime the inferior composers so outnumbered the masters
to whom music was a devout language, and so degraded the
art, not only by ousting genuine musical expression but by
foisting secular tunes and words into the church services, that
one of the minor questions with which the Council of Trent
was concerned was whether polyphonic church music should be
totally abolished with other abuses, or whether it was capable
of reform. Legendary history relates that Palestrina submitted
for judgment three masses of which the Missa papae Marcelli
proved to be so sublime that it wa& henceforth accepted as the
ideal church music (see Palestsina). This tale is difficult to
reconcile with the chronology of Palestrina's works, but there is
no doubt that Palestrina was officially recognized by the Church
as a bulwark against bad taste. But we must not allow
this to mislead us as to the value of church music before
> The correct version will be found in The Oxford History of Music,
H. 2 is.
Palestrina. Nor most we follow the example of Baini, who,
in his detestation of what he is pleased to call fiammiiigo fqualore,
views with uncritical suspicion any work in which Palestrina
does not confine himself to strictly Italian methods of expression.
A notion still prevails tliat Josquin represents counterpoint in
an anatomical perfection into which Palestrina was the first
to breathe life and soul. Thisisives an altogether inadequate
idea of z6th-century music. Palestrina brought the century to a
glorious close and is undoubtedly its greatest master, but he
is primus inter pares; and in every part of Europe music was
represented, even before the middle of the century, by masters
who have every claim to immortality that sincerity of aim,
completeness of range^ and depth and perfection of style can
give. It has been rightly called the golden age of music, and
our chronological table at the end Jot this article gives but an
inadequate idea of the mmiber of its fnasters whom no lover
of music ought to neglect. It is not exclusively aa age of church
music. It is also the age of madrigals, both secular and spiritual ;
and, small as was its range of expression, there has been no
period in musical art when the distinctions between secular and
ecclesiastical style were more accurately maintained by the great
masters, as ^ abundantly shown by the test cases in which
masses of the best period have been based on secular themes.
(See Madugal.)
5. The Monodie Rgooluiion and its ResuUs.—lSkt all golden
ages, that of music vanished at the first appearance of a knowledge
beyond its limitations. The first and simplest realisation of
mature art is widespread and nourishes a veritable army of great
men; its masterpieces are innumerable, and its organization
is so complete that no na r ro wn ess or specialization can be felt
in the nature of its limitations. Yet these are exceedingly
close, and the most modest attempt to widen them may have
disastrous results. Many experiments were tried before Pales-
trina's death and throughout the century, notably by the
elder and younger Gabrieli. Perhaps Palestrina himsielf is
the only great composer of the time who never violates the
principles of his art. Orlando di Lasso, unlike Palestrina,
wrote almost as much secular as sacred music, and in his youth
indulged in many eccentricities in a chromatic style which he
afterwards leamt to detest. But if experiments are to revolu-
tionize art it is necessary that their novelty shall already embody
some artistic principle of coherence. No such principle wiU
avail to connect the Phrygian mode with a chord containing A#;
and, however proud the youthful Orlando di Lasso may be at
being the first to write A#, neither his early chromatic experiments
nor those of Cipriano di Rore, which he admired so much, left
a mark on musical history. They appealed to nothing deeper
than a desire for sensational variety of harmony; and, while
they carried the successions of chords far beyond the limits
of the modes, they brought no new elements into the chords
themselves.
By the beginning of the 17th century the true revolutionary
principles were vigorously at work, and the powerful genius
of Monteverde speedily made it impossible for men of impres-
sionable artistic temper to continue to work in the old
style when such vast new regions of thought lay open to
them. In the year of Palestrina's death, 1594, Monteverde pub-
lished, in his third book of madrigals, works in which without
going irrevocably beyond the letter of z6th-€entury law he showed
far more zeal for emotional expression than sense of euphony.
In 1599 he published madrigals in which 'his means of expression
involve harmonic principles altogether incompatible with x6th-
century ideas. But he soon ceased to place confidence in the
madrigal as an adequate art-form for his new ideals of expression,
and he found an unlimited field in musical drama. Dramatic
music received its first stimulus from a group of Florentine
dilettanti, who aspired amongst other things to revive the ideals of
Greek tragedy. Under their auspices the first true opera
ever performed in pubUc, Jacopo Peri's Euridice, appeared in
r6oo. Monteverde found the conditions of dramatic music
more favourable to his experiments than those of choral music,
in which both voices and ears are at their highest sensibility
GENERAL SKETCH]
MUSIC
77
to discoid. Instruments do not Ucnd like voices; and players,
prodadng their notes by more mechanical means, have not
the siager's difficulty in making combinations which the ear
does ziot readily understand.
The one difficulty of the new art was fatal: there were no
Kmftafioiw When Montevetde introduced his unprepared
discords, the effect upon musical style was like that of intro-
ducing modem metaphors into classical Greek. There were
no harmofiic principles to control the new material, except
those which just sufiBced to hold together the pure z6th-century
style; and that style depended on an exquisite continuity of
dow which was incompatible with any rigidity either of har-
mony or rhythm. Accordingly there were also no rhythmic
prind{^es to hold Monteverde's work together, except such
35 could be bonowed from types of secular and popular music
that had hitherto been beneath serious attention. If the xyth
centoxy seems almost devoid of great musical names it is not
for want of incessant musical activity. The task of organizing
new leaumc c a into a consistent language was too gigantic to
be armmpiiihed within three generations. Its fascinating
dnunatic saggestiveness and incalculable range disguised for
those who first undertook it the fact that the new art was as
difficult and clementaxy in its beginnings as the very beginning
of harmony itself in the 13th and 14th centuries. And the
most beautiful compositions at the beginning of the 17th century
are rather those which show the decadence of x6th-centttry art
than those in which the new principles were most consistently
adc^ted. Thus the madrigals of Monteverde, though often
dun and always rough, contain more music than his operas.
On the other hand, almost until the middle of the zyth century
great men were not wanting who still carried on the pure
poiyphooic style. Their asceticism denotes a spirit less compre*
howve than that of the great artists for whom the golden age
WIS a natural environment; but in parts of the world where the
new mAw.TM'P^ did not yet prevail even this is not the case,
and a composer like Orlando Gibbons, who died in 1625, is
well worthy to be ranked with the great Italian and Flemish
Bcastexs of the preceding century.
But the main task of composers of the xTth century lay
dsewhere; and if the result of their steady attention to it was
tzrvial in comparison with the glories of the past, it at least
led to the glories of the greater world organized by Bach and
HandeL The eariy monodists, Monteverde and his fellows,
doected attention to the right quarter in attempting to express
eaotioii by means of single voices supported by instruments;
hot the formless declamation of their dramatic writings soon
piovcd tootaonotonous for permanent interest, and such method
as it showed became permanent only by being codified into
the fiananlas atreeUaUte, which are, for the most part, very
hapfyy idealizatioas of speech-cadence, and which accordingly
snrnwe as dramatic elonents in music at the present day,
though like an rhetorical figures, they have often k>st meaning
£nntt careless use.^ It was all very weO to revolutionize current
Goacefrtioas of harmony, so that chords were no longer considered,
as in the days of pure polyphony, to be the result of so many
iadepeadent melodies. But in art,, as elsewhere, new thought
eventnaDy shows itself as an addition to, not a substitute for,
the wisdom of ages. Moreover^ it is a mistake, though one
] fay faj^ authorities, to suppose that the x6th-century
I did not appreciate the beauty of successions of chords
2?art from polyphonic design. On the contrary, Palestrina
and Orlando di Lasso themselves are the greatest masters the
vurid has ever seen of a style which depends wholly 6n the
beauty of masses of harxnony, entirely devoid of polyphoiuc
detail, and held together by a delicately balancfd rhythm in
vticfa obvious symmetry is as Carefully avoided as it is in the
mrmuo o a of chords themselves. Nevertheless, the monody
fif the XTth century is radically different in principle, not only
becsase chords are used which were an outrage on x6th-
* The " iaveotion '* of recitative b frequently ascribed to this or
dot nooodist, with as little room for dispute as when we aacribe
the isTctttkn of clothes to Adam and Eve. All monody was recita-
tive, if oc!y fitxn inability to organiae melodies.
century ears, but because the fundamental Idea Is that of a
sob voice declaiming phrases of paramount emotional interest,*
and supported by instruments that play such chords as will
heighten the poignancy of the voice. And the first advance
made on this chaotic monody consisted, not in the reintroduction
of vitality into the texture of the harmonies, but in giving formal
S3rmmetry and balance to the vocal suriace. This involved the
strengthening of the harmonic system, so that it could carry
the new discords as parts of an intelligible scheme, and not
merely as uncontrollable expressions of emotion. In other words,
the chief energies of the successors of the monodists were devoted
to the establishment of the modem key-system; a system in
comparison with which the subtle variety of modal concord
sounded vague and ill-balanced, until the new key-system
itself was so safely established that Bach and Beethoven could
once more appreciate and use essentially modal successions of
chords in their true meaning.
The second advance of the monodic movement was In the
cultivation of the solo 'voice. This developed together with
the cultivation of the violin, the most capable and expressive
of the instruments used to support it. Monteverde already
knew how to make interesting experimenU with violins, such
as directing them to play ^tzcicato,and accompanying an excited
description of a duel by rapidly repeated strokes on a major
chord, followed by sustained dying harmonies in the minor.
By the middle of the century violin music is fairly common,
and the distinction between Sonata da tJtiesa and Sonata da
camera app^rs (see Sonata). But the cultivation of instru-
mental technique had also a great effect on that of the voice;
and Italian vocal technique soon developed into a monstrosity
that so corrupted musical taste as not only toblind the contem-
poraries of Bach and Handel to the greatness of their choral
art, but, in Handel's case, actually to swamp a great deal of
his best work. The balance between a solo voice and a group
of instruments was, however, successfully cultivated together
with the modem key-system and melodic form; with the restilt
that the classical oria, a highly effective art-form, took shape.
This, while it totally destroyed the dramatic character of opera
for the next hundred years, yet did good service in furnishing
a reasonably effective means of musical expression which could}
encourage composers and listeners to continue cultivating the
art until the day of small things was past. The operatic aria,
as matured by Alessandro Scarlatti, b at its worst a fine oppor-
tunity for a- gorgeously dressed singer to display feats of vocal
gymnastics, either on a concert platform, or in scenery worthy
of the Drury Lane pantomime. At its. best it is a beautifiU
means of expression for the devout fervour of Bach and Handel.
At all times it paralyses dramatic action, and no more iroiuc
revenge has ever overtaken iconoclastic reformers than the
historic development by which the purely dramatic declama-
tion of the monodists settled down into a series of about thirty
successive displays of vocalisation, designed on rigidly musical
conventions, and produced tmder spectacular conditions by
artificial sopranos as the highest ideal of music-drama.
The principal new art-forms of the x7th century are then,
firstly, the aria (not the opera, which was merely a spectacular
condition under which people consented to listen to some thirty
arias in succession); and, secondly, the polyphonic instrumental
forms, of which those of the suUe or sonata da camera were
mainly derived from the necessity for ballet music in the opera
(and hence greatly stimulated by the taste of the French court
under Louis XIV.), while those of the sonaia da ckiesa were also
inspired by a renaissance of Interest In polyphonic texture.
The sonaki da ckiesa soon settled into a conventionality only
less Inert than that of the aria because violin technique had
wider possibilities than vocal; but when Lulli settled h^ France
and raised to a higher level of effect the operatic style sdfBested
by Cambert, he brought with him just enough of the new instra-
mental polyphony to make his typical form of French overture
(with its slow Introduction In dotted rhythm, and its quasi-fugal
allegro) worthy of the important place it occupies in Bach's and
Handel's art.
J
78
MUSIC
(GENERAL SKETCH
Meanwhile great though subordinate activity was also shown
in the evolution of a new choral music dependent upon an instru-
mental accompaniment of more complex function than that of
mere support. This, in the hands of the Neapolitan masters,
was destined to lead straight to the early choral music of Mozart
and Haydn, both of whom, especially Mozart, subsequently
learnt its greater possibilities from the study of HandeL But the
most striking choral art of the time came from the Germans,
who never showed that thoughtless acquiescence in the easiest
means of effect which was already the bane of Italian art.
Consequently, while the German output of the zyth century fails
to show that rapid attainment of modest maturity which gives
much Italian music of the period a permanent if slight artistic
value, there is, in spite of much harshness, a stream of noble
polyphonic effort in both organ and choral music in Germany
from the time of H. Schatz (who was bom in 1585 and who was a
great friend and admirer of Monteverde) to that of Bach and
Handel just a century later. Nor was Germany inactive in the
dramatic line, and the Z7th-century Italian efforts in comic opera,
which are so interesting and so unjustly neglected by historians,
found a parallel, before Handel's maturity, in the work of
R. Keiser, and may be traced throiigh him in Handel's first
opera, Almira.
The best proof of the insufficiency of i7th<entury resources
is to be found in the almost tragic blending of genius and failure
shown by our English church music of the Restoration. The
works of Pelham Humfrey and Blow already show the qualities
which with Purcell seem at almost any given moment to amount
to those of the highest genius, while hardly a single work has
any coherence as a whole. The patchiness of Purcell's music
was, no doubt, increased by the influence of French taste then
predominant at court. When Pelham Humfrey was sixteen.
King Charles II., as Sir Hubert Party remarks, " achieved the
characteristic and subtle stroke of humour of sending him over
to France to study the methods of the most celebrated composer
of theatrical music of the time in order to learn how to compose
English church music." Yet it is impossible to see how such
ideas as Purcell's could have been presented in more than French
continuity of flow by means of any designs less pow^ul than
those of Bach and HandeL Purcell's ideas are, like those of
all great artists, at least sixty years in advance of the normal
intdlect of the time. But they are unfortunately equally in
advance of the only technical resources then conceivable; and
PurceO, though one of the greatest contrapuntists that ever
lived, is probably the only instance in music of a map of really
high genius bom out of due time. Musical talent was certainly
as common in the zyth century as at any other time; and if we
ask why, unless we are justified in counting Purcell as a tragic
exception, the whole century shows not one name in the first
artistic rank, the answer must be that, after all, artistic talent
is far more common than the interaction of environment and
character necessary to direct it to perfect artistic restilts.
6. Bach and Handd.— It was not until the z8th century had
begun that two men of the highest genius could find in music a
worthy expression of their grasp of life. Bach and Handel were
bom within a month of each other, in 1685, and in the same part
of Saxony. Both inherited the tradition of polyphonic effort
that the German organists and choral writers had steadily
maintained throughout the xyth century; and both profited by
the Italian methods that were penetrating Germany. In Bach's
case it was the Italian art-forms that appealed to his sense of
design. Their style did not affect him, but he saw every possi-
bility which the forms contained, and studied them the more
assiduotisly because they were not, like polyphonic texture, his
birthright. In recitative his own distinctively German style
attained an intensity and freedom of expression which is one of
the most moving things in art. Nevertheless, if he handled
recitative in his own way it was not for want of acquaintance
with the Italian formulas, nor even because he despised them;
for in his only two extant Italian works the scraps of recitative
are strictly in accordance with Italian convention, and the
arias show (when we allow for their family likeness with Bach'a
normal style) the most careftil modelling upon Italian forms.
Again, as is well known. Bach arranged with copious additions
and alterations many concertos by Vivaldi (together with some
which though passing under Vivaldi's name are really by (German
contemporaries); and, while thus taking every opportunity of
assimilating Italian influences in instrumental as well as in vocal
music, he. was no less alive to the importance of the French
overture and suite forms. Moreover, he is very clear as to where
his ideas come from, and extremely careful to maintain every
art-form in its integrity. Yet his style remains his own through-
out, and the first impression of its resemblance to that of his
German contemporaries diminishes the more the period is studied.
Bach's art thus forms one of the most perfectly systematic
and complete records a life's work has ever achieved. His
art-forms might be arranged in a sort of biological sdieme, and
their interaction and genealogy has a clearness which might
almost be an object of envy to men of science even if Bach had
not demonstrated every detail of it by those wonderful re-
writings of his own works which we have described elsewhere
(see Bach).
Handel's methods were as different from Bach's as his circum-
stances. He soon left Germany and, while he never betrayed
his birthright as a great choral writer, he quickly absorbed the
Italian style so thoroughly as to become practically an Italian.
He also adopted the Italian forms, but not, like Bach, from any
profound sense of their possible place in artistic system. To
him they were effective, and that was all. He did not trouble
himself about the permanent idea that might underlie an art-
form and typify its expression. He has no notion of a form as
anything higher than a rough means of holding music together
and maintaining its flow; but he and Bach, alone among their
contemporaries, have an unfailing sense of all that is necessary
to secure this end. They worked from opposite points of view:
Bach devebps his art from within, until its detidl, like that of
Beethoven's last works, becomes dazzling with the glory of the
whole design; Handel at his best is inspired by a magnificent
scheme, in the execution of which he need condescend to finish
of detail only so long as his inspiration does not hasten to the
next design. Nevertheless it is to the immense sweep and
breadth of Handel's choral style, and its emotional force, that all
subsequent composers owe their first access to the larger and
less mechanical resources of music. (See Handel.)
7. The Sympkotnc Classes.— Aitti the death of Bach and
Handel another change of view, like that Copemican revdution
for which Kant sighed in philosophy, was necessary for the
further development of music. Once again it consisted in an
inversion of the relation between form and texture. But,
whereas at the beginning of the X7th century the revolution
consisted mainly in directing attention to chords as, so to speak,
harmonic lumps, instead of moments in a flux of simultaneous
melodies; in the later half of the z8th century the revolution
concerned the larger musical outlines, and was not complicated
by the discovery of new harmonic resources. On the contrary,
it led to an extreme simplicity of harmony. The art of Badi
and Handel had given perfect vitality to the forms developed
in the x8th century, but chiefly by means of the reinfusion of
polyphonic life. The formal aspects (that is, those that decree
the shapes of aria and suite-movement and the balance and
contrasts of such choruses as are not fugues) are, after aU, of
secondary importance; the real centre of Bach's and Handd's
technical and intellectual activity is the polyphony; and the
more the external shape occupies the foreground the more the
work assumes the character of light music In the aitide
Sonata Fosms we show how this state of things was altered,
and attention is there drawn to the dramatic power of a music
in which the form is technically prior to the texture. And it
is not difficult to understand that Gluck's reform of opera would
have been a sheer impossibility if he had not dealt with music
in the sonata style, which b capable of changing iu diancter
as it imfolds its designs.
The new period of transition was neither so long nor so inter-
eating aa thai oX thex7tli century. The contrast between the.
GENERAL SKETCH]
MUSIC
79
sqaalid hfghmtnga of the new ait ind the glories of Bach and
Haadd is afanost as great as that between tl|e monodists and
Pakstxina, but it appeals far less to our sympathies, b^ause it
seems hke a contrast between noble sincerity and idle elegance.
The new art seems so easy-going and empty that it conceals
farm us the necessity of the Qrmpathetic historical insight for
«4ucfa the painful experiments of the monodists almost seem to
oy aloud. And its boldest rhetorical eiq>eriments, such as the
fants<is5 of Philipp E m anuel Bach, show a security of harmony
which, together with the very vividness of their realization of
modem ideas, must appear to a modem listener more like the
hollow rhetoric of a decadent than the prophetic inspiration
of a pioneer. And, just as in the 17th century, so in the time
beliare Haydn and Mozart, the work that is mdUl valuable artis-
ticaZly tends to be that which is of less importance historically.
The cohrration of the shape of music at the expense of its texture
was drtrinrd to lead to greater things than polyphonic art had
ever dreamt of; but no living art could be achieved until the
teztnre waa brought once more into vital, if subordinate, relation
to the shape. Thus, far more interesting artistically than the
epodnmaking earlier pianoforte works of Philipp Emanuel Bach
are his historically less fruitful oratorios, and his symphonies,
and the rich polyphonic modifications of the new principles
in the best works of his elder brother Friedcmann. Yet the tran-
skjon-pcriod is hardly second in historic importance to that of
the X 7th century; and we may gather from it even more direct
bints as to the meaning of the tenden c ies of our own day.
As in the 17th century, so in the i8th the composers and
critics of Haydn's youth, not knowing what to make of the new
tcadesoea, and conscious rather of the difference between new
and old ideas than of the true nature of either, took refuge in
specniatioas about the emotional and external expression of
music; and when artistic power and balance fail it is very con-
venient to go outside the limits of the art and explain failure
away by external ideas. Fortunately the external ideas were
capable of serious organic function through the medium of opera,
aad in that art-form music was passing out of the hands of
Itafians and stwiming artistic and dramatic life under Gluck.
The meUphysical and hterary speculation which overwhelmed
BBtisicil criticism at this time, and which produced paper warfares
and musical party-feuds such as that between the Gluckists
and the Picdnists, at all events had this advantage over the
Wagnerian and anti-Wagnerian controversies of the last genera-
tion and the disputes about the legitimate function of instru-
mental nnisic at the present day— that it was speculation applied
ezdusively to an art-form in which literary questions were
dnectJy ooncemed, an art-form which moreover had up to that
time been the grave of all the music composers chose to put
iato it. But as soon as music once more attained to consistent
prindplea all these discussions became but a memory. If duck's
crask had not been more musical as well as more dramatic than
Picdni's, all its foreshadowing of Wagnerian principles would
have availed it no more than it availed Monteverde.
When the new art found symphonifc expression in Haydn and
Mozart, it became music pure and simple, and yet had no more
difficulty than painting or poetry in dealing with external
ideas, when these were naturally brought into it by the human
wdct or the conditions of dramatic action. It had once more
become an art which need reject or accept nothing on artificial or
extraneous grounds. Beethoven soon showed how gigantic the
scale and range of the sonata style could be, and how tremendous
WIS its effect on the possibilities of vocal music, both dramatic
aad chomL No revolution was needed to accomplish this.
The style was perfectly formed, and for the first and so far the
only time in musical history a mature art of sm'all range opened
oat into an equally perfect one of gigantic range, without a
Boment of decadence or destmction. The chief glory of the
art that culminates in Beethoven is, of course, the instrumental
BEasic, all of which comes under the head of the sonata-forms
Ifeanwhile Mozart raised comic opera, both Italian and
GcBBian, to a height which has never since been approached
within the dassical limits, and from which the openu of Rossini
and his successors show a decadence so deplorable that if
" classical music " means " high art " we must say that classical
opera buffo b^ins and ends in Mozart. But Gluck, finding his
dramatic ideas encouraged by the eminent theatrical sensibilities
of the French, had already given French opera a stimulus
towards the expression of tragic emotion which made the classics
of the French operatic school well worthy to inspire Beethoven
to his one noble operatic effort and Web«T to the greatest works
of his life. Cherubini, though no more a Frenchman than
Gluck, was Gluck's successor in the French classical school of
dramatic music. His operas, like his church music, account for
Beethoven's touching estimation of him as the greatest composer
of the time. In them his melodies, elsewhere curiously cold and
prosaic, glow with the warmth of a true classic; and his tact in
developing, accelerating Und suspending a dranuitic climax is
second o^y to Mozart's. Scarcely inferior to Cherubini in
mastery and dignity, far more lovable in temperament, and
weakoied only by inequality of invention, M6hul deserves a far
higher place in musical history than is generally accorded him.
His most famous work, Joseph^ is of more historical importance
than his others, but it is by no means his best from a purely
musical point of view, though its Biblical subject impelled
M£hul to make extremely successful experiments in "local
colour" which had probably considerable influence upon
Weber, whose admiration of the work was boundless. One
thing is certain, that the romantic opera of Weber owes much
of its inspiration to the opira comique of these masters.^
8. Prom BeeUumn to Wapur.—Aiiet Beethoven comes
what is commonly though vaguely described as the "romantic"
movement. In its essentials it amounts to little more than
this, that musicians found new and prouder titles for a very
ancient and universal division of parties. The one party set up
a convenient scheme of form based upon the average procedure
of all the writers of sonatas except Haydn and Beethoven,
which scheme they chose to call classical; while the other party
devoted itself to the search for new materials and new means of
expression. The classicists, if so they may be called, did not
quite approve of Beethoven; and while i jere is much justification
for the charge that has been brought against them of reducing,
the sonata-form to a kind of game, they have for that very
reason no real daim to be considered inheritors of classical
traditions. The true dassical method is that in which matter
and form are so united that it is impossible to say which i&
prior to the other. The pseudo-classics are the artisU who set
up a form conveniently like the average classical form, and fill
it with something conveniently like the average dassical matter^
with just such difference as will seem like an advance in brilliance
and range. The romantidsts are the artists who realize such a
difference between thdr matter and that of previous art as impels
them to find new forms for it, or at all events to alter the old
forms considerably. But if they are successful the difference
between their work and that of the true dassics becomes merely
external; they arc classics in a new art-form. As, however,
this is as rare as true classical art is at the best of times, romanti-
cism tends to mean little more than the difference between an
unstable artist who cannot master his material and an artist
who can, whether on the pseudo-classical or the true dassical
plane. The term " romantic opera " has helped us to regard
Weber as a romanticist in that sphere, but when we call his instm-
mental works "romantic" the term ceases to have really
valuable meaning. As applied to pieces like the Concertsttickt
the InvUaiion d la danse^ and other pieces of which the external
subject is known either from Weber's letters or from the titles
of the pieces themselves, the term means simply " programme-
music " such as we have seen to be characteristic of any stage
in which the art is imperfectly mastered. Weber's programme-
music shows no advance on Beethoven in the illustrative
resources of the art; and the application of the term " lomantic "
*We must remember in this connexion that the term ofha
comique means simply opera with spoken dialogue, and has notning
to do with the comic idea.
8o
MUSIC
{GENERAL SKETCH
to his intereftting anct in many places beautiful pianoforte
sonatas has no definite ground except the brilliance of his piano-
forte technique and the helplessness in mattexs of design (and
occasionally even of harmony) that drives him to violent and
operatic outbreaks.
Schubert also lends some colour to the opposition between
romantic and classical by his weakness in large instrumental
designs, but his sense of form was too vital for his defective
training to warp his mind from the true classiral spirit; and the
new el^ents he iniroduced into instrumental music, though not
ratified by concentration and unity of design, were almost always
the fruits of true inspiration and never mere struggles to escape
from a difficulty. His talent for purely itastrumental music was
incomparably higher than Weber's, while that for stage-drama,
as shown in the most ambitious- of his numerous operas, Piena-
bras, was almost niL But he is the first and perhaps the greatest
cissw'cal song writer. It was Beethoven's work on a larger
scale that so increased the possibilities of handling remote
harmonic sequences and rich instrumental and rhythmic effects
as to prepare for Schubert a world in which music, no less than
literature, was full of suggestions for that concentrated expres-
sion of a single emotion which distinguishes true lyric art. And,
whatever the defects of Schubert's treatment of larger forms,
his construction of small forms which can be compassed by a
single melody or group of melodies is unsurpassable and is truly
classical in spirit and residt.
Schimiann had neither Schubert's native talent for larger
form nor the irresponsible spirit which allowed Schubert to
handle it uncritically. Nor had he the astounding lightness
of touch and perfect balance of style with which Chopin con-
trolled the 'most wayward imagination that has ever found
expression in the pianoforte lyric. But he had a deep sense of
melodic beauty, a mastery of polyphonic expression which
for all its unorthodox tendency was second only to that of the
greatest classics, and an epigrammatic fancy which enabled
him to devise highly artistic forms of music never since imitated
with success though often unintelligently copied. In his songs
and pianoforte lyrics his -romantic ideas found perfectly mature
expression. Throughout his life he was inspired by a deep
reverence which, while it prevented him from attempting to
handle classical forms with a technique which he felt to be
inadequate, at the same time impelled him as he grew older to
devise forms on a large scale externally resembling them. The
German lyric poetry, which he so perfectly set to music, strength-
ened him in his tendency to present his materials in an cpi-
granunatic and antithetic manner; and, when he took to writing
orchestral and chamber music, the extension of the principles
of this style to the designing of large spaces in rigid sequence
furnished him with a means of attaining great dignity and weight
of climax in a form which, though neither classical nor strictly
natural, was at all events more true in its relationship to his
matter than that of the pseudo-classics such as Hummel or even
Spohr. Towards the end of his short life, before darkness
settled upon his mind, he rose perhaps to his greatest height as
regards solemnity of inspiration, though none of his later works
can compare with his early lyrics for artistic perfection. Be this
as it may, his last choral works, especially the latter parts of
Faust (which, unlike the first pmrt, was written before his powers
failed), show that the sense of beauty and polyphonic life with
which he began his career was always increasing; and if he was
led to substitute an artificial and ascetic for a natural and
classical solution of the difficulties of the larger art-forms it was
only because of his insight into artistic ideals which he felt to be
beyond his attainment. He shared with Mendelssohn the inevit-
able misunderstanding of those contemporaries who grouped
all music under one or other of the two heads, Classical and
Romantic.
There is good reason to believe that Mendelssohn died before
he had more than begun to show his power, though this may be
denied by critics who have not thought of comparing Handel's
career up to the age at which Mendelssohn's ceased. And his
mastery, resting, like Handel's, on the experience of a boyhood
comparable only to Moait'S} was far too easy to induce him
as a critic to reconcile the idea of high talent with distressing
intellectual and technical failure. This same mastery also
tended to discredit his own woik, both aa performer and composer,
in the estimation of those whose experience encouraged them
to hope that imperfection and over'-exdtement were infallible
signs of genius. And as his facility actually did co-operate with
the tendencies of the times to deflect much of his work into
pseudo-classical channels, while nevertheless his independence
of form and style kept him at all times at a higher level of
interest and vuiety than any mere pseudo-dassic, it is not to be
wondered that his reputation became a formidable object of
jealousy to those apostles of new ideas who felt that their own
works were not likely to make way against academic opposition
unless they called journalism to their aid.
Not^iing has more confused, hindered and embittered the
careers of Wagner and Liszt and their disdples than the paper
warfare which they did everything in their power to encourage.
No doubt it had a useftil purpose, and, as nothing affords a
greater field for intrigue than the production of operas, it is at
least possible that the gigantic and unprecedentedly expensive
works of Wagner might not even at the present day have
obtained a hearing if Wagner himself had been a tactful and
reticent mail and his partisans had all been discreet lovers and
practisers of art. As to Wagner's achievement there b now no
important difference of opinion. It has survived all attacks
as the most monumental result music has achieved with the aid
of other arts. Its antecedents must be sought in many 'very
remote regions. The rediscovery, by Mendelssohn, of the choral
works of Bach, after a century of oblivion, revealed the possi-
bilities of polyphonic expression in a grandeur which even
Handel rarely suggested; and inspired Mendelssohn with impor-
tant ideas in the designing of oratorios as wholes. The complete
fusion of polyphonic method with external and harmonic design
had, under the same stimulus, been carried a step further than
Beethoven by means of Schumann's more concentrated harmonic
and lyric expression. That wildest of all romanticists, Berlioz,
thou^ he had less polyphonic sense than any composer who
ever before or since attained distinction, nevertheless revealed
important new possibilities in his unique imagination in orches-
tral colour, llie breaking down of the barriers that check
continuity in classical opera was already indicated by Weber,
in whose Euryantke the movements frequently run one into the
other, while at least twenty different themes are discoverable
in the opera, recurring, like the Wagnerian leit-motif ^ in apt
transformation and logical association with definite inddents
and persons.
But many things undreamed of by Weber were necessary to
complete the breakdown of the rla^iral barriers; for the whole
pace of musical motion had to be emancipated from the influence
of instrumental ideas. This was the most colossal reformation
ever attempted by a man of real artistic balance; and even the
undoubted, though unpolished, dramatic genius shown in Wag-
ner's libretti (the first in which a great composer and dramatist
are one) is but a small thing in comparison with the musical
problems which Wagner overcomes with a success immeasur-
ably outweighing any defects his less perfect hterary mastery
allowed to remain in his dramatic structure and poetic diction.
Apart from the squabbles of Wagnerian and anti-Wagnerian
journalism, the chief difficulty of his supporters and antagonists
really lay in this question of the pace of the music and the
consequent breadth of harmony and design. The opening of
the WalkUre, in which, before the curtain rises, the sovind of
driving rain is reproduced by very simple sequences that take
sixteen long bars to move a single step, does not, as instrumental
music, compare favourably for terseness and variety with tbe
first twenty bars of the thunderstorm in Beethoven's Pattoral
Symphony^ where at least four different incidents faithfully
portray not only the first drops of rain and the distant thunder,
but all the feelings of depression and apprehension which they
inspire, besides carrying the listener rapidly through three
different keys in chromatic sequence. But Beethoven's storm
CEKERAL SKETCHl
MUSIC
8i
k idealized, in its whole rise and fall, within a space of five
mteutGL Wagner's task is to select five real minutes near the
end of the storm and to treat them with no greater variety than
the actkm of the drama demands. When we have learnt to
diaaodate our minds from irrelevant ideas of an earlier instru-
mental art, we find that Wagner's broad spaces contain all that
is necessary. Art on a large scale will always seem to have
empty spaces, so long as we expect to find in it the kind of detail
appnipriate to art on a smaller scale.
Wagner's new harmonic resources are of similar and more
comptez but not less legitimate origin. In Derfliegende HoUdnder
tbe>' are, like his wider rhythmic sweep, imperfectly digested;
in fact, much of his work before the Meistersinger is, in patches,
debased by the influence of Meyerbeer. But in his later works
liie more doscly his harmom'c language is studied the more
cocidosively does it show itself to be a logical and mastered
thing. His treatment of key is, of course, adapted to i^ state
of things in which the designs are far too long for the mind to
attach any importance to the works ending in the key in which
it began. To compare Wagner's key-system with that of a
symphony is like comparing the peispective and compodtion
of a panorama with the perspective and composition of an easel
picture. Indeed the differences are precisely analogous in the
t«o cases; and Wagner's sense of harmony and key turns out
on investigation to be the classical sense truly adapted to its
new conditions. For this very reason it is in detail quite irrele-
vant to symphonic art; and there was nothing anti- Wagnerian
in the reasons why Brahms had so little to do with it in his
Rosic, although every circumstance of the personal controversies
and thinly dl^uiscd persecutions of Brahms's youth were enough
to give any upholder of classical symphonic art a rooted prejudice
to everything bearing the name of " romantic."
Side by side with Wagner many enthusiasts place Ltszt; and
h is indisputable that Lbzt had in mind a larger and slower flow
ol muskal sequence closely akin to Wagner's, and, no doubt,
portly independent of it; and moreover, that one of Liszt's
aims was to apply this to instrumental music. Also his mastery
and poetic power as a pianoforte player were faithfully reflected
in his later treatment of the orchestra, and ensured an extra-
ordinary rhetorical plausibility for anything he chose to say.
But neither the princely magnanimity of his personal character,
which showed itself in his generosity alike to struggling artists
and to his opponents, nor the great stimulus he gave (both by
bis compositions and his unceasing personal efforts and encour-
zssement) to new musical ideas on romantic lines, ought at this
Li33e of day to blind us to the hoUowness and essential vulgarity
of his style. These unfortunate qualities did not secure for his
compositions immediate popular acceptance; for they were
outweighed by the true novelty of his aims. But recently they
have given hb symphonic poems an attractiveness which, while
ft has galvanized a belated interest in those works, has made
many critics blind to their historical importance as the founda-
tioa of new forms which have undergone a development of
bcasational brilliance under Richard Strauss.
Measwhile the party poh'tics of modem music did much to
datract public attention from the works of Brahms, who
carried on the true classical method of the sonata-forms in his
cTchestral and chamber music, while he was no less great and
<^%inal as a writer <^ songs and choral music of all kinds. He
also devdoped the pianoforte lyric and widened its range.
Widiottt losing its characteristic unity it assumed a freedom and
hrgEiseas of expression hitherto only attained in sonatas. Hence,
bowewr, Brahms's work, like Bach's, seemed, from its continuity
with the classical forms, to look backward rather than forward.
Indeed Brahms's reputation b in many quarters that of an
acfedemic reactionary; just as Bach's was, even at a time when
tbe word " academic " was held to be rather a title of honour
tk^n of reproach. When the contemporary standpoints of
CTttidsin are established by the production of works of art in
which the new elements shall no longer be at war with one another
asd vith the whole, perhaps it will be recognized once more that
the idea of progress has no value as a critical standard unless
XIX 3*
it is strictly applied to that prindple by which every work of
art must differ in every part of its form from every other
work, precisely as far as its material differs and no further.
Then, perhaps, as the conservative Bach after a hundred years
of neglect revealed himself as the most profoundly modem force
in the music of the zgth century, while that of his gifted and
progressive sons became a forgotten fashion as soon as their
goal was attained by grater masters, so may the musical epoch
that seems now to have closed be remembaed by posterity as
the age, not of Wagner and the pioneer Liszt, but the age of
Wagner and Brahms.
It will also .a all probability be remembered as the age in
which the performer ceased to be necessarily the intellectual
inferior of the composer and musical scholar. With the excep-
tion of Wagner and Berlioz every great composer, since Palestrina
sang in the papal choir, has paid his way as a performer; but
Joseph Joachim was the first who threw the whole mind of a
great composer into the career of an interpreter; and the example
set by him, Bulow, Clara Schumann and Jenny Lind, though
followed by very few other artists, sufficed to dispel for ever
the old association of the musical performer with the mounte-
bank.
Joachim's influence on Branms was incalculable. The two
composers met at the time when new musical tendencies were
beginning to arouse violent controversy. At the age of twenty-
one Joachim had produced in his Hungarian Concerto a work of
high cbssical mastery and great nobility, and his technique in
form and texture was then considerably in advance of Brahms's.
For some years Joachim and Brahms interchanged contrapuntal
exercises, and many of the greatest and most perfect of Brahms's
earlier works owe much to Joachim's criticism. Yet it is
impossible to regret that Joachim did not himself carry on as
a composer the work he so nobly began, when we realize the
enormous influence of his playing in the history of modem music.
By it we have become familiar with a standard of truthfulness
in performance which all the generous efforts of Wagner and
Liszt could hardly have rendered independent of their own
special propaganda. And by it the record of classical music has
been made a matter of genuine public knowledge, with a unique
freedom from those popularizing tendencies which invest vulgar
error with the authority of academic tmth.
In this respect there is a real change in the nature of modem
musical culture. No serious composer at the present day would
dedicate a great work to an artist who, like F. C16ment, for whom
Beethoven wrote his Violin Concerto, would perform the work
in two portions and between them play a sonata for the violin
on one string with the violin upside down. But it is hardly
true that Wagner and Liszt produced a real alteration in the
standard of general culture among musicians. Their work,
especially Wagner's, appealed, like Gluck's, lo many specific
literary and philosophical interests, and they themselves were
brilliant talkers; but music will always remain the most self-
centred of the arts, and men of true culttire will measure the
depth and range of the musician's mind by the spontaneity
and truthfulness of his musical expression rather than by his
volubility on other subjects. The greatest musicians have not
often been masters of more than one language; but they have
always been men of true culture. Their humanity has been
illuminated by the constant presence of ideab which their
artistic mastery keeps in touch with reality.
Chkonolocical Tablb
Pythagoras, c. 582-500 B.C. Deteraiincs the ratios of the diatonic
scale.
Aristoxcnus, JL 320 B.C. Our chief authority On classical Greek
music
Ptolemy, fl. a.d. 130. Astronomer, geographer, matnematician
and writer on music. Reforms the Greek modes so as to prepare
the way for the ecclesiastical modes.
St Ambrose. Anangcs the Ambrosian tones of church music,
A.D. 384.
Hucbatd, c. 840-030. Systematixer of Diaphmia or Organum
(called by htm Sympkonia), and inventor of a simple and in-
genious notation which did not survive him.
82
Guido of Arezio, c. 9QO-ioy>. Theorist and lyitenuitiaer of musical
notatkm and solmisation.
Franco of Colocne. nth century author of treatises on musical
rhythm. Works under the name of Franco appear at dates
and places which htfve led to the assumption of the existence of
three di£Ferent authors, who, however, have been partly
expkJned away again; and the i ith century is sometimes called
the Franconian period of discant.
Ducantus posiHo vulgaris. An anonymous treatise written before
1 150; IS said to contain the earliest rules for " measured muuc,"
t.t. ior music in which different voices can sins diferent rhythms.
The Reading MS., c. 13^ (British Museum, MS. HarL, 978, foL 1 1 b.),
contains the rou ' Sumer b icumen in.'*
Walter Odinston, JL 1280. English writer on music, and composer.
Adam de la Hale, 1230-1388 ) Connecting-links between the trouba-
Machault, JL 1350 jdours and the archaic contrapuntists.
John Dunstable, died t4«. English contmpuntal composer.
G. Dufay, died 1474. Netherland contrapuntal composer.
(These two are the prindral founders of artistic counterpoint.)
Josquin Des Pr^ 1445-1521. The fint great composer.
Masters of the (}oldem Acs
(In the following list when a name b not qualified as " church
composer " or *' madrigalist," the composer b equally great in both
fines; but the qualification must not be taken as exclusive.]
NeUUrlamd MasUrs.
J. Arcaddt, e. 1314-1560. Madrigalbt.
Clemens non Papa, died before 1558.
Orlando di Lasso, bom between 1520 and tsyf\ died 1594.
Jan P. Sweelinck, 1563-1621. Organist, theorist and church com-
poser.
French Masters,
E. Onet. sumamed Carpentrasso,/!. i«20. Church com p oser.
C. Coudimel. Killed in the massacre 01 Lyons, 1572.
Italims Masters.
Palestrina, c. 1525-159^
L. Mamuio. c. 1560; died 1590.
Anerio, Felice c. 1 560-1630, and G. Francesco, e. 1567-1620, brothers.
Church composers.
Spanish Masters.
C. Morales, 1512-1553 1 i?«.i,,„'v.i„ rh..«.h r»«>
F. Guerrero, c. 1528-1599 }-"S!2r ^
T. L. de Victoria or Vittoria, ft. 1580 J t>oten.
English Masters.
T. Tallb, c. 1515; died 1585. Church composer.
W. Byrd, 1542 or 1 543-1 633. Greatest as church coinpoMr.
J, Wilbye, iri6oo. Madrigalbt.
T. Morlqr, C 1590. Theorist and madrigalist.
Orlando Gibbons, 1583-1625.
German Masters,
J. Handl, or Gallus, e. t5y>-iS9i-
Hans Leo Hasler or Hasslcr, 1564-1612. Church
G. Aidunger, c. 1565-1628. Church composer.
The Monodists
Cavalieri's La Rappresentaaione di Anima e di Corpo^ posthumously
produced in 1600. The first oratorio, one of the first works
dependent on instrumenul accompaniment, and one of the
first with a ^' figured bass " i n dicating by figures what chords
are to be used.
Peri's £Mf»i«M, 1600. The first opera.
Monteverde, 1567-1643. Great pioneer of modem harmony.
The Renaissance op Texture
H. SchQtx, 1585-1672. Combines monodic and polyphonic prin-
ciples in German church music and lulian madrigaL
G. Frescobakii, J 583-1644. Organ composer.
Alessandro Scarlatti, 1650-1735. Founder of the ana-form of
Handelbn opera, anc o the Neapolitan school of composition.
1. B. Lulli. 1633-1687. The first classic of French opera.
H. PuroeU, c. 1658: died 1695.
A. Corelli, 1653-1713. The fint dasdc of the violin in the forms
of suite (or sonata da camera), sonata da chiesa and ooncerto.
F. Couperin, 1668-1 733. French composer of suites (erdres) and much
addicted to giving fanciful titles to hb pieces which are some-
times " programme music " in fact as well as name.
J. P. Rameau, 1683-1764. French opera writer, harpsichordist and
theorist.
D. Buxtehude, 1637-1707.
tS. Bach, 1685-1750.
. F. Handel, 1685-1759-
The Sonata Epoch
Domenioo Scarbtti. 1685-1757. son of Alessandro. Harpdchocd
virtuoso and master of a specbl cariy tvpc of sonata.
K. Philipp Emanuel Bach, 1714-1788. third son of Sebastbn Bach.
The principal pioneer of the sonau style.
C. W. Gluck. 1714-1787. Reformer of opera, and the fint classic of
essentbUy dramatic music
F. J. Haydn, 1733-1809.
MUSIC IRECENT MUSIC
W. A. Moart, 1 756-1 791.
Beethoven, 1770-1827.
Cherubini, 1760-1842. A daanc of French opera and of church
music
The Lyric and Dramatic or " Romantic *' Period
[Tn th]> list the only quniUhriic'iont dv^n are those of which the
coiHiEik'K conditiont of niixlcrii art nuikir definition easy as wdl as
dt^ir-Lbk% and. ^ thmu^huut" this tdblt.% the definitions must not
be uikin a* t'lcluisivL', The tboice of nnmbes is, however, guided
bv \^ different dcvckipcntnt^ neyti-vrrtcd: thus accounting for
gprinij omiwium and artmit didpfopcirtkfni.)
\V\Ut, ipS^-iflift, Master of ruituotic cipcra.
Sell!] lien, i797'iij8. The dawc of wfig.
MctidcWhn, iflo(>-ifl47.
Ch < »pi n , 1 809- 1 h^g* Com poser of pa naf orte tyrica.
B« rjjof, iilo3-ift69. Ma^cr of iuipucsuiiiniiL occhestratioo.
Schunvinn. iSio-iS^,
\V J ^ i3i-r. J 8 1 3- 1 B0A> Achif vn ^bwl ut t u luon of music with drama.
\l'.r., iSt i-iaS6. Tiaoofonc vijttioio and pioneer of the symphonic
poem.
Bruckner, 1 824-1 896. The symphonist of the Wa^;nerian party.
Brahms, 1833-1897. Clasucal symphonic and lync composer.
Joachim. 1811-1907. Violinist, composer and teacher.^ Brahma's
chief fellow-worker in continuing the classical tradition.
Tschalkovsky, 1840-1893.
Dvof&k. 1841-1904.
Richard Strauss, 1864^ Development of the symphonk:
poem. (D. F. T.)
I!.— Recent Music
Under separate bkwraphKal headings, the work of the chief
modem composers in different countries is dealt with ; and here it
will be sufiiocnt to indUate the general current of the art. and to
mention some of the more prominent among recent composers.
Germany.— On the death of Brahms, the great German composers
seemed, at the close of the 19th century, to have left no successor.
Such merely epigonal finires as A. Bungert (b. 1846) and Cvrill
Kistler (1848-1907) could not be regarded as important; and E.
Humperdinck's (b. 1854^) striking succen with Hdnsel und GretH
(1893) ^ff^^ A solitary triumph in a limited genre. The outstanding
figure, at the opening of the 20th century, was Richard Strauss {q.v.) :
but it was not so much now in composition, as in the high excel-
lence of executive art, that Germany still kept up her hegemony in
European muuc, by her schools, her great conductors and instru-
mentalists, and her devotion as a nation to the production of musical
France, — ^From the earliest days of their music, the French have
had the enviable power of asumilatiut the great inrtovatums which
were originated in other countries, without losing their habit of
warmly appreciating that which their own countrymen produce.
Thar which happened with the Netherlandish composers of the
i6th century, and with LuUi in the 17th,'' was repeated, more or
IcM exactly, with Rossini in the eariy part of the 19th century and
with Wagner at its close. During the last quarter of the 19th
century tA\ that b re pr e se n ted bv the once-adored name of Gounod
was discarded in favour of a style as different as possible from his.
The change was mainly due to the Belgian musician, C6sar Auguste
Franck (1823-1890), who esUblished a kind of informal school of
symphonic and orchestral composition, as opposed to the con-
venuonal methods pursued at the Paris Conservatoire. Massenet
was left as almost the only represenUtive of the okier school, and
from Edouard Lalo (182^-1892) to G. Charpentier (b. i860), all
the younger composers of France adopted the newer atyle. With
these may be mentioned Alfred Bruneau (b. 1857), and Gabriel
Faur6 (b. 1845). Camille Saint-Safais (b. 1835)1 however, remained
the chidt representative of the sound school 01 composition, if only
by reason of hb greater command of resources of every lund and
his success in all forms of musk. Amona the newer school of
composers the most original unquestionably was Debussy iq.v.),
and among others ninv be mentionwi Ernest Reyer fb. 1823), the
auLh..i- ,,i( i<jfTJc iinMiii/i:- r 1 ■ .. 'peras; F. L. V. dc Jood^rcft
(b. i?j'/l. an ^rtthuii-LiiK' [..'I' ^^'.r -i Wagner, and a compoaer of
mcfii; £non^(^I Cliabner UU^t 'iir'v4)i a man of extraordinary
gift^ «hD vftitc one of the Upv^t uph-^js comiquestA modem times,
Li R<fi mateti lui {iMj); Chit\ci Mint: Wkk)r (b. 1815), an eantest
mti^iniin of gixat acroniplii»hinent; and Vincent d'lndy (b. 1851). a
st^<:Kl^K' oriiina) writif « alike in drams tic, orchestral and chamber
comix i^itioTii, Tft ih* tUsa ol lighter musk, which yet lies above
the kvul of ffp*ra boitfft, mention muftt be made ol lAo Delibcs
(1856-1*91 > and Andf* Mc«Mgcr (b. 1855). In describing the
stntc of muHC in Fnrffi* it would be wrong to pass over the work
done by i he ervat conductors of various popular orchestral concerts,
such a» juUr^ E T'a<^dnup ( 1619-1 SB;), Chas. Lamoureux (1834-
1899), And Judi*|£d-iuardl Colondc (b- 1838).
/ii^.— In Ualy during the bit qiuirter-of the t9th oeutury
many important chan^^et took pbcc. The later development in
the ityk ot Verdi {\jv.\ wis only completed in Oldio (1887) and
FelitQff (1S93^. while hU b« composition, the four beautiful sacred
vocal work*, ihow how very Ur be had advanced in revTrence.
RECENT MUSICJ MUSIC
nGdity at atyle and impretriveness, from the t!nie when he wrote
hi» euficr operu. An4 Arrigo BoHo't Me/UteftU had an immenie
tnflnrnrr on modern Italian music. AmoM the irriten of " abeo*
lute " moic the most iUustriotts are G. ^ambati (b. 1843) and
G. Martocci (b. 18^6). the latter** symphonv in D minor being a
iae worlc Meanwhile a younger operatic achocrf was growing up.
of ^licb the fint production was the ^ora mirabilu of Spiro
Samara (b. 1861). given in 1886. Its culmination was in the
C«mlUria rusticama (1890) of Pietro Mascagni (b. 1863), the
Fa^tacd (1892) of R. Leoncavallo (b. 1858), and the operas- of
Gixooio Puccini (b. 1858). noubly Le Viiit (1884). Uamom LesauU
(1893). La Bohhme (ite6). Tosca (1900), and Madama BuiUrfiy
(1904). The oratorios of Don Lorenao Perosi (b. 1872) had an inter-
esting influence on the church muuc of Italy (see Palistrina).
nsno. — ^The new Russian school of music orieinated with M. A.
Balaldnev (b. 1 836), who was instrumental in founding the Free
School of Music at St Petersburg, and who introduced the music
of Berfioa and Lisit into Russia; he instilled the principles of
83
'advanced** music into A. P. Borodin (1834-1887). C. A. Cui
(b. i8a5). M. P. Moussorgsky (1839-1881). and N. A. 'Rimsky-
Kocsakov (1844-1908). all of whom, as usual with Russian oom-
poaer». were, strictly speaking, amateura in muuc, having some
other profesnon in the absence of any possible opportunity for
making moficy out of music in Russia. The most remarkable
nan amoiw their cootempoiaries was undoubtedly Tschaikovsky
(f.7.)« A. Liadov (b. 1855^ exccb as a writer for the pianoforte,
andA.GIaiDuaov(b. 1865) has composed a number of fine ofchestial
VnUei States. — Of the older American composera, only John
Knowles Paine (d. IQ06) and Dudley Buck (d. 1909). both bom in
iS^. and Benjamin Johnson Lang (1837-1909), niecd be mentioned.
Fame, profeaaor of music at Harvard University, and composer
of oratorios, orchestral music. Ac., ranks irith the advanced school
d romantic c om p o s e r a. Dudley Buck was one of the firat American
c omp ua enfc whose names were known in Europe; and if his numerous
camatas and church music do not reach a very high standard accord-
is^ to modem ideas, he did much to conquer Uie general apathy
with refold to the existence of original music in the States. Lang,
pramiaent as organist and conductor, also became distinguished as
a com p oser. George Whitefield Chadwick (b. 1854) has produced
casay ofcheatral and vocal works of original merit. Though the
woriu of Clayton Johns (b. 1857) are less ambitbus. they have
V09 more popularity in Europe, and his songs, like those of Arthur
Foote (b. 1853). Reginaki De Kovenjb. 1850). and Ethelbert Nevin
(1862-1901). are widely known. Edward Alexander McDowell
Cfs.) may be regardcci as the most original modem American
iposer. Walter Johannes Damrosch Tb. 1862), the eminent
doctor of the New York Symphony Orchestra, and of various
oiKfatJC npdertakings, has established his position as an original
and poetic composer, not only by his opera. The Scarlet Letter^ but
bv such soms a» the intensely dramatic " Danny Deever." Dr
Honiio WilCam Parker's (b. 186^) oratorio settings of the hymn
^ Hora novissinia " and of " The wanderer's Psalm are deservedly
pofMlar. Their masterly workmanship and his power of expressbn
n acred music mark nim as a distinct personality. Numerous
orchesxial as well as vocal works have not been heard out of America.
b«t a group of songs, newly set to the words of familiar old English
(fitties. have obtamed great success. Mrs H. H. A. Beach, the
yoiagcst of the p«pminent composers of the United States and an
aoeompGsbed ptanbt. has attained a high reputation as a writer
b aD the more ambitious forms of music. .Many of her songs and
aaihems have obtained wkk popularity. The achievements of the
Uaiicd States are, however, las marked in the production of new
cwaposers than in the attention which has been paid to musical
edflcatioo and appndation generally. Henry E. Krehbiel (b. 1854),
the vcO-kaown critic, was especially prominent in drawing American
atieatwn to Wagner and Brahms. The New York Opera has been
■ade a centre for the finest artisu of the day, and the symphony
concerts at Boston and Chicago have been unrivalled for excellence.
It is worthy of note that no country has produced a greater number
of the most eminent of recent singers. Mesdamea E. Eames,
Nordka, Minnie Hauck, Susan Strong. Suaanne Adams, Sybil
Sanderson. Ertber Palliser, Evangeline Tlorence. and very many
aorr amonff leading sopranos, with Messrs E. E. Oudin, D. Bispham
and Denis (rSuUIvan, to name but three out of the host of excellent
( artsts, proved the natural ability of the Americans in vocal
•laic; and it might also be said that the more notable English-
^peaki^ popib of the various excellent French schook of voice-
p CDd n c ti on are American with hardly an exceptbn.
United Ktagdom, — English munc requires more detailed notice,
if osiy because oc the striking change in the natbnal feeling with
regard to it. The nation had been accustomed for so bng to
cannder moaic aa an exotic, that* notwithstanding the glories of
the older schoob of Erielish music, the amount of attentbn paid to
everything that came from abroad, and the rich treasures 01 tradi-
!iaBa] amfdistinctively English music scattered through the country,
(he.majortty of educated people adhem! to the common belief that
England was not a musical country.^ The beauty and the enormous
' ' d traditional Irish music, the enthusiasm created in
I by trampery soofs written in what was supposed to be
an imitatkm of the Scottish style, the exbieooe of the Welsh
Eisteddfodau, were admitted facts; but England was supposed to
have had no share in these gifts of nature or art, and the vogue of
foreign music, from Italian opera to classical symphonlea, was held
as evidence of her poverty, instead of beinn partly the reason of
the national sterility. In the sucoeasive periods during which the
music of HaiKlel and Mendelssohn respectively had been heU aa
all-sufficient for right-thinking muaidans. success oouki only be
attained, if at all, by those Enelish musicians who deKbentely set
themselves to copy the style 01 these neat masters;, the few men
who had the deteminatbn to resist the popular movement were
either confined, like the Wealeys, to one branch of music in which
some originali^ of thought was still albwed, that of the Church,
or, like Henry Hugo Pienon in the days of the Mendelssohn wonhip,
were driven to seek abroad the recofrnitbn they could not obtam
at home. For a time it seemed as u the great vogue of Gounod
would exalt him into a third artistic despot; but no native com-
poser had even the energy to imitate hb Famst; and, by thi date
of The Redtmption (1882) and Mcft tt vita (1885), a renaisianoe of
Eiwlish music had already begun.
For a generation up to the eighties the affairs of foreign open
in' England were rather depressing; the rival houses oresided over
by the impresarios Frederick Gye (1810-1878) and Colonel J. H.
Mapleson (i 828-1901) had been going from bad to worse; the
traditions of what were called *' the palmy days ** had been for^
gotten, and with the retirement of Christine Nilaaoo in 1881, and
the death of Therese J. A. Tietjens in 1877, the race of the great
queens of song seemed to have come to an end. It is true that
Mme Patti was in the plenitude of her fame and powers, but the
number of her iroperumatbtts, perfect as they were, was so small
that she abne could not support the weight of an opera season,
and her terms «niade it impossible for any manager to make both
ends meet unless the rest of the company were chosen on the
principle enunciated by the husband of Mme Catalan!. ** Ma femme
et quatre ou dnq poupies.*' Mme Albani (b. 1851) bad made her
name famous, but the most important part of her artistic career
was yet to Come. She had already brought Tamnhdusar and
Lohengrin into notice, but in Italian versbns, as was then usual
and the great vogue of Wagner's operas dkl not bonn until the seriei
of Waaner oonceru given at the Royal Albert Hall in 1877 with
the object of collecting funds for the preservation of the Bayreuth
scheme, which after the productbn 01 the Nibdungen trilogy in
1876 had become involved in serious financial dimculties. The
two seasons of German (^lera at Drury Lane under Dr Hans Richter
S). 1843) in 1882 and I884, and the productbn of the trilogy at
er Majesty's in 1882^ under Angdo Neumann's managership, first
taught stay-at-home Englishmen what Wagner really was. aiid an
Italian opera as such iue, witb Italian as the ^exclusive langua^
employeo and the old * star " system in full swing) ceased to exist
as a re^lar institutbn a few yean after that. The revival of
publb interest in the opera only took place after Mr (afterwards
Sir) Augustus Harris (1852-1896) had atarted hia aeries of operas
at Drury Lane in 1887. In the foUowing season Harris took
Covent Garden, and since that time the (^lera has been restored
to greater publb favour than it ever enjoyed, at all events since the
days of Jeimy Lind. The clever mana^ saw that the publb
was tired of operas arranged to suit the views of the prima donna
and no one elsCf and he cast the works he produced, among which
were Un BaUo tn masckera and Les HngutkolSt with due aftentbn
to every part. The brothers Jean and Edouard de Reask^, both
of whom had appeared in London befor e t he former as a bairitone
and the latter during the seasons 1880-1884 — were even stronger
attractions to the musical publb of the tune than the varbua
leading sopranos, among whom were Mme Albani, Miss M. Mac-
intyre, Mme Melba, Frau Sucher and Mme Nordica, during the
earlier seasoiu, and Mme Eames. Mlb Ravocli, MM. Lassalle and
P. H. Plan^on. and many other Parisian favouritea later. As
time went on, the excellent custom obuined of giving each work
in the language in whbh it was written, and among tht oistinguished
Carman artists who were added to the company *vere Frau M.
Temina, Frau E. Schumann*Heink, Frau Lilli Lebmann and many
more. Since Harris's death in 1806 the traditbns started by him
were on the wbob well maintained, and as a sign of the difference
between the present and the former positbn of English composers,
it may be mentioned that two operas by F. H. Cowen. Signa and
Harold, and two by Stanford, The Veiled Prophet and Mnch Ado
about Nothing, were produced. To Signor Lago, a manager ^ of
more enterprue than good fortune, belongs the credit of reviving
Cluck's Orfea (with the mastcriy impersonatbn of the principal
character by Mlb Giulia RavoglO. and of bringing out CaeoUeria
ruslieana, Tschaikovricy's Bugen Onegin and other works.
If it be just to name one institution and one man as the creator
of such an atmosphere as albwed the genius of English composen
to flourish, then that honour must be paid to the Crystal Palace
and August Manns, the conductor of its Saturday concerts. At
first engaged as sub-conductor, under a certain bchallehn, at the
building whbh was the lasting result of the Great Exhib«tbn of
1851, he became director of the musb in 1855; so for the better
Krt of half a century his influence was exerted on behalf of the
■t musb of all schools, and especially in favour of anything of
84
MUSIC
IRECENT MUSIC
English growth. Through evil report and good report he tapported
his convictions, and for many years he introduced one English
composer after another to a fame which they would have found it
hard to gain without his help and that of Sir George Grove, his
loyal supporter. In 1862, when Arthur Sullivan had just returned
from his studies in LeipjEig, his Tempest music was produced at the
Crystal Palace, and it is oeyond question that it was this success
and that of the succeeding works from the same hand which first
showed Englishmen that music worth listening to might be pro-
duced by an English hand. Sullivan reached the hignest point of
bu achievement in The Golden Legend (1886), his most imporUnt
contribution to the music of the renaissance. An important part
of the Crystal Palace music was that the concerts did not follow
but led, popular taste; the works of Schubert, Schumann ana
many other great masters were given constantly, and the whole
repertory of classical music was cone through, so that a constant
attendant at these concerts would have become acquainted with
the whole range of the best class of music. From 1859 onwards
the classical chamber-music could be heard at the Popular Concerts
started by Arthur Chappcll, and for many yeare their repertory
was not Ins catholic than that of the Crystal Palace undertaking;
that in later times the habit increased to a lamentable extent of
choosing only the " favourite " {i.e. hackneyed) works of the great
masters does not lessen the educational value of the older concerts.
The lovers of the newer developments of music were always more
fully satisfied at the concerts of the Musical Union, a body founded
by John Ella in 1844. which lasted until 1880. From 1879 onwards
the visits o( Hans Richter, the conductor, were a feature of the
musical season, and the importance of his work, not only in spread-
ing a love of Wagner's music, but in regard to every other branch
of^the best orchestral music, cannot be exaggerated. Like the
popular concerts, the Richter concerts somewhat fell away in
later years from their original purpose, and their managers were
led by the popularity of certam pieces to give too little variety.
The importance of Richter's work was in bringing forward the finest
Englbh music In the years when the masters of the renaissance
were young and untried. Here were to be heard the orchestral
works of Sir Hubert Parrv, Sir Charles Villiers Stanford, Sir A.
Campbell Mackenzie and Dr F. H. Cowen ; and the names of these
composers were thus brought into notice much more effectually
than could have been the case in other surroundings. Meanwhile
outside London the work of the renaissance was beii^ carried on,
notably at Cambridge, where by the amalgamation of various
•m^ler societies with the University Musical Society, Stanford
created in 1875 a splendid institution which did much to foster a
love of the best music for many years; and at Oxford, where private
meetings in the rooms of Hubert Parry brought about the institu-
tion of the Musical Club, which has borne fruit in many wajrs,
though only in the direction of chamber-music. The Bach Choir,
founded by Mr Arthur Duke Coleridge in 1875, &nd conducted for
the first ten years of its existence by Mr Otto Goldschmidt and
subsequently oy Professor Stanford, worked on purely uncommercial
lines ever since its foundation, and besides many important works
of Bach, it brought forward most important compositions by
Englishmen, and daA a prominent share in the work of the renais-
sance. Parry's earlier compositions had a certain austerity in
them which, while it commanded the homage of the cultivated few,
prevented their obtaining wide popularity; and it was not until
the date of his choral setting of Milton's Ode at a Solemn Mustek
that he found his true vein. In this and its many successors,
produced at the autumn festivals, though very rarely given in
London, there was a nobility of utterance, a suolimity 01 concep-
tion, a mastery of resource, that far surpass anything accomplished
in Ensland since the days of Purcell ; while his " Symphonic Varia-
tions for orchestra, and at least two of his symphonies, exhibit
his command of the modem modifications of classical forms in
great perfection. Like Parry, Stanford first caught the ear of the
?ublic at la^e with a choral work, the stirring ballad-setting of
'cnnyson's Revenge; and in all his earlier and uter works alike,
which include compositions in every form, he shows himself a
supreme master of effect ; in dramatic or lyrical handling of voices,
in orchestral and chamber-music, his sense of beauty is unfailing,
and while his ideas have real distinction, his treatment of them is
nearly always the chief interest oi his works. The work of the
musical renaissance has been more beneficially fostered by these
two masters than by any other individuals, through the medium
of the Royal College of Music. In 1876 the National Training
School of Music was opened with Sullivan as principal; he was
succeeded by Sir John Stainer in 188 1, and the circumstance that
such artists as Mr Eugen d'Albert and Mr Frederic Cliffc received
there the foundation oftheir musical education is the only important
fact connected with the institution, which in 1882 was succeeded
by the Royal College of Music, under the directorship of Sir George
Grove, and with Parry and Stanford as professors of composition.
In 1894 Parry succeeded to the directorship, and before and after,
this date wonc of the best educational kind was done in all branches
of the art, but most of all in the important branch of composition.
Mackenzie's place among the masters of the renaissance is assured
by his romantic compositions for orchestra — such as La Belie dame
tans merci and the two " Scottish Rhapsodies "; some of his choral
works, such as the oratorios, show some tendency to fall back into
the conventionalities from which the renaissance movement was an
effort to escape; but in The Cottar's Saturday Night; The Story of
Sayid; Veni, Creator Spiritus, and many other things, not except-
ing the opera Colomba or the witty " Britannia " overture, he shows
no lack of spontaneity or power. As principal of the Royal Academy
of Music (he succeeded Macfarrcn m 1888) he revived the former
glories of the school, and the excellent plan by which it and the Royal
College unite their forces in the examinations of the Associated
Board is largely due to his initiative. The opera just mentioned
was the first of the modem series of English operas brought out
from 1883 onwards by the Cari Rosa company during iu tenure
of Dniry Lane Theatre: at the time it seemed as though English
opera had a chance of getting permanently established, but the
enterprise, being a purely private and individual one, failed to have
a lasting effect upon the art of the country, and after the production
of two operas by Mackenzie, two by Arthur Goring Tliomas, one
by F. Corder, two by Cowen and one by Stanford, the artistic
work of the company grew gradually less and less important. In
spite of the strong influence <a French ideals and methods, the music
of Arthur Goring Thomas was remarkable for individuality and
charm; in any other country his beautiful opera Esmeralda would
have formed part of the regular repertory; and his orchestral
suites, cantatas and a multitude (rf graceful and original songs,
remain as evidence that if his career had been proloi^ed, the art
of Eng^land might have been enriched by some masterpiece it would
not willingly nave let die. After a youth of extraordinary pre-
cocity, and a number of variously successful attempts in the more
ambitious and more serious branches of the art, Cowen found his
chief success in the treatment of fanciful or fairy subjects, whether
in cantatas or orchestral works; here he is without a rival, and his
ideas are uniformly graceful, excellently treated and wonderfully
effective. His second tenure of the post of conductor of the Phil-
harmonic Society showed him to be a fiighly accomplished conductor.
In regard to English opera two more undertakings deserve to be
recorded. In 1891 the Royal English Opera House was opened
with Sullivan's Ivanhoe, a work written especially for the occasion)
the absence of anything like a repertory, and the retention <rf this
one work in the bills for a period far 'longer than its attractions
could warrant, brought the inevitable result, and shortly after the
production of a charming French comic opera the theatre was
turned into the Palace Music Hall. The charming and thoroughly-
characteristic Shamus O'Brien of Stanford was successfully pro-
duced in 1896 at the Op^ra Comique theatre. This work brought
into public prominence the conductor Mr Henry J. Wood (b. 1870).
who exercised a powerful influence on the art of the country by
means of his orchestra, which was constantly to be beard at the
Queen's Hall, and which attained, by continual performance
together, a degree of perfection before unknown in England. It
achieved an important work in bringing music within the reach oC
all classes at the Promenade Concerts siven through each summer*
as well as by means of the Symphony Concerts at other seasons.
The movement thus started by Mr Wood increased and spread
remarkably in later years. His training of the Queen's Hall
Orchestra was characterized by a thoroughness and severity pre-
viously unknown in Englbh orchestras. This was -partly made
possible by the admirable business organization which fostered
the movement in its eariicr years; so many Concerts were guaranteed
that it was posuble to give the players engagements which iiKluded
a lar^ amount of rehearsing. The result Was soon apparent, not
only m the raising of the standard of orchestral playing, but also
in thp higher and more intelligent standard of criticism to which
performances were subjected both by experts and by the generaLl
public. The public taste in London for symphonic music grew so
rapidly as to encourage the establishment of other bodice of players,
until in 1910 there were five first-clan professional orchestras
giving concerts regularly in London — the Philharmonic Society,
the Queen's Hall Orchestra, the London Symphony Orchestra
(descnbcd by Dr Hans Richter as " the finest orchestra in the
worid "), the New Symphony Orchestra under Mr Landon Ronald
(b. 1873), a composer and conductor of striking ability, and Mr
Thomas Beecham s Orchestra. Mr Beecham, who had come rapidly
to the front as a musical enthusiast and conductor, paid special
attention to the work of British composers. Manchester, Birming-
ham, Liverpool and Edinbuigh, had their own orchestras; and it
might be said that the whow of the United Kingdom was now
permeated with a taste for and a knowledge of orchestral music.
The effect of this development has influenced the whole of the musical
life of England. The symphony and the symphonic poem have
taken the place so long held by the oratorio in popular taste; and
English composers of any merit or ability find it possible to get
a hearing for orchestral work which at the end of the 19th century
would have had to remain unperformed and unheard. The result
has been the rapid development of a school of English orchestral
composers — a school of considerable achievement and still greater
promise.
The new school of English writers contains many names of
skilled composers. Sir Edward Elgar established his reputation
by his vigorous Caractaeus and the grandiose imaginings of his
Dream of Gerontius, as by orchestral and chamber compositions of
RECENT MUSiq
decided merit and individuality, and by being the composer of a
jiboay which attained greater and wider fame than any Mmilar
I HAoe tlw symphonies of Ttchaikovsky. Mr Ed wand German
tyxapboay which attained greater and wider fame than any Mmilar
work HAoe tlw symphonies of Ttchaikovsky. Mr Ed wand German
(b. 1862) won great success as a writer of incidental music for plays,
and in various l»htrr forms of music, for which hb great skill in
orchestration and his lcrK>wIed|^ of effect stand him in good stead.
The quality of Mr Frederic Cliffe's orchestral works is extremely
high. Dr Arthur Somervell (b. 1863). who succeeded Staincr as
aaskal adviser to the Board of Educatk>n, first came into promi*
nence as a composer of a number of charming songs, notably a
fine soog-cycle from Tennyson's Maud, but his Mass and various
orchestral works and cantatas and pianoforte pieces show his
conspicuous ability in other forms. Various compositions written
by Mr Hamish MacCunn (b. 1868). while still a student at the
Royal College o( Music, were received with acclamation; but his
bier work was not ot equal value, though his operas Jeanie
Dt9HS and Diarmid were successful. Mr Granville Bantock
(b. 186S). srr nrrJcnt sur^r-'^rtrr of t^c vr^rrA 3dvanjrf?d music, has
written many fine thinp for orch«[ri, jnd Mr SVtHiim Wallace
(b. lS6ih in varioui orcbesiiral pieces pt;i:y\'iJ d( the Crystal Palace
and dacvhrrE, and in (uch ihinf^i ai hi^ ^' FrtTLNx^rk^r ' songs, has
tbovn stzmiig indivklualhy Jnd JmagiTi'aLrDn. Mr Arthur Hinton
(b. 1 869) &as produced thin?» of bncUul bcjuiy Jnd quaint origi-
siaCty. Mt» Eihel W, hmyth, who« Uslh wa* pvL-n at the Royal
.Albert Hall io mwE favourable tondlitiorvi, hnd hir "iiera FanUxsio
orodacrd at Weimar and Ceirlsruhc, anrj O^f IVnli at Covent
Garden. Miss Maud Vjkric While'* tf^ctful and L'^.|irtrssive songs
broGgfat her coiopo$iTiciFii into wjUt por>u]a^ty; am] Mme Liza
Lebxnajui aade a otw rvpitiaiioh by her cycle* n1 songs after
her retifaniHil from the prDfc^sicd of a ilnger. The first part of
Mr S. Coieridge-TiytxV Et>. i«75) ftia-jkiliui ercno was performed
vhUe be was tiill a student at tne Royal ColVe^, dnd m> great was
its fK^mJmiity that the third p^rt ar ihe rrili>gy was cr>mmissioned
for pofoffiWDci^ by the RovAi Chorat Soctety. %f r Cyril Scott is
a ce m pQB cr who aim« high, though with a «>in€What strained
originality. Dr H. VVairord Davie* ^b. t&fig) and W. Y. Hurlstonc
(15/6- Tjjt^.) e-.L'-:'T h ^"^ -kind of chamber-mii:^.iiT and use the
dasnc iarm^ v,illj , .. L, and Mr U. VaugEiuu Williams, in
ha soags and other works, has shown periiaps the moat conspicuous
tafeat amoi^ all of the younger school.
Ei^Iish executive musicians have never suffered from foreign
competition in the same degree as Enelish composers, and the
E&ccess of such singers as Miss Anna Williams, Miss Macintyre,
Miss Marie Brema. Miss Clara Butt, Miss Agnes Nkrholls, Messrs
Sastley, Edward Uoyd. Ben Davies, Plunket Greene and Ffrangcon
Davies; or ot such piamsts as Miss Fanny Davies and Mr Leonard
Borwick, is but a continuance of the tradition of British excellence.
The adentifk study of the music of the past has more and more
decidedly taken its place as a branch 01 musical education; the
learned writines of W. S. Rockstro (1823-1895), many of them
stade public first in the Encyclopaedia Briiannica and Grove's
DicUfmary 0/ Music, made the subiect clear to manv who had been
grofRSfi; ra the dark before; and the actual performance of old
EftocK has been undertaken not only by the Bach Choir, but by the
Magpk l^Iadrigal Society under Mr Lionel Benson's able direction,
la vocal and instrumental music alike the musical side of the Inter-
ntsonal Exhibition of 1885 did excellent work in its historical
ooocerts: and in that branch of archaeology which is concerned
with the structure and restoration of old musical instruments,
important work has been done by Mr A. J. Hipkins (1826-1903;
w k«g ooonectod with the firm of Broadwood), the Rev. F. W.
Galpin. Arnohl Dolmetsch and others. The formation of the
Fslk-Smig Society in 1899 drew attention to the importance and
extent of English traditional music, and did much to popularize
it with singers of the present day.
BiBLJOGRAPHY. — Among encyclopaedic dictionaries of music
Skr George Grove's Dictionary of Music and Musicians (1878-
IS«9: new ed. by J. A. Fuller Maitland, 1904-1908), takes the first
fhcx aiiKrag publications in English, while Robert Eitner's (d. 1905)
aomtflaental QueUenUxikon (1900-1904), in German, is an authority
of the 6aL rank. Anaong other modem works of value on various
accoaats may be mentioned F. J. Fitb's Biographic universeUe dej
mssidens (and ed.. 1860-186^; supplement by A. Pougin, 1878);
G. SduHifl^s EncyktoMdie aer gesammUn musikatischen Wissen-
sciefi (1835-1838); \Icndel and Reissmann's Musikalisches Con-
^ertdums-tankon (2ml ed., 1883); H. Riemann's Musik-kxikon
(5^ ed., 1900; also an Eng. trans., with additions, by J. S. Shed-
lock); the American Cyclopaedia of Music and Musicians (1889-
la9i} : and the Oxford History of Music (1901-1905). The literature
^ Boae generally b enormous, but the following selected list of
sKorlcs on various aspects may be useful : —
Ae^kaks, Theory, Sfc—H. Ehrlich. Die Musik-Aesthetik in ihrer
EjUxicidmnr von Kant bis auf die Uegenwart (Leipzig, 1882); E.
Kaasllck. The Beautiful in Music (London, 1891): R. Wallaschck.
Ae^iem dcr Tonkunst (Stuttgart. 1886): R. Pohl. Die HdkenzH^e
der musikaliscken Entwickdunt (Leipzig. 1888): A- Schnez. Die
Crheimmisse der Tonkunst (Stuttgart. 1891): I. A. Zahm, Sound and
Mafic (Chicago. 1892): C. Bellaique. Psyckologie musicaie{ Paris,
1 393): W. Pole, Pkiiosopky of Music (vol. xi. of the English and
Fardga Philoaophical Library. 1895); M. Seybel, Sckopenkauers
MUSIC 8 s
Metapkysik der Musik (Leipzig. 1895); L. Lacombe. Pkihsopkie el
muswue (Paris. 1896); Sir C. R. H. Parry. The Evolution of the Art
of Music (London. 1897); H. RiDmann, PraludUn umd Sluditn
ift*\.(lff^f {Lffipiic, 1^98); SyitcfHBtiahf MaidtiifiiUtnUhrf lil-vmhurg,
l8fi'7)H ] tr. Lol>r, LthrbuiH der musikalisci^rt Kompv/niion (Lripjcig,
|8>L^); A^ 1). M4ir:ii, Dit Lekrt Mm der tmtnka.iiii.kirn Kom^Hitf^ik
(Lcipii^t i%^li it>go); M, L, C. Cherubini'i Thfrtrtt ^1 X^tiifH'
pu^kus itnd dit fitgr V^tAa^nc, 189O): Sir J. F. BfniKe and F. J«
Sawyer, A C^furu cf iio-rKiPn^ (Londan, I'l^l; E-_^f€^at^ CvHuUr-
point (London, 1^190): DpuHc Cimnter point and C^ttmn ^Lritidon,
i8j3h Musktj Farm (London, 1S9A); Apptiti ferm^ iLontlcrn,
\%^i\i S. Judas whni Pi* Formcn in den Weaken der iQnkuHii
(Leipzig, liiias); M. Sieinitfef, Piyekpt^fiiitrhe Wirkungen der mjiiift-
aliiiken Ff>rmfn [Munich, IS85}; J, Combaricu, Throne da rkytkmt
dam in eetmpuskiflH m^drrnt d'aprts la dmtrine antigne (Pari*,
I807K P. Goerurhiii*, Hamcjyh^nt^ Formi of Mmkai Umpinittom
(Ne* S'^rk, 19*^}; WitlUm VVallace^, The Tknih^Uof Musk (1907).
£tfc/jjA Muiit. — W. Nagel, Gtickkkle d^f Muiilt in En^liind
(Sin^^lnjrfi liitiO; II Pnvf-v, Ifnisiry of En^^Iisk Mitik (London,
18 - S 1 « r 1 ; f British Muue (Loadcin, iSqfJh
S. Vjut\'ii, L L.v<t.\iu:n *ir jii j'H ?+ 1 fjj MS f )i Angifttrpf {BeuiAcitt i9O0h
Ernest Walker. English Music (1907)-
America.^yN. S. B. Mathews. A Hundred Years of Music in
America (Chicago, 1889): L. C. Elson, Tke National Music of
America and its Sources (Boston. 1900): T. Baker. Ober die Musik
der nord-amerikaniscken Wilden (Leipzig, 1882).
Prance. — H. Laroix. La Musique fran^aise (Paris. 1891): N. M.
Schlettercr, Studien tur Cesckickte der frantostschen Musik (Berlin,
1884-1885); T. Galino, La Musique fran^aise au moyen Age (Leipzig,
1890); A. Cc^nard, De la Musique en France depuis Rameau (niris.
1891); G. Servieres, La Musique franfaise moderne (Paru, 1897).
Germany. — W. Baeumker. Ueschickte der Tonkunst in Deulsckland
his tur Reformation (Freiburg. 1881): O. Ebbcn, Der volkslkumliche
deutscke Mdnnergesang (Tubingen. 1887) ; L. Mcinardus. Die deutuht
Tonkunst; A. Soubies, aistoire de la musique allemande (Paris, 1896).
Italy.— O. Chilesotti, / nostri maestri del passato (Milan, 1882);
V. Lee, // Settecento in Italia (Milan, 1881): G. Masutto. / Maestri
di musica italiani del secolo XIX. (Venice, 1882).
Russia. — ^A. Soubies, Histoire de la musique en Russie (Paris,
1898).
Scandinana. — A. GrSnvoed, Norske Musikere (Christiania.
i88t); C. Valentin, Studien Uber die sckwediscken Volksmelodien
(Leipzig, 1885).
Spain.—]. F. Riaik). NoUs on Early Spanish Music (London.
1887); J. Tort y Daniel. Noticia musical del " Lied " 6 Can^o cata-
lana (Barcelona, 1892); A. Soubies. Hist, de la mus. en Espagm
(i85>9).
Sunt*
•pagne
jwitserland. — A. Nigcli, La Musique dans la Suisse allemande
(1900): F. Held, La Musique dans la Suisse romande (1900); A-
Soubies. Hist, de la mus. dans la Suisse (1809).
Church Music.—?. L. Humphreys, The Evolution of Church
Music (New York, 1808); E. L. Taunton. History of Church Music
(London. 1887); A. Morsch, Der italieniscke Ktrchengesang bis
Palestrina (ESorlin^ 1887); G. Masutto. Delia Musica sacra in Italia,
(Venice, 1889); C Felix, Palestrina et la musique sacrie (Bruges
1895): R. V. Liliencron. Lilurgisck-musikalische Cesckickte der
evangelischen Cottesdienste (Schleswig, 1893).
Instruments (see also the separate articles on each). — L. Arrigoni,
OreanografUs ossia descrisione dedi instrumenti musicali antichi
(\lilan, 1881): F. Boudoin, La Musique historique (Paris, 1886);
A. Jacquot. Etude de fart instrumental. Dictionnaire des instru-
ments de musique (Paris. 1886); H. Boddington. Catalogue of Musical
Instruments iuustrative of the History of the Pianoforte (Manchester
1888); M. E. Brown, Musical Instruments and their Homes (New
York, 1888); A. J. Hipkins. Musical Instruments: Historic. Rare
and Unique (Edinburgh. 1888); W. Lynd. Account of Ancient
Musical Instruments and their DeoelopmeiU (London. 1897); J.
Weiss, Die musikaliscken Instrumente in den heiligen Schriften des
Alien Testaments (Graz, 1895); E. Travers, Les Instruments de
musique au xuf. Steele (Paris. 1882); E. A. v. Hasselt, V Anatomic
des instruments de musique (Brussels, 1899); E. W. Vemey. Siamese
Musical Instruments (London, 1888) ; C. R. Day. Music and Musical
Instruments of Southern India (London, 1891); D. G. Brinton.
Native American Stringed Musical Instruments (1897) j I. Ruchl-
mann. Die Geschichte der Boteninstrumente (BrunswicK, 1882);
F. di Caffarelli. Gli Strumenti aa arco e la musica da camera (Milan.
1894); KathlMn Schlesineer. Instruments of tke Orchestra (1910).
Conducting.— VJ. R. Wagner. On Conducting (London, 1887)-.
M. KuflFerath. VArt de dinger Forchestre (Pans, 1891); F. Wein-
gartner, Ober das Dirigiren (Beriin. 1896).
Biography. — F. Hueffer, The Great Musicians (London, 1881-
1884) ; F. Clement, Les Grands musiciens (Paris, 1882) ; C. E. Bourne,
Tke Great Composers (London. 1887); G. T. Ferris, Great Musical
Composers; Sir C. H. H. Parry. Studies of Great Composers (London,
1887); A. A. Ernouf. Compositeurs ciUbres (Paris, 1888); F. I.
Bennassi-Desplantes, Les Musiciens ciUbres (Limoges. 1889);
A. Haunedniche. Les Musiciens et compositeurs francais (Paris,
1890); N. H. Dole, A Score of Famous Composers (New York,
86
MUSICAL-BOX— MUSICAL NOTATION
1891); L. T. Morris. Famous Musical Composers (London, 1891):
H. de Br^mont, The World of Music (London. 1892); I. K. Paine.
Famous Compostrs and their Works (Boston. 1891-1893); E. Polko,
Meister der Tonkunst (Wiesbaden, 1897); R. F. Sharp. Makers of
Music (London. 1898); L. Nohl. Mosatk Denksteiue aus dem Lehen
(Paris. 189a).
MUSICAL-BOX* an instrument for producing by mechanical
means tunes or pieces of music. The modem musical-box is
an elaboration of the elegant toy musical snuff-box in vogue
during the 18th century. The notes or musical sounds are pro-
duced by the vibration of steel teeth or springs cut in a comb or
flat plate of steel, reinforced by the harmonics generated in the
solid steel back of the comb. The teeth are graduated in length
from end to end of the comb or plate, the longer teeth giving the
deeper notes; and the individual teeth are accurately attuned,
where necessary, by filing or loading with lead. Each tone and
semitone in the scale is represented by three or four separate
teeth in the comb, to permit of successive repetitions of the same
note when required by the music. The teeth are acted upon and
musical vibrations produced by the revolution of a brass cylinder
studded with projecting pins, which, as they move round, raise
and release the proper teeth at due intervals according to the
nature of the music. A single revolution of the cylinder com-
pletes the performance of each of the several pieces of music for
which the apparatus is set, but upon the same cylinder there may
be inserted pins for performing as many as thirty-six separate
airs. This is accomplished by making both the points of the
teeth and the projecting pins which raise them very fine, so that
a very small change in the position of the cylinder is sufficient
to bring an entirely distinct set of pins in contact with the teeth.
In the more elaborate musical-boxes the cylinders are removable,
and may be replaced by others containing distinct sets of music.
In these also there are combinations of bell, drum, cymbal and
triangle effects, &c. The revolving motion of the cylinder is
effected by a spring and clock-work which on some modern instru-
ments will work continuously for an hour and a half without
winding, and the rate of revolution is regulated by a fly regulator.
The headquarters of the musical-box trade is Geneva, where the
manufacture gives employment to thousands of persons.
The mu»<al-tv)K 14 A type of numcroiii inAtrumcriiE lor producing
mu^ic^l t^tfctU by Trkwh-inkiil fnt-j.n«, in a.{\ qI which a. rwolving
cylinder or lidfrt^r siuddfi with pins u iht gowrnin^ feaiure- The
ponTton o( ihe pin« ort the barrtl ia deter mined fay two contidcra-
tioru: l^ov ct pitnh md of tjme or rhythm. ^ The d^^frc* of
|)ilch Of scTnitonta af the Acaka are in the ctir«:tic}it ci lti« kngth
of the ry binder, while ihow of timci. or the beait in the tijir^. arc in
the path of the revolution of the c>hiKtcr, The act Ian of the pins
1% practtcalJy the same i<x aU barref instrurnvntT; each pin i«r\'ei to
T3t»e some part ol the meehdnism (cpt otic note Kl the (txAct moment
and for the ejuicl duraticm of lirpe r«^uiTi«J hy the fnuuc to be
played, jficr which, p^iuiAg iilc>n^ wttb ihc revtiluciiUii of the
fyhnder, il Cuan to ict. The pnncipk <A the baml otM-Tiung
by friction, by percu^^^n or by wind an reedip pipe^ w » wrings
govern! cAriHooi or muMcj;^ bcU*, bjtnH rRaiii, merh ■ = ' ' '.es,
rcj«^liai voicest h^nnonii^hon^^, vi da n-pi^ not Jind ih- sns
iirid (wlyphoiiA in which n ttymhim^UQti of all ore ht t is
aurmptccL [n the caiic of wind instruments, t; tet,
trumiKti^ dsort, tbriEieii, imitated in the more C' ie»-
tric»nt^ the ptFii raiw? Icven which open the valve* lir,
rumpreMi^l by mec;lianical ticUow*, to ^urioui kint!'- ■ , .>es,
iind to others fitted with beitinff and free n'eds. Tht atM.ki used
lor itrikini^ bclE*, dnimst cymbal* ind triiinKk"* Jitr set in motion
in a aimiLar m.mner. A fine «rt of lull-paee drawings. pubti*hod at
Frjnkfort in 1615; mLtkc* the whoVe woTklnc of the pmrn-d bjfrrel
quite clear, and establUha the exact j-v^ii^n u/ the pin» to the
music produced by the barrd to unmistakablv that tome bars of
the piece of music set on the cylinder can be made out.^ The
Rrotocype of the 19th-century musical-box is to be found in the
letherlands where durinj^ the i«h century the dukes of Burgundy
cncourajscd the invention ol ingenious mechanical musical
curipsities such as " oreans which played of themselves," musical
snuff-boxes, singing birds, curious cIocks, &c. A principle of more
recent introduction than the studded cylinder consists of sheets
of perforated paper or card, somewhat similar to the Jacquard
apparatus for weaving. The perforations correspond in position
and length to the pitch and duration of the note they represent,
* 3ee S. de Caus, Les forces mowanus; and article Barrsl Organ.
and ai the web or long sheet of paper passes over the instrument
the pcrforatod holes are brought in proper position and sequence
under the influence of the suction or pressure of air from a bellows,
an(] i,hi.r'.-tiy The notes are either directly acted on. as in the case of
reeJ iri:s[ruiT»Mtts, or the opening and closing of valves set in motion
levtjr^ OT tjl^'r^te springs which govern specbl notes. The United
Ststea> are [he original home of the instruments controlled by
perrcirated p^per known as orfl[uinettes, orsaninas, melodeons. &c.
All xhcK- (nMruments are being gradually replaced in popular
favoijf }iy thk: piano-players and the gramophone. (K. S.)
MUSICAL NOTATION, a pictorial method of representing
sounds to the ear through the medium of the eye. It is probable
that the earliest attempts at notation were made by the Hindus
and Chinese, from whom the legacy was transferred to Greece.
The exact nature of the Greek notation is a subject of dispute,
different explanations assigning 1680, 1620, 990. or 138 signals
to their alphabetical method of delineation. To Boethius we
owe the certainty that the Greek notation was not adopted by
the Latins, although it is not certain whether he was the first
to apply the fifteen letters of the Roman alphabet to the scale
of sounds included within the two octaves, or whether he was
only the first to make record of that application. The reduction
of the scale to the octave is ascribed to St Gregory, as also the
naming of the seven notes, but it is not safe to assume that such
an ascription is accurate or final. Indications of a scheme of
notation based, not on the alphabet, but on the use of dashes,
hooks, curves, dots and strokes are found to exist as early as
the 6th century, while specimens in illustration of this different
method do not appear until the 8th. The origin of these signs,
known as neumes (i*c{>/iara, or nods), is the full stop ipunctus)^
the comma (virga), and the mound or undulating line (c/im^),
the first indicating a short sound, the second a long sound, and
the third a group of two notes. The musical intervals were
suggested by the distance of these signals from the words of the
text. The variety of neumes employed at different times, and
the fluctuations due to handwriting, have made them extremely
difficult to decipher. In the loth century a marked advance
is shown by the use of a red line traced horizontally above the
text to give the singer a fixed note (F>fa), thus helping him to
approximate the intervals. To this was added a second line in
yellow (for C-ut), and finally a staff arose from the further
addition of two black lines over these. The difficulty of the
subject is complicated for the student by the fact that an
incredible variety of notations coexisted at one period, all more
or less representing attempts in the direction of the modern
system. A variety of experiments resulted in the assignment
of the four-lined staff to sacred music and of the five-lined staff
to secular music. The yellow and red colours were replaced
by the use of the letters F and C (fa and ut) on the lines. This
use of letters to indicate clef is forestalled in a manuscript of
Guido of Arezzo's Micrologus, dating from the i3th century, in
which is the famous hymn to St John, printed with neumes on
a staff of three Hnes (see Guido of Arezzo). The use of letters
for indicating clefs has survived to the present day, our clef
signatures being modified forms of the letters C, F and G, which
have passed through a multitude of shapes. Before the 1 3th
century there is no trace of a measured notation (t.e. of a
numerical time division separating the component parts of a
piece of music). It is at the time of Franco of Cologne * that
measured music takes its rise, together with the black notation
in place of neumes, which disappeared altogether by the end of
the 14th century. Writing four hundred years after St Gregor>',
Cottonius complains bitterly of the defects in the system of
neumes: "The same marks which Master Trudo sang a&
thirds, were sung as fourths by Master Albinus; while Master
Salomo asserts that fifths are the notes meant, so at last there
were as many methods of singing as teachers of the art." Pos-
sibly the reckless multiplication of lines in the staff may have
contributed to the obscurity of which Cottonius complains.
In the black notation, which led to the modem system, the
square note with a tail (^ is the long sound; the square note
' The principles of Franco are found in the treatises of Walter
Odington. a monk of Evesham who became archbishop of Canteii>urv
in laa^ ^
MUSIC HALLS
87
vitboiit s Ufl M is the brete; and tbe lofenge shape (I) is the
semibreBt, In a later development there were added the double
IffHg^Bad the minum (if), Tbe breve, according to Franco of
Cologne, was the unit of measure. The development of a fixed
time divisk>n was further continued by Philippe de Vitry. It
has been noted with well-founded astonishment that at this time
the double time {i^, two to the bar) was unknown, in spite of
this being the time used in marching and also illustrated in the
process of breathing Triple time {i^. three to the bar) was
regarded as the most perfect because it was indivisible. It was
as if there lay some mysterious enchantment in a number that
could not be divided into equal portions without the fraction.
** Triple time, *' says Jean de Muris, ** is called perfect, according
to Franco, a man of much skill in his art, because it hath its name
from the Blessed Trinity which is pure and true perfection."
Vitry championed the rights of imperfect time and invented
signs to distingutth the two. The perfect circle O represented
the p>eifect or triple time; the half circle C the imperfect or
doable-tizne. This C has survived in modem notation to
indicate four-time, which is twice double-time; when crossed ((
it means double-time. The method of dividing into perfect
and imperfect was described as prolation. The addition of a
point to the circle or semi-drcle (0 G ) indicated major pro-
lation; its absence, minor prolation. The substitution of
white for black notation began with the first year of the 14th
century and was fully established in the 15th century.
It has already been shown how the earlier form of alphabetical
noLatioa was gradually superseded by one based on the attempt
to rcfwcsent the relative height and depth of sounds pictorially.
Tbe alphabetical nomenclature, however, became inextricably
associated with the pictorial system. The two conceptions
reinforced each other; and from the hexachordal scale, endowed
with tbe sc^ization of m/, re, mi, fa, sol, la — which was a
device for identifying notes by their names when talked of,
niha than by their positions when seen on a page of music —
arose the use of what are now known as accidentals. Of these
it may here be said that the flat originated from the necessity
of sinking the B of the scale in order to form a hexachord on
the note F in such a way as to cause the semitone to fall in the
right place — which in the case of all hexachords was between
tbe third and fourth notes. This softened B was written in a
rounded form thus: b {rolundttm), while the original B remained
sqoare thus: b iquadrum). The original conception of the sharp
was to cross or lattice the sqtiare B, by which it was shown that
it was neither to be softened nor to remain unchanged. The
£^ which originated in the loth century, appears to have been
of far earlier date than the sharp, the invention of which has
been ascribed to Josquin Des Pris (1450-1531). The B-sharp
was caEed B canceUatum, the cross being formed thus ^. The
Bie oC key signatures constructed out of these signs of sharp and
flat was <A comparatively late introduction. The key signature
states at the b<^nning of a piece of music the sharps and flats
which it contains within the scale in which it is written. It is a
device to avoid repeating the sign of sharp and flat with every
fiesh occasion of their occurring. The exact distinction between
what were accidental sharps or flats, and what were sharps or
flats in tbe key, was still undetermined in the time of Handel,
who wrote the Suite in E containing the " Harmonious Black-
smith " with three sharps instead of four. The double bb (some-
times written b or ^) and the double sharp X (sometimes
written )jf , "Ijl 01* ^ ) are conventions of a much later date,
caOed into existence by tbe demands of modem music, while
tbe ago of natural (q) is the outcome of the original B quadra-
cioa cr square B \y,
Tbe systems known as Tonic Sol Fa knd the Galin-Paris-
Cbr*€ Dsetbods do not belong to the subject of notation, as they
are ingenious mechanical substitutes for the experimentally devel-
oped S3rstenis analysed above. The basis of these substitutes
is the reference oC all notes to key relationship and not to pitch.
AuTBOKiTiES. — E. David and M. Luwy. Histoire de la notation
muucale (Fans, 1882); H. Riemann. Nolensckrifl und NotendruKk
(1696): C. F. Abdy Williams, The Story of Notation (1903); Robert
Eitner, BibliagFapkii der mutih. Sammelwerke des 16. und 17. Jahr-
kundrrts (Bcriiti. i«77); Friedrich Chrynnder. " Abriv einer
G«^hichtc de» MuiikdnickB vom 1 5.-19. Jahrh.," AUitmeine musik-
aliichi KeiiuHt (Leiptiff. iSto. Noh. 11-16); W. H.James Wealc.
A Dficnptipt €at*i&fm of Ran Manuscrtpts and Printed Works,
ehtff^y Utu*pcQl (H»urical Music Loan Exhibition, Albert Hall.
Lonj .n. Uiiuary-OrtcAier^ 1885)^ (London. 1886); W. Barclay
Sq jir.v ■ Notra ofi Eifly MtiHc Printing," in tbe Zeitsckrift biblio-
trc/^i! J, fi. IX. S. iy/'i7i (Londtm, 1896); Grove's DicL (^ Musk.
MUSIC HALLS. The ^* vaiiciy theatre" or " music-haU "
of to-day developed out of the " saloon theatres " which existed
in London about 1830-1840; they owed their form and existence
to the restrictive action of the " patent " theatres at that time.
These theatres had the exclusive right of representing what was
broadly called the " legitimate drama," which ruiged from
Shakespeare to Monk Lewis, and from Sheridan and Goldunith
to Kotzebue and Alderman Birch of Comhill, citizen and poet,
and the founder of the turtle-soup trade. The patent houses
defended their rights when they were attacked by the " minor "
and " saloon " theatres, but they often acted in the spirit of
the dog in the manger. While they pursued up to fine and
even imprisonment the poachers on their dramatic preserves,
they too often neglected the "legitimate drama" for the
supposed meretricious attractions offered by their illegitimate
competitors. The British theatre gravitated naturally to the
inn or tavern. The tavem was the source of life and heat, and
warmed all social gatherings. The inn galleries offered rather
rough stages, before the Shakespeare and Alleyn playhouses
were built. The inn yards were often made as comfortable as
possible for the " groundlings " by layers of straw, but the tavern
character of the auditorium was never concealed. Excisable
liquor was always obtainable, and the superior members of the
audience, who chose to pay for seats at the side of the stage or
platform (like the " avant-sc^ne " boxes at a Parisian theatre),
were allowed to smoke Raleigh's Virginian weed, then a novel
luxury. This was, of course, the first germ of a "smoking-
theatre."
WhUc the drama progressed as a recognized public entertam-
ment in England, and was provided with its own buildings in the
town, or ceruin booths at the fairs, the Crown exercised its
patronage in favour of certain individuals, giving them power
to set up playhouses at any time in any parts of London and
Westminster. The first and most important grant was made by
Charles II. to his " trusty and well-beloved " Thomas Killigrew
" and Sir William Davenant." This was a personal grant, not
connected with any particular sites or buildings, and is known
in theatrical history as the " Killigrew and Davenant patent."
Killigrew was the author of several unsuccessful plays, and Sir
William Davenant, said to be an illegitimate child of William
Shakespeare, was a stage manager of great daring and genius.
Charles II. had strong theatrical leanings, and had helped to
arrange the court ballets at Versailles for Louis XIV. The
Killigrew and Davenant patent in course of time descended,
after a fashion, to the Theatres Royal, Covent Garden and Drury
Lane, and was and still is the chief legal authority governing
these theatres. The " minor " and outlying playhouses were
carried on under the Music and Dancing Act of George II., and
the annual licences were granted by the local magistrates.
The theatre proper having emancipated itself from the inn or
tavem, it was now the tum of the inn or tavem to develop into
an independent place of amusement, and to lay the foundation
of that enormous middle-class and lower middle-class institution
of interest which we agree to term the music hall. It rose from
the most modest, humble and obscure beginning-^from the
public-house bar-parlour, and its weekly "sing-songs," chiefly
supported by voluntary talent from the "harmonic meetings"
of the " long-room " upstairs, generally used as a Foresters' or
Masonic club-room, where one or two professional singers were
engaged and a regular chairman was appointed, to the " assem-
bly-room " entertainments at certain hotels, where private balls
and school festivals formed part of an irregular series. The
district "tea-garden," which was then an agreeable feature of
suburban life — the suburbs being next door to the city and the
country next door to the suburbs— was the first to show dramatic
88
MUSIC HALLS
ambition, and to erect in some portion of its limited but leafy
grounds a lath-and-plaster stage large enough for about eight
people to move upon without incurring the danger of falling
off into the adjoining fish pond and fountain. A few classical
statues in plaster, always sliightly mutilated, gave an educational
tone to the place, and with a few coloured oil-lamps hung amongst
the bushes the proprietor felt he had gone as near the ** Royal
Vauzhall Gardens *' as possible for the small charge of a sixpenny
refreshment ticket, lliere were degrees of quality, of course,
amongst these places, which answered to the German beer-
gardens, though with inferior music. The Beuhh Spa at
Norwood, the White Conduit House at Pentonville, the York-
;shire Stingo in the Marylebone Road, the Monster at Pimlico,
the St Helena at Rotherhithe, the Globe at Mile End, the Red
Cow at Dalston, the Highbury Bam at Highbury, the Manor
House at Mare Street, Hackney, the Rosemary Branch at
Hoxton, and other rus-in-urbe retreats, were up to the level of
their time, if rarely beyond it.
The suspended animation of the law — the one Georgian act,
which was mainly passed to check the singing of Jacobite songs
in the tap-rooms and tea-gardens of the Uttle London of 1730,
when the whole population of the United Kingdom was only
about six millions— encouraged the growth eventually of a
number of "saloon theatres" in various London districts,
which were allowed under the head of "Music and Dancing"
to go as far on the light dramatic road as the patent theatres
thought proper to permit. The 25 Geo. 11. c 36, which in later
days was still the only act under which the music halls of forty
millions and more of people were licensed, was always liberally
interpreted, as long as it kept dear of politics.
The " saloon theatres," always being taverns or attached to
taverns, created a public who liked to mix its dramatic amuse-
ments with smoking and light refreshments. The prindpal
" saloons " were the Effingham in the Whitechapd Road, the
Bower in the Lower Marsh, Lambeth, the Albert at Islington,
the- Britannia at Hoxton, the Grecian in the City Road, the
Union in Shoreditch, the Stingo at Paddington and several
others of less importance. All these places had good com-
panies, especiaUy m the winter, and many of them nourished
leading actors of exceptional merit. The dramas were chiefly
rough adaptations from the contemporary French stage,
occasionally flying as high as Alexandre Dumas the elder and
Victor Hugo. Actors of real tragic power lived, worked and
died in this confined area. Some went to America, and acquired
fame and fortune; and among others, Frederick Robson, who
was trained at the Grecian, first when it was the leading
saloon theatre and afterwards when it became the leading music
hall (a distinction with little diffeFence), fought his way to the
front after the abolition of the " patent rights " and was accepted
as the greatest tragi-comic actor of his time. The Gredan
saloon theatre, better known perhaps, with its pleasure garden
or yard, as the Eagle Tavern, City Road, which formed the
material of one of Charles Dickens's Sketches by Bm^ was a place
managed with much taste, enterprise and discretion "by its pro-
prietor, Mr Rouse. It was the " saloon " where the one and only
attempt, with limited means, was ever made to import almost
all the original repertory of the Op^ra Comique in Paris, with the
result that many musical works were presented to a sixpenny
audience that had never been heard before nor since in England.
Auber, Harold, Adolphe Adam, Boieldieu, Gr^try, Donizetti,
Bellini, Rossini and a host of others gave some sort of advanced
musical education, through the Grecian, to a rather depressing
part of London, long before board schools were established.
The saloon theatres rarely offended the patent houses, and when
they did the law was soon put in motion to show that Shake-
speare could not be represented with impunity. The Union
Saloon in Shoreditch, then under the direction of Mr Samuel
Lane, who afterwards, with his wife, Mrs Sara Lane, at the
Britannia Saloon, became the leading local theatrical manager
of his day, was tempted in 1S34 to give a performance of O^A^tfo.
It was " raided " by the then rather " new police," and all the
actors, servants, audience, directors and musicians were taken
into custody and marched off to Worship Street poh'ce station,
confined for the remainder of the night, and fined and warned
in the morning. The same and only law still exists for those
who are hdping to keep a " disorderly house," but there are no
holders of exdusive dramatic patent rights to set it in motion.
The abolition of this privileged monopoly was effected about this
time by a combination of distinguished literary men and drama-
tists, who were convinced, from observation and experience, that
the patent theatres had failed to nurse the higher drama, while
interfering with the benefidal freedom of public amusements.
The effect of Covent Garden and Drury Lane on the art of
acting had resulted chiefly in limiting the market for theatrical
employment, with a consequent all-round reduction of salaries.
They kept the Lyceum Theatre (or English Opera House) for
years in the position of a music hall, giving sometimes two
performances a m'ght, like a " gaff " in the New Cut or Whitc-
chapeL They had not destroyed the "star" system, and
Edmund Kean and the boy Betty— the " Infant Roscius " —
were able to command sensational rewards. In the end Charles
Dickens, Sir Edward Bulwer-Lytton, Sir Thomas Noon Talfourd
and others got the patents abolished, and the first step towards
free trade in the drama was secured.
The effect of this change was to draw attention to the " saloon
theatres," where during the performances smoking, drinking,
and even eating were allowed in the auditorium. An act was
soon passed, known as the Theatres Act (1843), appointing a
censor of stage-plays, and placing the London theatres under
the control of a Crown officer, changing with ministries. This
was the lord chamborlain for the time bdng. The lord chamber-
lain of this period drew a hard-and-fast line between theatres
under his control, where no smoking and drinking were allowed
" in front," and theatres or halls where the old habits and distoins
of the audience were not to be interfered with. These latter
were to go under the jurisdiction of the local magistrates,
or other licensing authorities, under the 95 Geo. 11. c. 36 — the
Music and Dancing Act— and so far a divorce was decreed
between the taverns and the playhouses. The lord chamberlain
eventually made certain concessions. Refreshment bars were
allowed at the lord chamberlain's theatres in unobstrusive
positions, victualled under a special act of William IV., and
private smoking-rooms were allowed at most theatres on appli-
cation. AU this implied that stage plays were to be kept free
from open smoking and drinking, and miscellaneous entertain-
ments were to enjoy their old social freedom. The position was
accepted by those " saloon theatres " which were not tempted
to become lord chamberlain houses, and the others, with many
additions, started the first music halls.
Amongst the first of these halls, and certainly the very first
as far as intelligent management was concerned, was the Can-
terbury in the Lower Marsh, Lambeth, which was next door
to the old Bower Saloon, then transformed into a " minor
theatre." The Canterbury sprang from the usual tavern
germ, its creator being Mr Charies Morton, who honourably
earned the name of the " doyen of the music halls." It justified
its title by cultivating the best class of music, and exposed the
prejudice and unfairness of Planchd's sarcasm in a Haymarket
burlesque — " most music hall— most melancholy." Mr Charles
Morton added pictorial art to his other attractions, and obtained
the support of Punchy which stamped the Canterbury as the
" Royal Academy over the water." At this time by a mere
accident Gounod's great opera of Faustf through defective inter-
national registration, fell into the public domain in England and
became common property. The Canterbury, not daring.,
to present it with scenery, costumes and action, for fear of Uie
Stage-play Act, gave what was called " An Operatic Selection,*"
the singers standing in plain dresses in a row, like pupils at a.
school examination or a chorus in an oratorio at Exeter HalK
The music was well rendered by a thoroughly competent cx>tn~
pany, night after night, for a long period, so that by the time
the opera attracted the tardy attention of the two principal
open managers at Her Majesty's Theatre in the Haymarket
and Covent Garden Theatre, the tunes most popular were bein^
MUSIC HALLS
89
«lBstIed by tbe " mm lia the street," the " boy in the gutter *'
Mod the tradesman waiting at the door for orders.
With the Canterbnxy Hall, and its brother the Oxford
in Oxford Street — a converted inn and coaching yard— built
and managed on the same lines by Mr Charles Morton, the
music hatts were well started. They had imitators in every
direction — some large, some small, and some with architectural
pretensions, but all anxious to attract the public by cheap
prices and physical comforts not attainable at any of the
rcfolar theatres.
With the growth and improvement of these " Halls," the few
<^ ceQar "singing-rooms" gradually disappeared. Evans's
in Covent Garden was the last to go. Rhodes's, or the
Cyder Cellaxs in Maiden Lane, at the back of the Adelphi
Theatre; the Coal Hole, in the Strand, which now forms
the site of Terry's Theatre; the Doctor Johnson, in Fleet
Street (oddly enough, within the precincts of the City of London)
disappeared one by one, and with them the compound material
for Thackeray's picture of "The Cave of Harmony." This
•* Cave," like Dickens's " Old Curiosity Shop," was drawn
from the features of many places. To do the ** cellars " a little
jastke, they represented the manners of a past time — heavy
sappers and heavy drinks, and the freedom of their songs and
redtations was partly due to the fact that the audience and
the actors were always composed of men. Thackeray dtmg
to Evans's to the last. It was his m'ghtly "chapel of
ease " to the adjoining Garrick Club. In its old age it became
decent, and ladies were admitted to a private gallery, behind
screens and a convent grille. Before its death, and its revival
in another form as a sporting club, it admitted ladies both on
and off the stage, and became an ordinary music halL
Tbe rise and progress of the London music halls naturally
excited a good deal of attention and jealousy on the part of
the regolar theatres, and 'this was increased when the first
Great Variety Theatre was opened in Leicester Square.
The building was the fihest example of Moorish architec-
ture oa a large scale ever erected in England. It was burnt
down in tbe ' duties, and the present theatre was built in
its place. Originally it was "The Panopticon," a palace of
"recreative science," started under the roost distinguished
directaoQ on the old polytechnic institution lines, and with
ample capital. It was a commercial failure, and after being
tried as an " American Circus," it was turned into a great
variety theatre, the greatest of its kind in Europe, under the
naoe of tbe Alhambra Palace. Its founder was Mr E.T. Smith,
the eoefsetic theatrical manager, and its developer was Mr
Frederick Strange, who came full of spirit and money from
the Crystal Palace. He produced in 2865 an ambitious ballet —
the Dagger Ballet from Auber's Enfant prodigue, which had
been seen at Drury Lane Theatre in 1851, translated as " AzaSl."
The Alhambra was prosecuted in the superior courts for
infringing the Stage-play Act— the 6 & 7 Vict. c. 68. Tbe
case is in the law reports — Wigan v. Strange; the ostensible
phintiflFs being the well-known actors and managers Horace
Wigaa and Benjamin Webster, supported by J. B. Buckstone,
aad many other theatrical managers. A long trial before
emisent judges, with' eminent counsel on both sides, produced
a deaskm which was not very satisfactory, and far from final.
It hdd that, as far as the entertainment went, according to
the evidence tendered, it was not a ballet representing any
i&dnct story or coherent action, but it might have been a
** divertissement " — a term suggested in the course of the
trial. A short time after this a pantomime scene was pro-
dared at the same theatre, called Where's the Police?
which had a clown, a pantaloon, a columbine and a harlequin,
with other familiar characters, a mob, a street and even the
traditional red-hot poker. This inspired proceedings by the
same plaintifis before a police magistrate at Mariborough Street,
who ia^cied the full penalties— £30 a performance for 12
perlomaaaccs, and costs. An appeal was made to the West-
minster quarter sessions, supported by Serjeant Ballantine
and opposed by Mr Hardinge Giffard (afterwards Lord Chan-
Cellof Halsbury), and the conviction was confirmed. Being
heard at quarter sessions, there is no record in the law reports.
These and other prosecutions suggested the institution of
a parliamentary inquiry, tod a House of Commons select
committee was appointed \n t866, at the instigation of the
music halls and variety theatres. The committee devoted
much time to the inquiry, and examined many witnesses —
amongst the rest Lord Sydney, the lord chamberlain, who
had no personal objection to undertake the control of these
comparatively young places of amusement and recreation.
Much of the evidence was directed against the Stage-play Act,
as the difficulty appeared to be to define what was not a stage
play. Lord Denman, Mr Justice Byles, and other eminent
judges seemed to think that any song, action or recitation
that excited the emotions might be pinned as a stage-play,
and that the old definition — " the representation of any action
by a person (or persons) acting, and not in the form of narration "
— could be supported in the then state of the law in any of
the higher courts. The variety theatres on this occasion were
encouraged by what had just occurred at the time in France.
Napoleon III., acting under the advice of M. Michel Chevalier,
passed a decree known as La Liberti des tkidtref, which
fixed the status of the Parisian and other music halls. Openi tas,
ballets of action, ballets, vaudevilles, pantomimes and all light
pieces were allowed, and the managers were no longer legally
confined to songs and acrobatic performances. "Hie report
of the select committee of 1866, signed by the chairman, Mr
(afterwards Viscount) Goschen, was in favour of granting the
variety theatres and music halls the privileges they asked for,
which were those enjoyed In France and other countries.
Parliamentary interference and the introduction of several
private bills in the House of Conunons, which came to nothing,
checked, if they did not altogether stop, the prosecutions. The
variety theatres advanced in every direction in number and im-
portance. Ballets grew in splendour and coherency. Tbe lighting
and ventilation, the comfort and decoration of the various
"palaces" (as many of them were now called) improved,
and the public, as usual, were the gainers. Population in-
creased, and the six millions of 1730 became forty millions
and more. The same and only act (35 Geo. II. c. 36), adequate
or inadequate, still remained. London is defined as tbe
"administrative county of London," and its area— the
ao-miles radius— is mapped out. The Metropolitan Board
of Works retired or was discharged, and the London County
Council was created and has taken its place. The London
County Council, with extended power over structures and
structural alterations, acquired the licensing of variety theatres
and music halls from the local magistrates (the Middlesex,
Surrey, Tower Hamlets and other magistrates) within
the administrative county of London. The L. C. C. examine
and enlorce their powers. They have been advised that
they can separate a music from a dancing licence if they like,
and that when they grant the united licence the dancing
means the dancing of paid perfonncrs on a stage, and not the
dancing of the audience on a platform or floor, as at the short-
lived but elegant Cremome Gardens, or an old-timfc " Casino."
They are also advised that they can withhold licences, unless
the applicants agree not to apply for a drink licence to the local
magistrates sitting in brewster sessions, who still retain their
control over the liquor trade. Theatre licences are often with-
held unless a similar promise is made — the drink authority in
this case being the Excise, empowered by the Act of William IV.
(S & 6 Will. IV. c. 39. s. 7).
The spread of so-called "sketches" — a kind of condensed
drama or farce — in the variety theatres, and the action of the
London County Council in trying to check the extension of
refreshment licences to these establishments, with other grounds
of discontent on the part of managers (individuals or " limited
companies "), led to the appointment of a second select com-
mittee of the House of Commons in 1892 and the production
of another blue-book. The same ground was gone over, and
the same objections were raised against a licensing authority
90
MUSK— MUSKEGON
which is elected by. public votes, only exists for three yean
before another election is due, and can give no guarantee for
the continuity of its judgments. The consensus of opinion
(as in 1866) was in favour of a state official, responsible to
parliament — like the Home Office or the Board of Trade— the
preference being given to the lord chamberlain and his staff,
who know much about theatres and theatrical business. The
chairman of the committee was the Hon. David Plunkett (after-
wards Lord Rathmore), and the report in spirit was the same
as Ihe one of 1866. Three forms of licence were suggested:
one for theatres proper, one for music halls, and one for concert
rooms.
Though the rise and progress of the music hall and variety
theatre interest is one of the most extraordinary facts of the
last half of the 19th century, the business has little or no
corporate organization, and there is nothing like a complete
registration of the various properties throughout the United
Kingdom. In London (he "London Entertainments Pro-
tectbn Association," which has the conmiand of a weekly
paper called the Music Hall and Theatre Review, looks after
its interests. In London alone over five millions sterling of
capital is said to be invested in these enterprises, employing
8o,ooQ persons of all grades, and entertaining during the year
about 25,000,000 people. The annual applications for music
licences in London alone are over 300. (J. Hd.)
MUSK (Med. Lat. muscuSf late Gr. ftdaxot, possibly Pers.
muskk, from Sansk. muskka, the scrotum), the name originally
^ven to a perfume obtained from the strong-smelling sul»tance
secreted in a gland by the musk-deer (q.v.), and hence applied
to other animals, and also to plants, possessing a similar odour.
The variety which appears in commerce is a secretion of the
musk-deer; but the odour is also emitted by the musk-ox and
musk-rat of India and Europe, by the musk-duck {Bixiura
lobaia) of West Australia, the musk-shrew, the musk-beetle
iCalickroma moschala), the alligator of Central America, and by
several other animals. In the vegetable kingdom it is present
in the common musk (Mimulus fitoschatus), the musk-wood
of the Guianas and West Indies {Guareat spp.), and in the seeds
of Hibiscus AhelmoscktCs (musk-seeds). To obtain the perfume
from the musk-deer the animal is killed and the gland com-
pletely removed, and dried, either in the sun, on a hot stone,
or by immersion in hot oil. It appears in commerce as " musk
in pod," i.e. the glands are entire, or as " musk in grain," in
which the perfume has been extracted from its receptacle.
Three kinds are recognized: (i) Tong-king, Chinese or Tibetan,
imported from China, the most valued; (a) Assam or Nepal,
less valuable; and (3) Karbardin or Russian (Siberian), imported
from Central Asia by way of Russia, the least valuable and
hardly admitting of adulteration. The Tong-king musk is
exported in small, gaudily decorated caddies with tin or lead
linings, wherein the perfume is sealed down; it is now usuaUy
transmitted direct by parcel post to the merchant.
Good musk is of a dark purplish colour, dry, smooth and
unctuous to the touch, and bitter in taste. It dissolves in iMiling
water to the extent of about one-half; alcohol takes up one-third
of the substance, and ether and chloroform dissolve still less.
A grain of musk will distinctly scent millions of cubic feet of
air without any appreciable loss of weight, and its scent is not
only more penetrating but more persistent than that of any
other known substance. In addition to its odoriferous principle,
it contains ammonia, cholesterin, fatty matter, a bitter resinous
substance, and other animal principles. As a material in
perfumery it is of the first importance, its powerful and enduring
odour giving strength and permanency to the vegetable essences,
so that it is an ingredient in many compounded perfumes.
Artificial musk is a synthetic product, having a dinilar odour to
natural musk. It was obtained by Baur in i883 b^ condensing
toluene with iiobutyl bromide in the presence of aluminium chloride,
and nitrating the product. It is a symtrinitro-^-butyl toluene.
Many similar preparations have been made, and it appears that the
odour depends upon the symmetry of the three nitro groups.
MUSK-DEER (Afosckus mosckiferus), an aberrant member
of the deer family constituting the sub-family Cervidae Moschinaa
(see Deer). Both sexes are devoid of antler appendage;
but in this the musk-deer agrees with one genus of true deer
(Hydrelapkus), and as in the latter, the upper caninfe teeth of
the males are k>ng and sabre-like, projecting below the chin,
with the ends turned somewhat backwards. In size the musk-
deer is rather less than the European roe-deer, being about
20 in. high at the shoulder. Its limbs, especially the hinder
pair, are k>ng; and the feet remarkable for the great develop-
ment of the lateral pair of hoofs and for the freedom of motion
The Musk-deer {Uoxkus mosckiferus).
they all present, which must be of assistance to the animal
in steadying it in its agile bounds among the crags of its native
haunts. The ears are large, and Xhe tail rudimentary. The
hair covering the body is long, coarse, and of a peculiarly
brittle and pith-like character, breaking easily; it is generally
of a greyish-brown colour, sometimes inclined to yellowish-red,
and often variegated with lighter patches. The musk-deer
inhabits the forest districts in the Himalaya as far west as
Gilgit, always, however, at great elevations— being rarely
found in summer below 8000 ft. above the sea-level, and ranging
as high as the limits of the thickets of birch, rhododendron
and juniper, among which it mostly conceals itself in the day-
time. The range extends into Tibet, Siberia and north-
western China; but the musk-deer of Kansu hss been separated
as a distinct species, under the name of li. sifanicui. Musk-
deer are hardy, solitary and retiring animals, chiefly nocturnal
in habits, and almost always found alone, rarely in pairs and
never in herds. They are exceedingly acrive and surefooted,
having perhaps no equal in traversing rocks and precipitous
ground; and they feed on moss, grass, and leaves of the plants
which grow on the mountains.
Most mammals have certain portions of the skin specially
modified and provided with gUnds secreting odorous and fatty
substances characteristic of the particular q>edes. The special
gland of the musk-deer, which has made the animal so well
known, and has proved the cause of unremitting persecution
to its possessor, is found in the male only, and is a sac about
the size of a small orange, situated beneath the skin of the
abdomen, the orifice being immediately in front of the preputial
aperture. The secretion with which the sac is filled is dark
brown or chocolate in colour, and when fresh of the consistence
of " moist gingerbread," but becoming dry and granular after
keeping (see Musk), The Kansu {M. sifanicus) differs from
the typical q>edes in having longer ears, which are black on
the outer surface.
MUSKEGON, a dty and the county-seat of Muskegon
county, Michigan, U.S.A., on Muskegon lake, an expansion
of Muskegon river near its mouth, about 4 <&• from Lake
Michigan and 38 m. N.W. of Grand Rapids. Pop. (1890),
32,703; (1900), 20,8x8, of whom 6236 were fbreign-bom;
MUSKET— MUSK-OX
91
(1910 ceosn) 24,063. It 11 aervcd by the Grand Tnink.
the Fire MArquctte, the Grand Rapids & Indiana, and the
Grand lUpida, Grand Haven & Muskegon (dearie) railways,
and by steamboat lines to Oiicago, Milwaukee and other lake
ports. There are several summer resorts in the vicinity. As
the gifuoC Charles ILHackky (1837-1905). a rich lumberman,
the dty has an endowment fund to the public schools of about
S2/>oo/)oo; a manual training school, which has an endowment
of t6oivooo, and is one of the few endowed public schoob in
the United States; a public libr^, with an endowment of
$375^000; a public hoqutal with a $600,000 endowment; and
a poor fund endowment of $300,000. In Hackley Park there
are statues of Lincoln and Farragut, and at the Hackley School
there is a sUtue of McKinley; all three are by C. H. Niehaus.
The mimidpality ofha and operates its water-works. Muskegon
lake is 5 m. long and i| m. wide, with a depth of 30 to 40 ft.,
and is ice-free throughout the year. The channel from Muskegon
lake to Lake Michigan has been improved to a depth of 20 ft.
and a width of 300 ft. by the Federal government since 1867.
From Muskegon are shipped large quantities of lumber and
raarkct-sarden produce, besides the numerous manufactures
of the dty. The total value of all factory products in 1904
«as $6419,441 (39*6% more than in 1900), of which more
than one-sixth was the value of lumber. A trading post was
fftahlfshrd here in 18x2, but a permanent settlement was
not csublished until 1834. Muskegon was laid out as a town
ia 1849, incorporated as a village in x86i, and chartered as a
city in 1869. The name is probably derived from a Chippewa
word, mashtg or mmkeg, meaning "grassy bog/' still used in
th at sense in north-western America.
MUSKKT (Fr. mousqud, Ger. liwkekt &c), the term generally
applied to the firearm of the infantry soldier from about 1550
up to and even beyond the univenal adoption of rifled small
arms about x85o-i86a The word originally signified a male
iparrowbawk Italian nuucketio, derived perhaps ultimately
faom Latin mmsea, a fly) and its application to the weapon may
be eqrfaixied by the practice of naming firearms after birds
and beasts (d. falcon, basilisk). Strictly speaking, the word
B inapplicable both to the early hand-guns and to the arquebuses
and calxvcrs that superseded the hand-guns. The " musket "
proper, introduced into the Spanish army by the duke of Alva,
was mocfa heavier and more powerful than the arquebus. Its
buOet retained sufficient striking energy to stop a horse at 500
and 600 3rards from the muzzle. A writer in 1598 (quoted
<JL in the New Engfish Dictionary) goes so far as to say
thai '* One good musket may be accounted for two callivers."
Unlike the arquebus, it was fired from a rest, which the
** sosketecr " stuck into the ground in front of him. But
daring the xTth century the musket in use was so far improved
that the rest oonkl be dispensed with (see Gun). The musket
was a matchlock, weapons with other forms of lock being
distinguished as wheel-locks, firelocks, snaphances, ftc., and
soldiers were similarly distinguished as musketeers and fu^ers.
Ob the disuse, about 1690-1695, of this form of firing mechanism,
the term " musket " was, in France at least, for a time discon-
tinued in favour of " fu^," or flint-lock, which thenceforward
reigned supieme up to the introduction of a practicable per-
ansioD kxk about x83o-i84a But the term "musket"
l ui v iv ed the thing it originally represented, and was currently
used for the firdock (and afterwards for the percussion weapon).
To-day it is generically used for military firearms anterior to
the modem rifle. The original meaning of the word musketry
has rcnained almost unaltered since x6oo; it signifies the fire of
infantry smaD-arms (though for this " rifle fire " is now a far
more usual term) and in particular the art of using them
(see IxraifTEr and Rifle). Of the derivatives, the only one
that is not aelf-ezplanatory b musketoon. This was a short,
liigt '-b u t e musket somewhat of the blunderbuss type. originaUy
d fjgnrd for the use of cavalry, but afterwards, in the x8th
ce ntmy , chiefly a domestic or coachman's weapon.
MOSKBOGBAlf STOCK, a North American Indian stock. The
'suae » fium that of the chief tribe of the Creek confederacy,
the Muskogee. It indudes the Creeks, Chocuws, Chickasaws,
Seminoles and other tribes. lu territory was almost the
whole sute of Mississippi, western Tennessee, eastern Kentucky,
AUbama, most of Georgia, and later nearly all Florida. Musk-
faogean traditions aangn the west and north-west as the original
home of the stock. Its history begins in 1537, on the first
landing of the Spaniards on the Gulf Coast. The Muskhogean
peoples were then settled agriculturisU with an eUborate sodal
organization, and living in villages, many of which were fortified
(see Indians: North American),
MUSKOOEB, a dty and the county-aeat of Muskogtt county,
Oklahoma, U.S.A., about 3 m. W. by S. of the confluence of the
Verdigris, Neosho (or Grand) and Arkansas rivers, and about
130 m. E.N.E. of Oklahoma City. Pop. (1900), 4x54; (1907),
14,418, of whom 4398 were negroes and 332 Indians; (19x0), a5,a78.
It is served by the St Louis & San Frandsoo, the Midland
Valley, the Missouri, Kansas & Texas, and the Missouri,
ddahoma & Gulf railways. Fort Gibson (pop. in 19x0. 1344),
about 5 m. N.E. on the Neosho, near its confluence with the
Arkansas, is the head of steam-boat navigation of the
Arkansas; if is the site of a former government fort and of a
national cemetery. Muskogee is the seat of Spaulding Institute
(M.E. Church, South) and Nazareth InsUtute (Roman Catholic),
and at Bacone, about 2 m. north-east, is Indian University
(Baptist, opened X884). Muskogee is the commercial centre of
an agricultural and stock-raising region, is surrounded by
an oil and natural gas field of considerable extent producing
a high grade of petroleum, and has a large oil refinery, railway
shops (of the Midland Valley ^d the Missouri, Oklahoma &
Gulf railways), cotton gins, cotton compresses, and cotton-seed
oil and flour mills. Tbt munidpality owns and operates the
water-works, the water supply being drawn from the Neosho
river. Muskogee was founded about 1870, and became the
chid town of the Creek Nation (Muskogee) and the metropolis
and administrative centre of the former Indian Territory,
being the headquarters of the Union Indian Agency to the
Five Civilized Tribes, of the United States (Dawes) Commission
to the Five Civilized Tribes, and of a Federal land office for
the allotment of lands to the Creeks and Cherokecs, and the
seat of a Federal Court. The dty was chartered in X898; its
area was enlarged in 1908, increasing its population.
MUSK-OX* also kxx>wn as musk-buffalo and mu»k-sheep,
an Arctic American ruminant of the family Bovidae (q.v.),
now rq>resenting a genus and sub-family by itself. Apparently
the musk-ox (Chibos mosckatus) has little or no near relaflon-
ship to dther the oxen or the sheep; and it is not improbable
that its affinities are with the Asiatic takin {Budorcas) and the
extinct European Criotkerium of the Pliocene of Samoa. The
musky odour from which the animal takes its name does not
appear to be due to the secretion of any gland.
In height a bull musk-ox stands about 5 ft. at the shoulder.
The head is large and broad. The horns in old males have
extremdy broad bases, meeting in the middle line, and covering
the brow and crown of the bead. They are directed at first
downwards by the side of the face, and then turn upwards
and forwards, ending in the same plane as the eye. The basal
half is dull white, oval in section and coarsdy fibrous, the middle
part smooth, shining atad round, and the tip black. In females
and young niales the horns are smaller, and their bases separated
by a tfMce in the middle of the forehead. The ears are small,
erect, pointed, and nearly concealed in the hair.- The space
between the nostrils and the vppw Kp is covered with diort
dose hair, as in sheep and goats, without any trace of the bare
muzzle of oxen. The greater part of the animal is covered with
long brown hair, thick, matted and curly on the shoulders,
so as to give the appearance of a hump, but elsewhere straight
and hanging down — that of the sides, back and haunches
reaching as far as the middle of the legs and entirely concealing
the very short tail There is also a thick woolly under-fur,
shed in summer, when the whole coat comes off in blanket-like
masses. The hair on the lower jaw, throat and chest is long
and straight, and hangs down like a beard or dewlap, though
92
MUSK-RAT
there is no loose fold of skin in this situation. The limSs are
stout and short, terminating in unsymmetrical hoofs, the external
being rounded, the internal pointed, and the sole partially
covered with hair.
Musk-oxen at the present day are confined to the most
northern parts of North America, where they range over the
rocky Barren Grounds between lat. 64** and the shores of the
Arctic Sea. Its southern range is gradually contracting, and
it appears that it is no longer met with west of the Mackenzie
river, though formerly abundant as far as Eschscholu Bay.
The Musk-ox {Ovibos mosckatus).
Northwards and eastwards it extends through the Parry
Islands and Grinnell Land to north Greenland, reaching on
the west coast as far south as Melville Bay; and it also occurs
at Sabine Island on the east coast. The Greenland animal is
a distinct race (0. m. wardi), distinguished by white hair on
the forehand; and it is suggested that the one from Grinnell
Land forms a third race. As proved by the discovery of fossil
remains, musk-oxen ranged during the Pleistocene period over
northern Siberia and the plains of Germany and France, their
bones occurring in river-deposits along with those of the rein-
deer, mammoth, and woolly rhinoceros. They have also been
found in Pleistocene gravels in several parts of England, as
Maidenhead, Bromley, Freshficld near Bath, Bamwood near
Gloucester, and in the brick-earth of the Thames valley at Cray-
ford, Kent; while their remains also occur in Arctic America.
Musk-oxen are gregarious in habit, assembling in herds of
twenty or thirty head, or sometimes eighty or a hundred, in
which there are seldom more than two or three full-grown
males. They run with considerable speed, notwithstanding
the shortness of their legs. They feed chiefly on grass, but
also on moss, lichens and tender shoots of the willow and pine.
The female brings forth one young in the end of May or begin-
ning of June, after a gestation of nine months. The Swedish
expedition to Greenland in 1899 found musk-oxen in herds
of varying size — some contained only a few individuals, and
in one case there were sixty-seven. The peculiar musky odour
was perceived from a distance of a hundred yards; but accord-
ing to Professor Nathorst there was no musky taste or smell in
the flesh if the carcase were cleaned immediately the animals
were killed.
Of late years musk-oxen have been exhibited alive in Europe;
and two examples, one of which lived from 1899 till 1903, have
been brought to England. The somewhat imperfect skull of an
extinct n)ecies of musk-ox from the gravels of the Klondike has
enabled Mr W. H. Osgood to make an important addition to our
knowledge of this remarkable type of ruminant. The skull, which
is probably that of a female, differs from the ordinary musk-ox by
the much snialler and shorter horn-cores, which are widely separ-
ated in the middle line of the skull, where there is ajnoove-like
depression running the whole length of the forehead. The sockets
of the eves are also much less prominent, and the whole fore-part of
the skull is proportionately longer. On account of these ana other
differences (for which the reader may refer to the original paper,
published in vol. xlviiL of the SmitluoniaH Misctttaneaus CoUecttMs)
its describer refers the Klondike skull to a new senus, with the
title Symbos tyrrelli, the specific name being eiven in honour of its
discoverer. This, however, is not all, for Mr Osgood points out
that a skull discovered miny years af^o in the vfrinity of Fort
Gibson, Oklahoma, and thi r» iijmed Qvihsi or BiiOthtTi\tM cavifrons,
evidently belongs to the K^irjc gcnuc That tkult indicates a bull,
and the author suggests thiu ii: may insjibly be the nok of Symbos
lyrrelli, although the wide 5€;hinitiui:i of the Jixa/itics made him
hesitate to accept this vie .v. r?dk;)|)» it idtould have l.een better
had he done so, and taken 1 h-r n:im? hymbtn csvifrons for \ he species.
A third type of musk-ox '^kull u, ho^xrvcr, known from North
America, namely one from [hi; rrEcbmtcfJ Big-Bone Lick, Kentucky,
on whkJi the genus and s| < rtt^s Buoih^mm b^m&tfrmi was estab-
lished, which differs from .dl [dc oihrrt tjy iia im^]! iite, con\-ex
forehead and rounded hom-rorrs, ihc Urtcr icing viry widely
separated, and arising froiti cht: ^dcj tod the skull- Tht^ necimen
has been regarded as the f^Enitlc^ of Symbof iavipmi ; but this
view, as pointed out by M r OsgcMjfJ, is atmo^t cerLiiiay incorrect,
and it represents an entirely liisunci; ^tirni.
This, however, is not th< \vhv\v of the f^Bt hintory of the musk-
ox ^up; and in thisconne^i.^n \\ ina}' h^ iritntiDncd that pabeonto-
logical discoveries are gradM I l!y injiltjnc it evii]i nt ihjt the poverty
01 America in species of horned ruminants is to a great extent a
feature of the present day, and that in past times it possessed a
considerable number of representatives of this group. One o^ the
latest additions to the list is a large shecp-likc animal from a cave
in California, apparently representing a new generic type, which
has been described bjr E. L. Furlong in the publications of the
University of California, under the name of Preptocnas sinclairi.
It is represented by a nearly complete skeleton, and has doubly-
curved horns and sheep-like teeth. In common with an allied
ruminant from the same district, previously described as Eucera-
Iherium, it seems probable that Preptoceras is related on the one
hand to the musk-ox, and on the other to the Asiatic takin. while
it is also supposed to have affinities with the sheep. It these
extinct forms really serve to connect the takin with the musk-ox.
their systematic imfXHtance will be very great. From a geographical
point of view nothing is more likely, for the takin forms a type
confined to Eastern Asia CTibet and Szechuen). and it would be
reasonable to expect that, like so many other peculiar forms from
the same region, they should have representatives on the American
side of the Pacific (R. L.*)
MUSK-RAT. or Musquash, the name of a large North Ameri-
can rat-like rodent mammal, technically known as Fiber stbe-
tkicus, and belonging to the mouse-tribe (Muridae). Aquatic
in habits, this animal is rekted to the English water-rat and
therefore included in the sub-family Microtinae (see Vole). It
is, however, of larger size, the head and body being about 12 in.
The Musk-rat {Fiber ttbetkkus).
in length and the tail but little less. It is rather a heavily,
built animal, with a broad head, no distinct neck, and short
limbs, the eyes are small, and the ears project very little beyond
the fur. The fore-limbs have four toes and a rudimentary
thumb, all with claws; the hind limbs arc larger, with five distinct
toes, united by short webs at their bases. The tail is laterally
compressed, nearly naked, and scaly. The hair much rcsentblcs
that of a beaver, but is shorter; it consists of a thick soft under*
fur, interspersed with longer stiff, glistening hairs, which overlie
and concnl the foimer, on the Mpper surface and sides of ibe
MUSK-SHREW— MUSPRATT, J.
body. Hk fenciml colour is 6nA umber-brown, almost black
on the back and grey bdow. Tbe tail and naked parts of the
feet are Uack. Tbe musky odour from which it derives its
name is due to the secretion of a Urge gland situated in the
inguinaJ region, and present in both lezes.
The ord^iary musk-rat is one of several spedcs of a genus
peculiar to America, where it is distributed in suitable localities
in tbe northern part of the continent, extending from the
Atlantic to the Pacific, and from the Rio Grande to the barren
grounds bordering the Arctic seas. It lives on the shores of
lakes and rivers, swimming and diving with fadlity, feeding on
the roots, stems and leaves of water-plants, or on fruits and
vegetables which grow near the margin of the streams it inhabits.
Musk-rats are most active at night, q>ending the greater part
of the day concealed in their burrows in the bank, which consist
of a chamhff with numerous passages, all of which open under
the surface of the water. For winter quarters they build more
daborate houses of conical or dome-like form, composed of
sedges, grasses and similar materials plastered together with
mod. As their fur is an important article of commerce, lazge
numbers are annually killed, being either trapped or speared
at the mouths of their holes. (See also Rooekha.)
MIISK«8HRBW, a name for any species of the genus Crocidwra
of the family Soriddat (see Imsectivora). The term is generally
used of the common grey musk-shrew (C. coemUa) of India.
Dr Dobaon believed this to be a semi-domesticated variety of the
brown musk-shrew (C. murina), which he considered the original
wild type. The heaid and body of a full-grown specimen measure
about 6 in.; the tail is rather more than half that length; and
bluish-giiey is the usual cofeur of the fur, which is paler on the
under surfisce. Dr Blanford sUtes that the story of wine or beer
b<yoniing impregnated with a musky taint in consequence of
this shrew passing over the bottles, is less credited in India
than formeriy owing to the discovery that liquors bottled in
Europe and exported to India are not liable to be thus tainted.
mnLDI IBM AL-QAJJiJ, the Imam, the author of one of
the two books of Mahommedan tradition called ^a^i^, " sound,"
was bom at Nishnpur at some uncertain date after aj>. 815 and
died there in 875. Like al-Bukhflri {q.v.)^ of whom he was a
dose and faithful friend, he gave himself to the collecting, sifting
and arranging of traditions, travelling for the purpose as far as
Egypt. It b plain that his sympathies were with the traditionalist
school or opposed to that which sought to build up the system
of canon law on a speculative basis (see Mahoioceoan Law).
But though be was a student and friend of Ahmad ibn Qanbal
(f.r.) he did not go in traditionalism to the lezigtb of some, and
he d^ended al-Bukhlrl when the latter was driven from Nishapur
for icfusittg to admit that the utterance {lafz) of the Koran by
man was as uncreated as the Koran itself (see Mahoiocedan
Reugion; and Patton's Ahmad ibn Hanbal, 3a sqq.). His great
aaUectkm of traditions is second in popularity only to that of
al-Bakhm, and is commonly r^arded as more accurate and
reliable in details, especially names. His object was more to
weed out illegitimate accretions than to furnish a traditional
basis for a sjrstem of law. Therefore, though he arranged his
material according to such a system, he did not add guiding
mbrks, and he rqpilarly brought together in one place the
diflerent parallel versions of the same tradition. His book is
thus historically more useful, but legally less suggestive. His
bsograpbers give almost no details as to his life, and its early
part was probably very obscure. One gives a list of as many
as twenty works, but only his ^a^ seems to have reached us.
See farther, de ^ne's transl. of Ibn Khallik&n, iii. 348 sqq, and of
Ibn KhaUan's ProUgomhus, ii. 470, 47«; Goldzihcr, Muhammedan-
iteke Simdiem, n. 345 aqq., 355 sqq.; Brockelmann, GesckickU der
aab, Un^ L 760 seq.; Macdonald. uadopment of Muslim Theology,
80, 147 aeq.; DhahaU Tadkkira (edit, of Hyderabad), ii. 165 aqq.
(D. B. MaT)
HOStn (through Fr. moussdine from It. mussolino, diminu-
tive oC Miusselc, i.e. the town Mosul in Kurdistan) a light cotton
ckxfa said to have been first made at Mosul, a city of Mesopo-
tamia. Muslins have been largely made in various parts of
India, wlicnce they were imported to England towards the end
93
of the X7th century. Some of these Indian muslins were veiy
fine and costly. Among the specialties are ilrm mmImi, made
In the Madras presidency, and Daua miu/tif, made at Dacca
in Bengal. Muslins of many kinds are now made in Eun^
and America, and the name is appL'ed to both plain and fancy
cloths, and to printed calicoes of light texture. Swiss muslin
is a light variety, woven in stripes or figxires, originally made
in Switzerland. Book muslin is made in Scotland from very
fine yarns. Mulls, jaconets, lenos, and other cloths exported
to the East and elsewhere are sometimes described as muslins.
Muslin is used for dresses, blinds, curtains, 8tc.
IIU80NIUS RUFU8. a Roman phik>sopher of the ist century
A.D., was born in Etruria about aj>. 20-30. He fell under
the ban of Nero owing to his ethical teachings, and was exiled
to the island of Gyarus on a trumped-up chaige of participation
in Piao's conspiracy. He returned under Galba, and was the
friend of Vitellius and Vespasian. It was he who dared to bring
an accusation against P. Egnathis Celer (the Stoic philosopher
whose evidence had condemned his patron and disdple Soranus)
and who endeavoured to preach a doctrine of peace and good-
will among the soldiers of Vespasian when they were advancing
upon Rome. So highly was he esteemed in Rome that Vespasian
inade an exception in his case when all other philosophers were
expelled from the dty. As to his death, we know only that
he was not living in the reign of Trajan. His philosophy,
which is in most respects identical with that of his pupil,
Epictetus, is marked by its strong practical tendency. Though
he did not altogether neglect logic and physics, he maintained
that virtue is the only real aim of men. This virtue is not a
thing of precept and theory but a practical, living reality. It
is identical with philosophy in the true sense of the word, and
the truly good man is also the true philosopher.
Suidas attributes numerous works to him, amongst others a
number of letters to Apolionius of Tyana. The letters are certainly
unauthentic: about the others there is no evidence. His views
were collected by Cbudius (or Valerius) PoUio, who wrote 'Avo-
unfttop^ara Mowiariov roO ^XooSi^oo, from which Stobacus
obtained his informatioh. See Ritter ana Prcller (( 477, 488. 489;
Tacitus, Annals, xv. 71 and Histories, iii. 81 ; and compare articles
Stoics and Efictbtus.
MUSPRATT, JAMES (i 793-1886), British chemical manu-
facturer, was bom in Dublin on the X2th of August 1793. At
the age of fourteen he was apprenticed to a wholesale druggist,
but his apprenticeship was terminated in 1810 by a quarrel
with his master, and in 18x2 he went to Spain to take part in
the Peninsular War. Lack of influence prevented him from
getting a commission in the cavalry, but he followed the British
army on foot far into the interior, was laid up with fever at
Madrid, and, narrowly escaping capture by tbe French, succeeded
in making his way to Lisbon. There he joined the navy, but
after taking part in the blockade of Brest he was led to desert,
through the harshness of the discipline on the second of the two
ships in which he served. Returning to Dublin about 1814,
he began the manufacture of chemical products, such as hydro-
chloric and acetic acids and turpentine, adding prussiate of
potash a few years later. He also had in view the manufacture
of alkali from common salt by the Leblanc process, but on the
one hand he could not command the capital for the plant, and
on the other saw that Dublin was not well situated for the experi-
ment. In 1832 he went to Liverpool, which was at once a good
port and within easy reach of salt and coal, and took a lease of
an abandoned glass-works on the bank of the canal in Vauxhall
Road. At first he confined himself to prussiate of potash, until
in X833, when the tax on salt was reduced from 158. to 2s. a
biishel, his profits enabled him to erect lead-chambers for making
the sulphuric acid necessary for the Leblanc process. In 1828
he built works at St Helen's and in 1830 at Newton; at the latter
place he was long harassed by litigation on account of the
damage done by the hydrochloric acid emitted from his factory,
and finally in X850 he left it and started new works at Widnes
and Flint. In 1834-183 5, in conjunction with Charles Tennant,'
he purchased sulphur mines iii Sicily, to provide the raw material
for his sulphuric add; but on the imposition of the NeapoUtau
94
MUSSCHENBROEK— MUSSEL
govenunent of a prohibitive duty on sulphur Mus{»att found
a substitute in iron pyrites, which was thus introduced as the
raw material for the manufacture of sulphuric add. He was
always anxious to employ the best scientific advice available
and to try every novelty that promised advantage. He was
a close friend of Liebig, whose mineral manures were compounded
at his works. He dfed at Seaforth Hall, near Liverpod/on the
4th of May x886. After his retirement in 1857 his business was
continued in the hands of four of his ten children.
His eldest son, Jakes Sheudan Muspkatt (1831-1871),
studied chemistry under Thomas Graham at Glasgow and
London and under Liebig at Gieaaen, and in 1848 founded the
Liverpool College of Chemistry, an institution for training
chemists, of which he also acted as director. From 1854 to
i860 he was occupied in preparing a dictionary of Chemistry . . .
as appKtd and rdoHng to the Arts and Manufactures^ which
was translated into German and Russian, and he published a
translation of Plattner's treatise on the blow-pipe in 1845, luid
Outlines of Analysis in 1849. His original work included a
research on the siUphitcs (1845), and the preparation of toluidine
and nitro-aniline in 1845-1846 with A. W. Hofmann.
MUSSCHENBROEK. PIETBR VAN (1692-1761), .Dutch
natural philosopher, was bom on the 14th of March 1693 at
Leiden, where his father Johann Joosten van Musschenbroek
(Z66&-1707) was a maker of physical apparatus. He studied
at the university of his native dty, where he was a pupil and
friend of W. J. s'G. Gravesande. Graduating in 1715 with a
dissertation, De aeris praesenlia in kumoribus animalium, Mus-
schenbioek was appointed professor at Duisburg in 17x9. Jn
1733 he was promoted to the chair of natural philosophy and
mathematics at Utrecht In 1731 he declined an invitation
to Copenhagen, and was promoted in consequence to the chair
of astronomy at Utrecht in 1733. The attempt of George U.
of England in 1737 to attract him to the newly-established
university of Gdttingen was also unsuccessfuL At length,
however, the claims of his native dty overcame his resolution
to remain at Utrecht, and he accepted the mathematical chair
at Ldden in X739, where, declining all offers from abroad, he
remained till his death on the 9th of September 1761.
Hu first important production was Epitome dementonm fkysiah
matkematicomm (i3mo, Leiden, 1736) — a work which was after-
wards gradually altered as it passed thmugb several editions, mnd
which appeared at length (posthumously, cd. by Jahann LuL^jfa,
one of hts colleagues as Leiden) in 176.^ under the tlile o\ InirMnctio
ad pkilosopkiam naturalem. The Fhystca^ exprrim^mtale^ tl ^eo-
metricae dissertationes (I73;9) threw new Lii|;ht on nmgncriisni, capillary
attraction, and the cohesion of bodies, A Latin cdttion with notes
(1731) of the Italian work Saggi di natvoii m^mti./ > stf-
tAccademia del Cimento contained arnon^ ma oy ot ti cr r . . ins
a deicriptton of a new instrument, tha pyrometer, *bli. . . m-
broek had invented, and of several tatpcrimcnt^ whii;!* hi- n.n] nL^de
on the expansion 01 bodies by heat ^lLl^^c:)1L^nh^lx::te was. al^ the
author ofEUmenta pkysica (8vo, IJ^n}. nn4 hi» ru\rac ii AasoclaEed
with the invention of the Leyden jar ' v-
MUSSEL (O. Eng. musdet Lat. musculus, diminutive of mus,
mouse, applied to small sea fish and mussels), a term applied
in England to two families of LamcUibranch Molluscsr— the
marine Mytilacea, of which the edible mussel, Mytilus edulis,
is the representative; and the fresh-water Unionidae^ of which
the river mussel, Unio pictorumt and the swan mussel, Anodonta
cygneOf are the common British examples. It is not obvious
why these fresh-water forms have b^n associated popularly
with the Mytilacea under the name mussel, unless it be on
account of the frequently very dark colour of their shells. They
are somewhat remote from the sea mussels in structure, and have
not even a common economic importance.
The sea mussel (Mytilus edulis) belongs to the second order
of the dass Lamdlibranckia (9.9.), namely the Filibranchia,
distinguished by the comparatively free condition of the gill-
fiUments, which, whilst adhering to one another to form gill-
plates, are yet not fused to one another by concrescence. It is
also remarkable for the small size of its foot and the large
development of two glands in the foot— the byssus-forming and
the byssu8<ementing glands. The byssus is a collection of
homy threads'by which the sea mussel (like many other LamcUi-
branch or bivalve molluscs) fixes itself to stones, rocks or
submerged wood, but is not a permanent means of attachment,
since it can be discarded by the animal, whicb» after a certain
amount of locomotion, again fixes itself by new secretion of
b3rssus fror the foot. Such movement is more frequeza in
young mussrls than in the full-grown. Mytilus possesses no
siphonal tube-like productions of the margin of the mantle-skirt,
nor any notching of the same, representative of the siphons
which are found in its fresh-water ally, the Dreissensia poly-
morpha.
Mytilus edulis is an exceedingly abundant and widely distri-
buted form. It occurs on both sides of the northern Atlantic
and in the Mediterranean basin. It presents varieties of form
and colour according to the depth of water and other circum-
stances of its habiut. Usually it is found on the British coast
encrusting rocks exposed at low tides, or on the flat surfaces
formed by sandbanks overlying clay, the latter kind of colonies
being known locally as "scalps." Under these conditions it
forms continuous masses of individuals closely packed together,
sometimes extending over many acres of surface and numbering
millions. The readiness with which the young Mytilus attaches
itself to wicker-work is made the means of artifidaJly cultivating
and securing these molluscs for the market both in the Bay of
Kiel in North Germany and at the mouth of the Somme and other
spots on the coast of France.
Natural scalps are subject to extreme vicissitudes: an area
of many acres may be destroyed by a local change of current
producing a deposit of sand or shhigle over the scalp, or by
exposure to frost at low tide in winter, or by accumulation of
decomposing vegetable matter. The chief localities of natural
scalps on the British coast are Morecambe Bay in Lancashire
and the flat eastern shores, especially that of the Wash of Lincoln,
and similar shallow bays. These scalps are in some cases in
the hands of private owners, and the Fisheries Department has
made arrangements by which some local authorities, e.g. the
corporation of Boston, can lease layings to individuals for the
purpose of artificial cultivation.
The sea mussel is scarcely inferior in commercial value to the
oyster. In X873 the value of mussels exported from Antwerp
alone to Paris to be used as human food was £380,000. In Britain
their chief consumption is in the deep-sea line fishery, where they
are held to be the most effective of all baits. Twenty-eight boats
engaged in haddock-fishing at Eyemouth used between October
1883 and May 1883 930 tons of mussels (about 47^)00,000 in-
dividuals), costing neany £1800 to the fishermen, about one-half of
which sum was expenoea on the carriage of the mussels. The
quantity of mussels landed on Scottish coasts has decreased in
recent years owing to the decline in the line fisheries. In 1896
the quantity was over 3^3,000 cwts.. valued at £14,950: in 1903 it
was only 95.663 cwts., valued at £5976. In the statistics tor England
and Wales mussels are not separately distinguished. Many thou-
sand tons of mussels are wastcfuUy employed as manuie by the
farmers on lands adjoinii^ scalp-producing coasts, as in Lancashire
and Norfolk, three half-pence a bushel being the price quoted in
such cases. It b a cunous fact, illustrative of the ignorant pro-
cedure and arbitrary fashions of fisher-folk, thai on the Atlantic
seaboard of the United States the sea mussel, Mytilus edulis, though
common, is not used as bait nor as food. Instead, the soft clam.
Mva arenaria, a Lamellibranch not used by English or Norwegian
fishermen, though abundant on their shores, is employed as bait
by the fishermen to the extent of i} million bushels per annum,
valued at £130,000. At the mouth oif the river Conway in North
Wales the sea mussd is crushed in large quantities in order to
extract pearls of an- inferior quality which are occasionally found
in these as in other Lamellibranch molluscs (Gwyn Jeffreys).
Mytilus edulis is considered of fair sixe for eating when it is
3 in. in length, which sixe is attained in three years ^ter the spat
or young mused has fixed itself. Under favourable circumstances
it will grow much larger than this, specimens being recorded of
9 in. in length. It is very tderant of fresh water, fattening beat.
as does the oyster, in water of density 1014 (the density of the water
of the North Sea being 1036). Experiments made by removing
mussels from salt water to braddsn, and finally to quite fresh
water show that it is even more tolerant of fresh water than the
oyster; of thirty mussels so transferred all were alive after fifteen
days. Mytilus edulis is occa«onally poisonous, owing to conditiona
not satisfactorily determined.
The fresh-water Musseb, Anodonta cygnea^ Unio pictorwm^
MUSSELBURGH— MUSSET, ALFRED DE
95
and Umo marpurUifmts bdong to the order Etilamenibrandiia
of LanelUbrajich MoDuscs, in which the anterior and posterior
adductor musdes are equally developed. An account of the
anatomy of Auodon is given in the article Lamelubsanchia.
Umo differs in no important point from Anodmda in internal
stractnre. The family Uniamdae, to which these genera helong,
» of wocid-wide distribution, and its species occur only in ponds
and rivers. A vast number of spedes arranged in several genera
and snb-gcDera have been distinguished, but in the British
Islands the three spedes above named are the only claimants to
thetitJeof *' fresh- water musseL"
A9«dmaa cypua, the Pond Mussel or Swan Mussel, appean to be
estiieiy without economic inpoftance. Unto piclcrum, the common
river amMcl (Thames), appears to owe its name to the fact that the
ibdb were used at one tune for holding water-colour paints as now
ibdb of this species and of the sea mussel are used for holding
gold and aiKcr paint sold by artists* colounnen, but it has no other
eoo B o mic value. Umie margqriHJenUt the peari mussd, was at
ooe time of consideFable importance as a source of pearls, and the
peari mnsael fishenr is to this day carried on under peculiar state
Rgulatioas in S w ed en and Saxony, and other parts of the continent.
In Scotia wd and Ireland the peari mussel fishery was also of im-
portance, but has al to ge t her dwindled into insignificance since the
opening up of commercial intercourse with the East and with the
iriands oi^ the Pacific Ooean« whence finer and more abundant
pBub than those of Unio marpiriiiferus are derived.
In the last for^ /^^ ^ tbe l8th century pearis were exported
from the Scotch nsneries to Paris to the value of £ioo/x»; round
pearls, the size of a pea, perfect in every respect, were worth £3
er£|. The peari mumd was fonnerly used as bait in the Aberdeen
LrrKKATunx.-^or an account of the anatomy of MytUus ed$dis
As reader is referred to the treatise by Sabatier on that subject
(Paris, 187s): The essay by Charles Harding on Molluscs used
lot Food or Bait, published by the committee of the London Inter-
nadoaal Fisberies Exhibition (1883), may be consulted as to the
eoooomic aoeations connected with the .sea mussd. The devdop-
ncnt of this species is described by Wilson in Fiph Ann. Rep.
Scot. Fisk. Board (1887). (E. R. L. ; J. T. C.)
■TOSBLBUROH, a munidpal and police burgh of Midlothian,
Scotland, 5I m. £. of Edinburgh by the North British railway.
Pbp. (1901), 11,711. The burgh, which stretches for a mile
akwig the south shore of the Firth of Forth, is inteisected by the
Esk and embraces the village of Fisherrow on the left bank of
the river. Its original name is said to have been Eskmouth, its
present one being derived from a bed of mussels at the mouth of
the river. While preserving most of the ancient features of its
I^gh Street, the town has tended to become a suburb of the
capital. Its fine beach and golf course hastening this development.
Thepafalic buildings indude the town-hall (dating from 1762 and
altered in 1876), the tolbooth (1590), and the grammar schooL
Loretto School, one of the foremost public schools in Scotland,
occapsfs the site of the chapel of Our Lady of Loretto, which
was founded In 1534 by lix)mas Duthie, a hermit from Mt
Sbiai This was the favourite shrine of Mary of Guise, who
betook herself hither at momentous crises in her history. The
ist eari of Hertford destroyed it in 1544, and after it was rebuilt
the Reformers demolished it again, some of its stones being
Bscd in erecting the tolbooth. In the west end of the town is
Pinkie House, formerly a seat of the abbot of Dunfermline,
bat transformed in 1613 by Lord Seton. It is a fine example
of a Jacobean mansion, with a beautiful fountain in the
saiddle of the court-yard. The painted gallery, with an elabor-
ate cdUng, 100 ft. long, was utilized as a hospital after the
battle Off Pinkie in 1547. Prince Charles Edward slept in it
the night following the fight at Prestonpans (1745). Near
the tolbooth stan<b the market cross, a stone column with
a onkom on the top supporting the burgh arms. At the
west end of High Street is a sUtue of David Macbeth
Moir (*'I>dta," 1798-1851), Musselburgh's most famous son.
Tbe antiquity of the town is placed beyond doubt by the
Roman bridge across the Esk and the Roman remains found
13 its vicinity. The chief bridge, which carries the high road
from Edinburgh to Berwick, was built by John Rennie in
1807. The prindpal industries indude paper-making, brewing,
tbe making of nets and twine, bricks, tHes and pottery,
and oil-refiniQg, besides taltwpr^ and seed-crushing
works, tht fishery .is confined to Fisherrow, where there is
a good harbour. . The Links are the scene every year of the
Edinburgh race nieetings and of those of the Royal Caledonian
Hunt which are hdd every third year. Archery contests also
take place at intervals under the auquces of the Royal Company
of Archers. Most of the charitable institutions— for instance,
the convalescent home, fever hoQ>ital, home for girls and Red
House home— are situated at Inveresk, about x| m. up the Esk.
About I m. south-east is the site of the battle of Pinkie,
and 2I m. south-east, on the verge of Haddingtonshire, is
Carberiy Hill, where Maiy surrendered to the lords of the
Congregation In 1567, the spot being still known as (^een
Mary's Mount. Mussdhmgh joins with Ldth and Portobello
(the Ldth Burghs) In returning one member to parliament.
MUSSBT. LOUIS CHARLBS ALFRBD DB (1810-1857), French
poet, play-writer and novelist, was bom on the x xth of Dtcember
x8io in a house in the middle of old Paris, near the HAtd Quny.
His father, Victor de Musset, who traced his descent back as far
as 1 140, hdd several ministerial posts of importance. He brought
•out an edition of J. J. Rousseau's works in 1821, and followed
it soon after with a volimie on the Genevan's life and writing.
In Alfred de Musset's childhood there were various things
which fostered his imaginative power. He and his brother
Paul (bom 1804, died x88o), who afterwards wrote a biography
of Alfred, delighted In reading old romances together, and in
assuming the characters of the heroes In those romances. But
It was not until about 1826 that Musset gave any definite sign of
the mental force which afterwards distinguished him. In the
summer of 1827 he won the second prize (at the College Henri
IV.) by an essay on "The Origin of our Feelings." In 1828,
when Eugene Scribe, Joseph Duveyrier, who under the name of
Mdesville, was a prolific pUywriter and sometimes collaborator
with Scribe, and others of note were in the habit of coming
to Mme de Musset's house at Auteuil, where drawing-room
plays and charades were constantly given, Musset, ezdted
by this companionship, wrote his first poem. This, to judge
from the extracts preserved, was ndther better nor worse than
much other work of dever boys who may or may not afterwards
turn out to be possessed of genius. He took up the study of
law, threw it over for that of medicine, which he could not
endure, and ended by adopting no set profession. Shortly
after his fiirst attempt in verse he was taken by Paul Foucher
to Victor Hugo's house, where he met such men as Alfred de
Vigny, Prosper Mdrimfe, Charles Nodier and Sainte-Beuve. It
was under Hugo's influence, no doubt, that he composed a
play. The scene was laid in Spain, and some lines, showing
a marked advance upon his first effort, are preserved. In
1828, when the war between the riasriral and the romantic
school of literature was growing daily more serious and exdting,
Musset had published some verses in a country newspaper,
and boldly redted some of his work to Sainte-Beuve, who
wrote of it to a friend, " There is amongst us a boy full of genius.*'
At eighteen years old Musset produced a translation, with
additions of his own, of De (^nccy's " Opium-Eatcr." This
was published by Mame, attracted no attention, and has been
long out of print. His first original volume was published in
1829 under the name of Conies d*£spagHC et d'IkUie, had an
immediate and striking success, provoked bitter opposition,
and produced many unworthy imitations. This volume con-
tained, along with far better and more important things, a
fantastic parody in verse on certain productions of the romantic
school, which made a deal of noise at the time. This was the
famous " Ballade i la lune " with its recurring comparison of
the moon shining above a steeple to the dot over an i. It
was, to Musset's delight, taken quite seriously by many worthy
folk.
In December 1830 Musset was just twenty years old, and was
already consdous of that curious double existence within him
so frequently symbolized in his plays— in Octave and Cdio
for instance (in Les Caprices de Marianne) ^ who also stand for
the two camps, the men of matter and the men of feeling—
which he has elsewhere described as characteristic of his
^
J
96
MUSSET, ALFRED DE
genention. At this date his piece the N«U vSnitienM was pro-
duced by Hard, manager of the Odfon. The exact causes of its
failure might now be far to seek; unlucky stage accidents had
something to do with it, but there seems reason to believe that
there was a strongly organized opposition. However this may
be, the result was disastrous to the French stage; for it put a
complete damper on the one poet who, as he afterwards showed
both in theoretical and in practical writings, had the fine insight
which took in at a glance the merits and defects both of the
classical and of the romantic schools. Thus he was strong and
keen to weld together the merits of both schools in a new method
which, but for the fact that there has been no successor to grasp
the wand which its originator wielded, might well be called the
school of Musset. The serious effect produced upon Mtisset
by the failure of his NuU vinitienne is curiously illustrative of
hk character. A man of greater strength and with equal belief
in his own genius might have gone on appealing to the public
until he compelled them to hear him. Musset gave up the
attempt in disgust, and waited until the public were eager to
hear him without any invitation on his part. In the case of
his finest plays this did not happen until after his death; but
long before that he was fully recognized as a poet of the first
rank and as an extraordinary master of character and language
in prose writing. In his complete disgust with the stage after
the failure above referred to there was no doubt something of
a not ignoble pride, but there was something also of weakness—
of a kind of weakness out of which it must be said sprang some
of his most exquisite work, some of the poems which could only
have been written by a man who imagined himself the crushed
victim of difficulties which were old enough in the experience of
mankind, though for the moment new and strange to him.
Mu^et now belonged, in a not very whole-hearted fashion,
to the " C6nacle," but the connexion came to an end in 1832.
In 1833 he published the volume called Un Spectacle dans un
fauteuU. One of the most striking pieces in this — " Namouna "
— was written at the publisher's request to fill up some empty
space; and this fact is noteworthy when taken in conjunction
with the horror which Musset afterwards so often expressed
of doing anything like writing " to order "—of writing, indeed,
in any way or at any moment except when the inspiration
or the fancy happened to seize him. The success of the
volume seemed to be small in comparison with that of his ConUs
d'Espagne^ but it led indirectly to Musset 's being engaged as a
contributor to the Revue des deux mondcs. In this he published,
in April 1833, Andri del Sarto, and he followed this six weeks
later with Les Caprices de Marianne. Thb play afterwards took
and holds rank as one of the classical pieces in the repertory
of the ThSdtre Fran^ais. After the retirement in 1887 from
the stage of the brilliant actor Dclaunay the piece dropped
out of the Fran^ais repertory until it was replaced to the
stage by M. Jules Claretie, administrator-general of the Comidie
Franqaise^ on the 19th of January 1906. Les Caprices de
Marianne affords a fine illustration of the method referred to
above, a method of which Musset gave something like a definite
explanation five years later. This explanation was also pub-
lished in the Rcviu des deux mojides, and it set forth that the
war between the classical and the romantic schools could never
end in a definite victory for either school, nor was it desirable
that it should so end. " It was time," Musset said, " for a third
school which should unite the merits of each." And in Les
Caprices de Marianne these merits are most curiously and happily
combined. It has perhaps more of the Shakespearian quality —
the quality of artfully mingling the terrible, the grotesque, and
the high comedy tones— which exists more or less in all Musset 's
long and more serious plays, than is found in any other of these.
The piece is called a comedy, and it owes this title to its extra-
ordinary brilliance of dialogue, truth of characterization, and
swiftness in action, under which there is ever latent a sense of
impending date. Many of the qualities indicated are found in
others of Musset's dramatic works and notably in On ne hadine
pas avec Vamour, where the skill in insensibly preparing his
bearers or readers through a succession of dazzling comedy
scenes for the swift destruction of the end is veiy marked.
But Les Caprices de Marianne is perhaps for this particular
purpose of illustration the most compaa and most typical <rf
alL
The appearance of Les Caprices de Marianne in the Rente
(1833) WAS followed by that of " RoUa," a symptom of the
maladie du siide. Rolla, for all the smack which is not to
be denied of Wertherism, has yet a decided individuality.
The poem was written at the beginning of Musset's liaison with
George Sand, and in December 1833 Musset started on the un-
fortunate journey to Italy. It was well known that the rupture
of what was for a time a most passionate attachment had a
disastrous effea upon Musset, and brought out the weakest
side of his moral character. He was at first absolutely and
completely struck down by the blow. But it was not so well
known until Paul de Musset pointed it out that the passion
expressed . in the NuU de dicembre, written about twelve
months after the journey to Italy, referred not to George
Sand but to another and quite a diifiterent woman. The story
of the Italian journey and its results are told under the guise
of fiction from two points of view in the two volumes called
respectively EUe et lui by George Sand, and Lui d die hy
Paul de Musset. As to the permanent effect on Alfred de
Musset, whose irresponsible gaiety was kiUed by the breaking
off of the connexion, there can be no doubt.
During Musset's absence in Italy Pantasio was published in the
Reoue, Lorenzaccio is said to have been written at Venice, and
not long after his return On ne badine pas opu Vamour was written
and published in the Reme. In 1835 he produced luoe, La NuU
de mai, La Quenouille de Barberine, Le CkanddieTf La Lot sur la
presse, La Nuit de dicembre^ and La Confession d*un enfant du
siicle, wherein it contained what is probably a true account oi
Musset's relations with George Sand. The Confession is excep-
tionally interesting as exhibiting the poet's frame of mind at
the time, and the approach to a revulsion from the Bonapartist
ideas amid which he had been brought up in his childhood. To
the supreme power of Napoleon he in this work attributed that
moral sickness of the time which he described. *' One man,"
he wrote, " absorbed the whole life of Europe; the rest' of the
human race struggled to fill their lungs with the air that he had
breathed." When the emperor fell, "a ruined world was a
resting-place for a generation weighted with care." The Con-
fession is further important, apart from its high literary merit,
as exhibiting in many passages the poet's tendency to shun or
wildly protest against all that is disagreeable or difficult in human
life — a tendency to which, however, much of his finest work was
due. To 1836 belong the NuU d*aoiUt the LeUre d Lamartine,
the Stances d la Malibran, the comedy II ne faut jurer de rien,
and the beginning of the brilliant letters of Dupuis and Cotonet
on romanticism. // ne faut jurer de rien is as typical of Musset's
comedy work as is Les Caprices de-Marianne of the work in which
a terrible fatality underlies the brilliant dialogue and >kcen
polished characterization. In 1837 was published Un Caprice,
which afterwards found its way to the Paris stage by a curious
road. Mme Allan-Despr^ux, the actress, heard of it in
St Petersburg as a Russian piece. On asking for a French
translation of the play she received the volume Comidies et
proverbes reprinted from the Revue des deux mondes. In 1837
appeared also some of the Nouodles. In 1839 Musset began a
romance called Le Poite dtchu^ of which the existing fragments
are full of passion and insight. In 1840 he passed through a
period of feeling that the public did not recognize his genius —
as, indeed, they did not — ^and wrote a very short but very
striking series of reflections headed with the words "A trente
ans," which Paul de Musset published in his Life. In 1841
there came out in the Rome de Paris Musset's " Le Rhin Alle-
mand," an answer to Becker's poem which appeared in the
Rnue des deux mondes. This fine war-song made a great deal
of noise, and brought to the poet quantities of challenges from
German officers. Between this date and 1845 he wrote compara-
tively little. In the last named year the charming " proverbe "
// faut qu*une parte soil ouverie ou fermte appeared. In 1847
MUSSOORIE— MUSTARD
97
Un Caprice ms produced at the ThUtre Frangais, and the
employineDt in it of such a word* as " rebonsoir " shocked some
of the old schooL But the success of the piece was immediate
and marked. It increased Musset's reputation with the public
in a degree out of proportion to its intrinsic importance;
and indeed freed him from the burden of depression caused by
want of appreciation. In 1848 // ne faut juror ie rien was
played .at the Th^itre Francais and the Chanddier at the Th^tre
Uistorique. Between this date and 1851 BeUine was pro-
duced on the stage and Carmosine written; and between this
time and the date of his death, from an affection of the heart,
on the 2nd of May 1857, the poet produced no large work of
importance.
Alfred de Musaet now holds the place which Sainte-Beuve
first accorded, then denied, and then again accorded to him —
as a poet of the first rank. He had genius, though not genius
of that strongest kind which its possessor can always keep in
check. His own character worked both for and against his
success as a writer. He inspired a strong personal affection in
his contemporaries. His very weakness and his own conscious-
ness of it produced such beautiful work as, to take one instance,
the NmU d'octobre. His Noupelles arc extraordinarily brilliant;
his poems are charged with passion, fancy and fine satiric power;
in his plays be hit upon a method of his own, in which no one
has dared or availed to follow him with any closeness. He
was one of the first, most original, and in the end most successful
of the first-rate writers included in the phrase " the 1830 period."
The wilder side of his life has probably been exaggerated; and
his broClier Paul de Musset has given in his Biograpkie a striking
testimony to the finer side of his character. In the later years
of his life Musset was elected, not without opposition, a member
of the French Academy. Besides the works above referred to,
the NotnttUs a conies and the CEuvres postkumes, in which
there is much of interest concerning the great tragic actress
Sachd, should be specially mentioned.
The biognphy of Alfred de Musset by his brother Paul, partial
as it oatunJly is, is of |;reat value. Alfred de Musset has afforded
■atter for many appreciations, and among these in English may be
Motioned the sketch (1890) of C. F. Oliphant and the essay (1895)
of F. T. Palgrave. See also the monograph by ArvMe Banne
ntladame Vincens) in the ** Grands ^crivains frangais " scries.
MttsMC's earrespoodenoe with George Sand was published intact for
the fixvt time in 1904.
A aomtment to Alfred de Musset by Antonan Merci6. presented
by M. Osiris, and erected on the Place du Th6&tre Fran$ats, was
duly ** inaugurated " on the a4th of February IQ06. The ceremony
took place m the vestibule of the theatre, where speeches were
delivered by Jules Claretie, Francis Coppde and others, and
Mottoec-SuDy recited a poem, written for the occasion by Maurice
Magre. CW. H. P.)
MUSSOOKIB, or Masukx', a town and sanitarium of British
India, in the Dehra Dun district of the United Provinces, about
6600 ft. above the sea. Pop. (1901), 6461, rising to 15,000 in the
hot season. It stands on a ridge of one of the lower Himalayan
ranges, amid beautiful mountain scenery, and forms with
Xaini Tal the chief summer resort for European residents in the
plains of the United Provinces. The view from Mussoorie
0%'ct the valley of the Dun and across the Siwalik hills to the
plains is very beautiful, as also is the view towards the north,
which b bounded by the peaks of the snowy range. Mussoorie
practically forms one station with Landaur, the convalescent
depot for European troops, 7363 ft. above the sea. Some
distance off, on the road to Simla, is the cantonment of Chakrata,
7300 ft. It was formerly approached by road from Saharanpur
in the plains, 58 m. distant, but in 1900 the railway was opened
to Dehra, ax m. by road. There are numerous schools for
Europeans, including St George's college, the Philander-Smith
iitstltute, the Oak Grove school of the East Indian railway, and
srvervl Church of Engbnd and Roman Catholic institutions,
together with a cathedral of the latter faith. The first brewery
in India was established here in 1850. The town has botanical
y»*A.t»«, and is the suouner headquarters of the Trigonometrical
&irvey-
MUSTAFA BBSHID PASHA (1800-1858). Turkish statesman
and diptomatist, was bom at Constantinople in z8oo. He
entered the public service at an early age and rose rapidly^
becoming ambassador at Paris in 1834 aind in London 1836,
minister for foreign affairs 1837, again ambassador in London
1838, and in Paris 1841. Appointed vali of Adrianople in
1843, he returned as ambassador to Paris in the same year.
Between 1845 and 2857 he was six times grand vizier. One of
the greatest and most brilliant statesmen of his time, thoroughly
acquainted with European politics, and well versed in affairs,
he was a convinced if somewhat too ardent partisan of reform
and the principal author of the legislative remodelling of Turkish
administrative methods known as the Tanzimat. His ability
was recognized alike by friend and by foe. In the settlement
of the Egyptian question in 1840, and during the Crimean War
and the ensuing peace negotiations, he rendered valuable services
to the state.
MUSTAMO. the wfld or semi-wild horse of the prairies of
America, the descendant of the horses imported by the Spaniards
after the conquest in the i6th century (see HoasE). The word
appears to be due to two Spanish words, mestrencOf or mosirencOi
defined by Minsheu (1599) as "a strayer. " Mestrenco (now
mesteno) means " wild, having no master," and appears to be
derived from mesta, a grazier-association, which among other
functions appropriated any wild cattle found with the herds.
MUSTARD. The varieties of mustard-seed of commerce are
produced from several species of the genus Brassica (a member
of the natural order Cruciferae). Of these the principal are the
black or brown mustard, Brassica nigra (Sinapis nigra) ^ the
white mustard, Brassica alba, and the Sarepta mustard, B.
juncea. Both the white and bUck mustards are cultivated
to some extent in various parts of England. The white is to
be found in every garden as a salad plant; but it has come into
increasing favour as a- forage crop for sheep, and as a. green
manure, for which purpose it b ploughed down when about to
come into flower. The black mustard is grown solely for its
seeds, which yield the weU-known condiment. The name of the
condiment was in French moustardt, mod. moutardc, as being made
of the seeds of the plant pounded and mixed with must (Lat.
mustumt i.e. imf ermented wine) .* The word was thtis transferred
to the plant itself. When white mustard is cultivated for its
herbage it is sown usually in July or August, after some earl^
crop has been removed. The land being brought into a fine
tilth, the seed, at the rate of i a lb per acre, is sown broadcast,
and covered in the way recommended for clover seeds. In
about six weeks it is ready either for feeding off by sheep or for
ploughing down as a preparative for wheat or barley. White
mustard is not fastidious in regard to soil. When grown for
a seed crop it is treated in the way about to be described for the
other variety. For this purpose either kind requires a fertile
soil, as it is an exhausting crop. The seed is sown in April,
is once hoed in May, and requires no further culture. As soon as
the pods have assumed a brown colour the crop is reaped and
laid down in handfuls, which lie tmtil dry enough for thrashing
or stacking. In removing it from the ground it must be handled
with great care, and carried to the thrashing-floor or stack on
cloths, to avoid the loss of seed. The price depends much on
its being saved in dry weather, as the quality suffers much
from wet. This great evil attends its growth, that the seeds
which are unavoidably shed in harvesting the crop remain in the
soil, and stock it permanently with what proves a pestilent weed
amongst future crops.
White mustard is used as a small salad — generally accompanied
by garden cress— while still in the seed leaf. To keep up a
supply the seed should be sown every week or ten days. The
sowings in the open ground may be made from March till October,
earlier or later according to the season. The ground should
be light and rich, and the situation warm and sheltered. Sow
thickly in rows 6 in. apart, and slightly cover the seed, pressing
the suriace smooth with the back of the spade. When gathering
the crop, cut the young plants off even with the ground, or pull
* There were two kinds of mnstum, one the best for keeping,
produced after the first treading of the grapes, and called mustum
Uxivum; the other, mustum tortivum, obtained from the mass of
trodden grapes by the wine-press, was used for inferior purpofes.
98
NfUSTARD OILS— MUSURUS
them up and cut off the roots, beginning at ooe €hd of 4 row.
From October to March the seeds should be sown thickly in
shallow boxes and placed in a wann bouse or frame, with a
temperature not below 6^.
Brassica nigra occurs as a weed in wtote and cultivated ground
throughout England and the south of ScoUand, but is a doubtful
native. It is a huge branching annual a to 3 ft. high with stiff,
rather rough, stem and branches, dark green leaves ranging from
lyrate below to lanceolate above, short ncemes of small bright
yellow flowers one-third of an inch in diameter and narrow
smooth pods. . B. alba is more restricted to cultivated ground and
has still less claim to be considered a native of Great Britain;
it is distinguished from black mustard by its smaller size, larger
flowers and seeds, and spreadipg rough haiiy pods with a long
curved beak.
The peculiar pungency and odour to which mustard owes much/>f
iu value are due to an cMential oil devdoped by the action of water
on two peculiar chemical substances contahied in the black seed.
These bodies are a glucoside termed by its discoverers myionate of
potassium, but since csUed sinigrin, CwHuKNSiOmi and an albumin
noid body, myrostn. The latter substance in presence of water
acts as a terment on stninin, splitting it up into the essential oil of
mustard, a potassium salt, and su^. It is worthy of remark that
this reaction does not take place m presence of botlins water, and
therefore it is not proper to use very hot water (above iso* P.) in
the preparation 01 mustard. The explanation u that myrosin b
decomposed by water above this temperature. Essential oil of
mustard is in chemical constitution an isothiocyanate of allyl
CsHiNCS. It ts prepared artificially by a process, di s covered ^
Zittzin, which consists in treating bromide of allyl with thiocyabate
of ammonium and distiUii^ the resultant thiocyanate of allyl. The
seed of white mustard contains in place of sin^rin a peculiar gluco-
side called sinalbin, CmH44N»S«Om in several aspects analogous to
sinigrin. In presence of water it is acted upon by myrodn,
present also in white mustard, mlitting it up into acrinyl isothio-
cyanate, sulphate of sinapin and glucose. The first of these is a
powerful rubefacient, whence white mustard, althoughyielding
no volatile ml, forms a. valuable material for plasten. The seeds
of Brassica jumua have the same constitution and propertiesas black
mustard, as a substitute for which they are extensively cultivated
in southern Ru8«a; the plant is also cultivated abundantly in India.
Both as a table condiment and as a medicinal substance, mustard
has been known from a very remote period. Under the name of
riw it was used by Hippocrates in medicine. The form in which
table mustard is now sold in the United Kingdom dates from i7ao,
about which time Mrs Clements of Durham hit on the idea of grinding
the seed in a mill and stftina the flour from the husk. The bright
yeUow farina thereby produced under the name of " Durham
mustard " pleased the taste of George I., and rapidly attained wide
popularity. As it u now prepared muiAard consists essentially of
a mixture of black and white farina in certain proportions. Several
grades of pure mustard arp made containing nothing but the farina
of mustard-seed, the lower qualities havinji larger amounu of the
white cheaper mustard; and corresponding grades of a mixed
preparation of .equal price, but oontainim certain proportions of
wheaten or starcn flour, are also prepared and soldf as " mustard
condiment.'* The mixture is free from the unmitigated bitterness
and sharpness of flavour of pure mustard, and it keeps much better.
The volatile ml distilled from black mustard seeds after maceration
with water is official in the British Pharmacopeia under the title
OUmm sinapis wolaliU. It is a ydlowish or odourless pungent
liquid, soluDle only in about fifty parts of water, but readuy so in
etner and in alcohol. Kipm it is prepared, with camphor, castor
oil and alcohol, the UnimeiUiim sinapis. The oflkial nnapit consisu
of black and white mustard seeds powdered and mixed. The advan-
tage of mixture depends upon the fact that the white mustard seeds
have an excess of the ferment myrosin, and the black, whilst some-
what deficient in mvro^i yield a volatue body as compared with the
fixed product of toe white mustard seeds. From this mixture is
prepared the ekarta sinapis, which consists of cartridge paper covered
with a mixture of the powder and the M^nor caouUkouCt the fixed
oil having firtt been removed by benni, thus rendering the glucoside
capable df being more easily decomposed by the ferment.
Used internally as a condiment, mustard stimulates the salivary
but not the gastric secretions. It increases the peristaltic move-
ments of the stomach very markedly. One drachm to half an ounce
of mustard in a tumblenul of warm water is an efficient emetic,
acting directly upon the gastric sensory nerves, long before any of
the drug could be absorbed so as to rrach the emetic centre in the
medulla oblongata. The heart and respiration are reflexly stimu-
lated, mustard being thus Ike only sUmmant emetic. Some few other
emetics act without any appreciable depression, but in cases of
poisoning with respiratory or cardiac failure mustard shoukl never
be forgotten^ In contrast to thb may be mentioned, amongst the
external therapeutic applications of mustard, its frequent power of
relieving vomiting when locally applied to the epigastrium.
The uses of mustard leaves In the treatment of local pains an
well known. When a marked counter-irritant action is needed,
mustard is often preferable to cantharides in being more manageable
and in causing a less degree of vesication; but the cutaneous damage
damage
done by mustard usually takes longer to heaL A mustard siu
bath wul often hasten and alleviate the initial suge of menstruation,
and is sometimes used to opedite the appearance of the eruption
in measles and scarlatina. The domestic remedy of hot water and
mustard for children's feet in cases of cold or threatened cold may
be of some use in drawing the blood to the surface and thus tendiiw
to prevent an exoesmve vascular dilaution in the nose or broochu
The proportion of an ounce of mustard to a gallon of water b a fair
one and easily remembered.- But by far the most- important
therapeutic application erf mustard b as a unique emeti&
MUSTARD OILS, -organic chemical compounds of general
formula R-NCS. They may be prepared by the action of
carbon bbulphide on primary amines in alcoholic or ethereal
solution, the alkyl dithio-carbamic compounds formed being
then precipitated with mercuric chloride, and the mercuric
salts heated in aqueous solution,
aR.NH,^KS3f.J}Hai"?S'^^NCS,J,Hg-^HgS+H,S+aRNCS;
or the isocyanic esters may be heated with phosphorus penta*>
sulphide (A. Michael and G. Palmer, Amer. Ckem. Jour,, J884,
6, 357). They are colourless liquids with a very pungent irritating
odour. Tiity are readily, oxidized, with production of the corre-
sponding amine. Nascent hydrogen onverts them into the
amine, with simultaneous formation of thio-formaldehyde,
RNCS+4H«RNHs-|-HCSH. When heated with adds to
zoo* C, they decompose with forination of the amine and libera-
tion of carbon bbulphide and sulphuretted hydrogen. They
combine directly with alcohols, mercaptans, ammonia, amines
and with aldehsrde ammonia.
Metkyl mustard aU, CHiNCS, melts at 3S*Cand boib at 119* C.
AU^ mustard oU, CsHftNCS, b the pnncipal constituent of the
ordinary mustard oil obtained on distilling black mustard seeds.
These seeds contain potasuum myiionate (CmHuNSiCWC) whkh in
presenccof water b hydrolyscd by the myrosin present in the seed,
CwHMNStOi»K-CHiA+KHSO«+crHiNCS.
It may also be prepared by hcatinff allyl sulphide with potassium
sulphocyanide. . It b a colourless liquid boiling at 150-7" C. It
combines directly with potassium bbulphite. Pkmyl mustard oil,
C»Hf N CS, b obtained by boiling sulphoau^nilidc with concentrated
hydrochlmic add. some triphenylguanidine being formed at the same
tune. It is a colouriess liquid boiling at 33a* C. When heated
with copper powder it yields benzonitnle.
MUSTER (Mid. Eng. mostret moustre, adapted from the similar
O. Fr. forms; Lat. mfinstrare), originally an exhibition, show,
review, an exhibition .-of strength, prowess or power. One of
the meanings of thb common Romanic word, viz. pattern,
sample, b only used in commercial usage in English {e.g. in
the cutlery trade), but it has passed into Teutonic languages,
Ger. Muster, Du. monster. The most general meaning b for the
assembling of soldiers and sailors for inspection and review, and
more particularly for the ascertainment and verification of the
numbers on the roU; Thb use b seen in the Med. Lat. monslrum
and monstralio, "recensio miliium" (Du Cange, Gloss. s.v.). la
the "enlbtment" system of army organization during the
x6th and X7th centuries, and later in certain special survivals,
each regiment was "enlbted" by its colonel and reviewed
by spedal officers, " muster-nmsters," who vouched for the
members on the pay roll of the regiment representing its
actual strength. Thb was a necessary precaution in the days
when it was in the power of the comnoiander of a unit to fill
the muster roll with the names of fictitious men, known in the
military slang of France and Eni^d as passe-^olants and
''faggots" respectively. The chief officer at headquarters
was the muster-master-generd, later conunissary general of
musters. In the United States the term b still commonly
used, and a soldier b " mustered out " when he b officially
discharged from military service.
MUSURUS, MARCUS (c. i47o-X5X7)f Greek scholar, was
bom at Rhithymna (Retimo) in Crete. At an early age he
became a pupfl of John Lascaib at Venice. In 1505 he was
nude professor of Greek at Padua, but when the univerBty
was dosed iniso^ during the war of the league of Cambrai he
MUTE— MUTILATION
99
retiiroed to Venice, where he filled a similar poet. Ih S516 he
vas sammoned to Rome by Leo X., who appointed him arch-
bishop of Monemvasia {Mahasia) in the Pelopon&ese, but he died
before he left Italy. Since 1493 Musurus had been associated
vith the famous printer Aldus Manutlus, and belonged to
the "Neacademia," a society founded by Manutlus and other
learned men for the promotion of Greek studies. Many of the
Aldine classics were brought out under Musurus's supervision,
and be is credited with the first editions of the scholia of Aristo-
phanes (1498), Athenaeus (1514), Hesycbius (15x4), Pausanias
(1516).
See R. Menge's De M. Musuri vita studiis tugaUo, in vol. 5 of
M. Scfanudt's edition of Hesycfaius (1868}.
MUTB (Lat. muius, dumb), silent or incapable of speech. For
the human physical incapacity see Deat and Dumb. In
pbonetics iq.9.) a *'mute" letter is one which (like ^ or ^ repre-
sents no individual sound. The name of "mutes" is given, for
obvious reasons, to the undertaker's assistants at a funeraL In
music a "mute" (Ital. 50r^»iM, from Lat. ««rtfM, deaf ) is a device
for deadening the sound in an instrument by checking its vibra-
tioos^ Its use is marked by the sign cj. (con sordino), and its
cessation by s^. (senza sordino). In the case ci the violin and
other stringed instr\mients this object is attained by the use of a
piece of brass, wood or ivory, so shaped as to fit on the bridge'
wiih<nit toad:dn^ the strings and hold it so tightly as to deaden
or muffle the vibrations. In the case of brass wind instruments
s leather, wooden or papier m&ch6 pad in the shape of a pear
vith a bole through it is placed in the bell of the instrument,
by which the passage of the sound is impeded. The interference
vith the pitch of the instruments has led to the invention of
elaborately constructed mutes. Players on the horn and
trumpet frequently use the left hand as a mute. Drums are
mot^ or "muffled"' either by the pressure of the hand on the
head, or by covering with doth. In the side drum this is effected
by the insertion of pieces of doth between the membrane and the
"snares," or by loosening the "snares." The muting of a
pianoforte is obtained by the use of the sof t-pedaL
MimAN, KONRAO (X471-X526), Gennan humanist, was
bom in Homberg on the xsth of October 147 1 of well-to-do
parents jiamed Mut, and was subsequently known as Konrad
Motianns Ruf us, from his. red hair. At Deventer under Alex-
ander Hegiusbe had £rasmusasschooIfeUow;proceeding(x486)to
the university of Erfurt, he took the master's degree in 1493.
From 1495 be travelled in Italy, taking the doctor's degree
ta canon law at Bologna. Returning in 1502, the landgraf of
Hesae promoted bun to- high o^ce. The post was not congenial ;
he resigned it (1503) for a small salary as canonicus in Gotha.
Matian was a man of great influence in a sdect circle espedally
coanected with the university of Erfurt, and known as the
Mttianistker Bund, which induded Eoban Jiess, Crotus
Rubeanus, Justus Jonas and other leaders of independent
thought. He had no public ambition; except in correspondence}
sad as an q)igrammatist, he was no writer, but he furnished
ideas to those who wrote. He may deserve the title which has
been given him as "precursor of the Reformation," in so far as he
desired the reform of the Church, but not the establishment
of a rivaL Like Erasmus, he was with Luther in his early
stage, but deserted him in his later development. Though he
had personally no hand in it, the Episiolae obscurorum virorum
(due espedaPy to Crotus Rubeanus) was the outcome of the
RcucUioists in his Btmd. He died at Gotha 00 the 30th of
March (Good Friday) 2526.
.See F. W. Kampschulte. Dio Unioersitdt Erfurt (1858-1860); C.
Krauae. Eobanus Htssus (1879) ;L. Geigcr. in AUtemeine Deutsche
Biet. (1886) : C. Krause. DerBriefwechsetdes MtUianus Rufus (1885) ;
aoother coOcctipn by K. Gillert (1890). (A. Go.*)
■OTILATIOlf (from Lat. mutUus, maimed). The wounding,
maiming and disfigiiring of thq body is a practice common
ataong savages and systematically pursued by many entire races.
The varieties of. mutilation are as numerous as the instances of
A are widespread. Nearly every part of the body is the object I
cf mutilation, and nearly every motive common to human I
beings-^vanity, religion, affection, prudence— has acted in
giving rise to what has been proved to be a custom of great
antiquity. Some forms, such as tattooing and depilation,
have, stayed on as practices even after dvilisation has banished
the more brutal types; a&d a curious fact is that analogous
mutilations are fouxid observed by races separated by vast
distances, and proved to have had no relations with one another,
at any rate in historic times. Ethnical mutilations have in
certain races a great sociological value. It is only after sub-
mission to some such operation* that the youth is admitted to
full tribal lighu (see lMinATiON>. Tattooing, too, has a semi-
religious importance, as when a& ixidividual beais a represenU-
tion of his totem on his body; and many mutilations are tribe
marks, or brands used to know sUves.
Mutilations may be divided into: (i) those of the skin; (a) of the
face and head; (3) of the body and limbs; (4) of the teeth ; (5) of the
sexual organs.
1. The prindpal form of aUo-mutilation b tattooing (9.9.), the
ethnkal importance of whkh is very great. A practice ahnost as
common is defulation, or removal of hair. This is dther by means
of the rajcor, «.(. in Japan, by depilatories, or by tearing out the hairs
beparatdy, as among most savage peoples. The parts thus mutilated
are utually the eyebrows, the face, the scalp ano the pubic regk>ns.
Many African natives tear out'all the body hair, some among them
(e.f . the Bongos) using spedal pincers. DejMlation is common, too,
in the South Sea Islands. The Andaman islanders and the Boto-
cudos of Brazil shave the body, using sheU-edges and other primitive
instruments.
2. Mutilations of the face and head are usually restricted to the
lips, ears, nose and cheeks. The lira arc simply perforated or
distended to an extraordinary degree. The Botocudos insert disks
of wood into the lower lip. Lip-mutilations are common in North
America, too, .on the Mackenae river and among the Aleutians.
In Africa the/ are frequently practised. The Manganja women
pierce the upper lips and introduce small metal shidds or rings.
The Mittu women bore the lower lip and thrust a wooden peg through;
In other tribes little sticks of rock crystal are pushed through,
which jingle together as the wearer talks. The women of Senegal
increase the natural thickness of the upper lip by pricking it repeat-
edly until it is permanently inflamed and swollen. The ear, and
I»rtiLubkrIy the lobe, is almost univemlly mutilated, from the ear-
rings of the civilized West to the wooden disks of the Botocudos.
The only peoples who are said not to wear any form of ear ornament
are the Andaman islanders, the Neddahs, the Bushmen, the Fuegiani
and, certain tribes of Sumatra. Ear mutilation in its most exag*
gera'ted form is practised in Indo-China by the Mds of Annam and
the Penangs of Cambodia, and in Borneo by the Dyaks. They
extend the lobe by the insertion 01 wooden disksr and by metal
rings and weights, until it sometimes reaches the shoulder. In
Africa and Asia earrings sometimes wdgh nearly half a pound.
Livingstone said that the natives of the Zambesi distend the pef-.
foration inthe lobe to such- a degree that the hand dosed could be
passed through. The Monbuttus thrust through a perforation in
the body ci the ear rolls of leaves, or of leather, or cigarettes. The
Papuans, the inliabitants of the New Hebrides, and most Melanfsian
peoples carry all sorts of things in their ears, the New Caledonians
using them as pipe-racks. Many races disfigure the nose with
perforations. The young dandies of New Guinea bore holes through
the septum and thrust through pieces of bone or flowers, a mutilation
found, too, among New ZcaJanden, Australians, New Caledonians
and other. Polynesian races. In Africa the Banis and Bongos hang
metal rings and buckles on their noses; the Aleutians cordsj bits
of metal or amber. In women it is the side ci the noefe whxh is
usually perforated ; rings and jewdled pendants (as among Indian
and Araoic women, the ancient Egyptians and Jews), or feathers,
flowers, coral, &c (as in Polynesia), bdng hung there. Only one
side of the nose is usually perforated, and this is not always merely
decorative: It may denote social position j as aroon^ the Ababdes
in Africa/whose unmarried giris wear no rings in their noses. The
male Kutus of the Himalaya wear a large nng in- the left nostril.
Malays and Polynesians sometimes deform the nose by enlarging
its base, effecting this b> compression of the nasal bones of the
newly bom.
The cheeks are not so frequently mutilated. The people of the
Aleutian and Kurile Islands bore holes through their cheeks and
place in them the long hairs from the muules of seals. The Guaranis
of South America wear feathers in the same manner. In some
countries the top of the head or the sldn behind the ears of chiklren
b burnt to preserve them from sickness, traces of which mutilation
are said to be discoverable on some neolithic skulls; while some
African tribes cut and prick the neck close to the ear. By many
peoples the deformation of the skull was anciently practised.
Herodotus, Hippocrates and Strabo mention such a custom among
peoples of the Caspian and Crimea. Later similar practices were
found existing among Chinese mendicant sects, some tribes of
Turket tan, the Japanese priesthood, in Malaysia, Sumatra, Java and
lOO
the south wts. In Europe it was not unknown. But the d'lKovery
of America brought to our knowledge those races whkJi made a fine
art of skuU-deformities. At the present day the custom u still
observed by the Haidas and Chinooks, and by certain tribes of Peru
and on the Amazon, by the Kurds of Armenia, by certain Malay
peoples, in the Solomon Islands and the New Hebrides. The
reasons for this type of mutilation are uncertain. Probably the idea
of distinguishing themselves from lower races was predominant in
most cases, as tor example in that of the Chinook Indians, who
deformed the skull to distinguish themsdves from their slaves.
Or it may have been through a desire to give a ferocious api>earancc
to their warriors. The deformation was always done at infancy,
and often in the case of both sexes. It was. however, more usually
reserved for boys, and sometimes for a single caste, as at Tahiti.
Different ■ methods prevailed: by bands, bandages, boards, com-
presses of clay and sandbags, a continued pressure was applied to
the half-formed cranial bones to give them the desired shape.
Hand-kneading mav also possibly have been employed.
J;. Mutilations oi the body or limbs by maiming, loppii^ off or
orming, are far from rare. Certain races (Bushmen, Kaffire
and Hottentots) cut off the finger joints as a sign of mourning,
especially for parents. The Tongans do the same, m the belief that
the evil spirits which bring diseases into the body woukl escape by
the wound. Diseased children are thus mutilated by them. Con-
tempt for female timidity has caused a curious custom among the
Gallas (Africa). They amputate the mammae of boys soon after
birth, believing no warrior can possibly be brave who possesses
them. The fashion of distorting tne feet of Chinese ladies of high
rank has been of long continuance and only recently prohibited.
4. Mutilations of the teeth are among the most common and the
most varied. They are by breaking, extracting, filing, inlaving or
cutting away the crown of the teeth. Nearly every variety 01 dental
mutilation is met with in Africa. In a tribe north-east of the Albert
Nyanaa it u usual to pry out with a piece of metal the four lower
incisors in children of both sexes. The women of certain tribes on
the Senenl force the growth of the upper inci-::T^ "I'^-rr.r^.- " as
to make them project beyond the lower lips. Ma rty oi t he .1 1 '< < r i 1 rial
tribes of Australia extract teeth, and at puberty xhv Au^ir^lian I. ys
have a tooth knocked out. The Eskimos df tlie Ma< k^ n.^!. y. .'cr
cut down the crown of the upper incisors so as U' m ^ < ;s.
Some Malay races, too, are said to blacken their u- gs
have white teeth. This desire to be unlike anim^U at
the bottom of many dental mutilations. Another ^c^^uil i:: [!h v sh
to distinguish tribe from tribe. Thus some Papains break 1 i.eir
teeth in order to be unlike other Papuan tribes whtch thoy dl> pse.
In this way such practices become traditional. Finally, liVr 1, :ny
mutilations, those of the teeth are trials of endurance o\ pV.^ ::al
pain, and take place at ceremonies of initiation :trir} nt p J ty.
The Mois (Stiengs) of Cochin-China break the two upper it»udle
incisors with a flint. .This is always ceremoniously done at puberty
to the accompaniment of feasting and praven for.those mutilatca,
who will thus, it b thought, be preseivea from sickness. Among
Malay races the filiiw of teeth takes place with similar ceremony at
puberty. In Java, Sunutra and Borneo the incison are thinned
down and shortened. Deep transverse grooves are also made with a
file, a stone, bamboo or sand, and the teeth filed to a point. The
Dyaks of Borneo make a small hole in the transverse groove and
insert a pin of brass, which is hammered to a nail-head shape in the
hollow, or they inlay the teeth with gold and other metals. The
ancient Mexicans also inlaid the teeth with precious stones.
5. Mutilations of the sexual organs are more ethnically important
than any. They have played a great part in human nistory, and
still have much significance in many countries. Their antiquity
is undoubtedly great, and nearly aU originate with the idea of
initiation into full sexual life. The most important, circumcision
(a.v.), has been transformed into a religious rite. Infibulation
(Lat. fibula, a clasp), or the attaching a ring, clasp, or buckle to the
sexual organs, in females through the labia majora, in males through
the prepuce, was an operation to preserve chastity very commonly
practised in antiquity. At Rome it was in use; Strabo says it was
prevalent in Arabia and in E^pt, and it is still native to those regions
(Lane, Modem Egyptians, i. 73; Arabic Lexicon, s.v. "kafada").
Niebuhr heard that it was practised on both shores of the Persian
Gulf and at Bagdad {Description de I'Arabie, p. 70). It is common in
Africa (see Sir H. H. Johnston, Kilimanjaro Expedition, 1886). but
is there ofteh replaced by an operation which consists in stitching
the labia majcra together when the girl is four or five years old.
Castration is practised in the East to supply guards for harems, and
was employed in Italy until the time of Pope Leo XIII. to provide
*' soprani ' for the papal choir; it has also been voluntarily submitted
to from religious motives (see Eunuch). The operation has.
however, been resorted to for other purposes. Thus in Africa it is
said to have been used as a means 01 annihilating conquered tribes.
The Hottentots and Bushmen, too, have the curious custom of
removing one testicle when a boy is eight or nine years old, in the
belief that this partial emasculation renders the victim fleeter of
foot for the chase. The most dreadful of these mutilations is that
practised by certain Australian tribes on their boys. It consists
of cutting open and leaving exposed the whole length of the urethral
canal and thus rendering sexual intercourse impossible. According
MUTINY— MUTSU HITO
to some authorities it is hatred of the white man and dread of slaveiy
which are the reasons of this racial suicide. Among the Dyaks and
in many of the Melanesian islands curious modes 01 ornamentation
of the organs, (such as the kalang) prevail, which are in the nature of
mutilations.
Penal Use. — Mutilation as a method of punishment was common
in the criminal law of many ancient nations. In the earliest laws of
England mutilation, maiming and dismemberment had a prominent
place. " Men branded on the forehead, without hands, feet, or
tongues, lived as examples of the danger which attended the a^>
mission of petty crimes and as a warning to all churls " (Pike'a
History of Crime in England, iBjx). The Danes were more severe
than the Saxons. Under their rules eyes were plucked out ; noses,
eare and upper lips cut off; scalps town away; and sometimes the
whole body flayed alive. The eariiest forest-laws of whkJi there
is record are those of Canute (1016). Under these, if a freedman
offered violence to a keeper of the king's deer he was liable to lose
freedom and property ; if a serf, he lost his right hand, and on a second
offence was to die. ()ne who killed a deer was either to have hit
eyes put out or lose his life. Under the first two Norman kings
mutilation was the puni^ment for poaching. It was, however, not
reserved for that, as during the reign of Henry I. some coiners were
uken to Winchester, where their right hands were lopped off and
they were castrated. Under the kings of the West Saxon dynasty
the loss of hands had been a common penalty for coinins {The
Obsolete Punishments of Shropshire, by S. Meeson Morris). Morris
quotes a case in John's reign at the Salop Assixes in 1303, where one
Alice Crithecrecne and others were accused of murdering an old
woman at Lilleshall. Convicted of being accessory, Critnecreche
was sentenced to death, but the penalty was altered to that of
having her eyes plucked out. During the Tudor and Stuart perioda
mutilatbns were a common form of • punishment extra-judicially
inflicted by order of. the privy council and the Star Chamber. There
are said to be preserved at Playford Hall, Ipswich, instruments of
Henry VIII.'s time for cutting off ears. Tnis penalty appeara to
have Deen inflicted for not attending church. By an act 01 Henry
VIII. (33 Hen. VIII. c 13) the punishment for "striking in the
king's court or house " was the loss of the right hand. For writing a
tract on The Monstrous Regimen of Women a Nonconformist divine
(Dr W. Stubbs) had his right hand lopped off. Among many cases
of severe mutilations during Stuart times may be mentioned those
of Prynne, Burton, Bastwick and Titus C^tes.
MUTINT (from an old verb " mutine," O. Fr. muttHf meutin,
a sedition; cf. mod. Fr. Hncuie; the original is the Late Lat.
mota, commotion, from movere, to move), a resistance by force
to recognized authority, an insurrection, especially applied to
a sedition in any military or naval forces of the state. Such
offences are dealt with by courts-martial. (See Militasy Law
and Court Maktial.)
MUTSU, MUNEMITSU, Coitnt (1843-1896), Japanese states-
man, was bom in 1842 in Wakayama. A vehement opponent
of " dan government " — that is, usurpation of administrative
posts by men of two or three fiefs, an abuse which threatened
to follow the overthrow of the Tokugawa skogunate — be con-
spired to assist Saigo's rebellion and was imprisoned from 1878
until 1883. While in prison he translated Bcntham's Utilitarian'
ism. In 1886, after a visit to Europe, he received a diplomatic
appointment, and held the portfolio of foreign affairs during
the China-Japan War (1894-95), being associated with Prince
(then Count) Ito as peace plenipotentiary. He negotiated
the first of the revised treaties (that with Great Britain), and
for these various services he received the title of count. He
died in T6kyd in 1896. His statue in bronze stands before the
foreign office in TfikyO.
MUTSU HITO, Mikado, or Eupf.ror, of Japan (1853- ),
was bom on the 3rd of November 1852, succeeded his father,
Osahito, the former emperor, in January 2867, and was crowned
at Osaka on the 31st of October 1868. The coimtry was then
in a ferment owing to the concessions which had been granted
to foreigners by the preceding sh6gim lyemochi, who in 1854
concluded a treaty with Commodore Perry by which it was
agreed that certain ports should be open to loreign trade.
This convention gave great offence to the more conservative
daimios, and on their initiative the mikado suddenly decided
to abolish the shogunate. This resolution wc^ not carried out
without strong opposition. The reigning shfigun, Keiki, yielded
to the decree, but many of his followers were not so complaisant,
and it was only by force of arms that the new order of things
was imposed on the country. The main object of those who
had advocated the change was to lead to a reversion to the
MUTTRA
lOI
priinitjvt condition of affairs, when the wiH of the mikado was
ifaedute and when the presence in Japan of the hated foreipwr
ms unknown. But the reactionary party was not to be allowed
to monopolize revolutions. To their surprise and discomfiture,
the powerful daimios of Satsuma and ChOsha suddenly declared
tfannselves to be in favour of opening the country to foreign
interooune, and of adopting many far-reaching reforms. With
this movement MuUu Hito was cordially in agreement, and of
his own motion be invited the foreign representatives to an
audience on the 33rd of March x868. As Sir Harry Parkes,
the British minister, was on his way to this assembly, he was
attacked by a number of two-sworded samurai, who, but for
hb guard, would doubtless have succeeded in assassinating
him. The outrage was regarded by the emperor and his minis-
ters as a ie6ection on their honour, and they readily made all
reparation within their power. While these agitations were
afoot, the emperor, with his advisers, was matunng a political
c(fflstitotk>n which was to pave the way to the assumption by
the emperor of direct personal rule. As a step in this direction,
Motsu Hito transferred his capital from Ki6t6 to Yedo, the
former seat of the sfaOguns' government, and marked the event
by renaming the dty TOkyO, or Eastern Capital. In 1869 the
emperor paid a visit to hii old capital, and there took as his
imperial consort a princess of the house of Ichijd. In the same
year Motsu Hito bound himself by oath to institute certain
reforms, the first of which was the establishment of a deliberative
aasemUy. In this onward movement he was supported by the
majority of the daimios, who in a supreme moment of patriotism
surrendered their estates and privileges to their sovereign. This
was the death-knell of the feudalism which had existed for so
many centuries in Japan, and gave Mutsu Hito the free hand
which be desired. A centralized bureaucracy took the place of
the old system, and the nation moved rapidly along the road of
progress. Everything European was eagerly adopted, even
down to frock-coau and patent-leather boots for the officials.
Torture was abolished (1873), and a judicial code, adapted from
the Code Napolfon, was authorized. The first railway— that
from Yokohama to T6ky6— was opened in 1872; the European
calendar was adopted, and English was introduced into the
currkoltim of the common schools. Tn all these reforms Mutsu
Hito took a leading part. But it was not to be expected that
VKh sweeping changes could be effected without opposition,
and thrice during the period between 1876 and 1884 the emperor
had to face serious rebellious movements in the provinces.
These be succeeded in suppressing; and even amid these pre-
occupations he managed to inflict a check on his huge neighbour,
the empire of China. As the government of this state declared
that it was incapable of punishing certain Formosan pirates for
ootrafcs committed on Japanese ships (1874), Mutsu Hito
landed a force on the island, and, having inflicted chastisement
on the bandits, remained in possession of certain districts until
the compensation demanded from Peking was paid. The un-
paralkled advances which had been made by the government
were now held by the emperor and his advisers to justify a
demand for the revision of the foreign treaties, and negotiations
were opened with this object. They failed, however, and the
oonseqoent disappointment gave rise to a strong reaction against
rmything foreign throughout the country. Foreigners were
assaulted on the roads, and even the Russian cesarevich, after-
wards the tsar Nicholas II., ^os attacked by would-be assassins
in tbe streets of T&kyO. A renewed attempt to revise the
treaties in 1894 was more successful, and in that year Great
Britain led tbe way by concluding a revised treaty with Japan.
Otber nations followed, and by xgox all those obnoxious clauses
sogyesllve of political inferiority had finally disappeared from the
treaties. In the same year (1894) war broke out with China, and
Moisa Hito, in common with his subjects, showed the greatest
zeal for the campaign. He reviewed the troops as they left
the shores of Japan for Korea and Mai^churia, and personally
distrftoted rewards to those who ^ won distinction. In
the war with Russia, 1904-5, the sanie was the case, and it was
to tbe virtues of their emoeror that his generals loyally .ascribed
the Japanese victories. In his wise patriotism, as in all matters,
MuUu Hito always placed himself in the van of his countrymen.
He led them out of the trammels of feudalism; by his progressive
rule he lived to see his country advanced to the first rank of
nations', and he was the first Oriental sovereign to form an
offensive and defen^ve alliance with a first-rate European
power. In 1869 Mutsu Hito married Princess Haru, daughter
of IchijO Tadaka, a noble of the first rank. He has one son
. and several daughters, his heir-apparent being Yoshi Hito, who
was born on the 31st of August 1879, and married in 190c
Princess Sada, daughter of Prince KujO, by whom he had three
sons before 1909. Mutsu Hito adopted the epithet of Meiji, or
" EnlighUned Peace," as the nengo or title of his reign. Thus
the year 1901, according to the Japanese calendar, was the
34th year of Meiji.
MUTTRA. or MATHtTSA, a city and district of British India
in the Agra division of the United Provinces. The city is on the
right bank of the Jumna, 30 m. above Agra; it is an important
railway junction. Pop. (1901), 60,042. It is an ancient town,
mentioned by Fa Hien as a centre of Buddhism about aj>. 400;
his successor Hsaan Tsang, about 650, sutes that it then con-
tained twenty Buddhist monasteries and five Brahroanical
temples. Muttra has suffered more from Mahommedan plunder
than most towns of northern India. It was sacked by Mah-
mud of Ghazni in 1017-18; about 1500 Sultan Sikandar Lodi
utterly destroyed all the Hindu shrines, temples and images;
and in 1636 Shah Jahan appointed a governor expressly to
" sump out idolatry." In 1669-70 Aurangzeb visited the city
and continued the work of destruction. Muttra was again
captured and plundered by Ahmad Shah with 35,000 Afghan
cavalry in 1756. The town still fcrms a great centre of Hindu
devotion, and large numbers of pilgrims flock annually to the
festivals. The special cult of Krishna with which the neighbour-
hood is associated seems to be of comparatively late date.
Much of the prosperity of the town is due to the residenire of a
great family of seths or native bankers, who were conspicuously
loyal during the Mutiny. Temples and bathing-stairs line the
river bank. The majority are modem, but the mosque of
Aurangzeb, on a lofty site, dates from 1669. Most of the public
buildings are of whit^ stone, handsomely carved. There are
an American mission, a Roman Catholic church, a museum of
antiquities, and a cantonment for a British cavalry regiment.
Cotton, paper and pilgrims' charms arc the chief articles of
manufacture.
The District ot McrrntA has an area of 144 5 sq. m. It consists
of an irregular strip of territory lying on both sides of the
Jumna. The general level is only broken at the south-western
angle by low ranges of limestone hills. The eastern half con-
sists for the most part of a rich upland plain, abundantly irrigated
by wells, rivers and canals, while the western portion, though
rich in mythological association and antiquarian remains, is
comparatively unfavoured by nature. For eight months of the
year the Jumna shrinks to the dimensions of a mere rivulet,
meandering through a waste of sand. During the rains, how-
ever, it swells to a mighty stream, a mile or more in breadth.
Formerly nearly the whole of Muttra consisted of pasture and
woodland, but the roads constructed as relief works in 183 7- 1838
have thrown open many large tracts of country, and the task
of reclamation has since proceeded rapidly. The population
in 1901 was 763,099, showing an increase of 7 % in the
decade. The principal crops are millets, pulse, cotton, wheat,
barley and sugar cane. The famine of 1878 was severely felt.
The eastern half of the district is watered by the Agra canal,
which is navigable, and the western half by branches of the
Ganges canal. A branch of the Rajputana railway, from
Achnera to Hathras, crosses the district; the chord line of the
East India, from Agra to Delhi, traverses it from north to south;
and a new line, connecting with the Great Indian Peninsula,
was opened in 1905.
The central portion of Muttra district forms one of the most
sacred spots in Hindu mythology. A circuit of 84 kos around
Gokul and Brindaban bears the name of the Braj-Mandal, and
102
MUTULE— MUZAFFARNAGAR
carries with it many associations of earliest Aryan times.
Here Krishna and his brother Balarama fed their cattle upon the
plain, and numerous relics of antiquity in the towns of Muttra,
Gobardhan, Gokul, Mahaban and Brindaban still attest the
sanctity with which this holy tract was invested. During the
Buddhist period Muttra became a centre of the new faith.
After the invasion of Mahmud of Ghazni the city fell into
insignificance till the reign of Akbar; and thenceforward its
history merges in that of the Jats of Bharatpur, until it again
acquired separate individuality under Suraj Mai in the middle
of the i8th century. The Bharatpur chiefs took an active part
in the disturbances consequent on the declining power of the
Mogul emperors, sometimes on the imperial side, and at others
with the Mahrattas. The whole of Muttra passed under British
rule in 1804.
See F. S. Crowse, iiatkura (Allahabad, 1883).
MUTULB (Lat. mtUuluSt a stay or bracket), in architecture
the rectangular block under the soffit of the cornice of the Greek
Doric temple, which is studded with guUae. It is supposed to
represent the piece of timber through which the wooden pegs
were driven in order to hold the rafter in position, and it follows
the rake of the roof. In the Roman Dioric order the mutule
was horizontal, with sometimes a crowning fillet, so that it
virtually fulfilled the purpose of the modillion in the Corinthian
cornice.
MUZAFFAR-ED-IAN, shah of Persia (1853-1907). the second
son of Shah Nasr-ed-Din, was born on th^ 25th of March 1853.
He was in due course declared volt akd, or heir-apparent, and
invested with the governorship of Azerbaijan, but on the
assassination of his father in 1896 it was feared that his elder
brother, ZiU-es-Sultan, the governor of Isfahan, might prove
a dangerous rival, especially when it was femembered that
MuzafTar-ed-Dln had been recalled to Teheran by his father upon
his failure to suppress a Kurd rising in his province. The
British and Russian governments, in order to avoid wide-
tpread disturbances, agreed however to give him their support.
All opposition was thus obviated, and Muzaffar-ed-Din was
duly enthroned on the 8th of June 1896, the Russian general
Kosakowsky, commander of the Persian Cosstfcks, presiding over
the ceremony with drawn sword. On this occasion the new
shah announced the suppression of all purchase of civil and
military posts, and then proceeded to remit in perpetuity all
taxes on bread and meat, thus lightening the taxation on food,
which had caused the only disturbances in the last reign. But
whatever hopes may have been aroused by this auspicious
beginning of the reign were soon dashed owing to the extrava-
gance and profligacy of the court, which kept the treasury in
a chronic state of depletion. Towards the end of 1896 the
Amin-es-Sultan, who had been grand vizier during the last
years of Nasr-ed-Dln's reign, was disgraced, and Muzaffar-ed-
Dln announced his intention of being in future his own grand
vizier. The Amin-ad-Dowla, a less masterful servant, took
office with the lower title of prime minister. During his short
administration an elaborate scheme of reforms was drawn up
on paper, and remained on paper. The treasury continued
empty, and in the spring of 1898 Amin-«s-Sultan was recalled
with the special object of filling it. The delay of the British
government in sanctioning a loan in London gave Russia her
opportunity. A Russian loan was followed by the establishment
of a Russian bank at Teheran, and the vast expansion of
Russian influence generally. At the beginning of 1900 a
fresh gold loan was negotiated with Russia, and a few
months later Muzaffar-ed-Din started on a tour in Europe
by way of St Petersburg, where he was received with great
state. He subsequently went to Paris to visit the Exhibition
of 1900, and while there an attempt on his life was made
by a madman named Francois Salson. In spite of this
experience the shah so enjoyed his European tour that he
determined to repeat it as soon as possible. By the end of
1 901 his treasury was again empty; but a. fresh Russian loan
replenished it and in 1902 he again came to Europe, paying
on this occasion a state visit to England. On his way back
he stopped at St Petersburg, and at a banquet given in his
honour by the tsar toasu were exchanged ot unmistakable
significance. None the less, during his visit to King Edward VIL
the shah had been profuse in his expressions of friendship for
Great Britain, and in the spring of 1903 a special mission was
sent to Teheran to invest him with the Order of the Garter.
The shah's misguided policy had created widespread dis-
affection in the country, and the brunt of popular disfavour
fell on the atabeg (the title by which the Amin-es-Sultan was
now known), who was once more disgraced in September 1903.
The war with Japan now relaxed the Russian pressure 00
Teheran, and at the same time dried up the source of supplies;
and the clergy, giving voice to the general misery and discontent,
grew more and more outspoken in their denunciations of the
shah's mbrule. Nevertheless MuzafTar-ed-Din defied public
opinion by making another Journey to Europe in 1905; but,
though received with the customary distinction at St Petersburg,
he failed to obtain further supplies. In the summer of 1906
popular discontent culminated in extraordinary demonstrations
at Teheran, which practically amounted to a general strike.
The shah was forced to yield, and proclaimed a liberal con-
stitution, the first parliament being opened by him on the xath
of October 2906. Muzaffar-ed-Din died on the 8th of January
1907, being succeeded by his son Mahommed All Mirza.
MUZAFFAR6ARH. a town and district of British India,
in the Mullan division of the Punjab. The town is near the
right bank of the river Chenab, and has a railway sutibn.
Pop. (1901), 40x8. Its fort and a mosque were built by Nawab
Muzaffar Khan in 1794-1796.
The District of MuzAFFAtCARR occupies the lower end of
the Sind-Sagar Doab. Area, 3635 sq. m. In the northern
half of the district is the wild thai or central desert, an arid
elevated tract with a width of 40 m. in the extreme north,
which gradually contracts until it disappears about xo m.
south of MuzaflTargarh town. Although apparently a table-land,
it is really composed of separate sandhills, with intermediate
valleys lying at a lower level than that of the Indus, and at
times flooded. The towns stand on high sites or are protected
by embankments; but the villages scattered over the lowlands
are exposed to annual inundations, during which the people
abandon their grass-built huts, and take refuge on wooden
platforms-attached to each house. Throughout the cold weather
large herds of camels, belonging chiefly to the Povindah
merchants of Afghanistan, graze upon the sandy waste.
The district possesses hardly any distinct annals of its own,
having always formed part of Multan (g.t.). The population
in 1901 was 405,656, showing an increase of 6*4% in the decade,
due to the extension of irrigation. The principal crops are
wheat, pulse, rice and indigo. The most important domestic
animal is the camel. The district is crossed by the Norths
Western railway, and the boundary rivers are navigable, besides
furnishing numerous irrigation channels; originally copstiucted
under native rule.
MUZAFFARNAOAR, a town 'and district of British India,
in the Meerut dixision of the United Provinces. The town is
790 ft. above the sea, and has a station on the North- Western
railway. Pop. (1901), 33444. It is an important trading centre
and has a manufacture of blankets. It was founded about 1633
by the son of Muzaffar Khan, Khan-i-Jahan, one of the famous
Sayid family who rose to power under the emperor Shah Jahan.
The District op Muzaffarnacar has an area of 1666 sq. m.
It lies near the northern extremity' of the Doab or great alluvial
plain between the Ganges and the Jumna, and shares to a \Ktgt
extent in the general monotony of that level region. A great
portion is sandy and unfertile; but under irrigation the soil is
rapidly improving, and in many places the villagers have
succeeded in introducing a hig|i state of cultivation. Before
the opening of the canals Muzaffamagar was liable to famines
caused by drought; but the danger from this has been mini-
mized by the spread of irrigation. It is traversed by four main
canals, the Ganges, Anupshahr, Deoband and Eastern Jumna.
Its trade is confined to the raw materials it produces. The
MUZAFFARPUR— MYCENAE
103
diaute of the district i» comparatively cool, owing to the
pranmity of the hUls; and the average annual rainfall ia 33 m.
The popolatioa in 1901 was 877,188, showing an increase of
ij*5 % in the decade, which was a period of unexampled
prosperity. The principal crops are wheat, pulse, cotton and
si«sr-cane. The district b crossed by the North-Wcstem
raflway from Delhi to Saharanpur.
Hindu tradition repccsents Muzaffamagar as having formed a
portion of the Paodava kingdom of the Mahabhdraia; authentic
faistocy, however, dates from the time of the Moslem conquests
in the ijth octitory, from which time it remained a dependency
of the various Mahommedan dynasties which ruled at Delhi
until the practical downfall of the Mogul Empire in the middle
of the i8th century. In 1788 the district fell into the. hands
of the Mahrattas. After the fall of Aligarh, the whole Doab
as fkr north as the Siwalik hiUs passed into the hands of the
British without a blow, and Muzaffarnagar became part of
Saharanpur. It was created a separate jurisdiction in 1824.
During the Mu6ny there was some disorder, chiefly occaiSoned
by offidal weakness, but no severe fighting.
S»MmaaifaF»aear District Cautteer (Allahabad. 1903).
■UZAFFARPUR, a town and district of British'india, in the
Fktaa division of Bengal. The town is on the right bank of
the little Gandak river, and has a railway station. Pop. (1901),
45^17. The town is well laid out, and is an important centre
of trade, being on the direct route from Patna to Nepal It is
the headquarters of the Behar Light Horse volunteer corps and
kas a ooUege esUblished in 1899.
The DsnucT 01 Mvzattarpvb. has an area of 3035 sq. m. It
was formed in January 2875 out of the great district of Tirhoot,
whkh up to that time was the largest and most populous district
of Lower Bengal. The district is an alluvial plain between the
Ganges and the Great Gandak, the Baghmat and Little Gandak
being the principal rivers within it. South of the Little Gandak
the land is somewhat elevated, with depressions^ containing
hkes toward the south-east. North of the Bighmat the land
is krwrr and marshy, but b traversed by elevated dry ridges.
The tract between the two rivers b lowest of all and liable to
floods. Pop. (1901), 3,754.790, showing an increase of z*$ %
in the decade. Average density, 9r4 per sq. m., being exceeded
in aD India only by the neighbouring dbtrict of Saran. Indigo
(superseded to some exUnt, owing to the fall in price, by sugar)
and ophim are laigdy grown. Rice b the chief grain crop,
and doth, carpets and pottery are manufactured. The dbtrict
b traversed in several directions by the Tirhoot system of the
Bengal and North-Westem railway. It sufifered from drought
in 1873-1874, and again in X807-1898.
See Uwaaffarpw District Caaetteer (CalcutU. 1907).
MDZIASO, GIROLAMO (1528-1592), Italian painter, was
hem at Acquafredda, near Brescia, in 1528. Under Romanino,
an imitator of Titian, he studied hb art, designing and colouring
according to the principles of the Venetian school. But it was
■ot until he had left hb native place, still in eariy youth, and
had repaired to Rome about 1550, that he came into notice.
There kb pictures soon gained for him the surname of // Ciovane
i^ paest (the young man of the landscapes); chestr.ut-trecs
are*pccdoininant in these works. He next tried the more
elevated style of hbtorical painting. He imitated Michelangelo
(8 giving great prominence to the anatomy of his figures, and
became food of painting persons emaciated by abstinence or
even disease. Hb great picture of the " Resurrection of
Lazaji»'* at once established his fame. Michelangelo praised
it. and pronounced its author one of the first artists of that age.
It was placed in the church of Santa Maria Maggiore, but was
afterwards transferred to the C^uirinal Palace. Muziano, with
dogged perseverance (at one time he shaved his head, so as not
to be tempted to go out of doors), continued to proceed in the
path on which he had entered. He grew excellent in depicting
icreigD and military costumes, and in introducing landscapes
into Ida historical pieces after the manner of Titian. Mosaic
working also occupiied hb attention while he was employed as
superintendent at the Vatican; and it became under hb hands
a perfect imitation of painting. Hb ability and industry soon
gained for him a handsome fortune. Part of thb he expended
in assisting to found the Academy of St Luke in Rome. He
died in 1594, and was buried in the church of SanU Maria
Maggioie.
Many of MurianoV works ate In the churches and palaces of
Rome; he also worked in Orvieto and Loreto. In Santa Maria
de^i Angeli. Rome, b one of hb chief works. " St Jerome preaching
to Monlor In the Desert " : his " Circumdaon " is in the church of the
GcsA, hb " Ascension " in the Araceli. and hb " St Francis receive
ing the Stigmata " in the church of the Conception. A picture by
htm. representing Christ washing the feet of Hts disdples. b in the
cathedral of Reims.
HUZZIOU,. OIOVAMMI (1854-1894), Italian painter, was
bom in Modena, whither hb family had removed from Castel-
vetro, on the loth of February 1854. From the time that he
began to attend the local academy at the age of thirteen he was
recQgnked as a prodigy, and four years later, by the unanimods
vote of the Judges, he gained the Poletti scholarship entitling
him to four years' residence in Rome and Florence. After hb
retum to Modena, .Munioli visited the Paris Exhibition, and
there came under the influence of Sir L. Alma Tadema. His
first important picture was ** In the Temple of Bacchus " (i8Sx);
and hb masterpiece, " The Funeral of Britannicus," was one of
the chief successes of the Bologna Exhibition of x888. From
1878 to hb death (August 5, 1894) Muzzioli lived in Florence,
where he painted the altar-piece for the church of C^telvetro.
See History «/ Mttiern Italian Art, by A, K. WiUard (London.
'8 98)-
MWERU* a huge lake of Eastern Central Africa, traversed
by the Luapula or upper O>ngo. It lies 3000 ft. above the sea;
measures about 76 m. in length by some 25 in breadth, and is
roughly rectangular, the axb running from S.S.W. to N.N.E.
It b cut a little sbuth of its centre by 0** S. and through its
N.E. corner passes 29** E. At the south end a shallow bay
extends to 9" 31' S. East of thb, and some miles further north,
the Luapula enters from a vast marsh inundated at high water;
it leaves the lake at the north-west comer, making a sharp bend
to the west before assuming a northerly direction. Besides
the Luapula, the principal influent is the Kalungwizi, from the
east. Near the south end of the lake lies the island of Kilwa,
about 8 m. fai length, rising into plateaus 600 ft. above the
lake. Here the air b cool and balmy, the soil dry, with short
ttirf and clumps of shady trees, affording every requirement for
a sanatorium. Mwem was reached by David Livingstone in
1867, but its western shore was first explored in 1890 by Sir
Alfred Sharpe, who two years later effected its circumnavigation.
The eastem shores from the Luapula entrance to its exit,
together with Kilwa Island, belong to Britbh. Central Africa,
the western to the Belgian (Tongo.
HTAUNOMTA, a dbtrict in the Irrawaddy division of lower
Burma, formed in 1893 out of a portion of Bassein district, and
reconstituted in 1903. It has an area of 2663 sq. m., and a
population (1902) of 278,119, showing an increase of 49% in
the decade and a density of 104 inhabitants to the square mile.
Among the population were about 12,800 Christians, mostly
Karens. The dbtrict b a deltaic tract, bordering south on the
sea and traversed by many tidal creeks. Rice cultivation and
ibhing occupy practically all the inhabitants of the dbtrict.
The town of Myaungmya had 47x1 inhabitants in 1901.
HTCENAB, one of the most ancient cities of Greece, was
situated on a hill above the northem extremity of the fertile
Argive plain-^iii/xv "^PJ^ot Inrofidroio. Its situation is ex*
ceedingly strong, and it commands all the roads leading from
Corinth and Achaca into the Argive plain. The waHs of Mycenae
are the greatest monument that remains of the Heroic age
in Greece; part of them is similar in style and doubtless con-
temporary in date with the walls of the neighbouring town
Tiryns. There can therefore be little doubt that the two
towns were the strongholds of a single race. Tiryns commanding
the sea-coast and Mycenae the inner country. Legend tells
of the rivalry between the dynasties of the Pelopidae at Mycenae
104
MYCENAE
and of the Proetidae at Argos. In early historic times Argos
had obtained the predominance. The Mycenaeans, who had
temporarily regained their independence with the help of
Sparta, fought on the Greek side at Piataea in 479 B.C. The
long warfare between the two cities lasted till 46is B.C., when
Mycenae was dismantled and its inhabitants dispersed. The
city never revived; Strabo asserts that no trace of it remained
in his time, but Pausanias describes the ruins. For the character
of Mycenaean art and of the antiquities found at Mycenae
see Aegean CiviLiZAnoN.
The extant remains of the town of Mycenae are spread over
the hill between the village of Charvati and the Acropolis.
They consist of some traces of town walls and of houses, and
of an early bridge over the stream to the east, on the road
leading to the Heraeum. The walls of the Acropolis are in
of thin slabs of stone set up on end, with others laid across the
top of them; at the part of this enclosure nearest to the Lion
Gate is an entrance. Some have supposed the circle of slabs
to be the retaining wall of a tumulus; but its structure is not
solid enough for such a purpose, and it can hardly be anything
but a sacred enclosure. It was within this circle that Dr H.
Schlicmann found the five graves that contained a marvellous
wealth of gold ornaments and other objects; a sixth was sub^
sequently found. Above one of the graves was a small circular
altar, and there were also several sculptured slabs set up above
them. The graves themselves were mere shafts sunk in the
rock. Dr Schliemann identified them with the graves of
Agamemnon, Cassandra, and their companions, which were
shown to Pausanias within the walls; and there can be little
doubt that they are the graves that gave rise to the tradition.
based 00 a, pUo ia bchucUurdt'» StUitmamm't Exianliams
Fig. I.— Plan of the Citadel of Mycenae.
the shape of an irregular triangle, and occupy a position of
great natural strength between two valleys. They are preserved
to a considerable height on all sides, except where the ravine
is precipitous and they have been carried away by a landslip;
they are for the most part built of irregular blocks of great
size in the so-called " Cyclopian " style, but certain portions,
notably that near the chief gate, are built in almost regular
courses of squared stones; there are also some later repairs in
polygonal masonry. The main entrance is called the Lion Gate,
from the famous triangular relief which fills the space above
its massive lintel. This represents two Uons confronted, resting
their front legs on a low altar-like structure on which is a
pillar which stands between them. The device is a translation
into stone of a type not uncommon in gem-cutler's and
goldsmith's work of the " Mycenaean " age. Tlie gate is
approached by a road commanded on one side by the city wall,
on the other by a projecting tower. There is also a postern
gate on the north side of the wall, and at its eastern extremity
are two apertures in the thickness of the wall. One of these
leads out on to the rocks above the southern ravine, the other
leads to a long staircase, completely concealed in the wall and
the rocks, leading down to a subterranean well or spring. Just
within the Lion Gale is a projection of the wall surrounding a
curious circular enclosure, consisting of two concentric circles
though the historical identity of the persons actually buried in
them is a more difficult question. Outside the circle, especially
to the south of it. numerous remains of houses of the Mycenaean
age have been found, and others, terraced up at various levels.
occupy almost the whole of the Acropolis. On the summit,
approached by a well-preserved flight of steps, are the remains
of a palace of the Mycenaean age, similar to that found at
Tiryns. though not so complicated or extensive. Above them
are the foundations of a Doric temple, probably dating from the
last days of Mycenaean independence in the sth century.
Numerous graves have hctn found in the slopes of the hills
adjoining the town of Mycenae. Most of these conust merely of
a chamber, usually square, excavated in the rock, and approached
by a " dromos " or horizontal approach in the side of a hill.
They are sometimes provided with doorways faced with stucco,
and these have painted ornamentation. Many of these tombs
have been opened, and their contents are in the Athens museum.
Another and much more conspicuous kind of tomb is that
known as the beehive tomb. There are eight of them at Mycenae
itself, and others in the neighbourhood. Some of them w-ere
visible in the time of Pausanias. who calls them the places
where Atreus and his sons kept their treasures. There can,
however, be no doubt that they were the tombs of princely
famih'es. The largest and b^t preserved of them, now
MYCETOZOA
105
comiBonky called the Treasury of Atretis, is jtist outside the Lion
Gate. It consists of a circular domed chamber, nearly 50 ft
in diameter and in height , a smaller square chamber opens out
of it. It is approached by a horizontal avenue 20 ft wide and
115 ft. long, with side walls of squared stone sloping up to a
height of 4S ft. The doorway was flanked with columns of
alabaster, with rich spiral ornament, now in ibc British Museum,
and the rest of the facade was very richly decorated, as may
be seen from Chipitfz's fine restoration The inside of the
vault was ornamented with attached bronze ornaments, but
not, as is sometimes stated, entirely lined with bronze. It is
generally supposed that these tombs, as well as those excavated
in the rock, belong to a later date than the shaft-tombs on the
Acropolis.
Sec H- Schliemann. Mycenae (1879) , C Schuchhardt. Schltemann's
ExtOMotums (Eng. trans.. 1891) , Chr Tsountas. Miw^mu koI MiMnyvauit
««\irt#|t6t (1803): Tsountas and Manatt. The Mycenaean Age (1897):
Perrat and Chipiez. Htstoire de t'art dans VantiqutU, vol. vi., L'art
Mycinttnne \^nous reports in IIpcwrurA r^ ipx iraipin and in
'C^VMpif ifixnut)^^^. (E. Cr.)
HTCETOZOA (Myxomycetes. Schleimpiize), in zoology, a
group of organisms reproducing themselves by spores. These
are produced in or on sporangia which are formed in the air
and the spores are distributed by the currents of air They
thus difier from other spore-bearing members of the animal
kingdom (w^hich produce their spores while immersed in water
or, in tbe case of parasites, within the fluids of their hosts),
and resemble the Fungi and many of the lower green plants.
In relation with this condition of their fructification the structures
formed at the spore-bearing stage to contain or support the
spores present a remarkable resemblance to the sporangia of
certain groups of Fu.igi. from which, however, the Mycetozoa
are essentially different.
Ahhough the sporangial and some other phases have long been
known, and Fries had enumerated iga species in 1829, the
main features of their hfe-history were first worked out in 1859-
1860 by de Bary (i and a). He showed that in the Mycetozoa
tbe spore hatches out as a mass of naked protoplasm which
almost immediately assumes a free-swimming flagellate form
ffocspcre)^ that after multiplying by division this passes into an
amoeboid phase, and that from such amoebae the plasmodia
arise, though tbe mode of their origin was not ascertained by him.
The Plasmodium of the Mycetozoa is a mass of simple proto-
plasm, without a differentiated envelope and endowed with
the power of active locomotion. It penetrates the interstices
of decaying vegetable matter, or, in the case of the species
Bcdkamic uirktUaris, spreads as a film on the surface of living
fungi; it may grow almost indefinitely in size, attaining under
favourable conditions several feet in extent It constitutes
tbe donainant phase of the life-history. From the Plasmodium
tbe sporangia take their origin. It was Cienkowski who (in
1863) contributed the important fact that the Plasmodia arise
by tbe fusion with one another of numbers of individuals in
the amoeboid phase — a mode of origin which is now generally
recognized as an essential feature in the conception of a
plasraodiom. whether as occurring among the Mycetozoa or
in other groups (7). De Bary clearly expressed the view that
the life-history of the Mycetozoa shows them to belong not
to the vegetable but to the animal kingdom.
The individual sporangia of the Mycetozoa are, for the most
part, minute structures, rarely attaining the size of a mustard-
seed, thotigh. in the composite form of aethalia, they may
form cake-like masses an inch or more across (fig. ai) They arc
focnd, stalked or sessile, in small clusters or distributed by the
thousand over a wide area many feet in diameter, on the bark
of decaying trees, on dead leaves or sticks, In woods and shrub-
beries, among the stems of plants on wet moors, and, generally,
at the surface in localities where there is a substratum of decaying
vegetable matter sufficiently moist to allow the Plasmodium
U> live. Tan-heaps have long been known as a favourite habitat
ol FuUgo septica, the plasmodia of which, emerging In bright
yellow masses at the surface prior to the sporangial (in this
case actbalial) phase, are known as " flowers of Un " Tbe
film-like, expanded condition of the Plasmodium, varying in
colour in different spedes and traversal by a network of vem-
like channels (fig. 5), has long been known. The plasmodial
stage was at one time regarded as representing a distinct group
of fungi, to which the generic name Mesentcrtca was applied.
The species of Mycetozoa are widely distributed over the woHd in
temperate and tropical latitudes where there is sufficient
moisture for them to grow, and they must be regarded as not
inconsiderable agents in the disintegrating processes of nature,
by which complex organic subsUnces are decomposed into
simpler and more stable chemical groups.
Classification — ^The Mycetozoa, as here understood, fall into
three main divisions. Tbe Endosporeae, in which the spores are
contained within sporangia, form together with the Exosporeae.
which bear their spores on the surface of sporophorcs, a natural
group characterized by forming true plaismodia. They con-
stitute the Euplasmodida. Standing apart from them is the
small group of the mould-like Sorophora, in which the amoeboid
individuals only come together immediately prior to spore-
formation and do not completely fuse with one another.
A number of other organisms living on vegetable and animal
bodies, alive or dead, and leading an entirely aquatic life, are
included by Zopf (31) under the Mycetozoa, as the " Monadina,"
in distinaion from the " Eumycetozoa," consisting of the three
groups above mentioned. The alliance of some of these {e.g.
Protonumas) with the Mycetozoa is probable, and was accepted
by de Bary, but the relations of other Monadina arc obscure,
and appear to be at least as close with the Heliozoa (with which
many have in fact been classed). The limiu here adopted,
following de Bary, include a group of organisms which, as
shown by their life-history, belong to the atiimal stock, and yet
alone among animals* they have acquired the habit, widely
found in the vegetable kingdom, of developing and distributing
their spores in air.
Class MYCETOZOA.
Subclass I. — EUPLASIIOOIOA.'
Division t. — Endosporeae.
Cohort I. — Amaurosporales.
Sub-cohort l. — Calcarineae.
Order I. Physaraccae. Genera: Badhamxa, Physarum, Physarelta,
Trickampkora, Erionema, Cienkowskia, Fuligo, Crateriumf
Leocarpus, Ckondrioderwia, Diackaea.
Order a. Didymiaceae. Genera: Didymtum, Spumaria, Lepido-
derma,
Sub<ohort a. — Amaurochaetineae.
Order i. Stemonitaccae. Genera: Stemonitis, Comatricka, Ener-
Ikenema, EckinosUUum, Lamproderma, Clastoderma,
Orders Amaurochaetaceae. Ccnen: AmaurockaeU, Brefeldia,
Cohort 2. — Lamprosporales.
Sub<ohort i. — Ancmineae.
Order I Heterodermaceae. Cienera: Lindbladia, Cribraria,
Dictydium.
Order a. Licaeceae. Genera : Licea, Oreadetla.
Order 3, Tubulinaccae. Genera; Tubulina. SipkoUyekittm, Alvisia.
Order 4. Reticulariaceae. Genera : Dtctydiaelkaiium, Enleridium,
Reticularia.
Order 5. Lycogalaceae. C^nus: Lycoiaia,
Sub«cohort a."- ^Taloncmlneae.
Order 1. Trichiaceac. Genera: Trickia, OUgontma, Hemitriekia,
Cornuvia.
Order a. Arcyriaceae. Genera: Arcyria, Lacknobolus, Perickaena.
Order 3. Margaritaceae. Genera: Mariarita, Dianema, ProUh
trickia, Listerella.
Division a. — Exosporeae,
Order 1. Ceratiomyxaceae. Genus: Ceraliomyxo,
Subclass a. — Sorophora.
Order i. Cuttulinaceae. Genera: Copromyxa, Cuttulina, Cuttw
linopsis.
Order a. Dictyostcltaceae. Genera: Dictyostelium, Acrasis, Poly-
tphondylium.
* Bursnila, a member of Zopf s Monadina, likewise forms its spores
in air
• The classification of the Euplasmodida here given Is that of A.
and G. Lister (22), the outcome of a careful study of the eroup
extending over more than twenty-five years. The writer of this
article desires to express his indebtedness to the opportunities he
has had of becoming familiar with the work of his father, Mr A. Lister.
F.R.S.. whose views on the affinities and life-history of tbe Mycetoaoa
he has endeavoured herein to summarize.
io6
MYCETOZOA
LIFE-HISTORY OF THE MYCETOZOA
EUPLASMODIDA
Endosporeae.
We may begin oar survey of the life-history at the point where
the spores, borne on currents of air, have settled among wet decaying
vegeuble matter Shrunken when dry. they rapidly absorb water
and resume the spherical
shape which is found in
nearly all species. Each
is surrounded by a s^e
wait, sheltered by which
the protoplasm, though
losing moisture by drying,
may remain alive for as
many as four years. In
several cases it has been
found to give the chemical
reaction of cellulose. It
IS smooth or variously
sculptured according to
the species. Within the
protoplasm may be seen
the ntkUus, and one or
more contractile vacuoles
Fic.
^ — ... ^. , . make their appearance.
-Stages in the Hatching of the After the spore has lain
Spon» ol Dtdymxum dtfforme. i„ water for « period
a. The unruptured spore. varying from a few hours
0, The protoplasmic contents of the spore to a day or two the wall
emcmng. It contains a nucleus with bursts and the contained
the (light) nucleolus, and a contractUe protopUsm slips out and
vacuole (shaded) fies free in the water as a
<^. The same, free from the spore wall. minute colourless mass,
</. Zoospore, with nucleus at thebaseof presenting amoeboid
the flagcllum. and contractile vacuole, movements 'fig. i. c). It
t, A zoospore with pseudopodial processes ^oon assumes an elongated
at the postenor end. to one of which piriform shape, and a
a bacillus adheres. Two digestive fiagellum is developed at
vacuoles in the interior conUin m- the narrow end. attaining
gested bacilli. a length equal to the rest
/. Amoeboid phase with retracted of the body. The minute
flagcllum. toospore, thus equipped,
swims away with a characteristic dancing motion. The proto-
plasm is granular within but hyaline externally (fig. I. d). The
nucleus, lying at the end of the body where it tapers into the
flagcllum. is limited by a definite wall and contains a nuclear
network and a nucleolus. It often
presents the appearance of being
drawn out into a point towards the
flagcllum. and a bell-like structure
(first described by Plenge (27)1.
staining more darkly than the rest
of the protoplasm, extends from the
base (M the flagcllum and invests
the nucleus (fig. 3. a and c). The
other end of the zoospore may be
evenly rounded (fig. \,d)or it may
be produced into short pseudo-
podia (fig. I , <). By means of these
the zoospore captures bacteria
- — - # . .. • which are drawn into the body and
Fic. 2.— Zoospore! of BaJ*amia enclosed in digestive vacuoles. A
pantua, suined. contractile vacuole is also present
In a and c the bell like struc- „ear the hind end. Considerable
ture mveaiing the nucleus is movement may be observed among
clearly seen. the granules of the interior, and
in the large zoospores of Amawockaeu atra this may amount to an
actual streaming, though without the rhythm characteristic of the
plasmodial stage.
Other shapes may be temporarily assumed by the zoospore.
Attaching itself to an object it
may become amoeboid, either with
(fig- I. /) or without (fig. 3, e) the
temporary retraction oithe Bagel-
lum ; or it may take an elonrated
slug-like shape and creep witn the
After A. Later. fiagellum extended in front, with
Fig. 3.— Three stages in the tactile and apparently exploratory
division of the Zoospore of movements.
Rtlicularia Lycoperdon. That the zoospores of many
species of the Endosporeae feed on
bacteria has been shown by A.
Lister (18). New Ueht has recently been thrown on the matter
by Pinoy (26). who has worked chiefly with Sorophora. in which.
as shown below, the active phase of the life-history is passed
' Figures 1. 4. and 11-22 are from the British Museum Guide to
the British Mycetozoa. The other figures are from Lankester's
Treatise on Zoology , part I. Introduction and Protozoa. Fascicle 1.
Article Mycetozoa.
mainly m the sute of isolated amoebae Pinoy finds that the
amoebae of this group live on particular species of bacteria, and that
the presence of the Utter is a necessary condition for the devek>p-
ment of the Sorophora. and even (as has been recognized by other
workers) for the hatching of their spores. Pinoy 's results indicate,
though not so conclusively, that bacteria are likewise the essential
food of the Euplasmodida in the early phases o( their life-histwy.
The zoospores do. however, ingest other splid bodies, e.g. cannine
granules (Saville Kent, lO.
The zoospores multiply by binary fission, the fiagellum being
withdrawn and the nucleus undergoing mitotic division, with the
formation of a well-marked achromatic spindle (fig. 3).
It is probable that fission occurs more than once in the zoospore
suge: but there is not satiJactory evidence to show bow often
it may be repeated.'
At this, as at other phases of the life-history, a resting suge
may be assumed as the result of drying, but also from other and
unknown causes. The fiagel-
lum is withdrawn and the
protoplasm, becoming spheri-
cal, secretes a cyst wall. The
organism thus passes into the
condition of a microcyst, from
which when dry it may be
awakened to renewed activity
by wetting.
At the end of the zoospore
stage the organism finally
withdraws its flaecllum and
assumes the amoeboid shape.
It is now known as an amoe-
bula. The amocbulae become
endowed, as was first recog-
nized by Cienkowski. witn
mutual attraction, and on
meeting fuse with one another.
Fig. 4 represents a group of , ^
such amocbulae. Several dtfforme uniting to form a
have already united to form modium. The common mass
a common mass, to which contains digestive vacuoles (»).
others, still free, are con- The clear spherical bodies are
verging. The protoplasmic microcysts and an empty spore-
mass thus arising is the plas- •h«" » «««« to t*»« ^^
modium. The fusion between
the protoplasmic bodies of the amocbulae which unite to form it is
complete. Their nuclei may be traced for some time in the young
Plasmodium and no fusion between them has been observed at this
suge (20). As the Plasmodium increases in size by the addition of
amocbulae the task of following the fate of the individual nuclei by
direct observation becomes impossible.
The appearance of an active Plasmodium of Badkamia uinetdaris.
which, as we have seen, lives and feeds on certain fungi, is shown in
fig- S- It consists of a film of protoplasm, of a bright yellow colour,
varying in size up to a foot or more in diameter. It is traversed
by a network of branching and anastomosing channels, which divide
up and are gradually lost as they approach the margin where the
protoplasm forms a uniform and locate border. Elsewhere the
^^'^
Fic. 4.— Amocbulae of Didymtum
' Plas-
FlC. 5. — Part of the Plasmodium of Badkamta utnculartM.
main trunks of the network may lie free with little or no connecting
film between them and their neighbours. The Plasmodia of other
species, which live in the interstices of decaying vegetable matter,
are less easily observed, but on emerging on tne surface prior to
' Pinoy states (36) that the spores of Spumaria alba, cultivated
with bacteria on solid media, hatch out into amoebae, which under
these conditions do not assume the flagellate stage. The amoeba
from a spore was observed to give rise by three successive divtsiotis
to eight amocbulae.
MYCETOZOA
107
ttcn f
There i
formatloii they present an ecaentiany similar appearance.
1 ht however, great variety in the degree of concentration or
fxpannon presented by plasmodia, in relatiod with food tupplvp
moisture and other circumsunces. The plasroodia move alowly
about over or in the substratum, concentrating in regions where foOd
supply is abundant, and leaving those where it is exhausted.
CKi examining under the microscope a film whidi has wread over
a cover-slip, the channels are seen to be streams of rapidly moving
granidar protoplasm. This movement is rhythmic m character,
bdng directed altertiately towards the margin of an advancing
region d the Plasmodium, and away from it. As a channel is
watched the stream of granules u seen to become slower, and after
a momentary pause to biegin in the opposite direction. In an active
piasmodium the duration of the flow in either direction varies from
a minute and a half to two minutes, though it u always longer when
in the directioa of the general advance over the Substratum). When
the flow of the protoplasm b in thb latter direction the border be-
comes ttti^^id. and lobes of liyaline orotoplasm are seen (under a high
magnification) to start forward, and soon to become filled with granu-
br cootents. When the flow is reversed, the margin becomes thin
from the drainage away of its contents. A delicate hyaline layer
invests the piasmodium, and b apparently less fluid than the material
flowing in tne channels. The phenomena of the rhythmic movement
o( the protoplasm are not inconsistent with the view that they result
from alternating contraction and relaxation of the outer layer in
different regions of the pUsmodium. but any dogmatic statement as
to their causation appears at present inadvisable.
Fig. 6.
a. Part of a stained Plasmodium of Badhamio uincularis,
a. Nuclei.
k, Mocleit some in process of simple (amitotic) division.
€. Rart ci a Plasmodium in which the nuclei are in simultaneous
mitotic division.
d'f. Other stages in thb process.
Minute eoniractiU vaeuoUs may be seen in great numbers in the
ibin parts of the piasmodium between the channels. In stained
preparations nuclei, varying (in Badhamia utrictdaris) from 3*5 to
5 rakrofnilUmeters in diameter, are found abundantly in the granular
protoplasm (fig. 6, 6). They contain a nuclear reticulum and one
or more well-marked nucleoli. In any stained piasmodium some
ttodei nay be found, as shown in the figure b, wnich appear to be
in some stage of simple (amitotic) division, and thb b, presumably,
the chief nmde in which the number of the nuclei keeps pace with
titt rapidly erowing piasmodium. There b, however, another mode
divisM
i keeps pace with
„ ^ ^er, another mode
division in the plasnuxlium which has hitherto been
erved in one recorded instance (19, p. 541)1 the mitotic (fig. 6, c-/),
and tfaa appears to befall all the nuclei of a Plasmodium stmul-
taneoosly. What the relation of these two modes of nuclear division
Gsay be to the life-history b obscure.
That the amitotic b the usual mode of nuclear division is indicated
by the very frequent occurrence of these apparently dividing nuclei
aad also by the following experiment. A piasmodium of Badhamia
tJriadaris spceading over pieces of the fungus AuriaUaria was
observed to increase in siae about fourfold in fourteen hours, and
dorit^ thb time a small sample was removed and stained every
<ntarter of an hoar.^ The later stainings showed no diminution in
toe number of nuclei in proportion to the protoplasm, and yet none
c€ the sample showed any sign of mitotic division (ao, p. 0). It
wookl appear therefore that the mode of increase of the nuclei auring
ihbpcnodi
samitouc
Prowaiek (28) has recently referred to nuclear stages^ similar to
those here regarded as of amitotic division, but has mterpreted
them as nucl^r fusions. He does not. however, discuss the mode
of multiplication of nuclei in the piasmodium.
In the s;roup of the Calcareae, granules of carbonate of lime are
abundant in the plasmodia, and in all Mycetozoa other granules of
undetermined nature are present. The colow of plasmodia varies
in different species, and may be yellow, white, pink, purple or ^reen.
The colouring matter b in the form of minute (hvpa, and m the
Calcareae th^ invest the lime granules.
i^H/ri/i^ff .^The piasmodium of Badhamia niriailaHs, advancing
over the pild of suitable fungi, feeds on the superficial layo* dissolving
the walb of the hyphae U7)' The protopUsm may be seen to
contain abundant foreign bodies such as spores of fungi or sclerotium
cysts (vide infra) which have been taken in and are undeiigcMne
digestion. It has been found experimentally (11) that pieces ot
coagulated proteids are likewise taken in ana digested in vacuoles.
On the other hand it has been found that plasmodia will live,
ultimately producing sporangia, in nutrient solutions (9).^ It would
appear therefore that the nutrition of plasmodb b effected in part
by the ingestion of solid foodstuffs, and in part by the absorption
01 material in solution, and that there b great variety in the com-
plexity of the substances which serve as their food.
ScUrotium. — As the result of drought, the pUsmodium, having
become much denser by loss of water, passes into the sclerolial
condition. Drawing together into a ^^ dtrm^ j9a
thickbh layer, the protoplasm divides if^^^^fy^'^ hGSP^
up into a number of di^inct masses, ^iJeZ^^^SS^^^i''*'^
each containinff some 10 to 20 nuclei, J&^oi^SS^'''^^^^^
and a cyst walib excreted round each ^^^^^^^l^l^^^v^'Ot^i^
mass (hg. 7). The whole has now a ^^^^^V \lSlJ^^W^
hard brittle consbtency. In thb state ^'^^J^J ^"^Sto^^
the protoplasm will remain alive for ^8F ^V v^
two or three years. On the addition _. eJy -x u
of water the cyst walb are ruptured «,''»°- 7:""^**^i**°„ 9?. *".*
and in part absorbed, their contenU Plasmodium of Badhamta
join together, and tlhe active streaming tOruulans when passmg into
condition of the pUsmodium b re- the condition of sclerptium.
sumed. It b to be noted, however, ^w. The nuclei conuined in
that the sclerotial condition may be the young sclerotul cysts,
assunwd under other conditions than dryness, and sclerotia may
eyen be formed in water.
The exbtence of the sclerotbl stage affords a ready means of
obtaining the piasmodium for experimental purposes. If a cultiva-
tion of the Plasmodium of Badnamia tUricularis oh suitable fungi
{Stereum, AuriaUaria) b allowed to become partially di^ the Plas-
modium draws together and would, if drying were continued, pass
into the sclerotial stage; on the fungus. If now strips of wet blotting-
paper are placed so as to touch theplasmodium, the latter, attracted
by the moisture, crawls on the blotting-paper. If this is now removed
and allowed to dry rapidly, the piasmodium passes into sclerotium
on it.' By thb means the piasmodium b removed from the partblly
disintegrated and decayed fungus on which it has been feeding, and
a dean sclerotium b obtained, which, as above stated, remains alive
for y^rs (31, p. 7). An easy method for obtaining small plasmodia
for microscopic examination b to scatter small fragments, scfaped
from a piece of the hard sclerotium. over cover-slips wetted with
fOiN- water and kept in a moist atmosphere. In twelve to twenty-
four hours small plasmodia will be seen spreading on the cover-slips
and these nuy be mounted for observation.
The plasmodial stage ends by the formatbn of the sporaniia.
The Plasmodium withdraws from the interstices of the material
among which it has fed, and emerges on the surface in a diffuse or
concentrated mass. In the case of Badhamia utrictdaris it may with-
draw from the fungus on which it has been' feeding, or change into
sporangia on it. The mode of formation of the sporangb will be
described in the case of Badhamia, some of the chief differences in
the process and in the structure of the sporangia in other forms
beinff subsequently noticed.
when the change to sporangia begins the protoplasm of the
Plasmodium becomes graaually massed in discrete rounded lobes,
about a half to one millimeter in diameter and scattered in clusters
over the area occupied by the piasmodium. The reticulum of
channels of the piasmodium becomes meanwhile less and less
marked. When tne whole of the protopUsm b drawn in to thp
lobes, the circuUtion ceases. The lobes are the young sporangb.
Meanwhile foreign bodies, taken in with the food, are ejected, and
the protoplasm secretes on its outer surface a pellicle of mucoid,
transparent substance which dries as the sporangU ripen. This
invests the young sporangU, and as they rise above the substratum
falls together at their b^s forming the stalks; extended over the
substratum it forms the hypothaUus, and in contact with the
rounded surface of the sporangium it forms the sporangium-wall.
While the sporangium-wall is formed exterruiUy a secretion of
* A solution which has thus been found favourable contains
the folbwing mineral salto: KH|PO«, K<HP0«,MgS04, KNO9.
CA (NOi),, a free acid, and s % of dextrine.
' ' If the Plasmodium b slowty dried it b very apt to pass into
SporangU.
io8
MYCETOZOA
similar material occurs along branching aftd anastomosing tracts
through the protoplasm of the sporangium, giving rise to the
capiUtUum. The greater part of the lime granules (mss out of the
protoplasm and arc dejMsited in the capilhtium, which in the ripe
sporangia of Badkamia is white and brittle with the contained Ume
(cf. fig. 8). In this genus some granules are found also in the
sporaneium-wall. Strasburger concludes that the sporangium- wall
of Trichia is a modification of cellulose (29).
Fig. 8. — Sporangia of Badkamia panicea, some intact, others (to
left) ruptured, exposing the blaclc masses of spores and the
capillitium. The latter is white with deposited lime granules.
An empty sporangium is seen above.
It has been stated (16), but the observation requires confirmation,
that a fusion of the nuclei in pairs occurs early m the development
of the sporangium.
^
Pf'
Fig. 10.— Part of a section
through a Sporangium of Trickia
varia after the spores are formed.
Fig. 9. — Part of a section
through a young Sporangium
of Trickivaria, showing the
mitotic division of the nuclei (n)
prior to spore formation.
c, Capillitium thread.
At a later stage, after the capillitium is formed, the nuclei undergo a
mitotic division which affects all the nuclei of a sporangium simul-
taneously. This was first described by Strasburger (29). While it
Fig. 12. — Physarum nutans.
Fig. i\.—Badhamia utrkuJaris. „ Sporangia.
a. Sporangia. b, Capillitium threads, with frag-
b, Capillitium and cluster of mcnt of the sporangium-wall
spores. attached, lime knots at the
junctions and spores,
is in progress the protoplasm of the sporangium divides, into succes-
sively smaller masses, until each daughter nucleus is the centre of a
single mass of protoplasm.^ These nucleated masses are the young
* In some genera such as Arcyria and Trickia (illustrated in figs. 9
and 10) the division of the protoplasm does not occur until the nuclei
have undergone this division. The protoplasn} then divides up
about the daughter nuclei to form the spores.
spores. A spore-wall is soon secreted and th6 tporangiam has now
resolved itself into a mass of spores, traversed by the strands of
the capillitium and enclosed in a sporangium-wall, connected with
the substratum by a stalk. As ripening proceeds, the wall becomes
membranous and readily ruptures, and the dry spores may be carried
abroad on the currents of air or washed out by raiit.
Fig. 13,-
■Ckondrioderma UstO' FiG.
uum.
a. Group of three Sporangia.
6, Cajnlutium, fragment of spor-
angium-wall and spores.
j^.^Craterium peduneulO'
turn.
a. Two Sporangia, in one the lid
has fallen away.
b, Capillitium with lime knots
and spores.
We may now review some of the main differences in structure
presented by the sporangia. They may be stalked or sessile (fig.
13). If the former, the sulk is usually, as in Badkamia tUriadaris,
FiG. 15. — Didymium effusum.
a, Two Sporangia, one showing
the columella and capillitium.
b, Cai>illitium. fragment of spor-
angium-wall with carbonate
of lime in crystals, and spores.
Fig. 16. — Lepidoderma Hgrinum,
a. Sporangium; the crystal-line
disks of lime are seen attached
to the sporangium-wall.
i, Capillitium and spores.
the continuation of the sporangium-walls (figs. 11 and 12), but in
Stanonitis and its allies (fig^ 17 and 18) it is an axial structure.
A central columeUa may project into the interior of the sporangium,
cither in sulked (fig. 15) or sessile (fig. 13) forms.
Fig. 17. — Lamproderma irlaeum
a, Sporangia.
6, A Sporangium deprived of
spores, showing the capillitium
and remains of the sporangium-
wall.
Fig. li.—SUmonilis sptendeus.
a. Group of Sporangia (nat. nze).
b, Portion of columella and capil-
litium, the latter branching to
form a superficial network.
The sporangium-wall may be most delicate and evanescent (fig. 1 7).
or consist of a superficial network of threads (fig. 18), which in
Di^ydium (fig. 19) present a beautifully regular arrangement.
Fig. 20. — Arcyria punice^
a. Group of Sporangia.
b. Capillitium.
c. Spore.
In Ckandrioderma (fig. 15) the wall is double, the inner layer being
membranous, the outer thickly encrusted with lime granules. In
CraUrium the upper part of the sporangium-wall is lid-like and faUs
away, leaving the spores in an open cup (fig. 14).
Fig. i9.^Diaydium umblicalum.
a, Group of Sporangia, nat. sire.
b, A Sporangium after dispersion
of tne spores.
MYCETOZOA
109
tiht
„ J ef tlw CBpiHrim b irlfiry vuioitt. la tlM Cakmri-
le amy be gencnlly discribuced tluoagh it (fig. 11). or
^ItttlttiKKksoC the network in" Hne-knoCs" (flip. la and
r «r it any be afaaent from the capUlitium altcwetner. The
opWiB attaina ita biflwat devdopment in the Calonemineoe
h «Udb the thraada, diaunct (in whidi case they are known as
dhtto. Ifi. 9 and 10) or united into a netwwk (fig. 20), pre«nt
Rnhr thidaungs in the form of qnial bands or transverse bars.
Imk thnada, altering their shape with varying sutes of moisture,
M dkient agenu in distribating the spores. In another groupp
Ae Aacameae. the capiBitium is abaent altogether.
The Didymboeae are characteriaed by the fact that the Uroc,
Ihamjb present in a granular form in the Plasmodium, is deposited
OB the spocaiwium-wall in the form of crystals, either in radiating
I""pi3r iS) or in disks (fig. 16).
la meat Endosporcae the sporangia are separate symmetrical
kotek bat m many geocra a form oc fructification occuta in which
Fic. 22.—Licea flexuesa.
a, Croup of Plasmodiocarps.
6, A continuous itasmodiocarp
Fic 21.— fa/tfs uptica.
•.Makum.
A.CapiUiUum threads (with
liaw kaotij and two spores.
c. Spores.
Ae i|mcs are prodiiced in masses of more or less irregular outline,
Bxunsf u extieme cases much of the diffuse character of the plas-
■odMOL With the a|porea thev contain capillitium, but there are
■otnccsof sporangia f waUs to be found in their interior. They are
hanu p la sm o d io iar Ps (fig. aa). They are characteristic of certain
tftaa, bat m others they may be formed side by side with sepamte
noagia (ram the same pJawnodium. There is indeed no sharp
■M to be drawn bef itn sporangia and plasmodiocarpa. On the
iihr hand, the aowded condition of the sporangia of some species
anm a tramitioii to the laife compound fructifications known
andt aha (fi^ at). These, either in their young stages or up to
■Banty, ictaw sooae evidence of their formation by a coalescence
d ysiwis, and in addition to the capillitium they are generally
pactmed fay the remains of the waUs of the sporangia which have
thaioaittd.
Exos^reae,
It viD be convenient to begm our survey of the life-hittoiy
of Ceratiomyxa, the single
representative of the Exo*
sporcae, at the stage at
which the Plasmodium
emerges from the rotten
wood in which it has fed.
At this stage it has been
observed to spread as a film
over a slide, and to exhibit
the network of channels and
rhythmic flow of the proto-
plasm in a manner precisely
similar to that accn in the
Endosporcae (20, p. 10). It
soon, however, draws to-
f;cther into compac*. masses,
ram the surface of which
fingcr-Iilce or antlcr-Iikc
loMs grow uj^ards. Here
too the Kcretion of a trans-
parent mucoid substance
occurs, which is at first
penetrated by the anasto-
mosing strands of the
protoplasm, but gradually
T\o. ly— Ceratiomyxa mncida, the latter tends more and
0. Ripe ipGdrophore. more to form a reticular and
A. Matunng sporopbore showing the ultimately a nearly continu-
dntlopment of the spores. ous superficial investment,
C Ripe ipore. Instead of the single covering the mucoid ma-
Badeut here indicated there should terial. The latter even-
be four nuclei, as in d. tually dries and forms the
i, Hstchii^ spore. exceedingly delicate support
•4, Stojes in the development of the of the spores or sporophore
»Mpon%. (fig. 33. a).
The investing proto-
pfan, with its nuclei, having become arranged in an even
Itrer. undergoes cleavage and thus forms a pavement-like
layer of pcotoplasmic masses, each occupied by a single nucleus
E«.* After Vu
(fig. 95, b). Eadi of these maaaea now grows out perpendiculariy
to the aurface of the sporophore. As It does so an envelope is
accreted, which, dosing in about the base forms a slender stalk.
The minute mass, borne on the stalk, becomes the ellipsoid sporei
surrounded by the spore-wall. In this manner the whole of the
protoplasmic subsuncc of the Plasmodium is converted into spores,
borne on supponing structures (stalks and sporophores), which are
formed by secretion of the protoplasm.
In the course of the development of which the external features
have now been traced nuclear chanjses occur of which accounts have
been given by Jahn (14) and by Olive (24 and 25). Jahn has shown
that prior to tne cleavage of the protoplasm a mitotic division of
the nuclei takes place, the daughter nuclei of which are those
occupying the protoplasmic masses seen in fig. 23 6.* After the
spore has risen on its stalk two further mitotic divisMns occur in
rapid succession, and the four- nucleated condition characteristic
of the spore of Ceratiomyxa, is thus attained. The spores, on being
brought into water, soon hatch ^fig. 23. 'd), and the four nuclei
contained in them undergo a mitotic division. Mcanwhde tlw
protoplasm divides, at first into four, then into eight masses, and
the latter acquire flagclU. although for some time remaining con-
nected with their fellows (fig. 23, e-k). On separating each is a free
From observation of cultivations of xoosporrs the impression ia
that here, as in the Endosporeae, they multiply by binary division,
though no exact observations of the process nave been recorded.
The soospores lose their flagella and become amoebulae, but the
fusion of tfate latter to form plasmodia has not been directly observed
in Ceratiomyxa, although from analogy with the Endosporeae it
can hardly *be doubted that such fusions occur.
Sofopkora.
The Sor^phoni of Zopf (Acrasiae of Van Tieghem) are a group of
microicofiic organisms inhabit-
inn^ ib<? dunE of herbivorous
animnit and other decaying
vegetable maiter. As Pinoy
tjbj ha> fthown, the presence of
3 p4rticLiUr *ptcies of bacteria
uiih the cporiri b necessary
for th^ir hAiching and as the
tiiAcntiil food ci the amoebulae
w hich emerge If om them. There
it CLG n^gLLlate stage, and ft
Li in th« lonn of amoebulae,
mjlti plying by fission, that the
vejetatiye stage of the life-
hiitorr i^ pp.!i^. At the end
.1 ■ ' ■ ^' ■ ' nbers of amoe-
bulae draw together to form
a " pscudo-plasmodium." This
riir?fH.-]y an og^re-
■•ebulae prior t'>
;"n, Ther oudinrt
fi\ (h'.- in'ljMilLial amorbuUir arc
miintained, aniJ there i» no fu^
sfOD between thfm, « in tSt
fiDmuiliQn of %ht pkMnodlum
of the Euplasmodidii.
1 n *omt gt^tiera crrtain of the
amocbube CDn^tituting the
pM;udt>-pta£mDdiLJEn ^re modi-
fiiA into a staEk (simple ui
f, H U N .' # rt., ^ n ,1 Pd.- f;...-, . W\ M|«. ^
branched in . Polysphondylium,
fig. 24, d), along which the
other units creep to encyst, • »nd »»iic» Fayodjc »
and become spores at the end - j v ^ ^
or ends of the rtalk. In other ^^^' ^f-«,.*"^ *• Copremyxa pro-
cases {Copromyxa, fig. 24. a /«, slightly magmficd.
and b) the pscudo-plasmodium c and d, Polysphondyltum wio-
is transformed into a mass of laceum.
encysted spores without the c, A young sorus, seen in optical
differentiation of supporting section. A mass of elongated
structures. amoebulae are grouped round
It is not impossible that the the stalk, and others are ex-
Myxobacteriaccae of Thaxter tended about the base,
may, as that author suggests, be ^'i A sorus approaching maturity-
allied to the Sorophora (30).
Review of the Life-Histories of Ike Myeetozpa.—Tht data for a
comparison of the life-history of the Mycctozoa with those of other
Protozoa in respect of nuclear changes arc at present incomplete.
' Tahn (14) described two mitotic divisions at this stage, but in
•* Myxomycctenstudien 7 — Ceratiomyxa," Ber. deut. hot. CeselUck.
xxvL a (1908) he shows that only one mitotic division occurs in the
maturing sporophore prior to cleavage. Olive gives a preliminary
account of a fusion of nuclei prior to cleavage, but as he has not
seen the mitotic division which certainly occuts a\ \YC\» %\:aijfc \»
results cannot be accepted as secure.
ud d alter BicfcU
no
MYCONIUS, F.— MYDDELTON
At s^ime ftisr or ol!ief wt af« led by aruilogV to (jijcpca tkif a
divi&igd of nucii"! would occur irt whkh the ciLiirLbcr of throitiovsnitrs
would ix tvduQiii b^ one half, thai this would be fcllowtMl by ihc
forniiiti&ti of ^aiti^tc^, acid th^at the nuclei of the Litter would aubte^
quentl]^ fuAe in kjrydfamyu
It i& clear that fK>ih in the Endosporeae and Exosporea? a mkoitk:
diviaiDii of nuclei Jm mediately precedes spore-formation. Thi& is
rcs^rded by Jahn ars a reduction division. Ji thli is tht; caht, the
£(H>!bparr« or the iimotbuUc musT in sninf way fcpnrsrnt ihe gametes.
The lu$Joo of the 1.1 tier to form pUsmodia appears lo ofTtt a pfO'
ce» comparable nvith the irdfijugation oJ ga^nrieii, but thouj^h the
fusion of iheprotopEabm of the amoebulae hl& been often fibserved no
fkiaion of their nuclei (karyogamy} ha« been lound Co accotnpany ii.
A fusion of nuclei ha a indeed been described at uccurring in the
pUwnDdium, or at stagei in the development of the aporangia or
tporoptiores, but in no ase can the evidence be rvg^rdcrj a sati-^
factory.' LTntil we have cldr evidence on this potnt the nudetr
history of the mycetozoa must remiiin incontplctftt
Jalifl's observation of the mitotic division of nuclei preceding;
cpore-forfnaiion in Ctrrati^myta give^ a fixed point foi' comparison
of the Exosparcae with iht £ndui.pdreae. StSirting from thia divi*
sion it fifem^ clear that the ^pore of Ctratiamyxa h comparable
with the spore of the Endo^porcae except thai the nucleus ol the'
former has undergone two mitotic divisions.
LiTfiR^TtJ RE,— {i J A. de Barv, " Die MyccioMeti," ZtiHihrJ. via,
Zoot., 3L M tifl6o), (2) " Du M^mtiiaen;' land cd.. Lcipiig,
iS64>. {3 J ComjfNjrdJiW Morpk^iy eind Buthty 0/ lh£ fungi,
Myatoaoti i^nd Btictttia^ trar^siauon (Oxford, Clare Adon Pre^s,
i&fi?), (4) O- Bijtschlip " ProtoE'ia^ Ahth. j, Sarcodina," Bronn'»
Thierreiiky Bd. i. (j) L. Clenkov^^ski, ** Die Fceudo^onidien," Pring'
^tieim's Jakrhuchfr, i. 571. (6) " Zur EntwickelungSigeK'hicKte der
Myxomyceten/' Prinasheim's Jahrbui^ktr, iii. 3,25 (pub, iS^J).
ijy Das Ptfl smcid ium, ib id, p. 400 ( 1 863 ), (S> " Beit rtge iut Kennt -
niu dcT Monadcn," Arch, f wt*r, Armi, i. joj {1865). (9) 1 C.
Constantineanu, '" Uettet die Entwicklunctbedinfungen det Myxo-
myccten," AnnaUj: myinl^giti^ Viffbfr Jakri. (Dec^ 190&)- do) A.
Famlntzin and M. Woronin, " U'l^ber iwei neue Formeg von Schleim-
pil^n CfTotium hydm^idtit A- und Sch.. and C poriaitUi, A, und
Sch./' Mint, dt Coiad. imfi. d. icvmes de Si P^ttribur^, series 7, T. 20,
No. 3 (Ii7j)^ ( 1 1 ) M. Greenwood and E, R. Saunders, " On the R4k
of Acid In Protozoan Digestion," Jour, oj Fh^Hata^y, xvi. +41 0^4)-
(13) R. A. Harper, " Celf and Nuclear Division in Fniifi.^ i-arwitj,"
Batt^nkd CflsfiXf, voir 30, No. 4, p, 2 1 7 U9°p)- CJ3) E- J^hn. " M jxo-
mycctcnstudienj- Kcrnmlung u- Gfissefbildunp bei den SctiwJLrmern
von Si^ii^niiii fiaccida, Lister,'^ B^riikl 4. deitttdun botanuehen
Gfsdlickafl, Bd- 2 J p fl4 ((104). ^14) " MjTcomycetenstudJen b.
Kcrnver9chmelzungi;n und Reduktion^teiEungen/ ibid. Bd, J5,
p. 2 3 E 1 907 ) . ( 1 S) W. Savi I le Ken t , ' T he M yxom > cetes or M ycc to-
loa; Animab or Plants?" Fofntiar Scvncs Mefirif, nrS,, v, 97
(1^81). (16) H. Kri^ndin. " Zur Entwicklungsjjcschifhte der Spor-
angien bei den Trichlgn und ArcvriLTi.^' Ar^ft. /. pfetiHe-nkmnde!,
BfiiiLHvh r.p-i7oU9*J7). (17) A Llstrr. " Notes on the Plaamo-
dmm of Biidhamia ttimrnliirii and BfufMia mrunnta/' Ann. of
jfitoBy. vol. ii- No. s (iSSJl). (i a) " On the fngeitionof Food Material
by the Swarm- Cells of the Mycelojoa/^ Jcitrn. Linn. Sot,.. {Bot)
XKV.43S{ieB0). (19}" Onthe Div't^ionDf Nuclei inthe M y cetoroa , "
Jourit. L\j\n. Sue. (Boi.) vol. xxix. 0*93). (ao) "A Monograph of
the Mycciozoa" Britiik Museum CaiiJaeut (London, ift*?^. (Ji)
'■ Presidential Address lo the British Mycologiral Scxiirty. ' Trans.
Bris Mytoiiifitcil S^r {1906). (32) A. and G. Lister. " Synomis of
the Oidefsi Geittm and Spireici of M^'cetMoa/' JoumaJ cJBoiany,
voL xlv, tMiy 1907 J' ^33) E- W. Olive, " Monograph of the
Acraiaae/' Free. BosUm Sifc. of iS'al. Hisicry, voL xxx. No, 6 (looa).
(24) " Evidences of Sexual Reproduction in the 51 imp Moulds/'
ScKncf. n.s.. xxv. 366 (Feb. J 907). (25) " Cytological Studies in
Ceratiomyxa, Trans. IVuiQnsin Acad, m Sdencts, Art% and Litters ,
vol Kv., pt. ii. p. 753 [Dec, 1907), (j6) E, Pinoy, '" R^lc de^bactdrici
dans le di}%Tlopprmem do ccn;>in9 MywmyiTeics." Ann^ dt i'tmiiiut
Pmleur, T, ssj. pp. 623 and 6a6 (1907). {27) H. Ptenge, " Uiber
die Verbinduneco jwischen Ceisii^l ti, Kcfn bd den Schii'armer.
tfllrnd- Mycftnzoen," Verk^ d. luHafhiiL-med. Vtrtins su Hfidtlbrri,
N P. Bd. VI Heft J (1699). (JS) S. von Prowazek " Kemvcrinder.
uneen in Myxomycetenplasmodjen," Otitttreuk. boian. Zeituhr.
Btf liv. p. 278 (1904). (39) E. 5tra*burger, ** Zur Entwickelungs-
gcKhiehte d. Sporangfen von Trichia JijUojc" BoianiscfK Znluni
h^i). (30) R, Thssctrr, " On the Mvnobactcriaceae, a new order of
SchiromvTctes, " Boinnifol Casj^iia, jcvil 3ftq (1S93), (31} W, 2opf,
" Die Piltthierc odcr Schleimpiliic." Schenfc's IlandhuA atr Botsntk
imjl . (JJLr,)
MYCONIUS. FRIEDRICH (i 4^^1546), Lutheran divine, was
born on the 26th of December 1490, at Lichtcnftls on the Main,
of worthy and pious parents, whose family tiiime, Mecum, gave
^ lu the work cited in the la at footnote Jahn deicribed a fusion
of nilrlei as occurring in Crratif>myxa at the stage at which the
pbiimodium is emerging to form aporophores. Jahn was at fir^t
inclined to regard this fusion as the scjiuat karvogamy of the life-
cyrle. tiut the writrr learn a by torrr^pondence (July 1910) that he
is i^clinii^ to rt£ard this fiiaioa as patbolt^ical, Add to look for die
euentkl karyogainy elKwhere.
rise to proud uses of the word as it appears in various places
in the Vulgate, whereas Myconius, from the island Myconus»
was a proverb for meanness. His schooling was in Lichtenfels
and at Annaberg, where he had a memorable encounter with
the Dominican, Tetzel, his point being that indulgences should
be given pauperibus iralis. His teacher, Staffelstein, persuaded
him to enter (July 14, 1510) the Franciscan cloister. That same
night a pictorial dream turned his thoughts towards the
religious standpoint which he subsequently reached as a
Lutheran. From Annaberg he passed to Franciscan commu-
nities at Leipzig and Weimar, where he was ordained priest
(1S16); he had endeavoured to satisfy his mind with scholastic
divinity, but next year his " eyes and ears were opened " by
the theses of Luther, whom he met when Luther touched at
Weimar on his way to Augsburg. For six years he preached
his new gospel, under difficulties, in various seats of his order,
lastly at Zwickau, whence he was called to Gotha (Aug. 1524)
by Duke John at the general desire. Here he married Margaret
Jftcken, a lady of good family. He was intimately connected
with the general progress of the reforming movement, and
was especially in the confidence of Luther. Twice he was
entrusted (1528 and 1553) with the ordering of the churches and
schools in Thuringia. In all the religious disputations and
conferences of the time he took a leading part. At the Con-
vention of Smalkald (2537) he signed the articles on his own
behalf and that of his friend Justus Menius. In 1538 he was in
England, as theologian to the embassy which hoped to induce
Henry VIIL on the basis of the Augsburg Confession, to make
common cause with the Lutheran reformation; a project which
Myconius caustically observed might have prospercKl on con-
dition that Henry was allowed to be pope. Next year he was
employed in the cause of the Reformation in Leipzig. Not
the least important part of his permanent work in Gotha was
the founding and endowment of its gymnasium. In 1541 his
health was failing, but he lived till the 7th of April 1546. He
had nine children, four of whom were living In 1542.
Though he published a good many tracts andpamiphlets, Myconius
was not distinguished as a writer. *His Hislona reformationis,
referring especially to Gotha, was not printed till 1715. See Mel-
chior Adam. Vitae Ikeolotorum (1706); J. G. Bosseck. P. Myconii
Memoriam . . . (1739) : C. K. G. Lomnutzsch, Narraiio de P. Myconio
(1825); K. F. Ledderhosc, F, Myconius (1854); also in AUgemeine
deutsche Biog. (1886); O. Schmidt and G. Kawerau in Hauck's
RtaUncyUopddie (1903). (A. Ga»)
MYCONIUS, OSWALD (i48ft-is53), Zwinglian divine, was
bom at Lucerne in 1488. His family name was Geisshiisler;
his father was a miller; hence he was also called MoLrroRis.
The name Myconius seems to have been given him by Erasmus.
From the school at Rot t well, on the Neckar, he went (1510)
to the university of Basel, and became a good classic. From
1 514 he obtained schoolmaster posts at Basel, where he married,
and made the acquaintance of Erasmus and of Holbein, the
painter. In 1516 he was called, as schoolmaster, to Zurich,
where (1518) he attached himself to the reforming party of
Zwingli. This led to his being transferred to Lucerne, and
again (1523) reinstated at Zurich. On the death of Zwingli
(1531) he migrated to Basel, and there held the office of town's
preacher, and (till 1541) the chair of New Testament exegesis.
His spirit was comprehensive; in confessional matters he was for
a union of all Protestants; though a Zwinglian, his readiness
to compromise with the advocates of consubstantiation gave
him trouble with the Zwinglian stalwarts. He had, however,
a distinguished follower in Theodore Bibliander. He died on
the 14th of October 1552.
Among his several tractates, the most Important is De H. Zwin^ii
vita et oUtK (1536). translated into English by Henry Bennet
(iS6i). See Melchior Adam. 1^ Aeolo^orum (1620); M. Kirch-
"icrter. 0. "
(A. Go.*)
MYDDELTON (or Middleton), SIR HUGH,.Bart. (c. xs6o-
163 1 ), contractor of the New River scheme for supplying London
with water, was a younger son of Sir Richard Myddelton,
governor of Denbigh Castle. Hu^ became a successful London
MYELAT— MYERS
III
foldsmitb, occupying a shop In Bassihaw, or Basinghall Street;
he made money by commercial ventures on the Spanish main,
being aasociAted in these with Sir Walter Raleigh; and he was
also interested in cloth-making. He was an alderman, and then
recorder of Denbigh, and was member of parliament for this
borough from 1603 to 1628. In 1609 Myddelton took over from
the corporatum of London the projected scheme for supplying
the dty with water obtained from springs near Ware, in Hert-
fordshire. For this purpose he made a canal about 10 ft. wide
and 4 ft. deep and over 38 m. in length, which discharged its
waters into a. reservoir at Islington called the New River Head.
The completion of this great undertaking put a severe strain
upon Mydddton's financial resources, and in 161 3 he was
soccesaful in tecuzing monetary assistance from James I. The
work was completed in 1 613 and Myddelton was made the first
governor of the company, which, however, was not a financial
success until after his death. In recognition of his services he
was made a baronet in 1622. Myddelton was also engaged in
working some lead and silver mines in Cardiganshire and in
reclaiming a piece of the Isle of Wight from the sea. He died
on the xoth of December 1631, and was buried in the church of
St Matthew, Friday Street, London. He had a family of ten
SODS and six daughters.
One of Sir Hugh's brothers was Sir Thomas Myddelton
{c. xsso-ifijx), lord mayor of London, and another was William
Myddelton (c. 1556-1621), poet and seaman, who died at Antwerp
on the 37th of March 1621.
Sir Thomas was a member of parliament under Queen Eliza-
beth and was chosen lord mayor on the 2Qth of September 16 13,
the day fixed for the opening of the New River. Under James I.
and Charles L he represented the city of London in parliament,
and he helped Rowland Heylyn to publish the first popular
edition of the Bible in Welsh. He died on the 12th of August
163X. Sir Thomas's son and heir, Sir Thomas Myddelton
fts86-i666), was a meihber of the Long Parliament, being an
adherent of the popular party. After the outbreak of the Civ^il
War he served in Shropshire and in north Wales, gaining a
signal success over the royalists at Oswestry in July 1644, and
another at Montgomery in the following September. In 1659,
however, he joined the rising of the royalists under Sir George
Booth, and in August of this year he was forced to surrender
bis reydence. Chirk Castle. His eldest son, Thomas (d. 1663),
was made a baronet in 1660, a dignity which became extinct
when William the 4th baronet died in 17 18.
HTELAT. a division of the southern Shan States of Burma,
iocloding sixteen states, none of any great size, with a total
area of 3723 sq. m., and a population in 1901 of ii9>4i5-
The name properly means " the unoccupied country," but it
has beesi occupied for many centuries. All central Myelat and
great parts of the northern and southern portions consist of
roDiog iprassy downs quite denuded of jungle. It has a great
variey of different races, Taungthus and Danus being perhaps
the most numerous. They are all more or less hybrid races. The
chiefs of the Myelat are known by the Burmese title of gwegunk-
mu, tjt. chiefs paying the revenue in silver. The amount
pa«i by the chiefs to the British government is Rs. 99,567.
The larJBest state, Loi L6ng, has an area of 1600 sq. m., a great
part of which is barren hills. The smallest, Nam Hkon, had no
more than 4 sq. m., and has been recently absorbed in a neigh-
booring state. The majority of the states cover less than
100 sq. m. Under British administration the chiefs have powers
of a magistrate of the second class. The chief cultivation
besides rice is sugar-cane, and considerable quantities of crude
sugar are exported. There is a considerable potato cultivation,
vhicfa-can be indefinitely extended when cheaper means of
export are provided. Wheat also grows very well.
■TELITI8 (from Gr. /wcXir, marrow) a disease which by
isfiasaaation induces destructive changes in the tissues com-
poaiag tbc ^inal cord. In the acute variety the nerve elements
ia the affected part become disintegrated and softened, but
Rpatr may take place; in the chronic form the change is slower,
and t|ie diseased area tends tp.becomc denser (sclerosed), the
nerve-substance being replaced by connective tissue. Myelitis
may affect any portion of the spinal cord, and its symptoms and
progress will vary accordingly. Its most frequent site is in
the lower part, and its existence there is marked by the sudden
or gradual occurrence of weakness of motor power in the legs
(which tends to pass into complete paralysis), impairment or
loss of sensibility in the parts implicated, nutritive changes
affecting the skin and giving rise to bed-sores, together with
bladder and bowel derangements. In the acute form, in which
there is at first pain in the region of the spine and much con-
stitutional disturbance, death may take place rapidly from
extension of the disease to those portions of the cord connected
with the muscles of respiration and the heart, from an acute
bed-sore, which is very apt to form, or from some intercurrent
disease. Recovery to a certain extent may, however, take
place; or, again, the disease may pass into the chronic form.
In the latter the progress is usually slow, the general health
remaining tolerably good for a time, but gradually the strength
fails, the patient becomes more helpless, and ultimately sinks
exhausted or is cut off by some complication. The chief
causes of myelitis are injuries or diseases affecting the spinal
column, extension of inflammation from the membranes of the
cord to its substance (see MENiNcms), exposure to cold and
damp, and occasionally some pre-existing constitutional morbid
condition, such as syphilis or a fever. Any debilitating cause or
excess in mode of life will act powerfully in predisposing to this
malady. The disease is most common in adults. The treatment
for myelitis in iu acute stage is similar to that for spinal
meningitis. When the disease is chronic the most that can be
hoped for is the relief of symptoms by careful nursing and
attention to the condition of the body and its functions. Good
is sometimes derived from massage and the use of baths and
douches to the spine.
MYERS. FREDERIC WILUAM HENRY (1843-1901). English
poet and essayist, son of Frederic Myers of Keswick — author of
Lectures on Great Men (2856) and Catholic Thoughts (first collected
1873), ^ ^>oo\i marked by a most admirable prose style — was born
at Keswick, Cumberland, on the 6th of February 1843, and edu-
cated at Cheltenham and Trinity College, Cambridge, where he
won a long list of honours and in 1865 was appointed classical
lecturer. He had no love for teaching, which he soon discon-
tinued, but he took up his permanent abode at Cambridge in
1872,' when he became a school inspector under the Education
Department. Meanwhile he published, in 1867, a^ unsuccessful
essay for the Seatonian prize, a poem entitled St Paul, which met
at the hands of the general public with a success that would be
difficult to explain, for it lacks sincerity and represents views
which the writer rapidly outgrew. It was followed by small
volumes of collected verses in 1870 and 1882: both are marked
by a flow of rhetorical ardour which culminates in a poem of
real beauty, " The Renewal of Youth," in the 1882 collection.
His best verse is in heroic couplets. Myers is more likely to
be remembered by his two volumes of Essays, Classical and
Modern (1883). The essay on Virgil, by far the best thing he
ever wrote, represents the matured enthusiasm of a student and
a disciple to whom the exquisite artificiality and refined culture
of Virgil's method were profoundly congenial. Next to this in
value is the carefully wrought essay on Ancient Greek Oracles
(this had first appeared in Hcllenica). Scarcely less delicate
in phrasing and perception, if less penetrating in insight, is the
monograph on Wordsworth (1881) for the " English Men of
Letters " series. In 1882, after several years of inquiry and
discussion, Myers took the lead among a small band of explorers
(including Henry Sidgwick and Richard Hodgson, Edmund
Gumey and F. Podmore), who. founded the society for Psychical
Research. He continued for many years to be the mouthpiece
of the society, a position for which his perfervidum ingenium,
still more his abnormal fluency and alertness, admirably fitted
him. He contributed greatly to the coherence of the society
by steering a mid-course between extremes (the extreme sceptics
on the one hand, and the enthusiastic spiritualists on the
other), and by helping to sift and revise the cumbrous mass of
112
MYINGYAN— MYLODON
Proceedings, the chief concrete results being the two volumes of
Phantasms of the Living (1886), to which he contributed the in-
troduction. Like many theorists, he had a fsiculty for ignoring
hard facts, and in his anxiety to generalize plausibly upon the
alleged data, and to hammer out striking formulae, his insight
into the real character of the evidence may have left something
to be desired. His long series of papers on subliminal conscious-
ness, the results of which were embodied in a posthumous work
called Human Personality and its Survival of Bodily Death (2 vols.
1903), constitute his own chief contribution to psychical theory.
This, as he himself would have been the first to admit, was little
more than provisional; but Professor William James has pointed
out that the series of papers on subliminal consciousness is " the
first attempt to consider the phenomena of hallucination,
hypnotism, automatism, double personality and mediumship, as
connected parts of one whole subject." The last work published
in his lifetime was a small collection of essays, Science and a
Future Life (1893). He died at Rome on the 17th of January
1901, but was buried in his native soil at Keswick.
MYINGYAN, a district in the Meiktila division of Upper
Burma. It lies in the valley of the Irrawaddy, to the south of
Mandalay, on the east bank of the river. Area, 3X37 SQ- m-
Pop. (1901), 356,052, showing an increase of 1% in the decade
and a density of 1 14 inhabitants to the square mile. The greater
part of the district is flat, especially to the north and along the
banks of the Irrawaddy. Inland the country rises in gently
undulating slopes. The most noticeable feature is Popa hill,
an extinct volcano, in the south-eastern corner of the district.
The highest peak is 496a ft. above sea-level. The climate is dry
and healthy, with high south winds from March till September.
The annual rainfall averages about 35 in. The temperature
varies between 106* and 70' F. The ordinary crops are millet,
sesamum, cotton, maize, rice, gram, and a great variety of peas
and beans. The district as a whole is not well watered, and most
of the old irrigation tanks had fallen into disrepair before the
annexation. There are no forests, but a great deal of low scrub.
The lacquer ware of Nyaung-u and other villages near Pagan b
noted throughout Burma. A considerable number of Chinese
inhabit Myingyan and the larger villages. The headquarters
town, Myingyan. stands on the Irrawaddy, and had a population
in 190X of 16,139. It is the terminus of the branch railway
through Meiktila to the main line from Mandalay to Rangoon.
The steamers of the Irrawaddy Flotilla Company also call here.
A cotton-pressing machine was erected here in the time of
independent Burma, and still exists.
MYITKYINA, the most northeriy of the districts of Upper
Burma in the Mandalay division, separated from Bhamo district
in 1895. It is cut up into strips by comparatively low parallel
ranges of hills running in a general way north and south. The
chief plain is that of Myitkyina, covering 600 sq. m. To the
east of the Irrawaddy, which bisects the district, it is low-lying
and marshy. To the west it rises to a higher level, and is mostly
dry. Except in the hills inhabited by the Kachin tribes there
are practically no villages off the line of the Irrawaddy. The
Indawgyi lake, a fine stretch of water measuring 16 m. by 6,
lies in the south-west of the district. A very small amount of
cultivation is carried on, mostly without irrigation. Area,
10,640 sq. m.; estimated population (1901) 67,399, showing a
density of six persons to the square mile. More than half the total
are Kachins, who inhabit the hills on both sides of the Irrawaddy.
The headquarters town, Myitkyina, had in 1901 a population of
3618. It is the limit of navigation on the Irrawaddy, and the
terminus of the railway from Rangoon and Sagaing.
MYLODON (Gr. for " mill-toolh " from ixvXuv anA68ots), a
genus of extinct American edentate mammals, typified by a
species {M. karlant) from the Pleistocene of Kentucky and other
parts of the United States, but more abundantly represented in
the corresponding formations of South America, especially
Argentina and Brazil. The mylodons belong to the group of
ground-sloths, and are generally included in the family Megalh-
eriidae, although sometimes made the type of a separate family.
From Megatherium these animals, which rivalled the Indian
rhinoceros in bulk, differ in the shape of their cheek-teeth; these
(five above and four below) being much smaller, with an ovate
section, and a cupped instead of a ridged crown-surface, thus
resembling those of the true sloths. In certain species of mylodon
the front pair of teeth in each jaw is placed some distance in front
of the rest and has the crown surface obliquely bevelled by
From Owen.
Skeleton of Myiodon robustus (Pleistocene, South America).
wearing against the corresponding teeth in the opposite jaw. On
this account such species have been referred to a second genua,
under the name of Lestodon, but the distinction scarcely seems
necessary. The skull is shorter and lower than in Megatherium,
without any vertical expansion of the middle of the lower jaw,
and the teeth also extend nearly to the front of the jaws; both
these features being sloth-like. In the fore feet the three inner
toes have large daH's, while the two outer ones are rudimentary
and dawlcss; in the hind-limbs the first toe is wanting, as in
Megatherium, but the second and third are chiwed. The skin
was strengthened by a number of small deeply-embedded bony
nodules.
Although the typical M. harlani is North American, the
mylodons are essentially a South American group, a few of the
representatives of which effected an entrance into North America
when that continent became finally connected with South
America. Special interest attaches to the recent discovery in
the cavern of Ultima Esperanza, South Patagonia, of remains of
the genus Glossolherium, or Grypotherium, a near relative of
Mylodon, but differing from it in having a bony arch connecting
the nasal bones of the skull with the prcmaxillae; these include
a considerable portion of the skin with the hair attached.
Ossicles somewhat resembling large coffee-berries had been
previously found in association with the bones of Mylodon, and in
Glossolherium nearly similar ossicles occur embedded on the
inner side of the thick hide. The coarse and shaggy hair is
somewhat like that of the sloths. The remains, which include
not only the skeleton and skin, but likewise the droppings, were
found buried in grass which appears to have been chopped
up by man, and it thus seems not only evident that these
ground-sloths dwelt in the cave, but that there is a considerable
probability of their having been kept there in a semi-domesti-
cated state by the eariy human inhabitants of Patagonia. The
extremely fresh condition of the remains has given rise to the
idea that Glossolherium may still be living in the wilds of
Patagonia.
Scdidotherium is another genus of large South American Pleisto-
cene ground-sloths, characterized, among other features, by the
elongation and slendcmess of the skull, which thus makes a decided
approximation to the antcatcr type, although retaining the full
series of cheek-teeth, which ^-cre. of course, essential to an herbi-
vorous animal. The feet resemble those of Megatherium. A much
smaller South American species represents the genus Notkrotkerium.
In North America Mylodon was accompanied by another gigantic
species typifying the genus Megalonyx, in which the fore part of the
skull was usually wide, and the third and fourth front toes carried
claws. Another genus has been described fiom the Pleistocene
MYLONITE— MYRA
"3
ol Ndmska, as Panmrilcdaui it lia> only four pain of teeth, and an
dM^ace skull with an inflated mtmle. All the above genera differ
from Mefolktrimm in liavtng a foramen on the inner side of the tower
cad of the hunacnis. A presumed Urge ground-sloth from Mada-
gascar has been described, on the evidence of a limb-bone, as Brady^
Ikmam, but it is suggested by Dr F. Ameghino that the specimen
really bcfef^ to a lemuroid. Be thn as it may, the North American
mammals described as Meropus and iiorotkeriumt in the bdief that
they were ground-sloths, are really referable to the ungulate group
Aobough a few of the Pleistocene ground-sloths, such as Notkro-
pv and Notkrotktniim (^CotiodoH)^ were of comparatively small
ne, in tlie Santa Cnu beds of Patagonia few of the representatives
o( the family much caiceeded a ro«iem sloth in sise. The best-
: types are Em t Mo e o^^ Hapalops atKi Pseudakapaiops^
of which coosiderable portions of the skeleton have been disinterred,
la these diminutive ground-sloths the crowns of the check-tccth
appraadied the prismatic form characteristic of M*M[lcUkerium,
ai distiiict from the subcylindrical type occurring m Mylcdon,
GtMMlfamBM. Ac
B]^ many palaeontologists a noup of North American Lower
Tenary nwmmals, known as Canodonta, has been resarded as
representing the ancestral stock of the ground-sloths and those of
odber Sooth American edentates; but according to Professor W. B.
Scott this view is incorrect and there is no affinity between the two
graaps. If this be so, we are still in complete darkness as to the
ttock from which the South American edentates are derived.
See W. B. Scott, Mammalia of the Santa Cna Beds, Edentata,
Rep., PrxDoeton Exped. to Patagonia, vol. v. (1903-1904) : B. Brown
it New Gemms of Gronnd-Slctk from Ike Pleistocene of Nebraska,
BiilL Amcr. Mua. Nat. Hist., xix, 569 (1903). (R. L.*)
ITLOHITB (Gr. /oKS/if, a mill), in petrology, a rock which has
beea crushed and ground down by earth movement and at the
same time rendered compact by pressure. Mylonites are fine-
grained, sometimes even flinty, in appearance, and often banded
ia paraJkl fashion with stripes of varying composition. The
great majority are qiiartxose rocks, such as quartaite and quarts-
sdust; bat in almost any type of rock mylonltic structure may
be developed. Gneisses of various kinds, hornblende-schists,
chkrite-sdiisu and limestones are not infrequently found in
bdts of mykmitic rock. The process of crushing by which
myiooites are formed is known also as " granulitization " and
"catadasis," and mylonites are often described as granulitcs,
tbsnt^ the two terms are not strictly equivalent in all their
applications. Mylonites occur in regions where there has
been oonsiderabie metamorphism. Thrust planes and great
levetxd faults are often bounded by rocks which have all been
cnahed to fine slabby mylonites, that split readily along planes
panOel to the direction in which movement has taken place.
These '* crash-belts " may be only a few feet or several hundred
yards broad. The movements have probably taken place slowly
vithoat great me of temperature, and hence the rocks have not
teciystaUiKd to any extent.
Cmahiag and movement on so extensive a scale are to be expected
principally in regions consisting of rocks greatly foldeo and
caopcesKd. Hence mylonites are commonest in Archean regions,
bet may be found also in Carboniferous and later rocks where the
aeoeanry conditions have prevailed. Within a short space it is
often pnasiMr to trace rocks from a normal to a highly myloniaed
csadkiDii, and to foUow by means of the microicope all the stages
of the process. A sandstone, grit, or fine <iuartaose conglomerate,
(or example, when it approaches a mylonttic zone begins to lose
tts dastic or pebbly structure. The rounded grains of quartz
beoomc cracked, especially near their edges, and are then surrounded
by aarrow borders, consisting of detached granules: this b dueto the
pdsUes being pressed together and forced to pun one another as the
rock yiekfo to the prenures which overcome lU rigidity. Then each
imanz grain breaJcs up into a mosaic of little angular fragments;
tht rounded pebbles are flattened out and become lenticular or cake-
ihaped- Finally only a small oval patch of fine intertocking quartz
paaa » left to todiote the position of the pebble, and if the matrix
B qaartAMe this gradually blends with it and a uniform fine-grained
qartaeae rock results. If felspar b present it may bec»me crushed
tke quartz, but often tends to recrystallize as quartz and muacovite,
the miaute Kales of white mica being parallel to the foliation or
handiag of the rock, and a finely granulitic or mylonitic quarts-
sdast » the product. In homblendic rocks, such asepioiorite,
ai^ihibolite and hornblende-schist, the mineral compomtion may
Rmaia aachas^^. but ver/ often chk>rite, carbonates and biotite
develop, epidote and aphene being also frequent. Biotite- and mus-
gneissea contain pink garnet (often with kyanita or ailUmanite)
they paas into normal gnnulites; limestones, if fossiliferous, become
changed into findy crystalline mames, often fissile, sometimes with
lenticular or aafm structure. An interesting variety of mylonite,
devekipcd in granite-porphyry and gneias, b fine, dark and almost
vitreous in appearance, consbting rniainly of very minute grains 'of
?|uarts and lebpar and resembling flint in appearance. These
orm threads and vein-like streaks ramifying through the normal
XXX 3
Jiuarts and
orm threads , ,„^ ,
rocks. Examples are furnished by the flinty<rushes of west Scot-
land and the '^ trap-shotten " gnebses of south India. (J. S. F.)
HTIIBMSIlfOH. or Maxkansingh, a dbtrict of British Indui,
in the Dacca divbion of Eastern Bengal and Assam. It occupies
a portion of the alluvial valley of the Brahmaputra east of the
main channel (called the Jamuna) and north of Dacca. The
adminbtrativc headquarters are at Nasirabad, sometimes called
Mymensingh town. Area, 6333 sq. m. Pop. (zpoi), 3,9x5,068,
showing an increase of ia-8% in the decade. The dbtrict b
for the most part level and open, covered with well-cultivated
fields, and intersected by numerous riven. The Madhupur
jungle b a slightly elevated tract, extending from the north of
Dacca dbtrict into the heart of Mymensingh; iu average height
is about 60 ft. above the level of the surrounding country, and it
nowhere exceeds xoo ft. The jungle contains abundance of sOl,
valuable both as timber and for charcoal. The only other elevated
tract in the district b on the southern border, where the Susang
hiUs rise. They are for the most part covered with tUck thorny
jungle, but in parts are barren and rocky. The Jamuna forms
the western boundary of Mymensingh for a course of 94 m. It b
navigable for large boats thrqughout the year; and during the
rainy season it expands in many places to 5 or 6 m. in breadth.
The Brahmaputra enters Mymensingh at its north-western
corner near Karaibari, and flows south-east and south till it
joins the Meghna a little bdow Bhairab Bazar. The gradual
formation of chars and bars of sand in the upper part of its course
has diverted the main volume of water into the present channel
of the Jamuna, which has in consequence become of much more
importance than the Brahmaputra proper. The Meghna only
flows for a short distance through the south-east portion of
the dbtrict, the eastern and south-eastern parts of which
abound in marshes. The staple crops of the country are rice,
jute and oil-seeds. A branch line of the Eastern Bengal railway
runs north from Dacca through Nasirabad, &c., to the Jamuna.
The dbtrict was severely affected by the earthquake of the
1 2th of June 1897.
MYNOS, SIR CHRISTOPHER (1635-1666), Britbh admiral,
came of a Norfolk family. Pepys' story of his humble birth is
said to be erroneous. It is probable that he saw a good deal of
sea-service before 1648. He first appears prominently as the
captain of the " Elisabeth," which after a sharp action brought
in a Dutch convoy with two men-of-war as prizes. From 1653
to 1655 he continued to command the " Elisabeth," high in
favour with the council of state and recommended for promotion
by the flag oflicers under whom he served. In 1655 he was
appointed to the " Marston Moor," the crew of which was on the
verge of mutiny. Hb firm measures quelled the insubordinate
spirit, and he took the vessel out to the West Indies, where he
remained for some years. The Restoration government retained
him in hb command, and in 1664 he was made vice-admiral in
Prince Rupert's squadron. As vice-admiral of the White he flew
hb flag at Lowestoft in 1665, and for his share in that action
received the honour of knighthood. In the following year he
served under the new lord high admiral, Sandwich, as vice-
admiral of the Blue. He was on detachment with Prince Rupert
when the great Four Days' Battle began, but returned to the
main fleet in time to take part, and in thb action he recdved a
wound of which he died.
MYONEMES, in Infusoria and some Flagellates, the differ-
entiated threads of ectosarc, which are contractile and doubly
refractive, performing the function of muscular fibres in the
Metazoa.
MYRA (mod. Dembre), an andent town of Lyda situated a
short dbtance inland between the rivers Myrus and Andracus.
In common with that of most other Lycian towns its early hbtory
xo.
114
MYRIAPODA— MYRRH
ir not knowiip and it does not pUy any part of importance in
either GsDek or Roman annals. Its fame begins with Chris-
tianity. There St Paul touched on his last journey westward
(a.d. 62), and changed into " a ship of Alexandria, sailing into
Italy." In the 3rd century the great St Nicholas, bom at
Patara, was its bbhop, and he died and was buried at Myra. His
tomb u still shown, but his relics are supposed to have been trans-
lated to Ban in Italy in the nth century. Theodosius II. made
Myra the Byzantine capital of Lycia, and as such It was besieged
and taken by Harun al-Rashid in 808. The town seems shortly
afterwards to have decayed. A small Turkish village occupied
the plain at the foot of the acropolis, and a little Greek monastery
lay about a mile westward by the church of St Nicholas. The
latter has formed the nucleus of modern Dembre, which has
been increased by settlers from the Greek island of Castel6rizo.
Myra has three notable sights, its carved cliff-cemetery, its
theatre, and its church of St Nicholas. The first is the most
remarkable of the Lydan rock-tomb groups. The western scarp
of the acropolis has been sculptured into a number of sepulchres
imitating wooden houses with pillared facades, some of which
have pediment reliefs and inscriptions in Lycian. The theatre
lies at the foot of this cliff and is partly excavated out of it,
partly built. It is remarkable for the preservation of its corri-
dors. The auditorium is perfect in the lower part, and the
scena still retains some of its decoration— both columns and
carved entablature. The church of St Nicholas lies out in
the plain, at the western end of Dembre, near a small monastery
and new church recently built with Russian money. Its floor
is far below the present level of the plain, and until recently the
church was half filled with earth. The excavation of it was
underuken by Russians about 1894 and it cost Dembre dear;
for the Ottoman government, suspicious of foreign designs on
the neighbouring harbour of KikoVa, proceeded to inhibit all
sale of property in the plain and to place Dembre under a minor
state of siege. The ancient church is of the domed basilica
form with throne and seats still existent in the tribunal. In
the south aisle as a tomb with marble balustrade which is pointed
out as that wherein St Nicholas was laid. The locality of the
tomb is very probably genuine, but its present ornament, m
well as the greater part of the church, seems of later date (end
of 7th century ?). None the less this is among the most interest-
ing early Christian churches in Asia Minor. There are also
extensive ruins of Andriaca, the port of Myra, about 3 m. west,
containing churches, baths, and a great grain store, inscribed
with Hadrian's name. They lie along. the course of the Andraki
river, whose navigable estuary is still fringed with ruinous
quays.
See E. Petersen and F. v. Luschan, JUisen in Lykien, 6fc. (1889).
(D. G. H.)
MTRIAPODA (Gr. for " many-legged ")i arthropod animals
of which centipedes and millipedes are familiar examples.
Linnaeus included them in his Insecta Aptera together with
Crusucea and Arachnida; in 1796 P. A. LatreiUe designated
them as Myriopoda,. making of them, along with the Crusucean
OniscM, one of the seven orders into which he divided the
Aptera of Linnaeus. Later on J. C. Savigny, by study of the
mouth-parts, clearly distinguished them from Insects and Crus-
tacea. In 18x4 W. £. Leach defined them and divided them into
Centipedes and Millipedes. In 1825 LatreiUe carried further
the observations of Leach, and suggested that the two groups
were very distinct, the millipedes being nearer Cnistacea and
the centipedes approaching Arachnida and Insecta. Although
Latreille's suggestion has not been adopted, it is recognized that
centipedes and millipedes are too far apart to be united as
Myriapoda, and they are now treated as separate classes of
the Arthropoda. See Centipeoe (ChUopoda) and Milupedb
(Diplopoda).
MTRMIDONES, in Greek legend, an Achaean race, in Homeric
times inhabiting Phthiotis in Thessaly. According to the andent
tradition, their original home was Aegina, whence they crossed
over to Thessaly with Pelcus, but the converse view is now
more generally accepted. Their name is derived from a supposed
ancestor, son of Zeus and Eurymedusa, who was wooed by the
god in the form of an ant (Gr. fibpiai^)i or from the repeopling
of Aegina (when all its inhabitants had died of the plague) with
ants changed into men by Zeus at the prayer of Aeacus, king of
the island. The word " myrmidon " has passed into the
En^ish language to denote a subordinate who carries out the
orders of his superior without mercy or consideration for others.
See Stnbo viii. 375. tx. 433 ; Homer, Iliad, ti. 681 ; ichoL on Pindar
Nem. iii. 21 ; Clem. Alex., ProtrepHam, p. 34, ed. Potter.
MYROBALANS, the name given to the astringent fruits of
several spedes of Terminalia, largely used in India for dyeing
and tanning and exported for the same purpose. They are
large deciduous trees and belong to the family Combretaceae.
The chief kinds are the chebulic or black myrobalan, from
Terminalia Chebulaf which are smooth, and the beleric. from
r. beUrica, which are five-angled and covered with a greyish
down.
MYRON, a Greek sculptor of the middle of the 5th century B.C.
He was bom at Eleutherae on the borders of Boeotia and Attica.
He worked almost exclusively in bronze: and though he made
some statues of gods and heroes, his fame rested prindpally upon
his representations of athletes, in which he made a revolution, by
introdudng greater boldness of pose and a more perfect rhythm.
His most famous works according to Pliny {Sai. Hist.^ 34, 57)
were a cow, Ladas the runner, who fell dead at the moment of
victory, and a discus-thrower. The cow seems to have earned
its fame mainly by serving as a peg on which to hang epigrams,
which tell us nothing about the pose of the animal. Of the
Ladas there is no known copy. But we are fortunate in pos-
sessing several copies of the discobolus, of which the best is in
the Massimi palace at Rome (see Gkeek Ast, PI. iv. fig. 68).
The example in the British Museum has the head put on wrongly.
The athlete is represented at the moment when he has swung
back the discus with the full stretch of his arm, and is about to
huri it with the full weight of his body. The head should t>c
turned back toward the discus.
A marble figure in the Lateran Museum (see Greer Art,
PI. iii. figJ 64), which is now restored as a dancing satyr, is
almost certainly a copy of a work of Myron, a Marsyas desirous
of picking up the flutes which Athena had thrown away (Pausa-
nias, L 24, i). The full group is copied on coins of Athens, on
a vase and in a relief which represent Marsyas as osdllatiiig
between curiosity and the fear of the displeasure of Athena.
The ancient critics say of Myron that, while he succeeded
admirably in giving life and motion to his figures, he did not
succeed in rendering the emotions of the mind. This agrees
with the exunt evidence, in a certain degree, though not per-
fectly. The bodies of his men are of far greater excellence than
the heads. The face of the Marsyas is almost a nuuk; but from
the attitude we gain a vivid impressbn of the passions which
sway him. The face of the discus-thrower is calm and unruffled ;
but all the musdes of his body are concentrated in an effort.
A considerable number of other extant works are ascribed to
the school or the influence of Myron by A. Furtwingler in his
suggestive Ji aster ^eces of Grtek Sculpture (pp. 168-219). These
attributions, however, are anything but certain, nor do the
arguments by which Furtwingler supports his attributions bear
abridgment.
A recently discovered papyrus from Egypt informs us that
Myron made statues of the athlete Hjnanthes, victorious at
Olympia in 456 B.C., and of Lydnus, victorious in 448 and 444.
This helps us to fix his date. He was a contemporary, but a
somewhat older contemporary, of Phddias and Polyclitua.
(P.G.)
MYRRH (from the Latbized form mynha of Gr. itbk^\ the
Arabic mun^ bitter, was applied to the substance from its
bitterness), a gum-resin highly esteemed by the andenu as an
unguent and perfume, used for incense in temples and also in
embalming. It was one of the gifts offered by, the Magi, and a
royal oblation of gold, frankincense and myrrh is still annu<
ally presented by the soverdgn on the feast of Epiphany
in the Chapel Royal in London, this custom having t»een in
MYRTLE— MYSIA
"5
erittence certainly ai early ai the reign of Edward I.* Thie
myrrh is the product of Balsamodtndrom {Commiphora) Myrrkat
a imatt tree of the natural order Amsrridaceae that grows in
astern Africa and Arabia, but the name is also applied to gum
Rsns obtained' from other spedes of Bchamodcndton,
I. Bttisa Bol, BJusa Bd or Bissa Bol, from Balsamodendron
Kalef, resembles true myrrh in appearance, but has a diiasreeable
taate and is scarody bitter. It is used in China, mixed with food,
to give to milch cows to improve the <|uality and increase the
quuttity of milk, and when muted with lime as a sise to impart a
^tm to walls. (2) Opaque bdellium produced by B. Playfairii,
wbm shaken with water forms a slight but permanent lather, and on
this account » used by the Somali women for cleansing thdr hair,
aid by the men to whiten their shields; It is known as meena hdrma
in Bombay, and was formerly used there for the expulsion of the
guinea-worm. (3) African bdellium is from B. afncannm. and like
opsqae bdellium lacks the white streaks which are characteristk
01 myrrh and trissa bol, both are acrid, but have scarcely any bitter-
oea or aroma. (4) Indian bdellium, probably identical with the
Indian draff googul obtained in Sind and Baluchistan from B. Mukml
and B. ,pt£^cens. Hook, is of a dark reddish colour, has an acrid
taate and an odour resembling cedar-wood, and softens in the hand.
As met with in commerce true myrrh occurs in pieces of
irregslar size and shape, from | in. to 2 or 3 in. in diameter,
aad of a reddish-brown colour. The transveme fracture has a
resnoQs appearance with white streaks; the flavour is bitter
aad aromatic, and the odour characteristic. It consists of a
ndzture of Teain, gum and essential oil, the resin being present to
the extent of 25 to 40%, with 2} to 8% of the oil, myrrhol, to
vkich the odour is due.
Myrrh has the properties of other substances which, Uke it,
contain a volatile oil. Its only imporUnt application in medi-
cine is as a carminative to lessen the griping caused by some
pnrgatives such as aloes. The volatile oils have for centuries
been regarded as of value in disorders of the reproductive
organs, and the reputation of myrrh in this connexion is simply
a survival of this ancient but ill-founded belief.
HTRTLB. The iiiffmn of the Greeks, the myrtus of the
Romans, and the myrtle, Myrtus communis (see fig.), of botanists,
as now found growing wild in many parts of the Mediterranean
region, doubtl^ all belong to one and the same spedes. It is a
kw-gxowing, evergreen shrub, with opposite leaves, varying in
Myrtle (UyrUu
t. Vettical aectioo of flower,
2. Plan of flower in horiaontal
is).
3. Berry, enlarged.
4. Seed with contained embryo,
s, much enlarged.
(fiacBsaons, but always small, sample, dark-green, thick in tex>
toe, and studded with numerous receptacles for oil. When the
lof is held tq> to the li^t it appears as if perforated with pin-
^ LAer fmaUddamms emUra'roi$daioris gard€roba$ E4w. I. (London,
«7«7).PP."BM.aada7.
holes owing to the translucency of these oil-cysts. The fragrance
of the plant depends upon the presence of this oil. Another
peculiarity of the myrtle is the existence of a prominent vein
running round the leaf- within the margin. The flowers are
borne on short stalks in the axils of the leaves. The flower-stalk
is dilated at its upper end into a gk>bose or ovoid recepucle
enclosing the 2- to 4-partitioned ovary. From its margin pro-
ceed the five sepals, and within them the five rounded, spoon-
shaped, spreading, white petals. The stamens spring from the
receptacle within the petals and are very numerous, each consist-
ing of a slender white filament and a small yeUow two-lobed
anther. The style surmounting thenvary a slender, terminating
in a small button-like stigma. The fruit is a purplish berry,
consisting of the receptade and the ovary blended into one
succulent investment endosing very numerous minute seeds.
The embryo-plant within the seed is usually curved. In cultiva-
tion many varieties are known, dependent on variations in the
size and shape of the leaves, the presence of so-caUed double
flowers, &c. The typical spedes is quite hardy in the south of
England. The Chilean spedes, M. Ugni, a shrub with ovate,
dark green leaves and white flowers succeeded by globular red or
black glossy fruit with a pleasant smell and taste, is a greenhouse
shrub,- hardy in south-west Britain. The common myrtle is
the sole representative in Europe of a large genus which has its
headquarters in extra-tropical South America, whilst other
members are found in Australia and New Zealand. The genus
Myrtus also gives its name to a very large natural order,
Myrtaceae, the general floral structure of which is like that of
the myrtle above described, but there are great differences in
the nature of the fruit or seed-vessd according as it is dry or
capsular, dehiscent, indehiscent or pulpy; minor differences exist
according to the way in which the stamens are arranged. The
aromatic oil to which the myrtle owes its fragrance, and its use in
medidne and the arts, is a very general attribute of the order, as
may be inferred from the fact that the order includes, amongst
other genera, Eucalyptus iq.v.), Pimenta and Eugenia (doves).
Myrtol, a constituent of myrtle oil, has been given in doses of
5-15 minims on sugar or in capsules for pulmonary tuberculosis,
fetid bronchitis, bronchiectasis, and similar conditions. It
appears to lessen expectoration in such cases. The leaves of
Myrtus ckekan are aromatic and expectorant, and have been used
in chronic bronchitis.
MYSIA, the district of N.W. Asia Minor in andent times
inhabited by the Mysi. It was bounded by Lydia and Phrygia
on the S., by Bithynia on the N.E., and by the Propontis and
Aegean Sea on the N. and W. But its precise limits are difficult
to assign, the Phrygian frontier bdng vague and fluctuating,
while in the north-west the Troad was sometimes included in
My^a, sometimes not. Generally speaking, the northern portion
was known as Mysia Minor or Hellespontica and the southern as
Major or Pergamene.
The chief physical features of Mysia (considered apart from
that of the TToad) are the two mountain-chains, Olympus
(7600 ft.) in the north and Temnus in the south, which for some
distance separates M>-sia from Lydia, and is afterwards prolonged
through Mysia to the neighbourhood of the Gulf of Adramyttium.
The only considerable rivers are the Macestus and its tributary
the Rhyndacus in the northern part of the province, both of
which rise in Phrygia, and, after diverging widdy through
Mysia, unite their waters below the lake of ApoUonia about 15 m.
from the Propontis. The Calcus in the south rises in Temnus,
and from thence flows westward to the Aegean Sea, passing
within a few miles of Pergamum. In the northern portion of
the province are two considerable lakes, Artynia or ApoUoniatis
(Abulliont Geul), and Aphnitis (Maniyas Geul), which discharge
their waters into the Macestus from the east and west
respectively.
The most important dties were Pergamum (9.V.) in the valley
of the Calcus, and Cyzicus (^.v.) on the Propontis. But the whole
sea-coast was studded with Greek towns, several of which were
places of considerable importance; thus the northern portion
induded Parium, Lampsacus and Abydos, and the southern
iz6
MYSLOWITZ— MYSORE
Assus, Adr&myttium, and firther south, on the Elaitic Gulf,
Elaea, Myrina and Cyme.
Ancient writers agree in describing the Mysians as a distinct
people, like the Lydians and Phrygians, though they never
appear in history as an independent nation. It appears from
Herodotus and Strabo that they were kindred with the Lydians
and Carians, a fact attested by their common participation in
the sacred rites at the great temple of Zeus at Labranda, as well
as by the statement of the historian Xanthus of Lydia that their
language was a miztuze of Lydian and Phry^an. Strabo was
of opinion that they came originally from Thrace (cf. Bitkynia),
and were a branch of the same people as the Mysians or Moesians
(see MoESu) who dwelt on the Danube— a view not inconsistent
with the preceding, as he considered the Phrygians and Lydians
also as having migrated from Europe into Asia. According
to a Carian tradition reported by Herodotus (i. 171) Lydus and
Mysus were brothers of Car— an idea which also points to the
belief in a common origin of the three nations. The Mysians
appear in the list of the Trojan allies in Homer and are repre-
sented as settled in the Calcus valley at the coming of Telephus
to Pergamum; but nothing else is known of their early history.
The story told by Herodotus (vii. so) of their having invaded
Europe in conjunction with the Teucrians before the Trojan
War is probably a fiction; and the first historical fact we learn
is their subjugation, together with all the surrounding nations,
by Lydian Croesus. After the fall of the Lydian monarchy they
remained under the Persian Empire imtil its overthrow by
Alexander. After his death they were anneied to the Syrian
monarchy, of which they continued to form a part until the defeat
of Antiochus the Great (190 B.C.), after which they were trans-
ferred by the Romans to the dominion of Eumenesof Pergamum.
After the extinction of the Pergamenian dynasty (130 B.C.)
Mysia became a part of the Roman province of Asia, and from
this time disappeare from history. The inhabitants probably
became gradually Hellenized, but none of the towns of the
interior, except Pergamum, ever attained to any importance.
Researches (London, 1843) : J. A. R. Munro in Geogr. Journal (1897,
Hellespontica): W. von Dicst, Petermanns Mitth, (Ere&nzunnhclt
94; Gotha. 1889; Pergamene). (F. W. Ha.)
MYSLOWITZ, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province
of Silesia. Pop. (1905), 15,845. It lies oh the navigable Przemsa,
across which an iron bridge leads to the Polish town of Modr-
zejow, X30 m. S.E. from Breslau by rail, and an important
junction of lines to Oswiedm-Lemberg and Vienna. It contains
a Protestant and three Roman Catholic churches, a palace and
a gymnasium, and other schools. Extensive coal-mines aro
worked, and among its other industries are flax-spinning and
brick-making. It became a town in 1857.
See Lustig, GesckkhU von MysUnriiz (Mysbwitz, 1867).
MTSORR, a native sute of southern India, almost surrounded
by the Madras presidency, but in political relations with the
governor-general. It is natiirally divided into two regions of
distinct character— the hill country called the Malnad, on the
west, and the more open country known as the Maidan, compris-
ing the greater part of the state, where the wide-spreading
valleys and plains are covered with villages and populous towns.
The drainage of the country, with a slight exception, finds its
way into the Bay of Bengal, and is divisible into three great
river systemsr-that of the Ristna on the north, the Cauvery on
the south, and the Northern and Southern Pennar and Palar
on the east. Owing to either rocky or shallow beds none of
the Mysore rivers is navigable, but some are utilized for floating
down timber at certain seasons. The main streams, especially
the Cauvery and its tributaries, support an extensive system
of irrigation by means of channels drawn from immense dams
{anicuts)^ which retain the water at a high level and permit only
the overflow to pass down stream. The streams which gather
from the hill-sides and fertilize the valleys are embanked at
every favourable point in such a manner as to form a series of
reservoirB or tanks, the outflow from one at a higher level supply-
ing the next lower, and so on, all down tiie course of the stream
at short intervals. These tanks, varying in size from small
ponds to extensive lakes, are dispersed throughout the country
to the number of ao,ooo; the laigest is the Sulekere lake, 40 m.
in circumference.
Mysore is perhaps the most prosperous native state in India.
Situated on a healthy plateau, it receives the benefit of both
the south-west and north-east monsoons, a natural advantage
which, in conjunction with its irrigation system, has brought to
Mysore a larger degree of immunity from famine than almost
any other internal tract of India (always excepting the great
calamity of 1876-1877, when one-fourth of the population are
believed to have perked). Coffee, sandal-wood, silk, gold
and ivory are among the chief products. The famous Kolar
gold-fields are worked by electric power, which is conveyed
for a distance of 92 m. from the Cauvery Falls. This was the
first electric power scheme of magnitude in Asia. A long
period of administration by British officers led to the introduction
of a system based on British models, which has been maintained
under a series of exceptionally able native ministers, and the
state can boast of public works, hospitals, research laboratories,
&c., unsurpassed in India.
The total area of the state is 39,433 X)* on-i subdivided into
8 districts, namely: Bangalore, Kolar, Tumkur, Mysore, Hassan,
Kadur, Shimoga and Chitaldrug. Pop. (1901), 5,539^399,
showing an increase of 18% between x88x and 189 1, and
of 12% between 1891 and 190X. The proportion of Hindus
(92-x%) is larger than in any province of India, showing
how ineffectual was the persecution of Hyder and Tippoo.
The Christians (apart from native converts, who are chiefly
Roman Catholics) largely consist of the garrison at Bangalore,
the families of military pensioners at the same town, xoffee-
planters and gold-miners. The finances of the state have
been very successfully managed under native rule, assisted by
large profits from railways and gold-mines. The revenue
amoimts to about £1,400,000, of which neariy half is derived
from land. In accordance with the " instrument of transfer,"
Mysore pays to the British government a tribute of £234,000,
as contribution to military defence; but the full amount was not
exacted until X896. The state maintains a military force,
consisting of two regiments of siUadar cavalvy and three bat-
talions of infantry^total, about 2800 men; and also a regiment
of imperial siervice lancers, with a transport corps. An interest-
ing political experiment has been made, in the constitution of
a representative assembly, composed of 350 representatives oi
all classes (f the community, who meet annually to hear an
account, of the state administration for the prevfous year. The
assembly has no power to enact laws, to vote supplies, or to pass
any resolution binding upon the executive. But it gives to the
leading men of the districts a pleasant opportunity of visiting
the capital, and to a limited extent brings the force of public
opinion to bear npon the minister. Since 18^1 this representa-
tive assembly has been elected by local boards and other public
bodies.
In the earliest historical times the northern part of Mysore was
held by the Kadamba dynasty, whose capital, Banawasi, is
mentioned by Ptolemy; they reigned with more or less splendour
during fourteen centuries, though latteriy they became feuda-
tories of the Chalukyas. The Cheras were contemporary with
the Kadambas, and governed the southern part of Mysore till
they were subverted by the Cholas in the 8th century. Another
ancient race, the Pallavas, held a small portion of the eastern side
of Mysore, but were overcome by the Chalukyas in the 7th cen-
tury. These were overthrown in the 1 2th century by the BaUalas
(Hoysalas), an enterprising and warlike race professing the Jain
faith. They ruled over the greater part of Mysore, and portions
of the modem districts of Coimbatore, Salem and Dharwar, with
their capital at Dwarasamudra (the modern Halebid); but in
13x0 the Ballala king was capiured by Malik Kafur, the general
of Ala-ud-din; and seventeen years later the town was entirely
destroyed by anotlier force sent by Mahommed Tughlak. After
the subversion of the Ba'lala dynasty, a new and powerful
Hindu sovereignty arose at Vijayanagar on the Tungabhadra..
MYSORE— MYSTERY
117
In 1565 a oonfedention of the Mabommedan kingdoms de-
feated the Vijayanagar sovereign at the battle of TalikoU; and
hb descendants ultimately became extinct as a ruling house.
During the feeble rei^ of the last king, the petty local chiefs
ipaUgars) asserted their independence. The most important of
these was the wedeyar of Mysore, who in z6io seized the fort of
Serinsapatam, and so laid the foundation of the present state.
His fourth successor, Chikka Deva Raja, during a reign of
34 years, made his kingdom one of the most powerful in
sootbem India. In the middle of the i8th century the famous
Mahommedan adventurer Hyder Ali usurped the throne, and
by hb military prowess made himself one of the most powerful
princes of India. Hb dynasty, however, was as brief as it
was biiiliant, and ended with the defeat and death of hb son
Tippoo at Seringapatam in 1799. A representative of the
ancient Hindu line was then replaced on the throne. Thb
prince, Krishnaraja Wodeyar, was only five years old, and until
be came of age in iSti the state was under the adminbtration
of Pomaiya, the Brahman minbter of Hyder and Tippoo.
Allien Krbhnaraja took over the management of hb sute he
received an orderly and contented principality with a surplus
ci two crores of rupees. Within twenty years he had driven
hb subjects into rebellion and involved himself and hb state
m heavy debt. The Britbh government therefore assumed
the administration in 183 1, and placed it in the hands of com-
misBloDers. In 1863 no less than 88 lakhs of state debts and of
the maharaja's own liabilities had been liquidated; the entire
administration had been reformed, a revised system of land
revenue introduced, and many public works executed. The
maharaja therefore pressed hb claims to a restoration of hb
powers, but the British government refused the application as
incompatible with the true interests of the people of Mysore,
aad as not justified by any treaty obligation. In the same year
Chamarajendra Wodeyar, afterwards maharaja, was bom of
the Bettada Kote branch of the ruling house; and in June 1865
Maharaja Krishnaraja adopted him as hb son and successor,
ahhoui^ be had been informed that no adoption could be
reoogniaed except to hb own private property, already once
more heavily wei^ted with private debts. In 1867 the policy
ol government underwent a change; it was determined to secure
the continuance of native rule in Mysore, by acknowledging
the adoption upon certain conditions which would secure to the
people the continued benefits of good adminbtration enjoyed
by them under British control, llie old maharaja died on the
27th of March 1868, and Chamarajendra Wodeyar was publicly
iaslaOed as the future ruler of Mysore on the 23rd of September
iS6Sw Hb education was Uken in hand, abuses which had grown
up in the palace establishment were reformed, the late maharaja 's
debts were again paid off, and the whole internal adminbtration
perfected in every branch during the minority. On the 35th of
March 1881 Maharaja Chamarajendra, having attained the age
of 18 years, was publicly entrusted with the adminbtration of
the state. He made over to the British government, with full
^irbdictioa, a small tract of land at Bangalore, forming the
" civil and military sution," and received in return the island of
Seringapatam. But the most important incident of the change
was the »gning of the " instrument of transfer," by which
the ywing maharaja, for himself and his successors, undertook
to perform the conditions imposed upon him. To that agree-
ment the maharaja steadfastly adhered during his reign, and
the instrument b a landmark in the hbtory of British relations
with the protected states of India. Tht mabaraja's first
minister was Ranga Chariu, who had been trained in the
British adminbtration of Mysore. He signalized the restoration
d native rule by creating the representative assembly. In
1^3 Sheshadri Aiyar succeeded Ranga Chariu, and to him
Mysore b indebted for the extension of railways and schemes of
irriptioa, the development of the Kolar goldfields, and the
maintenance of the high standard of its administration. The
maharaja died at Calcutta on the 28th of December 1894. . Hb
eidcst son, Krishnaraja Wodeyar, bom in 1884, succeeded him,
and bis widow, Maharani Vanivilas^ was appointed regent^
until in 1903 the maharaja was formally invested with full
powers by the viceroy in person.
See B. L. Rice, Mysore (2nd ed.. Bangalore. 1897;; Myson omd
Coorg CoMttUtr (Cakutu, 1908).
MYSORE, capital of the state of Mysore, India, 10 m. S.W. of
Seringapatam on the Mysore State railway. Pop. (1901), 68,1 1 1.
The dty, which b spread over an area of about 7I sq. m., has its
nucleus at the foot of the Chamundi hill, in a valley formed by
two parallel ridges running north and south. The fort stands
in the south of the town, forming a quarter by itself; the ground-
plan b quadrangular,*each of the sides being about 450 yds. long.
The old palace of the maharaja within the fort, bidlt in an
extravagant style of Hindu architecture, was partly destroyed
by fire in 1897, whereupon a new palace was built on the same
site. The principal object of yiterest in the old palace was the
throne, which b said to have been presented to Chikka Deva Raj
by the emperor Aurangzeb. The houses of the European residents
are for the most part to the east of the town. The residency or'
government house was built in 1805. The building afterwards
used for the dbtrict offices was originally built by Colonel
Wellesley (duke of Wellington) for hb own occupation. The
domed building for the public offices in Gordon Park, the
Maharaja's College, the Victoria Jubilee Institute, and the law
courts are conspicuous. Mysore, though the dynastic capital
of the state, was superseded by Seringapatam as the seat of the
court from 1610 to 1799, and in 1831, on the Britbh occupation,
the seat of adminbtration was removed to Bangalore.
MYSTERY (Gr. fuwr^pcor, from yhants, an initiate, fidciy,
to shut the mouth), a general English term for what b secret
and excites wonder, derived from the religious sense (see below).
It is not to be confounded with the other old word " mystery,"
or more properly " mbtery," meaning a trade or handicraft
(Lat. ministenum, Fr. mitia). For the medieval pUys, called
mysteries, see Dsaka; they were so called (Skeat) because acted
by craftsmen.
Creek Mysteries. — It b important to obtain a dear conception
of the exact significance of the Greek term lamriifium, which b
often associated and at times appears synonymous with the words
rcXeri^, flpYui- We may interpret " mystery " in its original
Greek meaning as a " secret " worship, to \*'iich only certain
specially prepared people — oL lanfikvTts—yrert admitted after a
special period of purification or other preliminary probation, and
of which the ritual was so important and perilous that the
" catechumen " needed a hierophant or expounder to guide him
aright. In the ordinary public worship of the state or the private
worship of the household the sacrifice with the prayer was the
chief act of the ceremony; in the " mysterion " something other
than a sacrifice was of the essence of the rite; something was
shown to the eyes of the initiated, the mystery was a 5pa/ia
IJUCTU(b», and bp9» and bpnicitovivti are verbal terms expressive
of the mystic act. We have an interesting account given us by
Theo Sm3rmaeus* of the various dements and moments of the
normal mystic ceremony: first is the xotfopp^s or preliminary
purification; secondly, the T^kEriii irap6SoaLS, the mystic com-
munication : which probably induded some kind of \6yos, a
sacred exegesb or exhortation; thirdly, the kworrda or the
revelation to sight of certain holy things, which b the central
point of the whole; fourthly, the crowning with the garland,
which is henceforth the badge of the privileged; and. finally,
that which b the end and object of all thb, the happiness that
arises from the friendship or communion with the deity. Thb
exposition b probably applicable to the Greek mysteries in
general, though it may well have been derived from hb know-
ledge of the Eleusinian. We may supplement it by a statement
of Ludan's that "no mystery was ever cdebrated without
dandng " {De saUai. 15), which means that it was hi some sense
a religious drama, andent Greek dandng being generally
mimetic, and represented some Upis X^yof or sacred story as
the theme of a mystery-play.
Before we approach the problem as to the content of the
mysteries, we may naturally raise the question why certain
> Dejua. maik., HerKhcr. p. 15.
ii8
MYSTERY
ancient cults in Greece were mystic, others open and public.
An explanation often offered is that the mystic cults are the
Pelasgic or pre-Hellenic and that the conquered populations
desired to shroud their religious cnemonies from the profane
eyes of the invaders. But we should then expect to find them
administered chiefly by slaves and the lower population; on the
contrary they are generally in the hands of the noblest families,
and the evidence that slaves possessed in any of them the right
of initiation is only slight. Nor does the explanation in other
respects fit the facts at all. The deities who are worshipped
with mystic rites have in most cases Hellenic names and do not
all belong to the earliest stratum of HcUenic religion. Besides
those of Demeter, by far the most numerous in the Hellenic
world, we have record of the mysteries of Ge at Phlye in Attica,
of Aglauros and the Charities at Athens, of Hecate at Aegina;
a shrine of Artemis Mwrla on the road between Sparta and
Arcadia points to a mystic cult of this goddess, and we can infer
the existence of a similar worship of Themis. Now these are
either various forms of the earth-goddess, or are related closely
to her, being powers that we call " chthonian," associated with
the world below, the realm of the dead. We may surmise then
that the mystic setting of u cult arose in many cases from the
dread of the religious miasma which emanated from the nether
world and which suggested a prior ritual of purification as neces-
sary to safeguard the person before approaching the holy presence
or handling certain holy objects. Thb would explain the
necessity of mysteries in the worship of Dionysus also, the Cretan
Zagreus, Trophonius at Lebadeia, Palaemon-Melicertes on the
Isthmus of Corinth. They might also be necessary for those
who desired communion with the deified ancestor or hero, and
thus we hear of the mysteries of Dryops at Asine, of AntinoUs
the favourite of Hadrian at Mantineia. Again, where there was
hope or promise that the mortal should by communion be able
to attain temporarily to divinity, so hazardous an experiment
would be safeguarded by special preparation, secrecy and
mystic ritual; and this may have been the prime motive of the
institution of the Attis-Cybele mystery. (See Great Mothzs
or THE Goos.)
For the student of Hellenism, the Eleusinian and Orphtc
ceremonies are of paramount importance; the Samothradan,
which vied with these in attractiveness for the later Hellenic
world, were not Hellenic in origin, nor wholly hellenized in char-
acter, and cannot be considered in an article of this compass.
As regards the Eleusinia, we are in a better position for the
investigation of them than our predecessors were; for the modem
methods of comparative religion and anthropology have at least
taught us to ask the right questions and to apply relevant
hypotheses; arehaeology, the study of vases, excavations on the
site, yielding an ever-increasing hoard of inscriptions, have
taught us much concerning the external organization of the
mysteries, and have shown us the beautiful figures of the deities
as they appeared to the eye or to the mental vision of the
initiated.
As regards the inner content, the secret of the mystic celebra-
tion, it is in the highest degree unlikely that Greek inscriptions or
art would ever reveal it; the Eleusinian scenes that appear on
Attic vases of about the 5th century cannot be supposed to show
us the heart of the mystery, for such sacrilegious rashness would
be dangerous for the vase-painter. If we are to discover it, we
must turn to the andent literary records. These must be
handled with extreme caution and a more careful scrutiny than
is often applied. We must not expect full enlighteimient from
the Pagan writers, who convey to us indeed the poetry and the
glow of this fasdnating ritual, and who attest the deep and puri-
fying influence that it exercised upon the religious temperament,
but who are not likely to tell us more. It is to the Christian
Fathers we must turn for more esoteric knowledge, for they
wuuld be withheld by no scruple from revealing what they knew.
But we cannot always believe that they knew much, for only
those who, like Clement and Amobius, had been Pagans in their
youth, could ever have been initiated. Many of them uncriti-
cally confuse in the same context and in one sweeping verdict
of condemnation Orphic, Phrygian-Sabazian and Attis-Mysteries
with the Eleusinian; and we ought not too lightly to infer that
these were actually confused and blended at Elcusis. We must
also be on our guard against supposing that when Pagan or
Christian writers refer vagudy to " mystcria," they always have
the Eleusinian in their mind.
The questions that the critical analysis of all the evidence
may hope to solve are mainly these: (a) What do we know or
what can we infer concerning the personality of the ddties to
whom the Eleusinian mysteries were originally consecrated,
and were new figures admitted at a later period ? {b) When was
the mystery taken over by Athens and opened to all Hellas, and
what was the state-organization provided ? (c) What was the
inner significance, essential content or purport of the Eleusinia,
and what was the source of their great influence on Hellas ?
(d) Can we attribute any ethical value to them, and did they
strongly impress the popular belief in immortality? Limits of
space allow us only to adumbrate the resulu that research on
the lines of these questions has hitherto yielded.
The paramount divine personalities of the mystery were in
the earliest period of which we ha,vt literary record, the mother
and the daughter, Demeter and Kore, the latter being never
styled Persephone in the official language of Eleusis; while the
third figure, the god of the lower world known by the euphemistic
names of Pluto (Plouton) and at one time Eubouleus, the ravishcr
and the husband, is an accessory personage, comparatively in
the background. This is the condusion naturally drawn from
the Homeric hymn to Demeter, a composition of great ritualistic
value, probably of the 7th century B.C., which describes the
abduaion of the daughter, the sorrow and search of the mother,
her sitting by the sacred well, the drinking of the n/n^ or
sacred cup and the legend of the pomegranate. An andent
hymn of Pamphos, from which Pausanias freely quotes and
which he regards as genuine,* appears to have told much the
same story in much the same way. As far as we can say, then,
the mother and daughter were there in possession at the very
beginning. The other pair of divinities known as 6 $«U 4 6tA,
that appear in a sth-century inscription and on two dedicatory
reliefs found at Eleusis, have been supposed to descend from
an aboriginal period of Eleusinian religion when deities were
nameless, and when a peaceful pair of earth-divinities, male and
female, were worshipped by the rustic community, before the
earth-goddess had pluralized herself as Demeter and Kore, and
before the story of the madre dolorosa and the lost daughter had
arisen.* But for various reasoiu the contrary view is more
probable, that 6 0c6f and 1) 0ed ire later cult-titles of the
married pair Pluto-Cora (Plouton-Kore), the personal names
being omitted from that feeling of reverential shyness which was
spedally timid in regard to the sacred names of the deities of
the underworld. And it is a fairly familiar phenomenon in Greek
religion that two separate titles of the same divinity engender
two distinct cults.
The question as to the part played by Dionysus in tlie
Eleusinia is imporUnt. Some scholars, like M. Foucart, have
supposed that he bebnged from the beginning to the inner
drde of the mystery; others that he forced his way in at a
somewhat later period owing to the great influence of the Orphic
secu who captured the stronghold of Attic religion and enf^ted
the Orphic-Sabazian Upit Xbyot, the story of the hicestuous
union of Dionysus-Sabazius with Demeter-Kore, and of the
death afid rendering of Zagreus, upon the primitive Eleusinian
faith. A saner and more careful criticism rejects this view.
There is no genuine trace discovered as yet in the inner drde
of the mysteries of any characteristically Orphic doctrine; the
names of Zagreus and Phanes are nowhere heard, the legend of
Zagreus and the death of Dionysus are not known to have
been mentioned there. Nor is there any print within or in
the precincu of the rtXiartumf^: the hall of the MCvroi, of the
footsteps of the Phrygian ddties, Cybde, Attis, Sabazius.
'•• 38. 3:*. 39. 1.
• See Dittenbereer, SyUoie, it; Corp. inser. att. 2, i6jo c, 3. i
Ephem. arckaiol. (1886), »If. 3 : Hebcrdey in Festschrift J^ Bennddf,
p.3.Taf.4;Von^ • '^ " ^'' ' '
Sj^ge, It; Corp. inser. alt. a, i6jo c, 3. 1109;
S),»If.3: Hebcrdey in F«UieAri/l/ir " " '
rott in Atken. MitthHl (1899), p. a63.
MYSTERY
119
The exact relation of Dionysus to the mysteries involves the
qocstioo as to the divine personage called lacchus; who and what
was lacchus? Strabo (p. 468), who is a poor authority on such
matters, describes him as *' the daemon of Demeter, the founder
of the kader of the mysteries.^* More important b it to note
that " lacchus " is unknown to the author of the Homeric hymn,
Mad that the first literary notice of him occurs in the well-known
passage d Herodotus (viiL 65), who describes the procession of
the mystae-as moving ak>ng the sacred way from Athens to
Elcusts and as raising the cry 1a<x** We find lacchus the
theme off a flowing invocation in an Aristophanic Ode {ProgSt
324-398), and described as a beautiful ** ywxog god "; but he is
6rst explicitly identified with Dionysus in the beautiiful ode of
Sophocles* Amiigofu (11x9); and that this was in accord with the
pofNilar ritualistic lore is proved by the statement of the scholiast
oB Aristophanes (Progs, 482) that the people at the Lenaea, the
winter-festival of Dionysus, responded to the command of
" Invoke the god! " with the invocation " Hail, lacchus, son of
Semele. thou giver of wealthl" We are sure, then, that in the
high tide of the Attic religious history lacchus was the youthful
Dionysus, a name of the great god peculiar to Attic ailt; and
this is all that here concerns us to know.
We can now answer the question raised above. This youthful
Attic Dion3rsi]s has his home at Athens; he accompanies his
votaries along the sacred way, filling their souls with the exalta-
tion and ecstasy <A the Dionysiac spirit ; but at Eleusis he had no
temple, altar or abiding home; he comes as a visitor and departs.
His image may have been carried into the Hall of the Mysteries,
b«t whether it pbjred any part there in a passion-play we do
not know.' That be was a prinury figure of the essential mystery
is hard to bdieve, for we find no traces of his name in the
other Greek communities that at an early period had insti-
toted mysteries on the Elcminian modeL Apart from lacchus,
Diooysos in his own name was powerful enoughat Eleusis as in
most other localities. And the votaries carried with them no.
donbt into the hall the Bacchic exaltation of the lacchus proces-
soo and the nightly revel with the god that preceded the full
initiation; many of them also may have belonged to the private
Dionysiac sects and might be tempted to read a Dionysiac signifi-
cance into much that was presented to them. But all this is
conjecture. The interpretation of what was shown would natur-
afly change somewhat with the changing sentiment of the ages;
hit the mother and the daughter, the stately and beautiful
figures pfcscntcd to us by the author of the homeric hymn, who
says no word of Dionysus, are still found reigning paramount
and s u p i e u ie at Eleusis just before the Gothic invasion in the
latter days of Paganism. Triptolemus the apostle of com-
cuttore, Eubouleus— originally a euphemistic name of the god
of the under-world, " the giver of good counsel," conveying a
hint of his oracular functions— thoe are accessory figures of
Elcuainiaa colt and mythology that may have pUyed some part
in the great mystic drama that was enacted in the hall.
The development and organization of the Eleusinia may now
be briefly sketched. The legends concerning the initiation of
Hcfades-and the Dioscuri preserve the record of the time when
the mysteries were doatd against all strangers, and were the
pcmkye of the Eleusinians alone. Now the Homeric hymn in
its obvioos appeal to the whole of the Greek world to avail
themselves of these mysteries gives us to suppose that they
had already been thrown open to Hellas; and this momentous
chance, abolishing the old gentile barriers, may have naturally
roiaddcd with, or have resulted from, the fusion of Eleusis and
Athena, an event of equal importance for politics and. religion
which we may pbce in the prehistoric period. The reign of
Feaatjatas was an era of architectural aaivity at Eleusis; -
hmt the constniction of the twcTutb* aiabs was one of the
ach ievemen ts of the Periclean administration. Two inscriptions,
attaining decrees passed during the supremacy of Pericles, the
one pwiffainring a holy tnicc of three months for the votaries
that came from any Greek community,* the other bidding the
sabject allies and inviting the independent states to send
* Corp. inscr. oU.i.i.
droAXoi or tithe^fferings of com to Eleusis,' record the far-
sighted policy of periclean Athens, her determination to find a
religious support for her hegemony.
At least from the 5th century onwards, the external control
and all questions of the organization of the mysteries were in
the hands- of the Atbeni;« slate, the rule holding in Attica as
elsewhere in Hellas that the sUte was supreme over the Church.
The head of the general management was the king-archon
{arckan-hasUeus) who with his paredros and the four " epimele-
tai " formed a general committee of supervision, and matters of
importance connected with the ritual were decided by the Boul6
or Ecclesia. But the claim of Eleusis as the religious metropolis
was not ignored. The chief of the two priestly families, in whose
hands lay the mystic celebration itself and the formal right of
admission, was the Eleusinian " gens " of the Eumolpidae; it
was to their ancestor that Demeter had entrusted her Vlfia,
and the recognition of their claims nuintained the principle
of apostolic succession. To them belonged the hierophant
(l^w^dmyt), the hi^ priest of the Eleusinia, whose function
alone it was to " reveal the orgies," to show the sacred things,
and who alone— or perhaps with his consort-priestess— "could
penetrate into the innermost shrine in the hall; an impres-
sive figure, so sacred in person that no one could address him
by his personal name, and bound, at one period at least, by a
rule of celibacy. We hear also of two " hierophantides," female
attendants on the older and younger goddesses. In fact, while
the male priest predominates in this ritual, the women |^y a
prominent part: as we should expect, considering that the
sister-festival of the Thesmophoria was wholly in their hands.
. The other old priestly family was that of the '** Kerykes,"
to whom the 6qi6ux<K belonged, " the holder of the torch,"
the official second in rank to the Upo^iimtt. It is uncertain
whether this family was of Eleusinian origin; and in the 4th
century it seems to have died out, and the office of the hohaUxoi
passed into the hands of the Lycomidae, a priestly family of
Phlye, suspected of being devotees of Orphlsm.
Turning now to the celebration itselJF, we can only sketch
the more salient features here. On the xjth of Boedromion,
the Attic month corresponding roughly to our September,
the Ephebi {q.t.\ nuirched out to Eleusis, snH. returned to Athens
the next day bringing with them the " holy things " (2«pd) to
the " Eleusinion " in the city; these Upk probably included small
images of the goddesses. The i6th was the day of the 6rfvpiibi,
the gathering of the catechumens, when they met to hear the
address of the hierophant, called the vpipp^ti. This was
no sermon, but a proclanuition bidding those who were dis-
qualified or for some reason unworthy of initiation to depart.
The legally qualified -were all Hellenes and subsequently all
Romans above a certain — very youthful — ^limit of age, women,
and as it appears even slaves; barbarians, and those undeansed
of some notorious guilt, such as homicide, were disqualified. We
are sure that there was no dogmatic test, nor would time allow
of any searching moral scrutiny, and only the Samothracian
rites, in this respect unique in the world of classical religion,
possessed a system of confessional. The hierophant appealed to
the conscience of the multitude; but we are not altogether sure
of the terms of his proclamation, which can only be approximately
restored from late Pagan and early Christian writers. We know
that he demanded of each cancUdate that he should b^ "of
intelligible speech (t'-e. an Hellene) and pure of hand "; and he
catechized him as to his condition of ritwdistic purity— the food
he had eaten or abstained from. It appears also from Libanius
that in the Uter period at least he solemnly proclaimed that the
catechumen should be "pure of soul,"* and this spiritual
conception of holiness had arisen already in the earlier periods
of Greek religious thought. On the other hand we must bear in
mind the criticism that Diogenes is said to have passed upon the
Eleusinia, that many bad characters were admitted to com-
munion, thereby securing a promise of higher happiness tha.n an
uninitiated Epaminondas could aspire to.
An essential preliminary was purification and lustration, and
* Dittenbcfger. SyUog^, 13. ' Or. Corinth, iv. 356.
I20
MYSTERY
after the assembly the " mystae " went to the sea-shore (&XaJc
libarajL^ and purified themselves with sea-water, and prolMibly
with spiinklmg of pigs' blood, a common cathartic medium.
After their return from the sea, a sacrifice of some kind was
offered as an essential condition ofM^ait, but whether as a
sacrament or a gift-offering to the goddesses it is impossible to
determine. On the xgth of Boedromion the great procession
started along the sacred way bearing the " fair young god "
laochus; and as they visited many shrines by the way the march
must have continued long after sunset, so that the 20th is some-
times spoken of as the day of the exodus of lacchus. On the
way each wore a saffron band as an amulet; and the ceremonious
reviling to which the " mystai " were' sub jected as they crossed
the bridge 4>f the Ceph^us answered the same purpose of
averting the evil eye. Upon the anival at Eleusis, on the same
night or on the following, they celebrated a midnight revel
under the stan with lacchus, which Aristophanes glowingly
describes.
The question of supreme interest now arises: What was the
mystic ceremony in the hall? what was said and what was done?
We can distinguish two grades in the celebration; the greater
was the riXca and tvorrud, the full and satisfying celebration,
to which only those were admitted who had passed the lesser
stage at least a year before. As regards the actual ritual in the
hall of the mystae, much remains uncertain in spite of the
unwearying efforts of many generations of scholars to construct
a reasonable statement out of fragments of often doubtful
evidence. We are certain at least that something was acted there
in a religious drama or passjpn-play, the revelation was partly
a pageant of holy figures; the accusations against Aeschylus
and Alcibiades would suffice to prove this; and Porphyry speaks
of the hierophant and the ^{tJoCxot acting, divine parts.
What the subject of this drama was may be gathered partly
from the words of Clement—" Deo (Demetcr) and Kore became
the personages of a mystic drama, and Eleusis with its hqbtSxot
celebrates the wandering, the abduction and the sorrow "
{Protrept.t p. « Potter), partly from Psyche's appeal to Demetcr
in Apuleius {MeUxmorph. 6)—" by the unspoken secrets of the
mystic chests, the winged chariots of thv dragon-ministers, the
bridal descent of Proserpine. [Persephone], the torch-lit wander-
ings to find thy daughter and all the other mysUries that the
shrine of Attic Eleusis shrouds in secret" We may believe then
that the great myth of the mother's sorrow, the k)ss and the
partial recovery of her beloved was part of the Eleusinian
passion-play. Did it also include a Uftit yinunf We should
naturally expect that the sacred story acted in the mystic
pageant would close with the scene of reconciliation, such as a
holy marriage of the god and the goddess. But the evidence
that this was so is maiiUy indirect, apart from a doubtful paissage
in Asterius, a writer of questionable authority in the 4th century
A.D. {Econom. martyr, p. 194, Combe). At any rate, if a holy
marriage formed part of the pauion-play, it may well have been
acted with solemnity and delicacy. We have no reason to
believe that even to a modem taste any part of the ritual would
appear coarse or obscene; even Clement, who. brings a vague
charge of obscenity against all mysteries in general, docs not
try to substantiate it in regard to the Elcusinia, and we hear
from another Christian writer of the scrupulous purity of the
hierophant.
It would be interesting to know if the birth of a holy child,
a babe lacchus, for example, was a motive of the mystic drama.
The question seems at first sight to be decided by a definite
statement of Hippolytus {PkUosopk. 5, 8), that at a certain
moment in the mysteries the hierophant cried aloud: " The lady-
goddess Brimo has borne Brimos the holy child." But a careful
consideration of the context almost destroys the value of his
authority. For he does not pretend to be a first-hand witness,
but admits that he is drawing from Gnostic sources, and he goes
on at once to speak of Attis and his self-mutilation. The formula
may then refer to the Sabazian-Phrygian mystery, which the
Gnostics with their usuid spirit of religious syncretism, would
have no scruple in identifying with the Eleusinian. And the
arehaeological evidence that has been supposed to support the
statement of Hippolytus is deceptive.
Finally, we must not suppose that there could be any very
elaborate scenic arrangements in the hall for the representation
of Paradise and the Inferno, whereby the rewards of the faithful
and the punishments of the damned might be impressively
brought home to the mystae. The excavations on the site have
proved that the building was without substructures or under-
ground passages. A la^ number of inscriptions present us
with eUborate accounts of Eleusinian expenditure; but there is
no item for scenic expenses ^or painting. We are led to suppose
that the pageant-play produced its effect by means of gorgeous
raiment, torches and stately figures.
But the mystic action included more than the pageant-play.
The hierophant revealed certain holy objects to the eyes of the
assembly. There is reason to suppose that these included cer-
tain primitive idols of the goddesses of immemorial sanctity;
and, if we accept a statement of Hippolytus {Uc. cil.) we must
believe that the epoptae were also shown " that great and marvel-
lous mystery of perfect revelation, a cut corn-stalk." The value
of \his definite assertion, which appears to be an explicit revela-
tion of the secret, would be very great, if we could trust it; but
unfortunately it occurs in the same su^idous context as the
Brimo-Brimos formula, and we again suspect the same uncritical
confusion of Eleusinian with Phrygian ritual, for we krww that
Attis himself was identified in his mysteries with the *' reaped
com," the or&xw 'Ifnp'ot, almost the very phrase used by
Hippolytus. Only, it is in the highest degree probable, whether
Hii^xdytus knew anything or not, that a com-token was shown
among the sacred things of a mystery which possessed an original
agrarian significance and was intended partly to consecrate and
to foster the agricultural life. • But (0 say this is by iw means the
same as to admit the view of Lenormant* and Dr Jevons* that
the Eleusinians worshipped the actual com, or revered it as a
dan-totem. For of direct corn-worship or of com-totemism
there is no trace dther at Eleusis or elsewhere in Greece.
Among the 6pi»iuva or " things done"- may we also include
a solemn sacrament, the celebration of a holy. communion, in
which the votary was united to the divinity by partaking of
some holy food or drink? We owe to Clement of Alexandria
{Proircpi. p. 18, Potter) an exact transcription of the pass-word
of the Eleusinian mystae; it ran as follows (if we accept
Lobeck's emer^dation of IrTfva&^icpet for ^offd/icvof): " I
have fasted, I have drunk the barley-drink, I have-taken {the
things] from the sacred chest, having tasted thereof I have placed
them into the basket and again from the basket into the chest."
We gather from this that some kind of sacrament was at least a
prelUninary condition of initiation; the mystae drank of the same
cup as the goddess drank in her sorrow, partly— as we say — ** in
memory of her," partly to. unite themselves more doedy with
her. We know also from an inscription that the priest of the
Samothradan mysteries broke sacred bread and poured out drink
for the mystae- (i4rcA. epigr. MiUk. 1882, p. 8, Na 14). But
neither in these nor in the Eleusinian is there any trace of the
more mystic sacramental conception, any. indication that the
votaries believed themselves to be partaking of the actual body
of their divinity;* for there is no evidence that Demeter was
identified with the com, still less with the barley-meal of which
the xvMfaW was compounded. Nor is it likdy that the sacra-
ment was the pivot of the whole mystery or was part of the
essential act of the /i^ra itself. In the- first place we have
an almost certain representation of the Eletisinian sacrament on
an arehaic vase in Naples,' probably of Attic provenance, and
the artistic reproduction of a holy act would have been impious,
and dangerous, if this had belonged to the inner drdc of the
mystery. Again, there is no mention of sacrament or sacrifice
among the five essential parts of- iiinins given by, Theo
1 Daremberg et Saglio. DicHannaire, *, p. 1066.
• IntrodMCtum to the Study cf Rdtgion.
•This is Dr Jevons's suppontion— «^. d*— on which he bases
an important, theory of the whole Eleusinian mysteries and their
intrinsic attraction.
« Faroell. CtdU. vol. iu. pL xv*.
MYSTERY
121
Smymaetis, nor in tbe imagiBary nuntive of the Ute rhetorician
Sopotros,* who supposes the stnnge case ofa man being initiated
by the goddesses in a dream: they adroit him to their full
communion merely by telling him something and showing him
something.
Besides the iflufupa, then, there were also certain things
said in the hall, or in the earlier stages of initiation, which we
would gladly discover. Part of these were mystic formulae,
octe of which has been discu»ed already, the pass-word of
the votaries. We gather also from Proclus and Hippolytus*
that in the Eleusinian rites they gaxed up to heaven and
cried aloud " rain " — Cc — and gazed down upon the earth and
cried "conceive" — kU. This ritual charm — we cannot call it
prayer — descends from the old agrarian magic which underlay
tix primitive mystery. What else the votaries may have uttered,
whether by way of thanksgiving or solemn litany, we do not
know.' But there was also a certain ifpoif X^YOf , some exposi>
lion accompanying the unfolding of the mysteries; for it was part
of the prestige of the hierophant that he was chief spokesman,
" who poured forth winning utterance and whose voice the
catechumen ardently desired to hear " {Antk. Pal., app. 246) ; and
Galen speaks of the rapt attention paid by the initiated " to the
ibings done and said in the Ekusinian and Samothracian
mysteries "-(/>e usu part. 7. 14). But we have no trustworthy
evidence as to the rtal content of the X^YOf of the hierophant.
We need not believe that the whole of his discourse was taken
up with corn-symbolism, as Varro seems to imply (Aug. Dt ci»U.
Dei. so), or that he taught natural philosophy rather than
theok)gy, or again, the special doctrine of Euhemerus, as two
passages in Cicero {De natur. deor. i. 42; Tu$c. J. 13) might
prompt OS to suppose. Hb chief theme was probably an expo-
sition of the meaning and value of the i«pd, as in an Australian
iniiiatioa rite it is the privilege of the elders to explain the
nature of the " churinga " to the youths. And his discourse
OB these may have been coloured to some extent by the theories
cirrent in tbe philosophic speculation of the day. But though
in the time of Julian he appean to have been a philosopher of
Keo-platonic tendencies, we ought not to suppose that the
Ineixiphant as a rale would be able or inclined to rise above the
anthropomorphic religion of the times. Whatever symbolism
attached to tbe 2^, the sacred objecu shown, was probably
simple and natural; for instance, in the Eleusinian, as in Egjfptian
esdutoiogy, the token of the growing com may have served as
an eroUem — though not a proof— of man's resurrection. The
doctrine of the continuance of the soul after death was already
accepted by the popular belief, and the hierophant had no need
to preach it as a dogma; the votaries came to Eleusis to ensure
th^nsdves a haj^y immortality. And in our earliest record,
the Homeric hymn, we find that the mysteries already hold out
thb higher promise. How, we may ask, were the votaries
aasoied? M. Foucart in Lu gronds mysUres d* Eleusis has
oiaiBtaioed that the object of the mysteries was much the same
as tliat of the l^gyptian Book oftke Dead-, to provide the mystae
with elaborate rules for avoiding the dangers that beset the road
to the other worid, and for attaining at last to the happy regions;
that for this purpose the hierophant recited magic formulae
whereby the soul could repel the demons that it might encounter
on tiie path; and that it was to seek this deliverance from the
tervocs of heO that all Greece 6ocked to Eleusis. This is in
acoovd with his whole " egyptizing " theory concerning the
Elrasinia. a theory which, though Egyptian influence cannot
a priori be ruled out, is not found in harmony with the facts
of the two religious systems. And the particular hypothesis
just stated is altogether wanting in direct evidence, or— we
may say— in traisemUance. There is no hint or allusion to
* ISfef. pvee. viu. 121.
• /• Tim. 293*; ^- Omn. Haer. 5. 7. p. 146.
*Tbe other fonnula which the scholutt on Plato (Cor^. 497c.)
ai i t ■■ to the EleusinUn rite: " I have eaten from the timbrel. I
kave drank from the cymbal, I have carried the sacred vessel.
I have aepc under the bridal<hamber." bebngs. not to Eleusis.
iwt. asOeneataod Finnicus Materous themselves attest, to Phrygia
aad to.Attis.
be found in the ancient sources suggesting that the recital of
magic formulae was part of the ceremony. The\6irof, what-
ever it was, was comparatively unimportant. And the Greek
public in general, in its vigorous period when the Eleusinian
religion reached its xenith, was not tormented, as modern
Europe has at times been, by ghostly terrors of judgment.
. The assurance of the hope of the Eleusinian votary was
obtained by the feeling of friendship and mystic sympathy,
established by mystic contact, with the mother and the daughter,
the poweis of life after death. Those who won their friendship
by initiatbn in this life would by the simple logic of faith
regard themselves as certain to win blessing at their hands in
the next.
It is obvious that the mysteries made no direct appoil to
the intellect, nor on the other hand revolted it by any oppressive
dogmatism. As regards their psychic effect, we have Aristotle's
invaluable judgment: " The initiated do not learn anything so
much as feel certain emotions and are put into a certain frame
of mind " (Synes. Diom. p. 48d). The appeal was to the eye
and to the imagination through a form of religious mesmerism
working by means that were solemn, stately and beautiful.
To understand the quality and the intensity of the impressk>n
produced, we should borrow something from the modem experi-
ences of Christian communion-service, mass, and passion-play,
and bear in mind also the extraordinary susceptibility of the
Greek mind to an artistically impressive pageant.
That the Elensinia preached a higher morality than that
of the current standard is not proved. That they exercised
a direct and elevating influence on the individual character is
nowhere explicitly maintained, as Diodorus (v. 49) maintains
concerning the Samothracian. But on general grounds it is
reasonable to believe that such powerful religious experience
as they afforded would produce moral fruit In many minds. The
genial Aristophanes {Frogs, 455) intimates as much, and
Andocides (Ar mysler. p. 36, § 31; p. 44, § 125) assumes that
those who had been initiated would take a jusier and sterner
view of moral innocence and guilt, and that foul conduct was
a greater sin when committed by a man who was in the official
service of the mother and the daughter.
Besides the greater mysteries at Eleusis, we hear of the
lesser mysteries of Agrae on the banks of the Ilissos. Estab-
lished, perhaps, originally by Athens herself at a time when
Eleusis was independent and closed her rites to strangers,
they became wholly subordinated to the greater, and were put
under the same management and served merely as a necessary
preliminary to the higher initiation into them. Sacrifice was
offered to the same great goddesses at both; but we have the
authority of Duris {Atkenae, 2ssd), the Samian historian, and
the evidence of an Attic painting, called the pinax of Nannion,*
that the predominant goddess in the mysteries at Agrae was
Kore. And this agrees with the time of their celebration, in
the middle of Anthesterion, when Kore was supposed to return
in the young com. Stephanus (s.v. 'Ay pa), drawing from an
unknown source, declares that the Dionysiac story was the
theme of their mystic drama. Hence theorists have supposed
that their content was wholly Orphic or that their central
motive was the marriage of Dionysus and Kore. The theory
has no archaeological or literary support except the passage in
Stephanus, nor have we reason for believing that the marriage
of these two divinities was recognised in Attic state ritual.
The influence of Eleusis in early times must have been
great, for we find offshoots of its cult, whether mystic or not,
in other parts of Greece. In Boeotia, Laconia, Arcadia, Crete
and Thera, Demeter brought with her the title of "Eleusinia";
and no other explanation is so probable as the obvious one
that this name designates " the goddess of Eleusis," and though
there may have been other places called " Eleusis," the only
famous religious centre was the Attic. The initiation rites of
Demeter at Celeae near Phlius, at Lema in Argolis, and at
Naples, were organized after the pattern of the Eleusinian. But
of these and the other Demeter mysteries in the Greek world,
* Farnell, Cults of the Greek StaUs, vol. iii. p. 242, pi. xvL
122
MYSTERY
there is little to record that is certain and at the same time of
primary importance for the history of religion. The Arcadian
city of Phencus possessed a mystery that boasted an Eleusinian
character and origin, yet in the record of it there is no mention
of Kore, and we may suspect that, like other Demeter-worships
in the Pcloponnese, it belonged to a period when the earth-
goddess was revered as a single personality and Kore had not
yet emanated from her. We know much more of the details
of the great Andanian mysteries in Messenia, owing to the
discovery of the important and much-discussed Andanian in-
scription of 91 D.C.' But what we know are facts of secondary
importance only. We gather from Pausantas (4'i3-4;cf. 4- i-
5. and 4. 26. 8; 4. 37. 6) that the rites, which he regards as seccnd
in solemnity and prestige to the Eleusinian alone, were conse-
crated to the MeydXai $tcl, . . . the great goddesses, . . . and that
Kore enjoyed the mystic title of Hagn€, *' the holy one."
The inscription has been supposed to correct and to refute
Pausantas, but it does not really controvert his statements,
which are attested by other evidence; it proves only that other
divinities came at a later time to have a share in the mysteries,
such as the Mey&Xoc Btoi who were probably the Cabeiri (q.v.). It
is clear that the Andanian mysteries included a iacnd drama,
in which women personated the goddesses. The priestesses were
married women, and were required to take an oath that they
had lived " in relation to their husbands a just and holy life."
We hear also of grades of initiation, purification-ceremonies,
but of no sacrament or eschatologic promise; yet it is probable
that these mysteries, like the Eleusinian, maintained and
secured the hope of future happiness.
The Eleusinian faith is not wholly unattested by the grave-
inscriptions of Hellas, though it speaks but rarely on these.
The most interesting example is the epitaph of a hierophant
who proclaims that he has found that " death was not an evil,
but a blessing."'
Of equal importance for the private religion of Greece were
the Orphic mystic societies, bearing a Thraco-Phrygian tradition
into Greece, and associated originally with the name of Dionysus,
and afterwards with Sabazius also and the later cult-ideas of
Phrygia.' The full account of the Dionysiac mysteries would
demand a critical study of the Dionysiac religion as a whole,
as well as of the private sects that sprang up under its shadow.
It is only possible here to indicate the salient characteristics of
those which are of primary value for the history of religion.
Originally a great nature-god of the Thraco-Phrygian stock,
powerful over all vegetation and especially revealing his power
in the vine, Dionysus was forcing his way into Greece at least
as eariy as the Homeric period, arid by the 6th century was
received into the public cults of most of the Greek communities.
We can gather with some certainty or probability his aboriginal
characteristics and the form of his worship. Being a god of
the life of the earth, he was also a nether divinity, the lord of
the world of souls, with whom the dead votary entered into
privileged communion; his rites were mystic, and nightly
celebrations were frequent, marked by wild ecstasy and orgiastic
self-abandonment, in which the votary became at one with
the divinity and temporarily possessed his powers; women
played a prominent part in the ritual; a savage form of sacra-
mental communion was in vogue, and the animal victim of
whose flesh and blood the votaries partook was at times re-
garded as the incarnation of the divinity, so that the god himself
might be supposed to die and to rise again; finally we may
regard certain cathartic Ideas as part of the primeval tradition
*Sce Sauppe. Mysterieninsckrift von Andania; cf. Foucart's
commenurv m Le Bas, Voyage anhM. 2, No. 326^; H. Colliu.
DiaUci'inscltriften, 4689.
* E^k. arch. (1883). p. 81.
' The best account of theoriginand development of the Dionysiac
religion is in Rohde's Psyche, vol. i. ; for Orphic ritual and doctrine
ace article on " Orpheus " in Rowher's Ausfuhrliches Lexikon der
griechtschen und rdmischen Myth^gU; Min Harriion, Prolegomena
to the Study of Creek Relig^, pp. 4^5-659, with critical appendix
by G. Murray on the Orphic tablets diKOvered in Crete, near Rome,
and in south Italy.
of this reUgion. Admitted among the soberer cults of tlie
Greek communities, it lost most of iu wildness and savagery,
while still retaining a more emotional ecstatic character than
the rest. But this cooling process was arrested by a new
wave of Dionysiac fervour that spread over Greece from the
7th century onwards, bringing with it the name of Oipheus,*
and engendering at some later date the Orphic brotherhoods
Uhiasi). This religious movement may have started like
the earlier one from the lands north of Greece; but Crete and
even Egypt are supposed to have contributed much to the
Orphic doctrine and ritual. Our eariiest authority for the
proceedings of the mystery -practitioner who used the name
of Orpheus is the well-known passage in Plato's Republic
(p. 364(1), in which he speaks contemptuously of the itinerant
ritualists who knock at the doors of the rich, the vendors of
magic incantations, who promise absolution from sins and
happiness in the next world to be attained by a ritual of puri-
fication and mystic initiation. This record brings to our notice
a phenomenon unknown elsewhere in Greek religion; the
missionary spirit, the impulse to preach to all who would hear,
which foreshadows the breaking down of the gentile religious
barriers of the ancient world. And it is prolMible that some
kind of " Orphic " propagandism, whether through books or
itinerant mystery-priests, or both, had been in vogue some time
before Plato. We may fairiy conjecture that it has to some
extent inspired the glowing eschatology of Pindar, who describes
the next world as a place of penance and purgation from ancestral
or personal taint and of final reward for the purified soul, and
who unites this belief with a doctrine of reincarnation. In
the Hippolylus of Euripides, Theseus taunts his son with
cloaking his immorality under hypocritical " Orphic " preten-
sions to purity, the pharisaic affectation, for instance, o£ a
vegetarian diet (952-954)- Still more important is the fragment
of the Cretans of Euripides, attesting the strength of the
antiquity of' these mystic Dionysiac associations in Crete.
The initiated votary proclaims himself as sanctified to Zeus of
Ida, to Zagreus — the Orphic name of the nether-world Dionysus
— and to the mountain-goddess Rhea-Cybele; he has fulfilled
'' the solemn rite of the banquet of raw flesh," and henceforth
he " robes himself in pure white and avoids the taint of child-
birth and funerals and abstains from meat." And — ^what is
most significant — he calls himself by the very name of his god —
he is himself Bdxxot- In spirit and in most of its details
the passage accords well with the Bacckae of Euripides, which
reflects not so much the public worship of Greece, but rather
the mystic Dionysiac brotherhoods. Throughout this inspired
drama the votary rejoices to be one with his divinity and to
call himself by his name, and this m}^tic um'on is brought
about partly, though Euripides may not have known it, through
" the meal of raw flesh " or the drinking of the blood of the
goat or the kid or the bull. The sacramental intention of this
is confirmed by abundant proof; even in the state-cult of
Tenedos they dressed up a bull-calf as Dionysus and reveren-
tially sacrificed it (Ael. Nat. an. 12. 34); those who partook of
the flesh were partaking of what was temporarily the body of
their god. The Christian fathers at once express their abhorrence
of this savage ufto^arrta and reveal its true significance
(Arnob. Adt. not. 5. 119); and Firmicus Matemus (De error. ^
p. 84) attesU that the Cretans of his own day celebrated a funeral
festival in honour of Dionysus in which they enacted the life and
the death of the god in a passion-play and " rent a living bull
with their teeth." .
But the most speaking record of the aspirations and ideas
of the Orphic mystic is preserved in the famous gold tablets
found in tombs near Sybaris, one near Rome, and one in Crete.
These have been frequently published and discussed; and here
it is only possible to allude to the salient features that concern
the general history of religion. They contain fragments of a
sacred hymn that must have been in vogue at least as early
as the 3rd century B.C., and which was inscribed in order to
< The name 'Op^Y first occurs in Ibycus. Frag. 10: in^aicXvr^
•Op0*r.
MYSTICISM
123
be binied vith the defunct, as an amulet that might protect
bim from the dangers of his journey through the under-world
and open to him the gates of Paradise. The verses have the
power of an incantation. The initiated soul proclaims its divine
descent: ** I am the son of Earth and Heaven": " lamperishing
with tfaiist, give me to drink of the waters of memory *': " I come
from the pure ": *' I have paid the penalty of unrighteousness ":
" I have flown out of the weary, sorrowful circle of life." His
reward is aasured him: " O bloaed and happy one, thou hast
put off thy mortality and shalt become divine." The strange
formula ^c^o» k yiX hnror, "la kid fell into the milk,"
has been interpreted by Dieterich (Eine Mithras— LUurpe,
p. X74) with great probability as alluding to a conception of
Diooysns hunsdf as ^pf^iof, the divine kid, and to a ritual
of rai^-bapcism in which the initiated was bom again.
We discern, then, in these mystic brotherhoods the germs of
a high religion and the prevalence of conceptions that have
played a great part in the religious history of Europe. And
as late as the days of Plutarch they reutned their power of
cons(4iQg the afflicted {Consol. ad uxor., c. 10).
The Phrygian-Sabazian mysteries, associated with Attis,
Cybde and Sabazius, which invaded later Greece and early
imperial Rmne, were originally akin to these and contained
many ooncepu in common with them. But their orgiaslic
ecstasy was more violent, and the psychical aberrations to
which the votaries were prone through their passionate desire
for divine communion were more dangerous. Emasculation
ivas practised by the devotees, probably in order to assimilate
thenurivcs as far as possible to their goddess by abolishing the
(fistiactloo of .sex, and the high-priest himself bore the god's
name. Or communion with the deity might be attained by the
priest through the bath of blood in the taurobolion (9.*.), or
by the g^fhif»g of the arm over the altar. A more questionable
Biethod which lent itself to obvious abuses, or at least to the
imputation of indecency, was the simulation of a sacred
Diarriage, in which the catechumen was corporeally united
wiib the great goddess in her bridal chamber (Dieterich, op.
cU. pp. 121-134). Prominent also in these Phrygian mysteries
were the conception of rebirth and the belief, vividly impressed
by solemn pageant and religious drama, in the death and resur-
rection of the beloved Attis. The Hilaria in which these
were represented feQ about the time of our Easter; and Firmicus
Matemus reluctantly confesses its resemUance to the Christian
cckbratioa.*
The Eleusinian mysteries are far more characteristic of the
cider Hellenic mind. These later rites breathe an Oriental
spirit, and though their forms ai^)ear strange and distorted
they have more in common with the sul»equent religious
pheaomeaa of Christendom. And the Orphic doctrine may
have even ocmtributcd something to the later European ideals
sf private and personal morality.*
LiTKaATVBB. — For citation of passages in classical literature
bearing on Gveek mysteries in general see Lobeck's Aglaopkamus
iifa^) : and the collection of material for Demeter mysteries in L. R.
Faroell. Caits of ike Creek StaUs (1906). iii. MiSlbj. For general
theory and diacussion lee Dr levons, Introauetion to Ike Study of
Rdigmmi Famcll, CmUs of Ike Creek StaUs, iii. 127-213; Dyer's Tke
Gods of Greece (itei). cb. v.: M. P. Foucart, Lei Grands mystkres
MTSnCISH (from Gr. /ifoy, to shut the eyes; fdfonts, one
imtiated into the mysteries), a phase of thought, or rather
perfaapft of feeling, which from its very nature is hardly suscep-
tibie of exact definition. It appears in connexion with the
cadeavoar of the human mind to grasp the divine essence or
(he ultimate reality of things, and to enjoy the blessedness of
actual ooaamunion with the Highest. The first is the philosophic
skk of msrstidsm; the second, its religious side. The first effort
B tbeofctkal or speculative; the second, practical. The
thnaght tbat b most intensely present with the mystic is that
^Faraell. Ctdts, iii. a^g-ya.
* Sec Arckiajir ReiigioHswiss. (1906), artkle by Sak>mon Rcinach.
of a supreme, all-pervading, and indwelKng power, in whom
all thinp are one. Hence the speculative utterances of
mysticism are always more or less pantheistic in character. On
the practical side, mysticism maintains the possibility of direct in-
tercourse with this Being of beings— inUrcourse, not through any
external media such as an historical revelation, oracles, answers
to prayer, and the like, but by a species of ecstatic transfusion
or identification, in which the individual becomes in very truth
" partaker of the divine nature." God ceases to be an object
to him and becomes an experience. In the writings of the
mystics, ingenuity exhausu itself in the invention of phrases
to express the closeness of this union. Mysticism differs, there-
fore, from ordinary pantheism in that its inmost motive is
religious; but, wherfeas religion is ordinarily occupied with a
practical proUem and develops its theory in an ethical refer-
ence, mysticism displays a fuedominatingly speculative bent,
starting from the divine nature rather than from man and his
stirroundings, taking the symbolism of religious feeling as
literally or metaphysically true, and straining after the present
realization of an ineffable union. The union which sound
religious teaching represents as realized in the submission of
the will and the ethical harmony of the whole life is then reduced
to a passive experience, to something which comes and goes
in time, and which may be of only momentary duration.
Mysticism, it will be seen, is not a name applicable to any
particular system. It may be the outgrowth of many differing
modes of thought and feeling. Most frequently it appears
historically, in relation to some definite system of belief, as a
reaction of the spirit against the letter. When a religion begins
to ossify into a system of formulas and observances, those who
protest in the name of heart-religion are not unfrequently
known by the name of mystics. At times they merely bring
into prominence again the ever-fresh fact of personal religious
experience; at other times mysticism develops itself as a
powerful solvent of definite dogmas.
A review of the historical appearances of mysticism will serve
to show how far the above characteristics are to be found,
separately or in combination, in its different phases.
In the East, mysticism is not so much a specific phenomenon
as a natural deduction from the dominant philosophic systems,
and the normal expression of religious feeling in the
lands in which it appears. Brahmam'c pantheism
and Buddhistic nihilism alike teach the unreality of
the seeming world, and preach mystical absorption as the
highest goal; in both, the sense of the worth of human person-
ality is lost. India consequently has always been the fertile
mother of practical mystics and devotees. The climate itself
encourages to passivity, and the very luxuriance of vegetable
and animal life tends to blunt the feeb'ng of the value of life.
Silent contemplatk>n and the total deadening of consciousness
by perseverance for years in unnatural attitudes are among the
commonest forms assumed by this mystical asceticism. But
the most revolting methods of self-torture and self-destruction
are also practised as a means of rising in sanctity. The
sense of sin can hardly be said to enter into these exercises— that
is, they are not undertaken as penance for personal transgression.
They are a despite done to the principle of individual or separate
existence.
The so-called mysticism of the Persian Sufis is less intense and
practical, more airy and literary in character. Sufism (q.v.)
appears in the 9th century among the Mahommedans of Persia
as a kind of reaction against the rigid monotheism and formalism
of Islam. It is doubtless to be regarded as a revival of andent
habits of thought and feeling among a people who had adopted
the Koran, not by affinity, but by compulsion. Persian literature
after that date, and especially Persian poetry, is full of an ardent
natural pantheism, in which a mystic apprehension of the unity
and divinity of all things heightens the delight in natural and
in human beauty. Such is the poetry of Hafiz and Saadi,
whose verses are chiefly devoted to the praises of wine and
women. Even the most licentious of these have been fitted
by Mahommedan theologians with a mystical interpretation.
124
MYSTICISM
The delights of love are made to stand for the raptures of union
with the divine, the tavern symbolizes an oratory, and intoxica-
tion is the bewilderment of sense before the surpassing vision.
Very often, if not most frequently, it cannot be doubted that
the occult religious significance depends on an artificial
exegesis; but there are also poems of Uafis, Saadi, and other
writers, religious in their first intentions. These are unequivo-
caliy pantheistic m tone, and the desire of the soul to escape
and rest with God is expressed with all the fervour of Eastern
poetry. This speoilative mood, in which nature and beauty
and earthly sati^action appear as a vain show, is the counterpart
of the former mood of sensuous enjoyment.
For c^posile reasons, neither the Greek nor the Jewish mind
lent itself readily to mysticism: the Greek, because of its clear and
sunny naturaliun; the Jewish, because of its rigid monotheism
and its turn towards worldly realism and statutory observance.
It is only with the exhaustion of Greek and Jewish civilization
that myslidsm becomes a prominent factor in Western thought.
It appears, therefore, contemporaneously with Christianity,
and is a sign of the world-weariness and deep religious need
that mark the decay of the old world. Whereas Plato's main
problem had been the organization of the perfect state, and
Aristotle's intellect had ranged with fresh interest over all
departments of the knowable, political speculation had become
a mockery with the extinction of free political life, and know-
ledge as such had lost its freshness for the Greeks of the Roman
Empire. Knowledge is nothing to lh»c men if it does not
show them the infinite reality which is able to fill the aching
void within. Accordingly, the last age of Greek philosophy
is theosophical in character, and its ultimate end is a practical
satisfaction. Neoplalonism seeks this in the ecsutic intuition
of the ineffable One. The systematic theosophy of Plotinus
and his successors docs not belong to the present article, except
so far as it b the presupposition of their mysticism; but, inas-
much as the mysticism of the medieval Church is directly
derived from Neoplatonism through the speculations of the
pseudo-Dionysius, Neoplatonic mysticism fills an important
section in any historical review of the subject.
Neoplatonism owes its form to Plato, but its underlying
motive is the widespread feeling of self-despair and the longing
for divine illumination characteristic of the age
ip'ftftrwfriirL ^^ which it appears. Before the rise of Neoplaton-
ism proper we meet with various mystical or semi-
mystical expressions of the same religious craving. The
contemplative asceticism of the Essencs of Judaea may be
mentioned, and, somewhat later, the life of the Therapeutae
on the shores of Lake Moeris. In Philo, Alexandrian Judaism
had already seized upon Plato as " the Attic Moses," and done
its best to combine his speculations with the teaching of his
Jewish prototype. Philo's God is described in terms of absolute
transcendency; his doctrine of the Logos or Divine Sophia is a
theistical transformation of the Platonic world of ideas; his
allegorical interpretation of the Old Testament represents
the spiritualistic dissolution of historical Judaism. Philo's
ethical ideal is renunciation, contemplation, complete surrender
to the divine influence. ApoUonius of Tyana and the so-called
Neopythagoreans drew similar ethical consequences from
their eclectic study of Plato. Wonder-workers like Alexander
the Paphlagonian exhibit the grosser side of the longing for
spiritual communion. The traits common to Neoplatonism
and all these speculations are well summed up by Zeller {PkUos.
der CrUcken, iii. a. 314) as consisting in: " (i) the dualistic
opposition of the divine and the earthly; (2) an abstract con-
ception of God, excluding all knowledge of the divine nature;
(3) contempt for the world of the senses, on the ground of the
Platonic doctrines of matter and of the descent of the soul from
a superior world into the body; (4) the theory of intermediate
potencies or beings, through whom God acts upon the worid
of phenomena; (5) the requirement of an ascetic self -emancipa-
tion from the bondage of sense and faith in a higher revelation
to man when in a state called enthusiasm." Neoplatonism
appears in the first half of the 3rd century, and has its
greatest representative in Plotinus. He develops the Platonic
philosophy into an elaborate system by means of the doctrine
of emanation. The One, the Good, and the Idea of the Good
were identical in Plato's mind, and the Good was therefore not
deprived of intelligible essence. It was not separated from
the world of ideas, of which it was represented as either the
crown or the sum. By Plotinus, on the contrary, the One is
explicitly exalted above the wm and the "ideas"; it trans-
cends exbtence altogether {Miuufa rm o^fas), and is not
cognizable by reason. Remaining itself in repose, it rays out,
as it were, from its own fullness an image of itself, which b
called row, and which constitutes the system of ideas of the
intelli^ble world. The soul b in turn the image or product of
the PCM, and the soul by its motion begets corporeal matter.
The soul thus faces two ways-^towards the row, from which
it springs, and towards the material life, which b its own
product. Ethical endeavour consbts in the repudiation of
the sensible; material exbtence b itself estrangement from
God. (Porphyry telb us that Plotinus was unwilling to name
his parents or his birthplace, and seemed ashamed of being
in the body.) Beyond the KoB&petis, or virtues which purify
from sin, lies the further stage of complete identification with
God {oOk iiu ifiopr'tm cfwu; dXXd tfedrcTMu). To reach the
ultimate goal, thought itself must be left behind; for thought
is a form of motion, ^nd the desire of the soul b for the motion-
less rest which belongs to the One. The union with transcendent
deity b not so much knowledge or vbion as ecstasy, coalescence,
contact {iKOTOffts ivKuins, d^, Enmad., vi. 9. 8-9). But in
our present state of existence the moments of thb ecstatic union
must be few and short; "I myself," says Plotinus simply,
" have realized it but three times as yet, and Porphyry hitherto
not once."
It will be seen from the above that Neoplatonbm is not
mystical as regards the faculty by which it claims to apprehend
philosophic truth. It b first of all a system of complete
rationalbm; it b assumed, in other words, that reason b capable
of mapping out the whole system of things. But, inasmuch as
a God b affirmed beyond reason, the mysticbm becomes in a
sense the necessary complement of the would-be all-embradng
rationalism. The system culminates in a mystical act, and
in the sequel, especially with lamblichus and the Syrian
Neoplatonbts, mystical practice tended more and more to
overshadow the theoretical groundwork.
It was probably about the end of the sth century, just as
ancient philosophy was dying out in the schools of Athens,
that the speculative mysticism of Neoplatonbm made a
definite lodgment in Christian thought through the literary
forgeries of the pseudo-Dionysius (see Dionysius the Areopa-
cite). The doctrines of Christianity were by that time so firmly
establbhed that the Church could look upon a symbolical or
mystical interpretation of them without anxiety. The author
of the Theologia mystica and the other works ascribed to the
Areopagite proceeds, therefore, to develop the doctrines of
Proclus with very little modification into a system of esoteric
Chrbtianity. (jod is the nameless and supra-essential One,
elevated above goodness itself. Hence " negative theology,"
which ascends from the creature to God by dropping one after
another every determinate predicate, leads us nearest to the
truth. The return to God {tvucis, Okacu) b the consummation
of all things and the goal indicated by Christian teaching. The
same doctrines were preached with more of churchly fervour
by Maximus the Confessor (580-623). St Maximus represents
almost the last speculative activity of the Greek Church, but
the influence of the pseudo-Dionysian writings were transmitted
to the West in the 9th century by Erigena, in whose speculative
spirit both the scholasticism and the mysticism of the middle
ages have their rise. Erigena translated Dionysius into Latin
along with the commentaries of Maximus, and hb system is
essentially based upon theirs. The negative theology is adopted,
and God b stated to be predicateless Bdng, above all categories,
and therefore not improperly called Nothing. Out of this
Nothing or incomprehensible essence the world of ideas or
MYSTICISM
"S
prixnoidial causes is eternally created. This is the Word or
Son of God, in whom all things existi so far as they have
sabstantial eadstence. All existence is a theophany, and as
God tt the beginning of all things, so also is He the end. Erigena
teaches the restitution of all things under the form of the Diony-
sian aduMoHo or deijicatio. These are the permanent outlines
of what may be called the philosophy of mysticism in Christian
times, and it is remarkable with how little variation they are
repeated from age to age.
In Erigena mysticism has not yet separated itself in any
way from the dogma of the Church. There is no revulsion,
as later, from dogma as such, nor is more stress laid upon one
dogma than upon another; all are treated upon the same footing,
and the whole dogmatic system is held^ as it were, in solution
by the phflosophic medium in which it is presented. No
distinction is drawn, indeed, between what is reached by reason
and what is given by authority; the two are immediately
identical for Erigena. In this he agrees with the speculative
mystics everywhere, and differentiates himself from the scholas-
tics who followed him. The distinguishing characteristic of
srbolasticisin is the acceptance by reason of a given matter,
the truth of which is independent of rational grounds, and
which remains a presupposition even when it cannot be under-
stood. Scholasticism aims, it is true, in its chief representatives,
at demonstrating that the content of revelation and the teaching
of reason are identical. But what was matter of immanent
assumption with Erigena Is in them an equating of two things
which have been dealt with on the hypothesis that they are
separate, and which, therefore, still retain that external relation
to one another. This externality of religious truth to the mind
is fundamental in scholasticism, while the opposite view is
equally fundamental in mysticism. Mysticism is not the
voluntary demission of reason and its subjection to an external
authority. In that case, all who accept a revelation without
professing to understand its content would require to be ranked
as mystics; the fierce sincerity of Tertullian's credo quia ab-
svdum, Pascal's reconciliation of contradictions in Jesus
Christ, and Bayle's half-sneering subordination of reason to
faith would all be marks of this standpoint. But such a temper
of mind is much more akin to scepticism than to mysticism;
it is characteristic of those who either do not feel the need of
philaaophlzing their beliefs, or who have failed in doing so and
take refuge in sheer acceptance. Mysticism, on the other hand,
b mariied on iu speculative side by even an overweening
amftdencc in human reason. Nor need this be wondered at if we
consider that the unity of the human mind with the divine is
its underiying presupposition. Hence where reason is discarded
by the mystic it is merely reason overleaping itself; it occurs
at the end and not at the beginning of his speculations. Even
then there is no appeal to authority; nothing is accepted from
without. The appeal is still to the individual, who, if not by
reason then by some higher faculty, claims to realize absolute
truth and to taste absolute blessedness.
Mystidsm first appears in the medieval Church as the protest
of practical religion against the predominance of the dialectical
spirit. It is so with Bernard of Clairvaux (logo-
aStam^ "53)« ^^ condemns Abelard's distinctions and
reasonings as extemaliaing and degrading the faith.
St Bernard's mystidsm is of a practical cast, dealing
mainly with the means by which man may attain to the know-
ledge and enjoyment of God. Reason has three stages, in the
highest of which the mind is able, by abstraction from earthly
things, to rise to ccnUmplaiio or the vision of the divine. More
exalted stSl, however, is the sudden ecstatic vision, such as was
granted, for example, to Paul. This is the reward of those
who are dead to the body and the world. Asceticism is thus
the antnteii>art of medieval mystidsm; and. by his example
as well as by his teadiing in such passages, St Bernard unhappily
encouraged practices which necessarily resulted in self-delusion.
Love grows with the knowledge of its object, he proceeds, and
at the hi^iest stage self-love is so merged in love to God that we
love oorsdves only for God's sake or because God has loved us.
" To lose thyself in some sort, as if thou wert not, and to have
no consdousness of thyself at all — to be emptied of thyself
and almost annihilated — such is heavenly conversation. ... So
to be affected is to become God." *' As the little water-drop
poured into a large measure of wine seems to lose iU own nature
entirely and to take on both the taste and the colour of the wine;
or as iron heated red-hot loses its own appearance and glows like
fire; or as air filled with sunlight is transformed into the same
brightness so that it does not so much appear to be illuminated
as to be itself light — so must all human feeling towards the
Holy One be self-dissolved in unspeakable wise, and wholly
transfused into the will of God. For how shall God be all in
all if anything of man remains in man? The substance will
indeed remain, but in another form, another glory, another
power " {De dUigendo Deo, c. xo). These are the favourite
similes of mysticism, wherever it is found.
Mysticism was more systematically devdoped by Bernard's
contemporary Hugh of St Victor (1096-1 141 ). The Augustinian
monastery of St Victor near Paris became the head-
quarters of mysticism during the X3th century. It Sw^m.
had a wide influence in awakening popular piety, and
the works that issued from it formed the textbooks of mystical
and pietistic minds in the centuries that followed. Hugh's
pupil, Richard of St Victor, dedares, in opposition to dialectic
scholasticism, that the Objects of mystic contemplation are
partly above reason, and partly, as in the intuition of the
Trinity, contrary to reason. He enters at length into the con-
ditions of ecstasy and the yearnings that precede it. .Walter,
the third of the Victorines, carried on the polemic against the
dialecticians. Bonaventura ( 1 2 3 i-i 2 74) was a diligent student
of the Victorines, and in his Ilinerarium mentis ad Deum maps
out the human faculties in a similar fashion. He introduces
the terms " apex mentis " and " scintilla " (also " synderesis"
or ovrr^PV^it) to describe the faculty of mystic intuition.
Bonaventura runs riot in phrases to describe the union with
God, and his devotional works were much drawn upon by
mystical preachers. Fully a century later, when the system
of scholasticism was gradually breaking up under the predomi-
nance of Occam's nominalism, Pierre d'AUly (13 50-1425), and
his more famous scholar John Gerson (i363>i429), chancellor
of the university of Paris, are found endeavouring to com-
bine the doctrines of the Victorines and Bonaventura with a
nominalistic philosophy. They are the last representatives
of mysticism within the limitations imposed by scholasticism.
From the 12th and 13th centuries onward there is observable
in the different countries of Europe a widespread reaction
against the growing formalism and worldliness of
the Church and the scandaloxts lives of many of the
clergy. Men began to feel a desire for a theology mytka,
of the heart and an unworidly simplidty of life.
Thus there arose in the Netherlands the Beguines and Beghards,
in Italy the Waldenses (without, however, any mystical leaning),
in the south of France and elsewhere the numerous sect or sects
of the Cathari, and in Calabria the apocalyptic gospel of Joachim
of Floris, all bearing witness to the commotion of the time.
The lay sodeties of the Beghards and the Beguines (for
men and women respectively) date from the end of the
1 2th century, and soon became extremely popular both
in the Low Countries and on the Rhine. They were
free at the outset from any heretical taint, but were never
much in favour with the Church. In the beginning of the
X3th century the foundation of the Dominican and Franciscan
ordera furnished a more ecclesiastical and regular means of
supplying the same wants, and numerous convents sprang
up at once throughout Germany. The German mind was
a peculiariy fruitful sofl for mystidsm, and, in connexion either
with the Beguines or the Church organization, a number of
women appear about this time, combining a spirit of mystical
piety and asceticism with sturdy reformatory zeal directed
against the abuses of the time. Even before this we hear of
the prophetic visions of Hildegard of Bingen (a contemporary
of St Bernard) and Elizabeth of SchSnau. In the 13th century
126
MYSTICISM
Elizabeth of Hungary, the pious landgravine of Thuringia,
assisted in the foundation of many convents in the north of
Germany. (For an account jf the chief of these female saints
see the first volume of W. Preger's Gtsckickte der detUschen
Mysiik.) Mechthild of Magdeburg appears to have been the
most influential, and her book Das fiiessende Licht der CoUkeit
is important as the oldest woric of its kind m German. It
proves that much of the terminology of German mysticism
was current before Eckhart's time. Mechthild's derico-political
utterances show that she was acquainted with the "eternal
gospel" of Joachim of Floris. Joachim had proclaimed the
doctrine of three world-ages— the kingdom of the Father, of
the Son, and of the Spirit. The reign of the Spirit was to begin
with the year 1 260, when the abuses of the world and the Church
were to be e£Fectually cured by the general adoption of the
monastic life of contemplation. Very similar to this in appear-
ance is the teaching of Amalric of Bena (d. 1207); but, white
the movements just mentioned were reformatory without being
heretical, this is very far from being the case with the mystical
pantheism derived by Amalric from the writings of Erigena.
His followers held a progressive revelation of God in the ages of
the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. Just as the Mosaic dispensation
came to an end with the appearance of Christ, so the sacraments
of the new dispensation have lost their meaning and efficacy
since the incarnation of God as Holy Spirit in the Amalricans.
With this opposition to the Church they combine a complete
antinomianism, through the identification of all their desires
with the impulses of the divine Spirit. Amalric's teaching
was condemned by the Church, and his heresies led to the public
burning of Erigena's De divisione naturae in 1225. The sect
of the New Spirit, or of the Free Spirit as it was afterwards
called, spread widely through the north of France and into
Switzerland and Germany. They were especially numerous in
the Rhineland in the end of the 13th and during the 14th cen-
tury; and they seem to have corrupted the originally orthodox
communities of Beghards, for Beghards and Brethren of the
Free Spirit are used henceforward as convertible terms, and
the same immoralities are related of both. Such was the seed-
ground in which what is specifically known as GenAan mysticism
sprang up.
In MeisterEckhart (? 1260-1327) the German mind definitively
asserts its pre-eminence in the sphere of speculative mysticism.
Bg^f^gff^ Eckhart was a distinguished son of the Church;
but in reading his works we feel at once that we
have passed into quite a different sphere of thought from that
of the churchly mystics; we seem to leave the cloister behind
and to breathe a freer atmosphere. The scholastic mysticism
was, for the most part, practical and psychological in character.
It was largely a devotional aid to the realization of present
union with God; and, so far as it was theoretical, it was a theory
of the faculties by which such a union is attainable. Mysticism
was pieced on somewhat incongruously to a scholastically
accepted theology; the feelings and the intellect were not brought
together. But in Eckhart the attitude of the churchman and
traditionalbt is entirely abandoned. Instead of systematizing
dogmas, he appears to evolve a philosophy by the free exercise
of reason. His system enables him to give a profound ugnifi-
cance to the doctrines of the Church; but, instead of the system
being accommodated to the doctrines, the doctrines— and
especially the historical factr— acqidre a new sense in the system,
and often become only a mythical representation of speculative
truth. The freedom with which Eckhart treats historical
Christianity allies him much more to the German idealists of
the 19th century than to his scholastic predecessors.
The political circumstances of Germany in the first half of
the Z4th century were in the last degree disastrous. The war
between the rival emperors, Frederick of Austria and Louis
of Bavaria, and the interdict under which the latter was placed
in 1324 inflicted extreme misery upon the unhappy people.
From some places the interdict was not removed for twenty-six
years. Men's minds were pained and disquieted by the conflict
of duties and the absence of spiritual consolation. The country
was also visited by a succession of famines and floods, and in
134S the Black Death swept over Europe like a terrible scourge.
In the midst of these unhappy surroundings religion became
more inward in men of real piety and the desire grew among
them to draw closer the bonds that united them to one another.
Thus arose the society of the Friends of God {GoUesfreunde)
in the south and west of Germany, spreading as
far as Switzeriand on the one side and the Nether- JSL---.
lands on the other. They formed no exclusive |^„,^„ -
sect. They often took opposite sides in politics
and they also differed in the type of their religious life; but
they uniformly desired to strengthen one another in living
intercourse with God. Among them chiefly the followers of
Eckhart were to be found. Such were Heinrich Suso of Con-
stance(i 295-1366) and Johann Tauler of Strassburg(i300-i36i),
the two most celebrated of his immediate disciples. Nicolas
of Basel, the mysterious layman from whose visit Tauler dates
his true religious life, seems to have been the chief organizing
force among the Gottesfreunde. The society counted many
members among the pious women in the convents of southern
Germany. Such were Christina Ebner of Engelthal near
Nuremberg, and Margaretha Ebner of Medingen in Swabia.
Laymen also belonged to it, like Hermann of Fritzlar and
Rulman Merswin, the rich banker of Strassburg (author of a
mystical work, Buck der neun Felsen, on the nine rocks or
upwards steps of contemplation). It was doubtless one of the
Friends who sent forth anonymously from the house of the
Teutonic Order in Frankfort the famous handbook of mystical
devotion called Eine -deutsche Tkeologie, first published in 15 16
by Luther.
Jan van Ruysbroeck (1294-1381), the father of mysticism
in the Netherlands, stood in connexion with the Friends of God,
and Tauler is said to have visited him in his seclusion^^^^^
at Groenendal (Vauvert, Griinlhal) near Brussels.^'"^***
He was decisively influenced by Eckhart, though there is no-
ticeable occasionally a shrinking back from some of Eckhart 's
phraseology. Ruysbroeck's mysticism is more of a practical
than a speculative cast. He is chiefly occupied with the means
whereby the unto myslica is to be attained, whereas Eckhart
dwells on the union as an ever-present fact, and dilates on its
metaphysical implications. Towards the end of Ruysbroeck's
life, in 1378, he was visited by the fervid lay-preacher Gerhard
Groot (1340-1384), who was so impressed by the life of the com-
munity at Groenendal that he conceived the idea of founding a
Christian brotherhood, bound by no monastic vows, but living
together in simplicity and piety with all things in common,
after the apostolic pattern. This was the origin of the Brethren
of the Common Lot (or Common Life). The first house of
the Brethren was founded at Deventer by Gerhard Groot and
his youthful friend Florentius Radewyn; and here Thomas
i Kempis {q.v.) received his training. Similar brother-houses
soon sprang up in different places throughout the Low Countries
and WcstphaUa, and even Saxony.
It has been customary for Protestant writers to represent
the mystics of Germany and Holland as precursors of
the Reformation. In a sense this is true. But myauea
it would be false to say that these men protested «■««*• «»-
against the doctrines of the Church in the way the ^nMtiafc
Reformers felt themselves called upon to do. There is no
sign that Tauler, for example, or Ruysbroeck, or Thomas i
Kempis had felt the dogmatic teaching of the Church jar in
any single point upon their religious consciousness. Never-
theless, mysticism did prepare men in a very real way for a
break with the traditional system. Mysticism instinctively
recedes from formulas that have become stereotyped and
mechanical. On the other hand its claim for spiritual freedom
was soon to be found in opposition also to the Reformers.
The wild doctrines of Thomas MUnzer and the Zwickau
prophets, merging eventually into the excesses of the tMar
Peasants' War and the doings of the Anabaptists in Ofmmm
MUnster, first roused Luther to the dangerous t^r*^e».
possibilities of mysticism as a disintegrating force. He was
MYSTICISM
127
aho called upon to do battle for his principle against men like
Caspar Schwoikfeld (1490-1561) and Sebastian Franck (1500^
1545), tbe latter of wbom developed a system of pantheistic
mystidsin, and went so far in his opposition to the letter as to
declare the whole of the historical dement in Scripture to be
bot a m]rthical represenUtion of eternal truth. Valentin Weigel
(i 533-1 s£8), who stands under manifold obligations to Franck,
represents also the influence of the semi-mystical physical
speculation that marked the transition from scholasticism to
modem times. The final breakdown of scholasticism as a
latioBaliaed system of dogma may be seen in Nicolas (or
Nicolans) of Cusa (1401-1464), who distinguishes between the
imUBechu and the discursively acting -fo/itf almost precisely
in the st^ of later distinctions between the reason and the
understaoding. The intellect combines what tbe understanding
separates; hence Nicolas teaches the principle of the coincidentia
camlradkiorwntm. If the results of the, understanding go by
the nane of knowledge, then the higher teaching of the intellec-
tual intuition may be called ignorance— ignorance, however,
that b consdoos of itself, docta ignorantia. " Intuitio," " specu-
Iatk>/' " visio sine comprehensione," " comprehensio incom-
pKchensibilis/' " mystica theologia," " tertius caelus," are some
of the terms he applies to thb knowledge above knowledge;
but in the woricing out of his system he is remarkably free from
extravagance. Nicolas's doctrines were of influence upon
GiordaBO Bruno and other physical philosophers of the xsth
aad i6th centuries. All these physical theories are blended
with a mystical theosophy, of which the most remarkable
example is, perhaps, the cbemico-astrological speculations of
Fuacekos (1493-XS4X). The influence of Nicolas of Cusa
and Paracelsus mingled in Valentin Weigel with that of the
DaOsekg Tkeciogie^ Andreas Osiander, Schwenkfeld and Franck.
Weigel, in turn, handed on these influences to Jakob Bochme
(i 575-1624), pkihsophus teuionicust and father of the chief
devcfapments of theosophy in modem Germany (see Boehhe).
Mysticism did not cease within the CathoUc Church at tbe
Reformatioii. In St Theresa (151 5-1 583) and John of the Cross
ctktr tbe counter-reformation can boast of saints second
Fmrnaoi to none in the calendar for the austerity of their
•^ ■• *■' mortifications and the rapture of the visions to
which they were admitted. But, * as was to be expected,
thdr mysticism moves in that comparatively narrow round,
and consists simply in the heaping up of these sensuous
experiences. The speculative character has entirely faded
out oi it, or rather has been crushed out by the tightness with
which the directors of the Roman Church now held the reins
of disdplioe. Tlieir mysticism represents, therefore, no widening
or spiritualizing of their theology; in all matters of belief they
remain the docile children of their Church. The gloom and
harshness of these Spanish mystics are absent from the tender,
contemplative spirit of Francois de Sales (1567-1622); and in
the quietism of Mme Guyon (164^1717) and Miguel de
Ilolinos (2627-1696) there is again a sufficient implication of
raystical doctrine to rouse the suspicion of the ecclesiastical
aotboritics. (Quietism, name and thing, became tbe talk of
aB the worid through the bitter and protracted controversy to
which it gave rise between Ffnclon and Bossuet.
In the lylh century mysticism is represented in the philo-
sophical field by the so-called Cambridge Platonists, and
cipccially by Henry More (1614-1687), in whom the influence
of tbe Kabbalah is combined with a species of christianized
Keqilatooisni. Pierre Poiret (1646-17 19) exhibits a violent
reaction against tbe mechanical philosophy of Descartes, and
especially against its consequences in Spinoza. He was an
ardent student of Taulcr and Thomas k Kempis, and became
an adherent of the quictistic doctrines of Mme Bourignon.
His philosophical works emphasize the passivity of the reason.
The first influence of Boehme was in the direction of an obscure
religious mysticism. J. G. Gichtel (1638-1 7 10), the first editor
d his complete works, became the founder of a sea called the
Aagcl-Brethrvn. All Boehme's works were translated into
Engiisb in the time of the Commonwealth, and regular societies I
of Boehmenists were formed in England and HoUand. Later in
the century he was much studied by the members of the
Phikdelphian Society, John Pordage, Thomas Bromley, Jane
Lead, and others. The mysticism of William Law (1686-1761)
and of Louis Claude de Saint Martin in France (i 743-1803),
who were also students of Boehme, is of a much more elevat^
and spiritual type. The " Cherabic Wanderer," and other
poems, of Johann Scheffler (1624-1677), known a& Angelus
Silesius, are more closely related in style and thought to
Eckhart than to Boehme.
The religiosity of the (Quakers, with their doctrines of the
"inner light" and the influence of the Spirit, has decided
affinities with mysticism; and the autobiography of George
Fox (1624-X691), the founder of the sect, proceeds throughout
on the assumption of supernatural guidance. Stripped of its
definitely miraculous character, the doctrine of the inner light
may be regarded as the familiar mystical protest against for-
malism, literalism, and scripture-worship. Swedenborg, though
selected by Emerson in his lUpresenlative Men as the typical
mystic, bdongs rather to the history of spiritualism than to
that of mysticism as understood in this article. He possesses
the cool temperament of the man of science rather than the
fervid God ward aspiration of the mystic proper; and the specu-
lative impulse which lies at the root of this form of thought
is almost entirely absent from his writings. Accordingly, his
supernatural reveUtions resemble a course of lessons in celestial
geography more than a description of the beatific vision.
Philoaophy nnce the end of the i8th century has frequently
shown a tendency to diverge into mysticiBni. This has been espe-
cially so in Germany. The term mysticism is indeed often extended
scendenUlism, and as such it is used even by a sympathetic writer
like Carlyle; but this looseness of phraseolo^ only serves to blur
important distinctions. However absolute a philosopher's idealism
may be. he is erroneously styled a mystic if ne moves towards his
conclusions only by the patient labour of the reason. Hegel there-
fore, to uke an insUncc, can no more fitly be classed as a mystic
than Spinoza can. It would be much nearerthe truth to uke both
as types of a thoroughgoing rationalism. In either case it is of course
open to anyone to maintain that the apparent completeness of
synthesis really rests on the subtle intrusion of elements of feeling
into the rational process. But in that case it might be difficult to
find a* systematic philosopher who would escape the charge of
mysticism: and it is better to remain by long-established and
serviceable distinctions. So, again, when Rdcdjac defines mysti-
cism as " the tendency to draw near to the Absolute in moral union
work, i.«x ronaenunts ce m connausanee mysttmu (tng. 1
though it touches mysticism at various pomts, and quotes from
mystic writers, is in fact a protest aninst the limitations of experi-
ence to the data of the senses and the pure reason to the exclusion
of the moral consciousness and the deliverances of " the heart."
But such a position is not describable as mysticism in any recognized
sense. On the other hand, where philosophy despairs of itself,
exults in its own overthrow, and yet revels in the " mysteries " of a
speculative Christianity, as in 1. G. Hamann (1730-1788), the term
mysticism may be fitly applied. So, again, it is m place where the
movement of revulsion from a mechanical philosophy takes the
form rather of immediate assertion than of reasoned demonstration,
and where the writers, after insisting generally on the spiritual
basts of phenomena, either leave the position without further defini-
tion or expressly dechre that the ultimate problems of philosophy
cannot be reduced to articulate formulas. Examples of this are
men like Novalis, Carlyle and Emerson, in whom philosophy may be
said to be impatient of its own Usk. Schelling's explicit appeal
in the Idtntitdts-pkilosopkie to an intellectual intuition of the
Absolute, is of the essence of mysticism, both as an appeal to a supra-
rational faculty and as a claim not merely to know but to realize
God. The opposition of the reason to the understanding, as formu-
lated by S. T. Cderidge. is not free from the first of these faults.
The later philosophy of Schelling and the philosophy of Franz
von Baader, both largely founded upon Boehme. belong rather to
theosophy (q.v.) than to mysticism proper.
Authorities. — Besides the sections on mysticism in the general
histories of philosophy by Erdmann. Ueberweg and Windelband.
and in works on church history and the history of dogma, reference
may be made for the medieval period to Heinrich Schmid. Der
Mysticismus in seiner Enlstekungsperiode (1824); Charles Schmidt,
Essai sur Us mystiques du 14^ siMe (1836): Ad. Helfferich, Die
ckrisaiche MysHk (1842); L. Noack, Die christiiclu Mystik des
128
MYTHOLOGY
MiUdaUtrt (iSc^); J. GArres, DU ckrisaicke UysUk (new cd.. 1879-
i83o); Rufus M, Jones, Studies in Mystical Bdipan (1909). On
the German mystics see W. Prcger's Cesckicku der deutscken Mystik
(voL L 1874: vol. ii. 1881: vol. iii. 1893). The works of EcMiart
and his precumrs are conuined in F. PfeiiFef's Deutulu liysHkar
dts t4- Jabrkuaderts (1845-1857}. (A. S. P.-P.)
MYTUOLOOT (Or. iivBoKoyla, the science which eiaimaes
tmOoi, myths or legends of cosmogony and of gods and
heroes. Mythology is also used as a term for these legends
themsdves. Thus when we q>eak of " the mythology of Greece "
we mean the whole body of Greek divine and heroic and cosmo-
gonic legends. When we speak of the" sdence of mythology "
we refer to the various attempts which have been made to
explain these ancient narratives. Very early indeed in the
history of human thought men awoke to the consciousness
that their religious stories were much in want of ezphmation.
The myths of civilized peoples, as of Greeks and the Aryans of
India, contain two elements, the rational and what to modem
minds seems the irrational. The rational myths are those
which represent the gods as beautiful and wise beings.' The
Artemis of the Odyssey ** taking her pastime in the chase of
boars and swift deer, while with her the wild wood-nymphs
disport them, and hi^ over them all she rears her brow, and
is easily to be known where all are fair," is a perfectly rational
mythic representation of a divine being. We fed, even now,
that the cdnception of a " queen and huntress, chaste and fair,"
the lady warden of the woodlands, is a beautiful and natural
fancy which requires no explanation. On the other hand, the
Artemis of Arcadia, who is confused with the nymph Callisto,
who, again, is said to have become a she-bear, and later a star,
and the Brauronian Artemis, whose maiden ministers danced
a bear-dance, are goddesses whose legend seems unnatural,
and is felt to need explanation. Or, again, there is nothing
not explicable and natural in the conception of the Olympian
Zeus as represented by the great chryselephantine statue of
Zeus at Olympta, or in the Homeric conception of Zeus as a god
who " turns everywhere his shining eyes " and beholds all
things. But the Zeus whose grave was shown in Crete, or the
2^s who played Demeter an obscene trick by the aid of a ram,
or the Zeus who, in the shape of a swan, became the father of
Castor and Pollux, or the Zeus who was merely a rough stone,
or the Zeus who decdved Hera by means of a fdgncd marriage
with an inanimate object, or the Zeus who was afraid of Attes,
is a being whose myth is felt to be unnatural and in great need
of explanation. It is this irrational and unnatural dement —
as Max Mtiller says, " the silly, savage and sensdess dement "
— that makes mythology the puzzle which men have so long
found it.
Early Ex^anaticns of Myths.— Tht earliest attempts at a
crude sdence of mythology were efforts to recondle the legends
of the gods and heroes with the religious sentiment which
recognized in these beings objects of worship and respect.
Closely as religion and myth are intertwined, it is necessary
to hold them apart for the purposes of this discussion. Religion
may here be defined as the conception of divine, or at least
supernatural powers entertained by men in moments of gratitude
or of need and distren, in hours of weakness, when, as Homer
says, "all folk yearn after the gods." Now this conception
may be rude enough, and it is nearly related to purely
magical ideas, to efforts to secure supernatural aid by
magical ceremonies. Still the roughest form of spiritual
prayer has for its basis the hypothesis of beneficent bdngs,
visible or invisible. The sensdess stories or myths about
the gods are soon felt to be at variance with this hypothesis.
As an example we may take the instance of Qing, the
Bushman hunter. Qing, when first he met white men, was
asked about his reh'gion. He began to explain, and mentioned
Cagn. Mr Orpen, the chief magistrate of St John's Terri-
tory, asked: "Is Cagn good or malidous? how do you pray
to him?" Answer (in a low imploring tone): " 'O Cagn I
O Cagn! are we not your children? do you not see our hun-
ger? give us food;' and he gives us both hands full " {Capt
Monthly Maga»ne, July 1874). Here we see the religious
view of Cagn, the Bushman god. But in the myOuAogicai
account of Cagn given by (jing he appears as a kind of grass-
hopper, supematurally endowed, the hero of a most absurd
cyde of sensdess adventures. Even religion is affected by these
irrational notions, and the gods of savages and of many dvilized
peoples are worshipped with crud, obscene, and irrational
rites. But, on the whole, the rdigbus sentiment strives to
transcend the m3rthical conceptions of the gods, and is shocked
and puzzled by the mythical narratives. As soon as this sense
of perplexity is fdt by poets, by priests, or by most men in an
age of nascent criticism, explanations of what is most crude and
absurd in the myths are put forward. Men ask themsdves
why thdr gods are worshipped in the form of beasts, birds, and
fishes; why thdr gods are said to have prosecuted thdr amours
in bestial shapes; why they are represented as lustful and passion-
ate—thieves, robbers, murderers and adulterers. The answers
to these questions sometimes become myths themsdves. Thus
both the Mangaians and the Egyptians have been puzded by
thdr own gods in the form of beasts. The Egyptians invented an
exphination— itself a myth— that in some moment of danger
the gods concealed themsdves from thdr foes in the shapes
of animals.' The Mangaians, according to W. W. Gill, hold
that " the heavenly family had taken up thdr abode in these
birds, fishes, and reptiles."*
A people so curious and refined as the Greeks ^ere certain
to be greatly perplexed by even such comparativdy pure
m3rthical narratives as they found in Homer, still more by
the coarser legends of Hesiod, and above all by the andent
local myths preserved by local priesthoods. Thus, in the 6th
century bdore Christ, Xenophanes of Colophon severely blamed
the poets for thdr unbecoming legends, and boldly called certain
myths " the fables of men of old."* Theagenes of Rhegium
(530 B.C.?), according to the scholiast on Iliad, xx. 67,* was the
author of a very andent system of mythology. Admitting
that the fable of the battle of the gods was " unbecoming," if
literally understood, Theagenes represented it as an allegorical
account of the war of the dements. Apollo, Hdios, and
Hephaestus were fire, Hera was air, Poaddon was water, Artemis
was the moon, koX rd Xocird 6/idcM. Or, by another system, the
names of the gods represented moral and intdlectual qualities.
Heraditus, too, disposed of the myth of the bondage of Her^
as allegorical philosophy. Socrates, in the Cratylus of Plato,
expounds " a philosophy which came to him all m an instant,"
an explanation of the divine bdngs based on crude philologiaU
analyses of their names. Metrodorus, rivalling some recent
flights of conjecture, resolved not only the gods but even heroes
like Agamemnon, Hector and Achilles " into elemental combina-
tions and physical agencies."* Euripides makes Penthcus
(but he was notoriously impious) advance a " rationalistic "
theory of the story that Dionysus was stitched up in the thigh
of Zeus.
When Christianity became powerful the heathen philosophers
evaded its satire by making more and more use of the allegorical
and non-natural system of explanation. That method has
two faults. First (as Amobius and Eusebius reminded thdr
heathen opponents), the allegorical explanations are purdy
arbitrary, depend upon the fancy of their author, and are
all equally plausible and equally unsupported by evidence.*
Secondly, there is no proof at all that, in the distant age when
the myths were developed, men entertained the moral notions
and physicil philosophies which are supposed to be " wrapped
up, " as Cicero says, " in impious fables." Another system of
explanation is that assodated with the name of Euemerus
(516 B.C.). According to this author, the myths are history
in disguise. All the gods were once men, whose real feats have
been decorated and distorted by later fancy. This view suited
Lactantius, St Augustine and other early Christian writers
• Plutarch, De hide et Osiride.
• Mylks and Songs from the South Pacific, p. 35 (1876).
• Xenoph. Fr. i. 42. « Dindorfs cd.. iv. 231.
• Grotc. mu. of Greece, (ed. 1869) i. 404.
, • Cf. Lobcck, Aglaophamus, i. 151-152, on allegorical interpreta-
tiOD of myths in the mysteries.
MYTHOLCXSY
129
way wtXL Thty were pleiacd to beUeve that Eaemenis " by
liistofical Kseardi bad ascerUined tbat tbe gods were once but
moctal men." Precisely tbe same convenient line was taken
by Sahagnn in bis account of Mexican religious myibs. As
tbere can be no doubt tbat tbe gbosts of dead men bave been
wocsfa^jiiMd in many lands, and as tbe gods of many f aitbs are
tricked cot witb attributes derived from ancestor-woiahip,
tbe qrstem of Euemerus retains some measure of plausibility.
Wbile we need not believe witb Euemerus and witb Herbert
Speoecr tbat tbe god of. Greece or tbe god of the Hottentots
was cace a man, we cannot deny tbat the myths of both these
gods have passed through and been coloured by tbe imaginations
of Ben who practised the worship of real ancestors. For
example, tbe Cretans showed the tomb of Zeus, and the Pbodans
(Panamas z. 5) daily poured blood of victims into tbe tomb
of a bero, obviously by way of feeding his ghost. The
Hottentots show many tombs of their god, Tsui-Goab, and tell
tales about bis death; they also pray regularly for aid at the
tombs id their own parents.* We may therefore say that,
while it is rather absurd to believe that Zeus and Tsui-Goab
were once real men, yet. their myths are such as would be
developed by people accustomed, among other forms of religion,
to tbe worship ol dead men. Very probably portions of the
legends of real men have been attracted into the mythic accounts
of gods of another character, and this is the element of truth
at Uie bottom of Euemerism.
Laitr BxtianaHons oj Mylhohgy.—Tbt ancient systems of
fTp'***"ng what needed explanation in myths were, then,
physcalf ethical, religious and historical. One student, like
Tbeaceocs, would see a physical philoaophy underlying Homeric
legeada. Another, like Porphyry, would imagine that the
"■^a-s^ was partly moral, partly of a dark theosophic .and
idigKKis character. Another would detect moral allegory
alone, and Aristotle expresses the opinion that the myths were
tbe inventions of legislaton ** to persuade the many, and to
be used in support of law " {Ma. xL 8, 19). A fourth, like
Eaemenis, would get rid of the supernatural element altogether,
and find only an imaginative rendering of actual history. When
rhriiTfant approached tbe problem of heathen mythology,
tbey sometimes held, with St Augustine, a form of the doctrine
of Euemerus.* In other words, they regarded Zeus, Aphrodite
and tbe rest as real persons, diabolical not divine. Some later
phikwopheis, especially of the lytb century, misled by the rcsem-
Uanoe between Biblical narratives and ancient myths, came to
the cooduaaon tbat tbe Bible contains a pure, the myths a
distorted, form of an original revelation. The abb6 Banier
pubi^ied a mythological compilation in which be systematically
resolved all the Greek myths into ordinary history.' Bryant
pubUsbcd (1774) A New System^ or an Analysis of Ancient
Mjikdogy,wker€iH an AUempt is made to divest Tradition of FabU,
in wUcb be talked very learnedly of " that wonderful people, the
drrrndant^ of Cush," and saw everywhere symbols of the ark
and traces of tbe Noachian deluge. Thomas Taylor, at the end
of the x8th century, indulged in much mystical allegorizing
of myths, as in tbe notes to his translation of Pausanias (1794).
At an eaxlicr date (1760) De Brosses struck on the true line of
iateipreiation in his Utile work Du CuUe des dieux Jiliches^
om pardUU de Fancitnue religion de r£gypte atec la religion
sOmeBe de Nigniie. In this tract De Brosses explained tbe
aaunal-vmship of the Egyptians as a survival among a
dvUcsed people of ideas and practices springing from the
ittteflectnal condition of savages, and actually existing among
negroes. A vast ssrmbolical explanation of myths and mysteries
was attempted by Friedrich Creuzer.* The learning and sound
sense of Lobeck, in his Agfaophamus, exploded the idea that the
Ekoiniao and other mysteries revealed or concealed matter
of momentous religious importance. It ought not to be forgotten
■ Haho, Tstmi-Coam, the Supreme Being of the Khoi-Khoi, p. 113.
' Or 009. dei., vii. 18: visL 26.
>£« MyOKiope et ks fabUs expNquta par Vkistoire (Paris. 1738:
% VOliL 4to)'
• Sjmhdik MMd MylMowk der oUen Vdlher (Leipzig and Dorm-
■ , 1836-1843^.
that Lafitan, a Jesuit missionary in North America, while
inclined to take a mystical view of the secrets concealed
by Iroquois myths, had also pointed out the savage element
surviving in Greek mythology.*
Recent Mythological Systems.— Vp to a very recent date
students of mythology were hampered by orthodox traditions,
and still more by ignorance of the andent languages and of
the natural history of num. Only recently have Sanskrit and
tbe Egyptian and Babylonian languages become books not
absolutely sealed. Again, tbe study of the evolution of human
institutions from the lowest savagery to civilization is essentially
a novel branch of research, though ideas derived from an
unsystematic study of anthropology are at least as old as
Aristotle. The new theories of mythology are based on the
belief that "it is man, it is human thought and human
language combined, wliicb naturally and necessarily pro-
duced the strange conglomerate of andent fable."* But, while
there is now universal agreement so far, modem mythologists
differed essentially on one point. There was a school (with
internal divisions) which regarded andent fable as almost
entirely " a disease of language," that is, as the result of con-
fusions arising from misunderstood terms that have survived in
speech after their original significance was lost. Another school
(also somewhat divided against itsdf) believes that misunder-
stood language played but a veiy slight part in the evolu-
tion of mythology, and that the irrational element in myths
is merely the survival from a condition of thought which was
once common, if not universal, but is now found chiefly among
savages, and to a certain extent among children. The former
school considered that the ^tate of thought out of which myths
were developed was produced by decaying language; the latter
maintains that the corresponding phenomena of language were
the reflection of thought. For the sake of brevity we might
call the former the " philological " system, as it rests chiefly
on the study of language, while the latter might be styled the
" historical " or " anlhropological " school, as it is based on
the study of man in the sum of his manners, ideas and insti-
tutions.
The System of Max MuUer.— The most distinguished and popular
advocate <tf the philological school was Max MQller, whose views
may be found in his Selected Essays and Lectures en Language. The
problem was to explain what he calls " the silly, savage and senseless
element " in mythology (Sd. Ess. i. 578). Max MOller says (speaking
of the Greeks), " thm poets had an instinctive aversion to every-
thing excessive or monstrous, yet they would relate of their gods
what would make the most savage of Red Indians creep and
shudder " — stories, that is, of the cannibalism of Demeter. of the
mutilation of Uranus, the cannibalism of Cronus, who swallowed
his own children, and the like. " Among the lowest tribes of Africa
and America we hardly £nd anything more hideous and revolting."
Max MQUer refers the beginning 'of his system of mythology to
the discovery of the connexion of the Indo-European or. as they
are called, " Aryan " languages. Celts, Germans, speakers (N
Sanskrit and Zend, Latins and Greeks, all prove by their languages
that their tongues may be traced to one family of speech. The'
comparison of the various words which, in different forms, are com-
mon to all Indo-European languages must inevitably throw much
light on the original meaning of these words. Take, for example,
the name of a god, Zeus, or Athene, or any other. The word may
have no intelligible meaning in Greek, but its counterpart in the
allied tongues, especially in ^nskrit or 2>nd, may reveal the original
significance of the terms. '* To understand the origin and meaning
ofthe names of the Greek gods, and to enter into the original intention
of the fables told of each, we must take into account the collateral
evidence supplied by Latin, German, Sanskrit and Zend philology "
{Lut. on Lang., and series, p. 406). A name may be intclligibic in
Sanskrit which has no sense in Greek. Thus Athene is a divine name
without meaning in Greek, but Max MOller advances reasons for
supposing that it is identical with ahana, " the dawn," in Sanskrit.
It is his opinion, apparently, that whatever story is told of Athene
must have originally been told of the dawn, and that we must keep
this before us in attempting to understand the legends or Athene.
Thus a^in {op. cit. p. a 10), he says, " we have a right to explain
all that IS told of him (Agni, " fire ") *' as originally meant for tire."
The system is simply this: the original meaning of the names of gods
must be ascertained by comparative philology. The names, as a
rule, will be found to denote elemental phenomena. And the silly.
' Mcfurs des sauoages (Paris, 1734).
* Max Mttllcr. Lectures on Language (1864), 2nd
p. 410.
130
MYTHOLOGY
nvage and tenaelcM dementt in the kj^nds of the jgodt will be •hown
to have a natural Mgnificance. as deacnptiont of tky . storms, sunset,
water, fire, dawn, twilight, the life of earth, and other celestial and
terrestrial existences. bUted in the bucKt form, these results do
not differ greatly from the conclusions of Theagenes of Rhcgium,
who held that '^Hephaestus was fire. Hera was air, Poseidon was
water, Artemis was the moon, tal rl AmvA iitUut." But Max Mailer's
system is based on scientific philology, not on conjecture, and is
suppovted by a theory of the various processes in the evolution of
myths out oi language.
It is no longer necessary to give an elaborate analysis of this theory,
because neither in its philological nor mythological side has it any
advocates who need be reckoned with. The attempt to disengage
the history of times forgotten and unknown, by means of analysts
of roots and words in Aryan languages, has been unsuccessful, or
has at best produced disputable results. Max MQller's system was a
result of the philological theories that indicatedthe linguistic unity
of the Indo-turopean or " Aryan " peoples^ and wai founded on an
analysis of their language. But myths precisely similar in irrational
and repulsive character, even in minute derails, to those of the
Aryan races, exist among Australians, South Sea Islanders, Eskimo,
Bushmen in Africa, among Sok>moa Islanders, Iroquois, and so
forth. The facts being identical, an identical explanation should
be sought, and, as the languages in which the myths exist are essen-
tially different, an explanation founded on the Aryan language is
likely to prove too narrow. Once more, even if we discover the
original meaning of a god's name, it does not follow that we can
explain by aid of the stgnificance of the name the myths about the
god. For nothing is more common than the attraction of a more
ancient story into the legend of a later god or hero. Myths of un-
known antiquity, for example, have been attracted into the legend
of Charlemagne, just as the bons mots of old wits are transferred
to living humorists. Therefore, though we may ascertain that Zeus
means '^ sky " and Agni " fire, we cannot assert, with Max MQllcr.
that all the myths about Agni and Zeus were originally told of
fire and dcy. When these gods became popular they would inevit-
ably inhent any current exploiu of earficr heroes or gods. These
exploits would therefore be explained erroneously if regarded as
originally myths of sky or fire. We cannot convert Max MQller's
proposition ^' there was nothing told of the sky that could not in
some form or other be ascribed to Zeus" into " there was nothing
ascribed to Zeus that had not at some timeor other been told of the
sky." This is also, perhaps, the proper place to observe that names
derived from natural phenomena--sky, clouds, dawn and sun —
are habitually assigned by Brazilians, Ojibways.' Australians and
other savages to living men and women. Thus the story originally
told of a man or woman bearing the name " sun," " dawn," " cloud,
may be mixed up later with myths about the real celestial dawn,
cloud or sun. For all these reasons the infornution obtained from
philological analysis of names is to be distrusted. We must also
bear in mind that early men when they conceived, and savage men
when they conceive, of the sun, moon, wind, earth, sky and so forth,
have no such ideas in their minds as we attach to these names.
They think of sun, moon, wind, earth and sky as of living human
beings with bodily parts and passions. Thus, even when we dis-
cover an elemental meaning in a god's name, that meaning may be
all unlike what the word sug^U to dviliaed men. A final objection
is that philologists differ widely as to the true analysis and real
meaning of the divine names. Max MQllcr, for example, connects
Kronos (Kp«m) with xP^m , " time " ; Preller with Kptd^, " I fulfil,"
and so forth.
The civilised men of the Mythopoeic age were not obliged, as
Max MQller held, to believe that all phenomena were persons,
because the words which denoted the phenomena had gender-
terminations. On the other hand, the gender-terminations were
survivals from an early stage of thouaht in which personal character-
istics, including sex, had been attributed to alt phenomena. This
omdition of tnought is demonstrated to be, and to have been,
universal among savages, and it may notoriously be observed among
children. Thus Max M&ller's theory that m^ns are " a disease of
language " seems destitute of evidence, and inconsistent with what
is historically known about the relations between the language and
the social, political and literary condition of men.
Theory of Herbert Spencer. — ^The system of Herbert Spencer, as
explained in Principles of Sociology, has many points in common
with that of Max MbUer. Spencer attempts to account for the sute
of mind (the foundation of myths) in which man personifies and
animates all phenomena. According to his theory, too, this habit
of mind may be regarded as the result of degeneration, for in his
view, as in Max MQller's, it is not primaiy, but the result of miscon-
ceptions. But. while language is the chief cause of misconceptions
with Max MQller. with Spencer it is only one of several forces all
working to the same result. Sutements which originally had a
different s^ificance are misinterpreted, he thinks, and names of
human beings are also misinterpreted in such a manner that early
races are gradually led to believe in the personality of phenomena.
He too notes " the defect in early speech "^hat is, the " lack of
words free from implications of vitality " — as one of the causes
which " favour personalization." Here, of course, we have to ask
Spencer, with Max MQller, tgky words in early languages " imply
vitality." These words must reflect the thought of the men who ase
them before they react upon that thought and confirm it in its mis-
conceptions. So far Spen«r seems at one with the philological
school of mythologists, but he warns us that the misconstiuctioos
of language in his system are " different in kind, and the erroneous
course of thought is opposite in. direction." According to Spencer
(and his premises, at least, are correct), the names of human beings
in an earfy state of society are derived from incidents of the moment,
and often refer to the penod of the day or the nature of the weather.
We find, among Australian natives, among Abipones in South
America, and among Ojibways in the North, actual people named
Dawn.Gold Flower of Day, Dark Cloud. Sun, and so forth. Spencer's
argument is that, given a story about real people so named, in process
of time and forgetfulness the anecdote which was once current
about a man named Storm and a woman named Sunshine will be
transferred to the meteorological phenomena of sun and tempest.
Thus these purely natural agents wiU come to be " personalized "
(Prin, Soc. 39a), and to be credited with purely human origin and
human adventures. Another misconception would arise when men
had a tradition that they came to their actual seats from this moun-
tain, or that lake or river, or from lands across the sea. They will
mistake this tradition of local origin for one of actual parentage,
and will come to believe that, like certain Homeric heroes, they are
the sons of a river (now personified), or <^ a mountain, or, like a
tribe mentioned by Garcilasao de la Vega, that they are descended
from the sea. Once more, if their old legend told them that they
came from the rinng sun, they will hold, uke many races, that they
are actually the children of the sun. By thisprocess of forgetfulness
and misinterpretation, mountains, rivera, lakes, sun and sea would
receive human attributes, while men would degenerate from a more
sensible condition into a belief in the personality and vitality of
inanimate objects. As Spencer thinks ancestor-worship the first
form of religion, and as he holds that persons with such names as
sun. moon and the like became worshipped as ancestors, his theory
results in the belief that nature-worship and the myths about natural
phenomena— dawn, wind. sky. night and the rest— are a kind of
transmuted worship of ancestors and transmuted myths about real
men and women. " Partly by confounding the parenuge of the
race with a conspicuous object marking the naul region of the race,
partly by literal interpretation of birth names, and partly by literal
interpretation of names given in eulogy " (such as Sun and Bull,
among the Eg^tian kings), and also through " implicit belief in
the statements of forefatnere," there has been produced belief in
descent from mountains, sea. dawn, from animals which have become
constellations, and from persons once on earth who now appear
as sun and moon. A very common class of myths (see Totbuism)
assures us that certain stocks of men are descended from beasts,
or from gods in the shape of beasts. Spencer explains these by the
theory that the remembered ancestor of a stock had, as savagea
often have, an animal name, as Bear, Wolf, Coyote, or what not.
In time his descendants came to forget that the name was a mere
name, and were misled into the opinion that they were children of a
real coyote, wolf or bear. This idea, once current, would naturally
stimulate and diffuse the belief that such descents were possible,
and that the animals are closely akin to men.
The chief objection to these processes is that they require, as a
necessary condition, a singular amount of memory on the one hand
and of forgetfulness on the other. The lowest contemporary savages
remember little or nothing of any ancestor farther oack than tne
grandfather. But men in Spencer's Mythopoeic ase hkd much
longer memories. On the other hand, the most ordinary savage
does not misunderstand so universal a custom as the imposition of
names peculiar to animals or derived from atmospheric phenomena.
He calls his own child Dawn or Cloud, his own name Is Sitting Bull
or Running Wolf, and he is not tempted to explain his great-grand-
father's name of Bright Sun or Lively Raccoon on the hypothesis
that the ancestor really was a raccoon or the sun. Moreover,
savages do not worship ancestresses or retain lively memories of
their great-grandmothen, yet it js through the female h'ne in the
majority of cases that the animal or other ancestral name is derived.
The son of an Australian male, whose kin or totem name is Crane.
takes, in many tribes, his mother's kin-name. Swan or Cockatoo,
or whatever it may be, and the same is a common rule in Africa and
America among races who rarely remember their neat-grandfathers.
On the whole, then (though degeneracy, as well as progress, is a
force in human evolution), we are not tempted to believe in so strange
a combination of forgetfulness with long memory, nor so excessive
a degeneration from common sense into a belief in the personality
of phenomena, as are required no leas by Spencer's system than by
that of Max MQller.
Preliminary Problems.— -Vft have ttated and critidred the
more prominent modem theories of mythology. It is now
necessary first to recapitulate the chief points in the problem,
and then to attempt to explain them by a comparison of the
myths of various races. The difficulty of mythology is to
account for the following among other apparently irrational
elements in myths: the wild and senseless stories of the
^
MYTHOLOGY
131
hrginningi of tliingi, of the origin of men, sun, sUxb, ■nimik,
death, and the world in general; the infamous and absurd adven-
tures of the gods; why divine beings are regarded as incestuous,
adulteioas, murderous, thievish, cruel, cannibals, and addicted to
wearing the shapes of snimah, and subject to death in some
stories; the myths of metamorphosis into plants, beasts and
stars; the refwbive stories of the sute of the dead; the descents
of the gods into the place of the dead, and their return thence. It
b estremely difficult to keep these different categories of m3rths
separate from each other. If we investigate myths of the origin
of the woild, we often find gods in animal form active in the
work of wc^d-making. If we examine myths of human descent
from animals, we find gods busy there, and if we try to investigate
the myths of the origin of the gods, the subject gets mixed up
with the mythical origins of things in general.
Our first question will be. Is there any stage of human soaety,
and of the human intellect, in which facts that appear to us
to be monstrous and irrational are accepted as ordinary occur-
rences of evoy day life ? £. W. Lane, in his preface to the
ArMam NigfUs, says that the Arabs have an advantage over
us as story-tellers. They can introduce such incidents as the
change of a man into a horse, or of a woman into a dog, or the
inierventioa of an afreet^ without any more scruple than our
own novelists feel in describing a duel or the concealment of
a wiU. AflBOttg the Arabs the actions of magic and of spirits
are regarded as at least as probable and common as duels and
concealments of wills in European society. It is obvious that
we need look no farther for the explanation of the supernatural
events In Arab romances. Now let us apply this system to
mythoioey. It is admitted that Greeks, Romans, Aryans of
India in the age of the Sanskrit commentators, Egjrptians of
dke Ptokmaic and earlier ages, were as much puzzled as we are
by the n^thical adventures of their gods. But is there any
known stage of the human intellect in which these divine
adventures, and the metamorphoses of men into animals, trees,
stacs^ and converse with the dead, and all else that puzzles us
m the civilized mythologies, are regarded as possible incidents
of daily human life? Our answer is that everything in the
civilized mythcrfogies which we regard as irrational seems only
part of the accepted and rational order of things (at least in
the case of " medicine-men " or magicians) to contemporary
savages, and in the past seemed equally rational and natural
to savages concerning whom we have historical information.
Ov tbeocy is, therefore, that the savage and senseless element in
mythofegy is, for the most part, a legacy from ancestors of
the civilized races who were in an intellectual state not higher
than that of Australians, Bushmen, Red Indians, the bwer races
of South America, Mincopies, and other worse than barbaric
peoples. As the ancestors of the Greeks, with the Aryans of
India, the Egyptians, and others advanced in civilization,
their rdigious thought was shocked and surprised by myths
(ociginaliy dating from the period of savagery, and natural
Bi that period) which were preserved down to the time of
Paiasaoias by local priesthoods, or which were stereotyped in
the ancient poems of Hesiod and Homer, or in the Brakmanas
and Vedas of India, or were retained in the popular religion
of Egypc This theory recommended itself to Lobeck. " We
may believe that ancient and early tribes framed gods like
thoBseives in action and in experience, and that the allegorical
<■!**«*•«> in myths is the addition of later peoples who had
attained to purer ideas of divinity, yet dared not reject the
rdigioa of their ancestors" {Aglaoph. i. 153). The senseless
cieaient in the myths would by this theory be for the most part
a "sorvivaL" And the age and condition of human thought
from which it survived would be one in which our most ordinary
Bdeaa about the nature of things and the limits of possibility
did not yet exist, when all things were conceived of in quite
other fashion— the age, that is, of savagery. It is universally
admitted that " survivals " of this kind do account for many
■iw^— K*^ in out institutions, in law, politics, society, even in
drc9 aikd manners. If isolated fragments of an earlier age
abide in. these, it is stiQ more probable that other fragments
win survive in anything so ck>sely connected as mythology
with the conservative religious sentiment.
. If this view of mythology can be proved, much will have been
done to explain a problem which we have not yet touched, namely,
Ike distributum oj myths. The science of mythology has to account,
if it can, not only for the existence of certain stories in the legends
of certain races, but also for the presence of stories practically
the same among almost all races. In the long history of mankind
it is impossible to deny that stories may conceivably have
spread from a single centre, and been handed on from races like
the Indo-European and the Semitic to races as far removed
from them In every way as the Zulus, the Australians, the
Eskimo, the natives of the South Sea Islands. But, while the
possibility of the diffusion of myths by borrowing and
transmission must be allowed for, the hypothesis of the
origin of myths In the savage state of the intellect supplies
a ready explanation of their wide diffusion. Archaeologists
are acquainted with objects of early art and craftsmanship,
rude clay pipkins and stone weapons, which can only be classed
as " human," and which do not bear much impress of any one
national taste and skilL Many myths may be called " human "
in this sense. They are the rough products of the early human
mind, and are not yet characterized by the differentiations
of race and culture. Such myths might spring up anywhere
among untutored men, and anywhere might survive into dvilizcd
literature. Therefore where similar msrths are found among
Greeks, Australians, Egyptians, Mangaians and others, it is
unnecessary to account for their wide diffiision by any hypothesis
of borrowing, early or late. The Greek " key " pattern found
on objects in Peruvian graves was not necessarily borrowed
from Greece, nor did Greeks necessarily borrow from Aztecs
the " wave " pattern which is common to both. The same
explanation may be applied to Greek and Aztec myths of the
deluge, to Australian and Greek myths of the original theft
of fire. Borrowed they may have been, but they may as probably
have been independent inventions.
It is true that some phnolmpsts deprecate as unscientific the com-
parison of myths which are found in languages not connected with
each other. The objection rests on the theory that myths are a
disease of language, a morbid offshoot of language, and that the
legends in unconnected languages must therefore be kept apart.
But, as the theory which we are explaining does not admit that
languatfi is more than a subordinate cause in the development of
myths, as it seeks for the origin of myths in a given conditbn of
tkonght through' which ail races have passed, we need do no more
than record the objection.
The InUUutud Conditum of Savages.— Out next step must
be briefly to examine the intellectual condition of savages,
that is, of races varying from the condition of the Andaman
Iskndcrs to that of the Solomon Islanders and the ruder Red
Men of the American continent. In a developed treatise on the
subject of mythology it would be necessary to criticize, with
a minuteness which is impossible here, our evidence for the
very peculiar mental condition of the lower races. Max MtlUer
asked (when speaking of the mental condition of men when
myths were developed), "was there a period of temporary
madness through which the human mind had to pass, and was
it a madness identically the same In the south of India and the
north of Iceland? " To this we may answer that the human
mind had to pass through the savage stage of thought, that this
stage was for all practical purposes "identically the same"
everywhere, and that to civilized observers it does resemble
" a temporary madness." Many races are still abandoned to
that temporary jnadness; many others which have escaped
from it were observed and described while still labouring under
its delusions. Our evidence for the inteUectual ideas of man
in the period of savagery we derive partly from the reports of
voyagers, historians, missionaries, partly from an examination
of the customs, institutions, and laws in which the lower races
gave expression to their notions.
As to the first kind of evidence, we must be on our guard against
several aources of error. Where religion is concerned, travellers
in general and missionaries in particular are biased in several distinct
132
MYTHOLOGY
ways. The misnonary U loinetimes anxious to prove that religion
can only come by revelation, and that certain tribies, having; received
no revelation, have no religion or religious myths at all. Sometimes
the missionaiv, on the other hand, is anxious to demonstrate that
the myths of nis heathen flock are a corrupted version of the Biblicail
narrative. In the former case he neglects the study of savage
myths; in the latter he unconsciously accommodates what he hears
to what he calls " the truth." The traveller who is not a missionary
may cither have the same orejudices. or he may be a sceptic about
revealed religion. In the latter case he is perhaps unconsciously
moved to put buiieaque versions of Biblical stories into the mouths
of his native informants, or to represent the savages as ridiculing
the Scriptural traditions which he communicates to them. Yet
again we must remember that the leadinc questions of a European
inquirer may furnish a savage with a thread on which to string
answen which the questions themselves have suggested. " Have
you ever had a great flood ? " " Yes " " Was any one saved ? "
The question starts the invention of the savage on a deluge-myth,
of which, perhaps, the idea has never before entered his mind. There
still remain the difficulties of all conversation between civilized
men and unsophisticated savages, the tendency to hoax, and other
sources of error and confusion. By this time, too, almost every
explorer of savage life is a theorist. He is a Spencerian. or a believer
in the universal prevalence of the faith in an " All-Father," or he
looks everywhere for gods who are *' spirits of vegetation." In
receivinjg: this kind of evidence, then, we need to know the character
of our informant, his means of communicating with the heathen,
his power of testing evidence, and his good, faith. His testimony
will have additional weight if supported by the " undesigned coin-
cidences '* of other evidence, ancient and modem. If Strebo and
Herodotus and Pomponius Mela, for example, describe a custom,
rite or strange notion in the Old World, and if marinen and mission-
aries find the same notion or custom or rite in Polynesia or Australia
or Kamchatka, we can scarcely doubt the truth of the re(>orts.
The evidence is best when given by ignorant men, who are astonished
at meeting with an institution which ethnologists are familiar with
in other parts of the worid.
Another method of. obtaining evidence is by the comparative
study of savage laws and institutions. Thus we find in Asia, Africa,
America and Australia that the marriage laws of the lower races
are. connected with a belief in kinshio or other relationship with
animals. The evidence for thb belief is thus entirely beyond sus-
picion. We find, too, that political power, sway and social influence
are based on the ideas of magic, of metamorphosis, and of the power
which certain men possess to talk with the dead and to visit the
abodes of death. All these ideas are the stuff of which myths are
nude, and the evidence of savage institutions, in every part of the
world, proves that these ideas are the universal inheritance of
savages.
Savage men are like ourselves in curiosity and anxiety causas
cognoscere reruMt but with our curiosity they do not possess
Ssr^ivMtesOur powen of attention. They are as easily satisfied
with an explanation of phenomena as they are eager
to possess an explanation. Inevitably they furnish
themselves with their philosophy out of their scanty stock
of acquirnl ideas, and these ideas and general conceptions
seem almost imbedle to dvilixed men. Curiosity and
credulity, then, are the characteristics of the savage intellect.
When a phenomenon presents itself the savage requires an
explanation, and that explanation be makes for himself, or
receives from tradition, in the shape of a myth. The basis of
these myths, which are just as much a part of early conjectural
science as of early religion, is naturally the experience of the
savage as construed by himself, Man's craving to know " the
reason why " is already " among rude savages an intellectual
appetite," and " even to the Australian scientific speculation
has its germ in actual experience."^ How does he try to satisfy
this craving? E. B. Tylor replies, " When the attention of
a man in the myth-making stage of intellect is drawn to any
phenomenon or custom which has to him no obvious reason,
he Invents and tells a story to account for it " Against this
statement it has been urged that men in the lower stages of
culture are not curious, but take all phenomena for granted. If
there were no direct evidence in favour of Tylor's opinion, it
would be enough to point to the nature of savage myths them-
selves. It is not arguing in a drde to point out that almost
all of them are nothing more than explanations of intellectual
difficulties, answers to the question, How came this or that
phenomenon to be what it is? Thus savage myths answer
the questions— What was the origin of the worid, and of men,
and of beasts? How came the stars by their arrangement
1 E. B. Tyk>r. Primitive Culture, I 369 (1871).
IVMHL
and movements? How are the motions of sun and moon to
be accounted for? Why has this tree a red flower, and this
bird a black mark on the tail? What was the origin of the
tribal dances, or of this or that law of custom or etiquette?
Savage mythology, which is also savage science, has a reply
to all these and all similar questions, and that reply is always
found in the shape of a story. The answen cannot be accounted
for without the previous existence of the questions.
We have now shown how savages come to have a mythology.
It is their way of satisfying the early form of sdentific curiosity,
their way of realising the world in which they move. But they
frame their stories, necessarily and naturally, in harmony with
their general theory of things, with what we may call " savage
metaphysics." Now early man, as Max Mflller says, ** not only
did not think as we think, but did not think as we suppose be
ought to have thought." The chief distinction between his
mode of conceiving the world and ours is his vast extension of
the theory of personality. To the savage, and apparently to men
more backward than the most backward peoples we know, all
nature was a congeries of animated personalities. The savage's
notion of personaUty is more a universally diffused feeling than
a reasoned conception, and this feeling of a personal xlf he
impartially distributes all over the world as known to him.
One of the Jesuit missionaries in North America thus describes
the Red Man's philosophy :> " Les sauvages se persuadent que
non seulement les hommes et les autres animaux, mais aussi
que toutes les autres choses sont animdes." Crevaux, in the
Andes, found that the Indians believed that the beasts have
piays (sorcerers and doaors) like themsdves.* This opinion
we may name personalismt and it is the necessary condition
of savage (and, as will be seen, of dvilized) mythology. The
Jesuits could not understand how spherical bodies like sun
and moon could be mistaken for human beings. Their catechu-
mens put them off with the answer that the drawn bows of the
heavenly bodies gave them their round appearance. "The
wind was formerly a person; he became a bird," say the Bushmen,
and ^ ddkaJ halt a respectable Bushman once saw the peisonal
wind at Haarfontein.* The Egyptians, according to Herodotus
(iil. 16), believed fire to be tfqpfoi' l/i^or, a live beast. The
Bushman who saw the Wind meant to throw a stone at it, but
it ran into a hill. From the wind as a person the Bhinyas in
India (Dalton, p. 140) daim descent, and in Indian epic tradition
the leader of the ape army was the son of the wind. The
Wind, by certain mares, became the father of wind-swift steeds
mentioned in the Iliad. The loves of Boreas are well known.
These are examples of the animistic theory applied to what, in
our minds, seems one of the least personal of natural phenomena.
The sky (which appears to us even less personal) has been re-
garded as a personal being by Samoyeds, Red Indians, Zulus,*
and traces of this belief survive in Chinese, Greek and Roman
religion.
We must remember, however, that to the savage, Sky, Sun,
Sea, Wind, are not only persons, but they are savage persons.
Their conduct is not what dvilixed men would attribute to
characters so august; it is what undvilized men think probable
and befitting among beings like themselves.
The savage regards all animals as endowed with personality.
" lis tiennent les poissons raisonnablca, comme aussi les cerfs,'*
says a Jesuit father about the North-American .y^,^
Indians {RelaiioHS, loc. cii.). In Australia the ntmyf
natives believe that the wild dog has the power Mam*9 timi m *
of speech, like the cat of the Coverley witch in the STi^lSt
Spectator. The Breton peasants, according to P. •'^ I
S^billot, credit all birds with language, which they even attempt
to interpret. The old English and the Arab superstitions
about the language of beasts are examples of this opinion sur-
viving among dvilized races. The bear in Norway is regarded I
as almost a man, and his dead body is addressed and his wratb
deprecated by Samoyeds and Red Indians. " The native bear
* RdatioHS (1636), p. XI4. * Voyafts, p. 159. 1
« South African Folk-Lcre Journal (May 1880). I
* E. B. Tylor, op. cit. ii. 356.
MYTHOLOGY
133
K mb ^no h the age coonadlor of the ahoriginei in all their
difficulties. When bent on a dangerous expedition, the men
v3i seek help from this dumsy creature, but in what way his
opuuoos are made known is nowhere recorded." * H.R.School-
Graft mientions a Red Indian story explaining how " the bear
does not dk," but this tak Schoolcraft (like Herodotus in Egypt)
** cannot being himself to relate." He also gives examples of
lowsA conversing with serpents. These may serve as examples
of thr savage b^ef in the human inteOigence of *»«"»«»* Man
is on an even footing with them, and with them can interchange
bis ideas. But savages carry this opinion much further. Man
in their view is actually, and in no figurative sense, akin to the
beasts. Certain tribes in Java "believe that women when
delivered of a child are frequently delivered at the same time
of a yoong crocodile."* The common European story of a
queen accined of giving birth to puppies shows the survival of
the belief in the possibility of such births among dvilized races,
while the Aztecs had the idea that women who saw the moon
in certain circumstances would produce mice. But the chief
evidence for the savage theory of man's dose kinship with the
lower animah is found in the institution called totemism {q.v.)
—the belief that certain stocks of men in the various tribes are
descended by blood descent from, or are developed out of, or
otherwise connected with, certain objects animate or inani-
mate, but especially with beasts. The strength of the opinion is
proved by its connexion with very stringent marriage laws.
No man (according to the rigour ci the custom) may marry a
woman w1m> bears the same kin name as himself, that is, who is
dfsrmdfd from the same inanimate object or animaL Nor may
people (if they can possibly avoid it) eat the flesh of animaU who
arc their kindred. Savage man also believes that many of his
ovn tribe-fellows have the power of assuming the shapes of
animals, and that the souls of his dead kinsfolk revert to animal
E. W. Lane, in his Introduction to the Arabian Nights (L 58).
Bys he found the bdicf in these transmigrations accepted seriously
iaCuTOL H.H. Bancroft brings evidence to prove that the Mexicans
1 pregnant women would turn into beasts, and sleeping
into mice^^if things went wroiw in the ritual of a certain
lown Scottish legend to the effect
There b a wcU-known
that a certain okl witch was once fired at in her 'shape as a harci
and that where the hare was hit there the old woman was found to
be wounded. J. F. Lafitau tells the same story as current among
his Red Indian ilock, except that the old witch and her son took the
form of birds, not of hares. A Scandinavian witch does the same in
the Egil saga. In Lafitau's tale the birds were wounded by the
■Hgic arrows of a medidne man, and the arrow-heads were found
in the bodies of the human culprits. In Japan* people chiefly
tramform themselves into badgers. The sorcerer m of Honduras
(Bancroft, L 7^) " p o s s essed toe power <^ transforming men into
w3d beasts.'* J. F. Kegnard. the French dramatist, found in Lap-
had (i^i) that witches could turn men into cats, and coukl them-
sdves aasame the forms of swans, crows, falcons and geese. Amons
the BiMbmen* *• a orc e rer s assume the form of beasts and jackals.
M. Dobrixhofer, a missionary in Paraguay (1717-1791). leaned that
** so n a rer s afngate to thenuelves the power of changing men into
tigers " (Eng. trans., L 63). He was present at a conversion of this
sort, thoo^ the mirade bdield by the people was invisible to the
■is ai onar y. Near Loanda Uvii»tone noted that "a chief may
■Mtansorphoae himsdf into a lion, kill any one he chooses, and resume
his proper form." The same accomplishments distii^uish the Barotse
and Balooda.* Among the Mayas of Central America sorcerers
ooohl transform themsdves "into dogs, pigs and other animab;
their gfaunoe was death to a victim " (Bancroft, iL 797). The
Thfinkeecs bokl that their shamans have the same powers.* A
bamboo in Sarawak b known to have been a man. Metamor-
pbooes iato stones are as common among Red Indiansand Australuns
as ia Cntk mythology. Comparethe cases of Niobe and the victims
of the Gorgon's head.' Zulus, Red Indians, Aztecs.* Andaman
Uanden and other races bdieve that their dead assume the shapes
of TTi**** and of other creatures, often reverting to the form of the
aaiflnl from ^rhich they originally descended. In ancient Egypt
(i87«).
* R. Bnmgh Smyth, Abariiimes of Vitioria, i. 446
* f. Hawkesworth, Vfvsfw. iii. 75^
*LoRl Rcdesdale. TaUTaf OU Japan (1871).
« Bleck, Bri^AumaU of Bushman Fdk-Lort, pp. 15, 40U
• irsa jMi n uii TrvHtU, pp. 615, 642.
• W. H. DaU. Alaska, p. 429 (1870).
ff Daman, Origin of Primitw* Superstilians, pp. 150, 134.
•Sahagnn, French trans., p. 3a6.
' the usual pmycrs demand for the deceased the power of
tne usual pmycrs demand tor the deceased tne power oC jEoing and
coming from and to everywhere under any form theyMte.* A
trace of this opinion may be noticed in the Aeneid. The serpent
that appeared at the sacrifice of Aeneas was regarded as possibly
a " manifestation *' of the soul of Anchtses (Aennd, v. 84) —
" Dixerat haec, adytb quum lubricus anguis ab imis
Septcm ingens gyros, leptcna volumina, traxit,"
and Aeneasb
** Inoertus, gcniumne lod, famulumne parentis
Esse putct."
On the death of l*lotinus, as he gave up the ghost, a snake glided from
under hb bed into a hole in the wall." Compare Pliny " on the cave
" in quo manes Scipionb Africani roajorb custodirc draco dicitur."
The last peculiarity in savage philosophy to which we need call
attention here b the belief in spiriu and in human intercourse
with the shades of the dead. With the savage natural death
b not a>universal and inevitable ordinance. " All men must
die " b a generalization which he has scarcely reached;. in hb
philosophy the proposition b more like this—" all men who die
die by violence." A natural death b explained as the result of
a sorcerer's spiritual violence, and the disease b attributed to
magic or to the action of hostile spirits. After death the man
survives as a spirit, sometimes taking an animal form, sometimes
invisible, sometimes to be observed " in hb habit as he lived "
(see ApPAunONS). The philosophy of the subject b shortly
put in the speech of Achilles {Iliad, xxiii. 103) after he has beheld
the dead Patrodus in a dream: " Ay me, there remainetb then
even in the house of Hades a spirit and phantom of the dead, /or
all night long hath the ghost of hapless Patrodus stood over me,
wailing and making moan." It b almost superfluous to quote
here the voluminous evidence for the intercourse with q>irits
which savage chiefs and medidne men are believed tomainuin.
They can call up ghosts, or can go to the ghosts, in Australia,
New Caledonia, New Zealand, North America, Zululand, among
the Eskimo, and generally in every quarter of the globe. The
men who enjoy thb power are the same as they who can change
themselves and others into animab They too command the
weather, and, says an old French missionary, " are regarded as
very Jupiters, having in their l^nds the lightning and the
thunder " (Relaiions, loc. cii.). They make good or bad seasons,
and contrcd the vast animah who, among andcnt Persians and
Aryans of India, as among Zulus and Iroquob, are supposed to
grant or withhold the rain, and to thunder with their enormous
wings in the region of the clouds.
Another fertile source of mjrth b magic, especially the magic
designed to produce fertility, vegetable and animaL From the
natives of northern and central Australia to the actors in the
ritual of Adonis, or the folk among whom arose the customs of
crowning the May king or the king of the May, all peoples have
done magic to encourage the breeding of animab as part of the
food supply, and to stimulate the growth of plants, wild or
cultivated. In the opinion of J. G. Frazer, the human repre-
senUtives or animal represenutives, in the rites, of the spirit
of vegetation; of the com spirit; of the changing seasons, winter
or summer, have been developed into many forms of gods,
with appropriate myths, explanatory of the magic, and of the
sacrifice of the chief performer. In the same way the adoration
of living human beings, the deification of living kings — whose
title survives in our king or queen of the May, and in the rex
ntmorensis, the priest of Diana in the grove of Aricia — has been
most fruitful in myths of divine bdngs. These human beings
are often sacrificed, for various reasons, actual or hypothetical,
and gods and heroes are almost as likely to be explained as
spirits of vegetation now, as they were likely to become solar
mjftbdogical figures in the ^stem of Max Mflller. It b certainly
true that divine beings in most mythologies are apt to acquire
solar with other demental attributes, including vegetable
attributes. But that the origins of such mythical beings were,
ab initio, dther solar or vegeuble, or, for that matter, animal,
it would often be hard to prove.
Frazer's ideas are to be found in a work of immense erudition.
The Golden Bough (London. 1900). Two studies by him, pursuing
• Records of the Past, x. lo.
* Plotini vita, pp. 2. 95.
"H.iV.xv.44.85.
»34
MYTHOLOGY
the same set of ideas in more detail, are Adcnis, AtUs^ Osiris (1906)
and Lectures on the Early History 11/ the Kingship (1905). See A.
Lang, Magic and Rdigion (London, 1901), for a criticisin in detail
of the gcnctal theory as set forth in The Golden Bough, Whatever
may be said, Frazer has certainly made the most important of recent
contributions to the study of mythology. He has fixed the attention
of students on a mass of early ideas, previously much neglected save
by W. Mannhaidt, and on the facts of ritual, which preserve these
ideas and represent them in a kind of mystery plays.
We are now in a position to sum up the ideas of savages about
man's relations to the world. , Wc started on this inquiry
because we found that savages regarded sky, wind, sun, earth
and so forth as practically men, and we had then to ask, what
sort of men, men with what powers ? The result of our exam-
ination, so far, is that in savage opinion sky, wind, sun, sea and
'many other phenomena have, being personal, all the powers
attributed to real human persons. These powers and qualities
are: (i) relationship to animals and ability to be transformed
and to transform others into animals and other objects; (3)
magical accomplishments, as — (a) power to visit or to procure
the visits of the dead; (6) other magical powers, such as control
over the weather and over the fertility of nature in all depart-
ments. Once more, the great forces of nature, considered as
persons, are involved in that inextricable confusion in which
men, beasts, plants, stones, stars, are all on one level of person-
ality and animated existence. This is the philosophy of savage
life, and it is on these principles that the savage constructs his
myths, while these, again, are all the scientific explanations of
the imiverse with which he has been able to supply himself.
Examples of Mythology. — Myths of the origin of the world
and man are naturally most widely diffused. Man has every-
where asked himself whence things came and how, and his
myths are his earliest extant form of answer to this questbn.
So confused and inconsistent are the mythical answers that it
is very difficult to classify them according to any system. If
we try beginning with myths of creative gods, we find that the
world is sometimes represented as pre-existent to the divine
race. If we try beginning with myths of the origin of the world,
wc frequently find that it owes its origin to the activity of pre-
existent supernatural beings. According to all modem views
of creation, the creative mind is prior to the universe which it
created. There is no such consistency of opinion in myths,
whether of dvilixed or savage races. Perhaps the pUn least open
to objection is to begin with myths of the gods. But when we
speak of gods, we must not give to the word a modern signifi-
cance. As used here, gods merely mean non-natural and
powerful beings, sometimes "magnified non-natural men,"
sometimes beasts, birds or insects, sometimes the larger forces
and phenomena of the imiverse conceived of as endowed with
human personality and passions. When Plutarch examined
the Osirian myth {De Isid. xxv.) he saw that the " gods " in
the tale were really "demons," "stronger than men, but
having the divine part not wholly unalloyed " — "magnified non-
natursd men," in short. And such are the gods of mythology.
In examining the myths of the gods we ^all begin with the
conceptions of the most backward tribes, and advance to the
divine legends of the ancient civilised races. It will appear that,
while the non-civilized gods are often theriomorphic, made in
accordance with the ideas of non<ivilized men, the civilized
gods retain many characteristics of the savage gods, and these
charaaeristics are the " irrational element " in the divine myths.
Myths of Gods: Sastagit Ideas. — It is not easy to separate the dis-
cussion of savage myths of gods from the problem. Whence and how
arose the savage belief in gods? The orthodox anthropological
explanation has been that 01 E. B. Tylor, which closely resembles
Herbert Spencer's "^host theory." By reflection on dreams, in
which the self, or " spirit," of the savage seems to wander free from
the bounds of time and space, to see things remote, and to meet
and recognize dead friends or foes; by speculation on the experiences
of trance and of phantasms of the dead or living, beheld with waking
eyesr by pondering on the phenomena of shadows, of breath, ot
death and life, the savage evolved the idea of a separable soul or
spirit capable of surviving bodily death. The spirit of the dead may
tenant a material object, a " fetish," or may roam hungry and
comfortless and need propitiation by food, for unpropitiatcd it is
dangerous, or may be reincarnated, or may " go to iu own herd "
in another world. Again, it is naturally kind to its liviiq; Idnsfolk,
and so may be addressed in prayer. These are the doctrines of
animism {^.v.), and. according to the usual anthropological thoory,
these spints come to thrive to god's estate in favouraMe cirnim-
stances, as where the dead man, when alive, had great mana or wakan,
a great share of the ether, so to speak, which, in savage metaphysics,
is the viewless vehicle of ma^cal influences. Thus the ghost of the
hero or medicine man of a kin or tribe may be raised to divine rank,
while again — the doctrine of spirits once developed, and spirits once
alk)tted to the great elemental forces and phenomena of nature, sky,
thunder, the sea, the forests — we have the bwinnings of depart-
mental deities, such as Agni, god of fire; Poseidon, god of the sea;
Zeus, god of the sky — though in recent theories Zeus appears to be
renrded as primariljr the god of the oak tree, a spirit of vegetation.
On thb theory animism, the doctrine of spirits, is the source of
all bdief in gods. But it is found that among the lowest or least
cultured races, such as the south-eastern tribes of Australia, who
do not propitiate ancestral spirits by offerings of food, or address
them in prayer, there often exists a bclid in an " All-Father," to
use Howitt's convenient expression. Ttiis being cannot have bcca
evolved out of the cult of ancestors, where ancestors are not wor-
shipped; and he is not even regarded as a spirit, but, in Matthew
Arnold's phrase, as " a magnified non-natural man." He existed
before death came into the world, and he still exists. His home is in
or above the sky, but there was a time when he walked the earth, a
potent magic-worker; endowed mankind with such arts and institu-
tions as they possess; and left to them certain rules of life, ethics
and rituaL Often he is regarded as the maker of things, or of most
.things, and of mankind: or mankind are his children, descended
from disobedient sons of his, whom he cast out of heaven. Very
frequently he b the judge of souls, and sends the good and bad to
their own places of rewara and punishment. He is usually supposed
to watch over human conduct, but this is by no means invariably
the case. Sometimes he, like the Atnatu cm the Kaitish tribe oif
central Australia, is only vigilant in matters of ritual, such as cir-
cumcision, subincision and the use of the sacred bull-roarer, the
Greek khiifioe. As an almost universal rule, in the fewest culture,
no prayers are addressed to thb being; he has no sacrifices, no dwell-
ing made with hands; and the images of him, in day, that are made
and danced round with invocations of hb name at the tribal cere-
monies of initiation, are destroyed at the close of the performances.
If the name of " god " b denied to such bein^ because they receive
little cult, it may still be admitted that the belief might easily devdop
into a form of theism, independent of and underived from animism,
or the ghost theory.
The best account of thb All-Father belief in the lowest culture b
to be read in R. Howitt's NtUioe Races of South-East A ustralia. Under
the names of Baiame, Pundjcl, Mulkari. Daramulun
and many others, the south-eastern tribes (both those Amatr^iMm
who reckon descent in the female and those who reckon Saw ^ i g a m,
by the male line) have thb faith in an All-Father, the
attributes varying in various communities. The most highly
developed All-Father is the Babme or Byamee of the Euahlayi
tribe CM north-western New South Wales, to whom praven for the
welfare of the souls of the dead are, or recently were, addressed — the
tribe dwelling a .hundred miles away from the nearest miasionary
station (Protestant).^
In the centre of Australb, Atnatu, self-created, b known, as has
been said, to the Kaitish tribe, next neighbours of the Aninta of the
Macdonnell Hills. Among the Arunu, Mr Strehlow (Cio6tu, May
1907) finds such a being as Atnatu, and also among some otho*
adjacent tribes, as the Luritja. See, too, Strehlow and von Leon-
hardi, in VerdWenUichungten aus dem stodlischen VHker-Museum
(Frankfurt-am-Main, 1907, voL L). But Messrs B. Spencer and
¥. J. Gillen, who discovered Atnatu, did not find any trace of an
All-Father amone the Aninta, or any other of the tribes to the north
and north-east of the centre. Mr Strehlow's branch of the Aninta
they did not examine.
.It b plain that the All-Father belief, in favourable drcurostanccs,
espedaUy if ghost worship remained undeveloped, might be evolved
into theism. But all over the savace world, especblly in Africa,
spirit worship has sprung up and choked the All-Father, who, how-
ever, in most savage regions, abides as a name, receiving no sacrifice,
and, save amon^ the Masai, sddom being addressed in prayer.
A Ust of such otiose great bein^ in the background of rekgion is
given in Lang's The Making of Religion (iSoS). Since the publica-
tion of that book much additional evidence has accrued from Africa
and Melanesia, where the belief occurs in a few islands, but, in the
majority, b absent or unrecorded. Most of the fresh evidence ia
given in La Notion de I'itre suprime chea les peuples non-cmlis4s^
by Ren6 Hoffmann ((Geneva, 1907). See also the Journal of the
Anthropological Institute (1890-1907). vols, xxix., xxxiL, xxxiv..
XXXV., and the works of Miss Mary Kinnley, and Spieth. Die JSae-
Sldmnut Reimer (Beriin, 1906), and Sundermann in Wameck*s
AUtemeine Missionsxeilschrifl, vol. xi. An excellent statement b that
of P^ Schmidt. S.V.D., in Anthropos, Bd. III., HCt. 3 (1908), pf>.
559-611. Tylor's efforts to show that these AU-Fathcrs were
derived from missionary or other European influences (NineUemik
1 See Mrs Langloh Parker's The Euahlayi Tribe.
MYTHOLOGY
135
everything, therefore he originated
( and danoa of the mvvteriei. To exp
devdoped to show tnat they aroae in
Ctntmtjf 1893) ha:ve not been raocenfiil (lee Lang.lfafie amd Religwn^
** The Theory of Loan Gods ") and N.W.Thomas in Mam (1905), v.. 49
et teq. The All-Father b^ef is most potent among the lowest
noes, and always tends to become obscrfete under the competition
of serv ice a ble ancestral spirits, or gods made in the image of such
sporiti, who can be bribed by sacrifices or induced by prayers to help
man ia hb various needs.
The belief in the All-Father ia south-eastern Australia is oonceaied
faem the women and children who, at most, know his exoteric
name, often meaning " Our Father," and is revealed only to the
initiate, among whom are a very few white men. like Howitt. Mre
Lsngloh Parker, of course, was not initiated (indeed, no white man
has gone through the actual and very painful rites), but confidences
were made to her with great secrecy. The All-Father, even at hb
best, amocv the Kumai, Kamilaroi and Euahlayi, b the centre of
many gxoteaquc and sportive myths. He usually has a wife and
chtldren, not in all cases bom, but rather they are emanations.
One of these children b often hb mcdbtor with men, and has the
cfaaxge of the rites and the mystic bull-roazer. The rdation b that
of Apollo to Zeus in Greek myth.
huny of the wilder myths are the expressions of the sportive and
faculties. Some arise naturally thus: Baiame, say.
* ' * ' nnatcd the grotesque
to explam thoe. myths
they arose in some grotesque
of Baiame's peiaonal existence on earth. Many Greek
myths, most denagatory to the dignity of Demeter. Dionysus, Zeus
or Hera, arose in the same way, as explanations of buffooneries in
the Eleusinian or other mysteries. In medieval literature the most
sacred persons of our religion have grotesque associations attached
to them in the same manner.
While the AO-Father belief b common in the tribes of south-
castexn Australia, the tribes round Lake Eyre, the Arunta (as
known to Messra Spencer and GiUen), and the other central and
umiheiu tribes, are credited with no germs of beUef in what b called
a rupnmt, and may truly be styled a superipf being. That being,
ia many cases, but not so commonly in Austrmlb, has a malevolent
opposite who thwarts hb work, an Ahriman to hb Ormuad. In
one <fisCr«ct, vriiere the superior being b a crow, hb opposite b an
cagb-hawfc. These two buds in many tribes ^ve names to the two
great exogainotts and intermarrying dtvbions; m their case there b a
SB if stml of divine, human and tneriomorphic elements, just as in
the Greek myths of Zeus. As a rule, however, the AustraUan All-
Father b anthropomorphic, and fairiy well described in the native
term when they «>eak bn^ish as " the Big Man,'* powerful, death-
lea, friendly, able to go everywhere and do everything," " to see
wkatever you do." The existenoe .of the belief in thb beii^ was
"" ' " quattersand
' eevidence
. Roth in
Blknatogieal Simdigs, and many other close observers. The belief
bein^ esoteric, « secret of the initbted, necessarily escaped casual
llcanwfaile, anc»^ some of the Arunta of the centre, among tne
IMeri and Urabunna tribes near Lake Eyre and their
wtatever you do. t ne existence .01 tne oeiiei m tnts oeii^
accepted oy T. Waitx^and, though diluted by many squatten
most anthropologists. » now admitted on the strength of the evid
of Howitt, Cameron, Mn Langbh Parker, Dawson, W. E. Rot
aad anonc the tribes north by cast of the Arunta, no such belie
has been ifisoovend by Messra Spencer and Gillen, from whom the
tribes kept no secrets, or by Mr Siebert, a missbnarv among the now
aO bat extinct Dieri. There b just a trace of a dim sky-dwelliiw
beiqg. Afswotja, possibly an all but obliterated survival of an All-
Father. Howitt speaks too of the Dbri Kutchi, who inspires
medicine-men with ideas, but about him our information is scanty.
Amoav ^ these tribes rdigion now takes another line, the belief
in a s upe r ao onal race of Titanic beings, with no superior, who were
the fint dwcBen 00 earth : who possessed powen far exceeding those
of the medidne-men of to^lay; and who, in one way or another,
were conn ected with^ or developed from, the totem animab.vege-
tables and other obiects. These beings modified the face of the
co untr y; in Arunta belief rocks and trees arose to mark the places
where th^ finally ** went into the ground " {OknanikiIia)j ana their
spirits stm haunt certain places sucn as these; and are temcamated
ia native women who jiiaas by. These beii^, in Arunta called
** the people of the iifewrmga, or dream time " (but cf. Strehbw
in CwomSf nt nrpra), originated the tribal rites a initbtion. In
Dieri tbey are called Jfum-Jfara, and to them piayeraare made for
aia. accompanied by rain-making magic ceremonies, which in thb
case may be a symbolical expresskm <^ the prayers There b a
laree body ci niyths about the Akkerinfa folk, or Mwa>'Jiura
(see. SpctKcr and Gillen. Nairn Tribes of Central Australia, Naiite
Tribes of Northern Anslralia, and Howitt, Naiite Tribes of South-
Ea Uwu -AustraKa^^ and the myths of their wanderings, prodigies
and institatioo 01 rites and ma^ are rep r ese nted in the dances of
the mytcri cs. Most of the magic b worked {Intichiuma in Arunta)
by tfe« loembcn of each totem kin or group for the behoof of the
totem ac an artide of food supply. These rites are common in
North AxDerica, but are worked by memben of gilds or societies,
aot by totam Ions.
TIk bdief in these Mnra-hfura or Alekeringa folk may obviousiy
devdop. in favourable circumstances. Into a polytheism like that of
Gfeeoe. or of Egypt, or of the Maoris. The old Irish gods in the
poetic romances appear to have the same origin and shade away
mto the fairies. The baser Greek myths of the wanderings,
amoun and adventures of the gods, myths ignored by Homer, are
parallel to the adventures of the Akhertnm people, and the fable of
' '^ ' '1 and the search lor the lost onan by Isis.
the Alcheringa tales of Messra Spencer and
the mutUation of Osiris and the souch lor the lost
actually occun among the Alcheringa tales of Mesa_ _^
Gillen. Among the Arunta, the Alcheringa folk are part of a
strangdy elaborate theory of evolution and m animism, which leaves
no room for a creative beiiw, or for a future life of the spirit, which
b merely reincarnated at mtervals.
Thus the doctrines of evolution and<^ creation, or the making of
things, stand apart, or blend, in the metaphysics and religion of the
lowest and least progressive of known pcopws. The question as to
which theory came first, whether AlcheriBgaism b a scientific
effort that swept away All-Fatherism, or whether AU-Fatherism b
a rcl^sious reactk>n in despair of science and of the evolutionary
doctnne, b settled by each inquirer in accordance with hb personu
bias. It has been argued that All-Fatherism b an advance, con-
ditioned by coastal mfluences — more rain and more food--con«
comitant with a socbi advance to individual marriage, and reckon-
ing of kin in the male line. But tribes far from the sea. as in northern
New South Waks and Queensbnd. have the All-Father belief, with
individual marriage and female descent, while tribes of the north
coast, with male descent, are credited with no All-Father; and the
Arunta, as far as possible from the sea. have no All-Father (save in
Strehk>w*s district), and have individual marriage and male reckon-
ing of descent in mattere of inheritance; while the Urabunna and
Dieri, with female descent and the custom of pirrauru (called " group
marriage " by Howitt), are not credited witn the All-Father belief.
Thus coastal conditions have dcariy no causal influence on the
devekmment of the All-Father belicl. If they had, the natives of
centrsf Queensbnd, remote from the sea. shouM not have their
All-Father (Mulkari), and the natives of the northern and north-
eastern coasts should have an All-Father, who b still to seek. The
Arunta of Messra Spencer and GiUen may have possessed and deposed
the Altjira superior being of the Arunta known to Mr Strehlow,
like the ^tnatu of the adjacent Kaitbh. or the All-Father of the
neighbouni^ Luritja; or these beings may be more recent diver-
gences of doctrine, departures from pure Akheringabm with no All-
Father. At present, at least, it b premature to (fogmatiae on these
problems.^
The chief beii^ among the supernatural charactera of Bushman
inythok)^ b the insect called the Mantb.' Cagn or Ikaggen, the
Mantis, is sometimes regarded with religious respect v
a benevolent god. But hb adventures are the meresv
nightmares of puerile fancy. He has a wife, an adopted
daughter, whose real father b the " swallower " in Bushman swallow-
ing myths, and the daughter has a son. who b the Ichneumon.
The Mantis made an ebnd out of the shoe of hb son-in-Uw. The
moon was also created by the Mantb out of hb shoe, and it b red,
because the shoe was covered with the red dust of Bushman-land.
The Mantb b defeated in an encounter with a cat which happened
to be singing a song about a lynx. The Mantb (like Poseidon,
Hades, Metis and other Greek gods)was once swallowed, butdis-
eorged alive. The swallower was the monster Ilkhwfii-hemm.
Like Heracles when he leaped into the belly of the monster which
was about to swallow Hesione, the Mantb once jumped down the
throat of a hostile elephant, and so destroyed him. The heavenly
bodies are ^pds among the Bushmen, but their nature and adventures
must be discussed amo^ other myths of sun, moon and stars. As
a creator Cagn b sometimes said to have " given ordera. and caused
all things to appear to be made." He struck snakes with hb staff
and turned them into men, as Zeus did with the ants in Aegina.
But the Bushmen's mythical theory of the origin of things must,
as far as possible, be kept apart from the fables of the Mantb, the
Ichneumon and other divine beings. Though aniroab, these gods
have human passbns and character, and possess the usual magical
powen attributed to sorcerers.
Concerning the mytholoj^ of the Hottentots and Namas, we have
a great deal of information m a book named Tsuni-Goam, the Supreme
Being ef the Kkoi-Kkoi (1881), by Dr T. Hahn. Thb author collected
the okl notices of Hottentot myths, and added material from hb
own researches. The chief god of the Hottentots is a being named
Tsuni-Goam, who b universally regarded by his worahippera as a
deceased sorcerer. According to one old believer, " Tsui-Goab "
(an alternative reading of the god's name) " was a great powerful
chief of the Khoi-Khoi— in fact, he was the first Khoi-Khoib from
whom all the Khoi-Khoi tribes took their name." He b always'
^ The drawback to knowledge b the rarity of full acquaintance
with native bnguages. Strehtow, Roth and Ridley seem best
equipped on the linguistic side. Spencer and Gillen do not tell ua
that they have a coiloqubl knowledge of any Australbn language.
Gason, author of a work on the Dieri tribe, knew their Unguage
well, but several of his statements appear to be inaccurate. Mrs
Langloh Parker describes her methocb of checking and controlling
native statements made in Enslish.^
* Accounts of the Mantis and of his performances will be found
in the Cape Monthly MagasineiJ uly 1874), and in Dr Bleek's Brief
Account 0/ Bushm^ Folh-Lore.
136
MYTHOLOGY
represented as at war (in the usual crude dualism of savages) with
" another chief " named Gaunab. The prayers addressed to Tsui-
Goab are simple and natural in character, the " private ejaculations "
of men in moments of need or distress. As usual, rchgion is more
advanced than mythology. It appears that, by some accounts,
Tsui-Goab lives in the red sky and Gaunab in the dark sky. The
neighbouring race of Namas have another old chief for god, a being
called Heitsi Eibib. His graves are shown in many places, like those
of 0»ris. which, says Plutarch, abounded in Egypt. He b propi-
tiated by passers-by at his sepulchres. He has intimate relations
in peace and war with a variety of animals whose habits are some-
times explained (like those of the serpent in Genesis) as the result
of the curse of Heitsi Fibib. Heitsi Eibib was bom in a mysterious
way from a cow, as Imira in the Biack Yajur- Veda enterfd into and
was bom from the womb of a being who also bore a cow. The
Rig'Veda (iv. 18, I) remarks, " His mother, a cow, bore Indra, an
unlickcd calf "—probably a metaphorical way of speaking. Heitsi
Eibib, like countless other gods and heroes, is aUio said to have been
the son of a virgin who tasted a particular plant, and so became
pregnant, as in the German and Gallophrygian mfirchcn of the
almond tree, given by Grimm and Pausanias. Incest is one of the
feats of Heitsi Eibib. Tsui-Goab, in the opinion of his worshipfiers,
as we have seen, is a deified dead sorcerer, whose name means
Wounded Knee, the sorcerer having been injured in the knee by an
enemy. Dr Hahn tries to prove (by philology's " artful aid ")
that the name really means " red dawn," and b a Hottentot way of
speaking of the infinite. The philok>gical arguments advanced
are extremely weak, and by no means convincing. If we grant,
however, for the sake of argument, that the cariy Hottentots wor-
shipped the infinite under the figure of the dawn, and that, by for-
getting their own meaning, they came to believe that the words
which really meant " red dawn" meant ** wounded knee " we must
still admit that the devout have assigned to their deity all the attri-
butes of an ancestral sorcerer. In short, " their Red Dawn," if
red dawn he be, is a person, and a savage person, adored exactly as
the actual fathers and grandfathers of the Hottentots are adciired.
We must explain thb legend, then, on these principles, and not as an
allegory of tne dawn as the dawn appears to civilized people. About
Gaunab (the Ahriman to Tsui-Goab's Ormuzd) Dr Hahn gives two
dbtinct opinions. " Gaunab was at first a ghost, a mischief-maker
and evil-doer " {pp. cil. p. 8s). But Gaunab he declares to be
" the night-sky (p. 126). Whether we regard Gaunab, Heitsi
Eibib and Tsui-Goab as originally mythological representations of
natural phenomena, or as deified dead men, it is plain that they are
now venerated as non-natural human beings, possessing the custom-
ary attributes of sorcerers. Thus of Tsui-Goab it b said, " He could
do wonderful things which no other man couki do. because he was
very wise. He could tell what would happen in future times.
He died several times, and several times he rose again " (statement
of old Kxarab in Hahn, p. 61).
The mythology of the Zulus as reported by H.Callaway (Unkilun-
kHu, 1808-1870) b very thin and uninteresting. The Zulus are
great worshippers of ancestors (who appear to men in the form of
snakes), and they regard a being called UnkQlunkQlu as their first
ancestor, and sometimes as the creator, or at least as the maker of
men. It does not appear they identify UnkfllunkQlu, as a rule,
with " the lord of heaven," who, like Indra, causes the thunder.
The word answering to' our lord b also applied," even to beasts,
as the lion and ^he boa." The Zulus, liloe many distant races,
sometimes attribute thunder to the " thunder-bird." which, as in
North America, b occasionally seen and even killed by men. " It
is said to have a red bill, red legs and a short red tail like fire. The
bird is boiled for the sake of the fat, which b used by the heaven-
doctors to puff on their bodies, and to anoint their lightning-rods."
The Zulus are so absorbed in propitiating the shades of their dead
(who, though in serpentine bodies, have human depositions) that
they appear to take little pleasure in mythological narratives. At
the same time, the Zulus have many " nursery tales," the pk)ts and
incidents of which often bear the closest resemblance to the heroic
myths of Greece, and to the m&rchen of European peoples.* These
indkations will give a general idea of African divine myths. On
the west coast the " ananzi " or spider takes the place of tne mantis
insect among the Bushmen. For some of hb exploits Dasent's Tales
from the Norse (2nd ed.. Appendix) may be consulted. For South
African religion see Lang. Magic and Rdieion; Dennett, At the
Back of the Black Man's Mind; Junod, Les BaroUa; Spieth, Die
Evae-StdtUme; Frazer, The Golden Bough.
Turning from the natives of Australia, and from African races
of various degrees of culture, to the Papuan inhabitants of Melanesia,
we find that mythological ideas are scarcely on a higher
level. An excellent account of the myths of the Banks
Islanders and Solomon Islanders was given in Joum.
AnthropoL. Inst. (Feb. 1881) by the Rev. R. H. Codrington. The
article contains a critical description of the difficulty with which mis-
sionaries obtain information about the prior creeds. The people of the
> These are ^Uectcd by Callaway. Zulu Nursery Tales (1868).
Similar Kafir stories, also closely rcsemblinsj the popular fictions of
European races, have been published by Theai. Many other examples
are published in the South African Fotk-Lore Journal (1879, 1880).
Banks Islands are chiefly ancestor-worshippers, but they also believe
in, and occasionally pray to. a being named I Qat; one of the prehuman
race endowed with supernatural powers who here, as elsewhere, do
duty as gods. Here is an example of a prayer to Qat — the devotee
is supposed to be in danger with hb canoe: " Qate! Marawa! look
down on me, smooth the sea for us two that I may go safely on the sea.
Beat down for me the crests of the tide-rip; let the tide-rip settle
down away from me, beat it down level that it may sink and roll
away, and I may come to a quiet landing-place." Compare the
prayier of Odysseus to the river, whose mouth he had reached after
three days' swimming on the tempestuous sea. " ' Hear me,
O king, wnosocver thou art, unto thee I am come as to one to whom
prayer b made . . . nay, pity me, O king, for I avow myself thy
suppliant.' So spake he, ana the god stayed hb stream, and with-
held hb waves, and made the water smooth before him " {Odyssey
V. 450). The prayer of the Melanesian is on rather a higher rel^ous
level than that of the Homeric hero. The myths of Qat is adventures,
however, are very crude, though not so wild as some of the Scan-
dinavian myths about Odin and Loki, while they arc less immwal
than the adventures of Indra and Zeus. Qsit was bom in the isle
of Vanua Levu; hb mother was either a stone at the time of hb
birth, or was turned into a stone afterwards, like Niobe. The mother
of Apollo, according to Aelian, had the misfc»tune to be changed
into a wolf. Qat fiad eleven brothers, not much more repuublc
than the Osbaldbtones in Rob Roy. The youngest brother was
" Tangaro Loloqong, the Fool." His pastime was to make wrong
all that Qat made nght, and he is sometimes the Ahriman to Qat's
Ormuzd. The creative achievements of Qat must be treated of in
the next section. Here it may be mentioned that, like the hero
in the Breton m&rchcn, Qat "brought the dawn " by introducing
birds whose notes proclaimed the coming of morning. Before
Qat's time there had been no night, but he purchased a sufficient
allowance of darkness from I Qong, that is, night conadered as a
person in accordance with the law of savage tnought already ex-
plained. Night b a person in Greek mythok>g[y, and in the four-
teenth book of the Iliad we read that Zeus abstained from punishing
Sleep " because he feared to offend swift Night." Qat produced
dawn, for the first time, by cutting the darkness with a knife of red
obsidian. Afterwards " the fowls and birds showed the morning."
On one occasion an evil power (Vui) slew all Qat's brothers, and
bid them in a food-chest. As in the common " swallowing-myths *'
which we have met among bushmen and Australians, and will find
among the Greeks, Qat restored his brethren to life. Qsit b always
accompanied by a powerful supernatural spider named Marawa.
He first made Marawa's acquaintance when he was cutting down
a tree for a canoe. Every night (as in the common European story
about bridge-building and church-building) the work was all undone
by Marawa, whom Qat found means to conciliate. In all his future
adventures the spider was as serviceable as the cat in Puss in Boots
or the other grateful animals in European legend. Qat's great
enemy, Qasavara, was dashed against the hard sky, and was turned
into stone, like the foes of Perseus. The stone b still shown in Vanua
Levu, like the stone which was Zeus in Laconia. Qat, like so many
other " culture-henoes," disappeuxsd mysteriously, and white men
arriving in the island have been mistaken for Qat. Hb departure
is sometimes connected with the myth of the deluge. In the New
Hebrides, Tagar takes the rdle of Qat. and Suqe of the bad principle,
Loki, Ahriman, Tangaro Loloqong, the Australian Crow and so
forth. These are the best known diviiw myths of the MebnesUns.
For their All-Fathers sec Holmes, /. A. /., vol. xxxv.. and O'Farrell,
/. A. /., vol. xxxiv., with Sundcrmann in Wameck's AUgtmeimc
Missionszeitschrifl, vd. xi. 1884.
It is " a far cry " from Vanua Levu to Vancouver Island, and.
ethnolcwically, the Ahts of the latter region are extremely renaote
from the Papuans with their mixture of Malay and . ^
Polynesian blood. The Ahts. however, differ but little ^rimL
in their mythok>gical beliefs from the races of the Banks ^^
Islands or of the New Hebrides. In Sproat's Scenes from Savage
Life (1868) there b a good account of Aht opinions by a settler who
had won the confidence of the natives between i860 and 1868.
" There b no end to the stories which an old Indian will relate," says
Mr Sproat, when " one quite possesses hb confidence." The first
Indian who ever lived " is a divine being, something of a creator,
something of a first father, like UnkQIunkGIu among the Zulus.
H is name b Qua wteaht. He married a pre-existent bird, the thuiklcr-
bird Tootah (we have met him among the Zulus), and by the
bird he became the father of Indians. Wispohahp b the Aht
Noah, who, with his wife, his two brothers and their wives escaped
from the deluge in a canoe. Quawtcaht b inferior as a deity to the
Sun and Moon. He b the Yama of an Aht paradise, or home oi the
dead, where " everything b beautiful and abundant." From ail
that is told of Quawteaht he seems to be an ideal and powerful Aht,
imaginatively placed at the beginning of things, and quite capable
of intermarriage with a bird. Hb creative exploits must be con-
sidered later. Quawteaht b the Aht Prometheus PurphoroB* or
fire-stealer.
Passine down the American continent from the north-west, we
find Vehl the chief hero-god and mythical personage among the
Tlingits. Like many other heroes or gods, Vehl had a miraculous
birth. Hb mother, a Tlingit woman, whose sons had all boea
MYTHOLOGY
137
sbin. met a friendly dolphin, which adviaed her to iwallow a pebble
and a little sea-water. The birth of Yehl was the result. In his
vouth he shot a supernatural crane, and can always fly about in its
icathen. like Odin and Loki in Scandinavian myth. He is usually,
however, regarded as a raven, and holds the same relation to men
sod tJie world as the eagle-hawk Pund-jel does in Australia. His
peat opponent (for the eternal duaUsm comes in) is Khanukh, who
B a woo, and the ancestor or totem of the wolf-race of men as Yehl
s of the raven. The oppositioo between the Crow and Eagle-hawk
in Au^xalia will be remembered. Both animab or men or gods
uke part in creation. Ydil b the Prometheus Purphoros 01 the
Tlinsits, but myths of the fire-stealer would form matter for a
separate section. Yehl also stole water, in his bird-shape, exactly
as Odin stole " Suttung's mead " when in the shape 01 an eagle.^
Yehl's p o wers of metaroorphosit and of flying into the air are the
coraoMm acoomplishroenu of wcoererB, and be is a rather crude form
of first father, '' culture-hero " and creator.*
AmoiQg the Karok Indians we find the great hero and divine
benefactor in the shape of , not a raven, nor an eagle-hawk, nor a
mantis insect, nor a spider, but a coyote. Among both Karok
and Navaho the coyote is the Prometneus Purphoros, or, as the
Aryans of India call him^ Matarisvan the fire-stealer. Among the
Papa^os. on the eastern side of the Gulf of California, the coyote or
praine wolf is the creative hero and chief supernatural being. In
Orefoa the coyote is also the " demiurge," but most of the myths
about him refer to his creative exploits, and will be more appro-
piiatel^ treated in the next section.
Moving ui> the Pacific coast to British Colambia, we find the
musk-rat taking the part plaved by Vishnu, when in his avatar as a
boar he fished up the earth irom the waters. Among the Tinneh a
miraculoas dog. who, like an enchanted fairy prince, could assume
the form of a nandsome young man, is the chief divine being of the
myths. He too is chiefly a creative or demiurgic being, answering
to PUrusha in the Rig Veda. So far the peculiar mark of the wilder
American tribe Icgei^ is the bestial character of the divine beings,
vkicfa is also illustrated in Australia and Africa, while the bestial
dochiag. feathera or fur, drops but slowly off Indra, Zeus and the
Egvptian Anunon, and the Scandinavian Odin. All these are more
or leas anthropomorphic, but retain, as will be seen, numerous relics
of a thcrioroorphic omdition.
See C Hill-Tout and F. Boas in various publications, and, generally,
the volumes of the Bureau of American Ethnology, Wuhington.
USJl. For Ti-n-wa. " the Ruler of the Universe." also styled
A-ti-us, *' father," among the Pawnees, see G. B. Grinnell, Pawnee
Here Slaria (1893).
Jlissri and Polynesian Befiiefi.— Passing from the lower savage
myths* of which s^oce does not permit us to offer a Urger selection,
we ttttn to races m the upper strata of barbarism. Among these
the Maoris of New Zealand, and the Polynesian people senerally,
are remarkable for a mythology largely intermixed with early
attempts at more philosophical speculatioiu The Maoris and
Mai^aans, and other peoples, have had speculaton among them
not very far removed from the mental condition of the earliest Greek
phikwophers, Empedodes, Aoaximander, and the rest. In fact the
process from the view of luiture which we call personalism to the
cnsdest theories erf the physKists was apparently begun in New
Ze a lan d before the arrival of Europeans. In Maori mythology it
is oMre than noally difficult to keep apart the origin of the world
ami the origin and nature of the gods. Lon^ traditional hymns rive
an account of the '* becoming out of nothing " which result!
the evolution ci the gode and tne world. In the bq^ning (as in the
Greek mvths of Uranus and Gaea), Heaven (Rangi, conceived of as
a penon) was indissolubly united to his wife Eartn (Papa), and be-
tween them they begat ^ods which necessarily dwdt m darkness.
Tbcae gods were some m vegetable, some in animal form; some
traditions place among these gods Tiki the demiurge, who Oike
Prosaethem) made men out 01 clay. The offspring of Rangi and
Papa (kept in the dark as they were) held a counal to determine
bow tlicy should treat their parents, '* Shall we slay them, or shall
we separate them?" In tne Henodic fable^ Cronus separates
the heavenly pair bv mutilating his oppressive father Uranus.
AsMMv the Maoris the ^ Tutenganahan cut the sinews which
onited Earth and Heaven, and Tane Mahuta wrenched them apart,
and kept tbem etemalW asunder. The new dynaslv now had
earth to themselves, but Tawhiramatea, the wind, abode aloft with
his father. Some of the gods were in the forms of lizards and fishes:
soeie went to the land, some to the water. As among the gods
and Asoras of the Vedas, there were many ware in the divine race,
and as the incantati<»s <rf the Indian Brakmanas are derived from
those old eatperienoes of the Vedic sods, so are the incantations of
the Maoris. The gods of New Zeuand, the greater gods at least,
Biay be caOed " departmental "; each person who is an elementary
foeoe ia also the jgpd of that force. As Te Heu, a powerful chief,
said. tbef« is divtskm of labour among men. and so there b among
gods. " One made this, another that; Tane made trees, Ru moun-
tains, Taoga-roa fish, and so forth." ' The " departmental "
a- iau Ke a sent prevails among the polytheism of dvihsed peoples.
* DasetBt. Braei's Teilii^: Yomjur Edda, p. 94.
' Bancroft, rtiL iv. ' Taybr, New Zealand, p. 108
and is familiar to all from the Greek examples. Leaving the high
gods whose functk>ns are so large, while their forms (as of licaid,
fish and tree) are often so mean, we come to Maui, the great divine
hero of the supernatural race in Polynesia. Maui in some respects
answers to the chief of the Adityas in Vedk mytholosy ; in others he
answers to Qat. Quawteaht, and other savage dtvme personages.
Like the son of the Vedic Aditi> Maui is a rejected and abortive
child of his mother, but afterwards attains to the highest reputation.
As pat brought the hitherto unknown night, so Maui settled the sun
aiKTnnoon in their proper courses. He induced the sun to move
- J., u-. _;.J 1.7 _ .J^i A. t^^^-t A • Ji__ t ..
orderiy by giviiw htm a vk>lent beating. A similar featwasper-
formed by the Sun-trapper, a famous Red Indian chief. These
tales belong properiy to the department of solar myths. Maui him-
self is thought by E. B. Tybr to be a myth of the sun, but the sun
could hardly give the sun a drubbing. Maui slew monsters, invented
barbs for fish-hooks, frequently adopted the form of various birds,
acted as Prometheus Purphoros the fire-stealer, drew a whole island
up from the bottom of the deep ; he was a great sorcerer and magician.
Had Maui succeeded in hb attempt to pass through the body of
Night (considered as a woman) men would have been immortal.
But a little bird which sings at sunset wakened Night, she snapped up
Maui, and men die. Thb has been called a myth <a sunset, but the
sun does what Maui failed to do, he passes through the body of Night
unharmed. The adventure b one of the myths of the origin of
death, which are almost universally diffused. Maui, though regarded
as a god, b not often addressed in prayer.*
The whole system, as far as it can be called a qrstem, of Maori
mythokwy b obviously based on the nvase conceptu>ns of the
worid wnfeh have already been explained. The P(rfynesbn system
diffen mainly in detail ; we have the separation of heaven and earth,
the animal-shaped gods, the fire-stealing, the exploits of Maui, and
scores of minor myUis in W. W. Gill's Mytks and Songs of Ike South
Pacific, in the researches of W. Ellb, of WilUams, in G. Turner's
Polynesia, and in many other accessible works.
Mexican and Peruvian Beliefs. — The Maoris and other Polynesbn
peoples are perhaps the best examples of a race which has nsen far
above the savagery of Bushmen and Australians, but has not yet
arrived at the stage in which great centralized monarchies appear.
The Mexican ana Peruvbn avilizations were far ahead of Maori
culture, in so far as they possessed the elements of a much more
settled and highly-orvanixed society. Their religion had its fine
lucki intervab. but their mythob^ and ritual were little better
than savage ideas, elaborately worked up by the imagination of a
cruel and superstitious priesthood. In cruelty the Axtccs surpassed
perhaps all peoples of the Old Work!, except certain Semitk stocks,
and tneir gods, of course, surpassed almost all other ^ods in blood-
thirstiness. But in grotesque and savage points of faith the ancient
Egyptians, the Greeks, and the Vedic Inaians ran even the Astecs
pretty close.
Bernal Diax.^he old ** conquistador," has described the hideous
aspect of the idols which Cortes destroyed. " klols in the shape of
hideous dragons as b% as calves," idob half in the form of men,
half of dogs, and serpents which were worshipped as divine. The
okl contemporary misswnary Sahagun has bit one of theeariiest
detailed accounts of the natures and myths of these gods, but, though
Sahagun took ^reat pains in collectii^ facts, hb specubtions must
be accepted with caution. He was convinced (like Caxton in his
Destruction of Troy, and like St Augustine) that the heathen gods
were only dead men worshipped. Ancestor-worship is a great force
in early religion, and the qualities of dead chiefs and sorcerers are
freely attributed to gods, but it does not foIk>w that each god was
once a real man, as Sahagun supposes. Euemerism* cannot be
judiciously carried so far as this. Of Huitzilopochtli, the famed
god, Sahasun says that he was a necromancer, loved "shape-
shifting," like Odin, metamorFdiosed himself into animal forms, was
miractuously conceived, and, among animals, b* confused with the
humming-bird, whose feathers adorned hb statues."* Thb hum-
mii^-biid god should be compared with the Roman Picus (Servtus,
189). That the humming-bird (Nuitciton), which was the god's
old shape, should become merely his attendant (like the owl of Pallas,
the mouse of ApoUo, the goose of Prbpus, the cuckoo of Hera), when
the god received anthropomorphic form, b an example of a process
common in all mythologies. Plutarch observes that the Greeks,
though accustomed to the conceptions of the animal attendanu
of their own gods, were amand when they found animab worshipped
as gods by the Egyptians. Mailer' mentions the view that the
humming-bird, as the most beautiful flying thing, b a proper symbol
of the heaven, and so of the heaven-god, Huitzilopochtli. This
vein of symbolbm b so easy to work that it must be re^rded with
distrust. Perhaps it b safer to attribute theriomorphic shapes of
< Rig Veda, x. 72, 1, 8: MuirT SsfuJkrd TexU, iv. i^, where the fabb
from the Satapailu>Brakmana b giveiu
■The best authorities for the New Zeabnd myths are the old
traditional priestly hymns, collected and transUted in the works of
Sir Georee Grey, m Taylor's New Zealand, in Shortland's Tradttions
of New Zealand (1857), in Bastbn's Heilige Sage der Polynesier, and
in White's Ancient History of the Maori, 1. 8-13.
■ See also Bancroft, iii. a8»-290. and Acosta, pp. 35^-3161.
' Geschichte der amerikanischen Urreligionen, p. 592. '
138
MYTHOLOGY
gods, not to symbolisni (Zeus was a cuckoo), but to syrvivak from
that quality of carlv thought which draws no line between man and
god and beast and bird and fish. If spiders may be great gods, why
not the more attractive humming-buds? Like many other gods,
Huitzilopochtli slew his foes at his birth, and hence received names
analogous to AM|i6t and *i0ot: Tylor {Primitive Culture, u.
307) calls Huit2iIopochtli an " inextricable' compound partheno-
genetic god." His sacrament, when paste klofs 01 him were eaten
by the communicants, was at the winter solstice, whence it may.
perhaps, be inferred that Huiuibpochtli was not only a war-god
but a nature-god— in both respecu anthropomorphk, and in both
bearing traces of the time when he was but a humming-bird, as Ychl
was a raven (MOlIer, op. ciL p. 595). As a humminff-bird. Huitzilo-
pochtli led the Aztecs to a new home, as a wolf led the Hirpini, and
as a woodpecker led the Sabines. Quetzakoatl, the Toltec deity,
is as much a sparrow (or similar small bird) as rluitzilopuchtli is a
humming-bird. Acosta says he retained the sparrow's head in his
statue. Tor the composite character of Quetzalcoatl as a "culture-
hero " (a more polisned version of Qat), as a '* nature-god," and
as a theriomorphic god see MQller {j>p. cii. pp. 58^-584). MOller
frankly recognizes that not only are animals ^mbols of deity and
its attributes, not only are they companions ancl messengers of deity
^as in the period of anthropomorphic religion), but they have been
livine beines in and for themselves during the earlier stages of
thought. The Mexkan " departmental " ^ds answer to tlK>se of
other polytheisms; there b an Aztec Ceres, an Aztec Lucina. an
Aztec Vulcan, an Aztec Flora, an Aztec Venus. The creative myths
and sun myths are crude and very early in character.
di
somewhat resembled that of ancient Mexico. The divine mytiTi .
the two nations had poinu in common, but there are few topus
more obscure than Egyptian mythokigy. Writers are apt to speak
of Egyptian relinon as if it were a- single phenomenon of which all
the aspects could be observed at a given time. In point of fact
Egyptian religion (conservative though it was) lasted through per-
haps five thousand years, was subject to innumerable influences,
historical, ethnok)gical, philosophical, and was variously represented
b^ various schoob of pnests. We cannot take the Platonic specula-
tions of lamblichus about the nature and manifestations of Egyptian
godh^ as evidence for the belief of the peoples who first worshipped
the ^yptian gods an innumerable series a ages before lambhdius
and Plutarch. Nor can the esoteric and pantheistic theories of
priests (according to which the various beast-gods were symbolic
manifesutions of the divine essence) be received as an historical
account of the origin of the local anunal-worships. It has already
been shown that Uie lowest and least intellectual races indulge in
local animal-worship, each stock having its parent bird, beast, fish,
or even plant, or inanimate object. It has also been shown that
theee backward prnpTcs itcosti^tp a ^'-^ •^"^- — '^ t"*— of Tr~r or
animaU, or bcfth, is rhf first f.itlirr>, htTix-i, nvi, in a si-nw-, ^''A%.
iSurh id&.r ire consoixant with, und may b<? tnctd to the confused
mnd n.ebulDu» ec>ndition of, B^avug? thought. PrccisL-l^ thie ^nme
idea« are fouTid at i^ricus pitriod» amoTif the Ancient Bg:ypt b tis.
ff WF arc to roi^rd the E|:)'ptia.n cnyiLh» atpout the gud« in iinimal
shape?, Hfld about the oon-nJitural Fuprrhuman hi:n>i.*9^ and t1ieir
war* and Iovl*?, 44 c^t^nic ftllcgodes dtfvi&ed t»y civil L^t-<1 pri' -ts,
pCThapi wc should al^j explain Punpi-jr), Qat, Quawtoahi, rhv Myitis
god, the Spider creator^ the Coyi:jtt ^nd Ravvn e^pd* ^l^ 5in'--dy
mvtntianft, put farth in 3 civiliiH 450, and reraint'tf by ALu^ir^ili.^as,
Biuhcntn, Hottentoi$, Aht*, Thlinkectti. Papuans, ^hn pjt-^rve
no other vctdgea ol high civilization- Or wt itiJiy tifce th* opiNrite
view, iLTtd retard the story of Osiria ^nd hi« wmr with Scth (wha ^-Nut
hitn tip in aTxjjt and mutilattd him J ai a du^ti^tic my1:h, ori^Hnuily
on iht ftveJ of the battle between Gaunab andT^ui-Goan, or U-i w ^en
Togiar ftod Suqe. We may regard the bcal \')C3.&i' and pLint-^.jds
df l^ypt u aurvivalftaf totemaand totem -^^od a like thoae of Au^ir^iJia,
India » AmerKa^ Africa, Siberia and other countriH. In ihi^ Ar;tcle
(he btter view Is adopttxl. The Iv^i,^ ■ t:<KU ^nd .1 u jli^tic ,^ rui iti .. i ive
rti>'i:i- Jf Mvajf 4 Jit t'j'jk. J OD Ji- I tie nj'Uial j^i/L^dui:" ol [>jl- .-^■. jge
reason and fancy. The same beast-gods and myths in civilized
Egypt are kwked on as survivals from the rude and early coiiditk>n
of thought to which such conceptions are natural.
In the most ancient Egyptian records the gods are not pkrtorially
to the Greeks. The king describes himself as the child of Sky and
Earth. He also somewhat obscurely klentifies himself with (Hiris.
We thus find Osiris very near the beginning of what is known
about Egyptian religion. This beins & rather a culture-hero, a
member of a non-natural race of men luce Qat or Manabozho, than a
god. His myth, to be afterwards narrated, b found pictorially
represented in a tomb and in the late temple <m Philae, is frequently
alluded to in the litanies of the dead about 1400 B.C.. b indicated
with reverent awe by Herodotus, and after the Christian era b
described at full length by Plutarch. Whether the same myth was
current in the far more distant days of Mycerinus, it is, of course,
impossible to say with dogmatic certainty. The religious history
of Egypt, from perhaps Dynasty X. to Dynasty XX., b interrupted
by an invasion of Semitic conquerors and Semttk ideas. Prior to
that invasion the ^ods, when mentioned in monuments, are always
represented by animals, and these animab arc the object of strictly
bcal worship. The name of each god u spelled in hieroglyphs beside
the beast or bird. The jackal stands for Anup. the hawk for Har.
the frog for Hekt. the baboon for Tahuti. and Ptah. Asiri, Hest.
Nebhat. Hat-hor. Ndt. Khnum and Amun-hor are all written out
phonetically, but never represented in pktures. Different cities
had their different beast-gods. Pasht. the cat, was the god of
Bubastb; Apis, the bull, of Memphis: Hapi. the wolf, of Sioot: Ba.
the goat, of Mendes. The cvklence of Herodotus. Plutarch and the
other writers showt that the Egyptians of each district refused to
eat the flesh of the animal they held sacred. So far the identity of
custom with savage totemism is absolute. Of all the explanations,
then, of Egyptian animal-worships that whkh regards the practice
as a survival of totemism and of savagery seems the most satis-
factory. So far Egyptbn religion only represented her gods in
theriomorphic shape. Beasts also appeared in the royal geneakigies,
as if the early Egyptians had filled up the measure of totemism by
rding themselves as actually descended from animals,
/ith one or two exceptions. " the first (semi-anthropomorphic)
figures of gods known in the civilized parts of Egypt are on the granite
obelisk of Bezig in the Fayydm, erected by Usertesen I. of Dynasty
XII., and here we find the forms all full-Dk>wn at once. The first
group of deities bebnes to a period and a dbtrict in whkh Semitic
influences had undoubt^ly Begun to work " (PMrie). From this
period the mixed and monstrous figures, semi-theriomorphic, semi-
anthropomorphic, hawk-headed and ram-headed and jaacal-headed
gods become common. Thb may be attributed to Semitic influence,
or we may suppose that the process of anthropomorphizing therio-
morphic sods was naturally developing itself; for Mexico has shown
us and Greece can show us abundant examples of these mixed
figures, in which the anthropomorj^ic god retains traces of hw
theriomorphk: past. The heretical worship of the solar disk inter-
rupted the course of Egyptian religion .under some reforming kings,
but the great and glorious Ramesside Dynasty (XIX.) restored
" Orus and Isb and the dog Anubb " wiui the rest of the semir
theriomoiphic deitks. These survived even their defeat by the
splendid numan gods of Rome, and only " fled from the folding
star of Bethlehem."
Though Egypt was rich in gods, her literature b not fertile in
myths. The religious compositbns whkh have survived are. as a
rule, hymns and liunies, the funereal servke, the " Book of the
Dead.*'^ In these works the myths are taken for granted, are
alluded to in the course of addresses to the divine beings, but.
naturally, are not tokl in full. As in the case of the Vedas^ hymns
are poor sources for the study of mythdogy. just as the hymns of
the Church would throw little lu^t on the incidents of the gospel
story or of the Old Tesument. The " sacred legends "which the
priests or temple servants freely communkated to Herodotus
are lost through the pious reserve of the traveller. Hoodotus
constantly alludes to the most famous Egyptian myth.that of Osiris,
and he reconiiaes the analogies between the C^rian myth and
mysteries ana those of Dionysus. But we have to turn to the very late
authority of Plutarch (De Iside et Osiride) for an account, confesAedly
incomplete and expurgated, of what mvthobgy had to tell about
the great Egyptbn " culture-hero," " daemon, and god. Onris,
Horus. Typhon (Seth), Isb and Nephthys were ^he children of Seb
(whom the Greeks identified with Cronus); the myths of their birth
were peculiarly savage and obscene Osiris introduced civilization
into Egypt, and then wandered over the worid, making men
acquainted with agriculture and the arts, as Pund-jel in hb humbler
way did in Australia. On hb return Tyi^n laid a plot for hinu
He had a beautiful carved chest made which exactly fitted Osiris.
and at an entertainment offered to give it to any one who could lie
down in it. As soon as Osiris tried. Typhon haa the box nailed up,
and threw it into the Tanaite branch of the Nile. Isb wandered,
mourning, in search of the body, as Demeter sought Persephone,
and pernaps in Plutarch's late version some incidents may be
borrowed from the Eleusinian legend. At length she found the
chesty which in her absence was again discovered by Typhon. He
mangled the body of Osiris (as so many sods of all races were mangled),
and tossed the fragments about, wherever Isb found a portion
of Osirif -she buried it; hence Egypt was as ridi in graves of CWis as
from the shades, and (in the form of a wolQ ur^ his son Horus to
revenge him on Typhon. The sods fought in animal shape (Birch, in
WUIdnson, iii. 14A). Plutarcn purposely omits as " too biasphe-
mous " the legend of the mangling of Horus. Thourii the graves
of these non-natural*beings are shown, the priests (D«7f. «f Os. xad.)
also show the stars into which they were metaAiorphosed. as the
Eskimo and Australians and Aryans of IndU and Greeks haveiecoc-
nized in the constellatkns their ancient heroes. Plutarch remarked
the fact that the Greek myths of Cronus, of Dionysus, of Apolk> and
the Python, and of Demeter. " all the things that are shrouded in
mystk ceremonies and are presented in rites," " do not fall short in
absurdity of the legends about Osirb and Typhon." Plutarch
naturally presumed that the myths which seem absurd ahrouded
MYTHOLOGY
139
mmt crat moral or physical mytteiy. But we apply no such
cz^aacioo to samilar savage legcodft, and our theory » that the
Onriaa myth is mily one of these retained to the time of Plutarch by
the rcfifious conservatism of a laoe which, to the time of nutarch,
preserved in full vigour most of the practices of totemism. As a
stight coafirmation of the possibility of this theory we may mention
that Greek mysteries retained two 01 the features ol savage mysteries.
The first was the rite of daubiiy the initiated with day.' This
custom prevaib in African mysteries, in Guiana, among AiMtralians,
Papuans, and Andaman Islanders. The other custom ia the use of
the tmrmdmm, as the Australians call a little fish-shaped piece of
wood tied to a string, and waved so as to produce a loud booming
aad wh i rring noise and keep away the profane, espodally women.
It b empk>yMi in New Mexico, South Africa, New Zeauand and
Attstnlia. This instrument, the «&of, was also used in Greek
myMeries.* Neither the use of the swot nor of the clay can very
wra be r egarded as a civilized practice retained by savages. The
hypothests that the rites and the stories are savage inventions
surviving into civilised religion seems better to meet the difficulty.
That the Osirian myth (much as it was elaborated and allegorized)
originated in the same sort of fancy as the Tacullie story of the
dianiemb ered beaver out of whose body things were made is a con*
dnsioo not devoid of plausibility. Typhon's later career. " commit-
ting dreadful crimes out of envy and spite, and throwine all things
iato costfussoQ," was parallel to the proceeding of most 01 the divine
bdags who put everything wron^. in opposition to the bcin^ who
makes cverythiiv n^t. This is perhaps an early " dualistic "
myth.
mythic Egyptian figures we have Ra, who once
n his wrath with circumstances suggestive of the
DduBe; Khnum, a demiurge, is represented at Philae as making man
oat of day on a potter's wheel. Here the whed b added to the
Maori oonoeption of the making of man. Khnum is said to have
reoofistnictea the limbs of the dismembered Ouris. Ptah b the
Egyptian Hephaestus; he b represented as a dwarf; men are said
to have ootne out of hb eye, gooi out of hb mouth— a story like that
of Purasha id the Rig Veda, As creator of nun. Ptah b a frog.
Babatjs beramr a cat to avoid the wrath of Typhon. Ra, the sun,
fought the big serpent Apap, as Indra fought Vrittra. Seb b a
(oose. called ^tbe great cacUer "; he laid the creative egg.*
Dmm Mylks of the Aryans of India. Indra,— The ipd» at the
Tedas and Brakmanas (the andent hymns and canonized ntual-books
of Aryan IncSa) are, on the whole, of the usual pdythebtic type.
More than many other gods they retain in thdr titles and attributes
the character of elemental phenomena personified. That personifica-
tkm is, as a rule, anthropomorphic, but traces of theriomorphic
persoaifeation are still very apparent. The ideas which may be
gathered about the gods from the hymns are (as b usual in heathen
-"^ioos) without consistency. There b no strict orthodoxy. As
A banl of each bardic famOy celebrates hb favourite sod he b apt
to make him for the moment the pre-eminent ddty of all. Thb way
of thiokinK about the fods leads naturally in the direction of a
^ . 1 in which each divine bdng nsay be regarded
as a manifestatioa of the one divine essence. No doubt thb point
of view wan attained in cetturies extiemdy remote by sages n the
dvSaed Ve<fic world. It is easy, however, to detect certain peculiar
chatactensdcs of each god. As among races much less advanced
ia dvassadon than the Vedk Indbns, each of the 1 ' ers
has hb own separate department, however much >i ers
may be incfiiaed to regard him as an absdute premier ^ii^' ed
latitude of personal sovcmment. Thus Indra b miii^n:. «d
wkh thunder and other atmospheric phenomena; but V.kv j e- ihe
wind, the Maniu are wind-gott, Agni b fire or the i^od <tt iiu\ /ind
so rffwnrrtH with lightning. Powerful as Indra b in the c-h-^iial
worh), Mitra and Varuna preside over night and H.iy. IMi.jh b
the dawn, aodTvashtri b the mechanic among the gcii^]^ il i »rr4. ^ .. 'tid-
inw to the Egyptian Ptah and the Greek HephaL-;^j'. Tlirigh
loicy anral ouauties and deep concern about the conduce ul men
are attributea to dse gods in the Vedic hymns, yet the hymns contain
tiaoes (and these are amplified in the rituu books) of a divine
fhgaifr tmnJQUute In thb ckroniqw the gods, like other gods,
ate Mfrentttfous warriors, adulterers, incestuous, homiddal, given
to aaiaal traarformations, cowardly, and in fact charged witn all
VpTt^ vices, and credited with maeical powers.* It would be
'\ to speak too highly of the ethkal nobility of nuny Vedic
The " hunger and thirst after righteousness " of the sacred
« Dt COronOt p. 313, uU Kt0aipur rctt rcXotvUnvc sol
w r^ 9^k^ cat rett nr^pou.
■ KfiMt C>»4^«r of Kirroi tA om^{a», ttX kr rott rtknaSs Utmtiro
bm^mti. Quoted by Lobeck, Ailaopkamus, i. 700. from Bastius
ad Gmor., 241, and from other sources; d. Amobius, v. c 19,
where tae word Imrbimts b the Latin term.
■WakiaBOO, iS. 62, see note by Dr Birch. A more detailed
aujuut of Egyptian religion b given under Egypt. Unfortunatdy
Ec y pt o iomsts have rardy a wide knowled g e of the myths of the lower
acta, while anthropologists are seldom or never Egyptdogists.
* Ftir examples 01 the lofty morality sometimes attributed to the
nds. see Max MOOer. HtUerf LeOvm, p. 284; Rig-Vtda, U. 38;
fv. la. 4; vii. 93 seq.; Mdr, Sanskrit Texts, v. 218.
poet rccalb the noblest aspirations and regreu of the Hebrew
psalmist. But thb aspect 01 the Vedic ddtics is essentially matter
for the science of reli^on rather than of mythdogy. whia b con-
cerned with the stones told about the gods. Religion b always
forgetting, or explaining 'away, or apdogizing for these stories.
Now the Vedic deities, so imposing when regarded as vast natural
forces (as such forces seem to us), so benignant when appealed to
as forgivers of sins, have abo their mythdogical aspect. In thb
aspect they are natural phenomena still, but phenomena as originally
conorived of by the personifying imagination of the savage, and
credited, like the gods of the Maori or the Australian, with all
manner of freaks, adventures and disguises. The Veda, it b true,
docs not usually diUte much on the worst of these adventures.
The Veda conuins devotional hymns: we can no more expect much
narrative here than in the Psalms of David. Again, the religious
sentiment of the Veda b half-consdously hostile to the stories. As
M. A. Barth says. " Le sentiment religteux a £cart6 La plupart de
ces mythes. mab il ne les a icartis tous." The Brakmanas, on the
other hand, later compilations, canonized txwks for the direction
of ritual and sacrifice, are rich in senseless and irrational myths.
Sometimes these myths are probably later than the Veda, mere
explanations of ritual inddents devised by the priests. Sometimes
a myth pipbably ddcr than the Vedas, and mainuined in popubr
tradition, b reported in the Brakmanas. The gods in the Vala are
by no means always regarded as equal in supremacy. There were
great and small, young and dd gods {R. V. u 27, 13). Elsewhere
this b flatly contradicted : " None of you, oh gods, b small or young,
ye are all great " (R. V. viii. 30. 1). As to the immortality and the
origin of the gods, there b no orthodox opinion in the Veda. Many
of the myths of the origin of the divine beinn are on a level with the
Maori theory that Heaven and Earth begat them in the ordinary way.
Again, the gods were represented as the children of Aditi. This nuy
be taken either in a refined sense, as if Aditi were the " infinite
region from which the solar ddties rise,* or we may hold with the
TaiUirya-Brakmana* that Aditi was a female who, bdng desirous
of offspring, cooked a brakmandana offering for the Sadhyas.
Various other fathers and mothers of the gods are mentioned.
Some gods, particularly Indra, are said to have won divine rank by
" austere fervour " and asceticism, which b one of the processes
that makes gods out of mortab even now in India.' The gods are
not always even credited with inherent immorulity. Like men,
they were subject to death, which they overcame in various ways.
Like most gods, they had struggles for pre-eminence with Titanic
opponents, the Asuras, who partly answer to the Greek Titans and
the Hawaibn foes of the divine race, or to the Scandinavian gUnts
and the enemies who beset the savage creative brings. Early man.
living in a state of endless warfare, naturally bdieves that his gods
also have thdr battles. The chief foes of I ndra are Vrittra and Ahi,
serpents which swallow up the waters, predsdy as frogs do in Austra-
lian and Califombn and Andaman myths. It has already been
shown that such creatures, thunder-binb, snakes, dragons, and what
not, people the sky in the imaginatkm of Zulus, Red Men, Chinese.
Peruvuns, and all the races who believe that beasu hunt the sun
and moon and cause cclipsn.* Though hostile to Asuras, Indra
was once enungled in an intrigue with a woman of that race, accord-
ing to the Atkar9a-Veda (Mwr. 5. T. v. 82). The gods were leas
nunterous than the Asuras, but by a magical stratagem turned some
bricks intosods (like a creation oinew peers to carry a vote)— so says
the Stack Yajur^Veda.* '
Turning to separate gods, Indra first daims attention, for stories
of Heaven and Earth are better studied under the heading of myths
of the orij{in of things. I ndra has thb aoomorphk feature in common
with Heitsi Eibib, the Namaqua %pAt* that hb mother, or one of
hb mothers, was a cow (R. V. iv. 18, i). Thb statement may be
a mere way of speaking in the Veda, but it b a rather Hottentot way."
Indra b abo referred to as a ram in the Vsrfa, and in one myth thb
ram could fly, like the Greek ram of the fleece of gdd. He was
ceruinly so tar connected with sheep that he and sheep and the
Kshatnya caste sprang from the breast and arms 0^ Frajapati, a
kind of creative being. Indra was a great drinker of soma juke;
a drinking-song by Indra, much bemused with soma, b in R. V. x.
1 19. On one occasion Indra got at the soma by assuming the shape
of a quail. In the TaiU. Samh. (U. S : I- >) In<ln is said to " have been
guilty of that most hideous cnme, the killing of a Brthmana." ^
Once, though uninvited. Indra drank some soma that had been
prepared for another banff. The soma disagreed with Indra; part
of It which was not drunK up became Vrittra the serpent. Indra's
> Mailer, H>66erf LeUures, p. 23a
• Muir, 5. r., V. 55; i. 27.
^SttSxh^Ly^,AsiaiU Studies. For Vecfic examples, see /{.- K.
X. T67, 1 : X. 159, 4: Mdr. 5. T. v. i(.
• See Tylpr Prtmiiim CnUun, 1. 288. 329. 3<6.
* The chief authority for the constant strife b et we en pxb and
Asuras b the Sata p a t ka-Brakma n a. of which one vdume b translated
in Sacred Books eftkt East (vol xu.).
* Hahn, TswH-Goam, tko Supreme Being of tke HoUentoU, p. 68.
See Muir, 5. T., v. 16, 17, for Indra's pecuUar achievements
with a cow.
^ Sacred Books of Ae Eeut, xii. t. 48.
140
MYTHOLOGY
enemy. India cut him in two, and made the moon out of half of
his body. This serpent was a universal devourer of everything and
everybody, like Kwai Hemm, the all-devourer in Bushman mytho-
logy. If this invention is a late priestly one, the person who mtro-
duoed it into the S<Uapatha'Brakmana must have reverted to the
intellectual condition of Bushmen. In the fight with Vrittra, Indra
lost his enersy, which fell to the earth and produced planu and
shrubs. In the same way plants, among the Iroquois, were made of
pieces knocked off Chokanipok in his fight with Manabozho. Vines,
m particular, are the entrails of Chokanipok. In Egypt, wine was
the blood of the enemies of the gods. The Aryan versions of this
sensible legend will be found in Satapatka-Brahmana.^ The civilized
mind soon w^ries of this stuff, and perhaps enough has been said
to prove that, in the traditions of Vedic devotees, Indra was not a
god without an irrational element hi his myth. Our argument is,
that all these legends about Indra, of which only a sample is given,
have no necessary connexion with the worship ol a pure nature-god
as a nature-god would now be constructed by men. The legends
are survivab of a time in which natural phenomena were resarded,
not as we regard them, but as persons, ana sava^ persons, Akkerinpi
folk, in fact, and became the centres of legends m the savage manner.
Space does not permit us to recount the equally puerile and barbarous
Ic^nds of Vishnu, Agni, the loves of Vivasvat m the form of a horse,
the adventures of Soma, nor the Vedic amours (paralleled in several
savage mythologies) of Pururavas and Urvan.'
Dtvine Myths of Greece. — If any ancient people was thoroughly
civilized the Oreeks were that people. Yet in the mythology and
religion of Greece we find abundant survivals of savage manners and
of savage myths. As to the religion, it is enough to point to the
traces ^ human sacrifice and to the worship of rude fetish stones.
The hunun sacrifices at Salamis in Cyprus and at Alos in Achaia
Phthiotis may be said to have continual almost to the conversion
of the empire (Grote i. 135, ed. 186^). Pausanias seems to have
found human sacrifices to 2«us still bneering in Arcadia in the 2nd
century of our era. " On this altar on the Lycaean hill the^ sacrifice
to Zeus in a manner thiit may not be t»poken, arnl '*'** llVlng had I
to pry far into th:tt sacrifice. But let it be as 1' s it hath
b«o [fora the bceiami^g." Nqw " from iht begin i.i;.„ ■ sacrifice,
occordiiig to Aro&dian traditiofip had bKn a humAu skiLrifice.^ In
other placet then were naariiri^st ccmmutntiianH q\ hucnan sacrifice,
as at the altar of Artemis tbc Tmpbcable at Patrae, wher^ I^auaanias
saw the wild bcasti bdag driven into the flamn.* Manv otherexam-
p^s of KunuiTi iicrifia are montiontd In Grotk li^^nd. Pausanias
gives fuU and intsestiEig dctaiU of the warship of rude stones,
the oldest worship. He nys, among the Grocti?, Alrriost eveiv
temple had its fetiih stone on a levd i^itb the pumice stcnr, which is
the PtHeidon of the Mangalan^* Tht Arpvrt hid a lifgc stone
called Zeus Csppott^ The oldc&t idal of the Thespians was a rude
■tone. Aflotbcr has been found bcn^th ihe f^edcstal of Apollo
in Delos. la Achaeaii Fharac were Ihtcty ^u:)r«d stn^nes, each
named by the lUime ol a god. Among mgnstfous iut^rg <-\\ the gods
which PauBaniai, who saw them, rcpardcd as the tMi^-^x i^bls, were
the three- Ilea ded Arterria, each head beinp that of an ^^riroal. the
Dcmeter with the horse'ii head, the Arteims with the h^-W^ tail, the
Zeui with three eyei^ the itbyphalhc Hermrs, reprcseni'd after the
fash inn of th'j Pfiapic fiKurei in fQintiniT! on th<? v!\\\'< of caves
4iniu*.„ Um, iltx^i.ii«.i.. Wx. u.i^ )n„x of the bu!i ar.-! ihc bull-footed
Dionysus. Phallic and other obscene emblems were carried abroad
in procesaons in Attica both by women and men. The Greek
custom of daubing people all over with clay in the mysteries
results as we saw in the mysteries of negroes^ Australians and
American races, while the Australian tumdun was exhibited
among the toys at the mysteries of Dionysus. The survivals
of rites, objects of worship, and sacrifices like these prove that
religious conservatism in Greece retained much of sava^ practice,
and the Greek mythology is not less full of ideas familiar to the
lowest faces. The authorities for Greek mythok)gy are numerous
and various in character. The oldest sources as literary docu-
ments are the Homeric and Hesiodic poems. In the Iliad and
Odyssey the gods and goddesses are beautiful, powerful and immortal
anthropomorphic beings. The name of Zeus (Skr. Dyaus) clearly
indicates his connexion with the sky. But in Homer he has long
ceased to be merely the sky conceived of as a person; he is the
* Sacred Books of the East, xii. 176, 177.
'On the whole subject. Dr Muir's Ancient Sanskrit Texts, with
translations, Ludwig's translation of the Rig Veda, the version
of the Satapatha-Brakmana already referred to. and the translation
of the Ailareya-Brakmana by Haug, are the sources most open to
English readers. Max MOller's translation of the Rig Veda unfor-
tunately only deals with the hymns to the Maruts. The Indian
epics and the Puranas belong to a much later date, and are full of
deities cither unknown to or undeveloped in the Rig Veda and the
Brakmanas.^ It is much to be regretted that the Atharva-Veda,
which contains the magical formulae and incantations of the Vedic
Indians, is still untranslated, though, by the very nature of its theme,
it must contain matter of extreme antiquity and interest.
' Pausanias iti. 16; vii. 18. Human sacrifice to Dionysus, Paus.
vii. 2\ ; Plutarch. De Is. et Os. 35; Porphyry, Ue Ahst. ii. 55.
« Gill, Mylks and Songs from tke Soutk Pacific, p. 6a
chief personage in a society of immoruU. organized on the type of
contemporary human society. " There is a great tkal of human
nature in his wife Hera (Skr. Svar, Heaven).*^ It is to be remem«
bered that philologists differ widely as to the origin and meaning of
the names of almost all the Greek sods. Thus the light which the
science of Unguage throws on Greek myths is extremely uncertain.
Hera is explained as '* the feminine side of heaven " by some authori-
ties. The quarreb of Hera with Zeus (which are a humorous
anthropomorphic study in Homer) are represented as a way of speak-
ing about wmter and rough weather. The other chief Homeric
deities are Apollo and Artemis, children of Zeus by Lcto, a mortal
mother raised to divinity. Apollo is clearly connected in some way
with light, as his name ^I^ seems to indicate, and with purity.'
Homer Knows the legend that a giant sought to lay violent hands on
Leto (Od. xi. 580). Smintheus, one of Apollo's titles in Homer, is
connected with the field-mouse (oyiMot), one of his many sacred
animals. His names, Ainuot, Awnnrc*^. were connected by an-
tiquity with the wolf, by most modem writers with the light.
Aocordins to some legends Leto had been a were-woU.' The whole
subject of the relations of Greek gods to animals is best set forth in
the woftls of Plutarch {De Is. et Os. Ixxi.), where he says that the
Egyptians worship actual beasts. " whereas the Greeks both speak
and believe correctly, saying that the dove is the sacred animal of
Aphrodite, the raven of Apollo, the dog of Artemis," and so forth.
Each Greek god had a small menagerie of sacred animals, and it
may be conjectured that these animals were originally the totems
of various stocks, subsumed into the worship of the anthropomorphic
god. For the new theory of vegeution spirits and com spirits see
Tke Golden Bougk. ApoUo, in aay case, is the young and beautiful
archer-god of Homer; Artemis, his sister, is the goddess of archery,
who takes her pastime in the chase. She holds no considerable place
in the Iliad; in the Odyssey, Nausicaa is compared to her, as to the
pure and lovely lady of maidenhood. Her name is commonly
connected with A^rcM^f — pure, unpolluted. Her close relations
(un-Homeric) with the bear and bear-wordiip have suggested a
derivation from ipxrot — 'ApKvttus. In Homer ner " gentle shafts **
deal sudden and painless death ; she is a beautiful Azrael. A much
more important daughter of Zeus in Homer is Athene, the " grey-
eyed " or (as some take yXaim&wtt, rather impn^bly) the " owl-
headed " goddess. Her birth from the head of Zeus is not explicitly
alluded to in Homer.* In Homer, Athene is a warlike maiden, the
patron-ffoddess of wisdom and manly resolution. In the twenty-
second book of the Odyssey she assumes the form of a swallow, and
she can put on the shape 01 any nuin. She bears the aegis, the awful
shield 01 Zeus. Another Homeric child of Zeus, or, according to
Hesiod (Tk. 937), of Hera alone, is Hephaestus, the lame craftsman
and artificer. In the Iliad* will be found some of the crudest
Homeric myths. Zeus or Hera throws Hephaestus or Ate out of
heaven, as in the Iroquois myth of the tossing from heax^cn of
Ataentsic. There is, as usual, no agreement as to the etymology of
the name of Hephaestus. Preller inclines to a connexion with
1i4^ai, to kindle fire, but Max MQllcr differs from this theory.
About the dose relations of Hephaestus with fire there can be no
doubt. He is a rough, land, good-humoured being in the Iliad.
In the Odyssey he b naturally annoyed by the adultery of hb wife.
Aphrodite, with Ares. Ares b a god with whom Homer has no
sympathy. He is a son of Hera, and detested by Zeus {Iliad, v. 890).
He u cowardly in war, and on one occasion was shut up for years
in a huge brazen pot. This adventure was even more ignominious
than that of Poseidon and Apollo when they were compelled to serve
Laomedon for hire. The payment he refused, and threatened to
" cut off their ears with the sword " {Iliad, xxi. 455). Poaddon is to
the sea what Zeus b to the air, and Hades to the underworld in
Homer.* His own view of his sodal position may be stated in his
own words (7/mi^. xv. 183. 3ii). " Three brethren are we. and sons
of Cronus, sons whom Rhea bare, even Zeus and myself, and Hades
is the third, the mier of the people in the underworld. And in
three lots were all things divided, and each drew a lot of hisown.^* and
to me fell the hoary sea, and Hades drew the mirky darkness, and
Zeus the wide heaven in ck^r air and clouds, but the earth and high
Olympus are yet common to all."
Zeus, however, is, as Poseidon admits, the elder-bom. and there-
fore the revered head of the family. Thus Homer adopts the system
•Cf. Preller. Crieckiscke Mytkologie,'\. 138. note I, for this and
other philological conjectures.
*The derivation of 'Av6X\wr remains obscure. The dtriN'ation
of Leto from Xa9<tr, and the conclusion that her name means " the
concealer "—that is, the night, whence the sun is born — is disputed
by Curtius (Preller i. 190, 191, note 4), but appears to be accepted
by Max MOller {Selected Essays, i. 386) Latmos being derived from
the same root as Lcto, Latona, the night.
» Aristotle, H. An.fi', Aclian. N. A. iv. 4.
■ Her name, as usual, b variously interpreted by various et>inolo-
gists.
• xiv. 257^ xviii. 395: Tax. pi, 132. ^ _^
*" The root of his name is sought u such words as »Ar« and
" We learn from the Odyssey (xiv. 309) that thb was the custom
of sons 00 the death of their father.
MYTHOLOGY
141
_, while Hciiod w aU for the oppoilte and probably
of JAntsten^edU, and makes supreroe Zeus the
y oun ge st of the sons oT Cronus. Among the other gods Dionysus
IS but sCghtly aDuded to in Homer as the son of Zeus and Semele.
IS the oQecx of persecution, and as connected with the myth of
Ariadne. The name of Hermes u derived from various sources, as
from ifmi^ and ipni, or. by Max MQUer, the name u connected
X
with Saxafae;;^ (Sky). If he had originally an elemental character,
it is now difficult to distinguish, though interprete r s connea him
with the wind. He is the messenger of the gods, the bringer of good
lack, and the conductor of men's souls down the dark ways of death,
la addition to the great Homeric gods, the poet knows a whole
" Olympian consistory *' of deities, nymphs, nereids. sea-gods and
godo ft se s , river-gods. Iris the rainbow goddess. Sleep, Uemeter
vfao lay with a mortal. Aphrodite the goddess of love, wife of Hephaes-
tus and Icman of Ares, and so forth. As to the origin of the gods.
Homer is not very explicit. He is acquainted with the existence
of an oMer dvnasty now deposed, the dynasty of Cronus and the
Titans. In the Iliad (viii. ayS) Zeus says to Hera, " For thine anger
feck 1 not, not even though thou go to the nethermost bounds of
earth and sea. where sit la^>etus and Cronus . . . and deep Tartarus
is round about them." " The gods below that are with Cronus " are
mentiooed (//. xiv. 274: xv. 225). Rumours of old divine wars
echo in the Iliad, as (i. 400) where it is said that when the other
immortab revolted against and bound Zeus, Thetis brought to his
aid Aegaeon of the hundred arms. The streams of Occanus (//. xiv.
246) are spoken of as the source of all the gods, and in the same book
(390) " Oteanus and mother Tethys " arc rn^arded as the parents
of the immortals. Zeus is usually called Cronion and Cronidcs,
vlach Hooier certainly understood to mean " son of Cronus," yet it
a expressly stated that Zeus " imprisoned Cronus beneath the earth
and the unvinragcd sea." The whole subject is only alluded to
iacidratally. On the whole it may be said that the Homeric deities
ate powerful anthropomorphic bein^ departmental rulers, united
'^ toe ordinary social and family tics of the Homeric age, capable
pain and pleasure, living 00 heavenly food, but refresncd by the
ocrifioes of men (CM. v. 100. 103), able to assume all forms at will,
sod to intermarry and propagate the species with mortal men and
women. Their past has been stormy, and their ruler has attained
power after defeating and mcdiatiaing a more ancient dynasty of his
own kindred.
From Hesiod we reorive a much more elaborate — probably a
moie ancient, certainly a more bart»rous — story of the gods and
thetr ori^a. In the beginning the gods (here used in a wide sense
to denote an early non-natural race} were begotten by Earth and
Heaven, conoeivra of as beings with human parts and passions
(Hesiod, Theot. 45)« This idea recurs in Maori. Vedk: and Chinese
mythokwy. Heaven and Earth, united in an endless embrace,
ajod tt ued children which never saw the light. In New Zealand,
CMiKse, Vedic, Imfian and Creek myths the pair had to be sundered.^
Heaiod enumerates the children whom Earth bore " when couched
in bwe with Heaven." They are Ocean, Coeus, Crius, Hyperion,
lapetuB, Theia. Rhea, Themis, Mnemosyne. Phoebe, Tethys and the
youngest. Cronus, '* and he hated his glorious father." Others of
tUs early race were the Cyclopes, Bronte, Steropte and Argc. and
three children of enormous strength, Cottus, Briareus (Aegaeon)
and Cycs, each with one hundred hands and fifty heads. Uranus
detested his offspring, and hid them in crannies of Earth. Earth
evrited Cronus to attack the father, whom he castrated with a
sickle. From the blood of Uranus (this feature is common in Red
Indian, and Egyptian myths) were born furies, giants, ash-nymphs
and Aphrodite. A number of monsters, as Echidna, Geryon and
the hound of hell, were bom of the loves of various elemental
powers.. The chief stock of the divine species was continued by
the marriage of Rhea (probably another lorm of the Earth) with
Cronnsu ^eir children were Hestir, Demeter, Hera, Hades and
' Ion. An these Cronus swallowed; and this " swallow-myth "
i in Anttnlia, among the Bushmen, in Guiana, in Brittany
(where Gnmntua did the swalknr-trick) and elsewhere. At last
Rhea bore £xu% and gave Cronus a stone in swaddling bands,
wfaidh he disposed of in the usual way. Zeus grew up. administered
an eoKtic to Cronus (some say Metis did this), and had the satts-
factkm of aeeiiv all his brothers and sisters disgorged alive. The
stone came forth 6rst, and Pausanias saw it at Delphi (Paus. x. 24).
Then followed the wars between Zeus and the gods he had rescued
from the jnaw of Cronus against the gods of tne elder branch, the
cbadren of Uranus and Gaea — Heaven and Earth. The victory
lemaiaed with the youncer branch, the immortal Olympians of
Homer. The system of Hesiod is a medley of later physkal
spw iH rti i m and of poetic altecory, with matter which we. at least,
ttf/trd as aavatge survivab, like the mutilation of Heaven and the
snaflow-myth.*
« See Tylor, Prim. Cnlt, i. 326.
^Bkmk, Bmskman Folk:Zore,
aaother theory {Setteted Essays^ 1. 4
tiS ioof alter Zf*t in Gmoe." The
keka fke a patronymic Mfiller, 1
Max Miiller suggests
' Kp6iot did not exist
name K/nvLry. or Kpovtfirc,
i mtronymic MQller, however, thinks it originally
■WMK only '^ connected with time, existing through all time. '
Very much later the name was mistaken for a genuine patronymic.
In Homer and in Hesiod myths enter the region of litetatuffL
and become, as it were, national. But it is probable that the local
myths of various cities and temples, of the " sacred chapters '*
Which were told by the priests to travellers and in the mysteries to
the initiated, were older in form than the epic and national myths.
Of these '* sacred chapters " we have fragments and hints in Hero-
dotus, Pausanias. in the mythographers, like Apollodorus. in the
tragic poets, and in the ancient sauiia or notes on the classics.
From these sources come almost all the more inhuman, bestial
and discrediuUe myths of the sods. In these we more distinctly
perceive the savage element. The gods assume animal forms:
Cronus becomes a horse, Rhea a mare; Zeus begeu separate families
of men in the shape of a bull, an ant, a serpent, a swan. His mistress
from whom the Arcadians claim descent becomes a she-bear. It
b usual with mythofedsts to say that Zeus is the " All-Father," and
that his amours are only a poetic way of suting that he is the parent
of men. But why does he assume so many animal shapes ? Why
did various royal houses claim descent from the ant, the swan, the
she-bear, the serpent, the horse and so forth ? We have already
seen that this b the ordinary pedigree of savage stocks in Asia,
Africa, Australia and America, while animals appear among Irish
tribes and in Egyptian and ancient English genealogies.* It is a
plausible hypothesis that stocks whkh once claimed descent from
animals, sans pkrau, afterwards r egarded the animals as avatars
of Zeus. In the same way " the Minas. a non-Aryan tribe of Rajpu-
tana, used to worship the pig; when the Brahmans got a turn at
them, the pig became an avatar of Vishnu " (Lyall, Astatic Studies),
The tales 01 divine cannibalism to which Pindar refers with awe,
the mutilation of Dionysus Zagreus. the unspeakable abominations
of Dionysus, the loves of Hera in the shape of a cuckoo, the divine
powers of metamorphosing men and women into bessts and stars
— these tales come to us as echoes of the period of savage thought.
Further evidence on this point will be given below in a classification
of the principal mythic legends. The general conclusion is that
many 01 the Greek deities were originally elemental, the elements
being personified in accordance with the laws of savage imagina-
tions. But we cannot explain each detail in the legends as a myth
of this or that natural phenomenon or process as understood by
ourselves. Various stages of late and early fancy have contributed
to the legends. Zeus b the sky, but not our sky, he had originally
a personal character, and that a savage or barbarous character.
He probably attracted into hb legend stories that did not origi-
nally belong to him. He became anthropomorphic, and his myth
was handled by local priests, by family bards, by national poets,
by early philosophers. Hb legend is a complex embroidery on a
very ancient tissue. The other divine myths are equally complex.
See L. R. Farnell, Cm^ of Ika Cruk Slates; Miss Jane Hamaon,
Prolegomena to Creek Religion; and Fraxer. The Golden Bough,
especially as regards the vcgcuble or " probably arboreal " aspect
of Zeus.
&aiidiiiov»an Divine Myths. — ^The Scandinavian myths of the
sods are numerous and interesting, but the evidence on which they
have reached us demands criticism for which we lack space. That
there are in the Eddas and Sagas early ideas and later ideas tinged
by Christian legend seems indubitable, but philological and histoncal
learning has by no means settled the questions of relative purity
and antiquity in the myths. The Eddie sqngs, according to F. Y.
Powell, one of the editors of the Corpus foeticum sef^eritrionala
(the best work on the subject), " cannot date eariier " in their
present form " than the 9th century," and may be vaguely placed
between a.d. 800-1100. The collector of the Edda probably
had the old poems recited to him in the 13th century, and where
there was a break in the memory of the reciters the lacuna was
filled up in prose. " As one goes through the poems, one is ever
and anon face to face with a myth of the most childish and barbaric
type," which " carries one back to prae-Aryan days." Side by
side with these old stories come fragments 01 a diflferent stratum
of thought', Christian ideas, the belieiin a supreme God. the notion
of Doomsday. The Scandinavian cosmogonic myth (with its
parallels among races savage and dviliaed) is given elsewhere.
The most important god is Odin, the son of Bestia and Bor, the
husband of r rigg. the father of Balder and many other sons, the
head of the Acsir stock of gods. Odin's name is connected with
that of Wuotan, and referred to the Old High-German verb watan
wuot a meare, cum impetu Jerri (Grimm, Teut. Myth., Eng. transl..
and " Zeus the ancient of days " became " Zeus the son of Cronus."
Having thus got a Cronus, the Greeks — and " the mbunderetanding
could have happened in Greece only " — needed a myth of Cronus.
They therefore invented or adapted the "swallow-myth " so
familiar to Bushmen and Australians. This singular reversion to
savagery itself needs some explanation. But the hypothesis that
Cronus IS a late derivation from KfioMn^ and Kpo»(wr b by no
means universally accepted. Othen derive Kp6iot from xpoiiw,
and connect it with xpiwa, a kind of harvest-home ' festival.
Schwart* (Pr6historisch-anthrop(dogische Sludien) readily proven
Cronus to be the storm, swallowing the clouds. Perhaps we may
say of Schwartz's view, as he says of PrcUcr's — " das ist (jedanken*
spiel, aber nimmermehr Mythologie."
* Elton, Origins of English History, pp. 298-301.
142
MYTHOLOGY
L 131}. Odin would thus (if we admit the ttymciogy) be the
swift goer, the " ganger," and it leema superfluous to make him
(with Grimm) " the all-powerful, all-pcrmeaiing being." a very
abstract and scarcely an early conception. Odin's brethren (in
Cylfi's Mocking) are Vile and Ve, who with him slew Ymir the
giant, and made all things out of the fragments of his body. They
also made man out of two stocks. In the Hava-Mal Odm claims
for himself most of the attributes of the medicine-man. In Loka
Senna, Loki. the evil god, says that "Odin dealt in magic in
Samsev." The goddess Frigg remarks, " Ye should never talk of
your old doings before men, of what ye two Aemr went through in
old times." But many relics of these " old times," many traces
of th« medicine-man and the " skin-shifter," survive in the myth of
Odin. When he stole Suttung's mead (which answers somewhat
to nectar and the Indian soma), he- flew away in the shape of an
eagle.* The hawk is sacred to Odin; one 01 his names is " the
Raven-god." He was usually represented as one-eyed, having
left an eye in pawn that he might purchase a draught from Mimir^
well. Tnis one eye is often explained as the sun. Odin's wife
was Frigg; their sons were Thor (the thunder-god) and Balder,
whose myth is well known in English poetry. The gods were
divided into two — not always friendly — stocks, the Aesir and Vantr.
Their relations are. on the whole, much more amicable than those
of the Asuras and Devas in Indian mythology. Not necessarily
immortal, the gods restored their vigour by eating the apples of
Iduna. Asa Loki was a beinff of mixed race, half god, halt giant,
and wholly mischievous and evil. His legend includes animal
metamorphoses of the most obscene character. In the shape of
a mare he became the mother of the eight-legged horse of Odin.
He borrowed the hawk-dress of Freya, when he recovered the
apples of Iduna. Another Eddie god, Hoene. is described in
phrases from lost poems as " the k>ng-legged one," " k>rd of the
, ooze," and his name is connected with that of the crane. The con-
stant enemies of the gods, the giants, could also assume animal
forms. Thus in Thiodolf's Haust-hnt (composed after the settle-
ment of Iceland) we read about a shield on which events from myth-
ology were painted ; among these was the flight of " giant Thazzi
in an ancient eagle's feathers." The god Herindal and Loki once
fought a battle m the shapes of seals. On the whole, the Scan-
dinavian gods are a society on an early human model, of beings
indifferently human, animal and divine — some of them derived
from elemental forces personified, holding sway over the elements,
and skilled in sorcery. Probably after the vikmg days came in the
conceptions of the last war of gods, and the end of all, and the theory
of Oain All-Father as a kind of emperor in the heavenly world.
The famous tree that lives through all the worid is re^rded as
" foreign. Christian, and confined to few poems." There is, almost
undoubtedly, a touch of the Christian dawn on the figure and
myth of the pure and beloved and ill-fated god Balder, and his
descent into nell. The whole subject is beset with critical diffi-
culties, and we have chiefly noted features which can hardly be
regarded as late, and which correspond with widely distributed
mythical ideas.
Dasent's Prose or Younger £dda (Stockholm, 1842); the Corpus
SeffteutrionaU already referred to; C. F. Keary's Mythology of the
Eddas (1882) ; Pigott's Manual of Scandinavian Mythology (1838) ,
and Lamg's Early Kings of Norway may be consulted by English
students.
Classification of Myths. — It is now neccssaiy to cast a hasty
glance over the chief divisions of myths. These correspond to
the chief problems which the world presents to the curiosity of
untutored men. They ask themselves (and the answers are
given in myths) the following questions: What is the Origin
of the World ? The Origin of Man ? Whence came the Arts
of Life? Whence the Stars? Whence the Sun and Moon?
What is the Oric^ of Death? How was Fire procured by Man?
The question of the origin of the marks and characteristics of
various animals and plants has alio produced a class of myths
in which the marks are said to survive from some memorable
adventure, or the plants and animals to be metamcMTphiSsed
human beings. Examples of all these myths are found among
savages and in the legends of the ancient civilizations. A few
such ezam^es may now be given.
Myths of the Origin of the World.— ^e have found it diflicult to
keep myths of the gods apart from myths of the oriein of the world
ana of roan, because gnds are frequently rc^rded as creative
powers. The origin of things is a problem which has everywhere
* Indra was a hawk when, " being well-winged, he carried to
mea the food tasted by the gods " iR. V. iv. 26. 4). Yehl, the
Tlingit ffod-hero, was a raven or a crane when he stole the water
(Bancroft iii. 100-102). The prevalence of animals, or of god-
animals, in myths of the stealing of water, soma and fire, is wry
remarkable. Amons the Andaman Islanders, a kinsfisher steals
fire for men from tne god Puluga {Anikrop, Journal^ November
1882).
excreised thought, and been rudely solved in myths. These vary
in quality with the civilization of the races in which they ait current,
but the same ideas which we proceed to state pervade all oosmo-
gonical myths, savage and civilized. All these legends waver
between the theory of creation, or rather of manufacture, and the
theory of evolution. The earth, as a rule, is supposed to have
grown out of some orinnal matter, perhaps an animal, perhaps an
egg which floated on the waters, perhaps a fragment of soil fished
up out of the floods by a beast or a god. But this conception does
not exclude the idea that many of the things in the world — minerals,
plants, people, and what not — ^are fragments oC the frame of an
animal or non-natural nugnificd man, or are excretions from the
body of a god. We proceed to state briefly the various forms of
these ideas. The most backward men usually assume the prior
existence of the earth.
The aborigines of the northern parts of Victoria (Australia)
believe that the earth was made by Pund-jel. the bird-creator,
who sliced the valleys with a knife. Another Australian theory is
that the men of a previous laoe, the Nooralie (very old ones), made
the earth.
The problem of the orisin of the world seems scarcely to have
troubled the Buslimen. They know about " men who brought
the sun," but their doctrines are revealed in mysteries, and Qing.
the informant of Mr Oirpen {Ca^ Monthly Magaxine, July 1874).
" did not dance that dance " that is, had not been initiated into
all the secret doctrines of his tribe. According to Qing. creation
was the work of Caign (the mantis insect). " he gave orders and
caused all things to appear." Elsewhere in the myth Cagn made
or manufactured things by his skill.
As a rule the most backward races, while rich in myths of the
origin of men, animals, pbnts, stones and stars, do not say much
about the making of the world. Among people a little more ad>
vanced, the earth Is presumed to have grown out of the waters. In
the Iroquois myth (Lafitau. Meturs des sauvages, 1794), a heavenly
woman was tossed out of heaven, and fell on a turtle, which
developed into the world. Another North-American myth assumes
a single island in the midst of the waters, and this island grew into
the world. The Navaho and the Digger Indians take earth for
granted as a starting-point in their myths. The Winnebagoa, not
untouched by Christian doctrine, do not go farther back. The
Great Manitou awoke and found himself alone. He took a piece of
his body and a piece of earth and made a man. Here the existence
of earth is assumed (Bancroft iv. 228). Even in Guatemala,
though the younger sons of a divine race succeed in making the
earth where the elder son (as usual) failed, they all had a supply of
clay as first material. The Pima, a Central-American tribe, say
the earth was made by a powerful being, and at first appeared
" like a mider's web." This reminds one of the Ananzi or spider
creator of West Africa. The more metaphysical TaculUcs of
British Columbia say that in the beginning nouf^ht existed but
water and a musk-rat. The musk-rat sought his food at the
bottom of the water, and his mouth was frequently filled with mud.
This he kept spitting out, and so formed an island, whkh developed
into the world. Among the Tlnneh. the frame of a dog (which
could assume the form of a handsome young man) became the first
material of most things. The dog, like Osiris. Dionysus, Punisha
and other gods, was torn to pieces by giants; the fragments became
many of the things in the worid (Bancroft i. 106). Even here the
existence of earth for the dog to live in is assumed.
Coming to races more advanced in civilization, we find the New
Zealanders in possession of ancient hymns in which the origin of
things is traced back to nothing, to darkness, and to a metaphysical
process from nothin|{ to something, from being to becoming. The
hymns may be read in Sir Cjeorge Grey's Polynesian Mythology, and
in Taylor's New Zealand. .It has been suggested that these hymns
bear traces of Buddhist and Indian influence; in any case, they are
rather roetaf^yskal than mystical. Myth comes in when the
Maoris represent Rangi and rapa. Heaven and Earth, as two vast
beings, male and female, united in a secular embrace, and finally
severed by their children, among whom Tane Mahuta takes the
part of Cronus in the Greek myth. The sods were partly elemental,
partly animal in character; the lists of their titles show that every
human crime was freely attributed to them. In the South S»
Islands, generally, the fable of the union and separation of Heaven
and Earth is current; other forms will be found in Gill's Myths and
Songs from the South Pacific.
The coamogofiic myths of the Aryans of India are peculiariy
interesting, as we find in the Vedas and Brahmanas and Puranat
almost every fiction familiar to savages side by side with the most
abstract metaphyrical speculations. We have the theory that
earth grew, as in the Iroquois story of the turtle, from a being
named Uttanapad (Muir v. 335). We find that Brahmanaspati
" blew the gods forth from his mouth.** and one of the gods.
Tvashtri,. the mechanic among the deities, is credited with having
fashioned the earth and the heaven (Muir v. 3jS4). The "Panisha
Suku," the 90th hymn of the tenth book of tbeKtf Vsdb, gives us
the Indian version of the theory that all things were made out of
the manned limbs of Purusha, a magnified nott>natuni3 man. who
was sacnficed by the gods. As this hymn gives an apcoant of the
origin of the castes (which elsewhere are scarody recogniaed in the
MYTHOLOGY
H3
kig Veda), it b toinetiaieB regsrded « a late additioo. But «c can
scuody tbinic the main ooaoeption late, as it U so widely scattered
that it meets us in roost mvtholodes, indudiiw those oi Chaldaea
ud Exypt, and various North-Afneiican tribes. Not. satisfied
vith tfis myth, the Aryans of India accounted for the origin of
qiecies in the loUowing barbaric style. A beina named Punisha
was akme ia the world. ' He differentiated htmseU into two beii^s.
_ The wife, regarding union with her producer
ss incest, fled from his embnces as Nemesis did from those of
Zeus, and Rhea from Cronus, assuming various animal diwuises.
The hudiaiid pursued in the form of the male of each animal, and
from these umoos sprang the various species of beasts (Satapalka'
BrokmamOp xiv. a, a; Muir t. ax). The myth of the cosmic cag
from whJch all tiungs were produced is also current in the Bralh
sMaos. In the Fwranas we find the legend of many successive
creatiooa and destmctaoos of the world a myth of world-wide
As a rule, destruction by a deluge is the most favourite myth,
but destmctions by fire and wind and by the wrath of a god are
ooomoo in Australian, Peruvian and Egyptian tradition. The
idea that a boar, or a god in the shape of a boar, fished up a bit of
csfth, wlncfa subsequently became the world, out of the waters, is
«cry wcS known to the Aryans of India, and recalls the feats of
Anerican nuak-rats and coyotes already des cri bed.* The tortoise
fpom which alt things sprang, in a myth of the Satapatha^Brakmana,
iraiinds ua of the Iroquois turtle. The Greek and Mangaian myth
of the marriage of Heaven and Earth and its dissolution is found
ia the AHanyu-Brakmama (Hang's trans, ii. 308: Rig Vgda, i. Ixii.).
So much for the Indian oosmogonic myths, which are a collection
of ideas familiar to savages, blended with sacerdotal theories and
ritaal mummeriea. The pWlasophical theory of the origin of thimn,
a hymn of remarkable stateliness, is in Rig Vtda, x. 129. The
Scaadiaavian oosmogonic myth starts from the abyss, Ginnungagaf^
a chaos of ice, from which, as it thawed, w^s produced the giant
Your. Ymir is the Scandinavian Purusha. A man and woman
qxang from his armpit, like Athene from the head of Zeus. A
oow bcked the hoar-uost, whence rose Bur, whose children, Odin,
VHc and Ve, slew the giant Ymir. " Of his flesh they formed the
canh, of his blood seas and waters, of his bones mountains, of his
teeth rocks and stones, of his hair all manner of i^nts." This is
the ^ory in the Prose Edda, derived from older songs, such as the
Cr immenmal . However the distribution of this nnguhir myth may
be ftpbincrt, its origin can scarcely be sought in the imagination
of aces higher in culture than the Tinneh and TacuUies. among
whom does and beavers are the theriomorphic form of Purusha or
Ymir.
Myths «f ike Origin Of J/an.— These partake of the conceptions
of evohition and of creation. Man was made out of day by a super-
aatursl being. Australia: man was made by Pund-jel. If em
Zeetmmd: man was made by Tiki; " he took red clay, and kneaded
k wbh hb own bkxxl.*' Mamgaia: the woman of tne abyss made
a cUkl from a piece of flesh plucked out of her own side. Melamesia:
** man was made of day.red from the marshy side of Vanua Levu";
woman was made by Qat of willow twigs. Creeee: men were
vXA^iMrc aifkafi, figures baked in clay by Prometheus.* India:
men were made after many efforts, in which the experimental
beings did not harmoniae snth their environment, by Prajapati.
Ia another dam of myths, man was evolved out of the lower animals
— fiards in Australia: coyotes, beavers, apes and other beasts in
America. The Creek myths of the descent of the Arcadians,
M yi a iid one, children of tne swan, the cow, and so forth, may be
compared. Yet again, men came out of trees or i^nts or rocks:
ss from the AustraliaQ wattle-gum. the Zulu bed of reeds, the great
tree of the Ovahereros, the rock of the tribes in Central Africa, the
cave of Boshman and North-American and Peruvian myth, '* from
tree or stone ** (Odyssey, xix. 163). This view was common among
the Gredcs. who boasted of briiw autochthonous. The Cephtsian
! of man's oirth according to a fragment of
I Egyptian and Libyan legends of the same
Jfipifcr ef the Arts ef Life.— These are almost unanimously
attributed to '! culture-heroes," beings theriomorphic or anthropo-
omrpinc. who. like Pund-jd, Qat. Quawteaht. Prometheus,
Manaboaho. Qnetialcoatl. Cagn and the rest, taught men the use
of the bow. tne proc es i cs (where known) of pottery, agriculture
(as Demeter). the due courm of the mysteries, divination, and
everything cte they knew. Commonly the* teacher disappears
mytfcrionsly. He is often regarded by modem mythologuts as
the son.
Star Mytks. — "The stats came otherwise." says Browning's
CaShnn In savage and civilised myths they are usually meta-
mnrplhiil men, women and beasts. In Australia, the Pleiades,
as in Greece, were girls. Castor and Pollux in Greece, as in Australia,
were ywnng men. Our Bear was a bear, aooording to Charievoix
and Lafitan. among the North-American Indians; the Eskima
* Blae* YttjW'Veda and SatapatkorBrakmana', Muir, i. 52.
'Aristfipbanea. Aves, 686; Etym, Magn., i.v. 'Uinor. Pausanias
saw che^y (Rsiaa. x. iv.). 'The story is also quoted by Lacuntlus
aooordiiw to Ggede, who settled the Danish odony in Greenland,
regarded the stars "very nonsensically," as "so many of thdr
ancestors ": the Egyptian pricsu showed Plutarch the stars that
had been Isis and Onris. Aristophanes, in the Pax. shows us that
the belief in the change of men into stars survived in his own day
in Greece. The Bushmen (BIcek) have the same opinion. The
Satapalba'Brahmana (Sacred Books of Ike East. xii. 2S4) shows
how Prajapati, in his incestuous k>ve, turned himself into a roe>
buck, his disughter into a doe, and how both became constellations.
This is a thoroughly good example of the savage myths (as in Peru,
according to Acosu) by which beasu and anthropomorphic gods
and sura are all jumbled together.* The Rig Veda cootaina
the
examples of the idea that the aood become stars.
Solar and Lunar Myths.— Thtet are univcnally found, and
too numerous to be examined here. The sun and moon, as in ...
Bulgarian ballad of the 5mi's Bride (a mortal giri), are looked on
as Imng bangs. In Mexico theywere two men, or gods of a human
character who were burned. The Eskimo know the moon as a
man who visits earth, and, again, as a girl who had her face spotted
by ashes which the Sun threw at her. The Khasias make tlie sun
a woman, who daubs the face of the moon, a man. The Homeric
hymn to Helios, as Max Mttller observes. " looks on the sun as a
half-god, almost a hero, who had once lived on earth." This b
precisely the Bushman view; the sun was a man who irradiated
light from bb armpit. In New Zealand and in North America
the sun b a beast, whom adventurers have trapped and beaten.
Medidne has been made with his blood. In the Andaman Isbnda
the Sun b the wife of the Moon (Jour, ef Antk. See., 188a). Among
aboriginal tribes in Indb (Dalton, p. 186^ the Moon b the Sun's
bride: she was faithlem and he cut her in two. but occasionally
leu her shine in full beauty. The Andaman Isbnders account for
the white brillbnce of the moon by saying that he b daubing
himself with white clay, a custom common in savage and Grrek
mysteries. The Red Men accounted to the Jesuits for the spherical
forms of sun and moon by saying that thdr appearance was caused
by thdr bended bows. The Moon in Greek myths loved Endymion,
and was bribed to be the mistress of Pan by the present of a
fleece, like the Dawn in AuMralia, whose unchistity was rewarded
fay a gift of a red cloak of opossum skin. Solar and lunar myths
usually account for the observed phenomena of eclipse, waning
and waxing, sunset, spots on the moon, and so forth by various
mythical adventures oi the animated heavenly brings. In modern
folk-lore the moon b a place to which bad ^people are sent, rather
than a woman or a man. The mark of the hare in the moon has
struck the imagination of (Germans, Mexicans, Hottentots, Sinhalese,
and produced myths among all the«e iaces.*
J/ytks of Deatk. — ^Few savage races regard death as a natural
event. All natural deaths are supematunl with them. Men are
assumed to be naturally immortal, hence a series of myths to
acQpunt for the origin of death. Usually some custom or " taboo "
b represented as having been broken, when death has followed.
In New Zcabnd, Maui was not properly baptised. In Australb.
a woman was told not to go near a certain tree where a bat lived ;
she infringed the prohibition, the bat fluttered out, and men died.
The Ningphoos were dismissed from Paradise and became mortal,
because one of them bathed in water which had been tabooed
(Dalton, p. 13). In the Atkarea Veda, Yama, like Maui in New
Zcabnd, first " spied out the path to the other world," which all
men after him have Uken. In the Rig Veda (x. la). Yama " sought
out a road for many." In the Solomon Islands (jotir. Antk, InsL,
Feb. 1881), " Koevari was the author of death, by resuming her
cast-off skin." The same stoiy b told in the Banks Islands. In
the Greek my
" ill diseases that give 1
from the forbidden box of Pandora. As to the Inyths of Hades,
the pboe of the dead, they are far too many to be mentioned in
detail. In almost all the gates of hell are guarded by fierce beasts,
and in Ojibway. Finnish, Greek, Papuan and Japanese myths no
mortal visitor may escape from Hades who has once tasted the
food of the dead.
Mytks ojT fi>e-sf«Bitaf.~Those current in North America (where
an animal b commonly the thieQ will be found in Bancroft, vd. iv.
The Australian version, singularly like one Greek legend, is given
by Brough Smyth. Stories of the thdt of Prometheus are recorded
by Hesiod, AMchylus, and their commentators. Muir and Kuhn
may be consulted for Vedic fire-etealing.
Heroic and Romantic Mytks. — In addition to myths which are
clearly intended to explain facts of the universe, most nations have
their heroic and romanUc myths. Familiar examples are the
stories of Perseus, Odysseus, Sigurd, the Indbn epic stories, the
adventures of Ilmarinen and \^inamoinen in the Kalewalat and
so forth. To discuss these myths as far as they can be considered
apart from divine and explanatory tales wouM demand more space
than we have at our disposal. It will become eWdent to any
student of the romantic myths that they consist of different arrange-
." The same stoiy b told in the Banks Islands. In
lyth (Hesiod, Works and Days, oo), men lived without
I that give death to men ' till the cover was lifted
I See also Visknn Pnrana, i. 131.
" - - - - - j-j^^
Max Mb!&,' Selected Essays, 1609-611.
* See Comkiil Magazine, " How the Stars got thdr Names "
(188a, p. .35), and " Some Solar and Lunar Myths " (i88a, p. 440);
144
MYXOEDEMA— MYZOSTOMIDA
ments of a rather limited set of inddents. Theie incidenu have
been roughly classified by Von Hahn.* We may modify his arrange*
ment as follows.
There is (i) the story of a bride or bridegroom who transgresses
a commandment of a mystic nature, and disappears as a result of
the sin. The bride sins as in Eros and Psyche, Freja and Oddur,
Puniravas and Urvasi.* The sin of Urvasi and Psyche was seeing
their husband*— naked in the latter case. The sin was against
" the manner of women." Now the rule of etiquette which forbids
secinjr or naming the husband (especially the latter) is of the widest
distribution. The offence in the Welsh form of the story is naming
the partner — a thing forbidden among early Greeks and modem
Zulus. Presumably the tale (with its example of the sanction) sur-
vives the rule in many cases. (2) " Penelope formula." The man
leaves the wife and returns after many years. A good example
occurs in Chinese legend. (3) Formula of the attempt to avoid
fate or the prophecy of an oracle. This incident takes numerous
shapes, as in the story of the faul birth of Perseus, Paris, the
Egyptian prince shut up in a tower, the birth of Oedipus. (4)
Slaughter of a monster. This is best known in the case of Andro-
meda and Perseus. (5) Flight, by aid of an animal usually, from
cannibalism, human sacrifice, or incest. The Greek example is
Phrixus, Helle, and the ram of the golden fleece. (6) Flight of a
lady and her lover from a giant father or wizard father. Jason
and Medea furnish the Greek example. (7) The youngest brother
the successful adventurer, and the head of the family. We have
seen the example of Greek mythic illustrations of "jQngsten-
recht," or supremacy of the youngest, in the Hedodic myth of
Zeus, the youngest child of Cronus. (8) Bride given to whoever
will accomplish difficult adventures or vanquish girl in race. The
custom of giving a bride without demanding bride-price, in reward
for a great exploit, is several times alludra to in the Iliad. In
Greek heroic myth Jason thus wins Medea, and (in the race) Milanion
wins Atalanta. In the KaUvala much of the Jason cycle,, including
this part, recurs. The rider through the fire wins Brunhild but
this may belong to another cycle of ideas. {9) The grateful beasts,
who, having been aided b]^ the hero, aid him in his adventures.
MelampuB and the snakes is a Greek example. This story is but
one specimen of the personal human character of animals in myths,
already referred to the intellectual condition of savaees. (10)
Story of the strong man and his adventures, and stones of the
comrades Keen-eye, Quick-ear, and the rest. Jason has comrades
like these, as had Ilmarinen and Heracles, the Greek " strong man."
(11) Adventure with an ogre, who is blinded and deceived by a
pun of the hero's. Odysseus and Polyphemus is the Greek ex-
ample, (la) Descent into Hades of the hero. Heracks, Odysseus,
Wainamoinen in the KaUwala, are the best-known examples in
epic literature. These are twelve specimens of the incidents, to
which we may add (13J " the false bride," as in the poem of Berte
aux grans Pus, and (14) the lecend of the bride said to produce
beast-children. The belief in the latter phenomenon is very common
in Africa, and in the Arabian Nights, mq we have seen it in America.
Of these formulae (chosen because illustrated by Greek heroic
legends) — (i) is a sanction of barbarous nuptial etiquette; (3) is an
obvious ordinary incident; (3) is moral, and both (3) and (1) may
pair off with all the myths of the origin of death from the infringe-
ment of a taboo or sacred command; (4) would naturally occur
wherever, as on the West Coast of Afnca, human victims have
been offered to sharks or other beasts; (5) the story of flight from
a horrible crime, occurs in some stellar myths, and is an easy and
natural invention; (6) flight from wizard father or husband, is
found in Bushman and Namaqua myth, where the husbajid is an
elephant; (7) success of youngest brother, may have been an ex-
planation and sanction of jUngsten-recht " — Maui in New Zealand
IS an example, and Herodotus found the story among the Scythians;
(8) the bnde given to successful adventurer, is consonant with
heroic mannen as late as Homer; (9) is no less consonant with the
belief that beasts have human sentiments and supernatural powers;
(10) the " strong man," is found among Eskimo and Zulus, and was
an obvious invention when strength was the most admired of
qualities; (11) the baffled ogre, is found among Basques and Irish,
and turns on a form of punnmj; which inspires an " ananzi " story
in West Africa; (12) descent into Hades, is the natural result oif
the savage conception of Hades, and the tale is told of actual living
people in the Solomon Islands and in New Caledonia ; Eskimo
Angckoks can and do descend into Hadea— it is the prerogative of
the necromantic magician; (ix) "the false bride." found among
the Zulus, does not permit of such easy explanation — naturally,
in Zululand. the false oride is an animal; (14) the bride accused 01
bearing beast-children, has already been disposed of; the belief is
inevit^le where no distinction worth mentioning is taken between
men and animals. English folk-lore has its woman who bore
rabbits.
The formulae here summarized, with others, are familiar in the
mirchen of Samoyeds, Zulus. Bushmen. Hottentots and Red
Indians. For an argument intended to show that Greek heroic
* Griechisctu und albanesischt Mdrchen, i. 45.
'Tenth Book of Rig Veda and " Brahmana " of Yajw-Veda;
MoUer. Selected Essays, i. 410.
myths may be adorned and classified mftrchen, in themselves
survivals of savage fancy, see Fortnightly Review, May 1872. " Myths
and Fairy Tales." The old explanation was that m&rchen are
degenerate heroic myths. This does not explain the m&rchen of
African, and perhaps not of Siberian races.
In this sketch of mythology that of Rome is not included, because
its most picturesque parts are borrowed from or adapted into
harmony with the mytfiology of Greece. Greece, India and Scandi-
navia will supply a fair example of Aryan mythology (without
entering on the difficult Slavonic and Celtic fields). (A. L.)
MTXOEDEMA (or aUtyrea), the medical term for a constitu-
lionai disease (see Metabouc Diseases) due to the degeneration
of the thyroid gland, and occurring in adults; it may be con-
trasted with cretinism, which is a condition appearing in early
childhood. There are two forms, myxoedema proper and opera-
tive myxoedema {cachexia strumipriva). (i) Myxoedema has
been termed " Gull's Disease" from Sir William Gull's observa-
tions in 1873. Women are more often the victims than men, in
a ratio of 6 to X. It frequently affects members of the same
family and may be transmitted through the mother, and it has
been observed sometimes to follow exophthalmic goitre. The
symptoms are a marked increase in bulk and weight of the body,
puffy appearance of skin which docs not pit on pressure, the line
of the features becoming obliterated and getting coarse and
broad, the Ups thick and nostrils enlarged, with loss of hair,
subnormal temperature and marked mental changes. There is
striking slowness of thought and action, the memory becomes
defective, and the patient becomes irritable and suspicious.
In some instances the condition progresses to that of dementia.
The thyroid gland itself is diminished in sixe, and may become
completely atrophied and converted into a fibrous mass. The
untreated disease i& progressive, but the course is slow and the
symptoms may extend over 12 to 15 years, death from asthenia
or tuberculosis being the most frequent ending. (2) Symptoms
similar to the above may follow complete removal of the thyroid
gland. Kocher <^ Bern found that, in the total removal of the
gland by operation, out of 408 cases operative myxoedema
occurred in 69, but it is thought that if a small portion of the
gland b left, or if accessory glands are piesent, these symptoms
will not develop. The treatment of myxoedema is similar to
that of cretinism.
MTZOSTOMIDA, a remarkable group of small parasitic
worms which live on crinoid echinodcrms; they were first dis-
covered by Leuckart in 1827. Some species, such as MytMtoma
cirriferwn, move about on the host; others, such as li. glahrmm,
remain stationary with the pharynx inserted in the mouth of the
crinoid. M. deformator gives rise to a " gall " on the arm of the
host, one joint of the pinnule growing round the worm so as to
enclose it in a cyst (see fig. £); whilst hf. pulvinar Uves aaually
in the alimentary canal of a species of Antedou.
A typical myzostomid (see A, B, C) is of a flattened rounded
shape, with a thin edge drawn out into delicate radiating cirri.
The skin ift ciliated. The «dorsal surface is smooth; ventrally there
are five paira of parapodia, armed with supporting and hooked
setae, by means of which the worm adheres to its host. Beyood
the parapodia are four paire of organs, often called suckers, but
probably of sensory nature, and comparable to the lateral sense
organs of Capitellids (Wheeler). The mouth and cloacal aperture
are generally at opposite ends of the ventral surface. The former
leads to a protnisible pharynx (B), from which the oesophagus
opens into a wide intestinal chamber with branching lateral diver-
ticula. There appeare to be no vascular system. The nervous
system consists of a circumoesophageal nerve, with scarcely differ-
entiated brain, joining below a large ganglionic mass no doubt
representing many fused ganglia (B). The dorsoventral and the
parapodial muscles are much developed, whilst the coek>m is re-
duced mostly to branched spaces in which the senital prdducta
ripen. Full-grown myzostomids are hermaphrodite. The male
organ (C) constsu of a branched sac opening to the exterior on
each side. The paired ovaries discharge their products into a
median coelemic chamber with lateral branches (C). often called
the uterus, from which the ripe ova are dischargiea by a median
dorsal pore into the terminal region of the rectum (ck»ca). Into
this same ck>acal chamber open ventrally a pair of ciliated tubes
communicating by funnels with the coelora (Nansen and Wheeler);
these are possibly nephridia. and excretory In function.
The Myzostomida are protandric hermaphrodites, being
functional males when small, hermaphrodite later, and finally
MZABITES
HS
foDctional females (Wheeler). Small "males" are in some
spedes coDStantJy associated with large hermaphrodites, but
according to Beard there are in some cases true dwarf males,
comparable to the complementary males described by Darwin
n the Cirripedia. The embryology of MytosUma has been
A. Ventral view of Mywstoma.
B. Diagnin o< J/yeos/MM. ahow-
ttg the nervous and aUmen-
Ury cyttems.
C. Diagram of J/ysoil9HM.»how-
iDg the genital organs {Jrom
t. Graf md WJUder).
«, Qoacal aperture.
er.Ana.
(, Oma.
cw.Coelom.
cf, SvoOen pinnule fomung
cyit-
«, Intestiae and its caeca.
b^ Larval t.
■.Moath.
D. Larva of Mytostoma ^brum.
(After Beard.)
E, Portion of the arm of PtHla-
crtHus, ahowing a cyat
containing MytoUoma,
Hi Ciliated tube (nephridiu'm?).
0, Opening.
0*. Ovary.
Pt Parapodium.
pk. Pharynx.
«, Sense organ.
sPt Sperm-aac.
•n, Ventral ganglionic maas.
^, Male openin^^.
9t Female opcmng.
stmSed by MetcfanOcoff and Beard. Ceavage leads to the
feimatioa of an epibolic gastrula and ciliated embryo which
batdies as a free-swimming larva remarkably like that of a
Pdycfaaetc worm (D). The Urva is provided with postoral
and perianal dUated bands, and on either -side with a bunch of
3UX 3*
long provisional aetae. The mesoderm becomes segmented,
and the parapodia subsequently develop from before backwards;
but almost all internal traces of segmenution are lost in the
adult. The structure and development of the Myzostomida
seem to show that they are nearly related to Polychaeta (see
Chastopoda), though highly modified in reUtion to their
parasitic mode of life.
AtrrHoarriES.— L. v. CrafF, Das Genus Myiostoma (Leipzig,
1877); and " The Myaostomida." CkaUenter Reports (1884). vol. x.;
E. Metchnikoff. Zeit. Wiss. Zool. (1866). vols. v.. xvi.; J. Beard.
MiUh. Z. St Ntapel (1884). vol. v.; W. M. Wheeler, ibid. (1896).
vol. xii. (E. S. C.)
MZABITES, or Beni-Mzab, a confederation of Berber tribes,
now under the direct authority of France. Of all the Berber
peoples the Mzabites have remained freest from foreign admix-
ture. Their own country is a region of the Algerian Sahara,
about 100 m. south of £1-Aghuat. It consists of five oases close
together, viz. Ghardaia, Bcni-Isguen, El-Ateuf, Melika and
Bu Nura, and two isolated oases farther north, Berrian and
Guerrara. The total population numbered at the 1906 census
4S,996, of whom about 100 were Europeans and a very small
proportion Arabs and Jews. The Mzabites are of small and
slender figure, with very short necks and under-developed legs.
Their faces are flat, with short nose, thick lips and very deep-set
eyes, and their complexion pale. Their dress is a shirt of thick
wool, usually many-cok>ured. They are agriculturists, and are
also famed as traiders. The butchers, fruiterers, bath-house
keepers, road-sweepers and carriers of the African littoral from
Tangier to Tripoli are nearly all Mzabites. Their industries, too,
are highly organized. The Mzabite burnouses and carpets are
found throughout North Africa. Their commercial honesty is
proverbial. Nearly all read and write Arabic, though in talking
among themselves they use the Zenata dialect of the Berber
language, for which, in common with other Berber peoples,
they have no written form surviving. They are Mahomme-
dans, of the Ibadite sect, and are regarded as heretics by the
Sunnites.
According to tradition the Ibadites, after their overthrow at
Tiaret by the Fatimites, took refuge during the loth century
in the country to the south-west of Wargla, where they founded
an independent state. In 1012, owing to further persecutions,
they fled to their present quarters, where they long remained
invulnerable. After the capture of £1-Aghuat by the French,
the Mzabites concluded with the Algerian government, in 1853,
a convention by which they engaged to pay an annual con-
tribution of £1800 in return for their independence. In Novem-
ber 1882 the Mzab country was definitely annexed to Algeria.
Ghardaia (pop. 7868) is the capital of the confederation, and
next in importance is Beni-Isguen (4916), the chief commercial
centre. Since the establishment of French control, Beni-Isguen
has become the d£p6t for the sale of European goods. French
engineers have rendered the oases much more fertile than they
used to be by a system of irrigation works. (See also Algeria.)
See A. Coyne, Le Mub (Alders, 1879); Rinn. Occupation du
Msab (Algiers. 1885); Amat. U KTZab et Us WZabiUs (Paris,
1888). Also Alcbria and Bbrbbrs.
xa
14-6
N— NABATAEANS
NA letter which regularly follows M in the alphabet, and,
like it in its early forms has the first limb longer than
the others; thus, written from right to left, A. . The
Semitic languages gradually diminish the size of the
other two limbs, while the Greek and Latin alphabets tend to
make all three of equal length. The earliest name of the symbol
was NuHt whence comes the Greek ny (n)}. The sound of n
varies according to the point at which the contact of the tongue
with the roof of the mouth is made; it may be dental, alveolar,
palatal or guttural. In Sanskrit these four sounds are dis-
tinguished by different symbols; the last two occur in com-
bination with stops or affricates of the same series. The French
or German n when standing by itself is dental, the Englbh
alveolar, i.e. pronounced like the English / and d against the
sockets of the teeth instead of the teeth themselves. The guttural
nasal is written in English n; as in ring; for the palatal n as
in lynch there is no separate symbol. The sound of n stands in the
same relation to J as m stands to b; both are ordinarily voiced
and the mouth position for both is the same, but in pronouncing
fi the nasal passage is left open, so that the sound of n cai^ be
continued while that of d cannot. This is best observed by
pronouncing syllables where the consonant comes last as in and
id. When the nasal passage is closed, as when one has a bad cold,
m and u cannot be pronounced; attempts to pronounce moon
result only in boad. Two important points arise in connexion
with nasals: (x) sonant nasals, (2) nasalization of vowels. The
cUscovery of sonant nasals by Dr Karl Brugman in 1876 (Curtius,
Sludien^ 9, pp. 285-338) explained many facts of language which
had been hitherto obscure and elucidated many cUfficulties in
the Indo-European vowel system. It had been observed, for ex-
ample, that the same original negative prefix was represented in
Sanskrit by a, Greek by a, in Latin by in and in Germanic by un,
and these differences had not been accounted for satisfactorily.
Dr Brugman argued that in these and similar cases the syllable
was made by the consonant alone, and the nasal so used was
termed a sonant nasal and written 9. In most cases Sanskrit
and Greek lost the nasal sound altogether and replaced it by a
vowel a, a, while in Latin and Germanic a vowel was developed
independently before the nasal. In the accusative singular of
consonant stems Sans. pManit Gr. vMa, Lat. pedem^ Sanskrit
and Greek did not, as generally, agree, but it was shown that
in such cases there were originally two forms according to the
nature of the sound beginning the next word in the sentence.
Thus an original Indo-European *pedtn, would not be treated
precisely in the same way if the next word began with a vowel
as it would when a consonant followed. Sanskrit had adopted
the form used before vowels, Greek the form before consonants
and each had dropped the alternative form. The second point—
the nasalizing of vowels — ^is difficult for an Englishman to under-
stand or to produce, as the sounds do not exist in his language.
Thus in learning to pronounce French he tends to replace the
nasalized vowels by the nearest soimds in English, making
the Fr. on a nasalized vowel (0), into Eng. ong, a vowel
followed by a guttural consonant. The nasalized vowels are
produced by drawing forward the uvula, the " tab '* at the end
of the soft palate, so that the breath escapes through the nose as
well as the mouth. In the french nasalized vowels, however,
many phoneticians hold that, besides the leaving of the nasal
passage open, there is a change in the position of the tongue in
passing from a to a. The nasalized vowels are generally written
with a hook below, upon the analogy of the transliteration of
such sounds in the Slavonic languages, but as the same symbol is
'often used to distinguish an " open " vowel from a " dose " one,
the use is not without ambiguity. On the other hand, it is not
admissible to write a for the naMliiicd vowel in languages which
have accent signs, e.g. Lithuanian. It is possible to nasalize
some consonants as well as vowels; nasalized spirants play an
important part in the so-called "Yankee** pronunciation ot
Americans. (P. Gi.)
NAA8 (pron. Nace, as in place), a market town of Co.
Kildare, Ireland, 20 m. S.W. from Dublin on branches of the
Great Southern and Western lailway and of the Grand Canal.
Pop. (1901) 3836. It is situated among the foothills of the
Wicklow Mountains, close to the river Liffey. The town is of
great antiquity, and was a residence of the kings of Leinster, the
place of whose assemblies is marked by a neighbouring rath or
mound. Naas returned two members to the Irish parliament
from 1 559 until the union in x8oo. Of a castle taken by Cromwell
in 1650, and of several former abbeys, there are no remains.
Punchestown racecourse, 2} m. S.E., is the scene of well-known
steeplechases.
NABATAEANS, a people of ancient Arabia, whose settlements
in the time of Josephus {Ant, L 12. 4; comp. Jerome, Quacsi,
in Gen. xxv.) gave the name of Nabatene to the border-land
between Syria and Arabia from the Euphrates to the Red Sea.
Josephus suggests, and Jerome, apparently following him,
affirms, that the name is identical with that of the Ishmaelite
tribe of NSbAidth (Gen. xxv. 13; Isa. be. 7), which in later Old
TesUment times had a leading place among the northern Arabs,
and b associated with Kedar (Isa. Ix. 7) much as Pliny v. 1 1 (x 2)
associates NabataH and Cedrei. The identification is rendered
uncertain by the fact that the name Nabataean is properly
spelled with / not / (on the inscriptions, cf. also Arabic Nabat,
Nabltt &c.) . Thus the history of the Nabataeans cannot certainly
be carried back beyond 312 B.C., at which date they were attacked
without success by Antigonus I. Cyclops in their xnotintain
fortress of Petra. They are described by Diodorus (xix. 94 seq.)
as being at this time a strong tribe of some 10,000 warriors,
pre-eminent among the nomadic Arabs, eschewing agriculture,
fixed houses and the use of wine, but adding to pastoral pursuits
a profiuble trade with the seaports in myrrh and spices from
Arabia Felix, as well as a trade with Egypt in bitumen from
the Dead Sea. Their arid country was the best safeguard of their
cherished liberty; for the bottle-shaped cisterns for rain-water
which they excavated in the rocky or argillaceous soil were
carefully concealed from invaders. Petra (q.v,) or Sela' was the
ancient capital of Edom; the Nabataeans must have occupied
the old Edomite country, and succeeded to its commerce, after
the Edomites took advantage of the Babylonian captivity to
press forward into southern Judaea.* This migration, the date
of which cannot be determined, also made them masters of the
shores of the Gulf of 'A^aba and the important harbour oC
Elath. Here, according to Agatharchides (Ceog. Cr, Min., i.
178), they were for a lime very troublesome, as wreckers
and pirates, to the reopened commerce between Egypt and
the East, till they were chastised by the Greek sovereigns of
Alexandria.
The Nabataeans had already some tincture of foreign culture
when they first appear in history. That culture was naturally
Aramaic; they wrote a letter to Antigonus " in Syriac letters,"
and Aramaic continued to be the language of their coins aitd
inscriptions when the tribe grew into a kingdom, and profited
by the decay of the Seleucids to extend its borders northward
over the more fertile country east of the Jordan. They occupied
9aurftn, and about 85 B.C. their king Aretas (^ritha.)
became lord of Damascus and Coele-Syria, Allies of the first
Hasmonaeans in their struggles against the Greeks (x Mace.
V. 25, ix. 35; a Mace. v. 8), they became the rivals of the Judaeaxk
dynasty in the period of its splendour, and a chief elemem in
the disorders which invited Pompey's intervention in PalestlQe.
The Roman arms were not very successful, and King Aretas
retained his whole possessions, including Damascus; as a RomaA
* See Edom. and (for the view that Mai. i. 1-5, refers to the
expulsion of Edomites from their bad) Malachi.
NABBES— NACHMANIDES
>47
As " allies " of the Romans the Nabataeaas continued to
lofonsh throttghottt the first Christian century. Their power
extended far into Arabia, particularly along the Red Sea; and
Petn was a meeting-place of many nations, though its commerce
ms diminisbed by the rise of the Eastern trade-route from
Mjoshonnus to Coptos on the Nile. Under the Roman peace
they lost their warlike and nomadic habits, and were a sober,
Kquisitive, orderly people, wholly intent on trade and agri>
culture (Strabo zvi. 4). They might have long been a bulwark
between Rome and the wild hordes of the desert but for the short-
sigfated cupidity of Trajan, who reduced Petra and broke up the
Nibstacan nationality (105 A.O.). The new Arab invaders who
MOD pressed forward into their seats found the remnants of the
Nabataeans transformed into feUdliin, and speaking Aramaic
like tbeir neighbours. Hence Nabataeans became the Arabic
name for Aramaeans, whether in Syria or Ira)^ a fact which has
bees incorrectly held to prove that the Nabataeans were origin-
ally Aramaean immigranu from Babylonia. It is now known,
bovever, that they were true Arabs— as the proper names on their
ioaoqitions show — who had come under Aramaic influence.
See especially cm this last point (aninst Quatrem^. Joum.
atiat, x¥., voL ii.. 1835). Ndldeke in ZeU. d. margenldnd, CeseU.
nil 705 «eq., xxv. 133 aeq. The ao^alled " Nabataean Agriculture "
(Fotfio Nttbafiya), which profcMcs to be an Arabic translation by
Ibn Wabahiya from an ancient Nabataean source, is a forgery of
the loth century (see A. von Gutachmid, Z. d. morunl. Ces. xv.
I seq.; Nflldeke. ib, xzix. a45 seq.). Complete bibliographical
iitfonsatioa is given by E. Schttrer In his sketch of Nabataean
bistory appended to Gisck. d. JUd. Volkes (1901, vol. i.; cf. Eng.
edition. 1890, L 3, pp. ^ sqq.); to this may be added the article
^ 151 «e. .
MiaeS, d. 9orderasuU. CeseU. (1906). pt. iii.. and Klio, 1006, p. 206 seq.
The Nabataean inscriptions (sec Semitic Languages; are collected
ia the Cerpms Inser. Semiticontm of the French Academy, pt. ii. ;
see also the Academy'a JUpertoire d'i^gr. sfm. ; and the discusnons,
&c.. ia the writings of Clennont-Ganneau [Ree. d'archid. Orient.)
aod M. Lidzbanki {Handbuck d. nard-semU. Epiy, Ephemeris /.
wn. E0ii.). For English readers the selection in G. A. Cooke,
KertkSemttie Imcripiums (Oxford, 1903) is the most useful.
(W. R.S.;S.AC.)
lABBB, THOMAS (b. 1605), English dramatist, was bom in
hnmble circumstances in Worcestershire. He entered Exeter
College, Oxford, in i6ai, but left the university without taking a
dcgm, and about 1630 began a career in London as a dramatist.
His works include: Covent Garden (acted 1633, printed 1638),
a prose comedy of small merit; Tottenham Court (acted 1634,
printed 1633), a comedy the scene of which is laid in a holiday
RSQit of the London tradesmen; Hannibal and Scipio (acted
1635, printed 1637), a historical tragedy; The Bride (1638), a
comedy; Tke Unfortunate Mother (1640), an unacted tragedy;
Mkrecosmust a iiorali Mashe (printed 1637) ; two other masques,
^Pnnfi dory and Presentation intended for the Prince his
Hig^tnetse om his Birthday (printed together in 1638); and a
continuation of Richard RnoUes's Ceneratt Historie of the Twkes
(1638). H0 verse is smooth and musical, and if his language
is sometimes coarse, his general attitude is moral. The masque
of Jfscr0C9xanu>-'reaIly a morah'ty play, in which Physander
after much error b reunited to his wife Bellanima, who personifies
the tool — is admirable in its own kind, and the other two masques,
ifighter in ccttstmction but Ingenious, show Nabbes at his best.
.Nahbes's pbys were collected In 1639; and Microcosmus was
printed in Dodslcy's Old Plays {l^^). All his works, with the
qc e piam of his continuation of Knollea's history, were reprinted
by A. H. Butlen in his Old En^isk Plays (second series. 1887).
See also F. G. Fleay. Biog. Chron. of the English Drama (1891).
IAB8A, a native state of India, within the Punjab. Area,
966 sq. m. Pop. (1901) 397,949. Its territQries are scattered;
one section, divided into twelve separate tracts, lies among the
teritories of Patiala and Jind, in the east and south of the
Ptto|ab; the other section is in the extreme south-east. The
'•hole c^ the territories belong physically to a plain; but they
nry in character from the great fertility of the Pawadh region
to the aridity of the Rajputana desert. Nabha is one of the Sikh
' Compare 3 Cor. xi. 33. The Nabataean Aretas or Aeneas there
— ' 1 reigned from 9 B.c. to K.D. 4a
sutes, founded by a member of the Phulkian family, which esub-
lished its independence about 1763. The first relatfons of the
state with the British were in i8o7>x8o8, when the raja obtained
protection against the threatened encroachments of Ranjit
Singh. During the Mutiny in 1857 the raja showed distinguished
loyalty, and was rewarded by grants of territory to the value of
over £10,000. The imperial service troops of the raja Hira
Singh (b. c. 1843; succeeded in 1871) did good service during the
Tirah campaign of 1897-98. The chief products of the state are
wheat, milieu, pulses, cotton and sugar. The estimated gross
revenue is £100,000; no tribute Is paid. The territory is crossed
by the main line and also by several branches of the North-
western railway, and is irrigated by the Sirhind canal.
The town of Nabha, founded in 1755, has a station on the
Rajpura-Bhatinda branch of the North-Westem railway. Pop.
(1901) 18,468.
See Phulkian States CoMetUer (Lahore, 1909}.
NABIOHA DHUBYAhI [ZiySd ibn Mu*awlyya] (6th and 7th
centuries), Arabian poet, was one of the last poets of pre-Islamic
times. His tribe, the Bani Dhubyftn, belonged to the district near
Mecca, but he himself spent most of his time at the courts of
Hira and Ghass&n. In Hira he remained under Mondhir (Mund-
hir) III., and under his successor in 563. After a sojourn at the
court of Ghassin, he returned to Hira tmder Nu*mgn. He was,.
however, compelled to flee to GhassSn, owing to some verses
he had written on the queen, but returned again about 600.
When Nu*mlln died some five years later he withdrew to his own'
tribe. The date of bis death is uncertain, but he does not seem
to have known Islam. His poems consist largely of eulogies and
satires, and are concerned with the strife of Hira and Ghassftn,
and of the Bani Abs and the Bani Dhubyln. He is one of the
six eminent prcrlslamic poets whose poems were collected before
the middle of the and century of Islam, and have been regarded
as the standard of Arabian poetry. Some writers consider him
the first of the six.
,Hts poems have been edited by W. Ahlwardt in the Diwans of tke
six ancient Arabic Poets (London, 1870), and separately by H.
Derenbourg (Paris, 1869, a reprint from the Journal asialioue for
1868). (G.W.T.)
NABOB, a corruption of the Hindostani fumufr, originally used
for native rulers. In the i8th century, when Clive's victories
made Indian terms familiar in England, it began to be applied
to Anglo-Indians who returned with fortunes from the East.
NABUA, a town in the extreme S. of the province of Ambos
Camarines, Luzon, Philippine Islands, on the Bicol river, about
33 m. S.S.E. of Nueva Ciceres, the capital. Pop. (1903) 18,893.
Nabua is in the district known as La Rinconada— a name
originally given to it on account of its inaccessibility. It is
connected by road, railway and the Bicol river (navigable for
light-draft boats) with Nueva C&ceres. Nabua is the centre of
an agricultural region, which produces much rice and some
Indian com, sugar and pepper. The language is Bicol.
NACAIRB, Nakkb, Naquaise (Arab, naqdra)^ the medieval
name for the kettledrum, the earliest representation of which
appears in the unique MS. known as the Vienna Genesis (5th or
6th century). The nacaire was, according to Froissart , among the
instruments used at the triumphal entry of Edward III. into
Calais. The Chronicles of Joinville describe the instrument as
a kind of drum: " Lor il fist sonner les taboufs que 1' on appelle
nacaires.'' Chaucer, in his description of the tournament in the
Knight's Tale, line 1653, also refers to this early kettledrum.
NACHMAlflDBS (Na^anides), the usual name of Moses
BEN Na91(an (known also as Ramban), Jewish scholar, was bom
in (jcrona in X194 and died in Palestine c. 1 270. His chief work,
the Commentary on the Pentateuch, is distinguished by originality
and charm. The author was a mystic as well as a philologist,
and his works unite with peculiar harmony the qualities of reason
and feeling. He was also a Talmudist of high repute, and wrote
glosses on various Tractates, Responsa and other legal works.
Though not a philosopher, he was drawn into the controversy
that arose over tfie scholastic method of Maimonides {q.v.).
He endeavoured to steer a middle course between the worshippers
148
NACHOD— NADIA
ftnd the ezoommanicaton of Maimonidcs, but he did not succeed
in healing the breach. His homiletic books, EpislU on Sanaity
{Iggeretk ka-qodcsk) and Law of Man {Toratk ka-Adam), which
deal respectively with the sanaity of marriage and the solemnity
of death, are full of intense spirituality, while at the same time
treating of ritual customs— a combination which shows essential
Rabbinism at its best. He occupies an important position in the
history of the acceptance by medieval Jews of the Kabbala
(q.v.)', for, though he made no fresh contributions to the philo-
sophy of mysticism, the fact that this famous rabbi was himself
a mystic induced a favourable attitude in many who would other-
wise have rejected mysticism as Maimonides did. In 1363
Nabmanides was forced to enter into a public disputation with
a Jewish-Christian, Pablo Christian!, in the presence of King
James of Aragon. Though Nachmanides was assured that
perfect freedom of speech was conceded to him, his defence was
pronounced blasphemous and he was banished for life. In 1267
he went to Palestine and settled at Acre. He died about 1270.
See S. Schechter. Studies in_Judaism, first aeries. pp. 120 seq.;
* " I vol. iii. ch.
XVI.
(I.A.)
Craeu. History of the Jews (English translation
andxviL).
nAcHOD, a town of Bohemia, Austria, Z09 m. E.N.E. of
Prague by rail Pop. (1900) 9899, mostly Czech. It is situated
on the Mettau river, at the entrance of the Lewin-Nachod pass.
The old castle contains a collection of historical paintings and
archives, and there are several old churches, of which that of
St Lawrence is mentioned as the parish church in 1350. The
town originally gathered round the castle of Nichod, of which
the first lord was a member of the powerful family of Hron,
in the middle of the X3th century. It suffered much during the
Hussite Wars, and in 1437 was captured by the celebrated robber
knight Kolda of 2ampach, and retaken by George of Podebrad
in 1456 and included in his estates. It was sold in 1623, and in
1634 given to Ottavio Piccolomini; finally, after many changes
of ownership, the castle and titular lord^ip came in 1840 to
the princes of Schaumburg-Lippe. The important engagements
fouc^t near the town on the 37th and 28th of June 1866 opened
Bohemia to the victorious Prussians.
NACHTIGAU OUSTAV (1834-1885), German explorer in
Central Africa, son of a Lutheran pastor, was bom at Eichstedt
in the Mark of Brandenburg, on the 23rd of February 1834.
After medical study at the universities of Halle, Wilrzburg
and Greifswald, he practised for a few years as a military
surgeon. Finding the climate of his native country injurious
to his health, he went to Algiers and Tunb, and took part, as a
surgeon, in several expeditions into the interior. Commissioned
by the king of Prussia to carry gifts to the sultan of Bomu in
acknowledgment of kindness shown to German travellers, he
set out in 1869 from Tripoli, and succeeded after two years'
joumeyings in accomplishing his mission. During this period
be visited Tibesti and Borku, regions of the central Sahara
not previously known to Europeans. From Bomu he went
to Bagirmi, and, proceeding by way of Wadai and Kordofan,
emerged from darkest Africa, after having been given up for
l<»t, at Khartum in the winter of 1874. His journey, graphically
described in his Sahara und Sudan (3 vols., 1879-1889), placed
the intrepid explorer in the front rank of discoverers. ()n the
establishment of a protectorate over Tunisia by France, Nachtigal
was sent thither as consul-general for the German empire, and
remained there until 1884, when he was despatched by Prince
Bismardt to West Africa as special commissioner, ostensibly
to inquire into the condition of German commerce, but really
to annex territories to the (jerman flag. As the result of his
mission Togoland and Cameroon were added to the German
empire. On his return voyage he died at sea off Cape Palmas
on the 80th of April 1885, and was buried at Grand Bassam.
Nachtiears travels are summarized in Gustao NachtigaTs Reisen
in der Saihara und im Sudan, by Dr Albert Frankel (Leipzig, 1887).
' " ' ' ' * ' - -. - -t of nis
^. srAfriq,
fran^aise^ for 1903 under the title of " Le Voyage de Nachtieai au
A French translation, by j. van Vollenhoven, of that part of
work concerning Wadai, appeared in the Bull, du comiti de VAfriq.
Ouadai.'* Nachtigal died before transcribing his notes on Wadai,
and they were edited in the (German edition by £.> Groddeck.
NADASDY. TAMIS U Count, called the great paUtine
(i498<-x562), Hungarian statesman, was the son of Francis L
Nidasdy and was educated at Grax, Bologna and Rome. In
1 521 he accompanied Cardinal Cajetan (whom the pope had sent
to Hungary to preach a crusade against the Turks) to Buda as
his interpreter. In 1525 he became a member of the council of
state and was sent by King Louis II. to the diet of Spires to ask
for help m the imminent Turkish war. During his absence the
Moh&cs catastrophe took pUce, and Nidasdy only returned
to Hungary in time to escort the queen-widow from Komironti
to Pressburg. He was sent to offer the Hungarian crown to
the archduke Ferdinand, and on his coronation (Nov. 3rd, 1 527)
was made commandant Of Buda. On the capture of Buda by
Suleiman the Magnificent, N&dasdy went over to John Zapolya.
In 1530 he successfully defended Buda against the imperUlists.
In X 533 his jealousy of the dominant influence of Ludovic
Gritti caused him to desert John for Ferdinand, to whom he
afterwards remained faithful. He was endowed with enormous
estates by the emperor, and from 1537 onwards became
Ferdinand's secret but most influential counsellor. Subsequently,
as ban of Croatia-SUvonia, he valiantly defended that border
province against the Turks. He did his utmost to promote
education, and the school which he founded at Cj-Sxiget, where
he also set up a printing-press, received a warm eulogy from
Philip Melanchthon. In 1540 Nidasdy was appointed grand-
justiciar; in 1547 be presided over the diet of Nagysxombat,
and finally, in 1559, was elected palatine by the diet of Pressburg.
In his declining years he aided the heroic Mikl6s Zrinyi against
the Turks.
See Mihily Horvith. The Life of Thomas Nidiurfy (Hung.) (Buda.
1838); T. N&daidy, Family correspondence of Thomas Nddasdy
(Hung.) (Budapest. 1882). (R. N. B.)
NADEN, CONSTANCE CAROUNB WOODHILL (1858-1889),
English author, was bom at Edgbaston, on the 24th of January
X858, her father being an architect. Her mother died just aJter
the child's birth, and ConsUnce was brought up in the home of
her grandfather. In x88i she began to study physical science
at Mason (College, Birmingham. In x 881 she published Songs
and Sonnets of Springtime; in 1887, A Modern Apostle, and oiker
Poems. Her poems made such an impression on W. E. Gladstone
that he included her, in an article in the Speaker, among the fore-
most English poetesses of the day. After her grandfather's
death Miss Naiden found herself rich, and she travelled in the
East and then (x888) settled in London. She died on the 23rd
of December i8iB9. After 1876 she had paid increasing attention
to philosophy, with her friend Dr Robert Lewins, and the two
had formtjated a system of their own, which they called " Hylo-
Idealism." Her main ideas on the subject are contained in a
posthumous volume of her essays {Induction and DeducHou,
X890), edited by Dr Lewins.
NADIA, or Nitdoea, a district of British India, in the
Presidency division of Bengal. The administrative head-
quarters are at Krishnagai. Area, 3793 sq. m.; pop. (igoi)
1,667,491. It is a district of great rivers. Standing at the head
of the Gangetic delta, its alluvial surface, though stiU liable to
periodical inundation, has been raised by ancient deposits of
silt sufficiently high to be permanent dry land. Along the entire
north-eastern boundary flows the main stream of the Ganges
or Padmft, of which all the remaining rivers of the district
are offshoots. The BhSgirathl on the eastern border, and the
Jalangi and the Matabhanga meandering through the centre
of the district, are the chief of those offshoots, called distinctively
the "Nadia rivers." But the whole surface of the country
is interlaced with a network of minor streams, communicating
with one another by side channels. All the rivers are navigable
in the rainy season for boats of the largest burthen, but during
the rest of the year they dwindle down to shallow streams, with
dangerous sandbanks and bars. In former times the Kadia
rivers afforded the regular means of communication between
the upper valley of the Ganges and the seaboard; and much
of the trade of the district still comes down to Calcutta by this
route during the height of the rainy season. But the railways.
NADIM— NAEVIUS
149
vfaji the main stxcara of the Ctoges tnd the SundarlMuit route,
now any by far the laxger portion <rf the traffic Rice is the
suple crap; bqt the dirtiict ii not as a whole fertile, the aofl
bang sandy and the methods of cultivation backward It is
trnxned by the main line and also by several branchcsof the
Eastern Bengal railway. The battlefield of Plassey was situated
in this district, but the floods of the Bhlgirathl have washed
sway some part of iL
Nadu or Nabadwip, an andent capital of Bengal, was formeriy
sitaated on the east bank of the BhAgirathI, which has since
changed its oonrBe. Pop. (zgox) xo,88a It is celebrated for
the sanctity and Ifsaming oHts pundits, and as the birthplace
of Chaitanyn, the Vaishnav rdfotmer of the z6th century. Its
Sanskrit schools, called tols,_ut well known and of andent
■ADIM [Abolfazaj Mahommed ibn Is^ftq ibn abl Ya*q11b
fls-Kadbn] (d. 995), of Bagdad, the author of one of the most
iatocstlng works in AraUc literature, the Pikrist id'*Uliim
r fiat of the booksof all nations that were to be found in Arabic ")
with notices of the authors and other- particulars, carried down
to the year 988. A note in the Ldden MS. places the death of
the author eight years later. Of his life we know nothing. His
work gives as a oonq>lete picture of the most active intellectual
period of the Arabian empire. He traces the rise and growth of
philology and bel]es4ettres, of theology, orthodox and heretical,
of law and history, <rf mathematics and astronomy, of medidne
and akhemy ; he* does not despise the histories of knighu errant,
the fables of Kalila and Dimna, the facetiae of the " boon com-
paoions,** the works of magic and divination. But to us no
part of fab work is more interesting than his account of the
bdieb of sects and peoples beyond Islam. Here, fortunately,
sdD more than in other parts of his work, he goes beyond the
functions of the mere cataloguer; he tells what he learned of
China from a Christian missionary of Nejrin, of India from a de-
scripticMi of its rdigion compUed for the Barfnedde Yabya; his full
accounts of the Sabians of Harran and of the doctrines of Mani
are of the fiist impfortance for the historian of Asiatic religions.
Zzaperfect manuKnpCs of the' Fikrisi exist in Paris, Leiden and
\1eftiia. The text was prep a ied for publication by G. FIttsel. and
a&ed after his death by J. RAdtger and A. Mailer (a vols., Leipzig,
1871-167^). FUkni had already given a full analysis of the work
In the Jomrmai eftiu German Oriental Society, vol. xiii. (1859), pp.
55;ih^5o: - cf. E. G. Browne, A Literary History of Persia (London,
1902), m. sSi'S^l- T. Houtsma supplied a lacuna in Flflgel's
edidoB m the Vteama Oriental Journal, voL iv. pp. 217 aqq.
HADia (Arabic nafir, " opponte to," used elliptically for
na^-es^aemt, " opposite to the zenith "),a, term used in astronomy
for the point in the heaveiB exactly opposite to the senith, the
acBith aifid nadir being the two poles of the horizon. It is thus
oaed figuratively of the lowest dtepth of a person's spirits or the
lowest point in a career.
ffAWftKf^, KARL WILHELM VOH (1817-1891), Swiss
tvt*ajwc»^ was bom on the 37th of March 18x7 near Zurich. He
studied botany under A. P. de CandoUe at Geneva, and graduated
with A botanical thesis at Zurich in 1840. His attention having
beea directed by M. J. Schldden, then professor of botany at
Jena, to the microscopical study of plants, he engaged more
poxtioilarly in that branch of research. Soon after graduation
be b**-^*"^ PrtBoldotaU and subsequently professor eztra-
QRfisaiy,. hi the nnivefstty of Zurich; in 1852 he was called
to fifl the diair of botany in the university of Frdburg-in-
Bids^an; and in 1857 be was promoted to Munich, where he
rcsained as professor until his death on the nth of May 1891.
Among his noore important contributions to sdence were a series
of papeR in the Zeitsckrift filr wissensckaftlicke Botanik (1844-
iS^tf); Die neuem Algtntysteme (1847); Gattungen eifuetliger
Al^m (X&49); FJUstMOipkysialogixke Untersuckungen (1855-
18 5S), vitli C. E. Cramer; BeitrUge mr vissensckaftlicken
BMrmk (x8s^z868); a number of papers contributed to the
S«yal Bavarian Academy of Sciences, forming three volumes of
BvtmuAa Mitleiktn^ (z86i>i88i); and, finally, his volume,
Uxkamisch'physielogucke Tkttris der AhstatitmungsUkre, pub-
EifaediBx8a4.
The more striking of his many and varied discoveries are embodied
in the Zeilsch.Jur wiss. Bot. In this we begin with NaegcU's extension
of Robert Brown's discovery of the nucleus to the pnncipal families
of Crvptogams, and the assertion of its universal occurrence in plants,
together with the recognition of its vesicular structure. There is
further his invcstisation of the " mucous layer " (Schleimschicht)
lining the wall of aU normal cells, where he shows that it consists ch
granular " mucus," which, at an earlier stage, filled the cell-cavity,
and which diffsn chemically from the cell-wall in that it is nitro-
genous. Thb layer he proved to be never absent from living cells —
to be, in fact, itself the living part of the cell, a discovery which was
stmultaneousl^r (1846) made by Hugo von Mohl (1805-1873). who
save to the liviiw matter of the plant-body the name " protoplasm."
In connexion with these discovente, Naegeli controverted Schleiden's
view of the universality of free^ell-formation as the mode of cell-
multiplication, and showed that in the vegetative organs, at least,
new oeils are formed by divbion. In the Zeitsckrift, too, is Naegcli's
most important algological work — such as the paper on Catderpa,
which brought to ught the mnarkable unseptate structure tA the
Siphoneae, and hu research on Delesseria, which resulted in the
discovery of growth by a single apical cell. Thb discovery led
Naegeli on to the study of the growing-point in other plants. He
consequently gave the nrrt accurate account of the apical cell, and
of the mode oigrowth of the stem in various Mosses and Liverworts.
Subsequeady be observed that in Lpcopodiwn and in Angiospenns
the ^rowing-point has no apical ceU, but consUts of a smaU-ceUcd
menstem, m which the fint differeiktuition of the permanent tissues
can be ttaced. One of the most remarkable discoveries recorded in
the Zeitsckrin b that of the antheridb and spermatosoids of Ferns
and of Piltuaria. The Beitrdge snr wiss. Botanik consbts almost
entirely of researches into the anatomy of vascular plants, while
the main feature of the PflanMenphystoloriscke Untersuchungen b
the exhaustive work on the structure, development and various
forms of stareh-grains. The Botanische Mitteilungen include a
number of papers m all departments of botany, many of them being
continuations and extensions of hb earlier work. In hb Thearie der
Abstammungslekre Naegeli introduced the idea of a definite material
basb for tKredity; the substance he termed "idioplasm." Hb
theory of evolution b that the idioplasm of any one ^neration u
not identical with that of either its progenitors or its progeny:
it b always increasing in complexity, with the result that each succes-
sive generation marks an advance upon its predecessor. Hence
variation takes place determinatcly, and in the higher direction only;
while variability b the result of internal causes, and natural selection
plays but a small part in evolution. Whereas, on the Darwinian
theory, all orEaniution b adaptive, according to Naegeli the develop-
ment of higner organization b the outcome of ue spontaneous
evolution of the idioplasm.
More detailed accounu of Naegeli's life and work are to be found
in Nature, x6th October 1891, and in Proc. Ray. Soc., vol. Ii.
(S. H. V.*)
NAESTVED, a town of Denmark,' in the ami (county) of
PraestS, near the S.W. coast of Zealand, 59 m. by rail S.W. of
Copenhagen. Pop. (1901) 7162. From X140 to the Reformation
it was one of the most important towns of the kingdom, though
dependent upon the monastery of St Peter (founded here in
X135). North of the town (i| m.) lies Herlufsholm, where
Admiral Heriuf Trolle founded a Latin school in 1567, still
extant.
NAEVIUS, ONAEUS (c. 364-? 194 B.C.), Latin epic poet and
dramatbt. There b great uncertainty in regard to hb life.
From the expression of Gellius (i. 34.' x) characterizing his
epiuph as written in a vein of " Campanian arrogance " it has
been inferred that he was bom in one of the Latin communities
settled in Campania. But the phrase " Campanian arrogance "
seems to have been used proverbially for " gasconade "; and,
as there was a plebeian gens Naeoia in Rome, it b quite as
probable that he was by birth a Roman dtizen. He served cither
in the Roman army or among the socii in the first Punic War,
and thus must have reached manhood before 241. Hb career
as a dramatic author began with the exhibition of a drama in
or about the year 435, and continued for thirty years. Towards
the dose he incurred the hostility of some of the nobility, espe-
dally, it b said, of the Metelli, by the attacks which he made
upon them on the stage, and at their instance he was imprisoned
(Plautus, MU. Glor. 2xx). After writing two plays during hb
imprisoimient, in which he b said to have apologized for hb
former rudeness (Gellius iii. 3. X5), he was liberated through the
interference of the tribunes of the commons; but he had shortly
afterwards to retire from Rome (in or about 204) to Utica.
It may have been during hb exile, when withdrawn from his
active career as a dramatbt, that he composed or completed his
ISO
NAEVUS— NAGA HILLS
poem on the fisvt Punic war. Probably his latest composition
was the cpiti^h alzeady referred to, written like the epic in
Satuznian ver8e^—
" Immortales mortales si foret fas flere,
Flercnt divae Camenae Naevtum poetam;
Itaque postquam est Ord traditus theaauro
Obliti sunt Komai loquter lingua Latina." ^
If these lines were dictated by a jealousy of the growing ascend-
ancy of Ennius, the life of Naevius must have been prolonged
considerably b^nd 304, the year in which Ennius began his
career as an author in Rome. As distingwshed from Livius
Andronicus, Naevius was a native Italian, not a Greek; he was
also an original writer, not a mere adapter or translator. If it
was due to Livius that the forms of Latin literature were, from
the first, moulded on those of Greek literature, it was due to
Naevius that much of iu q>irit and substance was of native
growth.
Like Ltvius, Naevius professed to adapt Greek tragedies and
.comedies to the Roman stage. Among the titles of his tragedies are
Aegistkus, Lycurgus, Andromache or Hector Profieiseens, Ejuus
Trojanus, the last named being performed at the opening of Pompey 's
theatre (55). The national cast of his {{enius and temper was shown
by his dcvuting from his Greek originals, and produciqg at least
two specimens m the fabula traetexta (national drama) one founded
on the childhood of Romulus and Remus {Lupus or Alimonium
Romuli et Remi), the other called Clastidium, which celebrated the
victory of M. Claudius MarceUus over the Celts (222). But it was
as a writer of comedy that he was most famous, most productive
and most original. While he is never ranked as a writer of trasedy
with Ennius, Pacuvius or Accius, he is placed in the canon of the
giammarian Volcactus Sedigitus third (imnAediatcly after Caecilius
and Plautus) in the rank of Roman comic authors. He is there
characterizca as ardent and impetuous in character and style. He
is also appealed to, with Plautus and Ennius, as a master of his
art in one of the prologues of Terence. His comedy, like that of
Plautus, seems to nave been rather a free adaptation 01 his originals
than a rude copy of them, as those of Livius probably were, or an
artistic copy like those of Terence. The titles of most of them, like
those of plautus, and unlike those of Caecilius and Terence, are
Latin, not Greek. He drew from the writers of the old political
comedy of Athens, as well as from the new comedy of manners, and he
attempted to make the stage at Rome, as it had been at Athens, an
*arena of political and persoiml warfare. A strong spirit of partisanship
is recognized in more than one of the fragments; and this spirit
b thoroughly popular and adverse to the senatorial ascendancy
which became more and more confirmed with the progress of the
second Punk: war. Besides hb attack on the Mctellt and other
members of the aristocracy, the great Sdpm b the object of a
censorious criticbm on account of a jyouthful escapade attributed to
him. Among the few lines still remaining from his k>st comedies, we
seem to recognize the idiomatic force and rapidity of movement
characteristic of the styk: of Plautus. There b also found that
love of alliteration which b a marked feature in all the older
Latin poets down even to Lucretius. In one considerable comic
fragment attributed to him— the descriptkm of a coquette—there
is great truth and shrewdness of obscrvatbn. But we find no
trace of the exuberant comic power and geniality of hb great con-
He was not only the oldest native dramatbt, but the first author
of an epic poem {Belium i'tmicnm)— which, by combining the
representation of actual contemporary hbtory with a mythical
background, may be said to have created the Roman wpe of epic
poetry. TIm* poem was one continuous work, but was divided into
seven books by a grammarian of a later age. The earlier part of it
treated <^ the mythkal adventures of Aeneas in Sicily, Carthage
and Italy, and borrowed from the interview of 2^us and Thetis in the
first book of the Iliad the idea of the interview of Jupiter and Venus;
which VirEil has made one oi the cardinal passa^ in the Aenetd.
The later part treated of the evenu of the first Punk: war in the style
of a metrical chronule. An important influence in Roman literature
and belief, which had iu origin In Sicily, first appeared in thb
poem— the recognitbn of the mythkal connexk>n of Aeneas and
hb Trojans with the foundation of Rome. The few remaimng
fragments produce the impression of vivid and rapkl narrative, to
which the flow of the native Satumbn verse, in contradbtinction
to the weighty and complex structure of the hexameter, was naturally
adapted.
The impression we get of the man b that, whether or not he
actually enjoyed the full rights of Roman citizenship, he was a
» " If it were permitted that immortab should weep for mortals,
the divine Camenae would weep for Naevius the poet; for since he
, bath passed into the treasure-house of death men have forgotten
at Rome how to speak in the Latin tongue."
vigorous represehutive of the bold combative spirit of the ancient
Roman commons. He was one of those who made the Latin
language into a great organ of literature; The phrases still
quoted from him have nothing of an antiquated sound, while they
have a genuinely idiomatic ring. As a dramatist he worked more
in the spirit of Plautus than of Ennius, Pacuvius, Accius or
Terence; but the great Umbrisn humorist b separaUxl from his
older contemporary, not only by Us breadth <rf comic power, but
by hb general attitude of moral and political indifference. The
power of Naevius was the more genuine Italian gift — the power of
satiric criticism — ^which was employed in making men ridiculous,
not, like that of Plautus, in extracting amusement from the
humours, follies and eccentricities of life. Although our means of
forming a fair estimate of Naevius are scanty, all that we do
know of him leads to the conclusion that he was far from being
the least among the makexs of Roman literature, and that
with the loss of hb writings there was lost a vein of national
feeling and genius which rardy reappears.
Fragments, (dramas) in L. MflUer, Lroi Audrouiei et Cn. A'oett
Fabularum Raiquiae (1885). and iBeltum Punicum) in hb edition
of Ennius (1884)1^ monographs by E. Kluasmann (1843); M. J.
Berehcro (1861): D. de Moor (1877): Mommsen, History rfRome,
bk. iii., ch. 14. On Virgil's indebtedness to Naevius and Ennius,
see V. Crivelufi, Quae pneeipue kausU Verg^ius ex Naeoio et Enmia
(1889).
NABVUS* a term In surgery signifying that form of tumour
which b almost entirely composed of enlarged blood-vessds.
There are three prindinl varieties: (i) the capillary naevus,
consbting of enlarged capillaries, frequently of a puiplbh colour,
hence the term " port-wine stain "; (2) the venous naevus, in
which the veins are enlarged, of a blubh colour; (3) the arterial
naevus, in which there b dbtinct pulsation, It being composed
of enlarged and tortuous arteries. The naevus can be lessened
Id size by pressure. It generally occurs in the skin or immediately
under it; sometimes it lies in the mouth in connexion with the
mucous membrane. It b often congenital, hence the term
" mother's marie," or it may appear in early childhood. It often
grows rapidly, sometimes slowly, and sometimes growth b
checked, and it may gradually diminish in size, k)sing iu vascu-
larity and becoming fibrous and non-vascular. Thb natural cure
b followed by less deformity than a cure by artificial means.
Various methods are use4 by surgeons whoi an operation is
called for: (i) the tumour may be excised; (2) a ligature tightly
tied may be applied to the base of the tumour; (3) inflammation
may be set up in the growth by the injection of irriuting agenu.
— ^in thb way its vascuhirity may be checked and the formation
of fibrous tissue encouraged; (4) the blood in the enlaqced vessels
may be coagulated by the injection of coagulating agents or by
electrolysis.
NAGA HILLS, a dbtrict of Britbh India in the Hills division
of Eastern Bengal and Assam. It forms part of the mountainous
borderland lying between the Brahmaputra valley and Upper
Burma. Area, 3070 sq. m.; pop. (1901) 102,403. Towards the
N. lie the Patkoi hiUs, over which British jurisdictk>n has never
been extended; but since 1904 the southern tract, formerly
known lis the " area of politiod control," has been incorporated
in the dbtrict, thus extending Iu £. boundaxy from the Dikho
to' the Tizic river. The whole country forms a wild exi>anse of
forest, mountain and stream. The valleys are covered with
dense jimgle, dotted with small lakes and marshes. Coal is
known to exbt in many localities, as well as Iron ore and petro-
leum. The adminbtrative headquarters of the district are atj
Kohima (pop. 3093), which b garrisoned by two companies of
native infantry and a battalion of military police. The Dimapuis
Manipur cart-road crosses the hills, connecting Kohima wit^
the Assam-Bengal railway.
Naga means " naked," and b the term applied by the Assame*
to the wild tribes of the hills, of which the chief dans are calld
Angami, Ao, ShoU, Sema and Rengma. The^e tribes ha^
shown extraordinary obstinacy in their resbtance to the Biitiri
arms. Between 1832 and 1849 ten armed expeditions wd
despatched to chastise them, and from 1866 to 2887 there we|
eight more, a record which exceeds that of the most turbulori
NAGAR— NAGOYA
151
bftci 00 the Noith-West Frontier. Since 1899, however, little
tnmbk has been experienced
See xVofa SiUs District Gaztttetr (CakutU. 1905).
1IA6AB, formerly Bednux, & village and mined dty of Mysore,
ladia; pop. (1901) 7x5. About 1640 the leat of government of
the njas of Keladi was transferred to this place. When taken
bj Hyder Ali in 1763, it is said to have yielded a plunder of
tvdve milKotw In 1783 it surrendered to a British detachment
Qcder General Matthews, but being shortly after invested by
Tippoo Suhan, the garrison capitulated on condition of safe
coodixt to the coast. Tippoo violated the stipulation, put
Gecenl ^latthews and the principal officers to death, and
impraooed the remainder of the force.
' NiGiBJUIA, a celebrated Buddhist phHosopher and writer.
He is constantly quoted in the literature of the later schools
d Boddhism, and a very large number of works in Sanskrit is
aitnbsted to him. None <rf these has been critically edited or
tnmkted; and there is much uncertainty as to the exact date
o( his career, and as to his opinions. The most probable date
seems to be the early put of the 3rd century a.d. He seems to
ha^T been born in the south of India, and to have lived under the
parooage of a king of southern Kosala, the modem Chattisgarh.
Cbioese and Tibetan authorities differ as to the name of this
.oiooarcb; but it apparently is meant to represent an Indian
Rime Satayihana, which is a dynastic title, not a perwnal name.
Of the works he probably wrote one was a treatise advocating
the .Vlidhyamaka views of which he is the reputed founder;
untbcT a kyng and poetical prose work on the stages of the
Bodhisattva career; and a third a voluminous commentary on
toe Uak&frajM^pdrdmiid SMra. Chinese tradition ascribes
to him special knowledge of herbs, of astrology, of alchemy
ifid of medidne. Two medical treatises, one on prescriptions in
general, the other on the treatment of eye-disease, are said, by
Chbese writers, to be by him. Several poems of a didactic
chirscter are aho ascribed to him. The best known of these
poems b The Friendly Epistle addressed to Ring Udayana.
A tnnslation into English of a Tibetan version of this piece has
b<en published by Dr Wenzel.
AvTHORiTiES.— H. Wenzel. Journal of the Pali Text Society
(i^), pp. 1.32: T. WaUCTs. Oh Yuan Ckadng. ed. by Rhys Davids
23d S. W. Biisbcfl (London. 1904-1905). T&ranatha's CeukichU
ia Btdikismus in indien, trans. Anton Schiefner (Leipzig. 1869):
W. WasHljev, Der Bwddkismus (Leipzig, i860). (T. W. R. D.)
MAQAUJSU a town on the south-west of the island of Kiushiu,
Japan, in jj" 44' N., 1 29* 51' E., with 163,324 (1905) inhabitants,
^ a foreign settlement containing a population of 400 (ex-
cisdiqg Gunese). The first port of entry for ships coining from
the south or the west to Japan, it lies at the head of a beautiful
iskt some 3 m. long, which forms a splendid anchorage, and is
Ivftly ttied by ships coming to coal and by warships. Marine
predicts, coal and cotton goods are the chief exports, and raw
ccAtoo, iron, as well as other metals and materials used for sbip-
ba:ldiii^ a)i»titute the principal imports. The value of imports
^■pro3ches £2/xx>,ooo annually. That of exports has fluctuated
(na^derabiy. In 1889 it was £1,005,367, but in 1894 it was only
£h4^19. and does not generally exceed £450,000. The moist
ispoztzat industries of the town are represented by the engine
«c^ of Aka-no-ura, three large docks and a patent slip, the
prc^KTty of the Biitsu Bishi Company. Steamers of over 6000
t'Qs Jave been constmcted at these docks, which, as well as the
ci^ipK works, are situated on the western shore of the inlet.
Tbe brisk atmosphere of business that pervades them does not
Rach the town on the eastern side, which lies under the shadow of
fortsts of tombstones that cover the over-looking hills. Nagasaki
« noted as a coaling station. The coal is obtained chiefly from
TabsUma, an islet 8 m. S.E. of the entrance to the harbour,
sni iQ lesser quantities from two other islets, Naka-no-shima
2nd Ha-shima, which lie about x m. farther out. These sources
<^ apply, ho wev er, show signs of exhaustion. There are several
(ivcntke health resorts in the neighbourhood of Nagasaki,
BotaUy Unzen, with its sulphur qnings.
Nagasaki owed its earliest importance to foreign intercourse.
OripuStj called Fnkae-no-ura (Fukae Bay), it was induded in
the fief of Nagasaki Kotaro in the lath century, and from him
it took its name. But it remained an insignificant village until
the i6th century, when, becoming the headquarters of Japanese
Christianity, and subsequently the sole emporium of foreign
trade in the hands of the Dutch and the Chinese, it devdoped
considerable prosperity. The opening of the port of Moji for
export trade deprived Nagasaki of its monopoly as a coaling
station, and the visiu of war vessels were reduced when Russia
acquired Port Arthur, Great Britain Wd-hai-wd and Germany
Kiaochow. On the north side of the channel by which the
harbour is entered there ^ands a diff called Takaboko, which,
under the name of Pappenberg, has long been rendered notorious
by a tradition that thousands of Christians were predpitatcd
from it in the 17th century because they refused to trample on
the Cross. It has been condusivdy proved that the legend
is untrue.
NA6AUR or Nagore, a town' in India, in Jodhpur state of
Rajputana, with a sution on the Jodhpur-Bikanir railway.
Pop. (1901) 13,377. Nagaur is surrounded by a wall more than
4 m. in circuit. It has given its name to a famous breed of cattle.
NAOELSBACH, CARL FRIEDRICH (1806-1859), German
classical scholar, was bom at W6hrd near Nuremburg on the 28th
of March 1806. After studying at Erlangen and Berlin, he
accepted in 1827 an appointment at the Nuremberg gymnasium,
and was professor of classics at Erlangen from 1842 till his death
on the 2xst of April 1859. Nagdsbach is chiefly known for his
excellent Lateiniscke StUistik (1846; 9th ed. by Ivan Mtlller,
1905). Two other important works by him are Die Homenscke
Tkeologie (1840; 3rd ed. by G. Autenrieth, 1886) and Die
Nackhameriscke Tkeologie (1857).
^ See J. L. Doederlein, Geddchtnissrtde far Herm K. P. N&gdsbaek
(1859): article by G. Autenrieth in AUgemeine DeutsdU Biograpkie,
xxm. (1886).
NAOINA, a town of British India, in Bijnor district of the
United Provinces, on the Oudh & Rohilkhand railway, 48 m.
N.W. of Moradabad. Pop. (1901) 2141 2. There is considerable
trade in sugar, besides manufactures of guns, glassware (cspedally
bottles for the use of pilgrims carrying the sacred water of the
Ganges from Hardwar), ebony wares, hemp-sacking and cotton
doth.
NAOODB, a native sUte of Central India, in the Baghdkhand
agency. Area, 501 sq. m. Pop. (1901) 67,092, showing a de-
crease of 20% in the decade, due to famine; estimated revenue,
£1 x,ooo. The chief, whose title is raja, is a Rajput of the Parihar
dan. The town of Nagode is 17 m. W. of the British station of
Sutna. Pop. (1901) 3887. It was formerly a military canton-
ment, and has an Anglo-vemaciilar school and dLipensary.
The former capital (until 1 720) was Unchahra.
NAQOTA, the capital of the province of Owari, Japan, on
the great trunk railway of Japan, 235 m. from Tokyo and 94 m.
from Kioto. Pop. (1903) 284,829. It is the fifth of the chief
dties in Japan. It lies near the head of the shallow Isenumi
Bay, about 30 m. from the port of Yokkaichi, with which it
communicates by light-draught steamers and by rail. The
castle of Nagoya, erected in 1610, never suffered in war, but in
modem times became a military dcp6t; the interior contains
much splendid decoration. The central keep of the dtadel is
a remarkable stmcture, covering close upon half an acre, but
rapidly diminishing in each of its five storeys till the top room
is only about 12 yds. square. Gabled roofs and hanging rafters
break the almost pyramidal outline; and a pair of gold-plated
dolphins 8 ft. high form a striking finiaL Both were removed
in X872, and one of them was at the Vienna Exhibition in X873;
but they have been restored to their proper site. The religious
buildings of Nagoya indude a very fine Buddhist temple, Higa^i
Hongwanji. Nagoya is well known as one of the great seats of the
pottery trade; 13I m. distant are the potteries of Seto, where
the first ^azed pottery made in Japan was produced by Kato
Shirozaemon, after a visit to China in X229. From Kato's time
Seto continued, during several centuries, to be the chief centre
of ceramic production in Japan, the manufacture of porcelain
bring added to tiiat of pottery in the X9th century. All the
152
NAGPUR— NAGY-VARAD
products of the flourishing industry now carried on there and at
other places in the province are transported to Nagoya, for sale
there or for export. Cotton mills have been cstablbhed, and an
extensive business is carried on in the embroidery of handker*
chiefs. Another of its celebrated manufactures is arimctsu-
skibori, or textile fabrics (silk or cotton), dyed so as to show spots
in relief from which the colour radiates. It is further distin-
guished as the. birthplace of doisonni enamelling in Japan, all
work of that nature before 1838— when a new departure was made
by Kaji Tsunekichi— having been for purposes of subordinate
decoration. Quantities of doisonni enamels are now produced
in the town.
NAGPUR, a dty, district and division of British India, in the
Central Provinces. The dty is 1x25 ft. above the sea; railway
station, 520 m. £. of Bombay. Pop. (1901) 127,734. The town
is well laid out, with several parks and artificial lakes, and has
numerous Hindu temples. The prettily wooded suburb of Sita-
baldi contains the chief government buildings, the houses of
Europeans, the railway station and the cantonments, with fort
and arsenal. In the centre sUnds Sitabaldi Hill, crowned with
the fort. Beyond the station Ues the broad sheet of water
known as the Jama Talao,and farther east is the dty,completdy
hidden in a mass of foliage. Handsome tanks and gsirdens,
constructed by the Mahratta princes, lie outside the dty. The
palace, built of black basalt and profusely ornamented with
wood carving, was burnt down in 1864, and only the great gate-
way remains. The garrison consists of detachments of European
knd native infantry from KamptL Nagpur is the headquarters
of two corps of rifle volunteers. It is the junction of two im-
portant railway systems — ^the Great Indian Peninsula to Bombay
and the Bengal-Nagpur to Calcutta. The large weaving popu-
lation maintain their reputation for produdng fine fabrics.
^There are steam cotton mills and machinery for ginning and
pressing cotton. The gaol contains an impor-.ant printing
establishment. Education is provided by two aidxl 'colleges—
the Hislop and the Morris, called after a missionary and a former
chief commissioner; four high schools; a law school; an
agricultural school, with a class for the sdcntific training of
teachers; a normal school; a zenana mission for the manage-
ment of girls' schools; an Anglican and two Catholic schools for
Europeans. There are several libraries and jeading rooms,
and an active Anjuman or Mahommedan sodety.
The District or Nagpuk has an area of 384 sq. m. Pop.
(1901) 751,844. It lies immediatdy below the great tableland
of the Sktpura range. A second line of hills shuts in the district
on the south-west, and a third runs from north to south, parting
the country into two plains of unequal size. These hills are all
offshoots of the S&tpuras, and nowherei attain any great ele-
vation. Thdr heights are rocky and sterile, but the valleys and
lowlands yidd rich crops of com and garden produce. The
western plain slopes down to the river Wardhft, is watered by the
Jam and Madar, tributaries of the WardhA, and contains the
most highly-tilled land in the district, abounding in fruit trees
and the richest garden cultivation. The eastern plain (six times
the larger), stretching away to the confines of Bhandftra and
Chinda, consists of a rich undulating country, luxuriant with
mango groves and dotted towards the east with countless small
tanks. It is watered by the Kanhfln, with its tributaries, which
flows into the Waingangft beyond the district. The prindpal
crops are millets, wheat, oil-seeds and cotton. There are steam
factories for ginning and pressing cotton at the military canton-
ment of Kampti, which was formerly the chief centre of trades.
An important new industry is manganese mining. The district
b traversed by the two lines of railway which meet at Nagpur
dty, and several branches are under construction.
The Division of Nagpur comprises the five districts of Nagpur,
Bhandira, Chinda, Wardhft and Balaghat. Area, 23,521 sq. m.
Pop. (looi) 3,728,063, showing a decrease of 9% in the decade.
See Nagimr Dis^ia GoMtiUer (Bombay, 1908).
NAGYKANIZSA, a town of Hungary, in the county of Zala,
137 m. S.W. of Budapest by rail. Pop. (xgoo) 23,255. It
possesses distilleries and brick-making factories, and has trade
in cereals and cattle. Nagykaniaa once ranked as the second
fortress of Hungary, and consequently pbyed an important pan
during the wars with the Turks, who, having gained possession
of it in 1600, hdd it until, in J690, after a siege of two years,
it was recovered by the Austrian and Hungarian forces. In
1702 the fortifications were destroyed.
NAG YKIKINDA, a town of Hungary, in the county of Toront&i«
152 m. S.E. of Budapest by rail Ptop. (zgoo) 24,843, of which
about 60 % are Servians. Being one of the centres of production
of the famous wheat of the Banat, its flour industry is important.
Fruit-farming and cattle-rearing are extensivdy carried on in the
neighbourhood.
NAQTSZEBEN (Ger. HemumnskuU, Rumanian SiHu), a town
of Hungary, in Transylvania, the capital of the county of
Szeben, 122 m. S.S.E. of Kolozsvar by raiL Pop. (xgoo) 26,077,
of whom 16,141 were Saxons (Germans), 7x06 Rumanians,
and 5747 Magyars. It is beautifully situated at an altitude
of 141 X ft. in the fertile valley of the Cibin (Hungarian, Sxcben),
endrdcd on all sides by the Transylvanian Alps. It is the seat
of a Greek Orthodox (Rumanian) archbishop, and of the super-
intendent of the Protestants for the Transylvanian drde. Some
parts of Nagyszeben have a medieval appearance, with houses
built in the old German style. The most noteworthy of its public
buildings is the handsome Protestant Church, begun in the X4th
century and finished in 1520, in the Gothic style, containing a
beautiful cup-shaped font, cast by Mdster Leonhardus tn 1438,
and a large mural painting of the Crucifixion by Johannes von
Rosenau (x445)* In the so-called New Church, comprising the
west part of the whole building, which is an addition of the
r6th century, are many beautiful memorials of Saxon, itotablea.
Other buildings are: the Roman Catholic parish church, founded
in 1726; the church of the Ursuline nuns, built in 1474; the
town hall, an imposing building of the x 5th century, purchased
by the munidpality in 1545 and containing the archives of the
" Saxon nation." The Brukcnthal palace, built in 1777-1787
by Baron Samud von Brukenthal (172X-X803), governor of
Transylvania, contains an interesting picture-gaUezy with good
examples of the Dutch school, and a library. The museum
contains a natural history section with the complete fauna
and flora of Transylvania, and a rich ethnographical section.
Nagyszeben has a law academy, a seminary for Greek Orthodox
priests, a military academy and several secondary schools.
There are manufactures of doth, linen, leather, caps, boots,
soap, candles, ropes, as well as breweries and distilleries.
The German name of the town is traceable to Hermaxm, a
dtizen of Nuremberg, who about the middle of the X2th century
established a colony on the spot. In the X3th century it bore
the name of VUla Hermanni. Under the last monardis of the
native Magyar dynasty Hermannstadt enjoyed exceptional
privileges, and its commerce with the East rose to importance.
In the course of the x5th and x6th centuries it was several
times besieged by the Turks. At the beginning of 1849 it was
the scene of several engagements between the Austrians and
Hungarians; and kter in the year it was several times taken
and retaken by the Russians and Hungarians.
NAGTSZOMBAT (Ger. Tymau), a town of Hungary, in the
county of Pozsony, 1x5 m. N.W. of Budapest by xidl. Pt>p.
(1900) 12,422. It is situated on the Tmava, and has played an
important r61e in the ecclesiastical history of Hungary. It
gained prominence after 1543, when the archbishop of Esztezsom
and primate of Hungary niade it his residence after the capture
of Esztergom by the Turks. In consequence numerous churches
and convents were built, and the town acquired the title of " Little
Rome." It possesses a Roman Catholic seminary for priests,
and was the seat of a university founded in 1635, which was
transferred to Budapest in 1777. In 1820 the archbishcsp's
residence was again removed to Esctergom. It has an active
trade in cereals and cattle.
NAGY-VARAO {Get. Grosswardein), a town of Hnosary)
capital of the county of Bihar, 153 m. E.S.E. of Budapest by
rail Pop. (1900) 47>ox8. It is situated in a plain on both banks
of the river SebeskdrOs, and is the seat of a Roman Catholic
NAHE— NAIL
and of a Greek (Old-United) bishopric. Among iu principal
bnHdiags are the St Ladislaus parish church, built in 1723,
which contains the remains of the king St Ladislaus (d. 1095),
the Roman Catholic cathedral, built in 1752-1779, the Greek
cathedral, the large palace of the Roman Catholic bishop, built
in 1778 in the rococo style, the archaeological and historical
museum, with an interesting collection of ecdes astical art, and
the county and town hall. Among the educational establishmenU
are a law academy, a seminary for priesU, a modem school,
a Roman Catholic and a Calvinistic gymnasium, a commercial
academy, a training school for teachers and a secondary school
for girls. Nagy-Virad is an important railway junction; it
possesses extensive manufactures of pottery and large distilleries,
and carries on a brisk trade in agricultural produce, cattle, horses,
fruit and wine. About 6 m. S. of the town is the village of Haj6,
which contains the Piispdk FOrdfi or Bishop's Baths, with warm
saline and sulphurous waters (9a* to 103* F.), used both for
drinking and bathing in cases of anaemia and scrofula.
Nagy-Virad is one of the oldest towns in Hungary. lU
bishopric was founded by St Ladislaus in 1080. The town
was destroyed by the TaUrs in 1241. Peace was concluded
here on the 24th of February 1538 between Ferdinand I. of
Austria and his rival John Z&polya, voivode of Transylvania.
In 1556 it i passed into the possession of Transylvania, but
afterwards reverted to Austria. In 1598 the fortress was un-
successfully besieged -by the Turks, but it feU into their hands
in 1660 and was recovered by the Austrians in 1692. The
Greek Old-United or Catholic bishopric was founded in 1776.
XAHB, a river of Germany, a left-bank tributary of the Rhine,
rises near Selbach in the Oldenbuig prindpality of Birkenfeld.
For some distance it forms the boundary between the Bavarian
Palatinate and the Prussian Rhine Province, and it falls into the
Rhine at Bingen. Its length is 78 m., but it is too shallow and
tocky to be navigable. Its picturesque valley, through which
runs the raflway from BingerbrOck to Neunkirchen, is largely
visited by tooriati.
See Schaccfans, Ccsckichte des Nakelals (Kreuznach, 1890).
■AHUATLAV STOCK, a North and Central American Indian
stock. Nahuas or Nahuatl'icas was the collective name for the
dominant Indian peoples of Mexico at the time of the Spanish
conquest, and the Nahuathm stock consisted of the Nahuas (or
Axte cs) and a few scattered tribes in Central America.
HAHUH (Hebrew for '* rich in comfort [is God] ")r »n Old
Testament prophet. The name occurs only in the book of Nahum;
in Nebemiah viL 7 it is a scribal error for " Rehum." Of the
prophet himadf all that is known is the statement of the title
that he was an Elkoshiu, But the locality denoted by the
<fesignation is quite uncertain. Later tradition associated
Kahom with the region of Nineveh, against which he prophesied,
and hence his tomb has been located at a place bearing the name
of Atkusk nitM Mosul (anc. Nineveh) and is still shown.* Accord-
ing to Jerome, the prophet was a native of a village in Galilee,
which bore the name of Elkesi in the 4th century a.o. (the Galilean
town of Capernaum, which probably means " village of Nahum,"
may also point in the same direction; but cf. John vii. 29,
which seems to imply that in the time of Christ no prophet
was snpposed to have come out of Galilee). E. Nestle has
proposed to locate Elkesi " beyond Betogabra " (t.«. Elcuthero-
poik. BxxL Beit Jibrin) in the tribe of Simeon (cf. Pal, Expl.
Fnd Qmari. SkUemeni, 1879, pp. 136-138).
Book or Naiium.— The original heading of Nahum's prophecy
is oontaiaed in the second part of the superscription: "[The
book of] the vision of Nahum the Elkoshite " (cf. the similar
headings in Isaiah. Obadiah and Habakkuk). The first part
(" Oracle concerning Nineveh ") is a late editorial insertion, but
convctly describes the main contenU of the little book.
C0mteuls cf lh§ Book, (i) Chapters i. and tt.— The prophecy
agaiast Nineveh in its present form really begins with chap. ii. i,
foOowHS imflacdtatelv by f. 3. and readily falls into three parts,
via. (a) i. f. 3->o; W u- 11-13: and (c) iii. Here (a) describes in
b^page oi oooadcrable descriptive power the assault on Nineveh —
153
* Jonah's grave has been located itmilariy in Nineveh itself.
the aty u mentiooed by name in iL 8 (9 Heb. text)— tu capture
and nek; (6) contains an oracle of Yahweh directed against the
king of Asma (" Behold. I am against thee, saith the Lord of
nn*<^> *• 13) : \c) again gives a vivid picture of war and desolation
which are to overtake and humiliate Nineveh, as they have already
overtaken No-Amon (•'.«. Egyptian Thebes, w. 8-10): the defence
M pictured as futile and the ruin complete. The absence of dis-
tinctly religious motive from these chapters is remarkable; the
divine name occurs only in the repeated refrain, " Behold. 1 am
against thee, saith the Lord of Hosts," iL 13, iiL 5. They express
httle more than merely human indignatbn at the oppression of
the worid-power, and picture with undisguised satisuction the
storm of war which overwhelms the imperialcity.
(2) Charier i, forms the exordium t<^ Eh^: r^mn^bicy of doom
against Nmeveh in the book as it lies bd n u!^, h;^ lone is exalted,
and a fine picture is given of Yahweh ;][fnc3nTiK in judgment:
"The Lord (Yahwch) u a jcakws G«5 JUiJ avcng^^ih; the Lord
avengeth and u full of wrath." The eff^M-i d ihc divine anger on
the physical universe are forcibly de^rltied [pa, 5-6); on the
other hand, God cares for those *'that fmt ihcir trust in Him "
(». 7), but overwhelms His enemies (w . H^nct?- \n fhc following
verses (126-15) the joyful news is convc\<i] mj |ikI lH .>f the fall of
the oppressors— " Behold upon the mounr nni* Ht hi t of him that
bringeth good tidings, that oublisheth peace! Keep thy feasts. O
Judah. perform thy vows; for the wicked one shall no more pass
through thee; he is utterljr cut off" (». 15).
Regarding chap. i. and ii. a(-i. and ii. 1, 3. Heb. text) there has
been much discussion in recent years. It was long ago noticed that
traces of an alphabetic acrostic survive in this section of the book;
throughout the whole of chap. I there is no reference to Nineveh,
though in some of the verses (8-iaa, 14) the enemies of Yahweh are
addressed, who have usually been identified with the people or city
of Nineveh; in sv. 126. 13 and (certainly) v. 15 (aii. i Heb.)
Judah appears to be addressed. The text of I 1-15. ii. x-s has been
reconstructed by H. Gunkel and G. Bickell so as to form a complete
alphabetic psalm with contents of an eschatokwical character, and
is rega r ded by them as a later addition to the book. It may be a
" generalizing supolement " prefixed by the editor, possibly because
the orieinal introduction to the oracle had been mutilated. It is
generally held by critical scholars that L 1-8, 43. 15. and ii. a cer-
tainly do not proceed from Nahum; i. 9-12 may, however, belong
to the prophet. The phenomena are conflicting and a completely
satisfactory solution seems to be impossible.
Dale of Nakum's Orade.—The date of the composition of
Nahum's prophecy must lie between (k>7-<k)6, when Nineveh was
captured and destroyed by the Babylonians and Medes, and the
capture of Thebes (No-Amon) which is alluded to in iii. 8-10.
This was effected for the second time and most completely by
Assur-bani-pal in 663 or 662 B.C. The tone of the prophecy
suggests, on the one hand, that the fall of Nineveh Is imminent,
while, on the other, the reference to Thebes suggests that the
disaster that had befallen it was still freshly remembered. On
the whole a date somewhat near 606 is more probable. It is
noteworthy that no reference Is made to the restoration of the
northern kingdom of Israel, or the return of its exiles. The poetry
of the book is of a high order.
Bibliography.— The Commentaries on the Minor Prophets,
especially those of J. Wellhauscn. D. W. Nowack and K. Marti
(all German) ; G. A. Smith. The Booh of the Twelve Prophets (2 vols.) ;
A. B. Davidson, Nahum, Habahhuh and Zephaniah (Camb. Bible,
1896). (G. H. Bo.)
NAIK, or Nayax, from a Sanskrit word meaning a leader, a
title used in India in various senses. In the army it denotes a
rank corresponding to that of corporal; and Hyder Ali of Mysore
was proud of being called Haidar Naik, analogous to '* le petit
caporal " for Napoleon. It was also the title of the petty
dynasties that arose in S. India on the downfall of the Hindu
empire of Vijayanagar in the x6th century.
NAIL (O. Eng. naegal, cf. Dutch, Ger.,Swed.ffa;ef; the word is
also related to Lat. unguis, Gr. 5rv(, Sans, nahkds) a word applied
both to the homy covering to the upper surface of the extremities
of the fingers and toes of man and the (^drumana (see Skin
and DzBMAL Skeleton), and also to a headed pin or spike of
metal, commonly of iron. The prindpal use of nails is in wood-
work (joinery and carpentery), but they are also employed in
numerous other trades. Size, form of head, nature of point, and
special uses all give names to different classes of nails. Thus we
have tacks, sprigs and brads for very small nails; rose, clasp
and clout, according to the for of head; and flat points or
sharp points according to the tap^ of the spike. According to
'5+
NAIL VIOLIN— NAIRNE
the method of manufacture nails fall into four principal dasses:
(i) hand-wrought nails; (a) machine-wrought and cut nails;
(3) wire or French nails; and (4) cast nails.
The nailer handicraft was formerly a great industry in the
country around BirminghanL The nails are forged from nail-
rods heated in a small smith's hearth, hammered on an anvil, the
nail length cut off on a chisel and the head formed by dropping
the spike into a hole in a " bolster " of steel, from which enough
of the spike is left projecting to form the head. In the case of
clasp naUs the head is formed with two strokes of the hammer,
while rose nails require four. The heads of the larger-sized nails
are made with an " Oliver" or mechanical hammer, and for
ornamental or stamped heads " swages " or dies are employed.
The conditions of life and labour among the hand nailers in
England were exceedingly unsatisfactory: married women and
young children of both sexes working long hours in small filthy
sheds attached to their dwellings; their employment was con-
trolled by middle-men or nail-masters, who supplied them with
the naU-rods and paid for work done, sometimes in money and
sometimes in kind on the truck system. Machine-wrought and cut
nails have supplanted most corresponding kinds of hand-made
nails. Horse nails are still made by hand-labour. These are
made from the finest Swedish charcoal iron» hammered out to a
sharp point. They must be tough and homogeneous throughout,
so that there may be no danger of their breaking over and leaving
portions in the hoof.
In 161 7 Sir D. fiulmer devised a machine for cutting nail-rods,
and in 1 790 T. Clifford patented a device for shaping the rods, but
the credit of perfecting machinery mainly belongs to American
enterprise (the first American patent appears to be that of
Ezekiel Reed, dated 1786). The machine, fed with heated (to
black heat only) strips of metal, usually mild steel, having a
breadth and thickness sufficient for the nail to be made, shears
off by iU slicer the " nail blank," which, falling down, is firmly
clutched at the neck till a heading die strikes against its upper
end and forms the head, the completed nail passing out through
an incUned shoot. In large nails the taper of the shank and
point is secured by the sectional form to which the strips are
rolled; brads, sprigs and small nails, on the other hand, are cut
from uniform strips in an angular direaion from head to point,
the strip being turned over after each blank is cut so that the
points and heads axe taken from opposite sides alternately, and
a umform taper on two opposite sides of the nail, from head to
point, is secured. The machines turn out nails with wonderful
rapidity, varying with the size of the nails produced from about
100 to xooo per minute. Wire or French nails axe made from
round wire, which is unwound, straightened, cut into lengths and
headed by a machine either by intermittent blows or by pressure,
but the pointing is accomplished by the pressure of dies. Cast
nails, which are cast in sand moulds by the ordinary process, are
.used principally for horticidtural purposes, and the hob-naib or
tackets of ^oemakers are also cast,
See Peter Bariow, Encyclopaedia of Arts, Manufactures and
Machinery (1848): Bucknall Smith. Wi - -- -
Uses (New York. 1891).
Machinery (1848): Bucknall Smith. Win, Its Manufacture and
NAIL VIOLIN (Ckr. Nagelgeiget Nagdharmonica), a musical
curiosity invented by Johann Wilde, a musician in the imperial
orchestra at St Petersburg. The nail violin or harmonica consists
of a wooden soundboard about i\ ft. long and i ft. wide bent into
a semicircle. In this soundboard are fixed a number of iron or
brass nails of different lengths, tuned to give a chromatic scale.
Sound is produced by friction with a strong bow, strung with
black horsehair. An improved instrument, now in the collection
of the Hochschule in Beriin, has two half-moon sound-chests of
different sizes, one on the top of the other, forming terraces. In
the rounded wall of the upper sound-chest are two rows of iron
staples, the upper giving the diatonic scale, and the lower the
intermediate chromatic semitones. History records the luune of
a sini^ virtuoso on this instrument, which has a sweet bell-like
tone but limited technical possibilities; he was a Bohemian
musidan called Senal, who travelled all over Germany with his
instrument about 1780-1790. (K. S.)
NAINI TAL, a town and distria of British India, in the
Kumaon division of the United Provinces. The town is 6400 ft.
above sea-level. Pop. (1901) 7609. Naini Tal is a popular
sanatorium for the residents in the plains, and the summer head-
quarters of the government of the province. It is situated on a
lake, surrounded by high mountains, and is subject to landslides;
a serious catastrophe of this kind occurred in September 1880.
The approach from the plains is by the Rohilkhand and Kumaon
railway from Bareilly, which has its terminus at Kalhgodam,
22 m. distant by cart road. There are several European schools,
besides barracks and convalescent dep6t for European soldiers.
The District of Naini Tal comprises the lower hills of
Kumaon and the adjoining Tarai or submontane strip. Area,
2677 sq. m. Pop. (1901) 3x1,237, showing a decrease of 15-4%
in the decade. The district includes the Gagar and other
foothills of the Himalayas, which reach an extreme height of
neariy 9000 ft. The Bhabar tract at their base consists of boulders
from the mountains, kmong which the hill streams are swallowed
up. Forests cover vast iracu of the hill-country and the Bhabar.
Beyond this is the Tarai, moist and extremely unhealthy. Here
the prindpal crops are rice and wheat. In the hills a small
amount of tea is grown, and a considerable quantity of fruit.
The only railway is the line to Kathgodara.
See Naini Tal Distria GaseUeer (Allahabad, 1904).
NAIRN, a royal, municipal and pob'ce burgh and county town
of Nairnshire, Scotland. Pop. of the royal burgh (1901) soSg.
It is situated on the Moray Firth, at the mouth of the Nairn and
on its left bank, xs| m. N.E. of Inverness by the Highland
railway. The town, though of immemorial age, shows no signs
of its antiquity, being bright, neat and modem. It attracts
many summer visitors by its good sea bathing and excellent
golf-course. The industries include salmon fishing, deep-seai
fishing, the making of rope and twine and the freestone quarries
of the neighbourhood. There is a commodious harbour with
breakwater and pier. Nairn belongs to the Inverness district
group of parliamentary burghs (Forres, Fortrose, Inverness and
Nairn), Nairn was originally called Invemame (the mouth of
the Nairn). It was made a royal burgh by Alexander I. (d. 1 1 24) .
but this diarter having been lost it was confirmed by James V'l.
in 1589.
NAIRNE. CAROLINA, Baroness (x 766-1845), Scottish son«
writer, was bom in the " auld hoose " of Cask, Perthshire, on
the 1 6th of August 1 766. She was descended from an old family
which had settled in Perthshire in the X3th century, and could
boast of kinship with the royal race of Scotland. Her father,
Laurence Oliphant, was one of the foremost supportcn of the
Jacobite cause, and she was named Carolina in memory of Prince
Charles Edward. In the schoolroom she was known as ** pretty
Miss Car," and afterwards her striking beauty and pleasing
maimers earned for her the name of the " Flower of Stratheam."
In x8o6 she married W. M. Nairae, who became Baron Nalroe
(see below) in 1824. Following the example set by Bums in the
Scots Musical Museum, she undertook to bring out a collection
of national airs set to appropriate words. To the collection she
contributed a large number of original songs, adopting the
signature " B. B."— " Mrs Bogan of Bogan." The music was
edited by R. A. Smith, and the collection was published at
Edinburgh tmder the name of the Scottish Minsird (1821*
i834)* After her husband's death in 1830 Lady Nairae took
up her residence at Eniuskerry, Co. Wicklow, but &he spent
much time abroad. She died at Cask on the 26th of October
1845.
Her songs may be classed under three beads: (i) those
illustrative of the characters and manners. of the old Scottish
gentry, such as " The Laird o' Cockpen," " The Fife Laird/*
and " John Tod "; (2) Jacobite songs, composed for the m<^t
part to gratify her kinsman Robertson, the aged chief of St rowan, i
among the best known of which are perhaps " Wha *U be KiQ« I
but Charlie? " " Chariie is my darling," " The Hundred Pipers!^
" He's owre the Hills," and " Bonnie Charlie's noo awa "*
and (3) songs not included under the above heads, ranging over
^ fL variety of subjects from " Caller Herrin' " to the " Land o* the '
I
NAIRNSHIRE— NAIROBI
155
LeaL" For vivadty, genuine pathos and bright wit her Bongs
are soifMssed only by those of Bums.
Lady Nainie's husband, William Murray Naime (x 757-1830).
He was descended from Sir Robert Nairne of Strathord (c. 163&-
16S3), a supporter of Charles II., who was created Baron Naime
in 1681. After his death without issue the barony passed to
his soo-in-law. Lord William Murray {c. 1 665-1 736), the husband
of bis only daughter Margaret (1669-1747) and a younger son
of John Murray, ist marquess of Athole. William, who took
the nasie of Naime and became and Baron Naime, joined the
standard of the Jacobites in 17x5; he was taken prisoner at the
battle of Preston and was sentenced to death. He was, however,
pardoned, but his title was forfeited. His son John (c. 1691-
1770), who but for this forfeiture would have been the 3rd
fiaron Nairne, was also taken prisoner at Pieston, but. he was
scon set at liberty. In the rising of 1745 he was one of the
Jacobite leaders, being present at the battles of Prestonpans, of
Falkirk and of CuUoden, and consequently he was attainted in
1746; but escaped to France. His son John (d. 1782) was the
father of William Murray Naime, who, being restored to the
barony of Naime in 1824, became the 5th baron. The male line
became extinct when his son William, the 6th baron (1808-1837),
died unmarried. The next heir was a cousin, Margaret, Baroness
Keith of Stonehaven Marischal (1788-1867), vriife of Auguste
Charles Joseph, comte de Flahaut de k. Billarderie, but she did
not daim the title. In 1874, however, the right of her daughter,
the wife of the 4th marquess of Lansdowne, was allowed by the
Hfiftse of Lords.
For Lady Naimc's songs, see Lays from Stratheam, arranged toiik
Sympkamies and Accompaniments for the Pianoforte by Finlay Dun
(1846): voL i. of the Modem ScoUish Minstrel (1857): L^e and
S-jmgs ^ the Baroness Naime, vfith a Memoir and Poems of Caroline
(XifkasU Ike Younger, edited by Charles Rogers (1869. new ed.
1 866). See also T. L. Kington-Oliphant. Jacobite Lairds of Cask
MAIRKSHIRE, a north-eastem county of Scotland, bounded
W. and S. by Invemess-shire, £. by Elginshire and N. by the
Moray Firtb. It has an area of 103,429 acres or 161 -6 sq. m.,
and a coast line of 9 m. and is the fourth smallest county in
Scotland. The seaboard, which is skirted by sandbanks danger-
cos touiavigation, is Hncd by low dunes extending into Elginshire.
ParaBd with the coast there b a deposit of sand and gravel
about 90 ft. high stretching inland for 4 or 5 m. This and the
undulating plain behind are a continuation westward of the fertile
Lai^ of Moray. From this region southward the land rises
rapidly to the confines of Invemess-shire, where the chief heights
occur. Several of these border hills exceed 3000 ft. in altitude,
the highest being Cam Glas (3163 ft.). The only rivers of
impctftance are the Findhom and the Nairn, both rising in
lBvemci»-shire. The Findhom after it leaves that county
takes a noainly north-easterly direction down Strathdcam for
17 m. aad enters the sea to the north of Forres in Elginshire
after a total course of 70 m. The Nairn, shortly after issuing
from Strathnaim, flows towards the N.E. for is m. out of its
oxmpkte course of 38 m. and falls into the Moray Firth at the
county town. There are eight lochs, all small, but the loch of
Clans is of part^pilar interest because of its examples of crannogs,
Cri bke-dwellin^ Nairnshire contains many beautiful woods and
nach picturesque and romantic scenery.
Ce^gy. — ^The county is divided geologically into two clcarly-
vsarieed portions. The southern and larger portion is compcwra
rd i&e eastern, Dalradian or younger Highland schists with associated
era sate loasses; this forms all the higher ground. The low-lying
Tionbem part of the country bordering Moray Firth is occupied by
(M Red Sandstone. The schistose rocks are mainly thin bedded
isk^eotts pieisMs. schists and c)uartrites; between I^altaschyle
aad Ciea^ an Daimb a more massive higher horixon appears in the
ceatrt of a synclinal foM. Porphyritic gneiss is found on the flanks
€< Cam nan tri-t^heaman. The schists ate frequently intersected
br ^kes of granite, amphibolite, &c. Three masses cif granite arc
iToad peoetratiag the schisu; the largest lies on the eastern
l>3iadary. ard extends from about Lethen Bar Hill southward by
Afddacb and Glenfemess to the Bridge of Dulsie. The second
«ass cm the oppontc side of the countv belongs mainly to Inverness
bat the granite reaches into Nairn on tne slopes of Bein nan Creagan
isi Bat Buidhe Mhor. A smaller mass near Rait Castle, with brgc
mnk cryfUls of orthodaie, has been employed as a buikUng stone.
On the denuded surface of the schists the Ok! Red Sandstone was
deposited and formerly doubtless covered most of the county:
outlying patches still remain near Drynachan Lodge and tktar
Highland Boath in Muckle Bum. The LowtT Old Red rocks are
basal breccias fcrflowed by shales with cakareous nodules conuining
fossil fish. The Upper Old Red, which is found usually nearer the
coast, is unconfomoable on the Lower series; it consists of red
shales and days and oblk|uely bedded sandstones. Glacial deposits
are widely spread; they comprise a Lower Boulder Clay, a series
of gravels and sands, iolk>wed by an Upper Boukler Clay, above
which comes a aeries of gravel deposits forming ridges on the moor-
land between the Nairn and Findhom rivers. A fine kame, resting
on the plain of sand and gravd, lies between Meikle Kildruromie
and Loch Flemingtoo. south of the railway. Traces of the old
marine terraces at 100 ft., 50 ft. and 35 ft. are found near the coast,
as well as considerable accumulations of blown sand.
Climate and Industries.^Tht climate is healthy and equable.
The temperature for the year averages 47* F., for January 38* F.,
and for July, 58* F. The mean annual rainfall is 35 in. The soil
of the alluvial plain, or Laigh, is light and porous and careful cultiva-
tion has rendered it very fertile; and there is some rich land on the
Fmdhora. Although the most advanced methods of agriculture are
in use. but a small proportion of the surface » capable 01 tillage, only
one-fifth of the whole area being under crops. The hills are mostly
covered with heath and pasture, suiuble for sheep, and cattle are
kept on the tower lying ground. The county accords many facilities
for sport. A few distilleries, some sandstone and panite quarries
and the sea and salmon fisheries of the Nairn practxally represent
the industries of the shire, apart from agriculture. The Highland
Railway from Forres to Inverness crosses the north of the shire.
Population and GooemmenL—la 189 1 the population numbered
9155 and in 1901 it was 9391, or 57 persons to the sq. m. Besides
the county town of Nairn (pop. 5089), there are the parishes of
Ardclach (pop. 773). and Auldeara (pop. of parish 1393, of village
313). Nairn and Elgin shires combine to return one member to
parliament, and the county town belongs to the Inverness district
group of parliamentary burghs (Forres, Fortrose. Inverness and
Nairn). The shire forms a sheriffdom with Inverness and Elgin
and a sheriff-substitute sits alternately at Nairn and Elgin.
Hix/0ry.— The country was originally peopled by the Gaelic
or northern Picts. Stone drdes believed to have been raised
by them are found at Moyncss, Auldeam, Urchany, Ballinrait»
Dalcross and Cray, the valley of the Nairn being especially rich
in such relics. To the north of Dubie Bridge is a monolith
called the Princess Stone. A greater number of the mysterious
prehistoric stones with cup-markings occur in Nairn than any<
where else in Scotbnd. Mote hills are also common. Whether
there was any effective Roman occupatmn of the land so far
north is an open question, but there is little evidence of it in
Naim, beyond the occasional finding of Roman coins. Columbia
and his successors made valiant efforts to Christianize the Picts,
but it was bng before their hbours began to tell, although the
saint's name was preserved late in the X9th century m the annu^
fair at Auldeam called "St Colm's Market," while to his
biographer Adamnan— corrapted into Evan or Wean— was
dedicated the church at Cawdor, where an old Celtic bell also
bears this name. By the dawn of the loth century the Picts had
been subdued with the help of the Norsemen, and Naim, which
was one of the districts colonized by the Scandinavians, as
part of the ancient province of Moray, soon afterwards became
an integral portion of the kingdom of Scotland. Macbeth was
one of the kings that Moray gave to Scotland, and his name and
memory survive to '.he present day. Hardmuir, between Brodic
and Naim, is the reputed heath where Macbeth met the witches.
Territorially Moray was greattycontractedmthe reign of Davidl.,
and thenceforward the history of Naim merges in the main in
that of the bishopric and earMqm of Moray (see Elgin). The
thane of Cawdor was constable of the king's castle at Nairn,
and when the heritable sheriffdom was esUblished towards the
close of the 14th century this office was also filled by the thane
of the time.
BiBLlOGRAFHT.— Charles J. G. Rampint. History of Moray and
Naim (Edinburgh, 1897); Book of tke Tkanes of Cawdor (Spalding
Club) (Edinburgh, 1859): Brodic Crukkshank. Place Names 0/
Nairnshire (1897): G. Bain. Tke Clooa Cairns and Circles (Nairn.
1899).
NAIROBI, capital of the British East Africa protectorate
and of the province of Ukamba, 337 m. by rail N.W. of Mombasa
and 357 m. S.E. of Port Florence on Victoria Nyanza. Pop.
156
NAIVASHA— NAKSKOV
(1907) 4737, indnding 350 Europeans and 1753 Indians. Nairobi
is built on the Athi plains, at the foot of the Kikuyu hills and
5450 ft. above the sea; it commands magnificent views of
Kilimanjaro and ML Kenya. It is the headquarters of the
Uganda railway, of the military forces in the protectorate, and
of the Colonists' Association. It is divided into European, Indian
and native quarters. Midway between the European and Indian
quarters stands the town hall. The other public buildings include
railway works, places of worship (Protestant, Roman Catholic,
Mahommedan and Hindu) and schools, an Indian baiaar, a
general hospital and waterworks— the water being obtained
from springs 13 m. distant.
The site of Nairobi was selected as the headquarters of the
Uganda railway, and the first buildings were erected in 1899.
For some time nearly all its inhabitants were railway officials
and Indian coolies engaged in the construction of the line. In
xgoa the surrounding highlands were found to be suitable for
European settlement, and Nairobi speedily grew in importance;
in 1907 the headquarteis of the administration were transferred
to it from Mombasa. The town is provided with dubs, cricket
and athletic grounds and a racecoune.
NAIVASHA, the name of a lake, town and province, in British
East Africa. The lake, which is roughly drcular with a diameter
of some Z3 m., lies at an altitude of 6135 ft. on the crest of the
highest ridge in the eastern rift-valley between the Kikuyu
escarpment on the east and the Mau escarpment on the west.
It is fed from the north by the rivers Gilgal and Morendat, but
has no known outlet. The rivers, which have a minimum dis-
charge of 100 cub. ft. per second, run in deep gullies. The water
of the lake is fresh; the shore in many places is lined with
papyrus. North and north-west the lake is dosed in by the
volcanic Bum hills; to the south towers the extinct volcano of
Longonot. Hippopotami and otters frequent the lake, and on an
island about z m. from the shore are large numbers of antelopes
and other game. Naivasha was discovered in 1883 by Gustav
Adolf Fischer (1846-1886), one of the early explorers of the Tana
and Masai regions, and the first to demonstrate the continuance
of the rift-valley through equatorial Africa. Fischer was
followed later in the same year by Joseph Thomson, the Scottish
explorer. The railway from Mombasa to Victoria Nyanza
skirts the eastern side of the lake, and on the railway close to
the lake is built the town of Naivasha, 6230 ft. above the sea,
391 m. N.W. by rail of Mombasa and 193 m. S.E. by rail of Port
Florence on Victoria Nyanza. Naivuha province contains
much land suitable for colonization by white men, and large areas
were leased to Europeans by the British authorities in 1903 and
subsequent years. The East Africa Syndicate acquired a lease
of soo sq. m. in the valley of the Gilgal and surrounding country
north of Lake Naivasha. North-west of the lake and along the
Molo river the 3rd Lord Delamere obtained a grant of 155
sq.m.
NAJARA. ISRAEL BEN HOSES, Hebrew poet, was bom in
Damasou and wrote in the latter part of the i6th century (1587-
1599). He was inspired by the mystical school, and his poems
are marked by their bold, sensuous images, as well as by a depth
of feeling unequalled among the Jewish writers of his age.
He often adapted his verses to Arabic and Turkish melodies.
To tunes which had been associated with light and even ribald
themes, Najara wedded words which reveal an intensity of
religious emotion which often takes a form indistinguishable
from love poetry. Some pietist contemporaries condemned his
work for this reason; but this did not prevent many of his
poems from attaining wide popularity and from winning their
way into the prayer-book. In fact, Najara could claim the
authority of the Biblical " Song of Songs " (mystically inter-
preted) for his combination of the language of human love with
the expression of the relationship between God and humanity.
He published during his lifetime a collection of his poems, SoHis
of Israel (Zemirolk Israd), in Safed in IS87: an enlariged edition
appeared in Venice (1S90-1600). Others ol his poems were published
at various times, and w. Bacher has described some previously
unknown poems of Najara (Rtvue des iiudajuives, Nos. 116 seq.).
NAilBABAO, a town of British India, in the Bljnor district
of the United Provinces, 31 m. S.E. of Hardwar. Pop. (1901)
X9i568. It was founded in the middle of the x8th century by a
Rohilla chief, and still contains several architectural monuments
of Rohilla magnificence. It has a station on theOudh & Rohil*
khand railway, with a junaion for the branch to Kotdwara.
There is considerable trade in timber, sugar and grain, and
manufactures of metal-ware, shoes, blankets and cotton cloth.
NAKHICHEVAN, or Nakbjevan, a dty of Russian Armenia,
in the govemment of Erivan, 85 m. S.E. of the town of Erivan.
It occupies the brow of a spur of the Kara-bagh mountains,
2940 ft. above the sea, and looks out over the valley of the Aras.
Pop. (1863) 6251, (1897) 8845- Built and rebuilt again and
again, Nakhichevan is full of half'Obliterated evidences of former
prosperity. The present houses have for the most part been
quarried from andent ruins; of the palace of the princes of
Azerbaijan there remains a gateway with a Persian- inscription,
flanked by two brick towers; and at a little distance stands the
so-called Tower of the Khans, a richly decorated twdve-sided
stracture, 103 ft. in drcumference and 75 ft. in hdght, dating,
to judge by the inscription which mns around the cornice,
from the lath century. There are also mins of a large mosque.
Situated on the highroad to Tabriz and Teheran, Nakhichevan
has a large transit trade. In the Persian period the dty is said
to have had 40,000 inhabitants; the population now consists
chiefly of Tatara and Armenians, who carry on gardening, make
wine and produce silk, salt and millstones.
Armenian tradition claims Noah as the founder of Nakhichevan
(the Naxuana of Ptolemy), and a mound of canh in the city b still
visited by many pilerims as his grave. Laid waste bjf the Persians
in the 4th century, hiakhichevan sank into comparative insignificance,
but by the 10th century had recovered its prosperity. In 1064 it
was taken by Alp Arslan, sultan 'of the Scljuk Turks, and in the
13th century it tell a prey to the Mongols of Jenghis Khan. It
afterwards suffered frequently during the wars between the Persians,
Armenians and Turks, and it finally passed into Russian possessioa
by the peace of Turkman<hai in leaS.
NARHICHEVAN-ON-THB-OON, a town of southern Russia,
in the Don Cossacks territory, 6 m. by rail N.E. of the town of
Rostov and on the right bank of the Don. Pop. (1900) 30,883.
It was founded in 1780 by Armenian immigrants. It soon
became a wealthy place, and still is the administrative centre of
the " Armenian district," a narrow strip along the banks of the
Don, with a population of 27,250. The town has tobacco and
wadding factories, tallow-melting works, soap-works, brickworks
and tanneries. There is a large trade in cereals and timber.
NARHON SRI TAMMARAT (also known as Lakron and
formerly as Licore), a town of southern Siam, in the division
of the same name, about 380 m. S. of Bangkok, on the east
coast of the Mahty PeninsuUL It is one of the most andent dties
of Siam, and contains many buildings and mins of antiquarian
interest. The trade consists chiefly of the export of rice. In the
bay, a short distance off, ships can lie safely at all seasons.
The population (7000) is chiefly Siamese, but there is an ad-
mixture of Burmese, the descendants of prisoners of war and of
refugees from Tenasserim. The town is the headquarten of a
governor under the high commissioner at Singora. It has for
long been a centre of the American Presbyterian Mission to Slam.
It was once the capital of a feudatory state, the chief of which
mled the greater part of the Malay Peninsula in the name of the
kings of Siam and bore the bmnt of all the wars with Malacca
and other Malay states. It lies, however, north of the limit of
Malay expansion, and has never at any time come under Malay
mie. With the fall of the Siamese capital of Ayuthia in 1767
it became independent, but returned to its allegiance on the
founding of Bangkok. In the 17th century British, Portuguese
and Dutch merchants had faaories here and carried on. an
extensive trade.
NAKSKOV, a seaport of Denmark, in the ami (oounty) off
Maribo, on a wide bay of the Laalands belt at the west and of
the island of Ualand. 31 m. by rail W. of Nykjdbing. Pop.
(1901) 83xa The church dates from the beginning of the
I 15th century. There is a large sugar factory. A great' dike^
NAMAQUALAND— NAME
157
S.E. to RBdby (ao m.)/ protects the coast against
inroad of the sea having ocoxrred in 187a.
KAMAQUALAIIIK a region of south-western Africa, extending
along the west coast over 600 m. from Damanland (as* 43'
S.) oD the north to 31" S., and stretching inland 80 to 350 m.
It ii divided by the lower coarse of the Orange river into two
portkmi — ^Little Namaquaiand to the south and Great Namaqua-
laad to the north. Little Namaqualand forms part of Cape
Cokmy (f-v.), and Great NamaqusJand is the southern portion
of German South-West Africa (q.v.). The people of Namaqua-
land are the purest surviving type of Hottentots, and number
some twenty to thirty thousand.
lAMASUDRA, the name adopted by the great caste or tribe
who inhabit the swanqw of Eastern Bengal, India, whom the
higher castes are wont to designate by the opprobrious term of
Ckaniei, Their number in 190Z exceeded 2 millions; but if
the cognate Fods and also the Blahommedans of the same
ethnical stock were to be added, the total would probably
r»di IX millions.
HAMB (O. Eng. nama\ cognate forms in Teutonic languages
are Dutch naam, Ger. Namef &c., but the word is common to all
lado-Eoropean hmguages; cf. Gr. flvoMAf Lat. noment Sans.
tOmoM^ ftc), the distinguishing appellation by which a person,
place, thing or dass of persons or thin^ is known.
Lciui Names. — ^The study of names and of their survival in
dvifizatioB enables ns in some cases to ascertain what peoples
inhabited districts now tenanted by races of far different speech.
Thus the names of mountains and riven in many parts of England
are Celtic — for example, to take familiar instances, Usk, Esk
sad Avon. There are also kx:al names (such as Mona, Monmouth,
Mynwy rnxnd others) which seem to be relics of tribes even older
than the Cdtic stocks, and "vestiges of non-Aryan people,
whom the Celts found in possession both on the Continent and
in the British Isles."' The later English luune is sometimes
the mere translation, perhaps unconscbus, of the earlier Celtic
appellation, often added to the more andent word. Penpole
Pbint in Somcsaet is an obvious example of this redoubling of
names. The pre-Aryan place-names of the Aegean are much
dinnmed by phi]ok>gists. Such a name as Corinthos, with all
other words in ntkoSf as hyadnthos, is thought to be pre-Hellenic.
The river-names Gade, Ver, Teat and many other monosyllabic
river-names in the home counties, appear to be ndther English
nor Celtic, but have been neglected, being known to few but
aqgleis and rustics. As to the meaning and nature of andent
kxal names, they are as a rule purely descriptive. A river is
calkd by some word which merely signifies " the water "; a
hiQ has a name which means no more than " the point," " the
peak," " the castle." Celtic names are often of a more romantic
tone, »» Anfnamnrrhan, " the proRu>ntory by the great ocean,"
an admirable description of the bold and steep headland which
breasts the wash of the Atlantic. As a general rule the surviving
Cdtic names, chiefly fai Ireland, Wales and Scotland, all contain
some wide meaning of poetic appropriateness. The English
■afflcst on the other hand, commonly state some very simple
fact, and very frequently do no more than denote property,
such and such a town or hamlet, " ton " or " ham," is the property
of the BiQingSt Uffings, Tootings, or whoever the early English
scttlen in the district may have been. The same attachment
to the idea of property b exhibited in even the local names of
petty fidds in English parishet. Occasionally one finds a bit of
half-humorous description, as when a sour, starved and weedy
plot is named " starvacre "; but more usually fidds are known
as "Thompson's great fidd," "Smith's small field," "the
foflxaoe," or the l^e. The name of some farmer or peasant
ovner or squatter of andent date survives for centuries, attached
to what was once his property. Thus the sdence of local names
has a double htttorical value. The names indicate the various
caoes (Cdtic, Roman and English in Great Britain) who have
set in the form of names the seal of thdr possession on the soil.
Again, the fnnfi"C* of the names illustrate the characters of
*Eitaa, Oripms ef Emgfish History, p. 165; Rhys, lACtuns on
CtUc FhOsha, pp. x8x, X82.
the various races. The Romans have Idt names connected
with camps (castra, chesters) and military roads; the English
have used simple descriptions of the baldest kind, or have ex-
hibited their attachment to the idea of property; the Celtic
xuunes (like those which the red men have left in America, or
the blacks in Australia) are musical with poetic fancy, and filled
with interest in the aspects and the sentiment of nature. The
British race carries with it the andent names of an older people
into every continent, and titles perhaps originally given to pUces
in the British Isles by men who had not yet learned to polish
their weapons of flint may now be found in Australia, America,
Africa and the islands of the farthest seas. Local names were
originally imposed in a handy local manner. The settler or the
group of cave-men styled the ndghbouring river " the water,"
the neighbouring hill " the peak," and these terms often still
survive in rdics of tongues which can only be construed by the
learned.
Personal Nanus. — ^The history of personal names is longer
and more complex, but proceeds from beginnings almost as
simple. But in personal names the complexity of human
character, and the gradual processes of tangling and disentangling
the threads of varied human interest, soon come in, and per-
sonal names are not imposed once and for all. Each man in
very early sodetics may have many names, in different char-
acters and at different periods of his life. The oldest personal
names which we need examine here are those which indicate,
not an individual, but a group, hdd together by the consdous
sense or less consdous sentiment of kindred, or banded together
for reasons of convenience. An examination of customs prevalent
among the most widdy separated races of Asia, Africa, Australia
and America proves that groups conceiving themsdves to be
originally of the same kin are generally styled by the name
of some animal or other object (animate or inam'mate) from
which th^ claim descent. This object is known as the " totem "
(see ToTEmsu). The groups of supposed kin, however widdy
scattered in local distribution, are known as wolves, bears,
turtles, suns, moons, cockatoos, reeds and what not, according
as each group daims descent from this or that stock, and some-
times wears a mark representing this or that animal, plant .or
natural object. Unmistakable traces of the same habit of
naming exist among Semitic and Teutonic races, and even among
Greeks and Romans. The names chosen are commonly those
of objects which can be easily drawn in a rude yet recognizable
way, and easily expressed in the language of gesture. In addition
to the totem names (which indicate, in each example, supposed
blood-kindred), locd aggregates of men recdved local names.
We hear of the " hill-men," " the cave-men," " the bush-men,"
" the coast-men," the " men of the plain," predsdy as in the
old Attic divisions of Aktaioi, Pediaioi and so forth. When a
tribe comes to recognize its own unity, as a rule it calU itself
by some term meaning simply " the men," all other tribes being
regarded as barbarous or inferior. Probably other neighbouring
tribes also call themsdves " the men " in another dialect or
language, while the people in the ndghbourhood are known
by an opprobrious epithet, as Rakskasas among the early Aryan
dwellers in India, or Eskimo (raw-eaters) in the far north of the
American continent. Tribal names in Australia are often taken
from the tribal term for " yes " or " no "; cf. Languedoc.
Leaving social for personal names, we find that, among most
undvilized races, a name (derived from some inddent or natural
object) is given at the time of birth by the parents of each new-
born infant.' Occasionally the name is imposed bdore the child
is bom, and the proud parents call themsdves father and mother
of such an one before the expected infant sees the light. In
most cases the name (the earliest name) denotes some phenomenon
of nature; thus Dobrizhofer met in the foresU a young man
styled " (Sold flower of day," that is, " Dawn," his father
having been named "Stm." Similar names are commonly
given by the natives of Australia, while no names are more
common among North-American Indians than those derived
from sun, moon, cloud and wind.
The names of savace persons are not permanent. The name
158
NAME
fi|st given is ordinarily changed (at the ceremony ^Wering to
confirmation in the church) for some more appropriate and
descriptive nickname, and that, again, is apt to be superseded
by various ** honour-giving names " derived from various
exploits. The common superstition against being " named "
has probably produced the custom by which each individual
has a secret name and is addressed, when possible, by some
wide term of kinship— " brother," "father" and the like.
The bad luck which in Zulu customs as in Vedic myths attends
the utterance of the real name is evaded by this system of
addresses. Could we get a savage— an Iroquois, for example—
to explain his titles, we would find that he is, say, " Morning
Cloud" (by birth-name), "Hungry Wolf" (by confirmation
name), " He that raises the white, fellow's scalp " (by honour-
giving name), of the Crane totem (by kinship and hereditary
name, as understood by ourselves). When society grows so
permanent that male kinship and paternity are recognised, the
custom of patronymics is introduixd. The totem name gives
place to a gentile name, itself probably a patronymic in form;
or, as in Greece, the gentile name gives place to a local name,
derived from the deme. Thus a Roman is called Caius; Julius
is his gentile name (of the Julian clan); Caesar b a* kind of
hereditary nickname A Greek is Thucydides (the name usually
derived from the grandfather), the son of Olorus, of the deme
of Halimusia.
This system of names answered the purposes of Greek and
Roman dvilixation. In Europe, among the Teutonic races, the
stock-names (conceivably totemistic in origin) survive in English
local names, which speak of the " ton " or " ham " of the Billings
or Tootings. An examination of these names, as collected in
Kemble's An^ihSaxonSt proves that they were frequently derived
from animals and plants. Such EngUsh names as "Noble
Wolf " (Ethelwulf), " Wolf of War " and so forth, certainly
testify to a somewhat primitive and fierce stage of society.
Then came more vulgar nicknames and personal descriptions,
as " Long," " Brown," " White " and so forth. Other names
are directly derived from the occupation or craft (Smith, Fowler,
Sadler) of the man to whom they were given, and yet other
names were derived from places. The noble and landowner was
called " of " such and such a place (the German ton and French
de). while the humbler man. was called not " of " but " at "
such a place, as in the name " AtteweU," or merely by the local
name without the particle. The "de" might also indicate
merely the place of a person's birth or residence; it was not a
proof of noblesse. If we add to these names patron3miics formed
by the addition of "son," and terms derived from Biblical
characters (the latter adopted after the Reformation as a re-
action against the .names of saints in the calendar), we have
almost exhausted the sources of modem EngUsh and European
names. A continual development of custom can be traced, and
the analysis of any man's family and Christian names will lead
us beyond history into the manners of races devoid of literary
records. (A. L.)
Creek Names. — ^The Greeks had only one, and no family, name;
hence the name of a child was left to the discretion of the parents.
The eldest son generally took the name of his paternal grand-
father, girls that of their grandmother. Genuine patronymics
(Phodon, son of Phocus), analogous compotmds (Thoophrastus,
son of Theodorus), or names of similar meaning (Philumenus,
son of Eros) also occttr. Athenaeus divides names generally Into
(i) dco^pa, diiefly derivatives or compounds of the names of
gods (Demetrius, ApoUonius, Theodorus, Diodotus, Heraditus,
Diogenes); (2) &9fa, simple or variously compounded names,
espedally such as were of good omen for a son's future career
(Aristides, Perides, Sophodes, Alexander), although such hopes
were frequently belied by the results. Instances of a subsequent
change of name are not uncommon; thus, Plato and Theo-
phraslus wero originally Aristodes and Tyrtamus.
To obviate the ambiguity and confusion arising from the use
of a single name, various expedients were adopted, the commonest
being to add the father's name — Aniioa$bnfs ^itooBbfovtf
'tWiafiiUnt 6 KXftyfoy. Sometimes the birthph^ce was added—
*Hp66orot 'AXucapva^nfo, 6evicvS(8i}t 6 'AAprcubf, and some-
times the name of the deme (see Cleisthenes), e.g. ^igioaOinit
Ucuanift. Nicknames denoting mental or bodily defects
or striking peculiarities {e.g. colour of hair) were also favourite
methods of discrimination (e g. Hai>06c, yellow).
Roman i^Tamef.— Towards the end of the republic free-born
Romans were distinguished by three names and two (or even four)
secondary indications. In an inscription the name of Cicero is
given in the following form: M. Tullius M.f . M.n. M.pL Cor( nelia
tribu) Cicero. M (*- Marcus) is the praettomen; Tullius, the
nomen, the gentile or family name; Gcero. the cognomen.
This order, always preserved, is the correct one. M.f. ( * Mora
filius), M.n. (« Mard nepos), M.pr. (« Mard proncpo6),CoKndia
tribu) are only used in formal description.
Praemmen (corresponding to the modem Christian name).—
Varro gives a list of 32 praencmina, of which 11. had fallen out of ute
in Sulla's time, the remaining 18 bdng confinea to patrician families.
Some of these appear to have been appropriated by panicular
families, e.t. Appius by the Qaudii* Mamercus bjr the Aemilii. In
the case of plebeian families there was greater latitude and a larver
variety of names, but those which bcoime ennobled foUowed the
patriaan usage. After the time of Sulla some of the old praenomina
were revived, unlew they are rather to be regarded as copwmina,
which in some families displaced the pmntem^n proper, as in the case
of a certain Africanus Aemilius Regulus.
The nomen {gentile, gentUicium) belonged to all the individual
members of the miu and those in any way connected with it (wives,
clients, freedmen)* In patrician gentes the nomina neariy all ended in
•ius i-aeus, -eius, -eus), and are perhaps a sort of patronymic (lulius
from lulus). In some cases the name indkates the puncc of origin
(Norbanus, Acerranus); -acus (Divitiacus) is pecuuar to Galuc,
-na (Caecina, Perpema) to Etrascan, -enus (ArulenuB) to Umbrian
names. Verres as a gentile name stands by itself; perhaps it was
originally a cognomen.
The cognomen (" surname ") was the name given to a Roman
dtizen as a member of a famUta or branch of the gens, wheretiy the
family was distinguished from other families belonging to the same
gens. Cognomina were either of local origin (Calatinus, Sabinus) ; or
denoted physical peculiarities or moral characteristkis (Crassus,
Longus, Lentulus, Lepidus, Calvus, Naao); or they were really
praenomina (Coisus, Agrippa) or derivatives from praenomina or
cognomina ^Sexttnus, Corvinus. Laevinus). The tria nomina (" three
names ") in the well-known passage of Juvenal (v. 127) was
probably at that time a mark of tngenniias rather than of noMiias.
In aclditlon to these three tq^ular names, many Romans had a,
fourth, cognomen secundnm (agnomen was an introduction of the
grammarians of the 4th century). These " second surnames " wera
chiefly bestowed in recognition of great achievements— Asiaticua*
Africanus, Creticus, or were part of the terminology in cases of
adoption.
Persons adopted took all the three names of their adoptive father,
but at the same time, to keep his origin in mind, they added a second
cognomen, a derivative in -anus or -inns from hb old gentile name:
thus. Publius Cornelius Scipio Acmilianus, son of Ludus Aemilius
Paullus, adopted by Publius Cornelius Sdpb. After the time of
Sulla, the derivative was no longer used, one of the old names being'
substituted without change — Marcus Terentius Varro Lucullus.
Under the empire no fixed rule was obsesvcd, the most remarkable
thing bdng the very larBC number of names borne by one person (as
many as ^6 occur on an inscription). Especially in the army and
amongst the bwcr orders, nicknames (itfiia. vocabida) are of frequent
occurrence. Well-known examples are: Caligula; cedo alieram
(" another stick, please! "), jnven to a centurion of flogging pro-
pensities; manus ad fermm C* hand on sword,") of Aurelia^ when
tribune.
Women originally took the name of the head of the family—
Cacctlta (filia) Mctelli, Metella Crassi (uxor). Later, f. (-filia) «-aa
added after the name of a daughter. Towards the end of the republic
women are denoted by their gentile name alone, while under the
empire they always have two — ^the nomen and cognomen of the father
(Aemilia Ivpida, daughter of Ludus Aemilius Lepidus Paullus). or
the nomen of both father and mother (Valeria Attia, daughter of
Attius Attkus and Valeria Sextina).
Slaves originally had no name, but umply took their master's
praenomen in the genitive followed by -por ('^pner)i Mampor,
Publipor, Quintipor. Later, when the number of slaves was laigcly
increased, by way of distinction names similar to those common in
Greece (national, physical or moral qualities) or simplv foreign names
were given them. The word ^ticr was subsc9uentiy reptaced by
senus and the form of the name ran; Aphrodbius Ptoti Gai servus;
under the empire. Eleutneras C. Julii rlorentini (the natural order
being preserved in the master's name). When a slave exchanged
one master for another, he adopted the name of his old master in an
adjectival form in -anus. Cissus Caesaris (servus) Maecenatianus
(formerly a slave of Maecenas). Freedmen used their own name as
a cognomen and took the nomen of him who gave them thdr freedom
lad aa^ fm nemtm they pleased: L. Liviin AndroniciM, freedraan
of M. Lnrras Salinator. In the time of Caesar, the freedman took the
praememgu of the patrontu and the gentile nartie of one of the friends
of the latter; thus, Ckero calls his slave Dionysius M. Pomponius
Okwyaiiis as a toktn of friendship for T. P6raponius Atticus.
a.H.F.)
Lan, — -Tlie Christian name, j.e. the name given to a penon on
adihiasMn to baptium into the Christian church, dates back to the
early histoiy of the Church. It has been said that the practice
of giving a name on baptism was possibly imitated from the
Jewish custom of giving a penonal name at drrumdsion. In
England individuals weze for long distinguished by Christian
names only, and the surname (see below) or family name is still
totally ignored by the Church. As population increased and
interoourse became general, it became necessary to employ some
farther name by which one man might be known from another,
and in process of time the use of surnames became univeml, the
only exceptions in England being the members of the royal
family, who sign by their baptismal names only.
IKilMfe the ecdestastical law does not come into conflict with the
coounon law or has not been changed by it, it still prevails, and
tbere fo fe it may be said that the nanfe given at baptism may be
regarded x^ practically unalterable. But that a baptismal name is
not altogether unalterable has been a matter of contention. A
constitutioo of Archbishop Peckham (ob. 1292) directs tliat " ministers
shall take care not to permit wanton names to be nven to children
baptized, and if otheiwise it be done, the same snail be changed
by the bishop at confirmation." And before the Reformation the
OOce for Confirmation must have contemplated the oossibility of
nch a change, as the bishop is directed therein to ask the child's
name before anointing him with the chrism, and afterwards, naming
him, to sign him with the cross. But in the second and subsequent
Prayer-books adl mention of the name in the Office for Confirmatbn
it omitted. Lord Coke was of opinion that such a change was
pemussibie and gives czamirfes (i InsLp. 3), but Dr Bum (£cc.
Law, L 80) hekfa contrary opinion. Philfimore, however, gives
several instances when such a change was made, one, in the diocese
of Liverpool, on the nth of June 1886 (see Phillimore, Ecc. Law,
'^ S'7* 5>8; and also Notes and Queries, 4th ser. v<A. vi. p. 17, 7th
«er. vol. it p. 17). In the caseof those who have not been baptized, but
have a name (other than a surname) given them by their parents,
nch a name acouires force only by repute. The Registmtion of
Births Act, which requires the registration of every birth, makes
provwoa for the insertion of a name, but such provisbn is purely
penaissive, and the only object of entering a name on the register
m to have an authoritative record of the commencement of repute.
A clergyman of the Church of England is compelled to perform the
ceiciBoay of baptism when required by a parishioner, and to give
whatever name or names the godparents se'ect, but althouah the
rubrics do not expressly say so, he can object to any name on religious
or moral grounds.
The freedom enjoyed in England and the United States as to the
kind of Christian name which may be given to a child is somewhat
limited is France and Germany. In France, by a decree of the 1 1
Gcnniaal. an XL, the only names permitted to be recorded in the dvil
npittr as Christian names (prhiams) of children were those of
laiats in the calendar and the names of persona^ known in ancient
history. Even at the present day an official list is issued (revised
from time to time) containing a selection of forenames, and no
name of a child will be registered unless it occurs in this list. A
fimitatioa more or less similar prevaib in Germany and other
European countries.
As regards the surname (Fr. surnom, name in addition), custom
hss oniversaUy decreed that a man shall be known by the name
of his father. But in England and the United States, at least, this
costom is not legally binding: there is no law preventing a man
from takina whatever name he has a fancy for, nor are there any
paiticttlar tomaltties roouired to be observed on adopting a fresh
e; but, on the other hand, if a man has been known for a
rable time by the name of his father, or by a name of repute,
changes it for another, he cannot compel others to address
but,
coosidefable
Urn or de^piate him by die new one. Neitiier does the English
law recognize the absolute right of any person in any particular name
to the extent of preventing another person from assuming it (Du
Bealay v. Du Boiiaj, 166^, L.R. a P.C. 430). If, however, a penon
adopts a new name and wishes to have it publicly notified and recog>
wcBtd in oAdal cireles, the method of procedure usually adopted
b that by royal fioenoc. This is by petition, prepared and presented
through the Heralds' Office. If granted, the royal licence is given
aadcr the sign manual and privy seal of the sovereign, counter-
•ned by the home secretary. In wills and settlements a clause is
often in ser ted whe reb y a testator or settler imposes upon the takers
of the estate an obligation to assume his name and bear his arms.
The stamp duty payable for a royal licence in this case is fifty
, bat if the apfrfication is merely voluntary^ the stamp duty
Where there isa more formal adoptbo of a surname.
NAMUR 159
it Is usual, for parposes of publidty and evidence, to advertise the
chanse of name m the newspapers and to execute a deed poll setting
out the change, and enrol the same in the central office of the Supreme
Court.
Both in Fmnce and Germany official authoriation must be ob-
tained for any change of name. By the German Code 1900 (s. la)
if the right to a new name is disputed by another or Jiis interest is
imuied thereby, the person entitled can compel the abandonment
01 the new name.
In EngUnd, a wife on marriage adopts the surname of her husband,
disresaroing entirely her maiden surname; in Scotland the practice
usually is for the wife to retain her maiden name for all le^ purposes,
adding the name of her husband as an alias. On remarriage the rule
is for the wife to adopt the name of the new husband, but an ex-
ception to thb u tacitly recognized in the case of a title acquired by
marriage when the holder remarries a commoner. This exception
was very fully discussed in Cowley v. Cowley ^ 19DI, A.C. 450.
Peers of the United Kingdom when signing their names use only
their surnames or peerage designations. It u merely a privilc^
custom, which does not go back further than the Stuart period.
Peeresses sit^n by their Christian names or initiab followed by their
peerage designation. Bishops sign by their initiab followed by
the name of the see. In Scotland it is very usual for Undownen
to affix to their names the designation of their Unds, and this was
expressly sanctioned by an act of 167a.
See Ency. Eng. Law, tits. " Christian Name," " Surname ";
W. P. W. Phillimore, Law omd Practice of Chantfi of Name-, Fooc-
Davies and Cariyon-Britton, Lam cancemmg Names and Ckanits of
Name. (T. A.1.)
NAMURtOneof the nine provinces of Belgium. It lies between
Hainaut on the one side and Li6ge and Luxemburg on the other,
and extends from Brabant up the Meuse valley to the French
frontier. Area, 1414 sq. m.; pop. (1904) 357,759. The part
north of the Meuse is very fertile, but the rest Is covered with
forest and is little suited for agriculture. There are a few iron
and coal-mines between the Sambre and Meuse, and the quarries
OK of great importance. Arboriculture, and especially fruit-tree
plantation, is on the increase. The province is divided into
the three arrondissements of Namur, Dinant and PhilippeviUe,
and there are fifteen cantons for judicial purposes.
NAMUR (Flemish, Namen), a town of Belgium, capital of
the province of Namur. Pop. (1904) 31,940. It is most pictur-
esquely situated at the junction of the rivers Sambre and Meuse,
the town lying on the left banks of the two riven, while the rocky
promontory forming the fork between them is crowned with the
old dtadel. This citadel is no longer used for military purposes,
and the hill on which it stands has been converted into a public
park, while the crest is occupied by an enormous hotel to which
access is gained by a cogwheel railway. Namur is connected
with the dtadel by two bridges across the Sambre, and from the
east side of the promontory there is a fine stone bridge to the
suburb of Jambes. This bridge was constructed in the nth
century and rebuilt in the reign of Charles V. It is the only old
bridge in existence over the Meuse in the Belgian portion of its
course. The cathedral of St Aubain or Albin was built in the
middle of the i8th century. The church of St Loup is a century
older, and is noticeable for its columns of red marble from the
quarry at St R^my near Rochefort. There is a considerable local
industry in cutlery, and there are numerous tanneries along the
river-side.
The hill of the dtadel is perhaps identical with Aduaticum,
the fortified camp of the Aduatid captured and destroyed by
Julius Caesar after the defeat of the Nervii, although many
authorities incline to the phiteau of HastMon, north of the
Sambre and of Namur itself, as the more probable site of the
Belgic position. Many antiquities of the Roman-Gallic period
have been discovered in the neighbourhood and are preserved
in the local archaeological museum. Here atto are deposited the
human fossils of the Stone Age discovered at Furf ooz on the Lcsse.
In the feudal period Namur was always a place of some import-
ance, and long formed a marquisate in the Courtenay family.
One institution of the medieval period came down to modem
times, and was only discontinued in consequence of the fatalities
with which it was generally accompanied. This was the annua]
encounter on the Place d'Armes of rival parties mounted on
stilts. Galliot, the historian of Namur, says the origin of these
jousts is lost in antiquity, but considers the use of stilts was due
i6o
NANA FARNA VIS— NANCY
to the frequency with which the town was flooded before the
riven were embanked. Don John of Austria made Namur his
headquarters during the greater part of his stay in the Nether-
lands, and died here in 1578. As a fortress Namur did not
attain the first rank until after its capture by Louis XIV. in
2692, when Vauban endeavoured to make it impregnable; but
it was retaken by William III. in 1695. The French recaptured
it in 1 703 and retained possession for ten years. In t8i 5 Marshal
Grouchy on his retreat into France fought an action here with
the Prussians under General Pirch. In x888, under the new
scheme of Belgian defence, the dtadel and its detached works
were abandoned, and in their place nine outlying forts were
constructed at a distance of from 3 to 5 m. round the town.
All these forts are placed on elevated points. They are in their
order, beginning on the left bank of the Meuse and ending on
the right bank of the same river: (x) St Heribert, (a) Malonne,
(3) SuarKe, (4) Emines, (5) Cogncl£e, (6) Gelbress^e, (7) Maizeret,
(8) Andoy and (9) Dave. Tlie whole position is correctly de-
scribed as the " Ute de pont " of Namur, and in addition to its
strong bomb-proof forts it possesses great natural advantages for
the defence of the intervals.
NANA FARNAVIS (X74X-X800), the great MahratU minister
at Poona at the end of the x8th century. His real name was
Balaji Janardhan Bhanu; but, like many other Mahrattas, he
was always known by a kind of nickname. Nana properly means
a maternal grandfather; Famavis is the official title of the
finance minister, derived from fard'^Bn account and iMwr""
a writer. He was bom at Satara on the 4th of May X74X, and
was the son of a Chitpavan Brahman, of the same class as the
Peshwa, who held the hereditary office of Famavis. He escaped
from the fatal battle of Panipat in X76X; and from about X774
was the leading personage in directing the affairs of the Mahratta
confederacy, though never a soldier. This was the period when
Peshwas rapidly succeeded one another, and there was more
than one disputed succession. It was the policy ci Nana Famavis
to hold together the confederacy against both internal dissensions
and the growing power of the British. He died at Poona on
the 13th of March x8oo, just before the Peshwa placed himself
in the hands of the British and thus broke up the Mahratta
confederacy. In an extant letter to the Peshwa, the Marquess
Wellesley thus describes him: " The able minister o( your state,
whose upright principles arid honourable views and whose seal
for the welfare and prosperity both of the dominions of his own
immediate superiors and of other powers were so justly cele-
brated."
See Captain A. Macdonald, Memoir of Nana Fwmtwees (Bombay,
1851).
NANAIMO. a dty of British Columbia, on the east coast of
Vancouver Island. Pop. (1906) about 6500. It is connected
with Victoria by the Esquimalt and Nanaimo railway, and has
a daily steamer service to Vancouver, as well as to Comox,
Sydney and other points on the coast. It is favourably situated
for growing fruit, and mixed farming is carried on to a consider-
able extent. There is a large export trade in coal from the
neighbouring mines, which is sent chiefly to San Francisco.
NANA SAHIB, the common designation of Dandu Panth, an
adopted son of the ex-peshwa of the Mahrattas, Baji Rao,
who took a leading part in the great Indian Mutiny, and was
proclaimed peshwa by the mutineers. Nana Sahib had a griev-
ance against the British govenmient because they refused to
continue to him the pension of eight lakhs of rupees (£80,000)
which was promised to Baji Rao by Sir John Malcolm on his
surrender in x8x8. This pension, however, was only intended
to be a life grant to Baji Rao himself. For this refusal the Nana
bore the British a lifelong gmdge, which he washed out in the
blood of women and children in the massacres at Cawnpore.
In X859, when the remnants of the rebels disappeared into
Nepal, the Nana was among the fugitives. His death was reported
some time afterwards, but his real fate remains obscure.
NANCT. a town of north-eastern France, the capital formerly
of the province of Lorraine, and now of the department of
Meu^the^t-Moselle, 2x9 m. £. of Paris on the railway to Strass-
burg. Pop. (1906), town, 98,302; commune (including troops),
1x0,57a Nancy is situated on the left bank of the Meurthe
6 m. above its junction with the Moselle and on the Mame-
Rhine canal. Tlie railway from Paris to Strassburg skirts the
city on the south-west side; other railways—to Metx, to Spinal
by Mirecourt, to ChAteau Salins— join the main line near Nancy,
and make it an important junaion. The town consists of two
portbns— the VilU-VieilU in the north-west between the Cours
Leopold and the P6pinidre gardens, with narrow and winding
streeU, and the ViUe-Neme in the south-east with wide straight
streets, allowing views of the hills around the dty. Between the
two lies, the Place Stanislas, a square worthy of a capital dty:
in the centre stands the statue of Stanislas Leczinski, ruler of
Lorraine, and on all sides rise imposing buildings in the x8th-
century style — the town hall, episcopal palace, theatre, &c.
A fine triumphal arch erected by Stanislas in honour of Louis XV.
leads from the Place Stanislas to the Place Carrie, which forms
a beautiful tree-planted promenade, containing at its further end
the govenunent palace (1760) now the residence of the general
commanding the XX. arQty corps, and adjoins the so-called
P£ptnidre (nuiKry) established by Stanislas. Other open spaces
in the dty axe the Place d'Alliance (formed by Stanislas, with
a fountain in memory of the alliance between Louis XV.
and Maria Theresa in 1756), the Place de TAcad^mie,
the Place St Epvre with a sutue of Duke Ren6 IL, the
Place Dombasle and the Place de Thiers, the two latter
embeUished witl^ the statues of Mathieu Dombasle, the agri-
culturist, and Adolphe Thiers. The cathedral in the Ville-
Neuve, built in the i8th century, has a wide fa^e flanked by
two dome-surmounted towers, and a somewhat frigid and sombre
interior. Of particular interest is the church of the Cordeliers, in
the old town, built by Ren6 II. about X48a to commemorate his
victory over Charles the Bold. Pillaged during the Revolution
period, but restored to religious uses in 1825, it contains the
tombs of Antony of Vaud£mont and his wife Marie d'Harcourt«
Philippe of Guddres, second wife of Ren6 II., Henry III., count
of Vaud^mont, and Isabdla of Lorraine his wife, Ren6 II. (a
curious monument raised by his widow in XS15) and Cardinal
de Vaud£mont (d. X587). Here also is a chapel built at the
beginning c^ the x 7th century to recdve the tombs of the princes
of the house of Lorraine. The church of St Epvre, rebuilt
between 1864 and 1874 on the site of an old church of the 13th,
X4th and xsth centuries, has a fine spire and belfry and ^>od
stained glass windows. Bonsecours Church, at the end of the
St Pierre Faubourg, contains the mausoleums of Stanislas (by
whom it was built) and his wife Catherine, and the heart of thdr
daughter Marie, queen of France, as well as the statue of Notre-
Dame de Bonsecours, the object of a well-known pilgrimage.
Of the old ducal palace, begun in the xsth century by Duke
Raoul and completed by Ren6 II., there remains but a single wing»
partly rebuilt after a fire in X871. The entrance to this wing,
which contains the archaeobgical museum of Lorraine, is a
beautiful specimen of the late Gothic of the beginiung of the
x6th century. One of the greatest treasures of the collection is
the tapestry found in the tent of Charles the Bold after the
battle of Nancy. Of the old gates of Nancy the most andent
and remarkable b the Porte de U Craffe (1463). The town hall
contains a museum of painting and sculpture, and there is a rich
munidpal library. A monument to President Caraot, and
statues of Jacques Callot, the engraver, and of General Drouot,
both natives of Nancy, and of Claude Gdl6e stand in various
parts of the towiL
Nancy is the seat of a bishop, a prefect, a court of appeal and
a court of assises, headquarters of the XX. army corps, and centre
of an acadimie (educational division) with a university comprising
faculties of law, medicine, sdence and letters, and a higher school
of pharmacy. There are also tribunals of first instance and of
commerce, a board of trade-arbitrators, lyc6cs and training
colleges for both sexes, a higher ecclesiastical seminary, a school
of agriculture, the national school of forestry, a hi^titt school
of commerce, a technical school (icole professionndte), a school of
arts and crafts {icolc. priparatoire dts arts d mttiers)t a rhambcr
NANDAIR— NANKEEN
i6i
of Gomiiiace and a bianch of the Bank of France. Tbe industries
of Nancy include printing, brewing, cotton- and wool-spinning
and the weaving of cotton and woollen goods, and the manufacture
of U>baca> (by the Sute), of booU and shoes, straw hats, pottery,
asks, embroideiy, machinery, engineering matfrialj turn im-
pkzaents and iron goods.
At the close of the xxth century Odelric of Nancyj brother
of Gerard of Alsace, possessed at Nancy a castle which enabled
him to defy the united assaults of the bishops of Metz and T^ves
and the count of Bar. In the lath century the town was sur-
rounded with walls, and. became the capital of the dukes of
Lorraine; but its real importance dates from the xsth century,
vhen on the 5th of January 1477 Charles the Bold was defeated
by Ren^ II. and perished at its gates.* Enlarged, embellished
and admirably refortified by Charles III., it was taken by the
French in 1633 (Louis XIII. and Richelieu being present at the
siege). After the peace of Ryswick in 1697 it was restored and
Duke Leopold set himself to repair the disasten of the past.
He founded academies, established manufactures and set
about the construction oif the new town. But it was reserved
for Stanislas Leczinski, to whom Lorraine and Bar were assigned
in 1736, to carry out the plans of improvement in a style which
made Nancy one of the palatial dties of Europe, and rendered
himself the most popular as he was the last of the dukes of
Lorraine. The city, which became French in 1 766, was occupied
by the allies in 1814 and 18x5, and put to ransom by the Prussians
in 1870. After the Franco-German war the population was
greatly increased by the immigration of Alsatians and of people
from MeU and its district.
See C Pfister. Hisbrirede Nancy (Parisand Nancy, 1902) ; J. Cayon,
Bistave ^tysique, civile, morale et politique de Nancy (Nancy, 1846}.
NAMDAIB» or Nandes, a town of India, in the state of
Hyderabad, on the left bank of the Godaveri, with a station
00 the Hydenbad-Godaveri valley railway, 174 m. N.E. of
Hyderabad dty. Pop. (xqox) X4,x84. It is a centre of local
trade, with a special industry of fine muslin and gold- bordered
scsrves. As the scene of the murder of Guru Govind, it contains
a shrine visited by Sikhs from all parts of India.
HASDGAOH, a feudatory sUte of India, in the Chhattisgarh
divisioo of the Central Provinces. Area, 871 sq. m.; pop.
(1901) 136,356, diowing a decrease of 3X% in the decade, due
to famine; estimated revenue £23,000; tribute £4600. The
state has a peculiar history. Its foundation is traced to a religious
rpiiha»«»^ who came from the Punjab towards the end of the x8th
oentncy. From the founder it passed throu^ a succession of
chosea *ys««'T'^ until X879, when the British goverxmient
recogmaed the ruler as an hereditary chief and afterwards
oooferred upon hb son the title of Raja Bahadur. The sUte
has long been well administered, and has derived additional
prosperity from the construction of the Bengal-Nagpur railway,
whidi has a station at Raj-Nandgaon, the capital (pop. 11,094).
Here tliere is a steam cotton mill.
HABSI, an East African tribe of mixed Nflotic, Bantu and
Hanutk oc^gin. With them are more or less closely allied the
Lambm (correctly Kipsikis), Buret (or Puret) and Sotik
(Soot) tribes, as well as the Elgonyi (properly Kony) of Mount
Elgoo. They have also affinities with the Masai tribes. The
Naiuii-Lambwa pet^les inhabit the country stretching south
from Mount Elgon to about x^ S. and bounded east by the escarp-
DKttt <A the eastern rift-valley and west by the territory of the
tribes, soch as the Kavirondo, dwelling round the Victoria
Nyassa. They have given their name to the Nandi plateau.
The Hamitic strain in these allied tribes is derived from the Galla;
they also exhibit Pygmy dements. Their original home was
in the north, and they probably did not reach their present home
nndl the be^nning of the X9th centuiy. They differ considerably
' The battle raged in the dtstrice to the S., E. and N. of the town,
the openCkxB extending from St Nicolas du Port (S.) to the bridge
ti Booxiim (N.). The chief struggle took place on the banks of the
«reasi of Boa Seoours, which now runs entirely undeiground,
fid«^ from the S.W. into the Meurthe. Much of the battlefield is
Aov covered by modem buildtnn, but S.W. of the town a cross
marks the spot where the body of Charles the BoM was diacovered.
in physical appearance; some resemble the Masai, being men
of tall stature with features almost Caucasian, other are dwarfish
with markedly negro features. Like the Masai, Turkana and
Suk, the Nandi-Lumbwa tribes were originally nomadic, but they
have become agriculturists. They own large herds of cattle,
lliey have a double administrative system, the chief medicine
xxian or Orkciyot being supreme chief and regulating war affain,
while representatives of the people, called Kiruogik, manage
the ordinary affain of the tribe. The medicine men arc of
Masai origin and the office is hereditary. The young men form
a separate warrior class to whom is entrusted the care of the
country. A period of about 7I yean is spent in this class, and
the ceremony of handing over the country from one *' age "
to the succeeding " age " is of great importance. The arms of
the warrion are a stabbing spear, shield, sword and club. Many
also possess rifles. All the Nandi are divided into clans, each
having its sacred animal or totem. They have no towns, each
family living on the land it cultivates, llie huts are of circular
pattern. The Nandi believe in a supreme deity— Asis^who
takes a benevolent interest in their welfare, and to whom
prayen are addressed daily. They also worship ancestora and
consider earthquakes to be caused by the spirits moving in the
underworld. They practise circumcision, and girls undergo
a similar operation. Spitting is a sign of blessing. Their scanty
clothing consists chiefly of dressed skins. The tribal mark is
a small hole bored in the upper part of the ear. Their language
is Nilotic and in general construction resembles the MasaL
It has been sh'ghtly influenced by the Somali tongue. The
primitive hunting tribe known as the Wandorobo speak a
dialect closely resembling NandL
The Nandi at one time appear to have been subject to the
Masai, but when the country was firat known to Europeans
they were independent and occupied the plateau which bean
their name. Hardy mountaineera and skilful warrion, they
closed, their territory to all who did not get special permission,
and thus blocked the road from Mombasa to Uganda alike to
Arab and Swahili. Caravans that escaped the Masai frequently
fell victims to the Nandi, who were adepts at luring them to
destruction* When the railway to the Victoria Nyanza was
built it had to cross the Nandi country. The tribomen, who
had already shown hostility to the whites, attacked both the
railway and the telegraph line and raided other tribes. Eventually
U90S-1906) the Nandi were removed by the British to reserves
somewhat north of the railway zone (see BxinsH East Afkzca).
The Lumbwa reserve lies south of the railway, and farther south
still are the reserves of the Buret and Sotik.
See A. C. Hollts. The Nandi: Their Lantuaffi and Felk4oret with
introductk>n by Sir Charies Eliot (Oxford, X909). and the works
there dted.
NANDIDRUO, a hill fortress of southern India, in the Kolar
district of Mysore, 4851 ft. above the sea. It was traditionally
held impregnable, and iu storming by Lord Comwallis in X79X
was one of the most notable incidents of the fint war against
Tippoo Sultan. It was formerly a favourite resort for British
officials during the hot season.
NAHOA. the most primitive form of the ancient Egyptian
harp. The nanga consisted of a boat-shaped or vaulted body of
wood, the back of which was divided down the centre by a sound
bar hunt into the back; on this bar was fixed a cylindrical stick
round which one end of the strings was wound, the soundboard
or parchment being stretched over the back without interfering
with the stick. The other end of the strings was fastened to pegs
set in the side of a curved neck, so that the strings did not lie
directly over the soundboard. There were but 3 or 4 strings, one
note only being obtained from each. Some of these nangas are
to be seen at the British Museum.
NANKEEN, a cotton cloth originally made in China, and now
imiuted in various countries. The name is derived from
Nanking, the dty in which the doth is said to have been originally
manufactured. The characteristic yellowish colour of nankeen
is attributed to the peculiar colour of the cotton from which it
was originally madje.
l62
NANKIKG— NANSEN, F.
NANKINO ("the southern capital '0. the name by which
Kiang-ning, the chief city in the province of Kiangsu, China, has
been known for several centuries. Pop. about 140,000. The
city stands in 32^ 5' N., 1x8* 47' E., nearly equidistant between
Canton and Peking, on the south bank of the Yangtsse Kiang.
It dates only from the beginning of the Ming dynasty (i3$8),
although it is built on the site of a city which for more than two
thousand yean figured under various names in the history of the
empire. The more ancient dty was originally known as Kin-ling ;
under the Han dynasty (206 B.C. to a.d. 25) its name was con-
verted into Tan-yang; by the T'ang emperors (aj>. 618-^7)
it was styled Kiang-nan and Shtog Chow; by the first sovereign
of the Ming dynasty (a.o. 1368-1644) it was created the " southern
capital" (Nan-king), and* was given Uie distinctive name of
Ying-t'ien; and since the accession to power of the present
Manchu rulers it has been officially known as Klang-ning,
though still popularly called Nan-king. ' It was the seat of the
imperial court only during the reigns of the fiist two emperors of
the Ming dynasty, and was deserted for Shun-t'ien (Peking) by
Yung-lo, the third sovereign of that line, who in 1403 captured
the town and usurped the crown of his nephew, the reigning
emperor.
The Taip'ing rebels, who carried the town by assault in
1853, swept away all the national mpnumenU and most of the
more conspicuous public buildings it contained, and destroyed the
greater part of the magnificent wall which surrounded it. This
wall is said by Chinese topographers to have been 96 li, or 32 m.,
in circumference. This computation has, however, been shown
to be a gross exaggeration, and it is probable that 60 li, or 20 m.,
would be nearer the actual dimensions. The waU, of which only
small portions remain, was about 70 ft. in height, measured 30 ft.
in thickness at the base, and was pierced by thirteen gates.
Endrcllng the north, east, and south sides of the dty proper was a
second wall which enclosed about double the space of the inner
enclosure. In the north-east comer of the town stood the
imperial palace reared by Hung-wu, the imperial founder of the
modem city. After suffering mutilation at the overthrow of the
Ming dynasty, this magnificent building was burnt to the ground
on the recapture of the dty from the T'aip'ing rebeb in 1864.
But beyond comparison the most conspicuous public building at
Nanking was the famous porcelain tower, which was designed
by the emperor Yung-lo (1403-1428) to commemorate the
virtues of his mother. Twelve centuries previously an Indian
priest deposited on the spot where this monument afterwards
stood a relic of Buddha, and raised over the sacred object a small
pagoda of three stories in height./ During the disturbed times
wUch heralded the dose of the Yuen dynasty (2368) this pagoda
was utterly destroyed. It was doubtless out of respect to the relic
which then perished that Yung-lo chose this site for the erection
of his " token-of -gratitude " pagoda. The building was begun
in 1413. But before it was finished Yung-lo had passed away,
and it was reserved for his successor to see the final pinnacle
fixed in its place, after nineteen years had been consumed in
carrying out the designs of the imperial architect. In shape the
pagoda was an octagon, and was about 360 ft. in height, or, as
the Chinese say, with that extraordlnaiy lov6 for inaccurate
accuracy which is peculiar to them, 32 chang (a chang equals
about 1 70 in.) 9 ft. 4 inl and 'i^ of an inch. The outer walls were
cased with bricks of the finest white porcelain, and each of the
nine stories into which the building was divided was marked by
overhanging eaves composed of green glazed tiles of the same
material. The summit was crowned with a gilt ball fixed on the
top of an iron rod, which in its turn was endrded by nine iron
rings. Hung on chains which stretched from this apex to the
eaves of the roof were five large pearb of good augury for the
safety of the dty. One was supposed to avert floods, another
to prevent fires, a third to keep dust-storms at a distance, a
fourth to allay tempests, and a fifth to guard the dty
against disturbances. From the eaves of the several stories
there hung one hundred and fifty-two bdls and countless
lanterns. In bygone . days Nanking was one of the chief
Uteraiy centres of the , empire,; besides being famous for
its manufacturing industries. Satin, crape, nankeen, cloth,
paper, pottery, and artificial flowers were among its chief
products.
At Nanking, after iu capture by British ships in 1842, Sir
Henry Pottlnger signed the " Nanking treaty." It was made a
treaty port by the French treaty of 1858, but was not formally
opened. Its proximity to Chinldang, where trade had established
itself while Nanking was still in the hands of the rebeb, made its
opening of little advantage, and the point was not prosed. In
1899 it was voluntarily thrown open to foreign trade by the
Chinese govemment, and in 1909 it was connected by railway
(192 m. long) with Shanghai.
Since 1880 Nanking has been slowly recovering from the ruin
caused by the T'aip'ing rebellion. Bardy one-fourth of the area
within the walb has been reoccupiM, and though its ancient
industries are reviving, no great progress has been made. As the
seat of the provincial govemment of Kiang-nan, however,
which embraces the three provinces of Kiang-su, Kiang-si,
and Ngan-hui, Nanking u a city of first-class importance. The
viceroy of Kiang-nan b the most powerful of all the provincial
satraps, as he controb a larger revenue than any other, and has
the command of larger forces both naval and military. He is
also superintendent of fordgn trade for the southern ports,
including Shanghai, a position which gives him great weight in
all political questions. The dty contains an arsenal for the
manufacture of munitions of war, also powder-mills. A naval
college was opened in 1890, and an imperial military college a
few years later under foreign instructors. The only foreign
residents are missionaries (mostly American), and employ^ of
the Chinese govemment. The only remaining features of interest
in Nanking are the so-called Ming Tombs, being the mausolea
of Hung-wu, the founder of the Ming dynasty, and of one or two
of hb successors, which lie outside the eastern wall of the city.
They are ill cared for and rapidly going to decay. Since 1 899 th€
foreign trade has shown a steady increase.
NANNINO. a treaty port in the province of Kwangsi, China,
on the West river, 250 m. above Wuchow and 470 m. from
Canton. Pop. about 40,000. It b the highest point accessible
for steam tra^c on the West river. From Canton to Wudiow
the river has a minimum depth of 8 ft., but on the section from
Wuchow to Nanning not -more than 3 or 4 ft. are foynd dux\ng
winter. The town b the chief market on the soufhcrik frontier.
Its opening was long opposed by the French govcnuncnt, who
had acquired the right to build a railway to it from Tongkin^,.
by which they hoped to divert the trade through their own
possessions. Navigation by small native boaU b open west-
wards as far as Paiae.
HANSEN. FRIDTJOF (x86i- ), Norwegun tdentist, ex-
plorer and statesman, was bora at FrOen near Christiania on
the loth of October x86x. Hb childhood was spent at thb place
till hb fifteenth year, when hb parents removed to Christiania,
where he went to school He entered Chrbtianla university in
1880, where he made a special study of zoology; in March 18S3
he joined the sealing-shlp "Viking " for a voyage to Greenland
waters. On hb return in the same year he was appointed
curator of the Bergen Museum, under the eminent physician
andmologbtI>anidComdiusDanie]88en(i$i5-x894)* In x886
he spent a short time at the zoological station at Naples. Dnring
thb time he wrote seveial papers and memoirs on xoological and
hbtological subjects, and for one paper on ** The Stracture and
Combination of the Hbtological Elements of the Central Nervous
System" (Bergen, 1887) the Christiania university conferred
upon him the degree of doctor of philosophy. But his voyage in
the " Viking " had indicated Greenland as a possible field for
exploration, and in 1887 he set about preparations for a crossing
of the great ice-fidd which covers the interior of that country.
The possibility of hb success was discountenanced by many
Arctic authorities, and a small grant he had asked for was refused
by the Norwegian govemment, but was provided by Augusttn
Gamd, a merchant of Copenhagen, while he paid from hb private
means the greater part of the expenses of the expedition. As
companions Nansenhad Otto Neumann Sverdrap (b. 1855),
NANSEN, H.
163
Cafftun O. C. Dietricfaacm (b. 1856), a third compatriot, and
two Lapps. The expedition started in May x888, proceeding
{rom Ldth to lodand, and there joining a sealing-diip bound
for the east coast of Greenland. On the X7th of July Nansen
deddcd to kave the ship and force a way through the ice-belt
to the land, about xo m. distant, but the party encountered
great difficulties owing to ice-pressures, went adrift with the ice,
aad only reached the land on the 39th, having been carried far
to the sootli in the intervaL They made their way north again,
ikmg the coast inside the drift ice, and on the x6th of August
began the ascent of the inland ice. Suffering severely from
stonns, intense cold, and other hardships, they reached the
highest point of the journey (8920 ft.) on the 5th of September,
aad at the end of the month struck the west coast at the Ameralik
Fjocd. On reaching the settlement of Godthaab it was found
that the party must winter there, and Nansen used the oppor-
tunity to study the Eskimos and gather material for his book,
Eskimo Life (English translation, London, 1893). The party
returned home in May 1889, and Nansen's book. The Firsi
Cmsimg cf Greenland (English translation, London, X890),
demonstrates the valuable scientific results of the journey. A
report of the scientific results was published in Petermanns
Miaaktn^m (C^tha, 1892). On his return from Greenland
Nansen accepted the curatorship of the Zootomic Museum of
Christianm umversity. In September X889 he married Eva,
daugbter of Professor Michael Sars of Christiania university,
ai^l a noted singer (d. 1907).
In 1890 he propounded his scheme for a polar expedition
before the Norwegian (geographical Society, and in 1892 he
hid it before the Royal Geographical Society in London (see
" How can the North Polar Region be crossed ? " Geogr. Journal^
vcL L), by which time his preparations were well advanced.
His theory, that a drift-current sets across the polar regions
from Bering Strait and the neighbourhood of the New Siberia
Isluds towards the east coast of Greenland, was based on a
number of indications, notably the discovery (1884), on drift
ice off the south-west coast of Greenland, of relics of the American
Borth polar expedition in the ship "Jeaimette," which sank
N,£. of the New Siberia Islands in x88i. His intention was
therefore to get his vessel fixed in the ice to the north of Eastern
Siberia and kt her drift with it. His plan was adversely criticized
by many Arctic authorities, but it succeeded. The Norwegian
parEament granted two-thirds of the expenses, and the rest was
obtained by subscription from King Oicar and private indi-
vidoals. His ship, the " Fram " (i.e. " Forward "), was specially
boTlt of immense strength and peculiar form, bdng pointed at
bow and stem and having sloping sides, so that the ice-floes,
pressing together, should tend, not to crush, but merely to slip
beseath and lift her. She sailed from Christiania on the 34th of
Juae 1893. Otto Sverdrup was master; Sigurd Scott Hansen,
a Norwegian naval lieutenant, was in charge of the astronomical
and meteorofegical observations; Henrik Greve Blessing was
doctor and botanist; and among the rest was Frederik Hjalmar
Johasscn, lieutenant m the Norwegian army, who shipped as
fireman. On the 22nd of September the " Fram " was made
fast to a ffoe in j9^ 50' N., 133* 37' E.; shortly afterwards she
V3S frozen in, and the long drift began. She bore the pressure
of the ice pofectly. During the winter of 1894-1895 it was
decided that an expedition should be made northward over
l^ ice on foot in the spring, and on the X4th of March 1895
Xansen, being satisfied that the " Fram " would continue to
<irift safely, left her in 84" N., xox^ 55^ E., and started northward
accompanied by Johansen. On the 8th of April they turned
back from 86* 14' N., the highest latitude then reached by «nan;
^nd they shaped their course for Franz Josef Land. They
SBffered many hardships, including shortage of food, and were
oxBpeSed to winter on Frederick Jackson Isbind (so named
by Nansen) in Franz Josef Land from the 26th of August 1895
to the X9(h of May 1896. They were uncertain as to the locality,
bat, after having reached 80* N. on the south coast of the islands,
they wete travdling westward to reach Spitsbergen, when, on
the 17th of June 1896, they fell in with Frederick Jackson and
bis patty of the Jackson-Hannsworth expedition, and returned
to Norway in his ship, the " Windward/' reaching Vardd on the
X3th of August. A week later the " Fram " also reached Norway
in safety. She had drifted north after Nansen had left her,
to 85** 57', and had ultimately returned by the west coast of
Spitsbergen. An unprecedented welcome awaited Nansen. In
Enghind he gave the narrative of his journey at a great meetmg
in the Albert Hall, London, on the 8th of February 1897,
and elsewhere. He received a special medal from the Royal
Geographical Society, honorary degrees from the universities of
Oxford and Cambridge, and a presentation of books (the " Chal-
lenger" Rqwrts) from the British govenmient, and sunikr
honours were paid him in other countries. The English version
of the narrative of the expedition is entitled Fartkett North
(London, 1897), and the scientific results are given in The
Norwegian North Pdar ExpediHon i8fij-i8fi6; Scien^fic ResnUt
(London, ftc, X900 sqq.).
In X905, in connexion with the crisis between Norway and
Sweden, which was followed by the separation of the kmgdoms,
Nansen for the first time actively intervened in politics. He
issued a manifesto and many articles, in which he adopted an
attitude briefly indicated by the last words of a short woxk
published bter in the year: "Any union in which the one
people is restrained in fxerrising its freedom is and will remain
a danger " (Norway and the Union with Sweden, London, 1905).
On the establishment of the Norwegian monarchy Nansen was
appointed minister to England (1906), and in the same year he
was created G.C.V.O.; but in x 908 he retired from his post,
and became professor of oceanography in Christiania university.
NANSEN, HANS (X598-X667), Danish statesman, son of the
burgher Evert Nansen, was bom at Flensburg on the 28th of
November 1598. He made several voyages to the White Sea
and to places in northern Russia, and in 1621 entered the service
of the Danish Icelandic Company, then in its prime. For
many years the whole trade of Icehmd, which he frequently
visited, passed through his hands, and he soon became equally
well known at GlUckstadt, then the chief emporium of the
Iceland trade, and at Copenhagen. In February X644, at the
express desire of King Christian IV., the Copenhagen burgesses
elected him burgomaster. During his northern voyages he had
learnt Russian, and was employed as interpreter at court when-
ever Muscovite embassies visited Copenhagen. His travels had
begotten in him a love of geography, and be published in 1633
a " Kosmografi," previously revised by the astronomer Longo-
montanus. During the siege of Copenhagen by the Swedes in
X 658 he came prominently forward. At the meeting between the
king and the citizens to arrange for the defence of the capital,
Nansen urged the necessity of an obstinate defence. It was he
who on this occasion obtained privDeges for the burgesses of
Copenhagen which placed them on a footing of equality with
the nobility; and he was the life and soul of the garrison tiQ
the arrival of the Dutch fleet practically saved the city. These
eighteen months of storm and stress established his hifluence
in the capital once for all and at the same time knitted him
closely to Frederick IH., who recognized in Nansen a man
after his own heart, and made the great burgomaster his chief
instrument in carrying through the anti-aristocratic Revolution
of x66a Nansen used all the arts of the agitator with
extraordinary energy and success. His greatest feat was the
impassioned speech by which, on October 8th, he induced the
burgesses to accede to the proposal of the magistracy of Copen-
hagen to offer Frederick III. the realm of Denmark as a purely
hereditary kingdom. How far Nansen was content with the
result of the Revolution— absolute monarchy— it is impossible
to say. It appears to be pretty certain that, at the beginning,
he did not want absolutism. Whether he subsequently regarded
the victory of the monarchy and its corollary, the admittance
of the middle classes to all offices and dignities, as a satisfactory
equivalent for his original demands; or whether he. was so
overcome by royal favour as to sacrifice cheerfully the political
liberties of his country, can only be a matter for conjecture.
After the Revolution Nansen continued in high honour, but
164
NANTERRE— NANTES
he chiefly occupied himself with cominerce, and was less and less
consulted in purely political matters. . He died on the lath of
November 1667.
.BiBLiOGRAPHY.^^luf'Nidaeii, Kjdbeithams Hislorii, iii. (Copen-
hagen, 1877): Julius Albert Fridericia« Addsvaeldens sidste vdgt
(CopenhagcDt 1894) ; Danmarks Rige^ HisUfrU, v. (CopenhAgen.
1897-1905). (R. N. B.)
NAHTBRRBr a town of northern France, with a port on the.
Seine, in the department of Seine, at the foot of Mount Valerien,
8 m. N.W. of Paris on the railway to St Germain. Pop. (1906),
town, 11,874; commune, 17,434. The principal manufactures
are chemicals, tallow. and oluminium; stone quarried in the
vicinity; the town is noted also for its cakes. The combined
prison and mendicity dep6t for the department is a large
institution, about 9 m. from the town. Nanterre (the ancient
Nemptoduntm or Nemetodwum) owes its origin to the shrine
of Ste Genevieve (420-5x3), the patron-saint of Paris, whose
name is still associated with various places in the town and
district. The shrine is the object of a pilgrimage in September.
NANTES, a city of western France^ capital of the department
of Loire-Inf^rieure, on the right bank of the Loire, 35 m. above
its mouth, at the junction of the Orleans, Western and Sute
railways, 55 m. W.S.W. of Angers by rail. In population
(town, 1x8,244; Commune, 133,347, in 1966) Nantes is the first
city of Brittany. The Loire here divides into several branches
forming islands over portions of which the dty has spread.
It receives on the left hand the Sdvre Nantaise, and on the right
the Erdre, which forms the outlet of the canal between Nantes
and Brest. The maritinke port of Nantes is reached by way of
the Loire and the ship canal between the island of Camet and
La Martini^re (9I m.). Vessels drawing as much as ao ft. 8 in.,
and at spring tides, as ft., can reach the port, which extends over
a length of about i| m. The outer port as far as the industrial
suburb of Chantenay has % length of over half a mile. The
principal quays extend. along the right bank of the branch
which flows past the town, and on the western shore of the islatad
of Gloriette. Their total length used for trading purposes is
5 m., and warehouses cover an area of 17 acres. A slipway
facilitates the repairing of ships. The river port occupies the
St F^lix and Madeleine branches, and has quays extending for
half a mile. FinaOy, on the Erdre is a third port for inland
navigation. The quays are bounded by railway lines along the
right bank of the river, which the railway to St Nazaire follows.
The older quarter of Nantes containing the more interesting
buildings is situated to the east of the Erdre.
The cathedral, begun in X434 in the Ck>thic style, was unfinished
till the XQth century when the transept and choir were added.
There are two interesting monuments in the transept — on the
right Michel Colomb's tomb of Francis II., duke of Brittany, and
his second wife Marguerite de Foix (1507), and on the left that of
General Juchault de Lamorid^re, a native of Nantes, by Paul
Dubois (1879). Of the other churches the most interesting is
St Nicolas, a modem building in the style of the 13th century,
on the right bank of the Erdre. Between the cathedral and the
Loire, from which it is separated only by the breadth of the quay,
stands the castle of Nantes, founded in the 9th or xoth century.
Rebuilt by Francis II. and the duchess Anne, it is flanked by
huge towers and by a bastion erected by Philip Emmanuel
duke of Mercceur in the time of the League. A fine fa^de in
the Gothic style looks into the courtyard. From being the
residence of the dukes of Brittany, the castle became a state
prison in which Jean-Francois Paul de Gondi, Cardinal de Retz,
Nicholas Fouquet, and Marie Louise of Naples, duchess of
Berry, were at different times confined; it is now occupied as the
artillery headquarters. The chapel in which the marriage of
Louis XII. with Anne of Brittany was celebrated was destroyed
by an explosion in x8oo. The Exchange (containing the tribunal
and chamber of commerce), the Grand Theatre, the Prefecture
and the town hall are buildings of the kst half of the x8th or
early X9th century; the law courts date from the middle of the
zoth century. Nantes has an archaeological collection in the
Dobr£e Museum, and in the museum of fine arts a splendid
collection of paintings, modem French masters being weD
represented; it also has a natural history museum, a large library
rich in manuscripts and a botanical garden to the east. The
Pommeraye Passage, which connects streets on different levels
and is built in stages coimected by staircases, dates from X843.
Between the Loire and the Erdre run the Cours St Pierre and
the Cours St Andr€, adorned at the two ends of the line by
statues of Aime of Brittany and Arthur III., Bertrand du
Guesdin and Olivier de Clisson, and separated by the Place
Louis XVI., with a statue of that monarch on a lofty column.
The Place Royale, to the west of the Erdre, the great meeting-
place of the prindpal thoroughfares of the dty, contains a
monumental fountain with allegorical statues of Nantes and the
Loire and its affluents. A flight of steps at the west end of the
town leads up from the quay to the colossal cast-iron statue of
St Aime, whence a splendid view may be obtained over the
valley of the Loire. Several old houses of the xsth and x6th
centuries, the fish market and the Salorges (a vast granite
building now used as a bonded warehouse) are of interest.
Nantes has two great hospitals— St Jacques on the left bank of
the Loire, and the Hotd-Dieu in Gloriette Island. It is the seat
of a. bishopric and a court of assizes, and headquarters of the
XI. army corps; it has tribunals of first instance and of
commerce, a board of trade-arbitrators a chamber of commerce
and a branch of the Bank of France. ' The educational institu-
tions indude lyc£es for both sexes, a training college for girb
schools of medidne and pharmacy and law, a preparatory school
to higher instruction, sdence and letters, schools of music, art axtd
navigation, technical and conunerdal schools, and a school for
deaf-mutes and the blind.
Among the more importaht industries of Nantes are sugar-
refining, flour-milling, rice-husking, the manufacture of oil,
soap, flour pastes and biscuits, and the preparation <rf tinned
provisions (sardines, vegetables, &c.); the manufacture of tin
boxes, tiles, chemical manures, add from chestnut bark, tobacco,
leather, wood-pulp for paper, rope, boofs and shoes, brushes
and glass; saw-milUng, shipbuilding, metal founding and the
constmction of engineering material; and wool and cotton-
spinning and the manufacture of cotton and other fabrics,
hosiery and knitted goods. Coal and patent fuel (chiefly from
Great Britain) are the most important imports; next come
phosphates and pyrites; other imports are timber and pulp-wood.
The prindpal exports are bunker-coal (to French colonies),
pyrites, slate, hoops and provisions. In the ten years xSgd-
X907 the average annual value of the imports was £2,657^000;
of the- exports £795,000. In X907 there entered from foreign
countries 738 vesseb (209 British) with tonnage of 584,850,
and deared 778 with X54.720 tons of cargo, and 458,538 tons
of ballast. Reckoning ships carrying cargo only the figures for
the first and last years of the decade X898-1907 were: X898,
ships entered, French 209 (tonnage 75,249), foreign 250 (tonnage
154*936) ; ships deared, French 173 (tonnage 32,591), foreign
97 (tonnage 27,836): 1907, ships entered, French x86 (tonnage
1371635), foreign 4x9 (tonnage 361,002); ships cleared, F^-encb
X26 (tonnage 8x,299), foreign 128 (tonnage 45*iSx).
Before the Roman occupation Nantes was the chief town of
the Namnetes and consisted of Condovicnum, lying on the hills
away from the river, and of Partus Namnetumt on the river.
Under the Romans it became a great commerdal and admini-
strative centte, though its two parts did not coalesce till the 3rd
or 4th century. In the middle of the 3rd century Christianity
was introduced by St Clair. Clotaire I. got possession of the
city in 560, and placed it under the government of St Filix
the bishop, who executed enormous works to cause the Loire
to flow under the walls of the castle. After being several times
subdued by Charlemagne, Brittany revolted under his successors,
and Nomino^, proclaimed king in 842, ordered the fortifications
of Nantes to be razed because it had sided with Charles the Bald.
The Normans held the town from 843 to 936. About this llmor
began the rivalry between Nantes and Rennes, whose counts
disputed the sovereignty of Brittany. Pierre de Dreux, declare<t
duke of Brittany by Philip Augustus, made Nantes his capital^
NANTES, EDICT OF— NANTICOKE
165
Sttmmnded it* with fortificaiions and defended it valiantly
tsainst John of England. During the Breton wars of succession
Nantes took part first with Jean dc Montfort, but afterwards
with Charles of BloiSf and did not open its gULa to Monfort
tUl his success was assured and his. English allies had retired.
In 1560 Frauds II. granted Nantes a communal constitution.
In the course of the 15th and i6t)i centuries the dty suffered
hom several epidemics. Averse to Protestantism, it joined the
League along with the duke of MercoeuTi governor of Brittany,
who helped to raise the country into an independent duchy;
and it was not till 159S that it opened its gates to Henry IV.,
who here signed on the and of May of that year the famous
Edict of Nantes which until its revocation by Louis XIV. in
1685 was the charter of Huguenot liberties in France. It was
at Nantes that Henry de Talleyrand, count of Chalais, was
imnished in 1626 for plotting against Richelieu, that Fouquet
was arrested in 1661, and that the OUamare conspirators were
executed under the regent Philip of Orleans. Having warmly
embraced the cause of the Revolution in 1789, the dty was in
1793 treated with extreme rigour by J. B. Carrier, envoy of
tbe Committee of Public Safety, whose noyades or wholesale
drownings of prisoners became notorious. Nantes on more than
one occasion vigorously resisted the Vendeans. It was here
that the duchess of Berry was arrested in 183a while trying to
sUr u pLa Vendfe against Louis Philippe.
■AHTES. EDICT OF, the law promulgated in April 2598 by
which the French king, Henry IV., gave religious liberty to his
Protestant subjects, the Huguenots. The story of the struggle
for the edict is part of the history of France, and during the
thirty-five years of dvO war which preceded its grant, many
treaties and other arrangements bad been made between th«
contending religious parties, but none of these had been satis-
factory or lasting. The elation of the Protestants at the accession
cf Henry IV. in 1589 was followed by deep depression, when it
was found that not only did he adopt the Roman Catholic faith,
bat that his efforts to redress thdr grievances were singularly
iaeffectuaL In 2594 they took determined measures to protect
tlnmselves; in 1597, the war with Spain being practically over,
long D^otiations took place between the king and their repre-
icntativcs, prominent among whom was the historian J. A. de
Thou, and at last the edict was drawn up. It consisted of 95
general articles, which were signed by Henry at Nantes on' the
13th of April 1598, and of 56 particular ones, signed on the
and oi May. There was also some supplementary matter.
The main provisions of the edict of Nantes may be briefly
samraarized under six heads: (i) It gave liberty of consdence
to the Protestants throughout the whole of France. (2) It
gave to the Protestants the right of holding public worship in
those places where they had hdd it in the year 1576 and in the
earlier part of 2577; also in places where this freedom had been
granted by the edict of Poitiers (1577) and the treaties of N6rac
(1579) and of Ffliz (1580). The Protestants could also worship
in two towns in each baiUiage and stntchausie. The greater
■obles coold hold Protestant services in their houses; the
ksMT nobles could do the same, but only for gatherings of not
more than thirty people. Regarding Paris, the Protestants
ooold conduct wwship within five leagues of the dty; previously
tins prcAibttion had extended to a distance of ten leagues.
(3) Foil dvil rights were granted to the Protestants. They could
tzade freely, inherit property and enter the xmiversitles, colleges
and sdKMb. All ofiidal positions were open to them. (4) To
deal with disputes arising out of the edict a chamber was estab-
lisbed in the parlement of Paris {le ckambre de VidiC), This
was to be composed of ten Roman Catholic, and of six Protestant
membcra. Chambers for the same purpose, but consisting of
Protestants and Roman Catholics in equal numbers, were estab-
JxAmd in connexion with the provincial parlements. (5) The
Protestant pastors were to be paid by the state and to be freed
from certain burdens, their position bdng made practically
e^ial to that of the Roman Catholic dergy. (6) A hundred
places of safety were given to the Protestants for eight years,
the expenses of garrisoning them bdng undertaken by the king.
In many ways the terms of the edict were very generous to
the Protestanu, but it must be remembered that the liberty
to hold public worship was made the exception and not the rule;
this was prohibited except in certain spedfied cases, and in this
respect they were \cs& favourably treated than they were under
the arrangement made in 1576.
The edict was greatly disliked by the Roman Catholic dergy
and their friends, and a few changes were made to conciliate them.
The parlement of Puis shared this dislike, and succeeded in
reducing the number of Protestant members of die chamhre
de VidU from six to one. Then cajoled and threatened by Henry,
the parlement registered the edict on the 25th of February
1 599. After similar trouble it was also registered by the provincial
parlements, the last to take this step being the parlement of
Rouen, which delayed the registration until 1609.
The strong political position secured to the French Protestants
by the edict of Nantes was very objectionable, not only to the
ardent Roman Catholics, but also to more moderate persons,
and the payments made to their ministers by the state were
viewed with increasing dislike. Thus about x66o a strong move-
ment bq^an for its repeal, and this had great influence with the
king. One after another proclamations and declarations were
issued which deprived the Protestants of their rights imder the
edict; thdr position was rendered intolerable by a series of
persecutions which culminated in the dragonnades^ and at length
on the x8th of October 1685 Louis revoked the edict, thus depriv-
ing the Protestanu in France of all dvil and religious liberty.
This gave a new impetus to the emigration of the Huguenots,
which had been going on for some years, and Eni^d, Holland
and Brandenburg recdved numbers of thrifty and industrious
French families.
The history of the French Protestants, to which the edkt of.Nantes
bdongt, is dealt with in the artides F range : History ^nd Huguenots.
For further details about the edict we the papers and documents
Kubltohed as L« Troisiime centenaire de FidU de Nantr' '■••^o^*
r. A. F. Puaux, Hutoire du Prolestantisme fran^is (Pai
Kubltohed as Le Troisihme centenaire de FidU de Nantes (1898);
r. A. F. Puaux, Histeire du Prolestantisme fran^is (Paris, 1894) ;
H. M. Baird, The Hutuenots and the Reoocalion of the Edict of Nantes
(London, 1895); C. Benoist, La Condition des Protestants sous le
rigime de Vidit de Nantes et apris sa rioocation (Paris, 1900) ; A. Loda,
LlBdit de Nantes devant le Parlement de Paris (1899) ; and the Bulletin
kistorique et litttraire of tbe Sod6t6 de THistoire du Protestantisme
Fransais.
NANTEUIL, ROBERT (1623-1678), French line-engraver, was
bom about 1623, or, as other authorities state, in 1630, the
son of a merchant of Rdms. Having recdved an excellent
classical education, he studied engraving under his brother-in-
law, Nicholas Regnesson; and, his crayon portraits having
attracted attention, he was pensioned by Louis XIV. and
appointed designer and engraver of the cabinet to that monarch.
It was mainly due to his influence that the king granted the
edict of 1660, dated from St Jean de Luz, by which engraving
was pronounced free and distinct from the mechanical arts, and
its practitioners were declared entitled to the privileges of other
artists. He died at Paris in 1678. The plates of Nantcuil,
several of them approaching the scale of life, number about three
hundred. In his early practice he imitated the technique of
his predecessors, working with straight lines, strengthened, but
not crossed, in the shadows, in the style of Claude Mellan, and
in other prints cross-hatching like Regnesson, or stippling in the
manner of Jean Boulanger; but he gradually asserted his full
individuality, modelling the faces of his portraits with the utmost
predsion and completeness, and employing various methods
of touch for the draperies and other parts of his plates. Among
the finest works of his fully devdoped period may be named
the portraits of Pomponne de Bellidvre, Gilles Manage, Jean
Loret, the due de la Meilleraye and the duchess de Nemours.
A list of hb works will be found in Dumesnil's Le Peintre-graoeur
franfais, voL iv.
NAHTIOOKB, a borough of Luxeme county, Pennsylvania,
U.S.A., on the North Branch of the Susquehanna river, opposite
West Nanticoke, and 8 m. S.VV. of Wilkes-Barre. Pop. (1880),
3884; (1890), 10,044; (1900), X2,ii6, of whom soss were
fordgn-bom; (1910 census) 18,877. It is served by the
Pennsylvania, the Ddaware, Lackawanna & Western and the
i66
NANTUCKET
Central of New Jersey raflways, and by an interurban electric
line. Nanticoke is situated in the anthracite coal region, is
surrounded by mines, and its industries consist chiefly in mining
and shipping coal; it also has various manufactures, and in
190S the factory product was valued at $358,091. Nanticoke
was laid out in 1793, and was ina>rporated as a borough in 1874.
The name is that of an Algonquian tribe of Indians, conspicuous
for their dark complexion, who originally lived in Marykind,
were conquered by the Iroquois in 1678 and subsequently
scattered; the main body removed to lands along the eastern
branch of the Susquehanna, where some of them became merged
with the Iroquois, and others removed to the Ohio and became
merged with the Delaware.
NANTUCKETt a county and township (coextensive) of Massa-
chusetts, U.S.A. Its principal part is an island of the same
name, 38 m. S. of Cape Cod peninsula; it also includes the
island of Tuckemuck, which has an area of Z'97 sq. m., and is
used for sheep grazing; Muskeget Island, which has excellent
hunting, and of which about one-half is a public park; and the
Gravel Islands and other islets. Pop. of the county (1905
state census), 2930; (19x0) 396a.
The island, with a minimum length of 15 m., an average width
of a| m., and an area of about 47 sq. m., has a coast-line of
88 m.; it lies within the lo-fathom line, but is separated from
the mainland by Nantucket Sound, which is 25 to 30 m. across
and has a maximum depth of 50 ft. The surface of Nantucket
Island is open, nearly treeless, with a few hills, the highest being
91 ft above sea>Ievel. The soil is sandy .but affords good pasture
in some places, and has been farmed with some success; the
flora is rich, and includes some rare species. There are a score
of fresh- water ponds, the largest being Hummock (330 acres).
Copaium (3x acres) was, at the time of the first settlement, a bay
and the a>mmonIy used harbour, but the present harbour (6 m.
long) is that form^ by Coatue Beach, a long narrow tongue of
land on the N. side of the island. The northern part of Coatue
Beach is known as Coskata Beach, and curves to the N.W.;
near its tip is Great Point, where a lighthouse was first built in
1784. There have been many terrible wrecks on the coast,
and there are life-saving stations on Muskeget Island, near
Maddaket, at Surfside and on Coskata Beach. At the W. end
of the island is Tuckemuck Bank, a broad submarine platform,
on whose edge are the island of Tuckemuck, on which is a village
of the same name, and Muskeget Island. In the S.£. extremity
of Nantucket Island is Siasconset Qocally 'Sconset), a summer
resort of some vogue; it has a Marconi wireless telegraph
station, connecting with incoming steamers, the Nantucket
shoak lightship and the mainland. On a bluff on the S. is the
small village of Surfside. Other hamleU are Maddaket, at the
W. end of the island; and Polpis, Quidnet and Wauwinet (at
the head of Nantucket harbour) in its E. part.
The principal settlement and summer resort is the town of
Nantucket (on the S.W. end of the harbour), which is served by
steamers from New Bedford, Martha's Vineyard and Wood's
Hole, and is connected with Siasconset by a primitive narrow-
gauge railway. Here there are large stmimer hotels, old resi-
dences built in the prosperous days of whaling, old lean-to houses,
old graveyards and an octagonal towered windmill built in 1746.
There are two libraries; one founded in 1836, and now a public
library in the Atheneum building; and the other in what is
now the School of Industrial and Manual Training (1904), founded
in 1827 as a Lancasterian school by Admiral Sir Isaac Coffin
(1759-1839), whose ancestors were Nantucket people. The
Jethro Cofllin House was built in x686, according to tradition;
the Old North Vestry, the first Congregational meeting-house,
built in 1 71 1, was moved in 1767, and again in 1834 to its present
site on Beacon Hill. The old South Church Tower, a steeple and
clock tower, 144 ft. above sea-level, has a fine Portuguese bell,
made in 1810. Another old house, built in 1735, was the home
of Elihu Coleman, an anti-slavery minister of the Society of
Friends, who were very strong here until the close of the first
qxiarter of the 19th century. Near the old Friends' School is
thebuikiing of the Nantucket Historical Society, which has a
collection of relics. Nantucket was the home of Benjamin
Franklin's mother, Abiah, whose father, Peter Folger, was one
of the earliest settlers (1663); of Maria Mitchell, and of Lucretia
Mott. Adjoim'ng the Maria Mitchell homestead is a menoorial
astronomical observatory and library, containing the collections
of Miss Mitchell and of her brother, Professor Henry Mitchell
(1830-1902), a distinguished hydrographer. The industries of
the island are unimportant; there is considerable cod and scallop
fishing. Sheep-raising was once an important industry. Nan-
tucket was long famous as a whaling port. As eariy as the
beginning of the x8th century its fleets vied with those of eastern
Long Isbnd. Ini 7 z 2 a Nantucket whaler, Christopher Hussey,
blown out to sea, killed some sperm whales and thus introduced
the sperm-oil industry and put an end to the period in which
only drift- and shore- or boat-whaling had been carried on —
the shore fishery died out about 1760. In 1757 whaling was the
only livelihood of the people of Nantucket; and in 1750-1775,
although whaling fleets were in repeated danger from French
and Spanish privateers, the business, with the allied coopers
and other trades, steadily increased. In 1775 the Nantucket
fleet numbered 150, and the population was between 5000 and
6000, about 90% being Quakers; but by 1785 the fleet had
been shattered, X34 ships being destroyed or captured during
the war. Tallow candles as a substitute for whale-oil had been
introduced, and the British market was closed by a duty of
£18 a ton on oil; a bounty offered by the Massacfausetu legis-
lature (is on white and £3 on yellow or brown spermaceti,
and £2 on whale-oil per ton) was of slight assistance. During the
war of x8i2 the Nantucket fleet was the only one active; it
suffered severely during the war, and in the decade 1820-1830
Nantucket lost its primacy to New Bedford, whose fleet in 1840
was twice as large. Nantucket's last whaler sailed in 1869.
Subsequently the island has been chiefly important as a summer
resort.
Title to Nantucket and the neighbouring islands was daimed
under granU of the Council for New England both by William
Alexander, Lord Stiriing, and by Sir Ferdinando Gorges. Lord
Stirling's agent sold ihcm in X64X to Thomas Mayhcw (1593-
1683) of Watertown, Mass., and his son Thomas (c. 1616"
1657) for £40, and a little later the elder Mayhew obtained
another deed for Martha's Vineyard from Gorges. In 1659 the
elder Mayhew sold a joint interest in the greater part of the
island of Nantucket for £30 and two beaver hats to nine partners;
early in the following year the first ten admitted ten others as
equal proprietors, and later, in order to encourage them to settle
here, spedal half -grants were offered to tradesmen. The ori^nal
twenty proprietors, however, endeavoured to exclude the trades-
men from any voice in the government, and this caused strife.
Both factions appealed to the governor of New York, that pro-
vince having claimed jurisdiction over the islands under the
grant to the duke of York in 1664, and, becoming increastngjiy
dissatisfied with that government, sought a union with Massa-
chusetts until the islands were annexed to that province by its
new charter of 1691. The town of Nantucket was settled in
i66x and was incorporated in X67Z. By order of Governor
Francis Lovelace it was named Sherburne in 1673, but in 1795
the present name was adopted. Its original site was Maddaket
on the W. end of the island; in X672 it was moved to its present
site, then called Wescoe. When counties were first organized in
New York, in X683, Nantucket and the neighbouring islands
were erected into Dukes county, but in X695, after annexation
to Massachusetts, Nantucket Island, having been set apart from
Dukes county, constituted Nantucket county, and in 17x3
Tuckemuck Island was annexed to it.
See the bulletins (1896 sqq.) of the Nantucket Historical Society.
Ubiished in 1894: F. B. Hough. Papers rdatini to the ItUmd ef
Nantucket . . . vkile under the Colony of New York (Albany. (I.Y..
Sites and Historic Buildings (Nantucket, 1895): Obed Macy, History
of Nantucket (Boston. 1835): L. S. Hinchnuin. Early Seitlers of
Nantucket (Philadelphia. 1896: 2nd ed.. 1901): W. S. Blis^ Quaint
Nantucket (Boston. 1896): and N. S. Shalcr. Geolovy of Nantmcket
(Washington, 1889), being U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin, Na S3-
NANTWICH— NAPHTHALENE
167
VAHTWICH, a market town in the Crewe parliamentary
diviskm of Cheshire, England, z6i m. N.W. of London, on the
London & North- Western and Great Western raflways. Pop.
of urban district (1901) 772a. It lies on the river Weaver, in the
upper part of its flat, open valley. The church of St Mary and
St Nicholas is a cruciform building in red sandstone, of the
Decorated and Perpendicular periods, with a central octagonal
tower. The fine old carved stalls are said to have belonged to
Vale Royal Abbey, near Winsford in this county. Nantwich re-
tains not a few old timbered houses of the 16th and X7th centuries,
but the town as a whole is modem in appearance. The grammar
school was founded in i6z i. The salt industry, still the staple of
several towns lower down the vale of the Weaver, was so
important here in the time of Henry VIII. that there were three
hundred salt-works. Though this industry has lapsed, there are
brine baths, much used in cases of rheumatism, gout and general
debility, and the former private mansion of Shrewbridge Hall is
converted into a hotel with a spa. Nantwich has tanneries, a
manufacture of boots and shoes, and clothing factories; and
OMm-milHng and iron-founding are carried on. The town is one
of the best hunting centres in the county, being within reach
of several meets.
From the traces of a Roman road between Nantwich and Middle-
vich, and the various Roman remains that have been found in the
netf^ibooriKiod. it has been conjectured that Nantwich was a salt-
town in Roman times, but of this there is no conclusive evidence.
The Domesday Survey contains a long account of the laws, customs
and vahKs of the salt-works at that period, which were by far the
ooet profitabfe in Cheshire. The salt-houses were divided between
the kmg, the cari of Chester and certain resident freemen of the
neighbourfaood. The name of the town appears variously as Wych
Maabank, Wie Malban. Nantwich, Lache Mauban, Wysmanban.
Wiens Malbanus, Namptcwiche. About the year I070 William
MalbedeoKor Malbank was created baron of Nantwich, which barony
he hdd of the eari of Chester. In the 13th century the barony fell
to three daughtexa and co-hdresses, and further subdivisions followed.
This probably accounts for the lack of privileges belonging to Nant-
wich as a omporate town. The only town charter is one of 1567-
1568, ia wbidi Queen Elizabeth confirms an ancient privilege of
the boigeases that they shouki not be upon assizes or juries with
straogers, relating to matters outside the town. It is stated in the
charter that the right to this privilege had been proved by an in-
2aisition taken in the 14th century, and had then already been held
nm time immemorial. There was a jgild merchant and also a town
baiKff, bat the latter aSux was of httle real significanoe and was
soon dropped. There is documentary evidence of a castle at Nant-
wich in the 13th century. There is a weekly market on Saturday,
heU by prescription. In 1283 a three-days'^ fair to be heM at the
feast c« St Bartholomew was sranted to Robert Bumell, bishop of
Bath and Weib (then hoUcr of a share of the barony of Nantwich).
Thb is the " Old Fair " or " Great Fair " now held on the ^th of
September. Eari Cholmomleley received a grant of two fairs in
1723. Fairs are now held on the first Thursday in April, Tune,
September and December, and a cheese fair on the first Tnursoay in
each month except January. The salt trade declined altogether in
the 1 8th century, with the exceptk>n of one salt-works, which was
kept open until 1856. There was a shoe trade in the town as early
as the 17th century, and eloves were made from the end of the
ifyh century until about 1863. Weaving and stockinff trades also
flourished in the i8th century. The one corn-mill of Nantwich was
eoaverted into a cotton factory in 1789, but was closed in 1874.
See James HaD, A History of Nantwich or Wick Mitbank (1883).
NAOROJI, DADABHAI (1825- ), Indian politidan, was
bora at Na^ on the 4th of September 1825, the son of a Parsi
priest. Dnring a long and active life, he p^yed many parts:
professor of mathematics at the Elphinstone college (1854);
founder of the Raa Goftar newspaper; partner in a Parsi business
firm in London (1855); prime minister of Baroda (1874);
member of the Bombay legislative council (1885); M.P. for
Central Finsbury (1892-1895), being the first Indian to be elected
to the House of Commons; three times president of the Indian
Katicmal Congress. Many of his numerous writings are coUectcd
in Paoerty and Un-Brilisk Rule in India (1901).
XAP, the pile on doth, the surface of short fibres raised by
special processes, diflfering with the various fabrics, and then
smoothed and cut. Formerly the word was applied to the
roQgbnesa on textiV) before shearing. " Nap " in this sense
appears in many . j.|-JJc languages, cf. Ger. Noppe^ Dutch nop,
hot. napp; thc^^ t£e**™ ** noppen or nappen, to trim, cut
short. The word nap also means a short sleep or dose (O. Eng.
hnappian). In " napkin," a square of damask or other linen,
used for wiping the hands and lips or for protecting the clothes
at meals, the second part is a common English sufiz, sometimes
of diminutive force, and the first is from " nape," ^ Lov Lat.
fiapa or nappa, a corrupt form of mappa^ table-doth. Uape still
survives in " napery," a name for housdioki linen in gencraL
NAPHTAU, in the Bible, the name of an Israelite tribe, the
" son " of Jacob by Bilhah, Rachel's maid, and the uterine
brother of Dan (Gen. zxz. 8). It lay to the south of Dan in the
eastern half of upper Galilee (Josh. zix. 32-39), a fertile mountain-
ous district (d. Gen. xlix. ai; Deut. zzziii. 23), open to the
surrounding influences of Phoenicia and Aram. Apart from its
share in the war against Sisera {]u6g. Iv. seq., see Dkbosah),
little is known of it. It evidently suffered in the bhxxly conflicts
of Damascus with Israel (i Kings 3cv. 20), and was depopulated
by Tiglath-Pileser IV. (a Kings zv. 29; Isa. 'a, 1). Naphtali and
Dan are " brothers," perhaps partly on geographical grounds,
but Dan also had a seat in the south (south-west of Ephraim),
and the name of the " mother " Bilhah is apparently connected
with Bilhan, an Edomite and also a Benjamite name (Gen.
zzxvi* 27; X Chron. vii. zo).
For the view connecting Naphtali (perhaps a geographKal mther
than a tribal term), or rather its Israelite inhabitants^ with the south
see the full discussion by H. W. Hogg, Ency. Bib. in. coL 3332 sqq.
with references.
NAPHTHA, a word originally applied to the more fluid kinds 01
petroleum, issuing from the ground in the Baku district of
Russia and in Persia. It is the v&^Sa of Dioscorides, and the
naphtha, or bitumen liquidum candidum of Pliny. By the alchemists
the word was used prindpally to distinguish various highly
volatile, mobile and inflammable liquids, such as the ethers,
sulphuric ether and acetic ether having been known reqtectivdy
as naphtha sulpkurici and naphtha aceti.
The term is now sddom used, either in commerce or in sdence.
without a distinctive prefix, and we thu8.have the following. —
1. Coal4ar Napktka. — ^A volatile commercial product obtained by
the distillation of coal-tar (tee Coal-tar).
2. SkaU Napktka.— Obtzined by distillation from the oil pro-
duced by the destructive distillation of bituminous shale (sec
Paraffin).
3. Petroleum Napktka. — ^A name sometimes given (e.g. in the
United States) to a portion of the more volatile hydrocarbons
distilled from petroleum (see Petroleum).
4. Wood Napklka.— Methyl alcohol (q.v.).
1. Bone Napktka. — Known also as bone oil or Dippcl's oil. A
-Stile product of offensive odour obtained in the carbonisation of
bones for the manufacture of animal charcoal.
6. Caoutckoue Napktka. — ^A volatile product obtained by the
destructive distillation of rubber. (B. R)
KAPHTHALBNB, Cielli, a hydrocarbon discovered in the
" carboh'c " and " heavy oil " fractions of the coal-tar distillate
(see Coal-tax) in 18x9 by A. Garden. It is a product of the
action of heat on many organic compotmds, bdng formed when
the vapours of ether, camphor, acetic add, ethylene, acetylene,
&c., are passed through a red-hot tube (M. Berthelot, Jahresb.,
1851), or when petroleum is led through a red-hot tube packed
with charcoal (A. Letny, Ber., 1878, xx, p. 12x0). It may be
synthesized by passing the vapour of phenyl butylene bromide
over heated soda lime (B. Aronheim, Ann., 1874, X7x, p. 219);
and by the action of ortho-zylylene bromide on sodium ethane
tetracarbexylic ester, the resulting tetra-hydronaphthalene
tetracarbozylic ester being hydrolysed and heated, when it
yields hydronaphthalene dicarbozylic add, the silver salt of
which decomposes on distillation into naphthalene and other
produas (A. V. Baeyer and W. H. Perkin, junr., Ber., 1884,
17. P- 4S0?—
r H ^CH,Br . NaC(CO,R), . pj.^^CHrC(CO,R),
^"•<CH.Br+Na.C(CO.R). "^ ^*'^CHrC(CO,R),
r H ^ r H ^CHrCHCOtH . cJI-*<CH,.C(CO,H),
vobti
^ " Nape," the back of the neck, is of doubtful or^n; it may be
a variant of " knap." a knob or protuberance.
1 68
NAPHTHOLS
It is a colourless solid, which melu at 80^ C, and boils at
azS* C. It crystallizes in the monodinic system; it is to be
noted that a- and ^naphthol assume almost identical forms, so
that these three compounds have been called isomorphous. It is
insoluble in water, but is readily soluble in alcohol, and ether.
It has a characteristic smell, and is very volatik, distilling
readily in a current of steam. It acts as a v/tak antiseptic. It is
used for enriching coal gas, as a vermin killer, in the manufacture
of certain azo dyes, and in the preparation of phthalic acid {q.v.).
When passed through a red-hot tube packed with carb<m it
yields /3/3-dinaphthyl, (CioHOt. It forms a crystalline compound
with picric add. It readily forms addition producU with
chlorine and with hydrogen; the dichloride, CioHsd, is obtained
as a yellow liquid by acting with hydrochloric add and potassium
chlorate; the solid tetrachloride, Cio H« CU, resulu when chlorine
is passed into naphthalene dissolved in chloroform. Numerous
hydrides are known; heated with red phosphorus and hydHodic
add the hydrocarbon yields mixtures of hydrides of composition
CioHio to CioHso- Sodium in boiling ethyl alcohol gives the
a-dihydride, QoHio (E. Bamberger, Ber., 1887, 20, p. 1705);
and with boiling amyl alcohol the ^-tetrahydride, CioHu
(E. Bamberger, 5«r., 1890, aj, p. 1561). The a-tetrahydro-
naphthalene is formed when naphthalene is heated with phos-
phonium iodide at i7o"-i90* (A. v. Baeyer). Structurally
naphthalene may be represented as a fusion of two benzene
nudei, the hydrogen atoms being numbered as in the inset
formula
^-
4, 5, 8 are a-positions, 3, 3, 6, 7 are fi;
NAPHTHOLS, or Hydroxvnaphtbalenes, C10H7OH, the
naphthalene homologues of the phenols. The hydrozyl group
is more reactive than in the phenols, the naphthols bdng con-
verted into naphthylamines by the action of ammonia, and
forming ethers and esters much more readily.
a-NdpfUhol may be prepared by fusing sodium-a-naphthalene
fiulphonate with caustic soda; by heating a-naphthylamine
sulphate with water to soo** C. (English Patent 1430Z (1893));
and by heating phenyl isocrotonic add (R. Fittig and H.
Erdmann, Ann. 1885, 327, p. 342): CeH»CH:CH-CHrCOiH
"C10H7OH+H1O. It forms colourless needles which melt at
94^ C.; and is readily soluble in alcohol, ether, chloroform,
and caustic alkalis. It is volatile in steam. With ferric
chloride it gives a dark-blue predpitate of a-dinaphthol,
HO-CioH«'CtoH6*OH. Alkaline potassium permanganate oxi-
dizes it to phenyl-glyozyl-ortbo-carboxylic add, HOiC'CA-CO*
COtH. It is reduced by sodium in boiling amyl alcohol solution
to " aromatic " tetrahydro-a-naphthol (reduction occurring in
the ring which does not contain the hydroxyl group). When
heated with hydrazine hydrate at z6o^ C. it gives a-naphthyl
hydrazine, CioH7NH«NHt(L. Hoffmann, Ber., 1898, 31, p. 2909).
Nitric add converts it into nitro-compounds, which are occasion-
ally used for dyeing silk and wool.
Martius yethw, CioHi(NOi)«ONa'HA the todlum salt of 2-4
dinitn>-a-naphthol (for notation see Naphthalene), is preDarcd
by the action of nitric add on a-naphthol-2-4-disulphonk acid. It
forms orange-ycUow plates and dyes wod a golden yellow (from an
add bath). NaphtkoTyelUm S., d,oH«(pNa)(NOi)tSO.Na. prepared
by the action of nitric acid on a-napnthol-2*4*7-trisulphonsc acid,
is an orange-yellow powder which dyes wool and silk ydlow (from
an acid bath).
Numerous mono-, di- and trisulphonic adds of a-naphthol are
employed in the preparation of azo dyes. The roost important b
Neoile and Winther's acid, CioH<(OH)(SOiH)(i-4). formed when
diazotizcd naphthionic acid (a-naphthylamine-^^ulphonic add) is
boiled with dilute sulphuric acid (Nevile and Winther, Bcr., 1880,
I3«' P- I949)< or when sodium naphthionate is heated with concen-
trated caustic soda solution under pressure at a^o'-ste* C. (German
patent 46307 (1888)). It rodts at 170** C. and is readily soluble in
water, with ferric chloride it gives a blue coloration.
0-Naphlhol, C10H7OH, prepared by fusing sodium ^-naphtha-
lene sulphonate with caustic soda, cr^tallizes in plates which
melt at 1 22^ C. With ferric chloride it gives a green colouration,
and after a time a white flocculent predpitate of a dinaphtho).
With sodium in boiling amyl alcohol solution it gives a mixture
of alicydic and aromatic tetrahydro-/3-naphthols (E. Bamberger,
Ber., 1890, 33, p. 197). When heated with ammonium formate
to 150** C. it forms ^-naphthylamlne. With nitrosodimethy-
laniline hydrochloride it forms Mddtda^s Blue (dimethylaim'no-
— , , -. * .1 -t^ r *!. naphthophenoxazonium chloride), CuHuNiOCI (R. Meldola,
atopic compounds and are employed for the manufacture of the «*~ J[ ,^ *
naphthols. Numerous rff- and /rwulphonic adds are known. ^^•' *?'• "' ^ . J'' . .^ c j _ • .. • • u
a-Napkikoquimm*, C»H^, lesembki benzoquinone. and is formed The ^naphthol sulphonic acids find extensive appbcation tn the*
by the oxidation of many a-dcrivatives of naphthalene with chromic colour industry. The most miportant members are shown m the
acid. It crystallizes in yellow needles whk:h melt at 125^ C. It Uble>-
sublimes readily, is volatile in steam and reduces to
the corresponding dihydroxynaphthalene. fi-Napktiuh
quinone is formed by oxidizing 3-amino-a-naphthol
(from ^naphthd-orangebyreduction) with ferric chlo-
ride. It crysuUizes in red needles, which mdt at 1 1 S*
C; it has no smell and is non-volatile (cf. phenan-
thrcnequinone).il/tsarinUacik.Ci.H4(OH)/>iNaHSOi.
the sodium bisulphite compound of 7*8 dioxy-«r
naphthoquinone, is a dyestuS used for printins on
cotton in the presenoe of a chromium mordant.
The naphthoquinone u prepared by the action
of zinc and concentrated sulphuric add on a-di-
nitronaphthalene. A 2*6 naphthoquinone results
on oxidizing a '6 dihydroxyiuphthawne with lead
peroxide.
a-Napktkaic acid, CuHfCOtH, Is formed by h);dro-
lystd of the nitrite, obtained by distilling potassium-
a-naphthalene sulphonate with potassium cyankle (V.
Merz, Zeit. f. Chemi*, 1868, p. 34)1 or by heating the
sulphonatewith sodium formate (V.Meyer, Ann., 1870,
150. p. 274). It forms needles which melt at 160* C.
fi-Naphthou acid, obuincd b)r boiling /^methYlnaph-
thalene with dilute nitric acid; or by hydrolysis of
its nltrile (formed when formyl-^naphthaiide is •— 5,\, —
heated with zinc dust). crysUllizes from alcohol in needles which 1 Nitrosonaphlhols or naphlhoquinone-oxu / 'y;^n}U{OH) (SO) or
mdt at 184* C. I C»H,(:NOH):0. Two are known, namf g;^* wo-«-ii«^WW or
z-5 or 4-8 diderivatives are ana, whilst z-8 or 4-5 are peri (see
Cheiostky, O&ganic).
a-Nitronapklhalene, CioHr'NOi, is formed by the direct nitration of
naphthalene. For its comihercial preparation see O. Witt, Die
chemiscke Industrie, 1887, 10, p. 215. It crystallizes in yellow
needles, which melt at 61* C, and are readily soluble in alcohd.
By the action of nitro-sulphuric add it is converted into a mixture
of I -5 and 1-8 dinitronaphthalencs (P. Fricdlander, Ber., 1809,32,
p. 3531 )• When heated with aniline and its salts it yields phenyl-
rosinduiin (German patent 67330 (1888)). ^Nitronaphiknlene is
prepared by acting with ethyl nitrite on an alcoholic solution of
3-mtro-a-naphthylamine in the presence of sulphuric add (E. Lell-
mann and A. Remy, Ber., 1886, 19, p. 237), or with freshly prepared
potassium cupronitrite on ^naphthalene diazonium sulphate
(A. Hantzsch, Ber., 1900, 33. p. 2553)* It crystallizes in small
yellow needles which mdt at 78*^ C. and are volatile in steam.
Sulphonic Acids.^Two monosulphonic acids (a and fi) rnult by
Formula.
Method of Preparation.
Remarks.
2-oxy-8-sulphonic
(Baeyer'sacid)
Frotav ^naphthol and concen-
trated sulphuric acid at
50«-^* C.
Sodium salt soluble in
strong alcohol.
(Schaffer's acid)
From /^naphthol and concen-
trated sulphuric at 100* C.
Sodium salt insoluble in
alcohd.
2-oxy-7-8uljphonic
By fusion of naphthalene 27-
disulphonic add with caustic
soda at 20o*-250* C.
Very soluble in water
andakohol.
2-oxy-3«6-disulphonic
Both R- aiid G-add from 0-
naphthol and concentrated
sulphuric add at 100*-
lioX.
The sodium salts separ-
atcd by crystaliiza-
in alcohol ; G-aalt
soluble.
2-oxy-6'8-disulphonic
(G-acirf)
2-oxy-3-6-8-tri8ulphonic
From /3-naphthol and fuming
sulphuric acid at i40*-i6o°Cl.
Alkaline solutions show
.j^^m fluorescence.
NAPHTHYLAMINES— NAPIER, SIR C. J.
169
m-wijiktktmnwmt orimUt tormtd by the action of nitrous acid on
•-Baphtbol or of hydroxylamine hydrochloride on •'naphthoquinone
(H. Gcddschniidt and H. Schmidt. Ber., 1884. 17 6. 2064); and
2-mtnMh m na p kJ ko l (^naphthoquinonfroximc). lormea by the action
of hydnnylainine hydrocUoride 00 /9'napbthoquiooiie.
MAPHTHTIJJIIKBS, or Aiononaphthalenes, CioHrNHt,
the naphthaleoe bomologues of aniline, in contrast to which
they may be prepared by heating the naphthob with ammonia-
sac chloride.
a-Na^kikyUamHe is prepared by reducing a*nitronaphthalene
vith iron and hydrochloric add at about 70^ C, the reaction
mixture being neutralized with milk of lime, and the naphthy-
Umine steam-distilled. It may also be prepared (in the form of
its acetyl derivative) by heating a-naphthol with sodium acetate,
ammonimn chloride and acetic add (A. Calm, Ber.^ 1882, 15,
p. 616); by beating a-naphthol with calcium chloride^mmonia
to 270* C; and by heating pyromudc add, aniline, zinc chloride
and time to ^oo* C. (F. Canzonieri and V. Oliveri, Cass., 1886, 16,
pi 493). It aystallizes in colourless needles which melt at 50^ C.
It poaacaaea a disagreeable faecal odour, subUmes readily, and
torus brown on exposure to air. Oxidizing agents (ferric
chloride, ftc) give a blue precipitate with solutions of its salts.
Chromic add converts it into arnaphthoqtiinone. Sodium in boil-
ing amyl alcohol reduces it to aromatic tetrahydro^-naphthyl-
amine, a substance having the properties of an aromatic amine,
for it can be diazotized and does not possess an ammoniacal
uodL Since it docs not form an addition product with bromine,
reduction roust have taken place in one of the nudd only, and
on account oC the aromatic character of the compound it must be
ia that nudeus which does not contain the amino group. Tliis
letrahydro compound yidds adipic add, (CHs)4(C0iH)t, when
oxidized l^ potassium permanganate. The a-naphthylamine
wiphonic adds are used for the preparation of azo dyes, these
dyes possessing the important property of dyeing unmordanted
Cott(m. The most important is naphthumic acid, i-amino-4-
nlphonic add, produced by heating a-naphthy!amine and
snlphazic add* to 170-180^ C. with about 3% of crystallized
oxaUc add. It forms small needles, very sparingly soluble in
water. With diazotized benzidine it gives Congo red.
^NapkAjiamine is prepared by heating /3-naphthol with zinc
chloride-ammonia to 3oo-axo^ (V. Merz and W. Wdth, Ber.,
1880, 13, 1500); or in the form of its acetyl derivative by
heating 0-naphthol with ammonium acetate to 270-280" C.
It forma odourless, coburless plates which melt at iii-xxa" C.
It gives no cokmr with ferric chloride. When reduced by sodium
in boiling amyl alcohol solution it forms alicyclic tetrahydro-^-
naphthylamine, which has moat of the properties of the aliphatic
amines; it is strongly alkaline in reaction, has an ammoniacal
odour and cannot be diazotized. On oxidation it yields
octbo<azbo3cy-bydrodnnamlc add, HOsC-CftH^-CHrCHrCOsH.
Numenyui sutphonic adds derived from /3-naphthyIamine are
known, the more important of which are the 2*8 or Badische,
the 2-5 or Dahl, the 2-7 or 5, and the 2-6 or Bronner add. Of
these, tbe 5*add and Bronnec's add are of more value technically,
since they combine with ortho-tetrazoditolyl to produce fine red
dye-stuffs.
KAPIBIt, SIR CHARLES (1786-1860), British admiral, was
the second son of Captain the Hon. Charles Napier, R.N., and
grandson of Frauds, fifth Lord Napier. He was bom at
Merchistoxi Hall, near Falkirk, on the 6th of March 1786. He
became a midshipman in tSoo, and was promoted lieutenant
ia 180S. He was ai^winted to the " Courageux " (74), and was
present ia her at the action in which the squadron under Sir J. 6.
Warren took the French " Marengo " (80) and ** Belle Poule "
(40), on the X3th of March x8o6 in the West Indies. After re-
turning home with Warren he went back to the West Indies in the
"St George" and was appointed aaing commander of the
"Pultnsk" brig. The rank wais confirmed on the 30th of
November 2807. Ih August x8oS he was moved into the " Re-
cruit " (18), and in her fought an action with the " Diligent "
(18), in which his thigh was broken. In April 1809 he took
part in the captweof the " Hautpoult " (74), and was promoted
acting post captain. His rank was confirmed, but he was put on
half-pay, when he came home with a convoy. He spent some time
at the university of Edinburgh, and then went to Portugal to
visit his cousins in Wdlington's army. In x8xx he served in
the Mediterranean, and in 18x3 on the coast of America and in the
eiqiwdition up the Potomac. The first years of his leisure he
spent in Italy and in Paris, but speculated so much in a steamboat
enterprise that by 1827 he was quite ruined. In that year he was
appointed to the " Galatea " (42), and was at the Azores when
they were held by the count de Villa Flor for the queen of
Portugal. He so much impressed the constitutional leaders that
they begged him to take command of the fleet, which offer he
accepted in February 1833. With it he destroyed the Miguelite
fleet off Cape St Vincent on July $, and on the demand of
France was struck off the English navy list. Continuing his
Portuguese services, he commanded the land forces on the success-
ful defence of Lisbon in X834, when he was made Grand Com-
mander of the Tower and Sword, and Count Cape St Vincent in
the peerage of Portugal On his return to England he was re-
stored to his former rank in the navy 1836, and recdved
command of the " Powerful " (84), in 1^38. When troubles
broke out in Syria he was appointed second in command, and
distinguished himself by leading the storming column at Sidon on
September 26, 1840, and by other services, for which he was made
a K.C.B. He went on hatf-pay in 1841, and was in x84a elected
M.P. for Marylebone in the Liberal interest, but lost his seat in
1846. He was promoted rear-admiral the same year, and com-
manded the Chumd fleet from 1846 to 1848. On the outbreak of
the Russian War he received the command of the fleet destined
to act in the Baltic, and hoisted hu flag in February X854.
He refused to attack Cronstadt, and a great outcry was raised
against him for not ob^ing the orders of the Admiralty and
attempting to storm the key of St Petcrsl>urg; but his inaction
has been thoroughly justified by posterity. On his return in
December X854 he was not again offered a command. He was
elected M.P. for Southwark in February X855, and maintained
his seatj though broken in health, until his death on the 6th of
November 1869. Sir Charles Napier was a man of undoubted
energy and courage, but of no less eccentridty and vanity.
He caused great offence to many of his brother officers by his.
behaviour to his superior, Admiral Stopford, in the Syrian War,
and was embroiled all his life in quarrels with the Admiralty.
See Major-General E. Napier's Life and Correspondence ofAdmirat
Sir Charles Na^, K.C.B. (a vols., London, 1862}; Napier's own
War in Syria Cs vols., 1842); The Navy: its past and present state,,
in a series of Utters, edited by Sir W. F. P. Napier (1851): and
The History of (he Baltic Campaign of 1854, from documents and
other, materials furnished hy Vtee-Admiral Sir C. Napier. K.C.B.
(1857). See alio The Life mid ExMts of Commodore Napier (1841 ) ;
and Life of Viu'Admiral Sir C. Napier (1854).
RAPIER, SIR CHARLES JAMBS (1782-1853), British soldier
and sutesman, was born at Whitehall, London, in X782, being
the ddest son of Colonel George Napier (a younger son of the
fifth k>rd Napier), and of his wife, the Lady Sarah Lennox
who had charmed Ring George HI. After the custom of those
times Charles Napier had been gazetted an ensign in the 33rd
regiment in 1794, and in 1797 his father secured for him the
appointment of aide-de-camp to Sir James Duff, commanding
the Limerick district. Longing for more active service, Napier
obtaixied a commission as lieutenant in the 95th Manningham's
Rifles (Rifle Brigade) in x8oo. This newly formed corps was
designed to supply a body of light troops for the English army
fit to cope with, the French voltigeurs and tirailleurs, and was
specially trained, at first under the eye of Colonel Coote Manbing-
ham, and then at Shomdiffe under the immediate supervision
of Sir John Moore. Moore speedily percdved the military
qualities of the Napiers, and inspired the three brothers-
Charles of the Rifles, George of the 52nd and William of the
43rd— with an enthusiasm which lasted all thdr lives; but,
though happy in his general, Charles Napier quarrelled bitterly
with William Stewart, the lieutenant-colonel, and in 1803 left
the regiment to accompany General H. £. Fox to Ireland as
aide-de-camp. The great influence of his uncle, the duke of
170
Richmond, and of his cousins, Oiarles James Fox and the general,
procured him in 1804 a captaincy in the staff corps, and in the
beginning of x8o6 a majority in the Cape regiment. On his way
to the Cape, however, he exchanged into the sotb regiment,
with which he sensed in the short Danish campaign under Lord
Cathcart in 1807! Shortly after his return from Denmark the
50th was orders! to Portugal, and in command of it Napier
shared all the glories of the famous retreat to Corunna. At the
battle of Corunna, one of the last sights of Sir John Moore before
he fell mortally wounded was the advance of his own old regiment
under the command of Charles Napier and Edward Sunhope,
and almost his last words were " Well done, my majorsl" The
50th suffered very severely and both the majors were left for dead
upon the field. Napier's life was saved by a French drummer
named Guibert, who brought him safely to the headquarters
of Marshal Soult. Soult treated him with the greatest kindness,
and he was allowed by Ney to return to England to his " old
blind mother " instead of being interned. After about a year
he heard that his exchange had been arranged, and, volunteering
for the Peninsula, he joined the light division before Ciudad
Rodrigo. As a volunteer he served in the actions on the Coa,
and again at Busaco, where he was badly wounded in the face.
He was ordered to England, but refused to go, and in March 181 1,
though barely recovered, he hurcied to the front to take part
in the pursuit of Mass^na. After the battle of Fuentes d'Onor,
he received the lieutenant-colonelcy of the zoand regiment,
which had become entirely demoralized at Botany Bay, and when
he joined it at Guernsey in x8ix was one of the worst regiments
in the service. When he left it in 1813 it was one of the best.
He accompanied it in June 18x2 from Guernsey to Bermuda,
where he wrought a wonderful change in the spirit both of officers
and men. By treating his men as friends he won their love and
admiration, and became in a peculiar degree the hero of the
British soldiers. After seeing further active service against the
United States in September X813 he exchanged back into the
50th regiment, and in December 1814, believing all chance of
active service to be at an end, went on half-pay. He was gazetted
one of the first C.B.'s on the extension of the order of the Bath
in X814, and was present as a volunteer at the capture of Cambray,
but he just missed the great battle of Waterloo. Though an
officer of some experience and more than thirty years of age,
he now entered the military college at Famham, and completed
his military education. In xSxq he was appointed inspecting
field officer at Corfu, in x83o was sent on a mission to Ali Pasha
at lannina, and ini 82 1 visited Greece, where he became an ardent
supporter of the patriot party. From Corfu he was moved in
x8 2 2 to Cephalonia, where he remained for eight years as governor
and military resident. He was the model of an absolute colonial
governor, and showed all the qualities of a benevolent despot.
He made good roads and founded great institutions, but every-
thing must be done by him, and he showed himself averse to
interference, whether from the high commissioner of the Ionian
Islands, whom it was his duty to obey, or from th^ feudal magnates
of his own little colony, over whom it was his duty to exercise
strict supervision. An interesting episode in his command was
his communication with Lord Byron when he touched at
Cephalonia on his way to take part in the Greek War of Inde-
pendence. Byron sent a letter to the Greek committee in London
recommending Napier's appointment as commander-in-chief.
But after many negotiations the scheme came to nothing.
In 1827 Napier, who had two years before been made a colonel
in the army, quarrelled with Sir Frederick Adam, the new high
commissioner, and in 1830, when Napier was in England on leave,
Adam seized his papers and forbade him to return. Napier
thereupon, refusixig promotion to the residency of Zante, retired
in disgust, living for some years in the south of England and,
after the death of his wife in X833, in Normandy. Here he wrote
his work on the colonies, and also an historical romance on
William the Conqueror. Another work, entitled HarMy has
disappeared. In 1834 he refused the governorship of Australia,
still hoping for military employment. In 1837 he was promoted
major-genenl with his brother George, in 1838 he retumedjo
NAPIER, SIR C. J.
England and was made a R.C.B.; but he was to wait till X839
before he received an offer of employment. In that year he was
made commanding officer in the northern district, and found his
command no sinecure, owing (6 the turbulent state of the
Chartists in the towns of Vorkshire, Lancashire and the Midlands.
His behaviour during the tenure of his command is described
by William Napier in his life of his brother, and his inability to
hold a command which did not carry supreme authority is plainly
portrayed. In this particular instance his sympathies were
on the popular side, and, though he maintained law and order
with the necessary rigour, he resigned as soon as the crisis had
passed, and went to India. He was stationed at Poona, and
in September 1842, when troubles were expected there, was
ordered to Sind.
His command in Sind from 1843 till August 1847 is the period
of his life during which, according to his brother, he made good
his title to fame, but his acts, more especially at first, have been
most severely criticized. There can be little doubt that from
the moment he landed in the province he determined to conquer
the amirs, and to seek the first opportunity of doing so. He
was to be accompanied by James Outram (^.t.), who had been
resident in Sind during the Afghan War, and who felt a great
admiration for him, but who had also a warm affection for the
amirs, and believed that he could put off the day qf their destruc-
tion. On the 1 5th of February 1S43, Outram -was treacherously
assailed at Hyderabad, and on the Z7th Napier attacked the
Baluch army 30,000 strong with but 2800 men. With these
3800 men, including the 22nd regiment, which would do anything
for him, he succeeded in winning the brilliant and decisive
victory of Mecanee, one of the most amazing in the history of
the British army, in which generals had to fight like privates,
and Sir Charfes himself engaged in the fray. In the March
following, after marching without transport in the most intense
heat, he finally destroyed the army of the amirs at the battle
of Hyderabad. His success was received with enthusiasm both
by the governor-general, Lord Ellenborough, and by the English
people, and he was at once made a G.C.B. Whether or not the
conquest of Sind at that particular period can be justified,
there can be no doubt that Charles Napier was the best adminis-
trator who could be found for the province when conquered.
Sind, when it came under English rule, was in a state of utter
anarchy, for the Baluchis had formed a military government
not unlike that of the Mamelukes in Egypt, which had been
extremely tyrannical to the native population. This native
population was particulariy protected by Sir Charles Napier,
who completed the work of the destruction of the Baluch
supremacy which he had commenced with the victory of Meeanee.
The labour of administration was rendered more difficult by the
necessity of repressing the hill tribes, which had been encour-
aged to acts of lawlessness by the licence which followed the
Afghan War. The later years of his administration were made
very stormy by the attacks on the policy of the conquest which
had been made in England. He left Sind, after quarrelling with
every authority of' the presidency of Bombay, and nearly every
authority of the whole of India, in August 1847, and received a
perfect ovation on his return from all the hero-worshippers
of the Napiers, of whom there were many in England. His short
stay in England was occupied with incessant struggles with the
directors of the East India Company; but the news of the
indecisive victory of Chillianvralla created a panic in England,
and the East India Company was obliged by public opinion to
summon the greatest general of the day to command its armies.
Sir Charles started almost at a moment's notice, but on reaching
India found that the victory of Gujrat had been won and the
Sikh War was over. No Uint of envy was in his nature, and be
rejoiced that he had not had to supersede Lord Gough in the
moment of defeat. His restless and imperious spirit was met
by one equally imperious in the governor-general, Lord Dalhousie.
The two men were good friends until, in the absence of Dalhousie
at sea, Napier took upon himself to alter the regulations regarding
the allowances to native troops; the occasion was urgent, as
the troops were in a state of mutiny, but on his return Dalhousie
NAPIER, JOHN
reprimanded tbe comnuuider-in-chief and reversed his decision.
Napier immediately handed in his resignation, and when the
duke of Wellington supported Lord Dalhousie and repeated the
reprimand he returned to England. He had been credited
with foreseeing the Mutiny of 1857, and on the whole with
justice. On one occasion he wrote that mutiny was " one of the
greatest, if not the greatest, danger threatening India — a danger
that may come unexpectedly, and if the first symptoms be not
carefuUy treated, with a power to shake Leadenhall." On the
mutiny of the 66th native regiment at Govindgarh he disbanded
it, and handed its colours over to a Gurkha regiment, thus
showing that he distrusted the high-class Brahman, and recognized
the necessity of relying upon a more warlike and more disciplined
race. His constitution was undermmed by the Indian climate,
especially by his fatiguing command in Sind, and on the 29th
of August 1853 he died at Portsmouth. The bronze statue
of him by 0. G. Adams, which stands in Trafalgar Square,
London, was erected by public subscription, by far the greater
number of the subscribers being, as the inscription records,
private soldiers.
The chief authority for Sir Charles Napier's life is his Life and
(hHmions by his brocher (18^7); consult also MacColl. Carur and
Characier of C. J. Napier (1857}; M'Dougall. General Sir C. J.
Napier, Conqueror and Coeemor of Scinde (i860); W. N. Bruce.
Sir CkarUs Napier (1855): and T. R. E. Holmes, Four Famous
Soldiers (1889). Hb own works are Memoir on the Roads of Cepha-
Umia (183^) ; The Colonies, treating of their value generally and of the
lonioM idands in particular; Strictures on the Administration of
Sir F. Adam (1833); ColenixaHon, particularly in Southern Australia
(183s); Remarhs on Military Law and the Punishment of Flogging
(1837); A Dialofue on the Poor Laws (1838?}: A Letter on the De-
fence j^ Engfandby Corps of Volunteers and Militia (1852); Lights
and Siadows of ifilitary Ltfe (trans, from the French, 1840); and
A Letter to Ike Right Honourable Sir J. C. Hothouse on the Baggage
'"''"'■'' , of the Indian
, Conoueror, a Histor'
W. Napfer, The Conouest of Scinde (r
of the Indian Army (1840); Defects, Civil and Military, i
Coeemment (1853): WtUiam ti "
edited by Sir W. Napier (i8<^j
Uiam the Conqueror, a Historical Romance,
On Sind, consult primarily Sir
_ . _ _ _, te (1845); The Administratton of
Scinde (1851) ; Compilation of General Orders issued by Sir C. Napier
(1850); aikl Outram. The Conquest of Scinde, a Commentary (18^6).
For his command-in-chief, and the controveny about his resignation,
amsult J. Mawson, Records of the Indian Command of General Sir
C. J. Napier (CakutU. 1851) ; Minutes on the Resignation of the late
Cememi Sir C. Napier, by Field-Marshal the Duhe of WeUington, &c.
(18^) : Comments by Sir W. Napier on a Memorandum of the Duke
^ WeUinpon (1854): Sir William Napier, General Sir C. Napier
and Ike Directors of the East India Company (1857); Sir W. Lee
Warner, Ufe of Lord Dalhousie (1904).
HAPIER* JOHN (i 550-161 7), Scottish mathematician and
inventor of logarithms, was bom at Merchiston near Edinburgh
in 1550, and was the eighth Napier of Merchiston. The first
Napier of Merchiston, " Alexander Napare," acquired the
Merchiston estate before the year 1438, from James I. of Scotland.
He was provost of Edinburgh in 1437, and was otherwise dis-
tinguidicd. His eldest son Alexander, who succeeded him in
1454, was provost of Edinburgh in 1455, 1457 and 1469; he
was knighted and held various important court offices under
»KcesBve monarchs; at the time of bis death in 1473 he was
master of the household to James III. His son, John Napier
of Rusky. the third of Merchiston, belonged to the royal household
in the lifetime of his father. He also was provost of Edinburgh
at \'ariaus times, and it is a remarkable instance of the esteem
in which the lairds of Merchiston were held that three of them
in immediate lineal succession repeatedly filled so important an
ofiice during perhaps the most memorable period in the history
of the dty. He married a great-granddaughter of Duncan.
8th carl of Levenax (or Lennox), and besides this relationship
by marriage the Napiers claimed a lineal male cadency from the
afident family of Levenax. His eldest son, Archibald Napier
of Edinbdlie, the fourth of Merchiston, belonged to the house-
hokl of James IV. He fought at Flodden and escaped with his
life, but his eldest son Alexander, (fifth of Merchiston) was killed.
Alexander's eldest Son (Alexander, sixth of Merchiston) was born
in 15x3, and fell at the battle of Pinkie in 1547. His eldest son
was Archibald, seventh of Merchiston, and the father of John
Napier, the subject of this article.
In IS49 Archibald Napier, at the eariy age of about fifteen,
171
married Janet, daughter of Francis Bothwell. and in the following
year John Napier was bom. In the criminal court of Scotland,
the earl of Argyll, hereditary justice-general of the kingdom,
sometimes presided in person, but more frequently .he delegated
his functions; and it appears that in 156 1 Archibald Napier
was appointed one of the justice-deputes. In the register of
the court, extending over 1563 and 1564, the justice-deputes
named are "Archibald Naper of Merchistoune, Alexander
Bannatyne, bturgess of Edinburgh, James Stirling of Keir and
Mr Thomas Craig." About 1565 he was knighted at the same
time as James Stirling, his colleague, whose daughter John
Napier subsequently married. In 158a Sir Archibald was
appointed master of the mint in Scotland, with the sole charge
of superintending the mines and minerals within the realm, and
this office he held till his death in x6o8. His first wife died in
1563, and in 1572 he married a cousin, Elizabeth Mowbray,
by whom he had three sons, the eldest of whom was named
Alexander.^
As already stated, John Napier was bora in 1550, the year
in which the Reformation in Scotland may be said to have
commenced. In 1563, the year in which Us mother died, he
matriculated at St Salvator's College, St Andrews. He early
became a Protestant champion, and the one extant anecdote
of his youth occurs in his address " to the Godly and Christian
reader " prefixed to his Plaine Discovery. He writes: —
"In my tender yean .. imi] lumcagc in Sanct Androts at the
Schooles. having, on the :i^ -irii . .uni; ratted a loving^ familiaritic
with a certaine Gentlem.nii, in-, .n PjpUt; And do the other part,
being attentive to the sermGiia of ihat worthie man of God, Maister
Christopher Goodman, teaching upon the Apocalyps, I was so moovi.^
in admiration, against the bhndnti of Fapistt. tnat coutd not m<3^t
evidently see their seven hilled citie Romc» painted out there so
lively by Saint John, as tbe mother ol all nftiritiubi whoredoms, thut
not onay bursted I out in contirau^l fvasoninf against my said
familiar, but also from thenceforth^ [ dctcrmincffwith my scffe (by
the assistance of Gods spirit) to employ my &Eijilie ^nd dlligcice to
search out the remanent my-^icrir? of thjt holy Book: as to this
houre (praised be the Ia.,.L\ ] li.t^..^ Lin doing at al luch times at
convemently I might have occasion."
The names of nearly all Napier's classfellows can be traced
as becoming determinantes in 1566 and masters of arts in 1568;
but his own name does not appear in the lists. The necessary
inference is that his stay at the university was shor^, and that
only the groundwork of his education was laid there. Although
there is no direct evidence of the fact, there can be no doubt
that he left St Andrews to complete his education abroad, and
that he probably studied at the university of Paris, and visited
Italy and Germany. He did not, however, as has been supposed,
spend the best years of his manhood abroad, for he was certainly
at home in 1571, when the preliminaries of his marriage were
arranged at Merchiston; and in 1572 he married Elizabeth,
daughter of Sir James Stirling of Keir. About the end of the
year 1579 his wife died, leaving him one son, Archibald (who in
1627 was raised to the peerage by the title of Lord Napier),
and one daughter, Jane. A few years afterwards he married
again, his second wife being Agnes, daughter of Sir James
' The descent of the first Napier of Merchiston has been traced to
" Johan le Naper del Counte dc Dunbretan," who was one of those
who swore fealty to Edward I. in 1296 and defended the castle of
Stirlingagainst him in 1304; but there is no authority for this genea-
logy The legend with regard to the origin of the name Napier was
given by Sir Alexander Napier, eldest son of John Napier, in 1625, in
these words: " One of the ancient earls of Lennox in Scotland had
issue three sons: the eldest, that succeeded him to the earldom of
Lennox; the second, whose name was Donald : and the third, named
Gilchrist. The then king of Scotland having wars, did convocate his
lieges to battle, amongst whom that was commanded was the earl of
Lennox, who. keeping his eldest son at home, sent his two sons to
serve for him with the forces that were under his command. . .
After the battle, as the manner is. every one drawing and setting
forth his own acts, the king said unto them, ye have all done valiantly,
but there is one amongst you who hath Na-Peer {i.e. no equal);
and calling Donald into his presence commanded him, in regard to
his worthy service, and in augmentation of his honour, to change
his name from Lennox to Napier, and gave him the lands of (xMfora.
and lands in Fife, and made him his own servant, which discourse is
confirmed by evidences of mine, wherein we are called Lennox alias
Napier."
172
Chisholm of Cromlix, who survived him. By her he had five
sons and five daughters.
In 1^8 he was chosen by the presbytery of Edinburgh one
of its commissioners to the General Assembly.
On the Z7th of October 2593 a convention of delegates was
held at Edinburgh at which a committee was appointed to follow
the king and lay before him in a personal interview certain
instructions relating to the pimishment of the rebellious Popish
earls and Che safety of the church. This committM consisted of
six members, two barons, two ministers and two burgesses —
the two barons selected being John Napier of Merchiston and
James Maxwell of Calderwood. The delegates found the king at
Jedburgh, and the mission, which was a dangerous one, wa&
successfully accomplished. Shortly afterwards another con-
vention was held at Edinburgh, and it was resolved that the
delegates sent to Jedburgh should again meet the king at Lin-
lithgow and repeat their former instructions. This was done
accordingly, the number of members of the committee being,
however, doubled. These interviews took place in October
Z593, and on the agth of the following January Napier wrote
to the king the letter which forms the dedication of the Plaine
Discovery,
The full title of this first work of Napier's is given below.>
It was written in English instead of Latin in order that " hereby
the simple of this Iland may be instructed "; and the author
apologizes for the language and his own mode of expression in
the following sentences: —
" Whatsoever thcrfore through ha«t, u here rudely and in base
language set downe, I doubt not to be pardoned thereof by all
^ood men, who, considering the necessitie of this time, will esteem
It more meete to make hast to prevent the rising againe of Anti-
christian darknes within this Iland, then to prolong the time in
painting of bngiiage "; and " I graunt indcede, and am sure, that
m the style of woraes and utterance of lanjpuage, we shall greatlie
differ, for therein I do judge my sclfe infcnour to all men: so that
scarcely in these high matters could I with long delibenation finde
wordes to expresse my miode."*
Napier's Plaine Discovery is a serious and laborious work, to
which he had devoted years of care and thought. In one sense
it may be said to stand to theological literature in Scotland in
something of the same position as that occupied by the Canon
Mirificus with respect to the scientific literature, for it is the first
published original work relating to theological interpretation,
and is quite without a predecessor in its own field. Napiei lived
in the very midst of fiercely contending religious factions; there
was but little theological teaching of any kind, and the work
related to what were then the leading political and religious
questions of the day.
* A Plaine Discovery tf the vhoU Revelation of Saint lokn: set
downe in two treatises: The one searching and prpmng the true inter-
pretation thereof: The other applying the same paraphrasticaUy and
historically to the text. Set foorth by John Napier L. 0/ Marchistoun
younger. Whereunto are annexed certaine Oracles of Sibylla, agreeing
wUh the Revelation and-other places of Scripture, Edinburgh, printed
by Robert Walde-grave, printer to the King's Majestic, 1593, Cum
primleeio Regali,
' A Dutch translation was published at Middelburg in x6oo and a
second edition in 1607. The work was translated into French by
George Thomson, a naturalized Scotsman residing in La Rochelle,
and published by him at that town in l6oa, under the title Ouverture
de tons les secrets de l" Apocalypse. . . « Par Jean Napeir (c. a. d.)
Nonpareil, Sieur de Merchiston, reveue par lui-mesme, et mise en
Francois par Georges Thomson, Escossois. Subsequent editions were
published in 1603, 1605 and 1607. German translations were pub-
lished at Gera in 161 1 and at Frankfort in 160^ and 1627. The
second edition in English appeared at Edinburgh m 161 1, and in the
preface to it Napier states ne intended to have published an edition
in Latin soon after the original publication in 1^3, but that, as the
work had now been made public by the French and Dutch trans-
lations, besides the English editions, and as he was "advertised
that our papistical adversaries wer to write larglie a^inst the said
editions that are alrcadie set out," he defers the Latin edition " till
having first scene the adversaries objections, I may insert in the Latin
edition an apologie of that which is rightly done, and an amends of
whatsoever is amisse." No criticism on the work was published,
and there was no Latin edition. A third edition appearea at Edin-
burgh in 164s- Corrcs^nding to the first two Edinburgh editions,
copies were issued bearing the London imprint and dates 1594 and
1611,
NAPIER, JOHN
After the publication of the Plaine Discovery, Napier seems to
have occupied himself with the invention of secret instruments of
war, for in the Bacon collection at Lambeth Palace there is a
document, dated the 7lh of June 1596 and signed by Napier,
giving a list of his inventions for the defence of the country
against the anticipated invasion by Philip of Spain. The docu-
ment is entitled " Secrett Inventionis, proffitabill and necessary
in theis dayes for defence of this Iland, and withstanding of
strangers, enemies of God's truth and religion," * and the in-
ventions consist of (i) a mirror for burning the enemies' ships
at any distance, (2) a piece of artillery destroying everything
round an arc of a circle, and (3) a round metal chariot, so con-
structed that its occupants could move it rapidly and easily,
while firing out through small holes in it. It has been asserted
(by Sir Thomas Urquhart) that the piece of artillery was actually
tried upon a plain in Scotland with complete success, a numbcr
of sheep and cattle being destroyed.
In z6i4 appeared the work which in the history of British
science can be placed as second only to Newton's Principia.
The full title is as follows: Mirifici Logaritkmorum Canonis
description Ejusque usiu, in titraque Trigonometria; tU etiam iw
omni Logistica Malhematica, Amplissimi, Facillimi, brexpedilis-
simi explicalio, Autkore ac Inventore Joanne Nepero, Barone
Merchistonii, tfc, Scoto. Edinburgi, ex ojicind Andreae Hart
Bibliopolae, CJD.DC.XIV, This is printed on an ornamental
title-page. The work is a small-sized quarto, containing fifty-
seven pages of explanatory matter and ninety pages of tables.
The nature of logarithms is explained by reference to the
motion of points in a straight line, and the principle upon which
they are based is that of the correspondence of a geometrical
and an arithmetical series of numbers. The table gives the
logarithms of sines for every minute to seven figures. This work
contains the first announcement of logarithins to the world, the
first table of logarithms and the first use of the name logarithm,
which was invented by Napier.
In 161 7 Napier published his Rabdologia,* a duodecimo of one
hundred and fifty-four pages; there is prefixed to it as preface
a dedicatory epistle to the high chancellor of Scotland. The
method which Napier terms " Rabdologia " consists in the use
of certain numerating rods for the performance of multipb'ca-
tions and divisions. These rods, which were commonly called
" Napier's bones," will be described further on. The second
method, which he calls the " Promptuarium Multiplicationis " on
account of its being the most expeditious of all for the perform-
ance of multiplications, involves the use of a number of lamellae
or little plates of metal disposed in a box. In an appendix of
forty-one pages he gives his third method, " local arithmetic,"
which is performed on a chess-board, and depends, in principle,
on the expression of numbers in the scale of radix 2. In the
Rabdologia he gives the chronological order of his inventions.
He speaks of the canon of logarithms as " a me longo tempore
elaboratum." The other three methods he devised for the sake
of those who would prefer to work with natural numbers; and
he mentions that the promptuary was his latest invention. In
the preface to the appendix containing the local arithmetic
he states that, while devoting all his leisure to the invention of
these abbreviations of calculation, and to examining by what
methods the toil of calculation might be removed, in addition
to the logarithms, rabdologia and promptuary, he had hit upon
a certain tabular arithmetic, whereby the more troublesome
operations of common arithmetic are performed on an abacus
or chess-board, and which may be regarded as an amusement
' A facsimile of this document is nven by Mark Napier in his
Memoirs of John Napier (1834), p. 248.
* Rabdologiae, sen Numerationis per virgidas Ubri duo: Cum
Appendice de expeditissimo Multipltcationis prompiuario. Quibus
accessit £r Arithmeticae Localis Ltber unus. Autkore & Iwoentore
Joanne Nepero, Barone Merchistonii, 6fc., Scoto, Edinburfi, BxcU'
debet A ndreas Hart (1617). Foreign editions were published m Italian
at Verona in 1623, in Latin at Letdcn in 1626 and 1628, and in Dutch
at Gouda in 1626. In 1623 Ursinus published Rhahdalogia Neferiana
at Berlin, and the rods or bones were described in ■everu other
works.
NAPIER, JOHN
nulser than a laboor, for, by meana of it, addition, subtraction,
multiplication, diviuon and even the extraction of roots are
aoccanpiiahed simply by the motion of counters. He adds that
be has appended it to the Rabddogia, in addition to the promp-
tnary, beause he did not wish to bury it in silence nor to pubb'sh
so small a matter by itself. With respect to the calculating rods,
be mentions in the dedication that they had already found so
much favour as to be almost in common use, and even to have
been carried to foreign countries; and that he has been advised
to publish his little work relating to their mechanism and use,
lest they should be put forth in some one else's name.
John Napier died on tht 4th of April 161 7, the same year
as that in which the Rabdohgia was published. His will, which
is extant, was signed on the fourth day before his death.
No particulan are known of his last illness, but it seems likely
that death came upon him rather suddenly at last. In both the
Cam»mis dacriftio and the Rabdologia, however, he makes refer-
ence to his ill-health. In the dedication of the former he refers
to himself as "mihi jam morbis pend confecto," and in the
** Adminiitio " at the end he speaks of his " infirma valetudo ";
vhik in the latter he says he has been obliged to leave the
calculation of the new canon of logarithms to others "ob in-
firmam corpoiu nostri valetudinem."
It has been usually supposed that John Napier was buried In
St Giles's church, Edinburgh, which was certainly the burial-
pbce of some of the family, but Mark Napier (Memoirs, p. 436)
quotes Professor William Wallace, who, writing in 1832, gives
strong reasons for believing that he was buried in the old church
of St Cuthbert.
Professor Wallace's words are —
** My authority for this belief is unquestionable. It is a Treatise
oa Tngonomecry, by a Scotsman, James Hume of Codscroft,
Berwickshire, a (>1aoe still in po6sesston of the family of Hume.
The work in question, which is rare, was printed at Paris, and has the
date 1636 on the title-page, but the roVal privilege which secured
it to the author » dated in October 1635, and it may have been
written several years cariier. In hb treatise (pj^e 116) Hume
lays, speaking of logarithms, ' L'inuenteur estoit un Seigneur
de graade condition* et duqud la posterity est aujourd'huy en
nimciMon de grandes dignity dans le royaume, qui estant sur
rage, et grandement trauaill^ des gouttes ne pouvait faire autre
chose que de s'adonner aux sciences, et principalment aux matbc-
■atiques et i la logistique, i quoy il se plaisoit infiniment, et aucc
estrai^e peine, a construict scs Tables des Logarymes, imprimecs
& Edinbourg en Tan 161^. ... II mourut I'an 1616, et fut enterr^
bors ia Porte Occidentalc d'Edinbouig, dans I'EgUse de Sainct
Codbert.'"
There can be no doubt that Napier's devotion to mathematics
was not due to old age and the gout, and that he died in 161 7
and not in i6z6; still these sentences were written within ei^^teen
years of Napier's death, and their author seems to have had
some special sources of Informatioiu Additional probability is
given to Hume's assertion by the fact that Mercbis^on is situated
m St Cnthbert's parish. It is nowhere else recorded that Napier
suffered from the gout. It has been stated that Napier's mathe-
matical pozsuits tod him to dissipate his means. This is not so,
for his will (iiemoin, p. 427) shown that besides his large csutes
he left n considerable amount of peisonal property.
The Canomis DescripHo on its publication in 1614, at once
attracted the attention of Edward Wright, whose name is known
in coonexioa with improvements in navigation, and Henry
Briggs, then professor of geometzy at Gresham College, London.
The former translated the work into English, but he died in
1615, and the translation was published by his son Samuel
Wri^t in z6i6. Briggs was greatly excited by Napier's invention
and vtfited him at Merchiston in 16x5, staying with him a whole
month; be repeated his visit in 1616 and, as he states, " would
have been |^ to make him a third visit if it had pleased God
to spare him so long." The logarithms introduced by Napier
ia the DescnpUo are not the same as those now in common use,
nor even the same as those now called Napierian or hyperbolic
h^arzthniSw The change from the original logarithms to common
or decimal logarithms was made by both Napier and Briggs,
and the first tables of decimal k>garithms were calculated by
173
Briggs, who published a small UbIe, extending to 1000. m
161 7, and a large work, AritbmeiuM Logaritkmua,^ containing
k>garithms of numbers to 30,000 and from 90,000 to 100,000, in
1634. (See LoGAUTHM.)
Napier's Descriptio of 1614 contains no explanation of the
manner in which he had calculated his table. This account he
kept back, as he himself sutes, in order to see from the reception
met with by the DescripHo, whether it would be acceptable.
Though written before the Descriptio it had not been prepared
for press at the time of his death, but was published by his son
Robert m 1619 under the title Mirifici Logaritkmorum Canonis
Construaio.* In this treatise (which was written before Napier
had invented the name logarithm) logarithms are called " arti-
ficial numbers."
The different editioni of the Descriptio and ConstrucHo, as well
as the reception of logarithms on the continent of Europe, and
especially by Kepter, whose admiration of the invention almost
equalled that of Briggs, belong to Che history of logarithms iq.v.).
Il may, however, be mentioned here that an English translation
of the CoHStntctio of 16x9 was published by W. R. Macdonald
at pAiinburgh in 1889, and that there is appended to this edition
a complete catalogue of all Napier's writings, and their various
editions and translations, English and foreign, all the works
being carefully collated, and references being added to the
various public libraries in which they are to be found.
Napier's priority in the publication of the logarithms is un-
questioned and only one other contemporary mathematician
seems to have conceived the idea on which they depend. There
is no antidpatjon or hint to be found in previous writers,* and it
is very remarkable that a discovery or invention which was to
exert so important and far-reaching an influence on astronomy
and every sdence involving calculation was the work of a single
mind.
The more one considers the condition of science at the time,
and the state of the country in which the discovery took place,
the more wonderful does the invention of logarithms appear.
When algebra had advanced to the point where exponents were
Introduced, nothing would be more natural than that their'uiilily
as a means of performing multiplications and divisions should be
remarked; but it is one of the surprises in the history of science
that logarithms were invented as an arithmetical improvement
years before their connexion with exponents was known. It is
to be noticed also that the invention was not the result of any
happy accident. Napier deliberately set himself to abbreviate
multiplications and divisions— operations of so fundamental a
character that it might well have been thought that they were
in rerum natttra incapable of abbreviation; and he succeeded in
devising, by the help of arithmetic and geometry alone, the one
^The title runs as follows: Arithmetica Logarithmicat rtnr Log-
aritkmorum ckUiodes tritinta, . . . Hos numeros primus inventl
clarissimus vir Johannes Neperus Baro Merchistonij; eos autem ex
etusdem sententia mulaoUt eorumque ortum et usum iUustratnt Henruus
Brttnus. . . .
*The full title was: Mirifici Logaritkmorum Canonis Constructio;
Et eorum ad naturaies ipsorum numeros habitudines; un^ cum Appen-
dice, jde olid edcue praeslantiore Logaritkmorum specte condendd.
Qu^ms accessere ProposiUones ad triangtUa spkaerica faeiliore caUulo
resobenda: Und cum Annotationibus aliquot doctisstmi D. Henrui
Bnggii, in eas Sf memoratam appendicem. Authore Gf Invcntore
Joanne Nepero, Barone Merckistonti, ffc. Scoto. Edtnburgt, Excude-
bat Andreas Hart, Anno Domini 1619. There is also preceding this
title-page an ornamental title-page, similar to that of the Deurtptto
of loia; the words are different, however, and run — Mtrifict
LMmriutmorum Canonis DescripHo . . . Accesserunt Opera Po'stkuma:
Prxmb, Mirifici ipsius canonu constructio, €f Logaritkmorum ad
natnrales ipsorum numeros kabitudines. Secundd, Appendix de altd,
edque praestantiore Jjogflnthmorum specie construenda, Tertib, Pro-
positiones guaedam eminentissimae, ad Triangula spkaerua mtrd
facilitaU resohenda. ... It would appear that this title-page was
to be substituted for the title-page of the Descriptio of 1614 by those
who bound the two books together.
' The work of Justus Byrgius is described in the article Loca-
aiTHM. In that article it is mentioned that a Scotsman in 1^94 in a
letter to Tycho Brahe hekl out some hope of logarithms; it is likely
that the person referred to is John Craig, son of Thomas Craig, who
has been mentioned as one of the colleagues of John Napier's father
as justice^lepute.
»74
great simplifiaition of which they were $usceptible--a simplifica-
tion to which nothing essential has since been added.
When Napier published the Canonis Descriptio England had
taken no part in the advance of science, and there is no British
author of the time except Napier whose name can be placed in
the same rank as those of Copernicus, Tycho Brahe, Kepler,
Galileo, or Stevinus. In England, Robert Recorde had indeed
published his mathematical treatises, but they were of trifling
importance and without influence on the history of science.
Scotland had produced nothing, and was perhaps the last country
in Europe from which a great mathematical discovery would
have been expected. Napier lived, too, not only in a wild count ry,
which was in a lawless and unsettled state during most of his
life, but also in a credulous and superstitious age. Like Kepler
and all his contemporaries he believed in astrology, and he
certainly also had some faith in the power of magic, for there is
extant a deed written in his own handwriting containing a con-
tract between himself and Robert Logan of Restalrig, a turbulent
baron of desperate character, by which Napier undertakes " to
serche and sik out, and be al craft and ingyne that he dow, to
tempt, trye, and find out " some buried treasure supposed to be
hidden in Logan's fortress at Fast castle, in consideration of
receiving one-third part of the treasure found by his aid. Of
this singular contract, which is signed, " Robert Logane of
Restalrige " and " Jhone Neper, Fear of Merchiston," and is
dated July 1594. a facsimile is given in Mark Napier's Memoirs.
As the deed was not destroyed, but is in existence now, it is to
be presumed that the terms of it were not fulfilled; but the fact
that such a contract should have been drawn up by Napier
himself affords a singular illustration of the state of society and
the kind of events in the midst of which logarithms had their
birth. Considering the time in which he lived. Napier is singu-
larly free from superstition: his Plaine Discovery relates to a
method of interpretation which belongs to a later age; he shows
no trace of the extravagances which occur everywhere in the
works of K^ler; and none of his writings contain allusions to
astrology or magic.
After Napier's death his manuscripts and notes came into the
possession of his second son by his second marriage. Robert, who
edited the Ccnstructio', and Colonel Milliken Napier, Robert's lineal
male representative, was still in the posaesaion of many of these
private papers at the close of the i8tn century. On one occasion
when Colonel Napier was called from home on foreign service, these
papers, together with a portrait of John Napier and a Bible with his
autograph, were deposited for safety in a room of the house at Milli-
ken, in Renfrewshire. During the owner's absence the house was
burned to the ground, and all the papers and relics were destroyed.
The manuscripts had not been arranged or examined, so that the
extent of the loss is unknown. Fortunately, however, Robert Napier
had transcribed his father's manuscript ue Arte Logistica^ and the
copy escaped the fate of the originals in the manner explained in the
following note, written in the volume containing them by Francis,
seventh Lord Napier: " John Napier of Mercniston, inventor of
the logarithms, kit his manuscripts to his son Robert, who appears
to have caused the following pages to have been written out fair
from his father's notes, for Mr Brings, professor of geometry at
Oxford. They were given to Francis, the fifth Lord Napier, by
William Napier of Culcreugh, Esq.. heir-male of the above-named
Robert. Finding them in a neglected state, amongst my family
papers, I have bound them together, in order to preserve them
entire. — Napier. 7th March 1801."
An account of the contents of these manuscripts was given by
Mark Napier in the appendix to hb Memoirs of John Napier, and
the manuscripts themselves were edited in their entirety by him
in 1839 under the title De Arte Logistica Jbannis Naperi Mer-
chistontt Baronis Libri qui supertunl. Impressum Edinburgi
M.DCCC.xxx.ix., as one of the publications of the Bannatyne Club.
The treatise occupies one hundred and sixty-two pages, and there
b an introduction by Mark Napier of ninety-four pages. The
Arithmetic consbts of three books, entitled — (i ) De Computationibus
Quantitatum omnibus Logisticae speciebus communium; (3) De
Logistica Arithmetica; (3) De Logistica Gcometrica. At the end
of this book occurs the note — " I could find no more of this gco-
metricall pairt amongst all his fragments." The Algebra Joannis
Napert Merchistonii Baronis consists of two books: (i) " De nomi-
nata Algebrae parte; (3) De positiva sive cossica Algcbrae parte,*'
and concludes with the words. " There b no more of his alg^cbra
otlerlie sett doun." The transcripts are entirely in the handwriting
of Robert Napier himself, and the two notes that have been quoted
prove that they were made from Napier's own papers. The title.
NAPIER, JOHN
which is written on the first leaf, and b also in Robert Napier**
writing, runs thus: " The Baron of Merchiston his booke of Arith-
meticke and Algebra. For M r Henrie Briggs, Prof es«>r of Geometric
at Oxforde. '
These treatises were probably compueed before Napier had
invented the logarithms or any of the apparatuses described in the
Rabdologta; lor they contain no allusion to the principle of loga-
rithms, even where we should expect to find such a relCTenoe. and
the one solitary sentence where the Rabdotogia b mentioned ("sive
omnium facillime per ossa Rhabdologbe nostrae ") was probably
added afterwards. It is worth while to notice that thb reference
occurs in a chapter " De Multiplicationis et Partitions compendiis
miscellaneis," which, supposing the treatise to have been written in
Napier's younger days, may have been his earliest production on a
subject over which his subsequent labours were to exert so enormous
an influence
Napier uses abundantes and defecitvae for positive and negative,
defining them as meaning greater or less than nothing ("Abun-
dantes sunt quantitates majores nihilo: defcctivae sunt quantitates
minores nihilo "). The same definitions occur also in the Canonts
Descriptto (1614), p. $: " Logarithmos sinuum, qui semper majores
nihilo sunt, abundantes vocamus. et hoc signo -f , aut nulk> praeno-
tamus. Logarithmos autem minores nihik> defcctivos vocamus,
graenotantes eb hoc si^num -." Napier may thus have been the
rst to use the expression " quantity less than nothing.'* He uses
" radicatum " for power (for root, power, exponent, his wonls are
radix, radicatum. index).
Aoart from the interest attaching to these manuscripts as the
work of Napier, they possess an independent \'alue as affonling
evidence of the exact state of his algebraical knowledge at the time
when logarithms were invented. Tiiere is nothing to show whether
the transcripts were sent to Briggs as intended and returned by bim.
or whether they were not sent to him. Amonjg the MexcnistoD
papers is a thin quarto volume in Robert Napier^ writing contain-
ing a digest of the principles of alchemy ; it b addressed to hb son,
and on the first leaf there are directions that it is to remain in hb
charter-chest and t>e kept secret except from a few. tlib treatise
and the transcripts seem to t>e the only .manuscripu which have
escaped destruction.
The principle of " Napier's bones " may be easily eiq)lained by
imagining ten rectangular slips of cardboard, each divided into
nine squares. In the top squares of the
slips the ten digits are written, and each
slip contains in its nine squares the first
nine multiples of the digit which appears ~^
in the top square. With the exception of ^^
the top squares, every square is divided ^""^
into two^ parts by a dbgonal. the units
being written on one side and the tens on
the other, so that when a multiple consists
of two figures they are separated by the
dbgonal. Fie. i shows the slips corre-
sponding to tne numbers 3, o, 8, s placed
side by side in contact with one another,
and next to them b placed another slip
containing, in squares without dbgonals,
the first nine digits. The slips thus placed
in contact give the multiples of the number
2085, the digits in each parallelogram being
added together; for example, correspond-
ing to the number 6 on the right-hana slip,
* "^ ' • 2, i:'whence we find
t digits, written backwards,
Fig. I.
we have o, 8 -♦-3, o-f 4,
o, I. 5, 3, I M thedigiti
of 6X2085. The use of the slips for the purpose of multiplication is
now evident: thus to multip^ 2085 by 736 we take out in this
manner the multiples corresponding to 6, 3, 7. and set down the digits
as they are obtained, from right toleft, shifting them back one pUce
and adding up the columns as in ordinary multiplication, viz. the
figures as written down are —
13510
6355
1459s
1534560
Napier's rods or bones consist of ten oblong pieces of wood or
other material with square ends. Each of the four faces of each rod
contains multiples of one of the nine digits, and is similar to one of
the slips just described, the first rod containing the multiples of
o, I, 9, 8, the second of o, a, 9. 7, the third of o, 3. 9. 6. the fourth
of o, 4. 9, 5, the fifth of I, 3, 8. 7, the sixth of 1.3, 8, 6. the seventh
of 1.4. 8, 5, the eighth of 3. 3. 7< 6, the ninth oia, 4. 7, 5, and the
tenth of 3, 4. 6, 5. Each rod therefore contains on two of ita faces
multiples of digits which are complementarv to those on the other
two faces: and the multiples of a digit ana of its complement are
reversed in position. The arrangement of the numbers on tbe nxls
will be evident from fig. 3. which represents the four faces tit the
fifth rod. The set of ten rods b thus equivalent to four sets of alipa
as described above, and by. their means we may multiply evTT>-
number leas than 11 .111 . and also any number (ooasistiiig of co«e^
NAPIER, SIR W. F. P
175
of not oiore than ten dtsits) whidi can be formed by the top digits
ai tbe bars wben placed side by tide. Of course two sets of rods
may be used, and by their means we may multiply every number
less than iii.iii.iii and so on. it will be noticed that the rods
only give the multiples of the number which is to be multiplied, or
of the dKrbor, when they are used for division, and it is evident that
they would be of little use to any one who
' r» Ity^fyA ^^'^^ ^^ multiplication uble as far as 9X9.
J^ f X f 1/9 1 In muhiplications or divisions of any length it
llv convenient to begin bv forming a
table of the first nine multiples 01 the multi-
plicand or divisor, and Napier's bones at best
. merely provide such a table, and in an incom-
^ plete form, for the additions of the two figures
^ in the same parallelogram have to be performed
each time the rods are used. The Rabdolopa
attracted more general attention than the loga-
rithms, and as has been mentioned, tliere were
several editions on the Continent. Nothing shows
Imore clearly the rude state of arithmetical know-
ledge at the beginning of the 17th century than
Ithe univeml satisfaction with which Napier's
invention was welcomed by all classes and re-
garded as a real aid to calculation. Napier also
describes in the Rabdolog^ two other larger rods
to fadlitate the extraction of square anid cube
Fig. 2. roots. In the Rabdologia the rods are called
" virgulae," but in the passage ouotcd above
from the manuscript on arithmetic they are referred to as
" bones " (ossa).
Boides the logarithms and the calculating rods or bones. Napier's
Bime tt attached to certain rules and formulae in spherical trigono-
nctry. " Napier's rules of circular parts," which include the com-
plete system « formulae for the solution of right-angled triangles,
nay be enunciated as follows. Leaving the right angle out of
cooaderation, the sides including the right angle, the complement of
the hvpocenose, and the complements of the other angles are called
the circular parts of the triangle. Thus there are five circular parts,
«, *. 90* — A. 90* — c, 90* — B, and these are supposed to be arranged,
ia tins order («'.«. the order in which thev occur in the triangle)
roond a circle. Selecting any part and calling it the middle part,
toe two parts next it are called the adjacent parts and the remaining
tsro parts the opposite parts. The rules then are —
BBC of the middle part "product of tanjsents of adjacent parts
~ product of cosmes of opposite parts.
These rules were published in the Cananis Deuriptio (1614), and
Napkr has there given a figure, and indicated a method, hy means
of which they may be proved directly. The rules are cunous and
imeresttng. but « very doubtful utilitY, as the formulae arc best
miwmbefed by the practical calculator in their unconnected form
" Napier's analogies " are the four formulae —
They spcre first published after his death in the Constructio among
(he formulae in spherical trigonometry, which were the results 01
btf btcst work. Robert Napier says that these results would have
been reducjed to order and demonstrated consecutively but for
his father's death. Only one of the four analogies is actually
given by Napier, the other three being added by Briggs in the
remarks whicn are appended to Napier s results. The work left
by Napier is. however, rough and unfinished, and it is uncertain
vbcther he knew of the other formulae or not. They are, however,
90 siflsply dniucibk from the resulu he has given that all the four
analones may be properly called by his name. An analysis of the
fcMnnyaue contained in the Descriptio and Constructio is given by
Delambre in voL L of his Histdre de PAstroncmie modeme.
To Napser seems to be due the first use of the decimal point in
srithmetac Decimal fractions were first introduced by Stevinus in
bis tract La IHsme, published in 158^, but he used cumbrous ex-
ponents (numbers enclosed in circles) to distinguish the different
denominations, primes, seconds, thirds, &c Thus, for example, he
would have written 123-456 as «a3(o)4©5©6(J). In the Rah-
daUtia Napier gives an " Admonitio pro Decintali Arithmetica," in
vhicb he commends the fractions of Stevinus and gives an example
<i their use. the division of 861094 by 433. The quotient is written
'«>9J.^3 in the work, and 1S}93.2'7'^ in the text. This single
iasiaoce of the use of the decimal point in the midst of an arith-
metical process, if it stood ak)ne. would not suffice to establish a
daim for iu introduction, as the real introducer of the decimal
point t« the person who first saw that a point or line as separator
vas aO that was required to distinguish between the integers and
fractto«». and used it as a permanent notation and not merely in the
course of performing an arithmetical operation. The decimal point
is. Lowoei , used systematically in the Constriulto (1619). there
beinc perbaps two hundred decimal poinu altogether in the book. I
The decimal point is defined on p. 6 of the Constmctic in the
words: " In numeris periodo sic in se distinctis, quicquid post
periodum notatur fractio est, cujus denominator est unitas cum tot
cyphris post se, quot sunt figurae post periodum. Ut iooooooo-04
valet idem, ouod 10000000 da. Item 35-803. idem quod 351VA
Item 99999080005031. idem valet quod9999998r«ltiln,& nc de
9999908*000503 1, idem valet quod
caetens. On p. 8. 10-503 is multipliec
found to be 33 774433; and on pp. 33 an(
r.ltiip.|
id tl
-^ , , . .- . PP- 23 ae
attached to integers, viz. -4999713 and -0004950. These examples
by 3-316, and the result
id 34 occur decimals not
„ . .,,,. 004950. These examples
show that Napier was in possession of all the conventions and attri-
butes that enable the decimal point to complete so symmetrically
our system of notation, vis. (i) he saw that a point or separatrix was
quite enough to separate integers from decimals, and that no signs
to indicate primes, seconds, &c., were reouired ; (3) he used ciphers
after the decimal point and preceding the first significant figure:
and (3) he had no objection to a decimal sUnding bv itself without
any integer. Napier thus had complete command over decinul
fractions and the use of the decimal point. Brign also used deci-
mals, but in a form not quite so convenient as Napier. Thus he
prinu 63-0957379 as 63 0957379. viz. he prinu a bar under the
decimals: this notation first appears without any exolanation in
his " Lucubrationes " appended to the Construcito. Briggs seems
to have used the notation all his life, but in writing it, as appears
from manuscripts of his, he added also a small vertical line just
high enough to fix distinctly which two figures it was intended to
separate: thus he might have writtfen 6 3 095 7379. The vertical line
was printed by Oughtred and some of Bnggs's successors. It was a
long time before decimal arithmetic came into general use, and all
through the 17th century exponential marks were in common use.
There seems but little doubt that Napier was the first to make use of
a decimal separator, and it is curious that the separator which he
used, the point, should be that whkh has been ultin[iately adopted,
and after a bng period of partial disuse.
The hereditary office of king's poulterer (Pultrie Regis) was for
many venerations in the family of MerchistoA, and descended to
John Napier. The office, Mark Napier states, is repeatedly men-
tioned in the family charters as appertaining to the " pultre landis "
near the village of Dene in the shire of Linlithgow. The duties
were to be performed by the possessor or his deputy ; and the king
was entitled to demand the ^rly hcmiage of a present of poultry
from the feudal holder. The pultrelands and the office were sold
by John Napier in 1610 for 1700 marks. With the exception of the
pultrelands all the esutes he inherited descended to his posterity.
With regard to the spelling of the name. Mark Napier states
thnT : Ml ' ;' ' nily papers there exist a great many documents
sigr.> J ! pier. His usual signature was " Jhone Neper,"
bu! in ^ en in 1608, and in aU deeds signed after that date,
he v.tk<< Mcpair." His letter to the king prefixed to the
PLinr .' signed " John Napeir." His own children, who
s?gn d. . ith him, use every mode except Napier, the form
— ' le family, and which is comparatively modern,
wrpte his name '* Neperus." The form '* Neper "
J hn, third Napier of Merchiston, so spelt it in the
Inf .I'M -
is I he ol'i._:l,
15th century
Napier frequently signed his name " Jhone Neper, Fear of Mer-
chiston." Hl* wii5 " Fear of Merchiston " because, more majorum,
he had been invi-t'^l with the fee of his paternal barony during the
lifetime o( his f;nkir, who retained the liferent. He has been some-
tinT 5 trrunnou-T'. called " Peer of Merchiston," and in the 1645
ediuui. *ji :..w ^ .u.ne Discovery he is so styled (see Mark Napier's
Memoirs, pp. 9 and I7t, and L^fri qui sitpersunt, p. xciv.).
The bibliography of Napier's work attached to W. R. Macdonald's
translation oithe Canonis Constructio (1889) is complete and valuable.
Napier's three mathematical works are reprinted by N. L. W. A.
Gravelaar in Verkcndelingen der Kon. Akaa. van Wet te Amsterdam,
I. scctie, dccl 6 (1899) (J- W. L. G.)
NAPIER, SIR WILUAM FRANCIS PATRICK (1785-1860).
British soldier and military historian, third son of Colonel
George Napier (1 751-1804), and brother of Sir Charles James
Napier (see above), was born at Celbridge, near Dublin, on the
17th of December 1785. He became an ensign in the Royal
Irish Artillery in 1800, but at once exchanged into the 63nd, and
was put on half -pay in 1802. He was afterwards made a cornet
in the Blues by the influence of his uncle the duke of Richmond,
and for the first time did actual military duly in this regiment,
but he soon fell in with Sir John Moore's suggestion that he should
exchange into the ssnd, which was about to be trained in the
famous camp of Shomcliffe. Through Sir John Moore he soon
obtained a company in the 43rd, joined that regiment at Shom-
cliffe and became a great favourite with Moore. He served in
Denmark, and was present at the engagement of Kioge, and,
his regiment being shortly afterwards sent to Spain, he bore
himself nobly through the retreat to Corunna, the hardships of
which permanently impaired his health. In 1809 he became
176
NAPIER, SIR W. F. P.
aide-de-camp to the duke of Richmond, lord lieutenant of
Ireland, but joined the 43rd when that regiment was ordered
again to Spain. With the light brigade (the 43rd, 52nd, and osth),
under the command of General Craufurd, he marched to Talavera'
in the famous forced march which he has described in his History^
and had a violent attack of pleurisy on the way. He, however,
refused to leave Spain, was wounded on the Coa, and shot near
the spine at Cazal Nova. His conduct was so conspicuous during
the pursuit of Maas£na after he left the lines of Torres Vedras
that he as well as his brother George was recommended for a
brevet majority. He became brigade major, was present at
Fuentes d'Onor, but had so bad an attack of ague that he was
obliged to return to England. In England he married Caroline
Amelia Fox, daughter of General Henry Fox and niece of the
statesman Fox. Three weeks after his marriage he again sUrted
for Spain, and was present at the storming of Badajoz, where
his great friend Colonel M'Leod was killed. In the absence of the
new lieutenant-colonel he took conmiand of the 43rd regiment
(he was now a substantive major) and conmianded it at the
battle of Salamanca. After a short stay at home he again
joined his regiment at the Pyre nees , and did his greatest military
service at the battle of the Nivelle, where, with instinctive
military insight, he secured the most strongly fortified part of
Soult's position, practically without orders. He served with his
regiment at the battles of the Nive, where he received two wounds,
Orthes, and Toulouse. For his services he was made brevet
Heutenant-colonel, and one of the first C.B.'s. Like his brother
Charles be then entered the military college at Famham. He
commanded his regiment in the invasion of France after Waterloo,
and remained in France with the army of occupation until i8ig,
when he retired on half-pay. As It was impossible for him to
live on a major's half-pay with a wife and family, he determined
to become an artist, and took a house in Sloane Street, where he
studied with (korge Jones, the academician.
The years he had spent in France he had occupied in improving
his general education, for, incredible as it seems, the author of the
Hislory of the War in the Peninsula could not spell or ^ile
respectable English till that time. But his career was to be great
in literature, not in art. The tendency appeared in an able
review of Jomini's works {Edinburgh Rev.) in 1821, and in 1823
Mr Bickersteth (afterwards Lord Langdale) suggested to him
the expediency of writing a history of tiie Peninsular War. For
some time he did not take kindly to the 8ugg»tion, but at last
determined to become an author in order to defend the memory
of Sir John Moore, and to prevent the gbry of his old chief being
overshadowed by that of Wellington. The duke of Wellington
himself gave him much assistance, and handed over to him the
whole of Joseph Bonaparte's correspondence which had been
taken at the battle of Vittoria; this was all in cipher, but Mrs
Napier, with great patience, discovered the keys. Marshal Soult
also took an active interest in the work and arranged for the
French translation of Mathieu Dumas. In 1828 the first volume
of the History appeared. The publisher, John Murray, indeed,
was disappointed in the sale of the first volume and Napier
published the remainder himself. But it was at once seen that
the great deeds of the Peninsular War were about to be fitly
commemorated. The excitement which followed the appearance
of each volume is proved by the innumerable pamphlets issued
by those who believed themselves to be attacked, and by personal
altercatioos with many distinguished officers. But the success
of the book was proved still more by the absence of competition
than by these bitter controversies. The histories oi Southey and
Lord Londonderry fell still-bom, and Sir George Murray,
Wellington's quartermaster-general, who had determined to pro-
duce the history, gave up the attempt in despair. This success was
due to a combination of qualities which have justly secured for
Napier the title of being the greatest military historian England
has produced. When in 1840 the last volume of the History was
published, his fame not only in England but in France and
Germany was safely established.
His life during these years had been chiefly absorbed in his
History, but be had warmly sympathized with the movement
for political reform which was agitating England. The Radicals
of Bath and many other cities and towns pressed him to enter
parliament, and Napier was actually invited to become the
military chief of a national guard to obtain reforms by force of
arms. He refused the dangerous honour on the ground that be
was in bad health and had a family of eight children. In 1830
he had been promoted colonel, and in 1842 he was made a major-
general and given the lieutenant-governorship of Guernsey.
Here he found plenty of occupation in controlling the relations
between the soldiers and the inhabitants, and also in working
out proposals for a complete scheme of reform in the government
of the island. While he was at Guernsey his brother Charles
had conquered SInd, and the attacks made on the poh'cy of that
conquest brought William Napier again into the field of literature.
In 184s he published his History of the Conquest ofScinde, and in
1851 the corresponding History of the Administration ofScinde —
books which in style and vigour rivalled the great History, but
which, being written for controversial purposes, were not likely
to maintain enduring popularity. In 1847 he resigned his
governorship, and in 1848 was made a K.C.B., and settled at
Scinde House, Clapham Park. In 1851 he was promoted lieu-
tenant-general. His time was fully occupied in defending his
brother, in revising the numerous editions of his History which
were being called for, and in writing letters to The Times on every
conceivable subject, whether military or literary. His energy
is the more astonishing when it is remembered that he never
recovered from the effects of the wound he had received at
Cazal Nova, and that he often had to lie on his back for months
together. His domestic life was shadowed by the incurable
affliaion of his only son, and when his brother Charles died in
1853 the worid seemed to be darkening round him. He devoted
himself to writing the life of that brother, which appeared in
1857, and which is in many respects his most characteristic book.
In the end of 1853 his younger brother, Captain Henry Napier,
R.N., died, and in 1855 his brother Sir George (see below).
Inspired by his work, he lived on till the year i860, when, broken
by trouble, fatigue and ill-health, he died (February 12) at
Clapham. Four months earlier he had been promoted to the
full rank of general.
As a miliury historian Sir William Napier is incomparably
superior to any other English writer, and his true compeers are
Thucydidcs. Caesar and Davila. All four had been soldicri in the
wars they describe; all four possessed a peculiar insight into the
mainsprings of action both in war and peace; and each possessed
a peculiar and inimitable style. Napier always wrote as if he was
burning with an inextinguishable desire to express what he was
feeling, which gives his style a peculiar spontaneity, and yet he
rewrote the first volume of his History no less than six times. His
descriptions of sieges and of battles are admiraUe by themselves,
and his analyses of the peculiarly intricate Spanish intrigues ar«
even more remarkable, while the descriptions and analyses are
both Kt up with flashes of political wisdom and military insight.
It is to be noted that he displays the spirit of the partisan, even
when most impartial, and defends his opinions, even when most
undoubtedly true, as if he were amiing some controverted questioo.
If his style was modelled on anything, it was on Caesar's comment*
aries, and a thorough knowlcd^ of the writings of the Roman
general will often explain allusions in Napier. The portraits of
Sir John Moore and Colond M'Lcod, and the last paragraphs de-
scriptive of the storming of Badajoz, may be uken as examples
of his great natural eloquence.
His brother, Sir Geokce Thomas Napier (1784-1855), entered
the army in j8oo, and served with distinction under Moore and
Wellington in the Peninsula — and lost his right arm at the
storming of Badajoc He became major-general in 1837, K.C.B.
in 1838 and lieutenant-general in 1846. He was governor and
commander-in-chief at the Cape from 1839 to 1843, during which
time the abolition of slavery and the expulsion of the Born from
Natal were the chief events. He was offered, but declined, the
chief command in India after Chillian walla, and also that of the
Sardinian army in 1849. He became full general in 1854. He
died at Geneva on the t6th of September 1855. His auto-
biography. Passages in the Early Military Life of General Sir
G. T. Napier, was published by his surviving son. General
W. C. E. Napier (the author of an important work on outpost
duty), in 1885.
NAPIER AND ETTRICK— NAPIER OF MAGDALA
177
Tlie youncBSt brother, Henky Edwaio Napizk (ijSg^iSs^)*
terved in the navy during the Napoleonic wan, retired as a
captain, and wrote a learned Flcrtntine History from the earlUsi
oMikemHc Records to the Autssion of Fadinand III. of Tuscany
(ia46-x847).
For Sir Wiltiara Napier's life, see his Uft and Letters, edited by the
Right Hooourable H. A. Bruce (Lord Aberdare) (a vols., i86a).
KAPfBR AND BRRICX, FRANCIS NAPIBR, Babom (1819-
1898), British diplomatist, was descended from the andent
Scottish family of Napier of Merchistoun, his ancestor Sir
Alexander Napier (d. c. 1473) being the elder son of Alexander
Napier (d. c. 1454), provost of Edinburgh, who obtained lands
at Mcrdiistoan early in the 15th century. Sir Alexander was
comptroOer of the household of the king of Scotland, and was
often sent to England and elsewhere on public business. Of
his descendants one Napier of Merchistoun was killed at Sauchie-
bum, another fell at Flodden and a third at Pinkie. The seventh
Napier of Merchistoun was Sir Archibald Napier (1534-1608),
master of the Scottish mint, and the eighth was John Napier
iqjr.) the inventor of logarithms. John's eldest son. Sir Archibald
Napaer ic 1576-1645)1 ^u treasurerHiepute of Scotland from
162 J to 163 1, and was created Lord Napier of Merchistoun in
1627. He manied Maigkret Graham, sister of the great marquess
of Montrose, whose cause he espoused, and ht wrote some
Memoirs which were published in Edinburgh in 1793. His son
Archibald, the and lord (16x5-1658), fought under Montrose at
Aaldttin, at Alford, at Kil^h and at Philiphaugh, and was
afterwards with hb famous unde on the continent of Europe.
His son, Archibald, the 3rd lord (d. 1683), was succeeded by
q)edal arrangement in the title, first by bis nephew, Thomas
Nicobon (1669-X686), a son of his sister Jean and her husband
Sir Thomas Nicolson, Bart. (d. 1670), and then by his sister
Blargaret (d. 1706), the widow of John Brisbane (d. 1684). The
6th hird was Margaret's grandson Frauds Scott (c. i7(»-i773)» a
son of Sir William Scott, Bart., of ThtrlesUne (d. 1725). Francis
Scott, who took the additional name of Napier, had a large
family, his sons including William, the 7th ford, and Colonel
(jeoige Napier (1751-1804). His famous grandsons are dealt
with above. Another literary member of the family was Mark
Napaer (1798-1879), called by Mr Andrew Lang " the impetuous
hiographer of Montrose," who wrote Memoirs of John Napier
of Merdastom (1834), Montrose and the Covenanters (1838),
Memoirt of Montrose (1856), Memorials of Graham of Claverkouu
(1859-1862), and a valuable legal work. The Law of Prescription
in ScoUamd (1839 and again 1854). William, 7th Lord Napier
(1730-1775), was succeeded as 8th lord by his son Francis (1758-
1823), who, after serving in the English army during the American
War ci Independence, was lord high commissioner to the general
assembly of the Church of Scotland, and compiled a genealogical
accoont of his family which is still in manuscript. His son
WnKam John, the 9th lord (1786-1834), who was present at the
battle of Trafalgar, was the father of Frauds Napier, Lord Napier
and Ettrick.
Bom on the 15th of September 1819 Francis entered the
<fipiomatic service in 1840, and was employed in successive posts
at Vienna, Constantinople, Naples, Washington and the Hague.
DoitQg this time he euned tlue highest opinions both at home
and abroad. In i860 he became ambassador at St Petersburg,
and in 1864 at Berlin. In 1866 he was appointed governor of
Madras, and was at once confronted with a serious famine in the
northern districts. In dealing with this and other problems he
showed great activity and practical sense, and he encouraged
pvh&c works, particulariy irrigation. In 187a he acted for a few
aontlB as Viceroy, after Lord Mayo's assassination; and on
Lord Korthbrook*s appointment to the office he returned to
Ea^and, being created a baron of the United Kingdom (Baron
Ettrick of Ettrick) for his services. He continued, both in
F,.^«»*i and in Scotland, to take great interest in social questions.
He was for a time a member of the London School Board, and
he was fjwy^f" of the Crofters' Commission in 1883, the result
of wfaicfa was the appointment of a permanent body to deal with
la aflccting the Scottish crofters and cotuis. He died at
Florence on the 19th of December 1898, leaving a widow and
three sons, the eldest of whom, William John George (b. 1846),
succeeded to his titles.
NAPIBR OF MAODALA, ROBERT CORMBUS NAPIBR.
tST Baion (Z810-1890), British field-marshal, son of Major
Charles Frederick Napier, who was wounded at the storming of
Meester Cornells (Aug. 26, 18 10) in Java and died some months
later, was bom at Colombo, Ceylon, on the 6th of December
z8io. He entered the Bengal Engineers from AddiKombe
College in 1826, and after the usual course of instruction at
Chatham, arrived in India in November 1828. For some years
he was employed in the irrigation branch of the public works
department, and in 1838 he laid out the new hill station at
Darjeeling. Promoted captain in January 1841, he was ap-
pointed to Sirhind, where he laid out cantonments on a new
prindple — ^known as the Napier system — for the troops returning
from Afghanistan. In December 1845 he joined the army of
the Sutlej, and commanded the Engineers at the battle of Mudki,
where he had a horse shot under him. At the battle of Feroseshah
on the 31st December he again had his horse shot under him, and,
joining the 31U Regiment on foot, was severely wounded in
storming the entrenched Sikh camp. He was present at the
battle of Sobraon on loth February 1846, and in the advance to
Lahore; was mentioned in despatches for his services in the
campaign, and received a brevet majority. He was chief engineer
at the reduction of Kote-Kangra by Brigadier-General Wheeler
in May 1846, and recdved the thanks of government. He was
then appointed consulting engineer to the Punjab resident and
coundl of regency, but was again called to the field to direct the
siei^ of Multan. He was wounded in the attack on the entrenched
position in September 1848, but was present at the action of
Shujabad, the capture of the suburbs, the successful storm of
Multan on 23rd January 1849, and the surrender of the fort of
Chiniot. He then joined Lord (Sough, took part, as commanding
engineer of the right wing, in the battle of Gujrat in February
1849, accompanied Sir W. R. Gilbert in his pursuit of the Sikhs
and Afghans, and was present at the passage of the Jhelum, the
surrender of the Sikh army, and the surprise of Attock. For his
services he was mentioned in despatches and recdved a brevet
lieutenant-colondcy. At the doae of the war Napier was
appointed dvil engineer to the board of administration of the
annexed Punjab province, and carried out many important
public works during his tenure of office. In December 1852 he
commanded a colunm in the first Hazara expedition, and in the
following year against the Boris; and for his services in these
campaigns was mentioned in despatches, received the special
thanks of government and a brevet-colonelcy. He was
appointed military secretary and adjutant-general to Sir James
Outram's force for the relief of Lucknow in the Indian Mutiny
in 1857* and was engaged in the actions which culminated in the
first relief of Lucknow. He directed the defence of Lucknow until
the second relief, when he was severely wounded in crossing a
very exposed vpact with Outram and Havelock to meet Sir Colin
Campbell. He was chief of the staff to Outram in the defence of
the Alambagh position, and drew up the plan of operations for
the attack of Lucknow, which was approved by Sir Colin Camp-
bell and carried out by Napier, as brigadier-general commanding
the Engineers, in March 1858. On the fall of Lucknow Napier
was most favourably mentioned in despatches, and made C.B.
He joined Sir Hugh Rose as second-in-command in his march on
Gwalior, and commanded the 2nd brigade at the action of Morar
on the i6th June. On the fall of Gwalior he was entrusted with
the task of pursuing the enemy. With only 700 men he came up
with Tantia Topi and 1 2,000 men on the plains of Jaora Alipur, and
completely defeated him, capturing all his guns (25), ammunition
and baggage. On Sir Hugh Rose's departure he took command of
the Gwalior division, captured Paori in August, routed Feroseshah,
a prince of the house of Delhi, at Ranode in December, and,
in January 1859, succeeded in securing the surrender of Man
Singh and Tantia Topi, which ended the war. For his services
Napier recdved the thanks of parliament and of the Indian
government, and was made K.C.B.
178
NAPIER— NAPLES
In January i860 Napier was appointed to the command of
the and division of the expedition to China under Sir Hope Grant,
and took part in the action of Sinho, the storm of the Peiho
forts, and the entry to Peking. For his services he received the
thanks of parliament, and was promoted major-general for
distinguished service in the field. For the next four years Napier
was military member of the council of the governor-general
of India and, on the sudden death of Lord Elgin, for a short
time acted as govemor*general, until the arrival of Sir W. T.
Denison from Madras. In January 1865 he was given the com-
mand of the Bombay army, in March 1867 he was promoted
lieutenant-general, and, laterin that year, appointed to command
the expedition to Abyssinia, selecting his own troops and making
all the preparations for the campaign. He arrived at Annesley
Bay in the Red Sea early in January 1868, reached Magdala,
420 m. from the coast, in April; stormed the stronghold, freed
the captives, razed the place to the ground, returned to the
coast, and on the i8th June the last man of the expedition had
left Africa. He received for his services the thanks of pariia-
ment, a pension, a peerage, the G.C.B. and the G.C.S.I. The
freedom of the cities of London and Edinburgh was conferred
upon him, with presenUtion swords, and the universities
bestowed upon Mm honorary degrees. In 1869 he was elected
a fellow of the Royal Society. He held the command-in-chief
in India for six years from 1870, during which he did much to
benefit the army and to encourage ^od shooting. He was
promoted general in 1874, and appointed a colonel-commandant
of the Royal Engineers. In 1876 he was the guest of the German
crown prince at the mUitary manceuvres, and from that year
until 1883 hdd the government and command of Gibraltar.
In the critical state of affairs in 1877 he was nominated com-
mander-in-chief of the force which it was proposed to send to
Constantinople. In 1879 he was a member of the royal com-
mission on army organization, and in November of that >'ear
he represented Queen Victoria at Madrid as ambassador extra-
ordinary on the occasion of the second marriage of the king of
Spain. On the ist of January 1883 he was promoted ta be field-
marshal, and in December 1886 appointed Constable of the
Tower of London. He died in London on the Z4th of January
1890. His remains received a state funeral, and were buried
in St Paul's Cathedral on the 21st of January. He was twice
married, and left a lai^ family by each wife, his eldest son,
Robert William (b. 1845), succeeding to his barony. A statue
of him on horseback by Boehm was erected at Calcutta when
he left India, and a replica of it was afterwards set up to his
memory in Waterloo Place, London.
NAPIBR, a seaport on the east coast of North Island, New
Zealand, capital of the provincial district of Hawke's Bay,
200 m. by rail N.E. of Wellington. Pop. (1906) 9454. The
main portion of the town stretches along the flat shoreland of
Hawke's Bay, while the suburbs extend over the hills to the north.
The site consists of a picturesque peninsula known as Scinde
Island. The harbour (Port Ahuriri) is sheltered by a break-
water. The cathedral church of St John (1888) for the bishopric
of Waiapu, is one of the finest ecclesiastical buildings in New
Zealand, imitating the Early English style in brick. An
athenaeum, a small hospital, a lunatic asylum, a philosophical
society and an acclimatization society are among the public
institutions. The town (named after Sir Charles James Napier)
is under municipal government, and returns a member to the
New Zealand House of RepresenUtives. The distria is agri-
cultural, and large quantities of wool and tinned and frozen
meats -are exported. Ther« is raOway communication with
Wellington, New Plymouth, and the Wairarapa, Wanganui
and Manawatu districts. Numerous old native pas or fortified
villages are seen in the neighbourhood.
NAPLES (Ital. Napeli, and Lat. Neapolis), formerly the capital
of the kingdom of the Two Sicilies, and since i860 the chief town
of the province which bears its name, the smallest province
in the kingdom of Italy. It is the largest city in the country,
containing 547,503 inhabitants in 1901. It is a prefecture;
the see of a cardinal archbishop; the residence of the general
commanding the tenth Army Corps and of the admiral com-
manding the second Naval Department of Italy; And it
possesses also an ancient and important university.
Naples disputes with Constantinople the claim of occupying
the most Ifcautiful site in Europe. It is situated on the northern
shore of the Bay of Naples {Sinus CumaHus)^ in 40* 52' N.,
14* is' 45' E., as taken from the lighthouse on the mole. By
rail it is distant 151 m. from Rome, but the line is circuitous,
and a direct electric line was contemplated in 1907, to run nearer
the coast and shorten the distance from the capital by more than
30 m. (For map, see Italy.) The circuit of the bay is about
35 m. from the capo di Miseno on the north-west to the Punta
della Campanella on the south-east, or more than 52 m. if the
islands of Ischia, at the north-west, and of Capri, at the south
entrance, be included. At its <^ning between these two islands
it is 14 m. broad; while another 4 m. separates Capri from the
mainland at the Punta della Campanella, and from the opening
to its head at Portici the distance is 15 m. It affords good
anchorage, with neariy 7 fathoms of water, and is well sheltered,
except from winds which blow from points between south-east
and south-west. In the latter winds Sorrento should be eqtedally
avoided, as no safe anchorage can be found there at less than
15 fathoms, and the same remark applies to Capri with winds
from S.W. to N.W. There is a perceptible tide of nearly 9 in.
On the north-east shore east of Naples is an extensive flat, forming
part of the ancient Campania Felix, and watered by the small stream
Sebeto and by the Samo, which last in .classical times formed the
port of Pompeii. From this flat, between the sea and the range of the
Apennines, rises Mount Vesuvius, at the base of which, on or near the
sea-shore, are the populous villages of San Giovanni Teduccio,
Portici, Resina, Torre del Greco, Torre dell' Annunziata, &c.. and the
classic sites <A Hcrculaneum and PompeiL At the south-east
extremity of the plain, 3 m. beyond the outlet of the Samo, a great
offshoot of the Apennines, branching from the main range near Cava,
Bay of Naples from tne bay of Salerno (Sinus Paastanus), and ends
in the bola promontory 01 the Punta della Campanella (Promon-
torium Minervae), which is separated by a strait 01 4 m. from Capri.
On the north slope of this peninsula, where the plam ends and the
coast abruptly bends to the west, stands the town of Castellaminare.
near the site of Stabiae, at the foot of Monte Sant* Angelo. which
rises suddenly from the sea to a hdght of 4722 ft. Farther west,
and nearly opposite to Naples across the bay, are Vioo, Met*.
Sorrento, Massa and many villages.
The north-west shore to the west of Naples is more broken
and irregular. The promontory of Poulipo, which projects due south.
divides this part of the bay into two smaller bajrs — the eastern, with
the city of Naples, and the western, or Bay of Baiae, which is sheltered
from all winds. A tunnel through the promontory, 2244 ft. long.
21 ft. broad, and in some places as much as 70 tt. high, possibly
constructed by Marcus-Agrippa in 27 B.C., forms the so-called crotto
of Posilipo: at the Naples end stands the reputed tomb of Virgil.
Beyond Posilipo is the small island of Nisida (Nests) ; and at a short
distance inland are the extinct craters of Solfatara and Astroni and
the lake of Agnano. Farther west, on the coast, and provided with a
convenient harbour, stands Pozzuoli (Puteoli), a city containing
many Roman remains, but now chiefly remarkable for the large gun-
works erected by Messrs Armstrong & Co. ; and beyond it, roundthe
Bay of Baiae, are Monte Nuovo, a hill thrown up in a single nif ht
eptember 1538; the classic site of Baiae; the Lucrine LaJce;
in Sep!
Lake Avernus; the Lake of Fusaro (Ackerusia Palus); the Elysian
Fields; and the port and promontory of Misenum. Still farther to
the south-west lie the islands of Procida {Prochyta) and lachia
(Pitkecusa, Aenaria or Inarinu), which divide the Bay of Nac^
from the extensive Bay of Gacta. All this country was comprised
in classical times under the title of the PhUgrean Fidds, and was
ccruinly then more actively volcanic than it now is. although the
severe shock of earthquake which occurred in the isbnd of lachta in
1883 completely destroyed Casamicciola, and did serious damaee
to Forio, Lacco Ameno and Serrara Fontana, shows that thcreis
great seismic activity in the locality. The whole region abounds
with fissures from which steam highly charged with hydrochloric
acid is continually issuing, and in many places boiling water is found
at a very few feet below the surface.
The dty of Naples is built at the base and on the slopes of a
range of volcanic hills, and, rising from the shore like. an amphi-
theatre, is seen to best advantage from the sea. From the summit
occupied by the castle of St Elmo a transverse ridge runs south
to form the promontory of Pizzofalcone, and divides the city into
two natural crescents. The western crescent, known as the
Chiaja ward, though merely a long narrow strip between the s^
NAPLES
179
and Vomcro hOl, is the fashionable quarter most frequented
by foreign residents and visitors. A fine broad street, the Riviera
di Chiaja, begun in the dose of the i6th century by Count
d'Oiivares, and completed by the duke de Medina Celi (1695-
1700), runs for a mile and a half from east to west, ending in
the quarter of Mergellina and Piedigrotta at the foot of the hill
of Posilipo. In front lie the Villa Communale (first called Reale
and subsequently Nazionale) public gardens, the chief promenade
of the dty, which wer^* first laid out in 1780, and have been
successively extended in 1807, in 1834, and again in recent years;
and the whole edge of the bay from the Castel dell' Ovo to
Mergellina Is lined by a massive embankment and carriage-
way, the Via Caracdolo, constructed in 1875-1831. The eastern
crescent includes- by far the largest as well as the oldest portion
of Naples — ^the ports, the arsenal, the principal churches, &c.
The best-known thoroughfare is the historic Toledo (as it is
still pofMilarly called, though the official name is Via Roma)
whkh runs almost due north from the Piazza (Largo) del
Plebtscito in front of the Palazzo Reale, till, as Strada Nuova
Di Capodimonte, crossing the Ponte della Saniti (constructed
by Murat across the valley between Santa Teresa and Capodi-
monte), it reaches the gates of the Capodimonte palace. A
drive, the Corso Vittorio Emmanuele, winds along the slopes
behind the city from the Str. di Piedigrotta (at the west end of
the Riv. di Chiaja) till it reaches the museum by the Via Salvator
Rosa. The character of the shore of the eastern crescent has been
much altered by the new harbour works, which with the wharves
and warehouses have absorbed the Villa del Popolo. or People's
Park, originally constructed on land reclaimed from the bay.
The streets of Naples are generally well-paved with large
Uocks of lava or volcanic basalt. In the older districts there is
a countless variety of narrow gloomy streets, many of them
Sleep. The houses are mostly five or six storeys high, are
covered with stucco made of a kind of pozzolana which hardens
by exposure, and have large balconies and flat roofs. The castle
of S. Elmo (S. Ermo, S. Erasmus), which dominates the whole
dty, had its origin in a fort (Belforte) erected by King Robert
the Wise in 1343. The present building, with its rock-hewn
fosses and massive ramparts, was constructed by Don Pedro de
Toledo at the command of Charles V. in 1535, and was long
ccmsidered practically impregnable. Damaged by lightning in
1857, it was afterwards restored, and is now a military prison.
On a small island (I. del Salvatore, the Megaris of Pliny), now
joined to the shore at the foot of the Pizzofakone by an arch-
supported causeway, stands the Castel dell' Ovo (so called from
its shape, though medieval legend associates the name with the
enchanted egg on which the magician Virgil made the safety of
the city to depend), which dates from 1154. The walls of its
chapel were frescoed by Giotto; but the whole building was
mined by Ferdinand II. in 1495, and had to be restored in the
i6tb century. Castel Nuovo, a very picturesque building con-
structed near the harbour in 1283 by Charles I. of Anjou, contains
between the round towers of its fa^de the triumphal arch
erected in 1470 to Alphonao I. and renovated in 1905. It
mimben auKMig its chambers the Gothic hall of Giovanni Pisano
in widcb Celestine V. abdicated the papal dignity. Castel del
Carmine, founded by Ferdinand I. in 1484, was occupied by the
poptxiace in Masaniello's insurrection, was used as a prison for
the patriots of 1796, became mum'cipal property in 1878, and is
BOW a pnson. The royal palace, begun in 1600 by the Count de
Lemoa. from designs by Domenico Fontana, partly burned in
1837. and since repaired and enlarged by Ferdinand II., is an
enonnottS building with a sea frontage of 800 ft. and a main
fi^de 554 ft. long and 9s ft. high, exhibiting the Doric, Ionic
and Composite orders in its three storeys. The statues on the
facade of the palace were erected by King Humbert I. in 1885,
and represent the titular heads of the various dynasties which
have reigned at Naples, beginning with Ruggiero the Norman
(1130); followed by Frederick II. of Suiibia (1197); Charles I.
of Anioo (1266); Alfonso of Aragon (1443); Charles V. of Spain
(1527); Charles 111. (Bourbon) of Kaples (1744); Gioacchino
Muzat (1806); and Victor Emmanuel II. (1861).
Naples is the see of a Roman Catholic archbishop, always a
cardinal The cathedral has a chapter of thirty canons, and of
the numerous religious houses formeriy existing very few have
in whole or in part survived the suppression in 1868. The city is
divided into fifty parishes purely for ecclesiastical purposes, and
there are 337 Roman Catholic churches and 57 chapels.
Most of the churches are remarkable rather for richnew in internal
decoration than for architoctural beauty. The cathedral of St
Januariuf, ccnTrvfn;: th^ site of temples of ApoUo and Neptune,
ant! ^t^l| ronr ]i.'MP.|^ vmih} of their original granite columns, was
de !^i^nM by NicQb I'mtto, and erected between 1272 and 1316.
O^' I rvtf to f n^ucnt reitorations occasioned by earthquakes, it now
pn--^-nii an intongruaut mixture of different styles. The general
pb:i i^ thbic of ii baijlic-i with a nave and two (Gothic vaulted)
aW;,^ ^-Trhsrucd by pitajtcrs. The western facade is of marble and
wa-. ' '.uniF'K-ii^cd in T4o6. Beneath the high altar is a subterranean
chii."A conuinins the toinb of St Januarius (San Gennaro), the
pa:^<n ^int of the dtyrir. the right aisle there is a chapel (Cappelb
del I\ ^ro) bL^t bti,*«-R 1608 and 1637 in popular recognition of
his, iMving vstvt^ Naptc-s hi 1527 " from famine, war, plague and the
fin .1 V'tnuviu* "; and in a silver tabernacle behind the high altar
of 111* cb»pel ift prrscn.x'd the two phiab partially filled with his
bitnj 1^ rh<^ ptTioctiral liquefaction of which forms a prominent feature
in ihe riti^'i.iji life qI tfi'j city. Accessible by a door in the left
zhit of [hi.' cathedral i« the church of Sta Restituta, a basilica of
the 7th H» nnifv .itmI hi I. original cathedral. Santa Chiara (14th
oenn^r^ V a fresco ascribed to Giotto (at one time
there were ni^ :■- ;■;_,. and monuments to Robert the Wise, his
queen Mary of Valois and his daughter Mary, empress of Constanti-
nople. San Domenico Maggiore, founded by Charles II. in 1285,
but completely restored after 1445, has an effective interior particu-
lariy rich in Renaissance sculpture. In the ndghbourins monastery
is shown the cell of Thomas Aquinas. San FUippo Neri or dei
Gerolomini, erected in the close of the 1 6th century, has a white
marble facade and two campaniles, and conuins the tombstone of
Giambattista Vico. Su Maria del Parto, in the Chiaja. occupies
the site of the house of Sannazaro, and is named after his poem De
Partu Virginis. San Francesco di Paok>, opposite the royal palace,
is an imitation of the Panthdon at Rome by Pietro Bianchi di Lugano
(1815-18^7), and its dome is one of the boldest in Europe. The
church of the Ccrtosa (Carthusian monastery) of San Martino. on
the hill below St Elmo's castle, has now become in name, as so
many of the churches are in reality, a museum. Dating from the
lAth century, and restored by Fonsega in the 17th, it is a building
01 extraordinary richness of decoration, with oaintings and sculpture
b^ Guido Rem, Lanfranco. Caravaggio, D'Arpino. Solimene. Luca
Giordano and notably a " I>escent from the Cross " by Ribera, con-
considered the finest work of this master. The monastery has been
transformed into a medieval museum, where many specimens
illustrating the modem histoiv of Naples may be studied, and some
fine specimens of majolica from the southern provinces can be
inspected. The view from the south-western balcony is incompar-
able. The marble cloister by Fonse^. though rather flamboyant in
character, is one of the finest of its kind in existence. Other churches
with interesting monuments are Sant' Anna dei Lombardi, built
in 141 1 by Guerrello Origlia, which contains some splendid marble
sculpture, especially Rosellino's *' Nativity " in the Cappella Picco-
lomini; Sant Ang^elo a Nilo, which contains the tomb of Cardinal
Brancaccio, the joint work of Donatello and Michelozxo; San
Giovanni a Carbonara, built in 1341 and enlarged by King Ladislaus
in 1^00, which contains among much other remarkable sculpture the
tomb of the kinjs, the masterpiece of Andrea Ciccione (1414). and
that of Sergiami Caracciolo, the favourite of Joanna II., who was
murdered in 1432 (the chapel in which it stands is paved with one
of the earliest majolica pavements in Italy): San Lorenzo (1334),
the Royal Church of the House of Anjou: and, for purely archaeo-
logical interest, the Church of Sant* Asprono, thought to be the oldest
Christian church in Italy, in the crypt of the new Borsa or exchange.
Persons interested in frescoes will admire those in the former monas-
tery at the back of the church of S. Maria Donna Regina and those in
the cloister of S. Severino and Sossio. A more ancient Christian
monument than any of the convents or churches is the catacombs,
which extend a great distance underground and are in many respects
finer than those at Rome. The entrance is at the Ospizio dei Povcri
di San Gennaro (see Schulze's monograph. Jena, 1877).
Of the secular institutions in Naples none is more remarkable
than the National Museum, formerly known as the Museo
Borbonico. The building, begun in 1586 for vice-regal stables,
and remodelled in 1615 for the university, was put to its present
use in 1790, when Ferdinand IV. proclaimed it his private
property independently of the crown, placed in it the Farnese
collection which he had inherited from his father, and all the
specimens from Herculaneum, Pompeii, Stabiae. PuteoU,
Paestum. &c.. which till then had been housed In the palace at
Portici, and gave it the name of Real Mused Borbonico. In i860
i8o
NAPLES
Garibaldi, when dictator at Naples, proclaimed the museum
and the territory devoted to excavation to be the property of
the nation, since which time it has been called the National
Museum. Vast numbers of specimens have since been added to
it both by purchase and from excavations, and it is now unique
as a treasure house of Italo-Greek and Roman antiquities,
besides containing a fine library and an important collection of
pictures.
A large additional space for exhibits was made in 1901, when the
western half of the second floor was added, and the building as now
arranged contains the large bronxes and statues on the ^und
floor: a gallery of Pompeian frescoes in the entresol; the library,
picture gallery and small bronxes on the first floor; and the class,
Hwelry. arms, papyri, gems, and the unique collection of ftalo-
reek vases, on the second floor. The large bronzes are almost the
only ones which have survived from classical times, the most famous
of them being the seated Mercury and the dancing Faun;
the marbles reckon among their vast number the Ptyche, the
Capuan Venus, the portraiu of Homer and lulius Caesar, as well
as the huge group called the Toro Famese (Amphion and Zethus
tying Dirce to its horns), the Farnese Hercules, the excellent
though late statues of the Baibi on horseback and a very fine
collection of ancient portrait busts.
Modem Buildings. — The Galleria Umberto I. is a large cruci-
form arcade opened in 1890. It somewhat resembles the Milan
arcade, and has an octagon in the centre, with a cupola. It is
highly ornamented with gilt and stucco. A music-hall occupies
the basement. The Galleria Prindpe di NapoU is in a smaller
arcade opposite to the National Museum, mainly occupied by
shops where reproductions from the museum are sold. The
Galleria Vittoria, opened in 1907, is a circular building with
handsome dome, situated near the main entrance of the Villa
Communale. It is in great part occupied by offices and shops.
The Anglican church in Vico San Pasquale was built in 1862 on
ground given to the British community by Garibaldi when
dictator, and was the first Protestant church erected in Naples.
Since the granting of religious liberty evangelical churches have
been built by the Presbyterians, Wcsleyans, French, Germans and
Italians. A Greek church and a Jewish synagogue have also
been opened. The Borsa (or exchange) is a fine building in the
Piazza of the same name, built over the remains of the very
ancient church of Sant* Aspreno, which arc still preserved in the
aypt. In front of it b the fine i6th-ceiHUTy Fontana Medina.
Educssinnal and Learrud ItistUuiiens. — The univeriiE^ of Niiples
is one n>i the oldest in Italy, having been foundied by FrKierick II.
in the fint hall o( the [jEh century. It had fallen to inaignilicance
under the Bourbon«, but since i&6o it has nipidly recovered. It
comprises Eve faculties (litcraLurt «ind philoscph^i^, jurisprudence,
matnemacica, natural ^iencc and nietliciiie), and U well t't^uippcd
with zcNjilo^ical, minentloE'cil a'^d gc^lo^ical museums, a phvio-
logical Lns.t]tute, a cabini^t of anthropology, and botanical giirdi-as.
Originally erected in IS5T for the use of the le«uics, the university
buifdinjiis arr rcgiirded ai the bc«t work of Marco di Pino; the
quadrangle, surrounded by a Hmple but effective peristyle, con in ins
statues of Pietro della Vigna (Frederick's chancellor), Thomas
Aquinas and Giordano BrunOr The new buiying, th^ t<he\\ of which
was completed in igfi*, hctn tht Rettifllo, a new wid^ stirrci which
leads from the Oorsi in a straight line to the railwaiy station; at
the back it joins the fonner buildings Vihkh h at a higher level.
On the uthcror north &ideol the ancient building, and at the back of
the Stfada Con^tantinopoli, very brp; anneKcs have been formed
for the medical KhooL The famoiit lodpgical station at N.tfjln,
whose aii^uarium is the principaJ building in the VilU Ci>mmuiiale,
is not connected with the university, it wa* founded by Dr Dehrn
in 1872 L a large annexe was added to it a few ycjn bier in its
western side, ;ind a larger annew on the eastern wdt *-a* comj Uied
in 1907, The aquarium was originally cstabh^hcd at Naples bt^.^use
the flora and fauna of the neigh bourhocid are more varied than
those cf any district in Europe. It* MitthiiiMnffn U-gan to be pub-
lished in 1B7S, and poriiont of a great worlt on tbe fior4 and fauna
of Nap!c3 come out year by year, it i* \\m\y tf»n&idered the ftrst
as well AiXhit oldest of the i£«loeical stations of the world, and the
chief ufiiver^lriei pay /too a year for tables 10 which ihey Mrnd
studem^i. A I ihe« tables evety necessary is provided^ each st intent
having his own tanks with ^alt water laid on for keeping hii ^-joci-
mens, and alt necessary chemical > being provided. Of other Kicrn 1 ific
instituitoni we may mention the ob^rvatofy on Vestivius. whuJi is
support t.'c| qfitirtly by funds from the govpmmcnt, but is anntJced
inlorm<illy 10 the univcrsiiy. Its object li torrcord earth-movemL-nts
and volcanic phfrvimfnu. The Spect>la or astronomical obscrvjiory
is also a govern r..i .. i..-:^:uitOA, and 1'orm» no official part ut the
university. It is situated on the hill of Capodimonte.
The Royal Society of Naples, dating from 17^, was reconstituted
aries. The Roval Conservatory of Music in S. Pietro a Majella has
form or other since 1760, and has had many famous
in 1861, and is divided mto three academies, namely: moral and
political: physieal and mathenutical ; letters, archaeology and
fine aru. The famous Accademia Ponuniana. founded by Antonio
Becardella (sumamed Panormita owing to his origin from Palermo)
and J. J. Pontanus in 144a, was restored in 1808 and still exists.
The Roval School lac Onenul Languages owes its existence to
Matteo Kipa,who in 173a esUblished a school for Chinese 1 '
aries. The Roj '" " ~'
existed in one i
pupils.
Elementary education has proceeded with great rapidity, and
there are ninety public elementary shoots in the city, twenty-three
ecclesiastical gratuitous schools and many evangelical schools at a
very small payment. The higher grade schools are also numerous,
and there are special foreis;n schoMs established by private enterprise
for the education of the children of foreign residenu. There are three
sch"'- '— the blind anri ^— - '— -•-nf-muter
i '-':^ —The state ^i.v .1 '^<.%croe Sostto contain
all the records of past govLrfiTTic nts; t,hc Notarial archives in Via
San Paolo contain all the Dri^inal notarial acts from 1450 onwards,
to the number of Soo.ooo. The Roy^l national library in the building
of Che national museum containa 364^000 vol u men and 783^ manu-
scripts, many ol which arc of great value The musical archives are
kept hcrr as a scpartite depirtmcnu The Royal library of San
Gi.tfomo fioq.ooo vols.) had its origin in the r«ilikce library of the
Bcurl:»n ricrtcs. There may also be mentioned the Royal University
libury. the Royal Urancacciana library in Via Donnaromita. witn
13^.000 Vol}, and 3000 importanL MSS.^ the Gi-rolomini library,
nUignl^' dF etrclc^iastical books and codic-s, and the Provincial library
in Via Duomo, cond sting mainly of technical books^. The Biblioteca
Cdrnmunale, iind the rich colEection of aelamic and vulcamrfc^cal
bc"ks [na«J« by the Italian Alpine Club, are both in charge of the
So^.sl.'L^ di Storia Patria. This literary society was estatHished in
187 =i. by a committee of private gentlemen anxious to record all
po jble details of the history of the locality. It has a good th<Mjgh
noL perfect collection of iTie early Neapolitan newspapers, a complete
file of the principal modern ones and many interesting MSS. The
sociot>' i^ f^'j^frnir.c! by a council of literar>' menr and issues pubU-
caiiocia fruni utwv. to time. The Zoolofial Station or Aquarium
has a very fine biological library.
Tkeains. — The San Carlo opera-house, with iu area of 5157 sq.
yds. and its pit capable of seating 1000 spectators, is one of the
largest in Europe. It was originally built in 1737 under Charles III.,
but was destroyed by fire in 1816 and completely rebuilt. It was
heavily subsidized in the Bourbon times, but now, except for giving
the house, which is the property of the munJcipality, no assistance
is granted from the public funds. The Mercadantc is also a municipal
theatre, but has no subsidv. The Bellini is a fine opera-house near
the museum, and the otlier chief theatres are the Sannaaaaro^
Politeama and FlorentinL Numerous music halls have nxung up
of late years, <^ which the principal is the Salone Marghenta in the
basement of the Galleria Umberto Primo.
Chafities. — Charitable institutions are numerous in Naples. The
Redusorio or poorhouse was founded in the 18th century, and bendes
being a refuge for the indict poor has a series of industrial schools
attached, at which foundbng boys are educated and taught trades.
The principal hospitab are the Incurabili. Gcsik e Maria, Santa Maria
deUa Pace and a homital for poor priesu, which are all under the
same management. The Pellenani u exduuvely surgical ; the Santa
Maria di Loreto is espedallytor the inmates 01 the Redusorio axKl
for street acddents; the Ospedale Una for children; and the
Ospedale Cotugno for infectious diseases. There is also an Inter-
national hospital for the treatment of othen than Italians, which
was built by Lady Harriet Bentinck and is managed by an inter-
national committee; a German hospital; and a nospital erected
by the represenutives of Baron Adolphe de Rothschild. There ar«
two public lunatic asylums in the city, and another at the neighbour-
ing town of Aversa; and many private asylums, among whi^
Fleurent. Miano and Ponti Roau may be mentioned.
Harbour.— At a very eariy date the original harbour at Naples,
now known in its greatly reduced sute as Porto Piccolo, and fit only
for boats and lighters, became too small. In 130a Charles II. ol
Anjou began the construction of the Porto Grande by forming the
Molo Grande or San Gennaro, which stretched eastward into the
bay, and was terminated by a lighthouse in the 15th century. By
the addition .of a new pier running north-east from the lighthouse.
and protected by a heavily armed battery. Charles IlLin 1740
addeo greatly to the safety of the hartxMir. In 1826 the open area
to the south of the Porto Grande was formed into the Porto MiUtare
by the construction of the Molo San Vincenzo, 1200 ft. long. Shortly
after the formation of the new kingdom of ^taly attention was called
to the insufficiency of the harbour for modem wants; and new works
were begun in 1862. Besides the lengthening of the Molo San
Vincenzo to a total of more than 5000 ft., the scheme as now carried
out has completely revolutionizedthe harbour. A cross piece at the
end of the Molo ban Vincenzo has made the head of that structure
into the form of the Greek letter gamma, thus aflfording cofuuder^bte
protection to the anchorage. New quays have been made all the
way from the old Immacolatella landing-place to the new- aud
spacious Capitaneria di Porto, on the eastern side of which 19 « new
NAPLES
i8i
harbour med nudnly for the coal trade, aiid piers nich that thebrfett
liner can tie alongaiae the jetty. The outer mole of thU harbour runs
out from the Castd del Carmme towards the south for some 1500 ft.
and forms the inner side of the new steam basin, which when nearly
completed in 1906 fell in on the farther side, and had to be re-
ooossnicted. Tne de|>ih of this new harbour b from 2$ to y> ft.
There are two projecting moles, one to the inner harbour and the
seoood to the steam basm. In 1903 the total tonnan entering the
port amowited to 4.698.87a tons, of which the Itauans (including
their coasting trade) earned 1410,102 tons in 3687 vesseb; the
Germans iJ9i>S8S tons in 356 vessels; the British 1,116.315 tons
in S02 vesseb; and the French 24^.206 tons in 161 vessels. Naples
b the principal port for emigratKNij chiefly to North and South
America; 381 enu^nt ships sailed m 1905. carrying 216.103 ^mi*
grants^ The total imports for that year reached the sum of £3.197.918.
and the exports £3^,80$. The articles dealt in are wue. oil,
spirits. druKS, tobacco, chemicals, hemp, cotton, wool, silk, timber,
paper, leather and hides, metal, glaw, oereab and live animals.
Tbe lamest export was to the United Sutes (£864,563), the next to
Great Britain (£70 1.387),. while the largest imports were from Great
Britain Ui .233-410) aiMd the United Sutes (£807.564). The mcbli-
tbs of Naples are the manufacture of coral, tortobe^shell, Ida gloves
and aacaroai. but it has been growing also as an iodustrbl centre.
The port of Naples b second in the kingdom, and owns no rival save
Genoa.
Wmier Smfply,—S»ux 1884 Naples has had as fine a water supply
ss any city m Europe. It b derived from the hilb in the neighbour-
hood of Avellino, and b thought to be the effluent of an undeiground
bfce. It ruabes out from tne hillside and b received in a covered
oiasonry canal, whence it flows in large iron pipes till it reaches five
caormoos reser voirs constructed just opposite to the entrance gates
of the royal palace at Capodimonte. Hence it comes by natural
giavitatioo into the town at a pressure of five atmospheres, so that it
mp p fi es the bbhest parts of the town with abundant water. The
water b so cold that m the hottest summer perishabfe articles can be
fnjtrmi d by merdy securiiw them in a dosed vessd and allowing
the water to drip upon it. The supply was brought into the town
jost after the terrible cholera outbreaJc of 1884, and as each new
standpipe was erected in the streets every well within 300 yds. of
it was dosed, so that in a short time no well remained in the town ;
ud thus a fertile source of infection was eUminated. Every house
n the town and suburbs b now supplied with a constant supply of
pare water. The effect 00 the health of the dty has been extra-
ordinary. Cholera epidemics, which used to be frequent, have
becosse things of the past, and there b now abundant water for public
foiracaias. wuhing the streets and watering gardens both public
and private. The old sewere were found quite inadequate to carry
off tne large increase of water, and besides they all lea directly into
the bay. causing a terrible odour and rendering the water near the
town a n w b olc so me for bathing. Thb has been remedied by a
mtem of sewers, which after paning by a tunnel through the hifi of
Poailipo cross the plain beyond and discharge thdr contents into the
open sea on the deserted coast of Cumae. 17 m. from the dty of Naples.
The old aqoedoct. which was constructed in the 17th century byr
C amigna no and Crimindfi and taps the Isclero at Sant* Agata dd
Goci, IS stOI avaHabb to a certain extent, but its water was never
wry wholesome, and as it was not bid on to houses but only supplied
fosntaitts and house cisterns which have since been filled up. no
acrocinc need be Uken of it. The solitary Leone fountain, a spring
«liich soppGcd drinking water to the west end of the town, has been
dry for many years.
Modem Gr««tfA.— Naples, the most denady peopled dty in
Europe, has increased in modem times at an enormous rate.
On the large areas redairoed from the tea. vast hoteb and
mansions let in flaU have been erected. The gardens at the west
end of the town are all btiilt over. The Vomero, once merdy a
iczlttred village, b now an important suburb, and a Urge
workmen's quarter has spnmg up beyond the railway station to
fjottse the populace which was turned out (torn the centre of the
town srhen the works of the risanamentc were undertaken. The
increase in population between the census of 1881, when it was
461.062, and the census in 1901 was 85,521. The commune,
mhiOi includes not only the urban districU (seiicni) of San
Ferdinando, Chiaja, S. Giuseppe, Monte Calvario, Awocata,
Stclia, San Carlo all* Arena. Vicaria, San Lorenzo, Mercato,
Pendino and Porto, but abo the suburban dbtricts of Vomero,
Posifipo, Fttorigrotta, Miano and Pbdnda, has been built over
in every direction, one great incentive being the creation of an
iadoslrial aone to the eastward of the dty. Thb xone has been
set aside for the purpose of industrial development, and all persons
or comfianies who set up industrial concerns on it have grants
of land at a nominal price, are free of taxes for ten years and
have dectric force supplied to them at a very k>w figure. The
law osnr foto force in 1906, and was immedbtdy followed by
the erectk>n of a large number of factories, for spinning silk,
cotton, jute and wool, and the making of railway plant, auto-
mobiles, the building of ships, and in fact almost every kind of
industry. After the cholera epidemic of 1884, M. Deprelb, thes
premier, visited Naples, and in the course of a public speech
gave vent to the famous dictum " Bisogna sventrare Napdi*'-'
" Naples must be disembowellcdl " Plaia were at once made to
pull down all the worst slums, and as these by between the
centre of the town and the railway station, a wide street was
construaed from the centre of the town to the eastward, and
on each side of it wide strips of ground were deared to afford
building sites for shops and offices. The funds for thb vast
unde* taking were found partly by the state, which voted
£3,ojo,ooo, and as to the rest by the Risanamento Company,
which had a capital of £1,200,000. Before beginning operations
of demolition it was obviously necessary to provide homes for
the poor peopb who would be turned out, and a large working-
class quarter was erected to the north and beyond the railway
station. Thb quarter has wide airy streets and lofty houses,
and though perhaps the houses were let at prices which were
beyond the purMs of the lowest class, the result of thdr ereaion
was to cause a number of the poorer houses in the old town to
be vacatjcd, thus giving an opportunity to the lowest class to
be at any rate better housed than they were bdore. The quarter
described above b known as the Rione Vasto. There are abo
new middle-class quarters at Santa Luda, Vomero Nuovo and
Sant* Efremo, and better houses in the Via Sirignano, on the
Riviera di Chiaja, Vb Elena and Via Caracdolo at Mergdlina,
Via Partenope near the Chbtamone, and an aristocratic quarter
in the brge extensions made in the Rione Amedeo. The narrow
alleys of Porto, Pendino and Mercato have neariy all disappeared,
and old Naples has been vanbhing day by day. One notable
result of the widening of the streets has been the spread of the
electric tramways, which traverse the town in various directions
and are admirably served by a Belgbn company. The dty b
mainly lighted by electridty, which has abo found its way into
all the public edifices and most private houses.
Fcih-tore. — ^The attention of antiquarians to the charms against
the Evil Eye used by the inhabitants of the Neapolitan provinces
was first drawn in 1888. when it was shown tnat they were all
derived from the survival of ancient cbssical legends which had
sp ' various sources in connexion with classical sites in the
ne These ma^ be divided into three cbsaes: first,
the '^n^ '>r r>je in silver, with sundry emblems attached to it, all
of which rcTcr to the worship of Dbna, whose shrine at Capua was
of rori»^dc:rrLli[i> importance; secondly, the serpent charms, which
forme 1 p^rt »l ihe worship of Aescubptus. and were no doubt derived
br^T^ty UiivA the ancient eastern ophtobtry; and bstly .charms
deri--(rf \tr-m fhe legends of the Sirens. A specbl confirmation is
E\ ' ise. as the ^ren is represented mounted on her sea^
^.^ «.it>..ii^ ^he Styx unon the vase of Pluto and Proserpine in the
collection of the Naples Museum. Thb vase dates about 250 B.C..
and the Siren charms represent her in the same wav. but usually
mjunted on two sea-horses. The sea-horse and the biren alone are
commonly found as charms; the Siren bdng sometimes in her
fishtail form and sometimes in the form of a harpy.
History. — All andent writers agree in representing Naples as
a Greek settlement, though its foundation b obscurely and
differently narrated. The earliest Greek settlement in the
ndghbourbood was at Pithecusa (Ischb), but the colonists,
bdng driven out of the island by the frequent earthquakes,
settled on the mainbnd at Cumae, where they found a natural
acropolb of great strategic value. From Cumae they colonixed
Dikearchb (Pozzuoli) and probably subsequently Pabeopolis.
The site of Palaeopolb has given rise to much disctission, but the
researches by R. T. Gttnther open completely new ground, and
seem to be the correct solution of the problem. He pbces
Palaeopolb at GaioU Point and has discovered the remains of
the harbour, the town hall and various other rudiments of the
andent dty. Thb site» moreover, corresponds with Livy's
testinsony, and would account for his sUtement that the towns
of Palaeopolb and Neapolb were near together and identical in
language and government. Thb opinion about the site of Pabe-
opoUs has been baaed on the very considerable alterations which
are known to have taken place in the level of the land, and the
l82
NAPLES, KINGDOM OF
extensive submerged foundations of buildings off the southern ex-
tremity of Posilipo have been identified with those of the old city.
Parthcnope, as well as Dikearchia, was formed as a new cobny
from Cumae. and was so called from a legendary connexion of
the locality with the siren of that name, whose tomb was still
shown in the time of Strabo. Parthenope was situated where
Naples now stands, upon the splendid natural acropolis formed
by the hill of Pizzofalcone, and defended on the land side by a
fosse which is now the Strada dl Chiaja. and a massive wall, of
which remains may still be traced at the back of the existing
houses. To the colonists of Parthenope there came afterwards
a considerable addition from Athens and Chalds. and they
built themselves a town which they called Neapolis, or the " new
city." in contradistinction to the old settlement, which in con-
sequence was styled Palaeopolis or the " old city" The name
of Parthenope became lost, and the city of Palaeopolis fell into
gradual decadence.
In 328 B.C. the Palacopolitans having provoked the hostility
of Rome by their incursions upon her Campanian allies, the
consul Publilius Philo marched against them, and having taken
his position between the old and the new city, laid regular siege
to Palaeopolis. By the aid of a strong Samnite garrison which
they received, the Palacopolitans were long able to withstand the
attacks of the consul; but at length the city was betrayed into
the hands of the Romans by two of her dtisens. Neapolis
possibly surrendered to the consul without any resistance, as it
was received on favourable terms, had its liberties secured by
a treaty, and obtained the chief authority, which previously
seems to have been enjoyed by the older city. From that time
Palaeopolis totally disappeared from history, and Neapolis
became an allied dty (Joederata civUas) — a dependency of Rome,
to whose alliance it remained constantly faithful, even in the
most trying circumstances. In 380 B.C. Pyrrhus unsuccessfully
attacked its walls; and in the Second Punic War Hannibal was
deterred by their strength from attempting to make himself
master of the town. During the civil wars of Marius and Sulla
a body of partisans of the latter, having entered it by treachery
(82 B.C.), made a general massacre of the inhabitants; but
Neapolis soon recovered, as it was again a flourishing city in the
time of Cicero. It became a municipium after the passing of the
lex Juiia; under the empire it is noticed as a colonia, but the
time when it first Obtained that rank is uncertain — possibly
under Claudius.
Though a municipal town, Neapolis long retained its Greek
culture and institutions; and even at the time of Strabo it
had gymnasia and quinquennial games, and was divided into
pkralriae after the Greek fashion. When the Romans became
masters of the world, many of their upper classes, both before
the close of the republic and under the empire, from a love of
Greek manners and literature or from indolent and eflfeminate
habits, resorted to Neapolis, either for the education and the
cultivation of gymnastic exercises or for the enjoyment of music
and of a soft and luxurious climate. Hence we find Neapolis
variously styled — by Horace otiosa Neapolis^ by Martial docta
Parthenope, by Ovid in otia natam Partkenopen. It was the
favourite residence of many of the emperors; Nero made his
first appearance on the stage in one of its theatres; Titus assumed
the office of its archon; and Hadrian became iu demarch. It
wa« chiefly at Neapolis that Virgil composed his Georgics] and
he was buried on the hill of Pausilypus, the modem Posilipo, in
its neighbourhood. It was also the favourite residence of the
poets Statius (a.d. 61) and Silius Itaiicus (a.d. 25), the former
of whom was a Neapolitan by birth.
After the fall of the Roman Empire, Neapolis suffered severely
during the Gothic wars. Having espoused the Gothic cause in
the year 536, it was taken, after a protracted siege, by Belisarius,
who turned aside an aqueduct, marched by surprise into the city
through its channel, and put many of the inhabitants to the
sword. In 542 Totila besieged it and compelled it to surrender,
but being soon after recovered by Narscs, it remained long a
dependency of the exarchate of Ravenna, under the immediate
government of a duke, appointed by the East Roman emperors.
When the Lombards Invaded Italy and pushed thdc cbnqnests
in the southern provinces, the limits of the Neapolitan duchy
were considerably narrowed. In the beginning of the 8th century,
at the time of the iconoclastic controversy, the emperor Leo
the Isaurian having forced compliance to his edict against the
worshipping of images, the Neapolitans, encouraged by Pope
Gregory III., threw of! their allegiance to the Eastern emperors,
and established a republican form of government under a duke
of their own appomtment. Under this regime Neapolis retained
independence for nearly four hundred years, though constantly
struggling against the powerful Lombard dukes of Benevento, who
twice unsuccessfully besieged it. In 1027, however. Pandulf IV..
a Lombard prince of Capua, succeeded in making himself
master of it, but he was expelled in Z030 by Duke Sergius.
chiefly through the aid of a few Norman adventurers. The
Normans, in their turn, gradually superseded all powers, whether
Greek, Lombard or republican, which had previously divided
the south of Italy, and furthermore checked the Saracens in the
advances they were making through Apulia. -
From the date at which the south of Itafy and Sicily were
subjugated by the Normans the history of Naples ceases to be
the history of a republic or a dty. and becomes that of a kingdom,
sometimes separate, sometimes merged, with the kingdom of
Sicily, in that of the Two Sicilies. The city of Naples hence-
forth formed the metropolis of the kingdom to which it gave its
name, owing this pre-eminence to its advantageous position on
the side of Italy towards Sicily, and to the favour of successive
princes (see Naples, Kingdom of).
Bibliography. — Ackerman. Naples and the Campapia Fdice
(1816}: Craven. Tour through the Southern Pronnces of Naples
(1821): R. T. GQnther, Earth Mosemenis in the Bay of NapUs
(Oxford, 190S): Rolfe and Inglcby. Naples in 1888 (London. 1888);
Black, Naples in the Nineties (1897): Arthur Norway, Naples. Past
and Present (London. 1901): Miss Jex Biake, The Elder Pliny's
Chapters on the History of Art (London. 1896) (E. N.-R.)
NAPLES* KINGDOM OP, the name conventionally given to the
kingdom of Sicily on the Italian mainland (Sicily beyond the
Pharos), to distinguish it from that of Sicily proper (Sicily on
this side of the Pharos, i.e. Mtfssina), the title of "King of
Naples ** having only actually been borne by Philip II. of Spain
in the i6th century (" King of England and Naples ") and by
Joseph Bonaparte and Joachim Murat in the igth. The history
of the kingdom of Naples is inextricably interwoven with that of
Sicily, with which for long periods it was united as the kingdom
of the Two Sicilies.
For the earlier history of Naples and its territory, as a republic
and a dukedom, see Naples above, and for the coming of the
Normans see Sicily and Normans. It is sufficient here to state
that the leaders of the house of Hauteville. Robert Guiscard and
Richard of A versa, in 1059 did homage to Pope Nicholas II. iq.v.)
for all conquests they had made both in the island and upon the
mainland, and that in 11 30 Roger de Hauteville (Roger II. as
" great count " of Sicily) assumed the style of king as Roger I.
In this way the south of Italy, together with the adjacent island
of Sidly, was converted into one political body, which, owing to
the peculiar temper of its Norman rulers and their powerful
organization, assumed a more feudal character than any other
part of the peninsula. The regno, as it was called by the Italians^
constituted a state apart, differing in social institutions, foreign
relations, and type of home government, from the commonwealths
and tyrannies of upper Italy. The indirect right acquired by
the popes as lords paramount over this vast section of Italian
territory gave occasion to all the most serious disturbances of
Italy between the end of the 13th and the beginning of the i6th
centuries, by the introduction of the house of Anjou into Naples
and the disputed succession of Angevin and Aragonese princes,
Roger I. was succeeded in 11 54 by William I. "the Bad,**
who died in 1 166, being succeeded by his son William II. '* the
Good," on whose death in 1 189 the crown passed to
his illegitimate son Tancred. After the death of
Tancred the emperor Henry VI., of the house of
Hohenstaufen. who by his marriage with Constance
or Costanxa d'Altavilla, daughter of Roger I. (d. iiS4)> was
NAPLES, KINGDOM OF
183
Taacred's rival for the kingdoms of Naples and Sicily, de-
■crnded into Itaiy in 1194. He easily conquered both the
mainland and the island, and Tancred's only son William III.
ssrrendered the crown to him. But with the excuse of a pre-
tended plot he put a number of the most conspicuous persons
in the kingdonu to death, and had William himself blinded.
He then returned to Germany, and during his absence an agita-
tion broke out, provoked by the cruelty of his lieutenants and
encouraged by his Norman wife. He hurried back to Italy,
and repressed the movement with his usual ferocity, but died
Tiv in 1 197. Costanza then bad her son Frederick
(b. 1194) proclaimed king, and obtained the support
of the Holy See on condition that the kingdom should
"* be once more recognized as a fief of the church. The
whole history of the ensuing period of south Italian history
turns 00 the claims of the papacy over the kingdoms of Naples
and Sicily, based on the recognition of papal suzenfinty in Z053.
The Hohensuufen kings refused to admit this claim; hence the
persistent hostility of the popes and the calling in of foreign
potentates and armies. Costanza died in 119S, leaving Pope
Innocent IIL regent and tutor to her son; the pope's authority
was contested by various nobles, but in 1 209 Frederick married
Costanza, daughter of the king of Aragon, with whose help he
succeeded in reducing a liurge part of Sicily to obedience. Two
yean later he was elected king of the Romans at the diet
of Nuremberg in opposition to Otto IV., and in 1220 he was
crowned emperor in Rome by pope Honorius III., but continued
to reside in Sicily. He quelled a rising of Sicilian barons and
Suacens, and confined 60,000 of the latter at Lucera in Capi-
taoata, where they ended by becoming a most loyal colony.
After the death of Frederick's wife Pope Honorius III. arranged
a marriage for him with Yolande, daughter of John of Brienne
(1725). But in 1227 Gregory IX. excommunicated him because
he delayed the crusade which he had promised to undertake;
and although he sailed the following year, and concluded a
treaty with the sultan of Egypt whereby the kingdom of
Jerusalem was re-established, the pope was not satisfied and
sent an army into Neapolitan territory. On his return Frederick
defeated the pontificals* and in 1230 peace was made at San
Germano and the excommunication withdrawn. In 1231 he
issued the celebrated Constitutions of the Sicilian kingdom at
the parliament of Melfi. He had further quarrels with successive
pontiffs, and was excommunicated more than once. In 1246 a
number of his own barons and officials of the mainland conspired
against his rule, but were crushed with great ferocity, and even
his faithful secretary, Pietro della Vigna, fell a victim to the
emperor's suspidons. Frederick's last years were embittered
by the hostilities following on the crusade which the pope pro-
claimed against him and by rebellions in Naples and Sicily.
He died in 1250. His policy was anti-feudal and tended to
concentrate power into his own hands; hence the frequent
risings of the barons. His court at Palermo had been one of the
most brilliant in Europe, and attracted learned men from all
over the then known world; his somewhat pagan philosophy
was afterwards regarded as marking the beginnings of modern
rationalism. He opened schools and universities, and he himself
wrote poetry in Sicilian dialect.
His son Conrad IV succeeded to the empire, while to his
itlegitiniate son Manfred he left the principality of Taranto
i^^^g and the regency of the southern kingdom, to be held
in Conrad's name. By his political sagacity and
moderation Manfred won a strong party to his side and helped
Conrad to subjugate the rebellious barons. The emperor died in
1 2$4. leaving an infant son, Conradin (b. 1 252), and Manfred was
appointed vicar-general during the latter's minority. Manfred,
too, encountered the hostility of the popes, against whom he had
to wage wqir, generally with success, and of some of the barons
whom the papacy encouraged to rebel; and in x 258, on a rumour
of Cooradin's death, he was offered and accepted the crown of
Naples and Sicfly. The rumour proved false, but he retained
the crown, promising to leave the kingdom to Conradin at his
death and to defend his righu. He now became head of
the Ghibellines or ImperialisU of Italy, and his position was
strengthened by the marriage of his daughter Costanza to Peter,
son of King James of Aragon. But he met with opposition from
the turbulent nobility and the clergy, who had been deprived
of many privileges, and he failed to conciliate the communes,
which were oppressed by taxes and beginning to aspire to
autonomy. Innocent IV., in his determination to crush the
Hohenstaufens, offered the kingdom in turn to Richard, earl
of Cornwall, to Edward, son of Henry III. of England, and to
Charles of Anjou, brother of Louis IX. of France. After long
negotiations with successive popes, Charles was finally induced
by Clement IV. to come to Italy in 1265, agreeing to accept
the kingdom of the Two Sicilies as a fief of the church, and
in 1266 he marched southward with the privileges of ctartut
a crusader (see Charles L, king of Naples and Sicily).
The defection of many cities and nobles facilitated his task,
and Manfred was forced to retire on Benevento, where, on the
26th of February, owing to the treachery of a part of his troops,
he was defeated and killed. As a result of this victory Charles
was soon master of almost the whole kingdom, and he entered
Naples, which now became the capital instead of Palermo.
He persecuted the nobles who had sided with Manfred, and
established a military despotism which proved more oppressive
than that of the Hohenstaufens had ever been. Old laws,
customs and immunities were ruthlessly swept away, the people
were ground down with taxes, and the highest positions and
finest estates conferred on French and Provencal nobles. Al-
though the southern Italians had long been ruled by foreigners,
it was the Angevin domination which thoroughly denationalized
them, and initiated that long period of corruption, decadence
and foreign slavery which only ended in the 19th century.
Invited by Sicilian malcontents and Ghibellines, Conradin
(Ital. Corradino), the last surviving Hohenstaufen, descended
into Italy in x 267 at the head of a small army collected f„„^gi^
in Germany, and he found many supporters; but
King Charles on hearing of his arrival abandoned the siege
of Lucera and came to intercept him. A battle took place
at Tagliacozzo (August 23rd, 1268), in which the Imperialists
were defeated, and Conradin himself was subsequently caught
and handed over to Charles, who had him tried for high treason
and beheaded (see Conradin). All who had assisted the un-
fortunate youth were cruelly persecuted, and the inhabitants
of Agosta put to the sword. Thus ended the power of the
Hohenstaufens. Although the picturesque figures of Manfred
and Conradin awakened sympathy among the people of the
kingdom, their authority was never really consolidated and their
German knights were hated; which facts rendered the enterprise
of another foreigner like the Angevin comparatively easy.
In Sicily, however, Charles's government soon made itself
odious by its exactions, the insolence and cruelty of the king's
French officials and favourites, the depreciation of
the currency, and the oppressive personal services, ^^ ^^,
while the nobles were incensed at the violation of Ynprn.
their feudal constitution. Just as Charles was con-
templating an expedition to the East, the Sicilians rose in revolt,
massacring the French throughout the island. The malcontents
were led by the Salemiun noble Giovanni da Procida, a friend
of the emperor Frederick and of Manfred, who had taken refuge
at the court of Peter III. of Aragon, husband of Manfred's
daughter Costanza. He had induced Peter to make good his
somewhat shadowy claims to the crown of Sicily, but while
preparations were being made for the expedition, the popular
rising known as the Sicilian Vespers, which resulted in the mass-
acre of nearly all the French in the island, broke out at Palermo
on Easter Day 1282. Peter reached Palermo in September,
and by the following month had captured Messina, the last
French stronghold. Pope Martin IV. now proclaimed a crusade
against the Aragonese, and the war continued for many years.
The Sicilian fleet under Ruggiero di Lauria defeated that of
the Angevins at Malta in X283, and X284 in the Bay of Naples,
where the king's son, Charles the Lame, was captured. Charles I.
died in 1 286, and, his heir being a prisoner, his grandson, Charles
1 84
NAPLES, KINGDOM OF
Martel (d. 1295), assumed the regency. PMer died the same
year, leaving Aragon to his son Alphonso III. and Sicily to his
son James, who was consecrated king in spite of the interdict.
The war went on uninterruptedly, for the popes prevented all
attempts to arrive at an understanding, as they were determined
that the rights of the church should be fully recognized. Charles
C htfUMO. ^^ Lam^i who had been liberated in 1288, having
renounced his rights on Sicily, was absolved from
his oath by Pope Nicholas IV., who crowned him king of
the Th'O Sicilies and excommunicated Alphonso. The latter's
successor James made peace with Boniface VIII. by renouncing
Sicily (in exchange for Sardinia and Corsica and the band of
Charles's daughter) and promising to help the Angevins to
reconquer the island. But the Sicilians, led by James's brother,
Frederick III.,* who had been governor of the island
m^ and was now proclaimed king, deternuned to resist.
The war went on with varying success, until Charles
of Valois, summoned by the pope to conduct the campaign,
landed in Sicily and, his army being decimated by disease,
made peace with Frederick at Caltabellotta (1302). The
Angevfns renounced Sicily in favour of Frederick, who was
recognized as king of Trinacria (a name adopted so as not to
mention that of Sicily), and he was to marry Leonora, daughter
of Charles of Valois; at his death the isUnd would revert to
the Angevins, but his children would receive compensation else-
where. In 1303 the pope unwillingly ratified the treaty. (See
Charles II., king of Naples and SicOy, and Faedeucx III.,
king of Sicily.)
Charies II. died in r30Q and was succeeded by his second son
Robert. (His eldest son had predeceased him, leaving a son,
j_^^ Charles Robert, or Caroberto, at this time king of
Hungary.) Robert now became leader of the Guelphs
in Italy, and war between Naples and Sicily broke out once more,
when Frederick allied himself with the emperor Heniy VII.
on his descent into Italy, and proclaimed his own son Peter
heir to the throne. Robert led or sent many devastating expedi*
tions into Sicily, and hostilities continued under King Peter
even after Frederick's death in 1337. Peter died in 134a, leaving
an infant son Louis; 'but just as Robert was preparing for
another expedition he too died in the same year. Robert had
been a capable ruler, a scholar and a friend of Petrarch, but he
lost influence as a Guelph leader owing to the rise of other power-
ful princes and republics, while in Naples itself his authority
was h'mited by the rights of a turbulent and rebellious baronage
(see Robert, king of Naples). His son Charles had died in
1328 and he was succeeded by his granddaughter Joanna,
wife of Andrew of Hungary, but the princes of the blood
j^ , and the barons stirred up trouble, and in 1345 Andrew
was assassinated by order of Catherine, widow of
Philip, son of Charles II., and of several nobles, not without
suspicion of Joanna's complicity.
Andrew's brother Louis, king of Hungary, now came to Italy
to make good his claims oh Naples and avenge the murder of
Andrew. With the help of some of the barons he drove Joanna
and her second husband, Louis of Taranto, from the kingdom,
and murdered Charles of Durazzo; but as Pope Clement refused
to recognize his claims he went back to Hungary in 1348, and
the fickle barons recalled Joanna, who returned and carried on
desultory warfare with the partisans of Louis of Hungary.
Louis of Taranto and Joanna were crowned at Naples by the
pope's legate in 1352, but Niccold Acdaiuoli, the seneschal,
became the real master of the kingdom. In 1374 Joanna made
peace with Frederick of Sicily, recognizing him as king, of
Trinacria on condition that he paid her tribute and recognized
the pope's suzerainty. She nominated Louis of Anjou her
heir, but while the latter was recogm'zed by the antipope
Clement VII., Pope Urban VI. declared Charles of Durazzo
(great-grandson of Charles 11.) king of Sicily al di qua del
Faro (i.«. of Naples). Charles conquered the kingdom and took
Joanna prisoner in 1381, and had her murdered the following
* He was the second king of that name in Sicily, but was known as
Frederick III. because he was the third son of King Peter.
year. Louis, although assist^ by Amadeus VI. of Savoy, failed
to drive out Charles, and died in 1384. Charles III. died two
years later and the kingdom was plunged into anarchy
once more, part of the barons siding with his seven-
year-old son Ladislas, and part with Louis 11. of
Anjou. The latter was crowned by the antipope Clement,
while Urban regarded both him and his rival as usurpers. On
Urban*s death in 1389 Boniface IX. crowned Ladislas . ,^ ,,
king of Naples, who by the year 1400 had expelled -
Louis and made himself master of the kingdom. In 1407 he
occupied Rome, which Gregory XII. could not hold. But
Alexander V., elected pope by the council of Pisa, turned against
Ladislas and recognized Louis. Ladislas was defeated in 14x1
and driven from Rome, but rcoccupied the city on Louis's
return to France. He died in 14 14, and was succeeded by his
sister Joanna IL (9.V.), during whose reign the kingdom ^^^^^ ^^
sank to the lowest depths of degradation. In 1415
Joanna married James of Bourbon, who kept his wife in a state
of senu-confinement, murdered her lover, Pandolfo Alopoj and
imprisoned her chief captain, Sforza; but his arrogance drove
the barons to rebellion, and they made him renoimce the royal
dignity and abandon the kingdom. The history of the next
few years is a maze of intrigues between Joanna, Sforza, Giovanni
Caracdolo, the queen's new lover, Alphonso of Aragon, whom
she adopted as her heir, and Louis III. of Anjou, whom we find
pitted against each other in every possible combination. Louis
died in 1434 and Joanna in 1435 (see Joanna II., queen of Naples).
The succession was disputed by Ren6 of Anjou and Alphonso,
but the former eventually renounced his claims and Alphonso
was recognized as king of Naples by Pope Eugenius IV. in 1443.
Under Alphonso, sumamed " the Magnanimous," Sicily was
once more united to Naples and a new era was inaugurateid, for
the king was at once a brilliant ruler, a scholar and .___
a patron of letters. He died in 1458, leaving Naples JJ^TST
to his illegitimate son Ferdinand I. (Don Ferrante), gajtoaM
and Sicily, Sardinia and Aragon to his brother John.
Ferdinand found, however, that Alphonso had not really con-
solidated his power, and he had practically to reconquer the
whole country. By 1464 he was master of the situa-
tion, in spite of the attempt of Pope Calixtus III. ^
to enforce the claims of the papacy, and that of
John of Anjou to enter into the heritage of his ancestors. In
alliance with Pope Sixtus IV. and the Milanese he waged war
on Lorenzo de' Medici in 1479; but that astute ruler, by
visiting Ferdinand in person, obtained peace on favourable
terms (1479). In 1485 the disaffection of the barons, due to
the king's harshness and the arrogance and cruelty of his son,
found vent in a revolt led by Roberto Sanseverino and Francesco
Coppola, which was crushed by means of craft and treachery.
Ferdinand died in 1494 full of forebodings as to the probable
effects of the invasion of Charles VIII. of France, and j^
was succeeded by Alphonso (see Ferdinand I., king of immtoa
Naples). The French king entered Italy in September •/csk^rfM
1495, and conquered the Neapolitan kingdom without ^'^
much diffictilty. Alphonso abdicated, his son Ferrandino and
his brother Frederick withdrew to Ischia, and only a few towns
in Apulia still held out for the Aragonese. But when the pope.
the emperor, Spain and Venice, alarmed at Charles's progress,
formed a defensive league against him, he quitted Naples, and
Ferrandino, with the help of Ferdinand II. of Spain, was able
to reoccupy his dominions. He died much regretted in 1496
and was succeeded by Frederick. The country was torn by
dvil war and brigandage, and the French continued to press
their claims; and although Louis XII. (who had succeeded
Charies VIII.) concluded a treaty with Ferdinand of Spain for
the partition of Naples, France and Spain fell out in 1502 over
the division of the spoils, and with Gonzalo de Cordoba's victory
on the Goxigliano in December 1502, the whole kingdom was
in Spanish hands.
On the death of Ferdinand in 1516, the Habsburg Charles
became king of Spain, and three years later was elected emperor
as Charles V.; in 152a he appointed John de Lannoy viceroy off
NAPLES, KINGDOM OF
i8s
Na|dc9» vliich becime boicefoith an integral part of the Spanish
doauttioiia. The old divisions of nobility, clergy and people were
t^^g^ maintained and their mutual rivalry encouraged; the
T^tr^i nobles were won over by titles and by the splendour
of the viceregal court, but many persons of low birth
***' who showed talent were raised to high positions.
The vkeioy was assisted by the Collateral Council and the Sacred
College of Santa Chiara, composed of Spanish and Italian
members, and there was an armed force of the two nationalities.
Spanish rule on the whole was oppressive and tyrannical, and
based solely on the idea that the dependencies must pay tribute
to the dominant kingdom. During the rule of Don Pedro de
Toledo (one of the best viceroys) Naples became fthe centre of
a Protestant movement which spread to the rest of Italy, but
was ultimately crushed by the Inquisition. In Sicily Spanish
rule was less absolute, for the island had not been conquered,
but had given itself over volunUrily to the Aragonese; and the
parliament, formed by the three 6raca or orders (the mUitatt
consisting of the nobiUty, the eccUsiastico, of the clergy, and the
demamiale, of the communes), imposed certain limitations on
the viceroy, who had to play off the three bracci against each
other. But the oppressive character of the government provoked
several rebellions. In 1598 an insurrection, headed
by the philosopher Tommaso Campanella, broke out
in Calabria, and was crushed with great severity.
Id i647t during the viceroyalty of the marquis de Los Leres in
Sidly, bread riots in Palermo became a veritable revolution,
and the people, led by the goldsmith Giovanni d' Aleasio, drove
the viceroy from the city; but the nobles, fearing for their
privileges, took the viceroy's part and turned the people against
d' Ale^o, who was murdered, and Los Leres returned. On the
7tb of July 1647, tumults occurred at Naples in consequence of
a new fruit tax. and the viceroy. Count d' Arcos, was forced
to take refuge in the Castelnuovo. The populace, led by an
riiiMfcih ^^^^ fisherman, known as Masaniello (9.V.), obtained
arms, erected barricades, and, while professing loyalty
to the king of Spain, demanded the removal of the oppressive
taxes and murdered many of the noUes. D' Arcos came to terms
with Masaniello; but in -spite of this, and of the assassination
of Masaniello, whose arrogance and ferocity had made him
unpopular, the disturbances continued, and again the viceroy
had to retire to Castelnuovo and make concessions. Even the
sirival of reinforcements from Spain faOed to restore order, and
the new popular leader, Gennaro Annese, now sought assistance
from the French, and invited the duke of Guise to come to Naples.
The duke came with some soldiers and ships, but failed to effect
anything; and after the recall of d' Arcos the new viceroy,
Cbont d'Ognate, having come to an arrangement with Annese
and got Guise out of the city, proceeded to punish all who had
taken part in the disturbances, and had Annese and a number
of others beheaded.
In 1670 disorders broke out at Messina. They began with a
riot be t w e e n the nobles and the burghers, but ended in an anti-
Spanish movement; and while the inhabitanU called
JSlSHmat ^ ^^ French, the Spaniards, who could not crush the
niiBf, rising, called in the Dutch. Louis XIV. sent a fleet
under the due de Vivonne to Sicily, which defeated
the Dutch under de Ruyter in 1676. But at the peace of
Nijmwqien (1679) Louis treacherously abandoned the Messinese,
who suffered cruel penecutiOD at the hands of the Spaniards
and lost all their privileges. An anti-Spanish conspiracy of
Neapolitan nobles, led by Macchia, with the object of prodaiming
the aiefaduke Chailes of Austria king of Naples, was discovered;
but in 1707 an Austrian army conquered the kingdom, and
Spanish rule caiae to an end after 303 years, during which it had
succeeded in thoroughly demoralizing the people.
In Sidly the Spaniards held their own until the peace of
Utrecht in 17x3, when the island was given over to Duke
*y_ Victor of Savoy, who assumed the title of king. In
jtj_^ 1 718 he had to hand back his new possession to
S|Mun, who, in 1720. surrendered it to Austria and gave
Saidittia to Victor Amadcus In 1733 ^^e treaty of the Escurial
between Frsnce, Spain and Savoy agahist Austria was ngned.
Don Carlos of Bourbon, son of Philip V. of Spain, easily conquered
both Naples and Sicily, and in 1738 he was recognised as king
of the Two Sicilies, S|Miin renouncing all her claims.
Charles was well received, for the country now was an m^ '
independent kingdom once more. With the Tuscan
Bernardo Tanucd as his minister, he introduced nuuiy useful
refortns, improved the army, which was thus able to repel an
Austrian invasion in 1744, embellished the city of Naples and
built roads. In 1759 Charles III., having succeeded to the
Spanish crown, abdicated that of the Two Sicilies in favour of his
son Ferdinand, who became Ferdinand IV. of Naples and III.
of Sicily. Being only eight years old, a regency under Tanucci
was appointed, and the young king's education was
purposely neglected by the minister, who wished to ly,
dominate him completely. The regency ended in x 767,
and the following year Ferdinand married the masterful and
ambitious Maria Carolina, daughter of the empress Maria Theresa.
She had Tanucci dismissed and set herself to the task of making
Naples a great power. With the help of John Acton, an English-
man whom she made minister in the place of Tanucci, she freed
Naples from Spanish influence and secured a rapprochement
with England and Austria.
On the outbreak of the French Revolution the king and queen
were not at first hostile to the new movement; but after the
fall of the French monarchy they became violently opposed to
it, and in 1793 joined the first coalition against France, instituting
severe persecutions against all who were remotely suspected of
French sympathies. Republicanism, however, gained ground,
especially among the aristocracy. In X796 peace with France
was concluded, but in 1798, during Napoleon's absence in Egypt
and after Nelson's victory at Aboukir, Maria Carolina induced
Ferdinand to go to war with France once more. Nelson arrived
in Naples in September, where he was enthusiastically received.
The king, after a somewhat farcical occupation of Rome, which
had been evacuated by the French, hurried back to Naples as
soon as the French attacked his troops, and although the httaroni
(the lowest class of the people) were devoted to the dynasty
and ready to defend it, he fled with the court to Palermo in a
panic on board Nelson's ships. The wildest confusion prevailed,
and the Uutttroni massacred numbers of persons suspected of
republican sympathies, while the nobility and the educated
classes, finding themselves abandoned by their king in this
cowardly maimer, began to contemplate a republic under French
auspices as their only means of salvation from anarchy. In
January 1799 the French under Championnet reached
Naples, but the AisMfimt, ill-armed and ill-disciplined J^^fff^
as they were, resisted the enemy with desperate nspIkb
courage, and it was not until the 20th that the invaders mad itm
were masters of the city. On the a3rd the Partheno- P*'*^—'
paean republic was proclaimed. The Republicans were ^H^Hoc,
men of culture and high character, but doctrinaire and
unpractical, and they knew very Uttle of the lower classes of
their own country. The government soon found itself in financial
difficulties, owing to Championnet 's demands for money; it
failed to organize the army, and met with scant success in its
attempts to "democratize " the provinces. Meanwhile the court
at Palermo sent Cardinal Fabrizio Ruffo, a wealthy ^^^
and influential prelate, to Calabria, to organize a n„n!
counter-revolution. He succeeded beyond expectation, mad an
and with his "Christian army of the Holy Faith" *JJV
(Esercito Cristiano (Mia Santa Fede), consisting of **^
brigands, convicts, peasants and some soldiers, marched through
the kingdom plundering, burning and massacring. An English
squadron approached Naples and occupied the island of Procida,
but after a few engagements with the Republican fleet com-
manded by Caracciolo, an ex-officer in the Bourbon navy, it was
recalled to Palermo, as the Franco-Spanish fleet was expected.
Ruffo, with the addition of some Russian and Turkish allies,
n'-^w marched on the capital, whence the French, save for a
small force under M6jean, withdrew. The scattered Republican
deucbments were defeated, only Naples and Pescara holding
i86
NAPLES, KINGDOM OF
out. On the 13th of June Ruffo and his hordes reached Naples,
and after a desperate battle at the Ponte della Maddalena,
entered the city. For weeks the Calabresi and lauaroni continued
to pillage and massacre, and Ruffo was unable, even if willing,
to restrain them. But the Royalists were not masters of the city,
for the French in Castel Sant' Elmo and the Republicans in
Castelnuovo and Castel dell' Uovo still held out and bombarded
the streets, while the Franco-Spanish fleet might arrive at any
moment. Consequently Ruffo was desperately anxioxis to come
to terms with the Republicans for the evacuation of the castles,
in spite of the queen's orders to make no terms with the rebels.
After some negotiation an armistice was concluded and a capitu-
lation agreed upon, whereby the castles were to be evacuated,
the hostages liberated and the garrisons free to remain in Naples
unmolested or to sail for Toulon.
While the vessels were being prepared for the voyage to
Toulon all the hosuges in the castles were liberated save four;
^. , but on the a4th of June Nelson arrived with his fleci.
and on hearing of the capitulation he refused to
recognise it save in so far as it concerned the French.
Ruffo indignantly declared that once the treaty was signed,
not only by himself but by the Russian and Turkish commandants
and by the British captain Foote, it must be respected, and on
Nelson's refusal he said that he would not help him to capture
the castles. On the 26th Nelson changed his attitude and
authorized Sir William Hamilton, the British minister, to inform
the cardinal that he (Nelson) would do nothing to break the
armistice; while Captains Bell and Troubridge wrote that they
had Nelson's authority to state that the latter would not oppose
the embarcation of the Republicans. Although these expressions
were equivocal, the Republicans were satisfied and embarked
on the vessels prepared for them. But on the 38th Nelson
received despatches from the court (in reply to his own), in conse-
quence of which he had the vessels brought under the guns of his
ships, and many of the Republicans were arrested. Caracciolo,
who had been caught whilst attempting to escape from Naples,
was tried by a court-martial of Royalist officers under Nelson's
auspices on board the admiral's flagship, condemned to death
and hanged at the yard arm. For the part played by Nelson
in these transactions see the articles CABAcaoLO and Nelson.
On the 8th of July, King Ferdinand arrived from Palermo,
and the state trials, conducted in the most arbitrary fashion,
resulted in wholesale butchery; hundreds of persons
^ were executed, including some of the best men in the
country, such as the philosopher Mario Pagano, the
scientist Cirillo, Manthon^, the minister of war under the re-
public, Massa, the defender of Castel dell' Uovo, and Ettore
Caraffa, the defender of Pescara, who had been captured by
treachery, while thousands of others were immured in horrible
dungeons or exiled.
War with France continued until March x8ox, when peace
was made, and after the peace of Amiens in 1802 the court
returned to Naples, where it was well received. But when the
European war broke out again in the following year. Napoleon
(then first consul) became very exacting in his demands on
King Ferdinand, who consequently played a double game,
appearing to accede to these demands while negotiating with
England. After Austerliu Napoleon revenged himself by de-
claring that " the Bourbon dynasty had ceased to reign," and
sent an army under his brother Joseph to occupy the kingdom.
Ferdinand and Maria Carolina fled to Palermo in January
1805; in February 1806 Joseph Bonaparte entered Naples
as king. A cultivated, well-meaning, not very in-
^ telligent man, he introduced many useful reforms on
a basis of benevolent despotism, abolished feudalism
and built roads, but the taxes and forced contributions which
he levied proved very burdensome. Joseph's authority did not
exist throughout a large part of the kingdom, where royalist
risings, led by brigand chiefs, maintained a state of anarchy,
and a 'British force under Sir John Stuart, which landed in
Calabria from Sicily, defeated the French at Maida (July 6th,
y8o6). Both the French and the royalisU committed atrocities,
and many conspirators in Naples were tried by the French
State courts and shot.
In 1808 Napoleon conferred the crown of Spain on Joseph,
and appointed Joachim Murat king of Naples. Murat continued
Joseph's reforms, swept away many old abuses and.'
reorganized the army; and although he introduced
the French codes and conferred many appointments
and estates on Frenchmen, his administration was more or less
native, and he favoured the abler Neapolitans. His attempts
to attack the English in Sicily ended disastrously, but he succeeded
in crushing brigandage in Calabria by means of General Manhcs,
who, however, had to resort to methods of ferocity in order to
do so. The king, owing to his charm of manner, his handsome
face, and his brilliant personality, gained many sympathies,
and began to aspire to absolute independence. He gradually
became estranged from Napoleon, and although he followed
him to Russia and afterwards took part in the German campaign,
he secretly opened negotiations with Austria and Great Britain.
In January 1814 he signed a treaty with Austria, each power
guaranteeing the dominions of the other, while Sicily was to
be. left to Ferdinand. The following month he proclaimed
his separation from Napoleon and marched against Eugene
Beauharnais, the French viceroy of Lombardy. But no important
engagements took place, and when Napoleon escaped from Elba,
Mural suddenly returned to the allegiance of his old chief. He
marched at the head of JStOOo men into northern Italy, and
from Rimini issued his famous proclamation in favour of Italian
independence, which at the time fell on deaf ean (March 30th.
181 5). He was subsequently defeated by the Austrians several
times and forced to retreat, and on the i8th of May he sailed from
Naples for France (see Murat, Joachim}. Generals Guglielmo
Pepe and Carrascosa now concluded a treaty with the Austrians
at Casalanza on favourable terms, and on the 23rd the Aostrians
entered Naples to restore Bourbon rule.
Ferdinand and Maria Carolina had continued to reign in Sicily,
where the extravagance of the court and the odious Neapolitan
system of police espionage rendered their presence
a burden instead of a blessing to the island. The king ^,^^„,
obtained a subsidy from Great Britain and allowed laSkOr,
British troops to occupy Messina and Agosta, so that
they might operate against the French on the mainland. A
bitter conflict broke out between the court and the parliament,
and the British minister. Lord William Bentinck, favoured the
opposition, forced Ferdinand to resign his authority and appoint
his son regent and introduced many valuable reforms. The
queen perpetually intrigued against Bentinck, and tw
even negotiated with the French, but in 181 2 a more P^fc*
liberal constitution on British lines was introduced, and ^Jj^jf^^
a Liberal ministry under the princes of Castelnuovo
and Belmonte appointed, while the queen was exiled in the
following year. But after the fall of Napoleon Sicily ceased to
have any importance for Great Britain, and Bentinck, whose
memory is still cherished in the island, departed in 1814.
Ferdinand succeeded in getting a reactionary ministry appointed,
and dissolved parliament in May 1815. after concluding a treaty
with Austria— now freed by Murat 's defection from her engage-
ments with him— for the recovery of his mainland dominions
by means of an Austrian army paid for by himself. On the
gth of June Ferdinand re-entered Naples and bound r^*
himself in a second treaty with Austria not to introduce fMi»r»>
a constitutional government;* but at first he abstained ******
from persecution and received many of Murat's old "'^■••
officers into his army in accordance with the treaty of Casalanza.
In October 1815 Murat, believing that he still had a strong
party in the kingdom, landed with a few companions at Pizao
* The secret article of the treaty of June 12. 1815. runs as follows:
*• H.M. the King of the Two Sicilies, in re-esublishing the govern-
ment of the kingdom. uHll not agree to any changes irreconcilable
either with the ancient institutions of the. monarchy or with the
principles adopted by H.I. and R. Austrian Majesty for the internal
r^ime of his Italian provinces." It is to be noted that this did not
involve the obligation of interfering with the ancient constitution ol
Sicily, which Meiternich desired to see remain undisturbed.
NAPLES, KINGDOM OF
187
di Calabria, but was immcdiatdy captured by the police and the
peasaotry, court-maitialled and shot.
Ferdinand to some extent maintained French legislation,
but otherwise reorganized the state with Mettcmich*s approval
on Bourbon lines; he proclaimed himself king of the Two Sicilies
at the congress of Vienna, incorporating Naples and Sicily into
one state, and abolished the Sicilian constitution (December
18 16}. In 1818 he concluded a Concordat with the Church,
by which the latter renounced its suzerainty over the kingdom,
but was given control over education, the censorship and many
other privileges. But there was much disaffection throughout
the country, and the Carbonarist lodges, founded in
^** Murat's time with the object of freeing the country
^^ggt, from foreign rule and obtaining a constitution, had
made much progress (see Carbonari). The army
indeed was honeycombed with Carbonari, and General Pepe,
himself a member of the society, organized them on a military
basis. In July 1820 a military mutiny broke out at Caserta,
kd by two officers and a priest, the mutineers demanding a
constitution although professing loyalty to the king. Ferdinand,
feeling himself helpless to resist, acceded to the demand, appointed
a ministry composed of Murat's old adherents, and entrusted
his authority to his son. The ultra-democratic single-chamber
Spanish constitution of 181 2 was introduced, but proved utterly
unworkable. The new government's first difficulty was Sicily,
where the people had risen in rebellion demanding their own
charter of 1812, and although the Neapolitan troops quelled
the outbreak with much bloodshed the division proved fatal
to the prospects of liberty.
The outbreak of the military rising in Naples, following so
slx^y on that in Spain, seriously alarmed the powers responsible
for the preservation of the peace in Europe. The position was
complicated by the somewhat enigmatic attitude of Russia;
for the Neapolitan Liberals, with many of whom Count Capo
d'Istria, the Rusuan minister of foreign affairs, had been on
friendly terms, proclaimed that they had the " moral support "
of the tsar. This idea, above all, it was necessary for Austria
to destroy once for all. The diplomatic negotiations are discussed
in the article on the history of Europe (q.v.). Here it suffices to
say that these issued in the congress of Troppau (October 1820)
and the proclamation of the famous Troppau protocol affirming
the ri^tof collective'* Europe " to interfere to crush dangerous
internal revolutions. Both France and Great Britain protested
against the general principle laid down in this instrument; but
neither of them approved of the Neapolitan revolution, and
neither of them was opposed to an intervention in Naples,
provided this were carried out, not on the ground of a supposed
right of Cur(^)e to interfere, but by Austria for Austrian ends.
By general consent King Ferdinand was invited to attend the
adjourned congress, fixed to meet at Laibach in the spring of
the following year. Under the new constitution, the permission
of parliament was necessary before the king could leave Neapolitan
territocy; but this was weakly granted, after Ferdinand had
swofn the most solemn oaths to maintain the constitution. He
WIS scarcely beyond the frontiers, however, before he repudiated
his engagements, as exacted by force. A cynidsm so unblushing
shocked even the seasoned diplomats of the congress, who would
have preferred that the king should have made a decent show
of yUMing to force. The result was, however, that the powers
authorized Austria to march an army into Naples to restore
the aotocratic monarchy. This decision was notified to the
Neapolitan government by Russia, Pnissia and Austria — Great
Britain and France maintaining a strict neutrality. Meanwhile
the YCgent, in spile of his declaration that he would lead the
Neapolitan army against the invader, was secretly undermining
the position of the government , and there were divisions of opinion
In the ranks of the Liberals themselves. General Pepe
was sent to the frontier at the head of 8000 men, but
was completely defeated by the Austrians at Rieti
on the 7th of March. On the 23rd the Austrians
entered Naples, followed soon afterwards by the king; every
vestige of freedom was suppressed, the reactionary Medici
rw
ministry appointed, and the inevitable state trials instituted
with the usual harvest of executions and imprisonment Pepe
saved himself by flight. (See Fekdimand IV., king of Naples.)
Ferdinand died in 1825, and his son and successor, Francis I.,
an unbridled libertine, at once threw off the mask of Liberalism;
the corrupt k)n of the administration under Medid -. ,_^^
a^umed unheard-of proportions, and every office was
openly sold. The Austrian occupation lasted until 1827, having
cost the sute 310,000,000 lire; but in the meanwhile the
Swiss Guard had been established as a further protection for
autocracy, and the revolutionary outbreak at Bosco on the
Cilento was suppressed with the usual cruelty. (See FsANas
I. , king of the Two Sicilies.)
Francis died in 1830 and was succeeded by his son, Ferdinand
XL, who at first awoke hopes that the conditions of the country
would be improved. He was not devoid of good ^^^^
qualities, and took an interest in the material wdHfare n^
of the country, but he was narrow-minded, ignorant
and bigoted; he made the administration more efficient, and re-
organized the army which became purged of Carbonarism, and
such Carbonarist plots as there were in the 'thirties were not
severely punished. Ferdinand was impatient of Austrian in-
fluence, but on the death of his first wife, Cristina of Savoy, he
married Maria Theresa of Austria, who encouraged him in his
reactionary tendencies and brought him closer to Austria. An
outbreak of cholera in 1837 led to disorders in Sicily, which,
having assumed a political character, were repressed by Del
Caretto with great severity. The government tended to become
more and more autocratic and to rely wholly on the all-poweriul
police, the spies and the priests; and, although the king showed
some independence in foreign affairs, his popularity waned; the
desire for a constitution was by no means dead, and the survivors
of the old Carbonari gathered round Carlo Poerio, while the
Ciovane Italia sodety (independent of Mazzini), led by Benedetto
Musolino, took as its motto " Unity, Liberty and Independence."
But as yet the idea of imity made but little headway, for southern
Italy was too widely separated by geographical conditions,
history, tradition and ctistom from the rest of the peninsula,
and the majority of the Liberals— themselves a minority of the
population — merdy aspired to a constitutional Neapolitan
monarchy, possibly forming part of a confederation of Italian
states. The attempt of the Giavane Italia to bring about a
general revolution in 1843 only resulted in a few sporadic out-
breaks easily crushed. The following year the Venetian brothers
Bandiera, acting in concert with Mazzini, landed in
Calabria, believing the whole country to be in a state J^^
of revolt; they met with little local support and were
quickly captured and shot, but thdr death aroused
much sympathy, and the whole episode was highly significant
as being the first attempt made by north Italians to promote
revolution in the south. In 1847 a pamphlet by L. Settembrini,
entitled " A Protest of the People of the Two Sicilies," appeared
anonymously and created a deep impression as a most scathing
indictment of the government; and at the same time the
election of Pius IX., a pope who was believed to be a Libera],
caused widespread exdtement throughout Italy. Conspiracy
was now rife both in Naples and Sicily, but as yet there was no
idea of deposing the king. Many persons were arrested, including
Carlo Poerio, who, however, continued to direct the agitation.
On the 1 2th of January 1848 a revolution under the leadership
of Ruggiero Settimo broke out at Palermo to the cry of " in-
dependence or the. 18 1 2 constitution," and by the end
of February the whole island, with the exception of ?*V^
Messina, was in the hands of the revolutionists. These taskity.
events were followed by demonstrations at Naples;
the king summoned a meeting of generals and members of his
family on the 27th of January, and on the advice of Filangieri
iq.v.), who said that the army was not to be relied upon, he
dismissed the Pietracatdla ministry and Del Caretto, and
summoned the duke of Serracapriola to form another administra-
tion. On the 28th he granted the constitution, artd the Liberals
Bozzelli and Carlo Poerio afterwards joined the cabinet. The
i88
NAPLES, KINGDOM OF
TIftiih
popular demand was now that Naples should assist the Lombards
in their revolt against Austria, for a feeling of Italian solidarity
Th9 ^^ growing up. The ministry of Carlo Troya sue-
eoaatnam ceeded to that of Serracapriola, and after the parlia-
Uoaoi mentary elections, in which many extreme Radicals
1848. ^^j.^ elected, Ferdinand declared war against Austria
(April 7th, 1848). After considerable delay a Neapolitan army
under General Pcpe marched towards Lombardy in May, while
the fleet sailed for Venice. But a dispute between the king and
the parliament concerning the form of the royal oath having
arisen, a group of demagogues with criminal folly provoked
disturbances and erected barricades (May X4th). The king
refused to open parliament unless the barricades were removed,
and while the moderate elements attempted to bring about
conciliation, the ministry acted with great weakness. A few
shots were fired— it is not known who fired first— on
the 15th, the Swiss regiments stormed the barricades
and street fighting lasted all day. By the evening the
Swiss and the royalists were masters of the situation. A new
ministry under Prince Cariati was appointed. Parliament was
dissolved, the National Guard disbanded and the army recalled
from the Po. Fresh elections were held and the new parliament
met on the xsth of July, but it had the king, the army and the
mob against it, and anti-constitutionalist demonstrations became
frequent. After a brief session it was prorogued to the ist of
February 1849, and when it met on that date a deadlock between
king and parliament occurred. The Austrian victories in Lom-
bardy had strengthened the court party, or Camarilla as it was
called, and on the 13th of March the assembly was again dissolved,
and never summoned again. The king was at Gaeta, whither
the grand-duke of Tuscany and Pius IX. had also repaired to
escape from their rebellious subjects, and the city became the
headquarters of Italian reaction.
In Sicily the revolutionists were purely insular in their aspira-
tions and bitterly hostile to the Neapolitans, and the attempts
Sktty. ^^ conciliation, although favoured by Lord Minto,
failed, for Naples wanted one constitution and one
paHiament, whereas Sicily wanted two, with only the king in
common. The Sicilian assembly met in March x 848, and Settimo
in his inaugural speech declared that the Bourbon dynasty had
ceased to reign, that the throne was vacant and that Sicily united
her destinies to those of Italy. Settimo was elected president of
the government, but the administration was lacking in states-
manship, the treasury was empty, and nothing was done to raise
an army. After the Austrian victories King Ferdinand sent a
Neapolitan army of 30,000 men under Filangieri to subjugate
the island. The troops landed at Messina, of which the citadel
had been held by the royalists throughout, and after three days'
desperate fighting the city itself was captured and sacked.
The British and French admirals imposed a truce with a view to
conciliation, and the king offered the Sicilians the Neapolitan
constitution and a separate parliament, which they refused.
Sicilian troops were now levied throughout the island and the
chief command given to the Pole Mieroslawski, but it was too
late. Filangieri marched forward taking town after town, and
committing many atrocities. In April he reached Palermo while
the fleet appeared in the bay; tumults having broken out within
the city, the government surrendered on terms which granted
amnesty for aU except Settimo and forty-two others.
For a few months after the dissolution of the Neapolitan
parliament the government abstained from persecution, but
with the crushing of the Sicilian revolution its hands
JSmpoaum ^^^^ ^^^^'* ^"^ ^^^° ^^^ commission on the affair of
pritoma, the 15th of May had completed its labours the state
trials and arrests began. The arrest of S. Faucitano
for a demonstration at Gaeta led to the discovery of the Uniid
Ilaliana society, whose object was to free Italy from domestic
tyranny and foreign domination. Thousands of respectable
citizens were thrown into prison, such as L. Settembrini, Carlo
Poerio and Silvio Spaventa. The trials were conducted with the
most scandalous contempt of justice, and moral and physical
torture was applied to extort confessions. The abominable con-
ditions of the prisons in which the best men of the kingdom were
immured, linked to the vilest common criminals, was made
known to the world by the famous letters of \V. E. Gladstone,
which branded the Bourbon regime as " the negation of God
erected into a system of government." The merest suspicion of
unorthodox opinions, the possession of foreign newspapers, the
wearing of a beard or an anonymous denunciation, sufl!iced for
the arrest and condemnation of a man to years of imprisonment
while the attcndibili^ or persons under police surveillance Uable
to imprisonment without trial at any moment, numbered 50,000.
The remonstrances of Great Britain and France met with no
success. Ferdinand strongly resented foreign interference, and
even rejected the Austrian proposal for a league of the Italian
despots for mutual defence against external attacks and internal
disorder. In 1856 his life was unsuccessfully attempted by a
soldier, and the same year Baron Bentivegna organized a revolt
near Palermo, which was quickjy suppressed. In 1857 Carlo
Pisacane. an ex-Neapolitan officer who had taken part
in the defence of Rome, fitted out an expedition, with
Mazzini's approval, from Genoa, and landed at Sapri
in Calabria, where he hoped to raise the flag of revolution; but
the local police assbted by the peasantry attacked the band,
killing many, including Pisacane himself, and capturing most of
the rest. The following year, at the instance of Great Britain
and France, Ferdinand commuted the sentences of some of the
political prisoners to exile. (See Ferdinand II., king of the Two
Sicilies).
In Alay 1859 Ferdinand died, and was succeeded by his son,
Francis II., who came to the throne just as the Franco-Sardinian
victories in Lombardy were sounding the death-knell j.^^^^ n^
of Austrian predominance and domestic despotism in
Italy (see Italy: History). But although there was much
activity and plotting among the Liberals, there was as yet xk>
revolution. Victor Emmanuel, king of Sardinia, wrote to the
new king proposing an alliance for the division of Italy, but
Francis refused. In June part of the Swiss Guard mutinied
because the Bernese government not having renewed the conven-
tion with Naples the troops were deprived of their cantonal flag.
The mutinous regiments, however, were surrounded by loyal
troops and shot down; and this affair resulted in the disbanding
of the whole force — the last support of the autocracy. Political
amnesties were now decreed, and in September 1859 Filangieri was
made prime minister. The latter favoured the Sardinian alliance
and the granting of the constitution, and so did the king's uncle,
Leopold, count of Syracuse. But Francis rejected both proposals
and Filangieri resigned and was succeeded by A. Siatella. In
April i860 Victor Emmanuel again proposed an alliance whereby
Naples, in return for help in expelling the Austrians from
Venetia, was to receive the Marche, while Sardinia would annex
all the rest of Italy except Rome. But Francis again refused,
and in fact was negotiating with Austria and the pope for a
simultaneous invasion of Modena, Lombardy and Romagna.
In the meantime, however, events in Sicily were reaching a
crisis destined to subvert the Bourbon dynasty. The Sicilians,
unlike the Neapolitans, were thoroughly alienated from
the Bourbons, whom they detested, and after the
peace of Villafranca (July 1859) Mazzini's emissaries,
F. Crispi and R. Pilo, had been trying to organize a
rising in favour of Italian unity; and although they merely
succeeded in raising a few squadre, or armed bands, in the
mountainous districts, they persuaded Garibaldi (9.V.), without
the magic of whose personal prestige they knew nothing im-
portant could be achieved, that the revolution which he knew
to be imminent had broken out. The authorities at Palermo,
learning of a projected rising, attacked the convent of La Ganj{i&,
the headquarters of the rebels, and killed most of the inmates;
but in the meanwhile Garibaldi, whose hesitation had been
overcome, embarked on the 5th of May i860, at Quarto, near
Genoa, with 1000 picked followers on board two steamers, and
sailed for Sicily. On the xith the expedition reached Marsala
and landed without opposition. Garibaldi was somewhat coldly
received by the astonished population ; but he set forth at once for
NAPLES, KINGDOM OF
189
Sakmi, whence he issued a proclamation assuming the diaator-
ship <^ Sidly in the name of Victor Emmanuel, with Crispi as
secretary of state. He continued his march towards Palermo,
where the bulk of the 30,000 Bourbon troops were concentrated,
gathering numerous followers on the way. On the zsth he
attacked and defeated 3000 of the enemy under General Landi
ai Calatafimi; the news of this brilliant victory revived the
revolutionary agitation throughout the island, and Garibaldi
was joined by Pik> and his bands. By a cleverly devised ruse he
avoided General Colonna's force, which expected him on the
f^^f„„ Monrcale road, and entering Palermo from Misilmeri
received an enthusiastic welcome. The Bourbonists,
although they bombarded the city from the citadel and the
warships in the harbour, gradually lost ground, and after three
days' street fighting their commander, General Lanza, not
knowing that the Garibaldians had scarcely a cartridge left,
asked for and obtained a twenty-four hours' armistice (May 30th).
Garibaldi went on board the British flagship to confer with the
Neapolitan generals Letizia and Chritien; Letizia's proposal
that the municipality should make a humble petition to the
king was indignantly rejected by Garibaldi, who merely agreed
to the extension of the armistice until next day. Then he
informed the citizens by means of a proclamation of what he had
done, and declared that, knowing them to be ready to die in the
rains of their dty, he would renew hostilities on the expiration
of the armistice. Although unarmed, the people rallied to him
as one man, and Lanza became so alarmed that he asked for
an unconditional extension of the armistice, which Garibaldi
granted. The dictator now had time to collect ammunition, and
the Neapolitan government having given Lanza full powers to
treat with him, 15,000 Bourbon troops embarked for Naples on
tbt 7th of Jiuie, leaving the revolutionists masters of the situation.
The Sardinian Admiral Persano's salute of nineteen guns on the
occasion of Garibaldi's official call constituted a practical recogni-
tion of his dictatorship by the Sardinian (Piedmontese) govern-
ment. In July further reinforcements of volunteers under Cosenz
and Medici, assisted by Cavour, arrived at Palermo with a good
supply of arms furnished by subscription in northern Italy. Gari-
baldi's forces were now raised to 1 2,000 men, besides the Sicilian
fquadre. Cavour's attempt to bring about the annexation of
Saiy to Sardinia failed, for Garibaldi wished to use the island as
a basis for an invasion of the mainland. Most of the island had
DOW been evacuated by the Bourbonists, but Messina and a few
other points still held out, and when the Garibaldians advanced
eastward they encountered a force of 4000 of the enemy under
Cdhaei Bosco at Milazzo; on the 20th of July a desperate
battle took place resulting in a hard-won Garibaldian victory.
The Neapolitan government then decided on the evacuation of
the whole of Sicily except the citadel of Messina, which did not
surrender until the following year.
The news of Garibaldi's astonishing successes entirely changed
the atuation in the capital, and on the 35th of June i860 the
nt king, after consulting the ministers and the royal
wriM"T«« family, granted a constitution, and appointed A.
i""*^ Spinelli prime minister. Disorders having taken
••* place between Liberals and reactionaries, Liberio
Romano was made minister of police in the place of Aiossa.
Sidly being tost, the king directed all his efforts to save Naples;
he appealed to Great Britain and France to prevent Garibaldi
from crossing the Straits of Messina, and only just failed (for this
episode see under Lacaita, G.). Victor Emmanuel himself
wrote to Garibaldi urging him to abstain from an attack on
S^Ae%, but Garibaldi refused to obey, and on the 19th of August
be crossed with 4500 men and took Reggio by storm. He was
soon joined by the rest of his troops, 15,000 in all, and although
the Neapolitan govenmient had 30,000 men in Calabria alone, the
army collapsed before Garibaldi's advance, and the
IS'fir'*' people rose in his favour almost everywhere. Francis
^1^^^^ offoed Garibaldi a large sum of money if he would
abstain from advancing farther, and 50,000 men to
fight the Austrians and the pope; but it was too late, and on the
6tb of September the king and queen sailed for Gaeta. The
40,000 Bourbon troops between Salerno and Avellino fell back
panic-stricken, and on the 7th Garibaldi entered Naples atone,
although the city was still full of soldiers, and was received with
delirious enthusiasm. On 'the nth a part of the royalists
capitulated and the xest retired on Capua. Cavour now decided
that Sardinia must take part in the liberation of southern Italy,
for he feared that Garibaldi's followers might induce him to
proclaim the republic and attack Rome, which would have
provoked French hostility; consequently a Piedmontese army
occupied the Marche and Umbria, and entered Neapolitan
territory with Victor Emmanuel at its head. On the 1st and 2nd
of October i860 a battle was fought on the Volturno vMor'
between 20,000 Garibaldians, many of them rawi
levies, and 35,000 Bourbon troops, and although at '^^
first a Garibaldian division under Tttrr was repulsed, ^"*^
Garibaldi himself arrived in time to turn defeat into victory.
On the 26th he met Victor Emmanuel at Teano and hailed him
king of Italy, and subsequently handed over his conquests to
him. On the 3rd of November a plebiscite was taken, which
resulted in an overwhelming majority in favour of union with
Sardinia under Victor Emmanuel Garibaldi departed for his
island home at Caprera, while L.C. Farini was appointed viceroy
of Naples and M. Cordero viceroy of Sicily. The last remnant of
the Bourbon army was concentrated at Gaeta, the siege of which
was begun by Cialdini on the 5th of November; on the ~^ g^^
loth of January 1861 the French fleet, which Napoleon
IIL had sent to Gaeta to delay the inevitable fall of the
dynasty, was withdrawn at the instance of Great Britain; and
although the garrison fought bravely and the king and queen
showed considerable courage, the fortress surrendered on the
Z3th of February and the royal family departed by sea. (Sec
FsANas II., King of the. Two Sicilies.) The citadel of Messina
capitulated a month later, and Civitella del Tronto on the 21st
of March. On the i8th of February the first Italian parliament
met at Turin and proclaimed Victor Emmanuel king of Italy.
Thus Naples and Sicily ceased to be a separate political entity
and were absorbed into the united Italian kingdom.
Bibliography.— General works: F. Carta. Storia del retno delU
Due Skilie (Naples, 1848): F. Pagano, Istoria del regno d% Napoli
(Naples and Palermo. 1832. &c.) ; J. Albini, De ^estis return Neapolit.
ab Aragonia (Naples. 1588); several chapters in the Storia t<H%tica
d' Italia (Milan, 1875-1882); F. Lanzani. Storia dei comuni Italiani
. . '^ ' M , r ri|jolla. Storia detle sienorie Italiane dal 1313
al ■ . . / . . durante le preponderanu straniere, 1530-
17^ .'. -v ir.iiL.ini.-m. ^>iv^ia d" Italia dal 1789 al 1799-, G. de Castro,
SUn^ d' iiaiui iLil i/w al 1814; F. BertoUni. Storia d' Italia dal
18 i 4 ^ fSjS. For thr more recent history P. CoUetu's Storia del
retime di A'^tpoTt (Fbrcnt.e, i8a8) will be found very useful, though
noi wahdLH biai. ajid G. Pepe s Memorie (Paris, 1847) are also im-
ponanr, both authors b^^ing played an important part in the events
of iSo9-itili5 and iSj4j-i82i: N. Nisco. Cli ultimi 36 anni del
ret^.t di Napoii (Na^ile^. 1880). On the subject of the revolution
of 1 709 jnd ihf Nclaon episode there is quite a library. The docu-
mi >i . .1T1 m.>^dv i.r> Ytt ]>)und in Nelson and the Neapolitan Jacobins
(> ' r 3 ^n: i^ cv. l,ondon. 1903), edited by H. C. Gutteridge,
T hIii. ii'.n. ^here Nelson's action is defended, and a
tan in his Life of Nebon (2nd ed., London,
Historical Review for July 1899 and October
w; for the other side see C. Ciglioli. Naples
. which is impartial and well written ; F. P.
Naples (London, 1000) ; P. VHlari. "Nelson,
" {Nuove ' • •
in 1799 (London, 190^).
Badnam, Nelson at Na^ .. , , . .
Caracciolo e la Repubblica Napolitana " {Nuova Antologia, February
16 "°^->: A. Mirr-rm, ^".'1 arrmiirenii di Napoli dal i^ giugno al
900); B. Croce. Studii storict sulla rioo-
.;jfl (Rome, 1897); Frciherr von Helfert has
att ' K u$jc of whitewashing Queen Maxy Caroline
in .11 ' A.Tjfjrt AcjreirPMi iiprt Nicpri und SicUten (Vienna, 1878) and
M-iria K^roiina iws OiiertHck i\ 1. rina, 1884). while in his Fabrixio
Ritfo (It;iHan edition, FJnrtni-^. i;88«5) he gives a ro8e<oloured
pen r;ik of th^t prcbuc and hi^ I ru md bands; see also H. HQffer's
Ih^ nftipftlitaifinkt Hj-pMhhk dfi J.i'r. res 1799 ^^pzig, 1884). For a
Kencr-d nctount of the French [Hiiod see C. Aunol. La France,
J'A '-.^if^frrf, ft Nop^ri (Paris, i(^i* 1, md R. M. Tohnston, Tke Napole-
onu Empve iji Sifuih liaty (Lond. .n, £90^), both based on documents.
For the latest period see N'. \l-- ■►. u/» ultimi 36 anm del reamedi
Mt^^/l (Sipk^. 1869) ; H. R, Whii. h.)uac. The Collapse of tke Kingdom
of S\iptes (New York, 18913). an. I \i de Cesare, La Fine rf' un regno
(Citt,^ di Caftcllo, 1900)^ whktu n 1.1 ins much information but is not
alvavs accurate?. For the Briii'-h 1 m cupation of Sicily see G. Bianco.
La SiiUia durante i' accupcsiime I>fglese (Palermo. ISK>3); and foi
190
NAPOLEON I.
Sidly from 18^ to 1861, Fiancesco Cuardione's II Dominto del
Borboni in SiaUa (Turin, 1908) will be found useful. The best
account of Garibaldi's expedition is G. Trevelyan's Garibaldi and tkt
Thousand (London, 1909). (L. V.*)
NAPOLEON I. (i 769-1831), Emperor of the French. Napoleon
Bonaparte (or Buonaparte, as he almost always spelt the name
down the year 1796) was bom at Ajaccio in Corsica on the
15th of August 1769. The date of his birth has been disputed,
and certain curious facts have been cited in proof of the assertion
that he was bom on the 7th of January 1768, and that his brother
Joseph, who passed as the eldest surviving son, was in reality
his junior. Recent research has, however, explained how it came
about that a son born on the earlier date received the name
Nabulione (Napoleon). The father. Carlo Maria da Buonaparte
(Charles Marie de Bonaparte), had resolved to call his three first
sons by the names given by his great-grandfather to his sons,
namely Joseph, Napoleon and Lucien. This was done; but on
the death of the eldest (Joseph) the child first baptized Nabulion
received the name Joseph; while the third son (the second
surviving son) was called Napoleon. The baptismal register of
Ajacdo leaves no doubt as to the date of his birth as given above.
For his parents and family see Bonapakte. The father's
literary tastes, general inquisitiveness, and powers of intrigue
reappeared in Napoleon, who, however, derived from his mother
hetizia. (a descendant of the Ramolino and Pietra Santa families)
the force of will, the power of forming a quick decision and of
maintaining it against all odds, which made him so terrible an
opponent both in war and in diplomacy. The sterner strain in
the mother's nature may be traced to intermarriage with the
families of the wild interior of Corsica, where the vendetta was
the unwritten but omnipotent law of the land. The Bonapartes,
on the other hand, had long concerned themselves with legal
affairs at Ajaccio or in the coast towns of the island. They
traced their descent to ancestors who had achieved distinction
in the political life of medieval Florence and Sarzana; Francesco
Buonaparte of Sarzana migrated to Corsica early in the x6th
century. What is equally noteworthy, as explaining the
characteristics of Napoleon, is that his descent was on both
sides distinctly patrician. He once remarked that the house of
Bonaparte dated from the coup d'iUit of Bnimaire (November
'799); hut it is certain the de Buonapartes had received the
title of nobility from the senate of the republic of Genoa which,
during the x8th century, daimcd to exercise sovereignty over
Corsica.
It was in the midst of the strifes resulting from those claims
that Napoleon Bonaparte saw the light in 1 769. His compatriots
had already freed themselves from the yoke of Genoa, thanks to
Pasquale Paoli; but in 1764 that republic appealed to Louis XV.
of France for aid, and in 1 768 a bargain was stmck by which the
French government succeeded to the neariy bankmpt sovereignty
of Genoa. In the campaigns of 1768-69 the French gradually
overcame the fierce resistance of the islanders; and Paoli, after
sustaining a defeat at Ponte-Novo (9th of May 1769), fled to the
mainland, and ultimately to England. Napoleon's father at first
sided with Paoli, but after the disaster of Ponte-Novo he went
over to the conquerors, and thereafter solicited places for himself
and for his sons with a skill and persistence which led to a close
union between the Bonapartes and France. From the French
govemor of Corsica, the comte de Marbeuf, he procured many
favours, among them being the nomination of the young Napoleon
to the mih'tary school at Brienne In the east of France.
Already the boy had avowed his resolve to be a soldier. In
the large playroom of the house at Ajaccio, while the others
amused themselves with ordinary games. Napoleon delighted
most in beating a dmm and wielding a sword. His elder brother,
Joseph, a mild and dreamy boy, had to give way before him;
and it was a perception of this difference of temperament which
d^dded the father to send Joseph into the church and Napoleon
into the army. Seeing that the younger boy was almost entirely
ignorant of French, he .00k him with Joseph to the college at
Atttun at the dose of the year x 778. After spending four months
at Autun, Napoleon entered the school at Brienne in May 1779.
The pupils at Brienne, far from receiving a miliUry education,
were grounded in ordinary subjects, and in no very efficient
manner, by brethren of the order, or society, of Minims. The
moral tone of the school was low; and Napoleon afterwards
spoke with contempt of the training of the '* monks " and the
manner of life of the scholars. Perhaps his impressions were too
gloomy; his whole enthusiasm had been for the Corsicans, who
still maintained an unequal struggle against the French; he
deeply resented his father's espousal of the French cause; and
dislike of the conquerors of his native island made him morose
and solitary. Apart from dedded signs of proficiency in mathe-
matics, he showed no special ability. Languages he didiked, but
he spent much of his spare time in reading history, especially
Plutarch. The firmness of character which he displayed caused
him to be recommended in X783 for the navy by one of the
inspectors of the school; but a new inspector, who was appointed
in 1783, friistrated this plan. In October 1784 Bonaparte and
three other Briennois were authorized, by a letter signed by
Louis XVI., to proceed as gentlemen cadets to the military school
at Paris. There the education was more thorough, and the
discipline stricter, than at Brienne. Napoleon applied himself
with more zest to his studies, in the hope of speedily qualifying
himself for the artillery. In this he succeeded. As the result (3
an examination conducted in September X785 by Laplace, Bona-
parte was induded among those who entered the army without
going through an intermediate stage.
At the end of October x 785 he closed a scholastic career which
had been creditable but not brilliant. He now entered the
artillery regiment, La Fere, quartered at Valence, and went
through all the duties imposed on privates, and thereafter those
of a corporal and a sergeant. Not until January X786 did he
actually serve as junior lieutenant. A time of furlough in Corsica
from September 1 786 to September 1787 served to strengthen his
affection for his mother, and for the island which he still hoped
to free from the French yoke. The father having died of cancer
at Montpellier in 1785, Napoleon felt added responsilHlites, which
he zealously discharged. In order to push forward a claim which
Letizia urged on the French government, he proceeded to Paris
in September x 787, and toyed for a time with the pleasures of the
Palais Royal, but failed to make good the family claim. After
gaining a further extension of leave of absence from his regiment
he rctumed to Ajacdo and spent six months more in the midst
of family and political affairs. Rejoining his regiment, then in
the garrison at Auzonne, after a fturlough of twenty-one months,
the young officer went through a time of much privation,
brightened only by the study of history and cognate subjects.
Many of the notes and essays written by him at Auxonne bear
witness to his indomitable resolve to master all the details of his
profession and the chief facts relating to peoples who had struggled
successfully to achieve their liberation. Enthusiasm for Corsica
was a leading motive prompting him to this prolonged exertion.
His notes on English history (down to the time of the revolution
of x688) were especially detailed. Of Cromwell he wrote:
" Courageous, clever, deceitful, dissimulating, his eariy principles
of lofty republicanism yielded to the devouring flames of his
ambition; and, having tasted the sweets of power, he aspired to
the pleasure of reigning alone." At Auxonne, as previously at
Valence, Napoleon commanded a small detachment of troops
sent to put down disturbances In neighbouring towns, and carried
but his orders unflinchingly. To this period belongs his first
cmde literary effort, a polemic against a Gcnevese pastor wbo
had criticized Rousseau.
In the latter part of his stay at Aukonne (June 1788-
September 1 789) occurred the first events of the Revolution which
was destined to mould anew his Ideas and his career. But his
preoccupation about Corsica, the privations to which he and his
family were then exposed, and his bad health, left him little
energy to expend on purely French affairs. He read much of the
pamphlet literature then flooding the country, but Le still pre-
f erred the mooe general studies in history and literature, Plutarch,
Caesar, Corneille, Voltaire and Rousseau bdng his favourite
authors. The plea of the last named on behalf of Corsica served
NAPOLEON L
191
to enSst the sympathy of Napoleoii in his wider specoUtioiift,
and to helped to bring about that mental transfonnation which
merged Buonaparte the Corsican in Bonaparte the Jacobin
and Napoleon the First Consul and Emperor.
Jamify influences also played their part in this transformation.
On proceeding to Ajacdo in September x 789 for another furlough,
he found his brother Joseph enthusiastic in the democratic
cause and acting as secretaiy of the local political dub. Napoleon
seconded his efforts, and soon they had the help of the third
brother, Laden, who proved to be most eager and eloquent.
Thanks to the exertions of Saliceti, one of the two deputies sent
by the tiers tiat of Corsica to the National Assembly of France,
that body, on the 30th of November 1789, dedared the isUmd to
be an intq^ral part of the kingdom with right to partidpate in
aQ the reforms then being decreed. This event dedded Napoleon
to give his adhesion to the French or democratic party; and
who, in July X790, Paoli returned from exile in Enghmd (receiv-
ing <» Ids way the honours of the sitting by the National
Assembly) the claims of nationality and democracy seemed to
be kkntical, though the future course of events disappointed
these hopes. Shortly before returning to his regiment in the
caiiy weeks of 1791 he indited a letter inveighing in violent
terms against Matteo Buttafuoco, deputy for the Corsican
mMesse in the National Assembly of France, as having betrayed
the cause of insular liberty m 1768 and as plotting against it
The ei^Kriences of Bonaparte at Auzonne during his second
^y tn garrison were again depressing. With him in his poorly
fonished lodgings was Ix>uis Bonaparte, the fourth surviving
9QB, whom he carefyUy educated and for whom he predicted a
brilliant future. For the present their means were very scanty,
and, as the ardent royalism of his brother officers limited his
lodal circle, he plunged into work with the same ardour as before,
frequently studying fourteen or fifteen hours a day. Then it
vaa, or peihaps at a slightly later date, that he became interested
m the rdatums subsisting between political sdencc and war. From
UEsprii des his of Montesquieu he learnt suggestive thoughts
like the following: "L'objet de la guerre, c'est la victoire;
cdm de la victoire, la conquete; celui de la conqu£te, I'occupa-
tioo.'* Machiavelli taxight him the need of speed, decision
and unity of command, in war. From the TraiU de Utdique
(1772) of Guibert he caught a glimpse of the power which a
patriotic and fuUy armed nation might gain amidst the feeble
and in-organised governments of that age.
Extcnial events served to unite him more closdy to France.
The reorganization of the artillery, which took place in the spring
of 1791, brought Bonaparte to the rank of lieutenant in the
regiment of Grenoble, then stationed at Valence. He left the
ngonent La F^ with regret on the X4th of June X79X; but at
Valence he renewed fonner friendships and plunged into politics
with greater ardour. Most of his colleagues refused to take
the oath of obedience to the Constituent Assembly, after the
attempted escape of Louis XVI. to the eastern frontier at mid-
somxncr. Bonajiarte took the oath on the 4th of July, but said
later that the Assembly ought to have banished the king and
ptodaimed a regency for Louis XVII. In general, however,
his views at that time were republican; he bdonged to the club
of Frknds of the Constitution at Valence, spoke there with much
acceptance, and was appointed librarian to the club.
At Vakfnce also he wrote an essay for a prize instituted by
hb fxiend and literary adviser, Raynal, at the academy of
Lyook. The subject was " What truths and. sentiments is it
most important to inculcate to men for thdr happiness?"
Bonaparte's essay bore signs of study of Rousseau and of the
calt of Lycurgus which was coming into vogue. The Spartans
were happy, said the writer, because they had plenty of good,
suitable clothing and lodging, robust women, and were able to
meet their requirements both physical and mental. Men should
bve according to the laws and dictates of nature, not forgetting
the claims of reason and sentiment. The latter part of the
essay is remarkable for its fervi.d presentment of the charms of
scenery and for vigorous declamation against the follies and
crimes of ambitloiis men. The judges at Lyons pUced it
fifteenth in order of merit among the sixteen essays sent in.
Thanks to the friendly intervention of the marUhal du camp,
baron Duteil, Bonaparte once more gained leave of absence
for three months and reached Corsica in September 179X. Opinion
there was in an ezdted state, the priests and the populace bdng
inflamed against the anti-clerical decrees of the National Assembly
of France. Paoli did little to help on the Bonapartes; and
the advancement of Joseph Bonaparte was slow. Napoleon's
admiration for the dictator also began to cool, and events began
to point to a rupture. The death of Archdeacon Luden Bona^
parte, the recognized head of the family, having phuxd property
at the disposal of the sons, they bought a house, which became
the rendezvous of the democrats and of a band of volunteers
whom they raised. In the intiigues for the command of this
body Napoleon had his rival, Morati, carried off by force —
his first coup d^tttU, The inddent led to a feud with the supporters
of Morati, among whom was Pozzo di Borgo (destined to be his
life-long enemy), and opened a breach between the Bonapartes
and PaolL Bonaparte's imperious nature also showed itself
in family nuitters, which he ruled with a high hand. No one,
said his yoimger brother Luden, liked to thwart him.
Further discords naturally arose between so masterful a
lieutenant as Bonaparte and so autocratic a chief as Paoli.
The beginnings of tlUs rupture, as well as a sharp affray between
his volunteers and the townsfolk of Ajacdo, nuty have quickened
Bonaparte's resolve to return to France in May 1792, but there
were also peisonal and family reasons for this step. Having
again exceeded his time of furlough, he was liable to the severe
penalties attaching to a deserter and an imigrS; but he saw
that the drcumstances of the time would help to enforce the
appeal for reinstatement which he resolved to make at Paris.
His surmise was correct. The Girondin ministry then in power
had brought Louis XVI. to declare war against Austria (loth
of April X792) and against Sardinia (xsth of May 1793). The
lack of trained officers was such as to render the employment
and advancement of Bonaparte probable in the near future,
and on the 30th of August, Servan, the minister for war, issued
an order appointing him to be captain in his regiment and to
recdve arrears of pay. During this stay at Paris he witnessed
some of the great "days" of the Revolution; but the sad
plight of his sister, Marianna Elisa, on the dissolution of the
convent of St Cyr, where she was being educated, compelled
him to escort her back to Corsica shortly after the September
massacres.
His last time of furlough in Corsica is remarkable for the
failure of the expedition in which he and his volunteers took
part, against la Maddalena, a small island off the coast of
Sardinia. The breach between Paoli and the Bonapartes now
rapidly widened, the latter having now definitely espoused the
cause of the French republic, while Paoli, especially after the
execution of Louis XVI., repudiated all thought of political
connexion with the regiddes. Ultimately the Bonapartes had
to flee from Corsica (i ith of June X793), an event which clinched
Napoleon's decision to identify his fortunes with those of the
French republic. His ardent democratic opinions rendered
the change natural when Ptoli and his compatriots declared for
an alliance with Enj^d.
The arrival of the Bonapartes at Toulon coindded with a time
of acute crisis in the fortunes of the republic. Having declared
war on England and Holland (xst of February 1793), and against
Spain (9th of March), France was soon girdled by foes; and the
forces of the first coalition invaded her territory at several points.
At first the utmost efforts of the republic failed to avert disaster;
for the intensely royalist district of la Vendue, together with
most of Brittany, burst into revolt, and several of the northern,
central and southern departments rose against the Jacobin rule.
The struggle which the constitutionalists and royalists of
Marseilles made against the central government furnished
Bonaparte with an occasion for writing his first important
political pamphlet, entitled " Le Souper de Beaucaire." It
purports to be a conversation at the little town of Beaucaire
192
NAPOLEON I.
between a soldier (obviously the writer himselO and three men,
citizens of Marseilles, Nimes and MontpeUier, who oppose the
Jacobinical government and hope for victory over its forces.
The officer points out the folly of such a course, and the
certainty that the republic, whose troops had triumphed over
those of Prussia and Austria, will speedily disperse the untrained
levies of Provence. The pamphlet closes with a passionate
plea for national unity.
He was now to further the cause of the republic one and
indivisible in the sphere of action. The royalists of Toulon had
admitted British and Spanish forces to share in the defence of
that stronghold (39th of August 1793). The blow to the re-
publican cause was most serious: for from Toulon as a centre
the royalists threatened to raise a general revolt throughout the
south of France, and Pitt cherished hopesof dealing a death-blow
to the Jacobins in that quarter. But fortune now brought
Bonaparte to blight those hopes. Told off to serve in the army
of Nice, he was detained by a special order of the commissioners
of the Convention, Saliceti and Gasparin, who, hearing of the
severe wound sustained by Dommartin, the commander of the
artillery of the republican forces before Toulon, ordered Bona-
parte to take his place. He arrived at the republican head-
quarters, then at Ollioules on the north-west of Toulon, on the
i6th of September; and it is noteworthy that as early as Sep-
tember loth the commissioners had seen the need of attacking
the allied fleet and had paid some attention to the headland
behind I'figuillette, which commanded both the outer and the
inner harbour. But there is no doubt that Bonaparte brought
to bear on the execution of this as yet vague and general propMal
powers of concentration and organization which ensured its
success. In particular he soon put the artillery of the besiegers
in good order. Carteaux, an ex-artist, at first held the supreme
command, but was superseded on the a^rd of October. Doppet,
the next commander, was little better fitted for the task; but
his successor, Dugommier, was a brave and experienced soldier
who appreciated the merits of Bonaparte. Under their direction
steady advance was made on the side which Bonaparte saw to
be all important; a sortie of part of the British, Spanish and
Neapolitan forces on the 30th of November was beaten back
with loss. General O'Hara, their commander, being severely
wounded and taken prisoner. On the night of the x6th*x7th
December, Dugommier, Bonaparte, Victor and Muiron headed
the storming column which forced its way into the chief battery
thrown up by the besieged on the height behind I'figuillette;
and on the next day Hood and Langara set sail, leaving the
royalists to the vengeance of the Jacobins. General du Tcil,
the younger, who took part in the siege, thus commented on
Bonaparte's services: " I have no wor^ in which to describe
the merit of Bonaparte: much science, as much intelligence and
too much bravery. ... It is for you, Ministers, to consecrate
him to the glory of the republic." At Toulon Bonaparte made
the acquaintance of men who were to win renown under his
leadership— Desaix, Junot, Marmont, Muiron, Suchet and
Victor.
It is often assumed that the fortunes of Bonaparte were made
at Toulon. This is an exaggeration. True, on the 22nd oT
December 1793 he was made general of brigade for his services;
and in February 1794 he gained the command of the artillery
in the French army about to invade Italy; but during the
preliminary work of fortification along the coast he was placed
under arrest for a time owing to his reconstruction of an old fort
at Marseilles which had been destroyed during the Revolution.
He was soon released owing to the interposition of the yoimger
Robespierre and of Saliceti. Thereafter he resided successively
at Toulon, St Tropez and Antibes, doing useful work in fortifying
the coast and using his spare time in arduous study of the science
of war. This he had already begun at Auxonne under the in-
spiring guidance of the baron du Teil. General duTeil, younger
brother of the baron, had recently published a work, L' Usage de
VartiUerie nouvelle; and it is now known that Bonaparte derived
from this work and from those of Guibert and Bourcet that lead-
ing principle, concentration of effort against one point ol the
enemy's line, which he had advocated at Toulon and which he
everywhere put in force in his campaigns.
On or about the aoth of March 1794 he arrived at the head-
quarters of the army of Italy. At Coimars, on the 2xst of May
X794, he drew up the first draft of his Italian plan of campaign
for severing the Piedmontese from their Austrian allies and foi
driving the latter out of their Italian provinces. A secret mission
to Genoa enabled him to in^>ect the pass north of Savona, and
the knowledge of the peculiarities of that district certainly helped
him in maturing his plan for an invasion of Italy, which he put
into execution in 1796. For the present he experienced a sharp
rebuff of fortune, which he met with his usual fortitude. He
was suddenly placed under arrest owing to intrigues or suspicions
of the men raised to power by the coup d'ilat of ThermidorQ-xo
(July 37-28) X794. The commissioners sent by the Convention,
Albiite, Laporte and Saliceti, suspected him of having divulged
the plan of campaign, and on the 6th of August ordered his
arrest as being the " maker of plans " for the younger Robes-
pierre. On a slighter accusation than this many had perished;
but an examination into the details of the mission of Bonaparte
to Genoa and the new instructions which arrived fit>m Carnot,
availed to procure his release on the 20th of August. It came in
time to enable him to share in the operations of the French army
against the Austrians that led to the battle of Dego, north of
Savona (21st of September), a success largely due to his skUful
combinations. But the decline in the energies of the central
government at Paris and the appointment of Schfrer as com-
mander-in-chief of the army of Italy frustrated the plans of a
vigorous offensive which Bonaparte continued to develop and
advocate.
Meanwhile he took part in an expedition fitted out in the
southern ports to drive the English from Corsica. It was a
complete failure, and for a time his prospects were overclouded.
In the spring of X795 he received an order from Paris to proceed
to la Vendue in command of an infantry brigade. He declined
on the score of ill-health, but set out for Paris in May, along with
Marmont, Junot and Louis Bonaparte. At the capital he found
affairs quickly falling back into the old ways of pleasure and
luxury. " People," he wrote, " remember the Terror only as a
dream." That he still pursued his studies of u iliUry affairs is
shown by the compilation of further plans for the Italian cam-
paign. The news of the ratification of peace with Spain brought
at once the thought that an offensive plan of campaign in Pied-
mont was thenceforth inevitable. Probably these plans gained
for him an appointment (20th of August) in the topographical
bureau of the committee of Public Safety. But, either from
weariness of the life at Paris, or from disgust at clerical work,
he sought permission to go to Turkey in order to reorganize the
artillery of the Sultan. But an inspection of his antecedents
showed the many irregularities of his conduct as officer and led
to his name being erased from the list of general officers (Sep*
tember xsth).
Again the difficulty of the republic was to be his opportunity.
The action of the Convention in perpetuating its influence by
the imposition of two-thirds of its members on the next populariy
elected councils, aroused a storm of indignation in Paris, where
the " moderate " and royalist reaction was already making
headway. The result was the massing of some 30,000 National
Guards to coerce the Convention. Confronted by this serious
danger, the Convention entrusted its defence to Barras, who
appointed the yoxmg officer to be one of the generals asMstIng
him. The vigour and tactical skill of Bonaparte contributed
very largely to the success of the troops of the Convention over
the Parisian malcontents on the famous day of 13 Vendfmiaire
(October 5th, 1795), when the defenders of the Convention,
sweeping the quajrs and streets near the Tuilleries by artillery
and musketry, soon paralysed the movement at its headquarters,
the church of St Roch. The results of this day were out of all
proportion to the comparatively small number of casualties.
With the cost of about 300 killed on either side, the Convention
crushed the royaUst or malcontent reaction, and imposed on
France a form of government which ensured the perpetuation of
NAPOLEON I.
'93
(buocncy though in a bureattcntic form— the fixBt of those
changes which paved the way to power for Bonaparte. For the
constflttiion of the jrear 1795 which inaugurated the period of
the Directory (1795-1799) see Fkehcb Revolution. Here we
oay notice that the perpetuation of the republic by means of
the armed forces tended to exalt the army at the expense of the
dvil authorities. The repetition of the same tactics by Bonaparte
to Fnictidor, 1797, served still more decidedly to tilt the balance
IB favour of the sword, with results which were to be seen at the
famp d'Hai of Brumaire 1799.
TIk events which helped the disgraced officer of Augiat 1795
to impose his will on France in November 1799 now claim our
atteoUoo. The services which he rendered to the republic at
Vead£ffliaire brought as their reward the hand of Josephine
de Bcauhamais. The influence of Barras with this fashionable
bdy helped on the match. At the outset she felt some repugnance
for the thin sallow-faced young officer, and was certainly terrified
by his ardotir and by the imperious egoism of his nature; but
she consented to the union, especially when he received the
promtseof the command of the French army of Italy. The story
that he owed this promotion solely to the influence of Barras
ami Josephine is, however, an exaggeration. It is now known that
the plans of campaign which he had drawn up for that army
had enlisted the far more influential support of Carnot on his
befaatf. In January 1796 he drew up another phtn for the
conquest of Italy, which gained the assent of the Directory.
VetMkmiaire andl the marriage with Josephine (9th of Mareh
1796) were but stepping-stones to the attainment of the end
triiich he had kq>t steadily in sight since the spring of the year
1794* For the events of this campaign in Italy see Fkencm
Reyolutiomamy Wabs. The success at the bridge of Lodl ( loth of
May) seems first to have inspired in the young general dreams of a
grander career than that of a successful general of the Revolution ;
while hb narrow escape at the bridge of Areola in November
strengthened his conviction that he was destined for a great
fntttce The means whereby he engaged the energies of the
Ita&aos on behalf of the French Republic and yet refrained
from persecuting the Roman Catholic Chureh in the way only
too common among revolutionary generals, bespoke political
insight of no ordinary kind. From every dispute which he had
with the c^.-ntral authorities at Paris he emerged victorious;
and he took care to assure his ascendancy by sending presents
to the Dhectors, large sums to the nearly bankrupt treasury
and works of art to the museums of Paris. Thus when, after the
downing victory of Rivoli (14th of January i797)» Mantua
s:irrendered and the Austrian rule in Italy for the time coUapsed,
Bonaparte was virtually the idol of the French nation, the
master of the Directory and potentially the protector of the
Holy Sec
It may be irdi to point out here the salient features in Bona-
parte's ooodwrt towards the sutcs of northern Italy. While
anottsing the enthusiasm of their inhabitants on behalf of France,
he in private spoke contemptuously of them, mercilessly sup-
presKd aU outbreaks camed by the exactions and plundering
of his army, and carefully curbed the factions which the new
poGlical Ufe soon developed. On his first entry into Milan
(lith of May 1796) he received a rapturous welcome as the
liberator of Italy from the Austrian yoke; but the instructions
of the Directory allowed him at the outset to do little more than
effect the organization of consultative committees and national
goaxds in the chief towns of Lombardy. The successful course
of the mmpsign and the large sums which he sent from Italy to
the French exchequer served to strengthen his hold over the
Directors, and his constructive policy grew more decided.
Tbcs, when the men of Reggio and Modena overthrew the rule
of their duke, be at once accorded protection to them, as also to
the inhabitants of the dties of Bologna and Ferrara when they
broke away from papal authority. He even allowed the latter
to send delegates to confer with those of the duchy at Modena,
«tth the result that a political union was decreed in a state
cafled the Cispadane Republic (i6th of October 1796). This
u due in large measure to the protection of Bonaparte.
Thf men of Lombardy, emboldened by his tadt encouragement,
prepared at the ck)se of the year to form a republic, which
assumed the name of Thmspadane, and thereafter that of
Cisalpine. Its constitution was drawn up in the spring of
1797 by committees appointed, and to some extent supervised.
by him; and he appointed the first directors, deputies and chief
administrators of the new state (July 1797). The union of these
republics took pbce on the 15th of July 1797. The bounds
of the thus enlarged Cisalpine Republic were afterwards ex-
tended eastwards to the banks of the Adige by the terms of
the treaty of Campo Formio; and in November 1797 Bonaparte
added the formerly Swiss distria of the Valteliine, north-east
of Lake Como, to its territory. Much of this work of reorganiza-
tion was carried on at the castle of Montebello, or Mombello,
near Milan, where he lived in almost vicer^al pomp (May^July,
1797)* Taking advantage of an outbreak at Genoa, he over-
threw that andent oligarchy, replaced it by a form of government
modelled on that of France (June 6th); and subsequently it
adopted the name of the Ugurian Republic.
Concurrently with these undertakings, he steadily prepared to
strengthen his position in the political life of France; and it will
be well to notice the steps by which he ensured the defeat of the
ro3raIists in France and the propping up of the directorial system
in the c^p d'etat of Fructidor 1797. The unrest in France in the
3rears X795~i797 resulted nuunly from the harshness, incom-
petence and notorious corruption of the five Directors who,
after the 13th of Vend^miaire 1795, practically governed France.
AU those who wished for peace and orderly government came by
degrees to oppose the Directors; and, sedng that the latter clung
to Jacobinical catchwords and methods, public opinion tended
to become " moderate " or even royalist. This was seen in the
elections for one-third of the 750 members composing the two
councils of the nation (the Ancient and the Council of Five
Hundred); they gave the moderates a majority alike in that
of the older deputies and in that of the younger deputies (April*
1797), and that majority elected Barth^lemy, a well-known
moderate, as the fifth member of the Directory. Carnot, the
ablest administrator, but not the strongest man, soon joined
Barth^lemy in opposing their Jacobinical colleagues— Barras,
Rewbell and LareveIlidre>L£peaux. Time was on the side of
the moderates; they succeeded in pladng General Pichegru,
already known for his tendendes towards constit utional monarchy,
in the presidential chair of the Council of Five Hundred; and
they proceeded to agitate, chiefly through the medium of a
powerful dub founded at Clichy, for the repeal of the revolu-
tionary and persecuting laws. The three Jacobinical Directors
thereupon intrigued to bring to Paris General Lazarre Hoche
and his army destined for the invasion of Ireland for the purpose
of coercing their opponents; but these, perceiving the danger,
ordered Hoche to Paris, rebuked him for bringing his army
nearer to the capitkl than was allowed by law, and dismissed
him in disgrace.
The failure of Hoche led the three Directors to fix thdr hopes
on Bonaparte. The commander of the ever-victorious army of
Italy had recently been attacked by one of the moderates in the
councils for proposing to hand over Venice to Austria. This
cession was based on political motives, which Bonaparte judged
to be of overwhelming force; and he now dedded to support
the Directors and overthrow the moderates. Prefadng his action
by a violent tirade against the royalist conspirators of Clichy,
he sent to Paris General Augereau, well known for his brusque
behaviour and demagogic Jacobinism. This officer rushed to
Paris, breathing out threats of slaughter against all royalists,
and entered into dose relations with Barras. In order to dis-
count the chances of failure, Bonaparte warned the three Directors
that Augereau was a turbulent politician, not to be trusted over-
much. Events, indeed, might readily have gone in favour of
the nKxierates had Carnot acted with decision; but he relapsed
into strange inactivity, while Barras and his military tool
prepared to coerce the majority. Before dawn of September
the 4th (x8 Fructidor) Augereau with 2000 soldiers marched
against the Tuileries, where the councils were sitting, dispersed
194
NAPOLEON I.
tbeir mOitaxy guards, arrested several deputies and seized
Barthtiemy in his bed. Camot, on receiving tunely warning,
fled from the Luxemburg palace and made h^ way to Switacr-
land. The remembrance of the fatal day of Vend^miaire 1795
perhaps helped to paralyse the majority. In any case exile, and
death in the prisons of Cayenne, now awaited the timid champions
of law and order; while parliamentary r\ile sustained a shock
from which it never recovered. The Councils aUowed the elec-
tions to be annulled in forty-nine departments of Frantt, and
re-enacted some of the laws of the period of the Terror, notably
those against non-juring priests and returned imigris. The
election of Merlin of Douay and Francois of NeufchAtel as
Directors, in place of Camot and Barthdlemy, gave to that body
a compactness which enabled it to carry matters wiih a high
hand, untO the hatred felt by Frenchmen for this souUess revival
of a moribund Jacobinism gradually endowed the Chambers
with life and strength sufficient to provoke a renewal of strife
with the Directory. These violent oscillations not only weakened
the fabric of the Republic, but brought about a situation in
which Bonaparte easily paralysed both the executive and the
legislative powers so ill co-ordinated by the constitution of the
year 1795-
In the sphere of European diplomacy, no less than in that
of French politics, the results of the coup d'etat of Fructidor
were' momentous. The Fructidorian Directors contemptuously
rejected the overtures for peace which Pitt had recently made
through the medium of Lord Malmesbury at LiUe; and they
further illustrated their desire for war and plunder by initiating
a forward policy in central Italy and Switserland which K^iened
up a new cyde of war. The coup d*itat was favourable to Bona-
parte; it ensured his hold over the Directors and enabled him
to impose his own terms of peace on Austria; above all it left
him free for the prosecution of his designs in a field of action
which now held the first place in his thoughts— the Orient.
Having rivalled the exploits of Caesar, he now longed to foUow
in the steps of Alexander the GreaL
At the time of his first view of the Adriatic (February 2797)
he noted the importance of the port of Ancona for intercourse
with the Sultan's dominions; and at that city fortune placed
in his hands Russian despatches relative to the designs of the
Tsar Paul on Malta. The incident reawakened the interest
which had early been aroused in the young Corsican by converse
with the sa9arU Volney, author of Les RuineSf ou miditation sur
Us revolutions des empires. The intercourse which he had with
Monge, the physicist and ex-minister of marine, during the
negotiations wiUi Austria, served to emphasize the orienution
of his thoughts. This explains 'the eagerness with which he now
insisted on the acquisition of the Ionian Isles by France and the
political extinction of their present possessor, Venice. That city
had given him cause for complaint, of which he made the most
unscrupulous use. Thanks to the blind complaisance of its
democrats and the timid subserviency of its once haughty
oligarchs, he became master of its fleet and arsenal (x6th of May
1797). Already, as may be seen by his letters to the Directory,
he had laid his plans for the bartering away of the Queen of the
Adriatic to Austria; and throughout the lengthy negotiations of
the summer and early autumn of 1797 which he conducted with
little interference from Paris, he adhered to his plan of gaining
the fleet and the Ionian Isles; while the house of Habsburg
was to acquire the dty itself, together with all the mainland
territories of the Republic as far west as the River Adige. In
vain did the Austrian envoy, Cobenzl, resist the cession of the
Ionian Isles to France; in vain did the Directors intervene in the
middle of September with an express order that Venice must
not be ceded to Austria, but must, along with Fritdi, be induded
m the Cisalpine Republic To the subtle tenadty of Cobenzl he
opposed a masterful violence: he checkmated the Directors,
when they sought to thwart him in this and in other directions,
by sending in once more his resignation with a letter in which he
accused them of "horrible ingratitude." He was successful
at all points. The Directors feared a rupture with the man
to whom they owed their existence; and the house of Austria
was fain to make peace with the general rather than expoie itself
to harder terms at the hands of the Directory.
The treaty of Campo Formio, signed on the i7tit of October
1797, was therefore pre-eminently the work of Bonaparte.
Already at Cherasco and Leoben he had dictated the preliininaries
of peace to the courts of Turin and Vienna quite independently
of the French Directory. At Campo Formio he showed himself
the first diplomatist of the age, and the arbiter of the destinies
of Europe. The terms were on the whole unexpectedly favour-
able to Austria. In Italy she was to acquire the Venetian lands
already named, along with Dalmatia and Venetian Istria. The
rest of the Venetian mainland (the districts betwei:n the rivers
Adige and Ticino) went to the newly constituted Cisalpine
republic, France gaining the Ionian Isles and the Venetian fleet.
The Emperor Francis renounced all claims to his former Nether*
land provinces, which had been occupied by the French since
the summer of 1794; he further ceded the Breisgau to the dis-
possessed duke of Modena, agreed to summon a congress at
Rastatt for the settlement of German affairs, and recognized the
independence of the Cisalpine republic. In secret articles the
emperor bound himself to use his influence at the congress of
Rastatt in order to procure the cession to France of the Germanic
lands west of the Rhine, while France promised to hdp him to
acquire the archbishopric of Salzburg and a strip of laad on the
eastern frontier of Bavaria.
After acting for a brief space as one of the French envoys to the
congress of RaisUtt, Napdcon returned to Paris early in December
and recdved the homage of the Directors and the ardsim of the
populace. The former sought to busy him by appointing lilm
commander-in-chief of the Army of England, the island power
l)eing now the only one which contested French supremacy in
Europe. In February x 798 he inspected the preparations for the
invasion of England tlien proceJMling at the northern porta.
He found that they were wholly inadequate, and summed up his
views in a remarkable letter to the Directory (ijrd of February),
wherdn he pointed out two possible alternatives to an invasion of
England, namdy, a conquest of the coast of the north-west of
Germany, for the cutting off of British commerce with central
Europe, or the undertaking of an expedition to the Orient which
would be equally ruinous to British trade. The inference was
inevitable that, as German affairs were about to be profitably
exploited by France in the bargains then beginning at Rastat*.
she must throw her chief energies into the Egyptian esqiedition.
One of the needful preliminaries of this enterprise had already
received his attention. In November 1797 he sent to Malta
Poussielgue, secretary of the French legation at Genoa, on busi-
ness which was ostensibly commerdal but (as he mformed the
Directory) " in reality to put the last touch to the design that
we have on that island.'* The intrigues of the French envoy
in corrupting the knights of the order of St John were completely
successful. It remained, however, to find the funds needful
for the equipment of a great expedition. Here the difficulties
were great The Directory, after the coup d'etat of Fructidor,
had acknowledged a state of bankruptcy by writing off two-
thirds of the national debt in a form which soon proimi to be a
thin disguise for repudiation. The return of » laige part of the
armed forces from Italy and Germany, where they had lived on
the liberated inhabitants, also threw new burdens on the Republic;
and it was dear that French money alone would not suffice to
fit out an armada. Again, however, the financial situation was
improved by conquest. The occupation of Rome In February
1798 enabled Berthier to send a considerable sum to Paris and
to style himself " treasurer to the chest of the Amy of England.**
The invasion of Switseriand, which Bonaparte bad of late
persistently pressed on the Directory, proved to be an equally
lucrative device, the funds in several of the cantonal treasurieft
being transferred straightway to Paris or Toukm. The ooaqucst
of north and central Italy also placed great naval reaourcca M
the disposal of France, Venice alone providing nine saO of the
line and twdve frigates (see Bonaparte's letter of the 15th of
November 1797), Genoa, Spezzia, Leghorn, CiviU Vecchia
and Ancona also supplied their quota in warships, traoaporta.
NAPOLEON r.
195
stoKs and sailocs, with the resalt that the annada was ready
for sa by the middle of May 1798. The secrecy maintained as
U) its dc^inatkm was equally remarkable. The British govern-
ment inclined to the belief thzt it was destined either for Ireland-
or for Naples. As the British fleet had abandoned the Mediter-
raacan since November 1796 and had recently been disorganized
by two Stfious mutinies, Bonaparte's plan of conquering Egypt
was by no means so rash as has sometimes been represented.
The ostensible aims of the expedition, as drawn up by him,
tad countersigned by the Directory on the 12th of April, were
the seizure of Egypt, the driving of the British from all their
possessioas in ihe East and the cutting of the Suez canaL But
apart from these public aims there were private motives which
vdgbed with Bonaparte. His relations to the Directors were
oMst strained. They feared his ability and ambition; while
be credited them with the design of poisoning him. Shortly
before bis starting, an open rupture was scarcely averted;
acdJie and his brothers aliowed tlie idea to get abroad that he
*as being virtually banished from France. It is certain, however,
that his whole heart was ii^ the expedition, which appealed to
bss love of romance and of the gigantic. His words to Joseph
Booapaite shortly before sailing are significant: " Our dreams
of a republic were youthful illusions. Since the 9th of Ihermidor,
the republican instinct has grown weaker every day. To^y
all eyes ace on me: to-morrow they may be on another. ... I
depart for the Orient with all the means of success at my disposal.
If my country needs roe, if there are additions to the number
of those who share the opinion of Talleyrand, Sieyte and Roedcrer,
that war will break out again and that it will be unsuccessful
tor France, I will return, more sure of the feeling of the nation."
He added, however, that if France waged a successful war, he
vouid remain in the Ehst, and do more damage to England
there than by mere demonstrations in the English Channel.
The Toulon fleet set sail on the 19th of May; and when the
other contingents from the ports of France and luly joined the
fiag, the armada comprised thirteen sail of the line, fourteen
frigates, many smaller warships and some three hundred trans-
pons. An interesting feature of the expedition was the presence
09 board of several seoants who were charged to examine the
antiquities and develop the resources of Egypt. The chief had
iatdy become a member of the Institute, and did his utmost
to ioflame in France that love of art and science which he had
hdped to kindle by enriching the museums of Paris with the
treanrcs of Italy. By good fortuqe the armada evaded Nelson
and arrived safely off Malta. Thanks to French intrigues, the
Koigbts of Malu offered the tamest defence of their capital.
Dun'ng the week which he spent there, Bonaparte dbplaycd
Qiarvelknxs energy in endowing the city with modem institutions;
he eves arranged the course of studies to be followed in the
iffii\-crsity. Siting sail for Egypt on the xgth of June, he
a^ain had the good fortune to elude Ndson and arrived off
Akxandfia <mi the 2nd of July. For an account of the Egyptian
aad Syrian campaigns see French REVOLirnON.\XY Waks.
Bat here we may point out the influence of the expedition on
Egypt. 00 European politics and on the fortunes of Bonaparte.
The chief direct result in the life of the Egyptian people was the
virtual destruction of the governing caste of the Mamelukes,
the Turks finding it easy to rid themselves of their surviving
chiefs and to re^esublish the authority of the Sultan. As for the
bcTsefits which Bonaparte and his savanls helped to confer on
Egypt, they soon vanished. The great canal was not begun;
Irrigation works were started but were soon gi\^Vi up. The
knen of KMber and Menou (the successors of Bonaparte)
sh&v th2t the expenditure on public works had been so reckless
thai thecolooy was virtually bankrupt at the time'of Bonaparte's
<!cp>taje; and William Hamilton, who travelled through Egypt
^ 1S02, found few traces, other than military, of the French
occupation. The indirect results, however, were incalculably
g^caK Though for the present Ihe Sultan regained his hold
>pofl Egypt, yet in reality Bonaparte set in motion forces which
cogU not be stayed until the ascendancy of one or other of the
vesters maritime powers in that land was definitely decided.
The effects of the expedition in the sphere of world-politics
were equally remarkable and more immediate. The British
government, alarmed by Bonaparte's attempt to intrigue with
Tippoo Sahib, put forth all its strength in India and destroyed
the power of that ambitious ruler. Nelson's capture of Malta
(5th of September 1800) also secured for the time a sure base
for British fleets in the Mediterranean. A Russo-Turkish fleet
wrested Corfu from the French; and the Neapolitan Bourbons,
emboldened by the news of the battle of the Nile, began hostilities
with France which preluded the war of the Second Coalition.
In the domain of science the remits of the expedition were of
unique interest. The discovery of the Rosetta Stone furnished
the key to Egyptian hieroglyphics; and archaeobgy, no less
than the more practical sciences, acknowledges its debt of grati-
tude to the man who first brought the valley of the Nile into dosr
touch with the thought of the West.
Finally, it should be noted that, amid the failure of the national
aims which the Directory and Bonaparte set forth, his own
desires received a startlingly complete fulfilment. The war of
the Second Coalitk>n having brought about the expulsion of
the French from Italy, the Directors were exposed to a storm
of indignation in France, not unmixed with contempt; and this
state of public opinion enabled the young conqueror withid a
month of his landing at Fr6jus (9th of October X799) easily to
prevail over the Directory and the elective councils of die nation.
In the !q>ring of 1798 he had judged the pear to be not ripe;
in Brumaire 1799 it came off almost at a touch.
In order to understand the sharp swing of the political pendulum
back from republicanism to autocracy which took place at
Brumaire, it is needful to remember that the virtual failure of
the Egyptian Expedition was then unknown. The news of
Bonaparte's signal victory over the Turkish army at Aboukir
aroused general rejoicings undimmed by any save the vaguest
rumours of his reverse at Acre. In the popular imagination he
seemed to be the only possible guarantor of victory abroad and
order at home. This was unjust to the many men who were
working, not without success, to raise the Republic out of its
many difficulties. Mass^na's triumph at Zurich (September
2sth-26th, 1799) paralysed the Second Coalition; and, though
the Austrians continued to make progress along the Italian
riviera, the French Republic was in little danger on that side
so long as it held Switzerland.
The internal condition of France was also not so desperate
as has often been represented. True, the Directory seemed on
the point of collapse; it had been overcome by the popularly
elected Chambers in the insignificant coup d*itaS of 30 Prairial
(i8th of June) 1799; when Larevelliere-L^peaux and Merlin
were compelled to resign. The retirement of Rewbell a short
time previously also rid France of a turbulent and corrupt
administrator. His place was now filled by Siey^ This ex-
priest, this disillusioned Jacobin and skilful spinner of cobweb
constitutions, enjoyed for a time the chief reputation in France.
His oracular reserve, personal honesty and consistency of aim
had gained him the suffrages of all who hoped to save France
from the harpies of the Directory and the violent rhetoricians
of the now reconstituted Jacobin Club. He was known to dis-
approve of the Directory both as an institution in the making of
which he had had no hand, and of its personnel, with one excep-
tion. This was natural. Tlie new Directors, Gohier and Moulin,
were honest but incapable and narrow-minded. As for Barras,
his venality and vices outweighed even his capacity for successful
intrigue. The fifth Director, Ducos, an ex-Girondin, was sure to
swim with the stream. Gearly, then, the Directory was doomed.
It was far otherwise with the Councils. A majority of the
Ancients was ready to support Siey^ and make drastic changes
in the constitution; but in the Council of Five Hundred the
prevalent feeling was democratic or even Jacobinical. The
aim of Sieyds was to perpetuate the republic, but in a bureau-
cratic or autocratic form. With this aim in vi^w he sought to
find a man possessing ability in war and probity in civil affairs,
who would act as figure-head to his long projected constitution.
For a time affairs moved as he wished. The Jacobin Club was
196
NAPOLEON I.
closed, thanks to the ability of Fouch^, the neW minister of
Police; but the Hopes of Siey^ were dashed by the death of
General Joubert, commander of the Army of Italy, at the
disastrous battle of Novi (15th of August). Thedearth of ability
among the generals left in France (KUber and Desaix were in
Egypt) was now painfully apparent. Moreau was notoriously
lethargic in civil affairs. Bemadotte, Jourdan and Augereau
had compromised themselves by close association with the
Jacobins. The soldiery had never forgiven Mass6na his pecula-
tions after the capture of Rome. One name, and one alone,
leaped to men's thoughts, that of Bonaparte.
He arrived from Egypt at the psychological moment, and his
journey from Fr^jus to Paris resembled a triumphant procession.
Nevertheless he acted with the utmost caution. A fortnight
passed before he decided to support Siey^ in effecting a change
in the constitution; and by then he had captivated all men
except Bemadotte and a few intransigeant Jacobins. Talleyrand,
Roederer, Cambac6r^ and R6al were among his special con-
fidants, his brothers Joseph and Lucien also giving useful
advice. Of the generals, Murat, Berthier, Lannes and Lederc
were those who prepared the way for the coup d'fUU. Fouch£,
pulling the wires through the police, was an invaluable helper.
The conduct of Barras was known to depend on material
considerations.
All being ready, the Ancients on the 18 Brumaire (9th of
November) decreed the transference of the sessions of both
Councils to St Cloud, on the plea of a Jacobin plot which
threatened the peace of Paris. They also placed the troops in
Paris and its neighbourhood under the command of Bonaparte.
Thereupon Sieyds and Ducos resigned office. Barras, after a cal-
culating delay, followed suit. Gohier and Moulin, on refusing
to retire, were placed under a military guard; and General
Moreau showed his political incapacity by discharging this duty,
for the benefit of Bonaparte.
Nevertheless the proceedings of St Qoud on the day following
bade fair to upset the best-laid schemes of Bonaparte and his
coadjutors. The Five Hundred, meeting in the Orangerie of
the palace, had by this time seen through the plot; and, on the
entrance of the general with four grenadiers, several deputies
rushed at him,, shook him violently, while others vehemently
demanded a decree of outlawry against the new Cromwell. He
himself lost his nerve, stammered, nearly fainted, and was dragged
out by the soldiers in a state of mental and physical collapse.
The situation was saved solely by the skill of his brother Lucien,
then president of the Council. He refused to put the vote of
outlawry, uttered a few passionate words, cast off his official
robes, declared the session at an end, and made his way out under
protection of a squad of grenadiers. The coup d*itat seemed to
have failed. In reality matters now rested with the troops out-
side. Stung to action by some words of Sieyds, Bonaparte
appealed to the troops of the lide in terms which provoked a
ready response. Imprecations uttered by Lucien against
the brigands and traitors in the pay of England decided the
grenadiers of the Council to march against the deputies whom
it was their special duty to protect. Drums beat the charge,
Murat led the way through the corridors of the palace to the
Orangerie, and levelled bayonets ended the existence of the
Council. Within the space of ten and a half years from the
summoning of the States-General at Versailles (May 1789)1
parliamentary government fell beneath the sword.
Lucien now consolidated the work of the soldier>' by procuring
from the Ancients a decree which named Bonaparte, Siey^ and
Ducos as provisional consuls, while a legislative commission was
appointed to report on necessary changes in the constitution.
Lucien also gathered together a small group of the younger
deputies to throw the cloak of legality over the events of the
day. The Rump proceeded to expel sixty-one Jacobins from
the Council of Five Hundred, adjourned its sessions until the 19th
of February 1800, and appointed a commission of twenty-five
members with power to act in the meantime. Clearly the success
of the coup (Titai of Brumaire was due in the last resort to Lucien
Bonaparte.
The Parisians received the news of the event with joy, be-
lieving that freedom was now at last to be established on a finn
basis by the man whose name was the synonym for victory in the
field and disinterestedness in civil affairs. ** People are full of
mirth " (wrote Madame Reinhard, wife of the minister for
Foreign Affairs, four days later) ** believing that they have
regained liberty." She added that all the parties except the
Jacobins were full of confidence; and that the nobles now
cherished hopes of a reaction, seeing that the reduction of the
number of rulers from five to three pointed towards monarchy.
Her comment on this delusion is instructive. Three consuls
had been appointed, she remarked, precisely in order that power
might not lie vested in the hands of one man.
Only by degrees did the events of the 19th of Brumaire stand
out in their real significance; for the new consuls, installed at
the Luxemburg palace, and somewhat later at the Tuileries,
took care that the new constitution, which they along with the
two commissions were now secretly drawing up, should not be
promulgated until Paris and France had settled down to the
ordinary life of pleasure and toil. In the meantime they won
credit by popular measures such as the abolition of forced loans
and of the objectionable habit of seizing hostages from the
districts of the west where the royalist ferment was still strongly
working.
The feelings of suprise at the clemency and moderation
with which the victors used their powers predisposed men ever>'>
where to accept their constitution. Siey^ now sketched its out-
lines in vaguely republican forms; thereupon Bonaparte freely
altered them and gave them strongly personal touches. The
theorist laid before the joint commission his prejet, the result of
five years of cogitation, only to have it ridiculed by the great
soldier. In one respect alone did it suit him. While restoring
the principle of universal suffrage, which had been partially
abrogated in 1795, Siey^ rendered this system of election
practically a nullity. The voters were to choose one-tenth of
their number (notabilities of the commune); one-tenth of these
would form the notabilities of the department ; while by a
similar.decimal sifting, the notabilities of the nation were selected.
The final and all-important act of selection from among these
men was, however, to be made by a. personage, styleo the pro-
clamaUur-ilecteur, who chose all the important functionaries, and ,
conjointly with the notabilities of the nation, chose the members
for the Council of State (wielding the chief executive powers),
the Tribunate and the Senate. The latter body would, however,
have the power to " absorb " the head of the state if he showed
signs of ambition. Against this power of absorption Bonaparte
declaimed vehemently, asserting also that the prodamaUur-
tiecUur would be a mere cochon d Vengrais. In vain did Sieyes
modify his scheme so as to provide for two consols, one holding
the chief executive powers for war, the other for peace. This
division of powers was equally distasteful to Bonaparte: he
formed a kind of cabal within the joint commission, and there
intimidated the theorist, with the result already foreseen by the
latter. Sieyes, conscious that his political mechanism would
merely winnow the air, until the profoundly able and forceful
man at his side adapted it to the work of government, relapsed
into silence; and his resignation of the office of consul, together
with that of Ducos, was announced as imminent. Bonaparte
further brushed aside a frankly democratic constitution pro-
posed by Daunou, and intimidated his opponents in the joint
commission by a threat that he would himself draft a constitution
and propose it to the people in a mass vote.
This was what really happened. They looked on helplessly
while he refashioned the scheme of Sieyes. Keeping the electoral
machinery almost unchanged (save that the lists of notables
were to be permanent) Bonaparte entirely altered the upper parts
of the constitutional pyramid reared by the philosopher. Improv-
ing upon the procedure of the Convention in Vend^miaire 1795,
Bonaparte procured the nomination of three consuls in an
article of the new con$titution\ they were Bonaparte (First
Consul), Cambac6r^ and Lebrun. The latter two, uniting with
I the two retiring consuls, Siey^ and Ducos, were to form the
NAPOLEON I.
197
rnaclni* of tbe jenate and chooie the majority among its full
complement of sixty members, the minority being thereafter
chr«en by co-optation. To the senate, thus chosen "from
above," was allotted the important task of supervising the
constitution, and of selecting, from among the notabilities of
the nation, the members of the Corps UfidatiJ and the Tribunate.
These two bodies nominally formed the legislature, the Tribunate
merely discussing the bills sent to it by an important body, the
Council of Sute; while the Corps Ugisiali/f sitting in silence,
beard them defended by councillors of state and criticized by
membeis of the Tribunate; thereupon it passed or rejected
such proposals by secret voting. Thus, the initiative in law-
making lay with the Council of State; but, as its members were
all chosen by the First Consul, it is dear that that Important
duty was vested really in him. The executive powers were
placed almost entirely in his hands, as wOl be seen by the terms of
article 41 which defined his functions: "The First Consul
promulgates the laws; he appoints and dismisvs at will the
members of the Council of State, the ministers, the ambassadors
and other leading agents serving abroad, the officers of the army
and navy, the members of local administrative bodies and the
oommissioners of government attached to the tribunals. He
names all the judges for criminal and dvil cases, other than the
juges de faix (magbtrates) and the judges of the Cow de cassation^
without having the power to discharge them."~As for the second
and third consuls, thdr functions were almost entirely con-
sclutive and formal, their opposition bdng recorded, but
having no further significance against the fiat of the First Consul.
Bonaparte's powers were subsequently extended in the years
iSos, 1804 and 1S07; but it is dear that autocracy was prac-
tically established by his own action in the secret commission
of X799. The new constitution was promulgated on the xsth of
December 1799 and in a pl6bisdte held during January x8oo it
received the support of 3,0x1,007 voters, only 1562 persons
voting against it. The fact that the three new cons^ had
oiteied npon office and set the constitutional machinery in
motioo fuUy six weeks before the completion of the pl^bisdte,
detracts somewhat from the impressiveness of the wx popidi
00 that occasion.
Bonaparte selected his ministers with much skUl. They were
Talleyrand, Foreign Affairs; Berthier, War; Abrial, Justice;
Luden Bonaparte, Inferior; Gaudin, Finance; Foriait, Navy
and Colonies. Maret became secretary of state to the consuls.
Bonaparte's selection gave general satisfaction, as also did the
fersonnd of the Coundl of State (divided Into five sections for
the chief spheres of govenunent) and of the other organs of state.
Many of the furious Terrorists now became quiet and active
coundUors or administrators, the First Consul adopting the plan
01 mohxplying " places," of overwhelming all officials with work,
and of busying the watch-dogs of the Jacobinical party by
" throwing them bones to gnaw."
In orr survey of the career of Napoleon, we have now reached
the time of the Consulate (November 1799-May X804), which
marks the xenath of his mental powers and creative activity.
Externally, and in a personal sense, the period falls into two
parts. The former of these extends to August 1802, when the
powers of the First Consul, which had been decreed for ten years,
were protonged to the duration of his life. But in another and
wider sense the Consulate has a well-defined unity; it is the
time when France gained most of her institutions and the essentials
of her machinery of government.
The reader b referred to the article FsANCS (loto amd InsHlutions)
let the fnfonnatioa res^ectiiM; the various codes dating from this
period, and to the article Concordat for the famous measure
whereby Napoleon re-estabtiahcd official relations between the state
aul the church in France. More prentnsr even than that question
«u the regulation of local government. Bonaparte's action in this
matter was so characteristsc as to deserve cioae attention. Un-
doubtedly the question was one of neat importance; for local affairs
had fallen into chaos. The aim of the constituent aaiembly in its
drpartnental system 07^1790) had been to vest local affairs
ultiiBatdy in councils «ccted bv universal suffrage, alike in the
dqwrtmeot and in the three smaller areas within it. These councils
and the eaecutive officers dependent on them soon proved to be un-
able to manage even local affairs efficiently, while they were very
lax in the collection of the national taxes unwisely entrusted to them.
Lack of central control over the virtually independent communes
(over forty thousand in number) led to a sharp rebound under the
Convention, when all matters of importance were disposed of by
commianoners appointed b^ that body. The relations between
national and Idcsl authorities fluctuated considerably during the
Directory; and it is noteworthy that the constitution of December
1 799 placed k)cal administration merdy under the control of ministers
at Paris. Everything, therefore, portended a change in this sphere,
but few persons expected a change so drastic as that which Bonaparte
now brought about in the measure of 28 PluviAse, year VIII. (16th
of February 1800). Certainly no measure marked more clearly the
abandonment of democratic ideals. The powers formerly vested in
elective bodies were now to be wieMed by prefects and sub^prefects,
nominated by the First Consul and responsible to him. The elective
councib for the department and for the arrondissement (a new area
which replaced the " districts " of the year 1795) continued to exist,
but they sat only for a fortnieht in the year and had to deal mainly
with the assessment of Uxes lor thdr respective areas. They might
be consulted by the prefect or sub-prefect; but they had no hold
over him. The municipal councils had^ slightly bugcr
** ■' " ' tintdpaloffit
relatii^ to loans, octrois, &c But the chid mui
officer, the
mayor, was chosen by the prefect. The pdice of all towns containing
more than 100,000 inhabitants was controlled by the central
government.
It u significant that Bonaparte proposed this biU (drafted in the
Council of Sute^ to the Tribunate and the Corps Legisiatif on the
very day on which it was first certainly known that France had
aooepted the new constitution. The miposition in the Tribunate
was sharp, but was paralysed by the knowledge of the fact just
named and by the lack 01 a free press. The bill passed there by
71 votes to 25; and in the Cor^s Ltfislatif by 217 to 68. The
acquiescenoe of these bodies in the transition to despotic methods
predisposed the public to a nmilar attitude of mind. At first the
sharpness of the change was not fully apparent owing to the tactful
choice of prefects made by the First Consul; but bdore long their
very extensive powers were seen to form an imporunt part of the
new machinery of autocracy. In this connexion we may note that
the duturbances, mainly royalist but sometimes Jacobinical, in
several districts of France enabled Bonaperte to propose the estab-
lishment in the troubled districts of special tribunals for the trial of
all offences tending to disturb the general peace. Here again the
Tribunate offered a vehement opposition to the measure, and in
spite of official pressure passed the bill only by a majority of dsht.
Becomine Uw on 18 PluviOse, year IX. (6th of February 1801). it
enabled the government to supersede the ordinary judicial machinery
forpolitical offences in no fewer than thirty-two departments.
Bonaparte signalised his tenure of power by no very important
devdopinents in the q>here of elementary education. This was left
to the local authorities, and led to little result. The more advanced
schools, known as icoUs centraUst were reconstituted rither as icoUs
ucondaires or as lyUes by the law of the 30th of April 1802. The
former of these were designed for the completion of the training of
the most promising pupus in the communal elementary schools,
and were left to local control or even to management w private
individuals. Far more important, however, were the lydsst where
an excellent education was impojted, semi-military in form and
under the control of government. It gained valuable powers of
patronage by founding 6400 exhibitions Jhoursts) in connexion with
the lyeUs\ 2400 of which were reserved for the sons of soldiers and
government oflidals. The same centralizing tendency is strongly
mariced in the organisation of the univernty of France, the general
principle of which was set forth in May 1806, while the detaiu were
arranged by that of March the 1 7th, 1 808. It was designed to control
all the educational insdtutions of France, both public and private;
and it did so with two exceptions, the Museum and the CoUktfi de
Franc*. The discipline was strict. Fidelity to the emperor and to
the teaching of the Roman Catholic doctrine formed part of the aims
of this comprehennve corporation. Its officers were required to
obey " the statutes of the teaching body, which have for their object
uniformity of instruction, and which tend to form for the state
dtixens attached to their religion, their prince, their country and
their family.'* These words sufficiently illustrate the essentially
political character of the institutu>n. Its organization was com-
pleted by the decree of the isth of November 1811. Napoleon's
ideas on the education of girls may be judged by this extract from
hb speech at the Council of State on the ist of March 1806: " I
do not think that we need trouble ourselves with any plan of in-
struction for youngfemales: they cannot be better brought up than
by thdr mothers. Tublic education is not suitable for them, because
they, are never called upon to act in public Manners are all in all
to them, and marriage is all they look to."
Returning to the period of the Consulate, we notice the founding
of an institution which also^ had its complete development during
the Empire, namely, the Legion of Honour (19th of May 1802).
Napoleon intended it as a protest against the spirit of equality
which pervaded revolutionary thought. In one respect the new
institution marked an enormous advance on titles of nobility, which
had been granted nearly always for warlike exploits, or merely
as a mark of the favour of the sovereign. The First Consul, on the
ig8
NAPOLEON I.
other hand, sought to recognize and reward merit in all walks of life.
Nevertheless his proposal met with strong opposition in the Corps
Lkgidatif and Tnbunate, where members saw that it portended
a revival of the older distinction. This was so: abolished in 1790
by the constituent assembly, titles of nobility were virtually restored
by Napoleon in 1806 and legally in 1808. Side by side with them
theie continued to exbt the Legion of Honour. It was organized
in fifteen cohorts, each comprising seven grand officers, twenty com-
manders, thirty officers and 350 legionaries. A stipend, rangmg
from 5000 francs a year to 250 francs, was attached to each grade of
the institution. The benefits attaching to membership and the
number of the members were increased during the Empire, when the
average number somewhat exceeded thirty thousand. Napoleon's
aim of bidding for the support of all^able men b disagreeably promi-
nent in all details of this mstitution, which may be looked upon as
the tangible outcome of the conviction which he thus frankly ex-
pressed: " In ambition is to be found the chief motive-force of
humanity; and a man puts forth his best powers in proportion to
his hopes of advancement."
The success of Bonaparte in reorganizing France may be ascribed
to his determined practicality and to his perception of the needs
of the average man. Since the death of Mirabeau no one had
appeared who could strike the happy mean and enforce his will on
the extremes on either side. Bonaparte did so with a forcefulness
rarely possessed by that usually mediocre creature, the moderate
man.
It is time now to notice the chief events which ensured the
ascendancy of Bonaparte. Military, diplomatic and police affairs
were skilfully made to conduce to that result. In the first of
these spheres the victory of Marengo (14th of June 1800) was of
special importance, as it consolidated the reputation of Bonaparte
at a time when republican opposition was gathering strength. As
Luden Bonaparte remarked, if Marengo had been lost — ^and it
was saved only by Dcsaix and Kellermann— the Bonaparte
family would have been proscribed. Negotiations for peace now
followed; but they led to nothing, until Moreau's triumph at
Hohenlinden (December and, x8oo) brought the court of Vienna
to a state of despair. By the treaty with Austria, signed by
Joseph Bonaparte at Lun£ville on the gth of February z8oi,
France regained all that she had won at Campo Formio, much
of which had been lost for a time in the war of the Second Coali-
tion. True, she now agreed to recognise the independence of the
Cisalpine, Ligurian, Helvetic and Batavian (Dutch) republics;
but the masterful acquisitiveness of the First Consul and the
weak conduct of Austrian and British affairs at that time soon
made that clause of the treaty a dead letter. Bonaparte mean-
while, by dexterous behaviour to Paul I. of Russia, had won
the friendship of that potentate, whose resentment against his
former allies, Austria and England, facilitated a re-grouping of
the Powers. The new Franco-Russian efOenU helped on the
formation of the Armed Neutrality League and led to the con-
coction of schemes for the driving of the British from India.
But these undertakings were thwarted in March-April 1801 by
the murder of the tsar Paul and by Nelson's victory at Copen-
hagen. The advent of the more peaceful and Anglophile tsar,
Alexander I. (^.v.), brought about the dissolution of the League,
and the abandonment of the oriental schemes which Bonaparte
had so closely at heart. Another disappointment befel him in the
same quarter, the surrender of the French forces in Egypt to
the British ejq>edition commanded first by General Abercromby
and afterwards by General John Hely-Hutchinson (30th of
August 1801).
These events disposed both Bonaparte and the British cabinet
towards peace. He was all powerful on land, they on the sea;
and for the present each was powerless to harm the other.
Bonaparte in particular discerned the advantages which peace
would bring in the consolidation of his position. The beginning
of negotiations had been somewhat facilitated by the resignation
of Pitt (4th of February x8oi) and the advent to office of Henry
Addington. Bonaparte, perceiving the weakness of Addington,
both as a man and as a minister, pressed him hard; and both the
Preliminaries of Peace, concluded at London on the xst of October
180X, and the terms of the treaty of Amiens (27th of March 1802)
were such as to spread through the United Kingdom a feeling of
annoyance. In everything which related to the continent of
Europe and to the resumption of trade relations between Great
Britain and France. Bonaparte bad his way; and he abated
his demands only in a few questions relating to India and New-
foundland.
The terms of the treaty of Amiens may be thus summarized:
Great Britain restored to France the colonial possessions (almost
the whole of the French colonial empire) conquered in the late
war. Of their many maritime conquests the British retained
only the Spanish island of Trinidad and the Dutch settlements
in Ceylon. Their other conquests at the expense of these allies
of France were restored to them, including the Cape of Good
Hope to the Dutch. France recognized the integrity' of the
Turkish Empire and promised an indemnity to the House of
Orange exiled from the Batavian (Dutch) Republic since X794-
She further agreed to evacuate the papal sutes, Taranto and
other towns in the Mediterranean coasts which she had occupied.
The independence of the Ionian Isles (now reconstituted as the
Republic of the Seven Islands) was guaranteed. As to Malta,
the United Kingdom was to restore it to the order of St John
(its possessors previous to 1798) when the Great Powers had
guaranteed its independence. It was to receive A NeapbUtan
garrison for a year, and, if necessary, for a longer time..
No event in the life of Bonaparte was more auspicious than the
conclusion of this highly advantageous bargain. By retaining
nearly all the continental conquests of France, and by recovering
every one of those which the British had made at her. expense
beyond the seas, he achieved a> feat which was far beyond the
powers even of Lotiis XIV. ' The gratitude of the French for
this triumph found expression in a proposal, enumating from the
Tribunate, that the First Consul should receive a pledge of the
gratitude of the luition. When referred to the senate, the
matter underwent secret manipulation, largely through the in-
fluence of Cambac^r^; but the republican instinct even in the
senate was sufficiently strong to thwart the intrigues of the second
consul; and that body on the 8th of May merely re-elected
Bonaparte for a second term of ten years after the expiration
of the first decennial term for which he was chosen. This fell
far short of his desires, and he now dexterously referred the
whole question to the nation at large. The Council of State,
acting on a suggestion made by Cambac^rfts, now intervened wilh
telling effect. It altered the wording of the senatorial proposal
in such a way that the nation was asked to vote on the question :
" Is Napoleon Bonaparte to be made Consul for Life ? '' France
responded by an overwhebning affirmative, 5,568,885 votes being
cast for the proposal and only 8374 against it.
Napoleon (who now used his Christian name instead of the
surname Bonaparte) thereupon sent proposals for variotis changes
m the constitution, which were at once registered by the obsequious
Council of State and the Senate on the 4th of August (x6 Thcr-
midor) i8oa. Besides holding his powers for life, he now gained
the right of nominating his successor. He alone could ratify
treaties of peace arid alUancc, and on his nomination fifty-four
senators were added to the senate, which thereafter numbered
one hundred and twenty members appointed by him alone.
This body received the right of deciding by senatus amsuUa aJtt
questions not provided for by the constitution; the Corps
Ligislatif and Tribunate might also thenceforth be dissolved at
it^ bidding. In short, the First Consul now became the irre-
sponsible ruler of France, governing the country through the
ministry, the Council of State and the Senate. As for the
chambers, based avowedly on universal suffrage, their existence
thenceforth was onuunental or septdchral. The constitutional
changes of August 1803, initiated solely by Bonaparte, made
France an absolute monarchy. The name of Empire was not
adopted until nearly two years Uter; but the change then
brought about was scarcely more than titular.
In order to understand the utter tnabilitv of the old republicaa
party to withstand these chances, it is needful to letiaoe our steps
and consider the skilful use made by Bonaparte of plots and dasturCH
ances as they occurred. As was natural, when he sought to steer a
middle course between the Scylla of royalism and the Charybdis of
Jacobinism, disturbances were to be expected on both sides of the
consular ship of state. The first of these was an unimportant affair,
probably nursed by the ag0Us provocateurs of Foucht's ubiquitous
1 police. It purported to be an undertaking entered into by a few
NAPOLEON I.
199
the end of the plot. F .
benckd from the royali^
refusal to encourage tl '
royalists besan to com
first naively looked on 1
Thgir chkf man ol a<
Cadoudal, whow acal
kx^ talkod over by th^
Charles X. of France)
Jaoobina. among them Arira, a Conocaji, for the murder of Bon.c
parte at the opera. An^ na ,t nd hb iuppoiKt! acf om pi loc- wcr i^ .i r - ■ - , d
(10th of October 1800 j, and itut was virtually the liccrln- i
r more Krioin vas the ti^iiK< r tM :
ts. Enraoed by 6ociai:iari4?\ ^ II t
T-r n i?"L«ii»XVin " i.j Li..., ;.. e
Vcath of llic Fnan whom tht-y kin-l ^t
111 GctictbI ^fonk to ihrir Charles, 1 1.
1 fitunjy B niton pca^irttK Cjcor^jn*
i;:c KrvM to bring to & head pl.triS
f 9 ol the Comtf d'AnoU (the fut ure
, i ' n* The outcome of it vijn (he iJ*^"^-
patch of some five or »\ Chuudn detperadon to Paris, three of \i hi nn
expkxkd an infernal iruichinc ckue to Bofiaparte'i ain-Ld|^ In cf.c
oarrow streets near the TuUcrks (jrd NivAiv [i^tb of DnxmtkLrl
1800). Bonaparte and josephiat escaped uninjuird. biit scvL-rJ
bystandera were killed ''T wounded. Napoleon^s vcngc-atir^ At i>n> e
took a strongly practiral turn, pcupite ihe evidence whUb Fuutf 6
sod others brought forward to incriminate the royahsi^^ the Fir.t
Consul pernsted in attributing the outrage tO' the lacoLunst h-id a
list of suspects drawn up, and caused the Council of^ute todecbre
that a spedal precautii.THary measure wai necessary. The mcA^^uEe
proved to be tne deportation of the leading Jacobms: oiid a cl<uilc
of legalitv was cast ovt r this cxtnionlirur>' prtceedirig by n ipt;^ i il
decree oi the senate (ivowedly the guardian ol the conttituiii r)
that this act of theffOv.rfi.menC was a " measure LendinE iv pn-st r e
the constitution " (sth J January iSoiL The body charged w n h
the guarding of the oi^--[Ltution wa^ thus bruunEht by liitn^curLc
to justify its violation; ,ind a vay w^i thus opened for the Ics^Eiftng
of further irregulariti< -. For the present the connivance o( ilte
senate at his amp d'ii.if of Niv6sc led to the dc port at ion of oc^e
hundred and thirty J^tiobmii tome were interned ^n ihe Uland» i^f
the Bay of Biscay, yrh^U: fifty were cent to the uopical cijEi^nic!^ if
France, whence few of 1 h r m ever returned. 1 1 is to m? obracir\'ed t h . 1 r,
before the punishment w.t'» inflicti-d,cvidcrnce was forthcoming wliii: h
brDUght home the outrii^c of NivOse to the royalists; but this w.^s
afi one to Bonaparte: hj.^ aim was to destroy the Jacobin part>',
and it never recovered iram the bbw. The party whii-h had set up
the Committee of Publ"- Safety was now struck down by the vi ry
■an who through the Hiireciary Inherited by direct linrat di'^^ent
the dictatorial powers insiiiuted ta the spring of 1793 for the saK.L.
tion of the republic It remain^ to add that the su^i^x^ts in the pi' t
of October 1800 were now gutUoiined (jist of January jSoi), -md
that two of the ptettcr- ctiiselv confuxtcd with ibe affair qf Nh-' c
were also executed (aj-^t of April). The institution of the Kpccnl
tnboflals (already leferr'i-' J to}» which enabled Jioruiipane tP^uiKT^ile
local government in ihirty-two of the departments, wasanutli^r
octcome of the bomb c<>ii ^piracy.
Far mace lenient wa^ Bonaparte's conduct towards a knot of Hi >
contented officers wh6, in AprihMay i803, framed a clumpy T'I '1
known as the "Plot if the Plaouds," for arousing the mhlu i y
^a.ittit» him. He diigrnctd or imprisoned the ringkailers, ortlir. d
Bcmadocte (perhaps t^<| founts en head of the whole affair) to t.^! e
the waters at PlomlMiri^ and drove from o^ce Fouch6, who heid
K^ght to screen the rea I ' 'ffcnders by impui^ninB the royalists.
Bonaparte's action iii the yKim 1800-1^2 showed that he f tared
the old republican parly far more than the royalists, Jn April i^f"}
be procured the passing; of a jmo/Hj comultitm grantini; increa'"i.d
faoutJes for the return • ' h*^ /^li^is : with few exception? Lhty w li c
aBowed to return, prov 'it was before the J yd of 5eptemb^'r
1803, and. after swearii v the new cans'iitution, they entered
into posstssioo of thej- Lvhich had not been alienated; L'ut
barriers were raised ag^in^t the recover^' of their confiscated lamin.
Very many accepted thesv term 9^ rallied to the first Conaut wirh
more or less nncerity; and therr return to France to strengthii
the conservative elements in French society. The prom ulgatiun ni
the Concordat (iSth of A;»rit 1^2} and the in^ttiiutjon of what v,.\.s
ia all but name a stater I Lii:;ion tended &trunf^ly in the iame dgre<:CLi.ri,
the authority of the pfit':>ts being generally used in suppt^n lA [he
man to whmn-Chlteau^rijind applied the epithet '* rt-uartr af the
akars." Neverthelear.. despite Bonaparte's rnarv^i-lloLiif skill m
rallying moderate men of all parties to his ^de, thcru re tn^ir.i d
an anconvjoced and d. ^pieratc minority^ whose chimsy prncetU-re
enabled the great engineer to hotat them with their own pcti-rj
aid to raise himself t<.' the imperiiL dig^nlty. But before rcferr>nj
to this last proof of tbj^ MjciiLavellian eikih of the great Corsica" m
deahng with plots, it i- m-rtlful to notice the events which bruui^iiit
hoB iotocoUisaon with the,^ British natiu'n.
The treaty of Amif ns had contained germs- which ensured in
disaolution at no dtst.mi date; but even more serious wns «l e
coi»iuci of Bonaparte afier the concfu^ioii of fieace. He c^rrii 1
matters with so high a hand in the aiFali? of HoElandr Switz^rl utl
and Italy as seriooaly to diminish the oullets for BriLi»b trade in
Europe. His action in ihe matters just named, ns also in thi;
coreplez -affair o( the secubrizaltans of clerical domains in
(krmany (Febrtiary tSoj), belongs property to the hi.'iory if
those countries; but vrc may hoc oait that, evi:u before ibe
signature of the peace of Amiens (27th of March 1802), he had
effected changes in the constitution of the Batavian (Dutch)
republic, which placed power in the hands of the French party
and exubled him to keep French troops in the chief Dutch
fortresses, despite the recently signed treaty of Lun^ville which
guaranteed the independence of that republic. His treatment
of the Italians was equally high-handed. In September 1801 he
bestowed on the Cisalpine republic a constitution modelled on
that of France. Next, he summoned the chief men of the Franco-
phile party in that republic to Lyons in the early days of 1802,
in order to arrange with them the appointment of the chiefs cl
the executive. It soon appeared that the real aim of the "Mating
was to make Bonaparte president. He let it be known that
he strongly disapproved of their proposal to elect Count Melxi,
the Italian sUtesman most suitable for the post; and a hint
given by Talleyrand showed the reason for his disapproval,
t^e deputies thereupon elected Bonaparte. As for the nei^bour-
ing land, Piedmont, it was already French in all but name On
the 2zst of April iSoi he issued a decree which constituted
Piedmont as a military district dependent on France; for
various reasons he postponed the final act of incorporation to
the 2zst of September 1802. The (}enoese republic a Uttle earlier
underwent at his hand changes which made its doge all-powerful
in local affairs, but a mere puppet in the hands of Bonaparte.
In central Italy the influence of the First Consul was paramount;
for in xSoi he transformed the grand duchy of Tuscany into the
kingdom of Etruria for the duke of Parma; and, seeing that that
promotion added lustre to the fortunes of the duchess of Parma
(a Spanish infanta), Spain consented Umely enough to the cession
of Louisiana to France. The effect of these extraordinary
changes, then, was the carrying out of Napoleonic satrapies in
the north and centre of Italy in a way utterly inconsistent with
the treaty of Lun^viUe; and the weakness with which the courts
of London and Vienna looked on at these singular events con-
firmed Bonaparte in the belief that he could do what he would
with neighbouring states. The poUcy of the French revolutionists
had been to surround France with free and allied republics. The
policy of the First Consul was to transform them into tributaries
which copied with chameleonic fidelity the political fashions lie
himself set at Paris.
Of all these interventions the most justifiable and beneficent,
perhaps, was that which related to the Swiss cantons. Whether
his agents did, or did not, pour oil on the flames of dvil strife,
which he thereupon quenched by his Act of Mediation, 19th of
February 1803, is a complex question. The settlement which
he thereby imposed was in many ways excellent; but it was
deariy purchased by the complete ascendancy of Bonaparte
in all important affairs, and by the claim for the services of a
considerable contingent of Swiss troops which he thereafter
rigorously enforced.
The re-occupation of Switzerland by French troops in October
x8o2 wrdught English opinion to a state of indignation against
the autocrat who was making conquests more quickly in time
of peace than he had done by his sword; and the irritation
increased when, on the 29th of January 1803, he publicly stated:
" It is recognized by Europe that Italy and Holland, as well as
Switzerland, are at the disposal of France." Another act of
his at that time made still more strongly for war. On the 30th
of January he caused the ofiicial French paper, the MtmUeur,
to publish in extenso a confidential report sent by Colonel
Sebastiani describing his so-called commercial mission to the
Levant. In it there occurred the threatening phrase: " Six
thousand French would at present be enough to conquer Egypt."
An equally significant bint, that the loman Isles might easily
be regained by France, further helped to open the eyes of. the
purblind Addington ministry to the resolve of Napoleon to make
the Mediterranean a French )ake. Ministers were also deeply
concerned at the continued occupation of Holland by French
troops, which made that country and, therefore, the Cape of
Good Hope, absolutely dependent on France. They accordingly
resolved not to give up Malta unless Lord Whitworth, the British
ambassador at Paris, " received a satisfactory explanation "
200
NAPOLEON I.
Klative to the Sebastian! report. .Napoleon's refusal to give this,
and his complaint that Great Britain had neglected to comply
with some of the provisions of the treaty of Amiens, brought
Anglo-French relations to an acute phase. By great dexterity
he succeeded in turning public attention almost solely to the
fact that Britain had not evacuated Malta. This is probably
the sense in which we may interpret his tirade against Lord
Whitworth at the diplomatic drde on the 13th of March. While
not using threats of personal violence, as was generally reported
at the time, his language was threatening and offensive. Annoyed
by Whitworth's imperturbable demeanour, he ended with these
words: " You must respect treaties, then: woe to those who do
not respect treaties. They shall answer for it to all Europe."
The news of the strengthening of the British army and navy
lately announced in the king's speech had perhaps annoyed him;
but seeing that his outbursts of passion were nearly always the
result of calculation — he once stated, pointing to his chin, that
temper only mounted that high with hkn— his design, doubtless,
was to set men everywhere talking about the perfidy of Albion.
If so, he succeeded. His own violations of the treaties of Lun^ville
and Amiens were overlooked; and in particular men forgot
that the weakening of the Knights of St John by the recent
confiscation of their lands in France and Spain, and the pro-
tracted delay of Rusda and Prussia to guarantee their tenure
of power in Malta, furnished England with good reasons for
a^eeping her hold on that island. On the 4th of April the
Addington cabinet made proposals with a view to compensation.
In return for the great accessions of power to France since the
treaty of Amiens (Elba, it may be noted, was annexed in August
1802) Great Britain was to retain Malta for ten years and to
acquire the small island of Lampedusa in perpetuity. French
troops were also required to withdraw from Holland and Switzer-
land, and thus fulfil the terms of the treaty of Lun^ville. Despite
the urgent' efforts of Joseph Bonaparte and Talleyrand to bend
the First Consul, he refused to listen to these proposals. Finally,
on the 7th of May, the British government sent a secret offer
to withdraw from Malta as soon as the French evacuated Holland.
To this also Napoleon demurred. The rupture, therefore, took
place in the middle of May; and on a flimsy pretext the First
Consul ordered the detention in France of all English persons.
The reasons for his annoyance are now well known. It b
certain that he was preparing to renew the struggle for the
mastery of the seas and of the Orient, which must break out
if he held to his present resolve to found a great colonial empire.
But he needed time in order to build a navy and to prepare for
the execution of the schemes for the overthrow of the British
power in India, which he had ktely outlined to General Decaen,
the new governor of the French possessions in that land. The
sailing of Decaen's squadron early in March 1803 had alarmed
the British ministers and doubtless confirmed their resolve to
have the question of peace or war settled speedily. Whitworth
also warned them on the aoth of April that " the chief motives
for delay are that they (the French) are totally unprepared for a
naval war." This was quite correct. Napoleon wished to post-
pone the rupture for fully eighteen months, as is shown by his
secret instructions to Decaen. The British government did not
know the whole truth; but, knowing the character of Napoleon,
it saw that peace was as dangerous as war. In any case, it sent
the proposals of the 4th of April in order to test the sincerity of
his recent offer of compensation to England. He refused them,
mainly, it would seem, because he could not believe that Che
Addington ministry could be firm; and in his rage at the dis-
covery of his error he revenged himself ignobly on British
tourists and traders in France.
He now threw all his energies into the task of marshalling the
forces of France and his vassal states fdr the overthrow of
"perfidious Albion." Naval preparations went on apace at
all the dockyards, and numbers of fial-bottomed boats were
built or repaired at the northern harbours. Disregarding the
jieutrality of the Germanic System, Napoleon sent a strong
French corps to overrun Hanover, while he despatched General
Gouvion St Cyr to occupy Taranto and other dominating
positions in the south-east of the kugdom of Naples. Exactions
at the expense of Hanover and Naples helped to lighten the
burdens of French finance; Napoleon's sale of Louisiana to
the United States early in 1803 for 60,000,000 francs brought
further relief to the French treasury; and by pressing hard on
his ally, Spain, he compelled her to exchange the armed help
which he had a right to claim, for an annual subsidy of £2,880,000.
Through Spain he then threatened Portugal with extinction
unless she too paid a heavy subsidy, a demand with which the
court of Lbbon was fain to comply.
Thus the first months of the war served to differentiate the
two belligerents. England made short work of the French
squadrons and colonics, partictilarly in the West Indies, while
Napoleon became more than ever the master of central and
southern Europe. The whole course of the war was to emphasize
this distinction between the Sea Power and the Land Power;
and in this fact lay the source of Napoleon's ascendancy in France
and neighbouring lands, as also of his final overthrow.
Napoleon's utter disregard of the neutrality of neighbouring
states was soon to be revealed in the course of a royalist plot
which helped him to the imperial title. Georges Cadoudal,
General Pichegru and other devoted royalists had concocted
with the comte d'Artois (afterwards Charles X. of .France) in
London a scheme for the kidnapping (or more probably the
murder) of the First Consul. The Frendi police certainly knew
of the plot, allowed the conspirators to come to Paris, arrested
them there, and also on the x6th of February 1804 General
Moreau, with whom Pichegru had two or three secret conferences.
This was much; for Moreau, though indolent and incapable in
political affairs, was still immensely popular in the army (always
more republican than the civilians) and might conceivably head
& republican movement against the autocrat. . But far more was
to follow. Failing through his police to luit the comte d'Artois
to land in Normandy, Napoleon pounced on a sdon of the House
of Bourbon who was within his reach. The young due d'Enghien
was then residing at Ettenheim in Baden near the bank of the
Rhine. He had served in the army of his grandfather, the prince
of Cond6, during the recent war; and Bonaparte believed for
a time that he was an accomplice to the Cadoudal-Pichegru plot.
He therefore sent orders to have him seized by French soldiers
and brought to Vincennes near Paris. The order was skilfully
obeyed, and the prince was hurried before a court-martial hastily
summoned at that castle. Before they passed the verdict,
Napolebn came to see that his victim was innocent of any
participation in the plot. Nevertheless he was executed (aist
of March 1804). It is noteworthy that though Napoleon at
times sought to shift the responsibility for this deed on Talleyrand
or Savary, yet durin|^ his voyage to St Helena, as also in his will,
he frankly avowed his responsibility for it and asserted that in
the like circumstances he would do the same again.
The horror aroused by this crime did not long deaden the feeling,
at least in official circles, that something must be done to intro-
duce the principle of heredity, as the surest m^ans of counteract-
ing the aims of conspirators. The senate," as usual, took the
lead in siiggesting some such change in the constitution; and
it besought Napoleon " to complete his'work by rendering it, like
his glory, immortal" Other official addresses of the sanoe
general tenour flowed in; and even the tribunate showed its
dodBty by proposing that the imperial dignity should be declared
hereditary in the family of Bonaparte (3rd of May). Napoleon
thereupon invited the senate to " make known to him its thoughts
completely." The senate and the tribunate each appointed a
commission to deal with the matter, with the result which every
one foresaw. Camot alone in the tribunate protested against
the measure. The other councils adopted it almost unanimously.
The Senatus ConsuUum of the i8th of May 1804 awarded to
Napoleon the title of emperor, the successbn (in case he had no
heir) devolving in turn upon the descendants of Joseph and
Louis Bonaparte (Luden and Jerome were for the present ex-
cluded from the succession owing to their. having contracted
marriages displeasing to Napoleon). In a pUbiseik taken on the
subject of the imperial title and the law of succession, there were
NAPOLEON I.
3>57^f339 affirmative votes and only asfig negatives. In this vote
lay tisc justification of tAe acts of the First Consal and the pledge
for the greatness of the emperor Napoleon. The republicans
in nearly every case voted for him: and it is significant of the
carioos trend of French thought that the new imperial con-
ttitutioQ of the i8lh of Blay 1804 opened with the words;
** The government of the Republic is confided to an emperor,
who takes the title Emperor of the French."
The changes bixMight about by this constitution were mainly
citnlar. Napt^eon's powers as First GmisuI for Life were to wide
as to render much extension both superfluous and impossible; but
ve may note here that the senate now gained a further acceadon
qI authority at the expense of the two legislative bodies: and
practically legislation retted with the emperor, who sent hb decrees
to the senate to be roistered ss stnatus consuUa, Napoleon's chief
aversion, the tribunate, was also divided into three sections, dealing
«iith leeialation. home affairs and finance— « division which preluded
Its entire suppression in 1807. More important were the titular
changes Napoleon, ss we have seen, did not venture to create an
onkr of nobility until 1808, but he at once established an imperial
hierarchy. First came the French princes, namdy, the brothers of
the emperor; ax grand imperial dignities were also instituted, vis.
chose 01 the grand dector (Joseph Bonaparte), arch-chanoeUor of the
empae (Cambao6rfis), anm-chancellor of stats (Eugtoe de Beau-
hamais). arch-treasurer (Lebrun), constable (Louis Bonaparte),
grand admiral (Murat). These six formed the e mp eror's grand
conndL Next came the marshals, namdy, Berthier.Murst,Mass6na,
Augereao. LanneSb Jourdan, Ney, Soult, Brune, Davout. Bessi^res,
Moncey. Mortier and Bemadotte. Four generals— Kellermann,
Ldttrvn^ Pfrignon, Serrurier — received the titles of honorary
marriials. Next came dignities of a slightly lower rank, such as
those of grand almoner (Fesch), grand marshal of the palace (Duroc),
grand damberlain (Talleyraiifd). grand master of the horse (Caulain-
cowt), grand huntsman (Berthier), grand master of ceremonies
(S%nr). These with a host of lesser dignities built up the imperial
hierarchy and enabled the court quickly to devdop on the lines of
the okl monarchy, so far as rum of etiquette and self-conscious
efforts could reproduce the courtly graces of the ancitn rigims.
Meanwhile Napoleon was triumphing over the last of the republican
fmerahb. Morcau'n trial for treason promised to end with an ac-
gaittal: but the emp eror brought severe pressure to bear on the
judge* (one of whom he dismissed), with the result that the general
was declared guilty of participating in the royalist plot. Thereupon
Napoleon, in order to grace the new rigime by an act of clemency,
pankMoed Moreau, it bieing understood that he must leave France.
Ite left immediately for the United States. Sentence of death was
paaaed <» the royalist conspirators. On Josephine's entreaties, the
e mp er o r commuted the sentence for eight of tne wdl-connected men
aauag them; Cadoudal and others of lower extr^'^ir ^ed
ott the a4th of June. The brave Breton pessa up
the results of his plot: '* We meant to give Fi .; . . ^ .. we
have given her an emperor.** Thesw* wasliter.nly iruL-. ies
in the field were not more effective in cons('Lid:inn,;i >■ n's
povcr than were his own coups d'iUU and the tuprcniely l ... 1 l' ise
wfaidi he made of oonsptncies directed against h:ni. He ihow^J his
sme of the value of Fouch^'a services in ex; laitlnK the toynEist
pioc of 1803-1804 bjrreconstituting the ministry ..t mlicc and bcstiiw-
log it spon him. Thenceforth plots were few. Would-be t^tnuers
retnaSaed quiet from sheer terror of his power and Fibility, or frum a
conviction that oon^irades redounded to his arJ vantage.
Napoleon was now able by degrees to dispense with all re-
pobfican forms (the last to go was the Republican Calendar,
wfaidi ceased on the xst of January 1806), and the scene at the
ooronatioo in Notre Dame on the and of December 1804 was
frankly imperial in splradour and in the egotism which led
Kspokoo to wave aside the pope, Pius VIL, at the supreme
moment and aown himself. It is worthy of note that Josephine
then won & triumph over Joseph Bonaparte and his sisters,
who had been intriguing to effect a divorce. Napoleon, though
he did not bar the door absolutely agamst such a proceeding,
granted her her heart's deshe by seaetly gomg through a religious
c erem on y on the evening before the coronation. It was performed
by Fesch, now a cardinal: bat Napoleon could afterwards urge
the daim tliat all the legfiX formalities had not been complied
with; and the motive for the marriage may probably be found
m the refusal of the pope to appear at the coronation unless the
locmer civil contract was replaced by the religious rite.
As ha|H>ened at every stage of Napoleon's advancement,
the states tributary to France underwent changes corresponding
10 these occurring at Paris. The roost important of these was
the erection of monarchy in North Italy. The Italian republic
(lormcdiy the Cisalpine republic) became the kingdom of Italy.
201
At first Napoleon desired to endow Joseph, or, on his refusal,
Louis, with the crown of the new kingdom. They, however,
refused to place themselves out of the line of direct sucoessioo
in France, as Napoleon required, in case they accepted this new
dignity. Finally, he resolved to take the title himself. The
obsoquious authorities at Milan at once furthered his design by
sending an address to him, by requesting the establishment of
royalty, and on the 15th of March 1805 by offering the crown to
him. On the a6th of May he crowned himself in the cathedral
at Milan .with the iron crown of the old Lombard kings, amidst
surroundings of the utmost splendour. On the 7th of June
he issued a decree conferring the dignity of viceroy on Eugene de
Beauhamais, his stepson; but everything showed that Napoleon's
will was to be law; and the great powers at once saw that
Napoleon's promise to keep the crowns of France and Italy separate
was meaningless. The matter was of international importance;
for by the treaty of LunfviUe (February x8oi) he had bound
himself to respect the independence of the two republics of North
Italy, the Cisalpfaie and the Ligurian. The defiance to Austria
was emphasiiifd when, on the 4th of June, he promised a deputa*
tion from Genoa that he would grant their request (prompted
by his sgents) of incorporating the (Genoese (or Ligurian) republic
in the French empire. In the same month he erected the re-
public of Lucca into a principality for Bacdochi and his consort,
Elisa Bonaparte.
These actions prodaimed ao unmistakably Napoleon's in-
tention of making Italy an annexe of France as to convince
Francis of Austria and Alexander of Russia that war with him
was inevitable. The tsar, as protector of the Germanic System,
had already been so annoyed by the seizure of the due d'Enghien
on (}erman territory, and by other high-handed actions against
the Hanse dties, as to recall his ambassador from Paris.
Napoleon showed his indifference to the opinion of the tsar by
ordiering the seizure of the British envoy at Hamburg, Sir George
Rumbold (a4th of October) ; but set him free on the remonstrance
of the king of Prussia, with whom he then desired to remain on
friendly terms. Nevertheless, the general trend of his policy
was such as powerfully to help 00 the formation of the Third
Coalition against France— a compact which Pitt (who returned
to power in May 1804) had found it very difficult to arrange.
Disputes with Russia respecting Malta and the British numtlme
code kept the two sutes apart for nearly a year; and Austria
was too timid to move. But Napoleon's actions, especially the
annexation of Genoa, at Ust brought the three powers to sccord,
with the general aim of re-establishing the stains quo ante in Ger-
many, Holland, Switzerland and Italy, or, in short, of restoring
the balance of power which Napoleon had completdy upset.
Military affairs in this period are dealt with under Napoleomic
Campaigns; but it may be noted here that during the anxious
days which Napoleon spent at the camp of Boulogne in the
second and third weeks of August 1805, uncertain whether to
risk all in an attack on England in case Villeneuve should arrive,
or to turn the Grand Army against Austria, the only step which
he took to avert a continental war was the despatch of General
Duroc to Berlin to offer Hanover to Prussia on consideration of
her framing a dose alhance with France. It was very unlikely
that that peace-loving Court would take up arms against its
powerful neighbours on behalf of Napoleon, and his proceedings
in the previous months had been so recklessly provocative as
to arouse doubts whether he intended to invade England and
did not welcome the outbreak of a continental war. But in the
case of a man ao intensely ambitious, determined and egoistic as
Napoleon, a decision on this interesting question is hazardous.
Little reliance can be placed on his subsequent statements (as,
for instance, to Mettemich hi z8xo) that the huge preparations
at Boulogne and the long naval campaign of Villeneuve were a
mere ruse whereby to lure the Austrians into a premature
declaration of war. It is, however, highly probable that he meant
to strike at London if naval affairs went well, but that he was
glad to have at hand an alternative which would shroud a
maritime failure under military laurels. If ao, he. succeeded.
His habit was, as he said, /aire son tktme m deux fafons, and he
202
NAPOLEON I.
L
now took the second alternative. On or about the asth-zyth
of August he resolved to strike at Austria. He did so with
masterly skill and swiftness, and the triumphs of Ulm and
Austerlitx hid from view the disaster of Trafalgar; and the only
official reference to that crushing defeat was couched in these
terms: " Storms caused us to lose some ships of the line after a
fight imprudently engaged " (speech to the Legislature, and of
March z8o6).
The glamour of Austerlitc had very naturally dazzled all
Frenchmen. Its results indeed were not only astounding at the
time, but were such as to lead up to a new cycle of wars. By
the peace of Presburg (26th of December 1805) Napoleon com-
pelled Austria to recognize all the recent changes in Italy, and
further to cede Venetia, Istria and Dalmatia to the new kingdom
of Italy. The Swabian lands of the Habsburgs went to the South
German states (allies of Napoleon), while Bavaria also received
Tirol and Vorarlberg. The Electors of Bavaria and WOrttem-
berg were recognized as kings.
Nor was this all. Napoleon pressed ahnost equally hard upon
Prussia. That power had been oh (he point of offering her
armed mediation in revenge for his violation of her territory of
Anspach; but she was fain to accept the terms which he offered
at the sword's point. When modified in February tio6f after
Prussia's demobilization, they comprised the occupation of
Hanover by Prussia, with the proviso, however, that die should
exclude British ships and goods from the whole of the north-
west coast of Germany. To this demand (the real commence-
ment of the " Continental System ") the Berlin government had
to accede, though at the cost of a naval war with England, and the
ruin of its maritime trade. Anspach and Bayreuth were also
to be handed over to Bavaria, it now being- the aim of Napoleon
to aggrandize the South German princes who had fought on his
side in the late war. In order to strengthen this compact, he
arranged a marriage between the daughter of the king of Bavaria
and Eugdne Beauhamais; and he united the daughter of the
Elector of Wfirttemberg in marriage to Jerome Bonaparte, who
had now divorced his wife, formerly Miss Paterson of Baltimore,
at his brother's behests. Stephanie de Beauharnais, niece of
Josephine, was also betrothed to the son of the duke (now grand
duke) of Baden. By these alliances the new Chariemagne
seemed to have founded his supremacy in South Germany on
sure foundations.
Equally striking was his success in Italy. The Bourbons of
Naples had broken their treaty engagements with Napoleon,
though in this matter they were perhaps as much sinned against
as sinning. After Austerlitz the conqueror fulminated against
them, and sent southwards a strong column which compelled
an Anglo-Russian force to sail away and brought about the flight
of the Bourbons to Sicily (February x8o6). This event opened
a new and curious chapter in the history of Europe, that of the
fortunes of the NapoUonides. True to his Corsican instinct of
attachment to the family, and contempt for legal and dynastic
claims, he now began to pkmt his brothers and other relatives
in what had been republics established by the French Jacobins.
Eugdne Beauhamais had been established at Milan. Joseph
Bonaparte was jiow advised to take the throne of Naples, and
without any undue haggling as to terms, for "those who will
not rise with me shall no longer be of my family. I am making
a family of kings attached to my federative system." At the
end of March 1806 Joseph became king of the Two Sidlies. A
little later the emperor bestowed the two papal endaves of
Benevento and Ponte-Corvo on Talleyrand and Bemadotte
respectively, an act which emphasised the hostility which had
been growing between Napoleon and the papacy. Because
Pius Vn. declined to exclude British goods from the Papal
States, Napoleon threatened to reduce the pope to the level
meidy of bishop of Rome. He occupied Ancona and seemed
about to annex the Papal States outright. That doom was
postponed; but Catholics everywhere saw with pain the harsh
treatment accorded to a defenceless old man. The pnestige
which the First Consul had gained by the Concordat was now lost
by the overweening emperor.
But it was on the banks of the Rhine that the Napoleonic
system received its most signal developments. The dudiy of
Berg, along with the eastern part of Oivts and other »nn*n^
now went to Murat, brother-in-law of Napoleon (Mardi 1806);
and that melodramatic soldier at once began to round off his
eastern boundary in a way highly offensive to Prussia. She was
equally concerned by Napoleon's behaviour in the Dutch Nether-
lands, where her influence used to be supreme. On the 5th of
June i8c^ the Batavian republic completed its chrysalis-like
transformations by becoming a kingdom for Louis Bonaparte.
** Never cease to be a Frenchman " was the pregnant advice
which he gave to his younger brother in announcing the new
dignity to him. In that sentence lay the secret of all the dis-
agreements between the two brothers. Louis resolved to govern
for the good of his subjects. Napoleon determined that ^, like
all the Bonapartist rulers, should act merely as a Napoleonic
satrap. They were to be to him what the counts of the marches
were to Charlemagne, warlike feudatories defending the empire
or overawing its prospective foes.
Far more was to follow. On the xyth of July Napoleon signed
at Paris a decree that reduced to subservience the Germanic
System, the chaotic weakness of which he had in 1797 foreseen
to be highly favourable to France. He now grouped together the
princes of south and central Germany in the Confederation of
the Rhine, of which he was the protector and practically the ruler
in all important affairs. The logical outcome of this proceeding
appeared on the ist of August, when Napoleon declared that he
no longer recognized the existence of the Holy Roman Empire.
The head of that venerable organism, the emperor Frands 11. ,
bowed to the inevitable and announced that he thencefortb'
confined himself to his functions as Francis I., hereditary emperor
of Austria, a title which he had taken just two years previously.
This tame acquiescence of the House of Habsburg in the re-
organization of Germany seemed to set the seal on Napoleon's
work. He controlled all the lands from the Elbe to the Pyrenees,
and had Spain and Italy at his beck and call. Power such as this
was never widded by his prototype, Charlemagne.
But now came a series of events which transcended all that
the mind of man had conceived. As the summer of x8o6 wore
on, his policy perceptibly hardened. Negotiations with England
and Russia served to show the extent of hjs ambition. Stdly
he was determined to have, and that too despite of all the efforts
of the Fox-Grenville cabinet to satisfy him in every other direc-
tion. In his belid that he could ensnare the couru of London
and St Petersburg into separate and proportionatdy disadvan-
tageous treaties, he overreached himself. The tsar indignantly
repudiated a treaty which his envoy, Oubril, had been tricked
into signing at Paris; and the Fox-Grenville cabinet (as also
its successor) refused to bargain away Sidly. War, therefore,
went on. What was more, Prussia, finding that Napoleon had
secretly offered to the British Hanover (that gilded hook by
which he caught her early in the year), now resolved to avenge
this, the last of several insults.- Napoleon was surprised by the
news of Prussia's mobilization; he had come to regard her as
a ne^igible quantity, and now he found that her unexpected
sensitiveness on points of honour was about to revivify, the
Third Coalition against France.
The war which broke out eariy in October 1806 (sometimes
known as the war of the Fourth Coalition) ran a course curiously
like that of 1805 in its main outlines. For Austria we may
read Prussia; for Ulm, Jena-Auerstldt; for the occupation of
Vienna, that of Berlin; for Austerlitz, Friedland, which again
disposed of the beUted succour given by Russia. The paiaUel
extends even to the secret negotiations; for, if Austria could
have been induced in May 1807 to send an army against Napotoon's
communications, his position would have been fully as dangerous
as before Austerlitz if Prussia had taken a simikr step. Once
more he triumphed owing to the timidity of the oentnl power
which had the game in its hands; and the foUy which marked
the Russian tactics at Friedland (x4th of June 1807), as at
Austerlitz, enabled him to close the campaign in a blase o€
glory and shiver the coalition in pieces.
NAPOLEON L
203
Now cmme an opportimity far greater than that which occurred
after Austerlitz. The Peace of Presburg was merely contioeDtal.
That of Tilsit was of world-wide importance. But before refer-
ring to its terms we must note an event which indicated the lines
on which Napoleon's policy would advance. After occupying
the Pruwan capital he launched against England the famous
Berlin Decree (azst of November 1806), declaring her coasts
to be in a state of blockade, and prohibiting all commerce with
them. No ship coming thence was to be admitted into French
or allied harbours; ships .transgressing the decree were to be
good priae of war; and BriUsh subjects were liable to imprison-
ment iff found in French or allied territories. Thia decree is
often called the basis of the Continental System, whereby
Napoleon proposed to ruin England by ruining her commerce.
But even before Trafalgar he had begun to strike at that most
vulnerable form of wealth, as the Jacobins had done before him.
Ndson's crowning triumph rendoed impossible for the present
an otlicr means <rf attack on those elusive foes; and Napoleon's
sense of the importance off that battle may be gauged, not by
fab public utterances on the subject, but by his persistence in
forcing Prussia to dose Hanover and the whole coastline of
north-west Germany against British goods. That proceeding,
in Yfhnaxy x8o6, constitutes the basis of the Continental
System. Tbe Beriin Decree gave it a wide extension. By
the mighty blow of Fricdland and the astonishing diplomatic
trium|A off Tilsit, the conqueror hoped speedily to overwhelm
the islanders beneath the mass of the world's opposition.
Napoleon at Tilsit resembles Polyphemus seeking to destroy
ClysMS. Tlie crags which he flung at Britannia did indeed
graze the stem and graze tfie prow of her craft.
The triumph won at Friedland marks in several respects the
cliniax off Napoleon's career. The opportunity was unique;
and he now put forth his utmost endeavours to win over to his
side the conquered but still formidable tsar. In their first inter-
view, held on a raft in the middle of the river Niemen at Tilsit
on the asth of June, the French emperor, by his mingled strength
and suppleness of intellect, galnod an easy mastery over the
impressionable young potentate. Partly from fear of a national
Pefish rising which Napoleon held in reserve as a last means of
co c rdon, and partly from a subtle resolve to use the French
alliance aa a means of securing rich domains at the expense of
Turkey, Prussia, Sweden and England, Alexander decided to
throw over his allies, Prussia and England, and to seize the
spoils io which the conqueror pointed as the natural sequel of
a Franco-Russian alliance. Napoleon, 'therefore, had Prussia
cnmi^etely at his mercy; and his conditions to that power bore
witness to the fact. The prayers of Queen Louisa of Prussia
failed to bend him from his resolve. He refused even to grant
her tearful request for Magdeburg. At a later time he reproached
himself for not having dethroned the Hohenzollems outright;
but it is now known that Alexander would have forbidden this
step, and that he dissuaded Napoleon from withdrawing Silesia
from the cootnd of the House of HohenzoUem. Even so, Prussia
was bereft of half of her territories; those west of the river
Elbe went to swell the domains of Napoleon's vassals or to form
the new kingdom of Westphalia for Jerome Bonaparte; while
the qxMls which the House of Hohenzollem had won from Poknd
in the secoixl and third partitions were now to form the duchy
of Warsaw, ruled over by Napoleon's ally, the elector (now
king) of Sajcony. Danzig became nominally a free city, but was
to be occupied by a French garrison until the peace. The tsar
acquired a frontier district from Prussia, recognized the changes
brought about by Napoleon In Germany and Italy, and agreed
by a secret article that the Cattaro district on the east coast of
the Adriatic should go to France. Equally important was the
secret treaty of alliance between France and Russia signed on
that sane day. By it Napoleon brought the tsar to agree to
make war on En^and in case that power did not accept the
tsar's mediation for the conclusion of a general peace. Failing
the anival of a favorrable reply from London by the ist of
December 1807, the tsar would help Napoleon to . compel
Dcwnaik. Sweden and Portugal to dose their ports against,and
make war on. Great Britain. Napoleon also promised to mediate
between Russia and Turkey in the interests of the former,
and (in case the Porte refused to accept the proffered terms)
to help Russia to drive the Turks from Europe, "the dty of
Constantinople and the province of Rumelia alone excepted."
This enterprise and the acquisition of Finland from Sweden,
which Napoleon also dangled before the eyes of the tsar, formed
the bait which brought that potentate into Napoleon's Continental
System. Both Russia and Prussia now agreed rigorotisly to
exclude British ships and goods from their dominions.
The terms last xuuned indicate the nature of the aims which
Napoleon had m view at Illsit. Tliat compact was not, as has
often been assumed, merely the means of assuring to Napoleon
the mastery of the continent aiul the control of a cohort of kings.
That eminence he enjoyed before the collision with Prussia
in the autumn of x8o6; and he frequently, and no doubt sincerely,
expressed contempt of conquests dens cettc vUilk Europe.
The three coalitions against France had not produced a single
warrior worthy of his steeL Tlie treaty of Tilsit may more
reasonably be looked on as an expedient for piling up enormous
political resources with a view to the coercion of Great Britain.
If that end could not be achieved by massing the continental
states against her in a solid phalanx of conmiercial war, then
Napoleon intended to ensure her ruin by that other enterprise
which he had in view early in 1798 (see his letter of the 33rd of
February 1798), namely the conquest of the Orient. An expedi-
tion against India had recently occupied his thoughts, as may
be seen by the instructions which he issued on the xoth of May
1807 to General Gardane for his mission to Persia. The Orient
was, indeed, ever the magnet which attracted him most; and his
hostility to England may be attributed to his perception that
she alone stood in the way of his most cherished schemes. The
treaty of Tilsit, then, far from being merely a European event,
was an event of the first imporUnce in what may be termed
the Wdl-pdiUk of Napoleon. His confidence that his vastly
enhanced powers would enable him first to coerce, and there-
after to overthrow, the British empire may be illustrated by his
allowing the appearance in 1807 of an official atlas of Australia
in which about one-third of that continent figures as "Terre
Napoleon."
As ustuilly ]u4>pened m this strife of the land power and the
sea power, Napoleon's continental policy attained an almost
complete success, while the naval and oriental schemes which
he had more nearly at heart utterly miscarried. The continent
accepted the new development of his System. After some
diplomatic fencing Russia and Prussia broke with England
and entered upon what was, officially at least, a state of war
with her. Further, owing to the carelessness of the Prussian
negotiator. Napoleon was able to require the exaction of im-
possibly large sums from that exhausted land, and therefore
to keep his troops in her chief fortresses. The duchy of Warsaw
and the fortress of Danzig formed new outworks of his power
and enabled him to overawe Russia. In home affairs as in
foreign affairs his actions bespoke the master. On returning
from Tilsit to Paris he relieved Talleyrand of the ministry of
foreign affairs, softening the fall by creating him a grand
dignitary of the empire. The more subservient Champagny
now became what was Virtually the chief clerk in the French
foreign office; and other 'changes placed in high station men
who were remarkable for docility rather than originality and
power. Napoleon also suppressed the Tribunate; and in the
year 180S instituted an order of nobility. During the course
of a tour in Italy in December 1807 he gave a sharp turn to that
world-compelling screw, the Continental System. By the Milan
Decree of the X7th of December 1807, he ordained that every
ship which submitted to the right cf search now claimed by
Great Britain would be considered a lawful prize. The imperious
terms in which this decree was couched and its misleading
reference to the British maritime code showed that Napoleon
believed in. the imminent collapse of his sole remaining enemy.
This was natural. Britain, it was true, acting on the initiative
of George Canning, had seized the Danish fleet, thus foresUlling
204-
NAPOLEON I.
an action which Napoleon certainly contemplated; but on the
other hand Dennuirk now allied herself with him; and while
in Lombardy he heard of the triumphant entry of his troops
into Lisbon — an event which seemed to prelude his domination
in the Iberian Peninsula and thereafter in the Mediterranean.
Tlie occupation of Lisbon, which led on to Napoleon's inter-
vention in Spanish affairs, resulted naturally from the treaty
of Tilsit. The coercion of England's oldest ally had long been
one of Napoleon's most cherished alms, and was expressly pro-
vided for in that compact. To this scheme he turned with a
zeal whetted by consciousness of his failure respecting the Danish
fleet. On the 27th of October 1807 he signed with a Spanish
envoy at Fontainebleau a secret convention with a view to the
partitioning of Portugal between France and Spain. Another
convention of the same date allowed him to send 28,000 French
troops into Spain for the occupation of Portugal, an enterprise
in which a large Spanish force was to help them; 40,000 French
troops were to be cantonned at Bayonne to support the first
corps. Seeing that Godoy, the all-powerful minister at Madrid,
had given mortal offence to Napoleon early in the Prussian
campaign of 1806 by calling on Spain to arm on behalf of her
independence, it passes belief how he could have placed his
country at the mercy of Napoleon at the end of the year 1807.
The emperor, however, successfully gilded the hook by awarding
Algarve, the southern province of Portugal, to Godoy. The north
of Portugal was to go to the wido^r of the king of Etruria (a
Spanish Infanta); her realm now passing into the hands of
Napoleon. Thus Portugal in 1807, like Venice in 1797, was to
provide the means for widely extending (he operations of his
statecraft.
The natural result foUowed. Portugal was easily overrun
by the allies; but Junot's utmost efforts faOed to secure the
Portuguese fleet, which, under the protection of a British
squadron, sailed away to Brazil with the royal family, the
ministers and chief grandees of the realm. In other respects
all went well. The French reinforcements which entered
Spain managed to secure some of the strongholds of the northern
provinces; and the disgraceful feuds in the royal family left
the country practically at the emperor's mercy.
The situation was such as to tefnpt Napoleon on to an under-
taking on which he had probably set his heart in the autumn
of x8o6, that of dethroning the Spanish Bourbons and of replacing
them by a Bonaparte. Looking at the surface of the life of
Spain, he might well believe in its decay. The king, Charles IV.,
looked on helplessly at the ruin wrought by the subservience of
his kingdom to France since 1796, and he was seemingly blind
to the criminal intrigues between his queen and the prime minister
Godoy. His senile spite vented itself on his son Ferdinand,
whose opposition to the all-powerful favourite procured for him
hatred at the palace and esteem everywhere else. Latterly
the prince had fallen into disgrace for proposing, without the
knowledge of Charles IV., to ally himself with a Bonaparte
princess. Here, then, were all the conditions which favoured
Napoleon's intervention. He allowed the prince to hope for
such a union, and thus enhanced the popularity of the French
party at Madrid. Godoy, having the prospect of the Algarve
before him, likewise offered no opposition to the advance of
Napoleon's troops to the capital; and so it came about that
Murat, named by Napoleon his Lieutenant in Spain, was able
to enter Madrid in force and without opposition from that
usually clannish populace. The course of events, and especially
the anger of the people, now began to terrify Charles IV., the
queen and Godoy. They prepared for flight to America— a
step which Napoleon took care to prevent; and a popular
outbreak at Aranjuez dedded the king then and there to abdicate
(19th of March 1808). Murat, now acting very warily in the
hope of gaining the crown of Spain for himself, refused to
recognize this act as binding, still more so the accession of
Ferdinand VII. Charles thereupon declaitd his abdication to
have been made under duress and therefore null and void.
The young king, still hoping for Napoleon's favour, now responded
to the suggestion, forwarded by Ssvary, that an interview with
the emperor would clear up the situation. The same prospect
was held out to Charles IV., the queen and Godoy, with the
result that the rivals for the throne proceeded to the north of
Spain to meet the arbiter of their destinies. Napoleon journeyed
to Bayonne and remained there. The claimants, each not know-
ing of the movements of the other, crossed the Pyrenees, and
Ferdinand on his arrival at Bayonne found himself to be virtually
a prisoner in the hands of the emperor. Napoleon had little
difficulty in disposing of the father, whose rage against his son
blunted his senses in every other direction. As for Ferdinand,
the emperor, on hearing the news of a rising in Madrid on the
2nd of May, overwhelmed him with threau, until he resigned
the crown into the hands of his father, who had already bargained
it away to Napoleon in return for a pension (5th of May. x8o8).
Princely abodes in France and annuities (the latter to be paid
by Spain) — such was the price at which Napoleon bought the
crown of Spain and the Indies. Tfaturally nothing more was
heard of the partition of PortugaL According to outward ap-
pearance nothing was wanting to complete the emperor's
triumph. He is said to have remarked with an oath after Jena
that he would make the Spanish Bourbons pay for their recent
bellicose proclamation. If the story is correct, his acts at
Bayonne showed once more his custom of biding his time in
order to take an overwhelming revenge. That the son of a
Corsican notary should have been able to dispose of the Spanish
Bourbons in this contemptuously easy way is ope of the marveb
of history.
But even in this crowning triumph the cramping egotism
of his nature — a mental vice which now grew on him rapidly
•^fatally narrowed his outlook and led him to commit an irre-
trievable blunder. In his contempt for the rulers of Spain be
forgot the Spanish people. In all the genuine letters of the
spring of i8oi8 — ^that of March 29th to Murat, no. 13,696 of the
Correspondence, is acknowledged to be a forgery— there is not a
sign that he regarded the Spaniards as of any account. On the
27th of March he offered the crown of Spain to his brother Louis,
king of Holland, in these terms: " The climate of Holland does
not suit you; besides Holland can never rise from its ruins.
I think of you for the throne of Spain. You will be the sovereign
of a generous nation of eleven milliona of men and of important
colonies." On Louis declining the honour, it devolved on
Joseph, king of Naples, who vacated that throne for the benefit
of Murat— a source of disappointment and annoyance to both.
The emperor pushed on his schemes regardless of everything.
The first signs of the rising ferment in Spain were wasted on him.
He believed that the arrival of so benevolent a king as Joseph,
and the promulgation of a number of useful reforms based on
those of the French Revolution, would soothe any pas^ng
irriution. If not, then his troops could deal with it as Murat
had dealt with the men of Madrid on the 2nd of May. He,
therefore, pressed on the march of a corps of French and Swiss
troops under Dupont towards Cadiz, in order to take possession
of the French sail of the line, five in number, which had been
in that harbour since Trafalgar. The importance which he
then assigned to naval affairs appears in many letters of the
months May to June 1808. He intended that Spain should
very soon have ready twenty-eight sail of the line — " ce qui est
certes bien peu de chose" — so as to drive away the British
squadrons, and then he would strike " de grands coups " in
the autumn. Evidently then the Spanish dockyards and warships
(when vigorously organized) were to count for much in the
schemes for assuring complete supremacy in the Mediterranean
and the ultimate overthrow of the British and Turkish empires,
which he then had closely at heart.
The Spanish rising of May-June 1808 ruined these plans
irretrievably. The men of Cadiz compelled the French wanhips
to surrender, and the levies of Andalusia, closing around Dupont,
compelled him and some 23,000 men to lay down their arms
at Baylen (23rd of July). This disaster, the most serious suffered
by the French since Rossbach, sent a thrill through the Napoleonic
vassal states and aroused in Napoleon transports of anger
against Dupont. " Everythug is connected with this event/'
NAPOLEON I.
205
he vrote on the tod of August, "Gennanyv Poland, Italy."
Indeed, along with other serious checks in Spain, which involved
the conquest of that land, it cut through the wide meshes of his
policy both in Levantine, Centi;M European and commercial
affaixs. The partition of Turkey had to be postponed; the
finanrial collapse of England could not be expected now that
she framed an alliance with the Spanish patriots apd had their
markets and those of their colonies opened to her; and the
discussions with the tsar Alexander, which had not gone quite
smoothly, DOW took a decidedly unfavourable turn. The tsar
saw his chance of improving on the terms arranged at Tilsit;
and obviously Napoleon could not begin the conquest of Spain
until he felt sure of the conduct of his nominal ally. Still worse
was the pmspecl when Sir Arthur Wellesley with a British force
landed in Portugal, gained the battle of Vimiero (sxst of August),
and brought the French commander, Junot, by the so<alled
convcntioo of Cintra, to agree to the evacuation of the country
by all the French troops. The sea power thus gained what had
all afeng been wanting, a sure basis for the exercise of its force
against the land power, Napoleon. Still more important, perhaps,
was the change in moral which the Spanish*riung brought about.
Kapcdeon's perfidy at Bayonne was so flagrant a^ to strip from
him the mask of a champion of popular liberty which had
previously been of priceless worth. Now he stood forth to the.
world as an unscrupulous aggressor; moral force, previously
marshalled on the side of France, now began to pass to the side of
his opponents. The value of that unseen ally he well knew:
** Once again, let me tell you," he wrote to General Qarke on
the loth of Octotsfcr 1809, " in war moral and opinion are more
than half of the reality."
Sodi were the dzscouraging conditions whidr weighed him
down at -the time of the interview with the tsar at Erfurt
(Septenber STth-October 12th, 1808). That event was so
important as to require some preliminaxy explanation. For
some five months past the two empcrois had been exchanging
their views as to the future of the world. Stated briefly they
were these. Napoleon desired to press on the partition of Prussia,
Alexander that of Turkey. The tsar, however, was determined
to save Pnisfita if he could; and Napoleon after the fixst disasters
in Spain saw it to be impossible to uproot the Hohenaollerns;
wfaOe it was deariy to his interest to postpone the partition of
Turkey until he had conqueied Spain and Sicily. Austria
meanwhile had begun to arm as a precautionary measure;
and Napcdeon, shortly after his return from Bayonne to Paris,
pafaGdy declared that, if her preparations went on, he would
wage against her a war of extermination. The threat naturally
did not tend to reassure statesmen at Vienna; and the tsar
now resolved to prevent the total wreck of the European system
by screening the House of Habsburg from the wrath of his ally.
For the piesent Napoleon's ire fell upon Prussia. A letter written
by the Prussian sutcsman, Baron vom Stein, had fallen into the
hands of the French and revealed to the emperor the ferment
produced in Germany by news of the French reverses in SpaiiL
In that letter Stein urg^ the need of a national rising 01 the
Germans similar to that of the Spaniards, when the mevitable
stn«g|e ensued between Napoleon and Austria. The revenge of
the antocxat was characteristic Besides driving Stein from
office, be compelled Prussia to sign a convention(8th of September)
for the payment to France of a sum of 140,000,000 francs, and
for the Kndtation of the Prussian army to 42,000 men.
Apart from this advantage, placed in his hands by the Imprud-
ence of Stein, Napoleon was heavily handicapped at the Erfurt
interviesr. In vain did he seek to dazzle the tsar by assembling
about htm the vassal kings and princes of Germany; in vain did
he eaeidse all the intellecttud gifts which had captivated the
tsar at lUsit; in vain did he conjure up visions of the future
oooquest of the Orient; external display, diplomatic finesse,
VM^td by one or two outbursts of calculated vwlence— all was
osdesSb The sxtuatton now was utterly different from that
wludi obtained at Tilsit. Alexander had succeeded in pacifying
Fmbnd, and his troops held the Danubian provinces of Turke3r—
a pfedfe, as it seemed, for the future conquest of Constantinople.
Napoleon, on the other hand, had utteriy failed in his Spanish
enterprise; and the tsar felt sure that his rival must soon with-
draw French garrisons from the fortresses of the Oder to the
frontier of Spain. These facts; and not, as has often been
assumed, the treachery of Talleyrand, decided Alexander to
assume at Erfurt an attitude of jealous reserve. He refused to
join Napoleon in any proposal for the coercion of Austria or the
limiution of her armaments. Finally he agreed to join his ally if
he (Napoleon) were attacked by the Habsburg power. Napoleon
on his side succeeded in adjourning the question of the partition
of Turkey; but he awarded the Danubian provinces and Finland
to his ally and agreed to withdraw the French garrisons from
the Prussian fortresses on the Oder. On the xath of October
both potentates addressed an appeal to George III. to accord
peace to the world on the basis of vH possideHs, C*«n<t^
assented, provided that envoys of all the sutcs and peoples
concerned took part in the negotiations. Whereupon a reply
came from Paris (28th of November) that the French emperor
refused to admit the envoys' of " the king who reigns in Brazil,
the king who reigns in Sicily or the king who reigns in Sweden."
'The " Spanish insurgents " were equally placed out of court.
Clearly, then. Napoleon's desire for peace was conditional
on his being allowed to dictate terms to the rulers and peoples
ooncemed.
Already he had shown that the sword must decide affairs in
Spain. After spending a short time in Paris in order to supervise
the transfer of his forces from Germany to the Pyrenees, he
journeyed swiftly southwards, burst upon the Spaniards, and
ontheardof December received the surrender of Madrid. There,
on the x6th of December, he issued a decree (omitted from the
oflldal Correspondence) declaring le nommi Skin an enemy of
France and confiscating his property in the lands allied to France.
The great sUtesman barely succeeded in escaping to Austria, a
land in which the hopes of German patrioU now centred. En-
couraged by the sympathy of all patriotic Germans and the newly
found energy of its own subjects, the House of Habsburg now
began to prepare for war. Napoleon was then in the im'dstof
operations against Sir John Moore, whose masterly march on
Sahagun (near Valladolid) had thwarted the emperor's plans for
a general " drive " on to LisboiL Hoping to punish Moore for
his bddness, Napoleon struck quickly north at Astorga, but found
that he was too late to catch his foe. At that town he also heard
news on the zst of January 1809, which portended trouble in
Germany and perhaps also at Paris. Austria was continuing to
arm; and the emperor perceived that the diplomatic failure at
Erfurt was now about to entail on him another and more serious
struggle. His anxiety was increased by news of sinister import
respecting frequent interviews between those former rivals,
Talleyrand and Fouchi, in which Murat was said to be concerned.
Handing over< the command to Soult, he hurried back to Paris
to trample on the seeds of sedition and to overwhehn Austria by
the blows which he showered upon her in the valley of the
Danube. Sir John Moore and the statesmen of Austria — the
heroic Stadion at their head — failed in their enterprise; but at
least they frustrated the determined effort of Napoleon to stamp
out the national movement in the Iberian Pem'nsula. Thereafter
he never entered Spain; and the French operations suffered
incalculably from the want of one able commander-in-chief.
In the Danubian campaign of 1809 he succeeded; but the
stubborn defence of Austria, the heroic efforts of the Tirolcsc
and the spasmodic efforts which foreboded a national rising in
Germany, showed that the whole aspect of affairs was changing,
even in central Europe, where rulers and peoples had hitherto
been as wax under the impress of his will. The peoples, formeriy
so apathetic, were now the centre of resistance, and their efforts
failed owing to the timidity or sluggishness of governments
and the incompetence of some of their military leaders. The
failure of the archduke John to arrive in time at Wagram (5th
of July), the lack of support accorded by the Spaniards to
Wellesley before and after the battle of Talavera (28th of July),
and the slowness with which the British government sent forth
iu great armada against Flushing and Antwerp, a fortnight after
206
NAPOLEON I.
Austria sued for an armistice from Napoleon, enabled that superb
organizer to emerge victorious from a most precarious situation.
The hatred felt for him by Germans found expression in a
daring attempt to murder him made by a well-bred youth named
Staps on the Z2th of October.
Two days later Napoleon, by means of unworthy artifices,
hurried the Austrian plenipotentiaries into signing the treaty of
peace at Schdnbrunn. The House of Habsburg now ceded
Salzburg and the Inn-Vicrtcl to Napoleon (for his ally, the king
of Bavaria); a great portion of the spoils which Austria had torn
from Poland in 1795 went to the grand duchy of Warsaw, or
Russia; and the cession of her provinces Carinthia, Camiola
and Istria to the French empire cut her ofif from all access to the
sea. After imposing these harsh terms on his enemy, the con-
queror might naturally have shown clemency to the Tirolese
leader, Andreas Hofer; but that brave mountaineer, when
betrayed by a friend, was sentenced to death at Mantua owing
to the arrival of a special message to that effect from Napoleon.
In other quarters he achieved for the present a signal success.
It was his habit to issue important decrees from the capitals of
his enemies; and on the 17th of May 1809 he signed at Vieima
an edict abolishing the temporal power of the pope And annexing
the Papal States, which the French troops had occupied early
in the previous year. On the 6th of July zSoq Pius VII. was
arrested at Rome for presuming to excommunicate the successor
of Charlemagne, and was deported to Grenoble and later on to
Savona. The same ytai witnessed the downfall of Napoleon's
persistent enemy, Gustavus IV. of Sweden, who was dethroned
by a military movement (agth of March 1809). His successor,
Charles XIII., made peace with France on the 6th of January
1 810, and agreed to adopt the provisions of the Continental
System. The aim in all these changes, it will be observed, was
to acquire control over the seaboard, or, failing that, the com-
merce of all European states.
As happened in the years 1803-1803, Napoleon extended bis
" System " as rapidly in time of peace as during war. The year
x8io saw the crown set to that edifice by the annexations of
Holland and of the north-west coast of Germany. In both cases
the operative cause was the same. Neither Louis Bonaparte nor
German douaniers could be trusted to carry out in all their
stringency the decrees for the entire exclusion of British commerce
from those important regions. In the case of King Louis, family
quarrels embittered the relations between the two brothers;
but it is clear from Napoleon's letters of November-December
1809 that he had even then resolved to annex Holland in order
to gain complete control of its customs and of its naval resources.
The negotiations which he allowed to go on with England in
the spring of 1810, mainly respecting the independence of
Holland, are now known to have been insincere. Fouch^, for
meddling in the negotiations through an agent of his own, was
promptly disgraced; and, when neither England was moved by
diplomatic cajolery nor Louis Bonaparte by threats, French
troops were sent against the Dutch capital. Louis fled from his
kingdom, and on the 9th of July x8io Holland became part of
the French empire. In the next months Napoleon promulgated
a series of decrees for effecting the ruin of British commerce,
and in December 1810 he decreed the annexation of the north->
west coast tA Germany, as also of Canton Valais, to the French
empire. This now stretched from Lllbeck to the Pyrenees,
from Brest to Rome; while another arm (only nominally severed
from the empire by the Napoleonic kingdom of Italy) extended
down the eastern shore of the Adriatic to Ragusa and Cattaro,
threatening the Turkish empire with schemes of partition always
imminent but never achieved.
It is time now to notice two important events in the life of tne
emperor, namely his divorce of Josephine and his union with
Marie Louise of Austria. The former of these had long been
foreseen. The Bonapartes had intrigued for it with their usual
persistence, and Napoleon was careful never to make It im-
possible. His triumph over Austria in 1809, and especially the
attempt of Staps to murder him, clinched his determination to
found a dynasty in his own direct line. From Josephine he could
not expect to have an heir. Accordingly, on his return to Paris
he caused the news to be broken to her that reasons of state of
the most urgent kind compelled him to divorce her. An affecting
scene took place between them on the 30th of November 1809;
but Napoleon, though moved by her distress, remained firm;
and though the clerics made a difficulty about dissolving the
religious marriage of the ist of December 1804, the formalities of
which were complete save that the parish priest was absent, yet
the emperor instituted a chancery for the archbishop of Paris,
with the result that that body pronounced the divorce (January
z8io). Josephine retired to her private abode, Malmaison, where
her patience and serenity won the admiration of all who saw her.
Meanwhile the deliberations respecting the choice of her
successor had ahready begun. Opinions were divided in the
emperor's circle between a Russian and an Austrian princess;
but the marked coolness with which overtures for the hand of
the tsar's sister were received at St Petersburg, and the skill
with which Count Mettemich, the Austrian chancellor, let it be
known that a union with the archduchess, Marie Louise, would be
welcomed at SchOnbrunn, helped to decide the matter. The
reasons why the emperor Francis acqmesced In the marriage
alliance are well known. Only so could his empire survive.
A marriage between Napoleon and a Russian princess would have
implied tlie permanent subjection of Austria. By the proposed
step she would weaken the Franco-Russian alliance. But why
did Napoleon fix his choice on Vienna rather than St Petersburg?
Mainly, it would seem, because he desired hurriedly ta screen
the refusal, which might at any time be expected from the Russian
court, under the appearance of a voluntary choice of an Austrian
archduchess. Further, an alliance with the House of Habsburg
might be expected to wean the Germans from all thought of
gaining succour from that quarter. The wedding was celebrated
first at Vienna by proxy, and at Notre Dame by the emperor in
person on the and of April. Though based on merely political
grounds, the union was for the time a happy one. He advised
his courtiers to marry Germans — " they are the best wives In the
world, good, naive and fresh as roses." Mettemich, on visiting
Compidgne and Paris, found the emperor thoroughly devoted to
his bride. Napoleon told him that he was now beginning to live,
that he had always longed for a home and now at last had one.
Mettemich thereupon wrote to his master: "He (Napoleon)
has possibly more weaknesses than many other men, and if the
empress continues to play upon them, as she begins to realize
the possibility of doing, she can render the greatest services to her-
self and all Europe." The surmise was too hoi)eful. Napoleon,
though he never again worked as he had done, soon freed himself
from complete dependence on Marie Louise; and he never allowed
her to intmde into political affairs, for which, indeed, she had not
the least aptitude. His real concern for her was evinced shortly
before the birth of their son, the king of Rome, when he gave orders
that if the life of both mother and child could not be saved, that
of the mother should be saved if possible ( 20th of March xSxz).
This event seemed to place Napoleon's fortunes on a sure
basis; but already they were being undermined by events. The
marriage negotiations of i8o9>:8io had somewhat offended the
emperor Alexander; his resentment increased when, at the close
of x8xo. Napoleon dethroned the duke of Oldenburg, brother-in-
law of the tsar; and the breach in the Franco-Russian alliance
widened when the French emperor refused to award fit com-
pensation to the duke or to give to the Russian government an
assurance that the kingdom of Poland would never be re-
constituted. The addition of large territories to the grand
duchy of Warsaw after the war of X809 aroused the fears of the
tsar respecting the Poles; and he regarded all Napoleon's
actions as inspired by hostility to Russia. He, therefore, despite
Napoleon's repeated demands, refused to subject hu empire
to the hardships imposed by the Continental System; at the
close of the year x8io he virtually allowed the entry of colonial
goods (all of which were really British bom<0 and little by little
broke away from Napoleon's system. These actions implied war
between France and Russia, unless Napoleon allowed such
modifications of his rules {e.g. under the license system) as would
NAPOLEON I.
207
fvcft rain from the trade and finance of Riusla; and this he
refused to do.
The campaign of 181 3 may, therefore, be considered as result-
ing, firstly, from the complex and cramping effects of the Conti-
aental System on a northern land which could not deprive itself
of cobMiial goods; secondly, from Napoleon's refusal to mitigate
the amdety of Alexander on the Polish question; and thirdly,
from the annoyance felt by the tsar at the family matters
noticed above. Napoleon undoubtedly entered on the struggle
with rductanoe. He spoke about it as one that lay in the course
of destiny. In one sense he was right. If the Continental
System was inevitable the war with Russia was inevitable. But
that stmggle may more reasonably be ascribed to the rigidity
with which he carried out his commercial decrees and his diplo-
macy. He often prided himself on his absolute consistency,
and we have Chaptal's warrant for the sutement that, after the
time ol the Con»date, his habit of following his own opinions
and rejecting all advice, even when he had asked for it, became
more and more pronounced. It was so now. He took no heed
of the warnings uttered by those sage counsellors, Cambac6r^
and Talleyrand, against an invasion of Russia, while "the
Spanish nker " was sapping the strength of the empire at the
other extremity. He encased himself in fatalism, with the result
that in two years the mightiest empire reared by man broke under
the twofold strain. His diplomacy before the war of x8x3 was
less soccessful than that of Alexander, who skilfully ended his
quarrd with Turkey and gained over to his side Sweden. That
state, where Bemadotte had latterly been chosen as crown
prisce, decided to throw off the yoke of the Continental System
and join England ahd Russia, gaining from the latter power the
promise of Ncnway at the expense of Denmark.
Napoleon on his side coerced Prussia into an offensive alliance
and had the support of Austria and the states of the Rhenish
Cofifederation. At Dresden he held court for a few days in May
1813 with Marie Louise: the emperor Francis, the king of
Prussia and a host of lesser dignitaries were present— a sign of
the power of the modem Charlemagne. It was the last time that
he figured as master of the continent. ^
The military events of the years x 8x3-18x4 are described tmder
Napoleomxc Campaigns; and we need therefore note here only
a few details personal to Napoleon or some considerations whidi
isfloenced his policy. Firstly we may remark that the Austrian
alliance famished one of the motives which led him to refrain
during the campaign of 181 3 from xeconstitutmg the Polish realm
in its ancient extent. To have done so would have been a mortal
affront to his ally, Austria. .• Certainly he needed her support
daring that campaign; but many good judges have inclined
to the belief that the whole-hearted support of Poles and Lithu-
anians would have been of still greater value, and that the organi-
zation of their resources might well have occupied him during the
winter of x8i3-x8x3, and would have furnished him with a new
and advanced base from which to strike at the heart of Russia
in the eaily summer of 1813. If the Austrian alliance was chiefly
icspoQsiblc for his rejection of that statesmanlike plan, whidi
be had before him at Smolensk, it certainly deserves all the hard
things said of it 1^ the champions of Josephine.
Another considoation which largely conduced to the disasters
of the retreat was Napoleon's postponement of any movement
huk from Moscow to the date of October x 9th, and this is known
to have resulted from his conviction that the tsar would give
way as he had done at Tilsit. Napoleon's habit of clinging to his
own preconceptions never received so strange and disastrous an
iSustration as it did during the month spent at Moscow. On the
other hand, his desertion of the army on the 5th of December,
ten long after the crossing of the river Beresina, is a thoroughly
defensive act. He had recently heard of the attempt of a French
TcpuUican general, Malet, to seize the public offices at Paris, a
qnixotk adventure which had come surprisingly near to success
owing to the assurance with which that officer proclaimed the
news of the emperor's death in Russia. In such a case, the best
retort was to return in all haste in order to put more energy into
the huge centralized organism which the emperor alone could
work. IBs n^fd return from Spain early In 1809, and now again
from Lithuania at the close of x8x3, gives an instmctive glimpse
into the anxiety which haunted the mind of the autocrat. He
believed that, imposing as his position was, it rested on the prestige
won by matchless triumphs. Witness his illuminating state-
ment to Volney duxing the Consulate: " Why should France
fear my ambition? I am but the magistrate of the republic.
I merely act upon the imagination of the nation. When that
fails me I shall be nothing, and another will succeed me."
To this cause we may ascribe his constant efforts to daxzle
France by grandiose adventures and by swift, unexpected
movementa. But she had xk>w come profoundly to distrust
him. Her thirst for glory had long since been slaked, and she
longed for peaceful enjoyment of the dvic boons which he had
conferred upon her in that greatest period of his life, the Con-
sulate. That the Russian campaign of 18x3 was the last device
for assuring the success of the Continental System and the ruin
of England was nothing to the great mass of Frenchxnen. They
were weaxy of a means of pacification which produced endless
wars abroad and misery at home. Thie, England had suffered,
but she was xnistress of the seas and had won a score of new
colonies. France had subjected half the continent; but her
hold on Spain was weakened by Wellington's blow at Salamanca;
and now Frenchmen heard that their army in Russia was ^* dead."
At home many industries were suffering from the lack of tropica]
and colonial produce: cane sugar aold at five, and coffee at
seven, shillings the pound. The constant use of chicory for
coffee, and of woad for indigo, was apt to produce a reaction
in favour of a humdraro peaceful policy; and yet, by a recent
imperial decree. Frenchmen had the proqxct of seeing the use
of the new and imperfectly made beet sugar enforced from the
xst ol January 18x3, after which date all cane sugar was
excluded as being of British origin. Shortly before starting
for the Russian expedition Napoleon vainly tried to reassure the
merchants and financiers of France then face to face with a
sharp financial crisis. Now at the dose of x8ia matters were
worse, and Napoleon, on reaching Paris, found the nation
preoccupied with the task of finding out how many Frenchmen
had survived the Russian campaign.
Yet, despite the discontent seething in many quarters, France
responded to his appeal for troops; but she did so mechanically
and without hope. Early in January x 8x3 the senate promised
that 350,000 conscripts should be enrolled; but 150,000 of them
were imder twenty years d age, and mobile columns had to be
used to sweep in Uie recruits, especially in Brittany, the Nether-
lands and the newly annexed hmds of North Germany.
In the old provinces of France Napoleon's indomitable will over-
came all difficulties of a material kind. Forces, inexperienced but
devoted, were soon on foot; and he informed his German allies
that he would allow the Russians to advance into Central
Germany so as to ensure their destmction. As for the " treason "
of General York, who had come to. terms with the Russians, it
moved him merely to scom and contempt. He altogether
underrated the importance of the national movement In Pnissia.
If Pmssian towns " behaved badly " (he wrote on Uie 4th of
March), they were to be burnt; Eugene was not to spare even
Berlin. Prussia (he wrote on the X4th of March) was a weak
country. She could not put more than 40,000 men in the field
(the nimiber to which he had limited her in September x8o8).
He therefore heard without dismay at the end of March that
Pnissia had joined Russia in a league in which Sweden was now
an active partidpant.
It was dear that the q>iritual forces of the time were also
slipping out of his grasp. Early in January he sought to come
to terms with the pope (then virtually a captive at Fontainebleau)
respecting various questions then in debate concerning the
Concordat. At first the emperor succeeded in persuading the
aged pontiff to sign the preliminaries of an agreement, known
as the "Fontainebleau Concordat" (25th of January 1813);
but, on Its insidious character becoming apparent, I^us VII.
revoked his consent, as having been given under constraint.
Neverthdess Napoleon ordered the prelimixiary agreement to be
2o8
NAPOLEON I.
considered u a definitive treaty, and on the snd of April gave
instructions that one of the refractory cardinals should be
carried off secretly by night from Fontainebleau, while the pontiff
was to be guarded more closely than before. On these facts
becoming known, a feeling of pity for the pope became wide-
spread; and the opinion of the Roman Catholic world gradually
turned against the emperor while he was fleeting to preserve
his supremacy in Germany. "I am following Uie course of
events: I have always marched with them." Such were his
words uttered shortly before his departure from Paris (15th of
AprU). They proved that he misread events and misunderstood
his own position.
The course of the ensuing campaigns was to reveal the harden-
ing of his mental powers. Early in April he sought to gain the
help of xoo,ooo Austrian troops by holding out to Francis of
Austria the prospect of acquiring Silesia from Prussia. The offer
met with no response, Austria having received from the allies
vaguely alluring offere that she might arrange matters as she
desired in Italy and South Germany. Napoleon began to suspect
his father-in-law, and still more the Austrian chancellor,
Mcttemich; but instead of humouring them, he resolved to
stand firm. The Austrian demands, first presented to him
on the x6th of May, shortly after his victory of Ltttxen, were
(i) the dissolution of the grand duchy of Warsaw, (2) the with-
drawal of France from the lands of north-west Germany annexed
in 1810 and (3) the cession to Austria of the Illyrian provinces
wrested from her in 1809. Other terms were held in reserve
to be pressed if occasion admitted; but these were all that were
put forward at the moment. On this basis Austria was ready to
offer her armed mediation to the combatants. Napoleon would
not hear of the terms. " I will not have your armed mediation.
You are only confusing the whole question. You say you cannot
act for me; you are strong, then, only against me." This out-
burst of temper was a grave blunder. His threats alarmed the
Austrian court. At bottom the emperor Francis, perhaps also
Metternich, wanted peace, but on terms which the exhaustion
of the combatants would enable them to dictate. Yet during the
armistice which ensued (June 4th-July aoth; afterwards pro-
longed to August loth) Napoleon did nothing to soothe the
Viennese government, and that, too, despite the encouragement
which the allies received from the news of Wellington's victory
at Yittoria and the entry of Bemadotte with a Swedish con-
tingent on the scene. Austria now proposed the terms named
above with the addition that the Confederation of the Rhine
must be dissolved, and that Prussia should be placed in a position
as good as that which she held in 1805, that is, before the
campaign of Jena. On the 37th of June tAit promised to join
the allies in case Napoleon should not accept these terms.
He was now at the crisis of his career. Events had shown
that, even after losing half a million of men in Russia, he was
a match for her and Prussia combined. Would he now accept
the Austrian terms and gain a not disadvantageous peace, for
which France was yearning? These terms, it should be noted,
would have kept Napoleon's empire intaa except in Illyria;
while the peace would have enabled him to reorganize his army
and recover a host of French prisoners from Russia. His
signing of the armistice seemed to promise as much. To give
his enemies a breathing space when they were hard pressed was an
insane proceeding unless he meant to make peace. But there is
nothing in hb words or actions at this time to show that he
desired peace except on terms which were dearly antiquated.
His letters breathe the deepest resentment against Austria,
and show that he burned to chastise her for her " perfidy "
as soon as his cavalry was reorganized. His actions at this time
have been ascribed to righteous indignation against Metternich *s
double-dealing; and in a long interview at the Marcolini palace
at Dresden on the a6th of June he asked the chanceUor point
blank how much money England had given him for his present
conduct. As for himself he cared little for the life of a million
of men. He had married the daughter of the emperor: it
was a mistake, but he would bury the world under the ruins.
Talk in this Ossian-like vein showed that Napoleon's brain no
longer worked clearly: it was a victim to his egotism and passion.
July and the first decade of August came and went, but brought
no sign of pacification. The emperor Francis made a last effort
to influence his son-in-law through Marie Louise. It was in vain.
Nothing could bend that cast iron will. Nothing remained but
to break it. On the expiration of the armistice at midnight ol
August zoth-xxth Austria declared war.
After the disastrous defeat of Leipzig (i7th-z9th October
1813), when French domination in Germany and Italy vanished
like an exhalation, the allies gave Napoleon another opportuzuty
to come to terms. The overtures known as the Frankfort terms
were ostensibly an answer to the request for information which
Napoleon made at the field of Leipzig. Metternich persuaded
the tsar and the king of Prussia to make a declaration that the
allies would leave to Napoleon the "xiatural boundaries" of
France — the Rhine, Alps, Pyrenees and Ocean. The main object
of the Austrian chancellor probably was to let Napoleon once
more show to the world his perverse obstinacy. If this was his
aim, he succeeded. Napoleon on his return to St Goud inveighed
against his ministers for talking so much about peace and decUred
that he would never give up Holland; France must remain a
great empire, and not sink to the level of a mere kingdom. He
would never give up Holland; rather than do that, he would
cut the dykes and give back that land to the sea. Accordingly
on the z6th of November he sent a vague and unsatisfactory
reply to the allies; and though Caulaincourt (who now replaced
Maret as foreign minister) was on the 2nd of December charged
to give a general assent to their terms, yet that assent caxne
too late. The allies had now withdrawn their offer. Napoleon
certainly believed that the offer was insincere. Perhaps be was
right; but even in that case he should surely have accepted
the offer so as to expose their insincerity. As it was, they were
able to contrast their moderation with his wrong^eadedness,
and thereby seek to separate his cause from that of France.
In this they only partially succeeded. Murat now joined the
allies; Germany, Switzerland and Holland were lost to Napoleon;
but when the allies began to invade Alsace and Lorraine, they
found the French staunch in his support. He was still the
peasants! emperor.' The feelings of the year 179 2 began to revive.
Never did Napoleon and France appear more united than in
the campaign of 1814.
Nevertheless it led to his abdication. Once more the allies
consented to discuss the terms of a general pacification; but
the discussions at the congress of Ch&tillon (5th of February-
19th of March) had no result except to bring to light a proof
of Napoleon's insincerity. Thereupon the allies resolved to have
no more dealings with him. As his chances of success became
more and more desperate, he ventured on a step whereby be
hoped to work potently on the pacific desires of the emperor
Francis. Leaving Paris for the time to its own resources, be
struck eastwards in the hope of terrifying that potentate and <^
detaching him from the coalition. The move not only failed,
but it had the fatal effect of uncovering Paris to the northern
forces of the allies. The surrender of the capital, where he had
centralized all the governing powers, was a grave disaster.
Equally fatal was the blow struck at him by the senate, his own
favoured creation. Convoked by Talleyrand on the xst ol
April, it pronounced the word abdication on the morrow. For this
Napoleon cared little, provided that he had the army behind
him. But now the marshals and generals joined the civilians.
The defection of Marshal Marmont and his soldiery on the 4th
of April rendered further thoughts of resistance futile. To
continue the strife when Wellington was firmly established on
the line of the Garonne, and Lyons and Bordeaux had hoisted
the Bourbon fieur de lys, was seen by all but Napoleon to be sheer
madness; but it needed the pressure of his marshals in painful
interviews at Fontainebleau to bring him to reason.
At last, on the nth of April, he wrote the deed of abdication.
On that night he is said to have tried to end his life by poison.
The evidence is not convincing; and certainly hb recovery
was very speedy. On the 20th he bade farewell to his guard
and set forth from Fontainebleau for Elba, which the powers
NAPOLEON I.
209
had very reluctantly, and owing to the pressure of the taar,
awarded to him as a possession. He was to Iceep the title of
emperor. Marie Louise was to have the duchy of Parma for
herself and her son. She did not go with her consort. Following
the advice of her father, she repaired to Vienna along with the
little king of Rome. As for France, she received the Bourbons,
akmg with the old frontiers.
Meanwhile Napoleon, after narrow escapes from royalist
mobs in Provence, was conducted in the British cruiser ** Un-
daunted '* to Elba. There he spent eleven months in uneasy
retirement, watching with close interest the course of events in
France. As he foresaw, the shrinkage of the great empire into
the realm of old France caused infinite disgust, a feeling fed
ev-ery day by stories of the tactless way in which the Bourbon
princes treated veterans of the Grand Army. Equally threaten-
ing was the general situation in Europe. The demands of the
tsar Alexander were for a time so exorbitant as to bring the powers
at the congress of Vienna to the verge of war. Thus, everything
portended a renewal of Napoleon's activity. The return of
French prisoners from Russia, Germany, England and Spain
vaold furnish him with an army far larger than that which
h^ won renown in 1814. So threatening were the symptoms
that the royalists at Paris and the plenipotentiaries at Vienna
talked of deporting him to the Axores, while others more than
hinted at assassination.
He solved the problem in characteristic fashion. On the a6th
of February 1815, when the English and French guardships
veie absent, he slipped away from Porto Ferrajo with some
1000 men and landed near Antibes on the zst of March. Except
in royalist Provence he received everywhere a welcome which
attested the attractive power of his personality and the nullity
of the Bourbons. Firing no shot in his defence, his little troop
swdled until it became an army. Ney, who had said that Napoleon
ought to be brought to Paris in an iron cage, joined him with
60Q0 men on the 14th of March; and five days later the emperor
entered the capital, whence Louis XVIII. had recently fled.
Napoleon was not misled by the enthusiasm of the provinces
and Paris. He knew that love of novelty and contempt for the
gouty old king and his greedy courtiers had brought about this
b(codIesB triumph; and he felt instinctively that he had to deal
•riih a new France, which would not tolerate despotism. On
hit way to Paris he had been profuse in promises of reform and
cocstituttonal rule. It remained to make good those promises
and to disarm the fear and jealousy of the great powers. This
was the work which he set before himself in the Hundred Days
(19th <^ March to 33nd of June 181 5). Were his powers, physical
as veil as mental, equal to the task? This is doubtful. Certainly
the evidence as to his health is somewhat conflicting. Some
persons (as, for instance, Camot, Pasquier, Lavalette and
Thiebault) thought him prematurely aged and enfeebled. Others
again saw no marked change in him; while Mollien, who knew
t}x emperor well, attributed the lassitude which now and then
came over him to a feeling of perplexity caused by his changed
dreumstanccs^ This explanation seems to furnish a correct
due. The Autocrat felt cramped and chafed on all sides by the
ntcadiy of posing as a constitutional sovereign; and, while
losng something of the old rigidity, he lost very much of the old
esergy, both in thought and action. His was a mind that worked
voodezs in well-worn grooves and on facts that were well under-
stood. The necessity of devising compromises with men who
had formeriy been his tools fretted him both in mind and body.
But when he left parliamentary affairs behind, and took the field,
be showed neariy all the power both of initiative and of endurance
^ch marked his masterpiece, the campaign of 18x4. To date
ktsdedine, as Cbaptal does, from the cold of the Moscow campaign
■ deariy incorrect. The time of lethargy at Elba seems to
have been more unfavourable to his powers than the cold of
Russia. At Elba, as Sir Neil Campbell noted, he became in-
active and proportionately corpulent. There, too, as sometimes
in 181 5, he began to suffer intermittently from ischury, but to
no serioos extent. On the whole it seems safe to assert that it
was the change in France far more than the change in his health
which brotight about the manifest constraint of the emperor
in the Hundred Days. His words to Benjamin Constant—'* I
am growing old. The repose of a constitutional king may suit
me. It will more surely suit my son "—show that his mind
seized the salient facts of the situation ; but his instincts struggled
against them. Hence the malaise both of mind and body.
The attempts of the royalists gave him little concern: the due
d'Angoultoe raised a small force for Louis XVIII. in the south,
but at Valence it melted away in front of Grouchy 's command;
and the duke, on the 9th of April, signed a convention whereby
they received a free pardon from the emperor. The royalists
of la Vendue were later in moving and caused more trouble.
But the chief problem centred in the constitution. At Lyons,
on the X3th of March, Napoleon had issued an edict dissolving the
existing chambers and ordering the convocation of a national
mass meeting, or Champ de Mai, for the purpose of modifying the
constitution of the Napoleonic empire. That work was carried
out by Benjamin Constant in concert with the empeior. The
resulting Ade addUumd (supplementary to the constitutions
of the empire) bestowed on France an hereditary chamber of
peers and a chamber of representatives elected by the " electoral
colleges " of the empire, which comprised scarcely one hundredth
part of the citizens of France. As ChAteaubriand remarked, in
reference to Louis XVIII.'s constitutional charter, the new
constitution — La Benjamine, it was dubbed— was merely a
slightly improved charter. Its incompleteness displeased the
liberals; only 1,533,527 votes were given for it in the plibiscite,
a total less than half of those of the plebiscites of the Consulate.
Not all the gorgeous display of the Champ de Mai (held on the
I St of June) could hide the discontent at the meagre fulfilment
of the promises given at Lyons. Napoleon ended his speech with
the words: " My will is that of the people: my rights are its
rights." The words rang hollow, as was seen when, on the 3rd
of June, the deputies chose, as president of their chamber,
Lanjuinab, the staunch h'beral who had so often opposed the
emperor. The latter was with difllictilty dissuaded from quashing
the election. Other causes of offence arose, and Napoleon in
his last communication to them warned them not to imitate the
Greeks of the later Empire, who engaged in subtle discussions
when the ram was battering at their gates. On the morrow
(t2th of June) he set out for the northern frontier. His spirits
rose at the prospect of rejoining the army. At St Helena he told
Gourgaud that he intended in 181 5 to dissolve the chambers
as soon as he had won a great victory.
In point of fact, the sword alone could decide his fate, both in
internal and international affairs. Neither France nor Europe
took seriously his rather vague declaration of his contentment
with the r61e of constitutional monarch of the France of 18x5.
No one believed that he would be content with the *' ancient
limits." So often had he declared that the Rhine and Holland
were necessary to France that every one looked on his present
assertions as a mere device to gain time. So far back as the X3th
of March, six days before he reached Paris, the powers at Vienna
declared him an outlaw; and four days later Great Britain,
Russia, Austria and Prussia bound themselves to put 150,000
men into the field to end his rule. Their recollection of his
conduct during the congress of ChAtiUon was the determining
fact at this crisis; his professions at Lyons or Paris had not the
slightest effect; his efforts to detach Austria from the coalition,
as also the feelers put forth tentatively by Fouch£ at Vienna,
were fruitless. The coalitions, once so brittle as to break at the
first strain, had now been hammered into solidity by his blows.
If ever a man was condemned by his past, Napoleon was so in
181 5.
On arriving at Paris three days after Waterloo he still clung
to the hope of concerting national resistance; but the temper
of the chambers and of the public generally forbade any such
attempt. The autocrat and Lucien Bonaparte were almost alone
in believing that by dissolving the chambers and declaring
himself dictator, he could save France from the armies of the
powers now converging on Paris. Even Davout, minister of
war, advised him that the destinies of France rested solely with
1 a
2IO
NAPOLEON I.
the chamben. That was true. The career of Napoleon, which
had lured France far away from the principles of 1789, now
brought her back to that starting-point; just as, in the physical
sphere, his campaigns from 1 796-1814 had at first enormously
swollen her bulk and then subjected her to a shrinkage still more
portentous. Clearly it was time to safeguard what remained;
i^nd that could best be done under Talleyrand's shield of legiti-
nuicy. Napoleon himself at last divined that truth. When
Lucien pressed him to " dare," he replied " Alas, I have dared
only too much already." On the 22nd of June he abdicated in
favour of his son, well knowing that that was a mere form, as
his son was in Austria. On the asth of June he received from
Fouch£, the president of the newly appointed provisional
government, an intimation that he must leave Paris. He retired
to Malmaison, the home of Josephine, where she had died shortly
after his first abdication. On the 29th of June the near approach
of the Prussians (who had orders to seize him, dead or alive),
caused him to retire westwards towards Rochefort, whence he
hoped to reach the United States. But the passport^ which the
provisional government asked from Wellington were refused,
and as the country was declaring for the Bourbons, his position
soon became precarious. On his arrival at Rochefort (jntof
July) he fotmd that British cruisers cut off his hope of escape.
On the 9th of July he received an order from the provisional
government at Paris to leave France within twenty-four hours.
After wavering between various plans, he decided on the 13th
of July to cast himself on the generosity of the British govern-
ment, and dictated a letter to the prince regent in which he com-
pared himself to Themistocles seating himself at the hearth of hb
enemy. His counsellor, Las Cases, strongly urged that step and
made overtures to Captain Maitland of H.M.S. " Bellerophon."
That officer, however, was on his guard, and, while offering to
convey the emperor to England declined to pledge himself in
any way as to his reception. It was on this understanding (which
Las Cases afterwards misrepresented) that Napoleon on the
I sth of July mounted the deck of the " Bellerophon." No other
course remained. Further delay after the 15th of July would
have led to his capture by the royalists, who were now every-
where in the ascendant. In all but name he was a prisoner of
Great Britain, and he knew it.
The rest of the story must be told very briefly. The British
government, on hearing of his arrival at Plymouth, decided to
send him to St Helena, the formation of that island being such
as to admit of a certain freedom of movement for the august
captive, with none of the perils for the world at large which the
tsar's choice, Elba, had involved. To St Helena, then, he pro-
ceeded on board of H.M.S. " Northumberland." The title of
emperor, which he enjoyed at Elba, had been forfeited by the
adventure of 1815, and he was now treated officially as a general.
Nevertheless, during his last voyage he enjoyed excellent health
even in the tropics, and seemed less depressed than his associates,
Bertrand, Gourgaud, Las Cases and Montholon. He landed at
St Helena on the X7th of October. He resided first at " The
Briars" with the Balcombes, and thereafter at Longwood,
when that residence was ready for him. The first governor of
the island. General Wilks, was soon superseded, it being judged
that he was too amenable to influence from Napoleon; his
successor was Sir Hudson Lowe.
Napoleon's chief relaxations at St Helena were found in the
dictation of his memoirs to Montholon, and the compilation of
monographs on military and political topics. The memoirs
(which may be accepted as mainly Napoleon's, though Montholon
undoubtedly touched them up) range over most of the events
of his life from Toulon to Marengo. The military and historical
works comprise pricis of the wars of Julius Caesar, Turenne and
Frederick the GreaL He began other accounts of the campaigns
of his own age; but they are marred by his having had few
trustworthy documents and statistics at hand. On a lower
level as regards credibility stands the Mimorial de SaitUe-
HilhUy compiled by Las Cases from Napoleon's conversations
with the obvious aim of creating a Napoleonic legend. Never-
theless the Memorial is of great interest— e.^. the passage
(iv. 451-454) in which Napoleon reflects on the ruin wrought
to his cause by the war in Spain, or that (iii. ijo) deah'ng with
his fatal mistake in not dismembering Austria after Wagrara, and
in marrying an Austrian princess—" There I stepped on to an
abyss covered with flowers "; or that again (iii. 79) where he
represented himself as the natural arbiter in the immense
struggle of the present against the past, and asserted that in ten
years' time Europe would be either Cossack or republican. It is
noteworthy that in Gourgaud's Journal de SU. HiUne there are
very few reflections of this kind and the emperor appears in a guise
far more life-like. But in the works edited by Montholon and
Las Cases, where the political aim constantly obtrudes itself,
the emperor is made again and again to embroider on the theme
that he had always been the true champion of ordered freedom.
This was the mot tTordre at Longwood to his companions, who
set themselves deliberately to propagate it. The folly of the
monarchs of the Holy Alliance in Europe gained for the writings
of Montholon and Las Cases (that of Gourgaud was not published
till 1899) a ready reception, with the result that Napoleon
reappeared in the literature of the ensuing decades wielding
an influence scarcely less potent than that of the grey-coated
figure into whose arms France flung herself on his return from
Elba. All that he had done for her in the days of the Consulate
was remembered; his subsequent proceedings — his tyranny,
his shocking waste of human life, his deliberate persistence in
war when France and Europe called for a reasonable and lasting
peace — all this was forgotten; and the great warrior, who died
of cancer on the 5th of May 1821, was thereafter enshrouded in
mists of legend through which his form loomed as that of a
Prometheus condemned to a lingering agony for his devotion
to the cause of humanity. It was this perversion of fact which
rendered possible the career of Napoleon III.
Bibliography. — In the followine list only the most hdpful and
accessible works can be enumerated. Astcnsks are placea against
those works which have been translated into Enc^h.
A. General: Histories and Biographies. * A Thiers, Hisbrin d*
la Rivolutum franiaise, du Constaat et dt TEmpirt (many editions
in French and English) ; *P. Lanfrey, Histoire d* NapoUom I. (5
vols., Paris. 1867-1875) (incomplete); Sir A. Alison, Hislorv ef
Europe, 1780-1815 (14 vols., London, 1833-1842); J. HoIUnd Rose,
The Life of Napoleon I. (2 vols., London ; 3rd ed.. 1905) ; A. Foumier,
Napoleon der erste (t vols.. Prague and Vienna, 1889): W. M.
Sloane. Napoleon: a History (4 vols.. London, 1896-1897); O'Connor
Morris. NapoUon (New York. 1893) ; E. Lavtsae and A. N. Rambaud.
" La Revolution fransaise. 178^1799 " and " Napolten," vols. viii.
and ix. of the Histoire tiiUralej The CamMdge Modem History, voL
viiL (" The French Revolution ") and vol. ix. (" Napoleon *')
(Cambridge, 1904 and 1906): W. Oncken, Das Zeitaller der Revolu-
tion, des Kaiserreuhs, una der Befreiungskriege (3 vols., Berlin, 1880):
A. T. Mahan. Influence of Sea Power on the French RevUntion and
Empire (2 vols.. London. 1892); A. Sorel, L Europe et la Ritolutdon
franfaise (parts v.-viti. refer to Napoleon) (Paris, 1903-1904} ;
P. Masson, Napdion et sa familU (4 vols., Paris, 1897-19001.
The great source for Napoleon s life is the Corresp^nda^sc do
NapoUon /. (33 vols.. Paris, 1858-1869). Though nrt>led in several
places by the imperial commission appointed by Napoleon III. to
edit the letters and despatches, it is invaluable. It has been mpfAc
mented by the *Lettres in6dUes de NapoUon /*, edited by L. Lerestre
{.2 vols.. Paris, 1897; Eng. cd. I vol., London, 1898). and Letirta
tnidOes de NapoUon /*', edited by L. de Brotonne (Paris, 1898)
(with supplement. 1903).
B. Works dealing mainly with particular periods.
I. Early years (i769~i79S)> NapoUon inconnu (1786-1793),
edited by F. Masson (3 vols., Paris. 1895); A. Chuquet, La Jeumesse
de NapoUon /. (\ vols., Paris, 1 897-1 8m); T. Nasica, Mimoires
sur Venfance et lajeunessede NapoUon I. (Paris, 1853): B. Gadobcrt,
La Jeunesse de NapoUon I. (Pans, 1897) ; J. Colin. V Education mili-
taire de NapoUon (Paris, 1900): P. Cottin. Toiitoi el Us Anglais on
1793 (Paris, 1898) : H. F. T. Jum. Bonaparte et son temps, 1769-1709
(3 vob^ Paris, 1 880-1881); 0. Browning, Napoloonx the First
Phase (London, 1905); H. F. Hall, Napoleon's Notes on English
History (London, 190;$); C. J. Fox. Napoleon Bonaparte and Ike
Siege of Toulon (Washington, 1903) ; H. Zivy, Le Treiat Yendimiaire
(Paris, 1898).
II. The Period 1796-1799. (For the campaigns of 1796-1800,
1805-7, i8o8-9f 1813-15. see French Rbvolutionary wars and
Napoleonic Campaigns.) The chief works on civil, dipkxnatic and
pcrK>nal affairs in the life of Napoleon for the period 1796-1799 are:
P. Gaffarel, ^OM^orfe et les ripublioues italiennes, 1^9^1799 (ntfia,
189s): C. Tivaroni, Storia crttica ad risorgimento UtUiasuf (3 vols.,
Tunn, 1899— (in progress)); E. Bonnal de Ganges, La Chute d^uno
rlpubliquo (Fmse) (Paris, 1885); E. Quinet, Lu Rtoolmtions d'ltalio
NAPOLEON II.-NAPOLEON III.
tZT**"
(Pkm. 1841): J. da Ten. Romt, NapUs H U dtredoire: armisHus
€t Cr€$Us, 1/06-1797 (Paris, 1903) ; A. Sorel, BonapaiU et Hoche en 1797 ;
L. Sciout, Le Dirtctoire (x vols., Paris, 189^); F. A. Aulard, Paris
pendant la Hactien tkermtaarienne et sous U direcioire (5 vols., Paris,
1898-1902): Comte A. J. C. J. Boulay de la Meurthe. L* Direcioire
et FexpidtHan d'EgypU (Paris, 1885); E. Driault,^ la Question
d'Oriemt (Paris. 1898); D. Lacroix, BonapaiU en £gypte (Paris,
id^h A. Vandal, LAthiement de Bonaparte (Paris, 1902-1903):
*F. Kocqoain, Etai de France au 18 Brumaire (Paris. 1874); Bona-
parte d St CUmd (anonymous) (Pftris. 1814).
III. The Consulate a?id Empife (I>v4^mber 1799'ApriL i9i4).
(a) Family and personal sijlair-.: ' F. M j-^>-i.t«. N^p^Utm tkti tut (2
rob., Paris. 1893- ). *t<t'jfioiAim ti kijfmm^t (j >oU,. Pari*. ia93-
1902), NapoUon et son JUj (JVrii, 1904); M. F. A. d* Lwure,
NapoUau et safamiUe (PSarii, 1 667) ; *£j>tirti tk Napdiim d Us^phine
(Pkris, 1805); A. Cuillob, NopsUim, i-ki>fnm€. k ptiiiiicmt, iof^ttur
(2 vols.. Paris, 1889); *A. L*w, S^t^^tS^m iniimt (Par», u^^J3):
Ban» C. F. de Mdneval. NapaiioH tt Mortt L(mit€ (j vol*-, Pj^fis,
1843-1845): Baron A. du Caiac, Ui ft^^.h-Jj-M dt A*DfiflW<M» (Paris,
1883) : H. Wekchingcr, Le Daont dt Napgfim (Pjtri$. 1 m^}.
(f) Plou against Napolwjni E. Diudrt. Hiitoirt dt f^ifraiion
'^.. Pans. 1886-1890 ajid (90^-1905), and Lu Foike wt Us
\ sous U consulat ft rnafnre fP*nt, (flgj); C de Cudourlal,
Georges C ada n da t et la Ckouann^rie (Pam, i^7J^ £- Guilbn. les
Complats mHitoires sous le tomuljit tt t'tmpirt (Pari». 1 ^4) ; * G. A.
Tbiorry, Le Comploi dej LthcUfs, iSoi (Tarit, 1905), M^mtnres
M s tar iqmt s tmr la eaiastrof'ki du dtt£ d'Enj^kign (Pin;, i^^,|) i H- Wcl-
Khinger. Le due d'Euekum (FarU, t&HS}. E. I lintel. liuU>%H des
deux conspirations du Mncfol Matei {Pau^, [StiJ.
if) Adauntstration. Fir 3 nee, EXutarior*, tFot the Cod* Ncp^l^on
wtt CODC) •). Pelet de U Losbv, Optn»ntt dt N^poUtm lur dnfrs
sufets do poUtaque et d'administniitom (P^m, i8^): tJiiruf'HJn.ird.
Sopoitom. ses opinions et jmp^tnii Jicf Ui k^imm^s tt mr in tkt^ies
(2 vols.. Paris, 1838); L Aui-hk: U Ccwn/ rfV^o/ txi-ant ff ji^i-jii*
/7*9 (P*ri«. 1876): E. " f !mre di r,itimtniilr ro-
nuciak, departimentaie et 'f fnn^t {Vat}^, \>-- A.
Aulard. Paris sous U Consulat \VAns, 1903, seq.); L. de Lanzac de
Laborie. Paris sous NapoUon (Paris, 1905, seq.): A. Edmond-
^nc. SapoUon /., ses institutions cioiUs et admtnistrtUives (Paris,
1880): H. Wclschinger, La Censure sous U premier Empire (Paris.
1882) : C. van Schoor, La Presse sous le consulat et r empire (Brussels,
1899) : M. C Gaudin (Due de Gatte). Notiu kistorique sur Us finances
de la France, 1800-1814 (Paris, 18 18): R. Stourm. Les Finances du
consulat (Paris. IQ02); J. B. G. Fabry, Le Cinie de la riootution
tonstdM data Tiducation (3 vols.. Paris, 1817-1818): F. Guizot,
Essai sur rkistoire et FHat actuet de ^instruction publiaue (Paris,
1816): C. Schmidt, La Rtforme de PUniversiU imf>truUe en 1811
(Paris, 190^). The memoirs of Chaptal, M^neval, Mollicn, Oiivrard
and Paaquier deal largely with these subjects. Those of Bourricnne
asd FoDch6 are of doubtful authority; the btter are certainly not
genaiAe.
(4) Diplooacv and General Policy: Besides the works named
ander A, the fouowiiw may be named as more especially applicable
to this aectioo : A. Lefebvre, Histoire des cabinets de f Europe pendant
le cmnsmlat et Fempire (3 vols., Paris, i84<-i847); C. Auriol. La
France. rAngfettrre, et NapoUon, 1803-1806 (Paris, 1905); B. Bailleu,
Preussem toed Prankreick oon i7ff5't8o7; Diplomatischo Corre-
188O: C ,
(Loadoo. 1887): H. M. Bowman, Prdintinary States of the Peace of
Amiens (Tonmto,i90o) :*Coquelle, NapoUon etrAnefeterre,i8o3-i8is
(Pftrts. 1904): A. Vandal, NapoUon et Alexandre I*' (3 vols., Paris,
1891-1893); W. Oncken. Oesterreich und Preussen tm Befreiungs-
kriege (2 vol&. Berlin, 1876) ; H. A. L. Fisher. Napoleonic Statesman-
skip: Germany {Oxford, 1903); A.. Rambaud, La Domination
frauioise en AOemagne (2 vols.. Paris, 1 873-1 874); G. Roloff, Die
KoiomalpoUtiM Napoleons /. (Munich. 1899) and Poliiik und Krieg-
fikrang wOkrtnd des Feldsuga •on 1814 (Berlin, 1891) : A. Foumier.
Der Congress sum Ckitillon (Vienna and Prague, 1900) ; P. Gruyer,
NapoUon. roi de FfU d'Elbe (Piris, 1906): ^H. Houssave, 1815 (3
volv, Paris, 1808-1905): C M. Talleyrand (Prince de Benevento),
Latres inidites a NapoUon. t8oo~t8og (Paris, 1889).
IV. Closing Years (from the second abdication. June 32nd 1815,
to death). Captain F. L. Maitbnd, Narrative of tke Surrender oj
Boneparte (London. 1826; new ed., 1904): Sir T. Ussher, Napoleons
Last Voyages (London, 1805; new ed., 1906); G. Gourraud, 5<it»(f-
HHine: Journal inidiU do 1815 ^ t8i8 (a vols., Paris, 1899);
Marquis O I. de Montholon, Kicits de la captHnti de I'empereur
SapiUon a Su Hitkne (2 voK, Paris, 1847): Comte E. P. D. de
1^ Cases. Mimorial de SU HlUne (4 vols., London and Paris, 1823) ;
Lady Malcolm. A Diary of St Helena (London, 1899): W. Forsyth,
Hioory of tke Captivity of NapoUon at St Helena (3 vols., London
iSsj): R. C. Seaton, Napoleon's Captioity in Relation to Sir Hudson
Lmoe (London, 1903) ; oasaX Jackson. N<^s and Reminiscenus of a
Staff OMcer (London, 1901); Eari of Rosebery, NapoUon: tke Last
Pkase (1900) ; J. H. Rose. Napoleonic StudUs (London. 1904).
Many of the works relating to Napoleon's detention at St Helena
are pcrvcrMoa of the truth, e.g. O'Meant's A Voice from St Helena I
(Loadoo. ifllaa). The works of Laa Cases and Montbobn shouM also
211
be read with great caution. The same remark applies to Mrs L. A.
Abell's Recollections of tke Emperor NapoUon (London. 1844).
W. Warden's Letters written on Board H.ii.S. " Norlkumberland "
(London, 1816) and J. Stokoe's Witk Napoleon at St Helena (Eng.
ed., London, 1902). Santini's Appeal to tke Britisk Nation (London,
1817) and the Manuscrit venu de SU Htihu d'une manihe inconnue
(London, 1817) are forgeries. (J. Hl. R.)
MAPOLBOll II., einperor of the French, the style given by
the Bonapartists to the son of Napoleon I., Napoleon Francb
Joseph Charles, duke of Relchstadt (q.v.). The fact that in
1814, by Napoleon I.'s abdication in his favour, the king of
Rome (as he was then styled) became for a few days titular
emperor " by the will of the people," was held by Prince Louis
Napoleon to justify his own assumption of the style of Napoleon
III. which, as seeming to involve a dynastic claim, gave such
offence to the legitimist powers, notably the emperor Nicholas I
of Russia.
MAPOLBOll III. [Charles Louis Napoleon Bonapaste]
(1808-1873), emperor of the French, was bom on the 20th of
April J 808 in Paris at 8 rue Cerutti (now rue Laffitte), and not
at the Tuileries, as the official historians state. He was the third
son of Louis Bonaparte (see Bonapaste), brother of Napoleon I.,
and from 1806 to 1810 king of Holland, and of Hortcnse de
Beauhamais, daughter of General (de) Beauhamaisand Josephine
Tascher de la Pagerie, afterwards the empress Josephine; hence
he was at the same time the nephew and the adopted grandson
of the great emperor. Of the two other sons of Louis Bonaparte
and Hortense, the elder, Napoleon Charles (1802- 1807), died
of croup at The Hague; the second, Napoleon Louis (1S04-1831),
died in the insurrection of the Romagna, leaving no children.
Doubts have been cast on the legitimacy of Louis Napoleon; for
the discord between Louis Bonaparte, who was ill, restless and
suspicious, and his pretty and capricious wife was so violent
and open as to justify all conjectures. But definite evidence,
in the shape of letters and references in memoirs, enables us
to deny that the Dutch Adnriral Verhuell was the father of Louis
Napoleon,and there is strong evidence of resemblance in character
between King Louis and his third son. He early gave signs of a
grave and dreamy character. Many stories have been told about
his childhood, for example the remark which Napoleon I. is said
to have made about him: " Who knows whether the future
of my race may not lie in this child." It is certain that, after
the abdication and exile of Louis, Hortense Uved in France with
her two children, in close relation with the imperial court.
During the Hundred Days, Louis Napoleon, then a child of
seven, witnessed the presentation of the eagles to 50,000 soldiers;
but a few weeks later, before his departure for Rochcfort, the
defeated Napoleon embraced him for the lost time, and his
mother had to receive Frederick William III. of Prussia and his
two sons at the ch&leau of Saint-Leu; here the victor and the
vanquished of Sedan met for the first time, and probably played
together.
After Waterloo, Hortense. suspected by the Bourbons of having
arranged the return from Elba, had to go into exile. The ex-
king Louis, who now lived at Florence, had compelled her by a
scandalous law-suit to give up to him the elder of her two children.
With her remaining child she wandered, under the name of
duchesse de Saint-Leu, from Geneva to Aix, Carlsruhe and
Augsburg. In 181 7 she bought the castle of Arencnbcrg, in the
canton of Turgau, on a wooded hill looking over the Lake of
Constance. Hortense supervised her son's education in person,
and tried to form his character. His tutor was Philippe Le Bas,
son of the well-known member of the Convention and follower
of Robespierre, an able man, imbued with the ideas of the
Revolution, while Vieillard, who instructed him in the rudiments,
was a democratic imperialist also inspired with the ideal of
nationalism. The young prince also studied at the gymnasium
at Augsburg, where his love of work and his mental qualities were
gradually revealed; he was less successful in mathematics than
in literary subjects, and he became an adept at physical exercises,
such as fencing, riding add swimming. It was at this time that
he acquired the slight German accent which he never lost.
Those who educated him never lost sight of the future; but it
212
NAPOLEON III.
WIS above all his mother, fully confident of the future destiny
of the Bonapartes, who impressed on him the idea that he would
be king, or at any rate, that he would accomplish some great
. works. " With your name," she said, " you will always count for
something, whether in the old world of Europe or in the new.*'
' If we may believe Mme Comu, he already at the age of twelve
i had dreams of empire.
i In 1823 he accompanied his mother to Italy, visiting his father
at Florence, and his grandmother Letitia at Rome, and dreaming
with Le Bas on the banks of the Rubicon. He returned to
Arenenburg to complete his military education under Colonel
Armandi and Colonel Dufour, who instructed him in artillery
and military engineering. At the age of twenty he was a
" Liberal," an enemy of the Bourbons and of the treaties of 1815;
but he was dominated by the cult of the emperor, and for him
the liberal ideal was confused with the Napoleonic.
The July revolution of 1830, of which he heard in Italy,
roused all his young hopes. He could not return to FVance, for
the law of X 81 6 banishing all his family had not been abrogated.
But the liberal revolution knew no frontiers. Italy shared in
the agitation. He had already met some of the conspirators
at Arenenberg, and it is practically established that he now
joined the associations of the Carbonari Following the advice
of his friend the Count Arese and of Menottl, he and his brother
were among the revolutionaries who in February 1831 attempted
a rising in Roroagna and the expulsion of the pope from Rome.
They distinguished themselves at Civita Costellana, a little
town which they took; but the Austrians arrived in force, and
during the retreat Napoleon Louis, the elder son, took cold,
followed by measles, of which he died. Hortense hurried to
the spot and took steps which enabled her to save her second son
from the Austrian prisons. He escaped into France, where his
mother, on the plea of his illness, obtained permission from
Louis Philippe for him to stay in Paris. But he intrigued with
the republicans, and Casimir^P6rier insisted on the departure
of both mother and son. In May 1831 they went to London,
and afterwards returned to Arenenberg.
For a time he thought of responding to the appeal of some of
the Polish revolutionaries, but Warsaw succumbed (September
183 1 ) before he could set out. Moreover the plans of this young
and visionary enfant du sUcU were becoming more definite.
The duke of Rcichstadt died in 1832. His uncle, Joseph, and
his father, Louis, showing no desire to claim the inheritance
promised them by the constitution of the year XII., Louis
Napoleon henceforth considered himself as the accredited
representative of the family. Those who came in contact with
him noticed a transformation in his character; he tried to hide
his natural sensibility under an impassive exterior, and concealed
his political ambitions. He became indeed **doux entite"
(gentle but obstinate) as his mother called him, persistent in
his ideas and always ready to return to them, though at the
same time yielding and drawing back before the force of circum-
stances. He endeavoured to define his ideas, and in 1 833 published
his Rtveries poliiiqueSt suivies iPun projet de constitution, and
Considirations politiques et militaircs sur la Suisse; in 1836,
as a captain, in the Swiss service, he published a Manuel
d*artillene, in order to win popularity with the French army.
A phrase of Montesquieu, placed at the head of this work, sums
up the views of the young theorist: "The people, possessing
the supreme power, should do for itself all that it is able to do;
what it cannot do weU, it must do through its elected repre-
sentatives." The supreme authority entrusted to the elect of
the people was always his essential idea. But the problem was
how to realize it< Louis Napoleon could feel vaguely the state
of public opinion in France, the longing for glory from which
it suffered, and the deep-rooted discord between the nation and
the king, Louis Philippe, who though sprung from the national
revolution against the treaties of 1815, was yet a partisan of
peace at any price. Both Ch&teaubriand and CsltkI had praised
the prince's first writings. Bonapartists and republicans found
common ground in the glorious tradition sung by B6ranger.
A military conspiracy like those of Berton or the sergeanU
of La Rochelle, seemed feasible to Napoleon. A new friend of
his, Fialin, formeriy a non-commissioned officer and a journalist,
an energetic and astute man and a bom conspirator, spurred
him on to action.
With the aid of Fialin and Elfonore Gordon, a singer, who
is supposed to have been his mistre^, and with the co-operation
of certain officers, such as Colonel Vaudrey, an old s^dier of
the Empire, commanding the 4th regiment of artillery, and
Lieutenant Laity, he tried to bring about a revolt of the garrison
of Strassburg (October 30, 1836). The conspiracy was a failure,
and Louis Philippe, fearing lest he might make the pretender
popular either by the glory of an acquittal or the aureole of
mart3rrdom, had him taken to Lorient and put on board a ship
bound for America, while his accomplices were brought before
the court of assizes and acquitted (February 2837). The prince
was set free in New York in April; by the aid of a false passport
he returned to Switzerland in August, in time to see his mother
before her death on the 3rd of October 1837.
At any other time this attempt would have covered its author
with ridicule. Such, at least, was the opinion of the whole ci the
family of Bonaparte. But his confidence was unshaken, and
in the woods of Arenenberg the romantic-minded friends who
remained faithful to him still honoured him as emperor. And
now the government of Louis Philippe, by an evil inspiration,
began to act in such a way as to make him popular. In 1838
it caused his partisan Lieutenant Laity to be condemned by the
0>urt of Peers to five years' imprisonment for a pamphlet which
he had written to justify the Strassburg affair; then it demanded
the expulsion of the prince from Switzerland, and when the Swiss
government resisted, threatened war. Having allowed the July
monarch to commit himself, Louis Napoleon at the last moment
left Switzerland voluntarily. All this served to encourage the
mystical adventurer. In London, where he had taken up his
abode, together with Arese, Fialin (says Persigny), Doctor
Conneau and Vaudrey, he was at first well received in society,
being on friendly terms with Count d'Orsay and Disraeli, and
frequenting the fo^ of Lady Blessington. He met with various
adventures, being present at the famous tournament given by
Lord Eglinton, and yielded to the charm of his passionate
admirer Miss Howard. But it was a studious life, as well as the
life of a dandy, that he led at Carlton House Terrace. Not for
a minute did he forget his mission: " Would you believe it,"
the duke of Wellington wrote of him, " this young man will hot
have it said that he is not going to be emperor of the French.
The unfortunate affair of Strassburg has in no way shaken this
strange conviction, and his chief thoughts are of what he will
do when he is on the throne." He was in fact evolving his
programme of government, and in 1839 wrote and published
his book: Des I dies napoUoniennes, a curious mixture of Bona-
partism, socialism and pacificism, which he represented as the
tradition of the First Empire. He also followed attentively
the fluctuations of French opinion.
Since 1838 the Napoleonic propaganda had made enormous
progress. Not only did certain newspapers, such as the Capiide
and the Journal du Comtnerce, and dubs, such as the CuUttes
de pcau carry it on zealously; but the diplomatic humiliatk>n
of France in the affair of Mehemet Ali (7.9.) in 1840, with the
outburst of patriotism which accompanieid it, followed by the
concessions made by the government to public opinion, such as,
for example, the bringing back of the ashes of Napoleon I.,
all helped to revive revolutionary and Napoleonic memories.
The pretender, again thinking that the moment had come,
formed a fresh conspiracy. With a little band of fifty-six followers
he attempted to provoke a rising of the 42nd regiment of the
line at Boulogne, hoping afterwards to draw General M^gnan
to Lille and march upon Paris. The attempt was made on the
6th of August Z840, but failed; he saw several of his supporters
fall on the shore of Boulogne, and was arrested together witH
Montholon, Persigny and Conneau. This time he was biouglit
before the Court of Peers with his accomplices; he entrusted
his defence to Berryer and Marie, and took advantage of his
trial to appeal to the supremacy of the people, which he alleged.
NAPOLEON III.
213
IimI been diBregarded, even after xSja He was condemned
Co detentkm for life in a fortress, his friend Aladenize being
departed, and Montholon, Parquin, Lombard and Fialin being
each condemned to detention loY twenty years. On the xsth of
December, the veiy day that Napoleon's ashes were deposited at
the Invalides, he was taken to the fortress of Ham. The country
seemed to foviget him; Lamartine alone foretold that the honours
paid to Napoleon I. would shed lustre on his nephew. His prison
at Ham was unhealthy, and physical inactivity was painful
to the prince, bat on the whole the regime imposed upon him
was mild, and his captivity was lightened by Alexandrine
VergBot, " ta beOe sabotiire,'^at Mdlle Badinguet (he was later
nickoamed Badinguet by the republicans). His more intel-
lectual friends, sudk as Mme Comu, also came to visit him and
assisted him in his studies. He corresponded with Louis Blanc,
Geocige Sand and Proudhon, and collaborated with the journalists
of the Left, Degeorge, Peauger and Souplet. For six years
he woricfid very bard " at this University of Ham," as he said.
He wrote some Fragments kistonquet, studies on the sugar-
qoestion, oa the construction of a canal through Nicaragua,
and on the recruiting of the army, and finally, in the Progris
dm Pas'dt-Caiais, a series of artides on social questions which
were later embodied in his Eaainaion du paupirisme (1844).
But the same persistent idea underlay all his efforts. " The
more closely the body is confined," he wrote, " the more the mind
IB dtspoaed to indulge in flights of imagination, and to consider
the possibility of executing projecu of which a more active
extstenoe would never perhaps have left it the leisure to think."
On the 35th of May 1846 he escaped to London, giving as the
reason for his decision the dangerous illness of his father. ' On
the 37th of July his father dkd, before he could accomplish
a ioumey undertaken in spiu of the refusal of a passport by
the representative of Tuscany.
He was again well received in London, and he " made up for
his six years of isolation by a furious pursuit of pleasure." The
duke <rf Brunswick and the banker Ferrire interested them-
wehns in his future, and gave him money, as did also Miss Howard,
whom he later made comtcsse de Beauregard, after restoring to
her several millions. He was still full of pUns and new ideas,
always with the same end in view; and for this reason, in spite of
ha various enterprises, which were sometimes ridiculous, some*
tinaes unpleasant in their consequences, and his unscrupulous-
ness as to the men and means he employed, he always had a
kind of greatness. He alwasrs retained his faith in his star.
" They will come to me without any effort of my own," he said
to Ta^ioni the dancer; and again to Lady Douglas, who was
fnqiwrllir»g resignation, he repUed, " Though fortune has twice
betrayed me, yet my destiny will none the less surely be fulfilled.
1 wait." He was not to wait much longer.
As be well perceived, the popularity of his name, the vague
" kgend " off a Napoleon who was at once a democrat, a soldier
and a revolutionary hero, was his only strength. But by his
abortive efforts he had not yet been able to win over this immense
foroe off tradition and turn it to his own purposes. The events
which o ccmied from 1848 to 1852 enabled him to do so. He
behaved with extraordinary skill, displaying in the heat of the
ooofiict all the abilities of an experienced conspirator, knowing,
** like the snaO, how to draw in his horns as soon as he met with
aa obttacle " (Thiers), but supple, resourceful and unscrupulous
as to the choice of men and means in his obstinate struggle for
At the lint symptoms of revolutionary disturbance he returned
to France; on the 35th of February he offered his services to the
Provisional Goverrmient, but, on being requested by it to depart
at once, resigned himself to th^ course. But Persigny, Mocquard
and all his friends devoted themselves to an energetic propaganda
in the pscss, by pictures and by songs. After the xsth of Ma,y
had already shaken the strength of the young republic, he was
dected in June r 848 by four departments, Seine, Yonne, Charente-
lafMeore and Corsica. In spite of the opposition of the executive
coamuttee, the Assembly ratified his election. But he had learnt
to wait. He seat in his resignation from London, merely hazard-
ing this appeal: " If the people impose duties on me, I shall
know how to fulfil them." This time events worked in his favour;
the industrial insurrection of June made the middle classes and
the mass of the rural population look for a saviour, while it
turned the industrial population towards Bonapartism, out off
hatred for the republican bourgeois. The Legitimists seemed im-
possible, and the people turned instinctively towards a Bonaparte.
On the 36th of September he was re>elected by the same
departments; on the nth off October the law decreeing the
banishment of the Bonapartes was abrogated; on the 36th he
made a speech in the Assembly defending his position as a
pretender, and cut such a sorry figure that Antony Thouret
contemptuously withdrew the amendment by which he had
intended to bar him from rising to the presidency. Thus he was
able to be a candidate for this formidable power, which had just
been defined by the Constituent Assembly and entrusted to the
choice of the people, "to Providence," as Lamartine said.
In contrast to Cavaignac he was the candidate of the advanced
parties, but also of the monarchists, who reckoned on doing
what they liked with him, and of the Catholics, who gave him
their votes on condition of his restoring the temporal power
to Rome and handing over education to the Church. The former
rebel of the Romagna, the Liberal CarbanarOf was henceforth to
be the tool of the priests. In his very triumph appeared the
ultimate cause of his downfall. On the loth of December he
was elected president of the Republic by 5,434,336 votes against
x,448,xo7 given to Cavaignac. On the sotb of December he
took the oath "to remain faithful to the democratic Republic
. . . to regard as enemies of the nation all those who may attempt
by illegal means to change the form of the established govern-
ment." From this time onward his history is inseparable from
that of France. But, having attained to power, he still en-
deavoured to realize his cherished project. All his efforts, from
the loth of December 1848 to the snd of December 1853 tended
towards the acquisition of absolute authority, which he wished
to obtain, in appearance, at any rate, from the people.
It was with this end in view that be co-operated with the
party of order in the expedition to Rome for the destruction of
the Roman republic and the restoration of the pope (March 31,
1849), and afterwards in all the reactionary measures against the
press and the dubs, and for the destruction of the Reds. But in
opposition to the party of order, he defined his own personal
policy, as in his letter to Edgard Ney (August x6, 1849), which
was not deliberated upon at the couodl of ministers, and asserted
his intention " of not stifling Italian Uberty," or by the change
of ministry on the 31st of October 1849, when, " in order to
dominate all parties," he substituted for the men coming from
the Assembly, such as Odilon Barrot, creatures of his own, such
as Rouher and de Parieu, the Auvergne avocatSt and Achille
Fould, the banker. " The luune of Napoleon," he said on this
occasion, " is in itself a programme; it stands for order, authority,
religion and the welfare of tl^e people in internal affairs, and in
foreign affairs for the national dignity."
In spite of this alarming assertion of his personal policy, he
still remained in harmony with the Assembly (the Legislative
Assembly, elected on the 38th of May X849) in order to carry
out " a Roman expedition at home," i.e. to dear the administra-
tion of all republicans, put down the press, suspend the right of
holding meetings and, above all, to hand over education to the
Church (law of the xsth of March 1850). But the machiavellian
pretender, daily growing more skilful at manoeuvring between
different classes and parties, knew where to stop and how to
keep up a show of democracy. When the Assembly, by the law
of the 3xst of May 1850, restricted universal suffrage and reduced
the number of the dcctors from 9 to 6 millions, he was able to
throw upon it the whole responsibility for this amp d'itat hour-
geois. " I cannot understand how you, the offspring of universal
suffrage, can defend the restricted suffrage," said his friend Mme
Comu. " You do not understand," he repUed, " I am preparing
the ruin of the Assembly." " But you will perish with it," she
answered. " On the contrary, when the Assembly is hanging^
over the predpice, I shall cut the rope."
21+
NAPOLEON III.
In fac^ while trying to compass the destniction of the
republican movement of the Left, he was taking careful steps to
gain over all classes. " Prince^ altesse, monsieur, monseigneur,
citcyen " (he was called by all these names indifferently at the
Ely^), he appeared as the candidate of the most incompatible
interests^ flattering the energy by his compliments and formal
visits, distributing dgars and sausages to the soldiers, promising
the prosperous bourgeoisie " order in the street " and business,
while he posed as the " father of the workers," and won the hearts
of the peasants. At his side were his accomplices, men ready for
anything, whose only hopes were bound up with his fortxmes,
such as Momy and Rouher; his paid publicists, such as Romieu
the originator of the "red spectre"; his cudgel-bearers, the
"RatapoOs" immortalized by Daumier, who terrorized the
republicans. From the £lys6e by means of the mass of officials
whom they had at their command, the con^irators extended their
activities throughout the whole country.
He next entered upon that struggle with the Assembly, now
discredited, which was to reveal to all the necessity for a change,
and a change in his favour. In January 1851 he deprived
Changamier of his command of the garrison of Paris. "The
Empire has come," said Thiers. The pretender would have pre-
ferred, however, that it should be brought about legally, the first
step being his re-election in 185a. The Constitution forbade his
re-election; therefore the Constitution must be revised. On the
iQth of July the Assembly threw out the proposal for revision,
thus signing its own death-warrant, and the coup d*itat was
resolved upon. He prepared for it systematically. The cabinet
of the 36th of October 185 1 gave the ministry for war to his
creature Saint-Amaud. All the conspirators were at their
posts— Maupas at the prefecture of police, Magnan at the
head of the troops in Paris. At the £lys6e, Momy, adulterine son
of Hortense, a hero of the Bourse and successful gambler,
supported his half-brother by his energy and counsels. The
ministry proposed to abrogate the electoral law of 1850, and
restore universal suffrage; the A^erobly by refusing made itself
slill more unpopxilar. By proposing to allow the president
of the Assembly to call in armed force, the questors revealed
the Assembly's plans for defence, and gave the £lys6e a weapon
against it <" donnent barre contre ellc k I'Elyste "). The propo-
sition was rejected (November 17), but Louis-Napoleon saw that
it was time to act. On the and of December he carried out his
coup d'itat.
But affairs developed in a way which disappointed him. By
dismissing the Assembly, by offering the people "a strong
government," and re-establishing " a France regenerated by the
Revolution of '89 and organized by the emperor," he had hoped
for universal applause. But both in Paris and the provinces
he met with the resistance of the Republicans, who had re-
organized in view of the elections of 1852. He struck at them
by mixed commissions, deportations and the whole range of
police measures. The dicrets4ois of the year 1852 enabled him
to prepare the way for the new institutions. On the xst of
December 1852 he became in name what he was already in deed,
and was proclaimed Emperor of the French. He was then 44
years old. *' The impassibility of his face and his lifeless glance "
showed observers that he was still the obstinate dreamer that
he had been in youth, absorbed in his Idea. His unshaken
conviction of his mission made him conscious of the responsibility
which rested on him, but hid from him the hopeless ddfect in the
coup d'itat. To carry out his conviction, he had still only a
timid will, working through petty expedients; but here again
his confidence in the future made him bold. In a people politically
decimated and wearied, he was able to develop freely all the
Napoleonic ideals. Rarely has a man been able to cany out
his system so completely, though perhaps in these first years he
had to take more disciplinary measures than he had intended
against the Reds, and granted more favours than was fitting
to the Catholics, his allies in December 1848 and December
1858.
► The aim which the emperor had in view was, by a concentration
of power which should make him " the beneficent motive force
of the whole sodal order " (constitution of the X4th of JsAuaiy
1853; administrative centralization; subordination of the
elected assemblies; control of the machinery of universal suffrage)
to unite all classes in " one great national party " attached to the
dynasty. His success, from 185a to 1856, was almost complete.
The nation was submissive, and a few scattered plots alone
showed that republican ideas persisted among the masses.
As " restorer of the overthrown altars," he won over the " men
in black," among them Veuillot, editor-in-chief of fUtmcrs, and
allowed them to get the University into their hands. By the aid
of former Orleanists, such as Billault, Fould and Momy, and
Saint-Simonians such as Talabot and the Pereires, he satisfied
the industrial dasses, extended credit, developed means of
communication, and gave a strong impetus to the business of
the nation. By various measures, such as subsidies, charitable
gifts and foundations, he endeavoured to show that " the idea
of improving the lot of those who suffer and struggle against the
difficulties of life was constantly present in his mind." His was
the government of cheap bread, great public works and holidays.
The imperial court was brilliant. The emperor, having failed to
obtain the hand of a Vasa or HohenzoUera, mairied, on the 29th
of January 1853, Eugenie de Montijo, comtesse de Teba, aged
twenty-six and at the height of her beauty.
France was " satisfied " in the midst of order, prosperity and
peace. But a glorious peaoe was required; it must not be said
that "France is bored," as fjimartine had said when the
Napoleonic legend began to spread. The foreign policy of the
Catholic party, by the question of the Holy Places and the
Crimean War (X853-X856), gave him the opportunity of winning
the s^ory which he desired, and the British alliance extabled him
to take advantage of it. In the spring of 185 5, as a definite success
was still slow to come, be contemplated for a time taking the
lead of the expedition in person, but his advisers dissuaded him
from doing so, for fear of a revolution. In January 1856 he had
the good fortune to win a diplomatic triumph over the new tsar,
Alexander U. It was at Paris (February 25-March 30) that the
conditions of peace were settled.
The emperor was now at the height of his power. He appeared
to the people as the avenger of 1840 and 18x5, and the birth to
him of a son, Eugene Louis Jean Joseph, on the x6th of March
1856, assured the future of the dynasty. It was then that,
strong in " the esteem and admiration with which he was sur-
rounded," and " foreseeing a future full of hope for France,'* he
dreamed of realizing the Napoleonic ideal in its entirety. This
disciple of the German philologists, this crowned Carbanaro,
the friend of the archaeologists and historians who were to help
him to write the Histoire de Cisart dreamed of developing the
policy of nationalism, and of assisting the peoples ci all countries
to enfranchise themselves.
From 1856 to X858 he devoted his attention to the Rumanian
nationality, and supported Alexander Cuza. But it was above
all the deliverance of Italy which haunted his imagination.
By this enterprise, which his whole tradition imposed upon him,
he reckoned to flatter the amour-propre of his subjects, and rally
to him the liberals and even the republicans, with their passion
for propagandism. But the Catholics feared that the Italian
national movement, when once started, would entail the downfall
of the papacy; and in opposition to the emperor's Italian
advisers. Arese and Prince Jerome Napoleon, they pitted the
empress, who was frivolous and capricious, but an ardent Catholic.
Napoleon III. was under his wife's influence, and could not openly-
combat her resistance. It was the Italian Orsini who, by
attempting to assassinate him as a traitor to the Italian nation
on the 14th of January 1858, gave him an opportunity to impose
his will indirectly by convincing his wife that in the interests
of his own security he must " do something for Italy." Events
followed each other in quick succession, and now began the
difficulties in which the Empire was to be irrevocably involved.
Not only did the Italian enterprise lead to strained relations wit h
Great Britain, the alliance with whom had been the emperor's
chief support in Europe, and compromised its credit; but the
claims of parties and classes again begaa to be heard at home.
NAPOLEON UI.
215
Hie Italian war aroused the opporitioa of the Catbolka.
After Magenta (Jane 4f 1859)1 it was the fears of the Catholics
and the messages of the empress which, even more than the
threats of Prussia, checked him in his triumph and forced him
into the armistice of Villafranca (Jvly 1 1, 1859). But the spread
cf the Italian revolution and the movement for annexation
fcHced him again to intervene. He appealed to the Left against
the Catholics, by the amnesty of the 17th of April 1859. His
coasent to the annexation of the Central Italian states, in
exdiange for Savoy and Nice (Treaty of Turin, March 24, i860)
exposed him to violent attacks on the part of the ultramontanes,
whose slave he had practically been since 1848. At the same
time, the free-trade treaty with Great Britain (January 5,
1S60) anniscd a movement against him among the industrial
lourgmsie.
Thus at the end of x86o, the very time when he had hoped that
his personal policy was to rally round him once for all the whole
of France, and assure the future of his dynasty, he saw, on the
coDtraiy, that it was turning against him his strongest sup-
porter. He became alarmed at the responsibilities which he saw
wouU fall upon him, and imagined that by an appearance of
reform he would be able to shift on to others the responsibility
for any errors he might commit. Hence the decrees of the 24th of
November x86o (right of address, ministers without portfolio)
and the letter of the X4th of November i86z (financial reform).
FroiB this time onward, in face of a growing opposition, anxiety
for tine furare of his regime occupied the first place in the
emperor's thoughts, and paralysied his initiative. Placed
between fais Italian counseliors and the exnpn», he was ever of
t«o nunda. His plans for remodelling Europe had a certain
gmciosity and grandeur; but internal difficulties forced him into
eodJess maxKeuvre and temporization, which led to his ruin.
This in October 1862, after Garibaldi's attack on Rome, the
ckrical cbierit of the Tuileries triumphed. But the replacing
d M. Tbottvend by M. Drouin de Lhuys did not satisfy the more
vibieot Catholica, who in May 1863 joined the united opposition.
Thirty-five opposers of the government were appointed, Re-
pobficans, Orieanists, Legitimists or Cathoh'cs. The emperor
<Ssaussed Perngny, tad summoned moderate reformers such as
Duruy and B^c But he was still possessed with the idea of
settling his throne on a firm basis, and uniting all France in some
gjorions enterprise which should appeal to all parties equally, and
"group them under the mantle of imperial glory." From
January to June 1863 he sought this appearance of glory in
Fojand, but only succeeded in embroiling himself with Russia.
Then, after Syria and China, it was the " great inspiration of his
rdgn,'* the establishment of a Catholic and Latin empire in
Mexico, enthusiasm for which he tried in vain from 1863 to 1867
to communicate to the French.
But whfle the strength of France was wasting away at Puebla
or Mexico, Bismarck was founding German um'ty. In August
X864 the emperor, held back by French public opinion, which
was favourable to Prussia, and by his idea of natioxiality, allowed
Prussia and Austria to seize the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein.
After Us laihire in Poland and Mezio) and in face of the alarming
presence of Germany, only one alliance remained possible for
Napoleoa III., namely with Italy. He obtained this by the
coaventioa of the xsth of September 1864 (involving the with-
drawal of the French troops from Rome). But the Catholic
party redoubled its violence, and the pope sent out the encyclical
QmeiUtt Cara and the SyOcbus, especially directed against France,
b vain the emperor sought in German affairs a definitive solution
of the Italian question. At Biarritz he prepared with Bismarck
the Franco-Prussian alliance of April 1866; and hoped to become,
lo ha greater glory, arbiter in the tremendous conflict which was
about to begin. But suddenly, while he was trying to rouse
p«bGc opinion against the treaties of 18x5, the news of the battle
of Eooiggritz came as a bolt from the blue to ruin his hopes.
Ffcaeh tntercsU called for an immediate intervention. But the
emperor was ill, weary and aged by the life of pleasure which he
kd side by side with his Ufe of work (as is proved by the letters
to Mdlle Bellanger); he was suffering from a first attack of
his bladder complaint. He knew, moreover, the insufficiency
of his troops. After days of terrible suffering, he resigned
himself to the annexation by Prussia of northern Germany.
" Now," said M Drouin de Lhuys, " we have nothing left but to
weep."
Henceforth the brilliant dream, a moment realized, the realiza-
tion of which he had thought durable, was at an end. The
Empire had still an uncertain and troubled brilliancy at the
Exhibition of 1S67. But Berezowski's pistol shot, which accen-
tuated the estrangement from the tsar, and the news of the death
of Maximihan at (^crctarp, cast a gloom over the later f£tes.
In the interior the industrial and socialist movement, born of
the new industrial development, added fresh strength to the
Republican and Liberal opposition. The moderate Imperialists
felt that some concessions must be made to public opinion. In
opposition to the absolutist " vice-empcror " Rouher, whose
influence over Napoleon had become stronger and stronger since
the death of Momy, £mile OUivier grouped the Third Party.
Anxious, changeable and distraught, the emperor made the
Liberal concessions of the 19th of January 1867 (right of inter-
pellation), and then, when OUivier thought that his triumph
was near, he exalted Rouher (July) and did not grant the promised
laws concerning the press and public meetings till 1868. The
opposition gave him no credit for these tardy concessions. There
was an epidemic of violent attacks on the emperor; the publica-
tion of the Lantcrne and the Baudin trial, conducted by Gam-
betta, were so many death-blows to the regime. The /nirr-
nalionaU developed its propaganda. The election of May 1869
resulted in 4,438,000 votes given for the government, and
3>355><30o for the opposition, who also gained 90 representatives.
The emperor, disappointed and hesitating, was slow to return to
a parliamentary r^me. It was not till December that he
instructed OUivier to " form a homogeneous cabinet representing
the majority of the Corps L^gishitif " (ministry of the and of
January 1870). But, embarrassed between the Arcaduns,
the partisans of the absolute regime, and the republicans,
OUivier was unable to guide the Empire in a constitutional
course. At the Tuileries Rouher's counsel stiU triumphed. It
was he who inspired the iU and wearied emperor, now without
confidence or energy, with the idea of resorting to the pUinsciU,
" To do away with the risk of a Revolution," " to place order
and Ubcrty upon a firm footing," " to ensure the transmission of
the crown to his son," Napoleon III. again sought the approba-
tion of the nation. He obtained it with briUiant success, for the
last time, by 7.358,786 votes against 1,571,939/' and his work,
now seemed to be consoUdated.
A few weeks later it crumbled irrevocably. Since 1866 he had
been pursuing an elusive appearance of glory. Since 1 866 France
was caUing for " revenge." He felt that he could only raUy the
people to him by procuring them the satisfaction of their national
pride. Hence the mishaps and imprudences of which Bismarck
made such an insulting use. Hence the negotiations of Nikols-
burg, the " note d'aubergiste " (innkeeper's bUl) claiming the
left bank of the Rhine, which was so scomfuUy rejected; hence
the plan for the invasion of Belgium (August 1866), the Luxem-
burg affair (March 1867), from which M. de Mousticr's diplomacy
effected such a skilful retreat; hence the final foUy which led
this government into the war with Prussia (July 1870).
The war was from the first doomed to disaster. It might
perhaps have been averted if France had had any aUies. But
Austria, a possible aUy, could only join France if satisfied as
regards Italy; and since Garibsddi had threatened Rome
(Mentana, 1867), Napoleon III., yielding to the anger of the
CathoUcs. had again sent troops to Rome. Negotiations had
taken place in 1869. The emperor, bound by the CathoUcs, had
refused to withdraw his troops. It was as a distant but inevitable
consequence of his agreement of December r848 with the CathoUc
party that in 1870 the emperor found himself without an aUy.
His energy was now completely exhausted. Successive
attacks of stone in the bladder had ruined his physique; while
his hesitation and timidity increased with age. The influence
of the empress over him became supreme. On leaving the
2l6
NAPOLEON— NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS
council in which the war was decided upon the emperor threw
himself, weeping, into the arms of Princess Mathilde. The
empress was delighted at this war, which she thought would
secure her son's inheritance.
On the 28th of July father and son set, out for the arn->y.
They found it in a state of utter disorder, and added to the
difficulties by their presence. The emperor was suffering from
stone and could hardly sit his horse. After the defeat of Reichs-
hoffen, when Bazaine was thrown back upon Mctz, he wished to
retreat upon Paris. But the empress represented to him that
if he retreated it would mean a revolution. An advance was
decided upon which ended in Sedan. On the 2nd of September,
Napoleon III. surrendered with 80,000 men, and on the 4th of
September the Empire felL He was taken as a prisoner to the
castle of Wilhelmshdhe, near Cassel, where he stayed till the
end of the war. After the intrigues of Bazaine, of Bismarck,
and of the empress, the Germans having held negotiations
with the Republic, he was de facto deposed. On the ist of March
the assembly of Bordeaux confirmed this deposition, and declared
him " responsible for the ruin, invasion and dismemberment
of France."
Restored to liberty, he retired with his wife and son to
Chislchurst in England. Unwilling even now to despair of the
future, he still sought to rally bis friends for a fresh propaganda.
He had at his service pubUcists such as Cassagnac, J. Amigues
and Hugelmann. He himself also wrote unsigned pamphlets
justifying the campaign of 1870. It may be noted that, true to
his ideas, he did not attempt to throw upon others the responsi-
bility which he had always claimed for himself. He dreamed
of his son's future. But he no longer occupied himself with any
definite plans. He interested himself in pensions for workmen
and economical stoves. At the end of 1873 his disease became
more acute, and a surgical operation became necessary. He
died on the 9th of January 1873, leaving his son in the charge
of the empress and of Rouher. The young prince was educated
at Woolwich from 1872 to 1875, and in 1879 took part in the
English expedition against the Zulus in South Africa, in which
he was killed. By his death vam'shed all hope of renewing the
extraordinary fortune which for twenty years placed the
df^endabt of the great cinpcmr, the Curhanaro and drqamcrj,
a I once obstinate anri hrsitnting, on the ihrorc of France,
Bi D L [DO H ^ FH V . — Tbp CEmrti c-l Xa Mcon J 1 f . htwr b« r p l!lhH»hl^d
lEi four volunurs (iS54-iS57> and hia Uistimt di Juitj 0%dr in two
-volumta U&SS-I^W: tm» LiUcf work ha» b<*n tr^riibiDrl inTO
l^nalish by T. Wright. Sw alw Ebelinv, N&poJatn ItL and j^in
Itwf (iSgr-iSgi); H. Thtma. Nafniiion flL st*** I'Emftire (rft)?);
Svfvttin-Bbt^ Nc^Hn HL (l^>: GiiuuHcJu, N&ffffUffn ilL
intimt <i89S>; Sir W. A. FnuWi liapei^im t!L (Lortdon* 1^95 );
A, Fwbes, ii/f ef Napdten UL (iSga)^ A. Lcbt-y, L($ Trfiii cj>iipi
Lpuif Niipid^i-'n Bifn-i-
l^it NapAe^n (1900)^ General works which m*>v tic consulted
are TMdJe»Ddorrdt msUti*^ du stiond Empift fiSbiHiajs); P- dt'
La Corc«, Fiistoue du afe&nd Emjtirr (ibgi-rQOSh A- Tpioina*, la
Sefond Empire {J907): and E, OtlivicTi LEmpife liUrat (14 vaU,
i&9S-i(>09K (A. Ts)
KAPOLEOH, 4I round game of cards (known cotloquially as
** Nap "). Any number may play. The cards rank as at whist,
and five are dealt to each player. . The deal being completed,
the player to the dealer's left looks at his hand and declares
how many tricks he would play tawin against all the rest, the
usual rule being that more than one must be declared; in default
of dedaring he says " I pass," and the next player has a similar
option of either declaring to make more tricks or passing, and
so on all round. A declaration of five tricks is called " going
Nap." The player who declares to make most has to try to
make them, and the others, but without consultation, to prevent
him. The dedaring hand has the first lead, and the first card
he leads makes the trump siu't. The players, in rotation, must
follow suit if able. If the declarer succeeds in making at least
the number of tricks he stood for he wins whatever stakes are
played for; if not he loses. If the player declaring Nap wins
he receives double stakes all round; if he loses he only pays
single stakes all round. Sometimes, however, a player is allowed
to go "Wellington" over "Nap," and even "Blucher" over
"Wellington." In these cases the caller of "Wdlington"
wins four times the stake and loses twice the stake, the caller
of " Blucher " receives six times and loses three times the stake.
Sometimes a player is allowed to declare misiret i^. no tricks.
This ranks, as a declaration, between three and four, but the
player pays a double stake on three, if he wins a trick, and receives
a single on three if he takes none.
NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS.— I. The era of the Revolutionary
and Napol^nic Wars falls into two main divisions, the first
of which (1792-1801) is dealt with under the heading French
Revolcjtionary Wars. In the present artide are described
the campaigns in central and eastern Europe, directed by
Napoleon— no longer one amongst many French generals,
nor even a simple ^mus inter pareSj but " Emperor " in the
fullest sense — between the years 1805 and 18x4. Napoleon's
short Spanish Campaign of 1809 is dealt with under PENiNSiTLAJt
War (this artide covering the campaigns in Spain, Portugal and
southern France 1808-18 14), and for the final drama of Waterloo
the reader is referred to Waterloo Campaign.
The campaigns described below are therefore —
(fl) The Austrian War of 1805 (Ulm and Austerlitz).
{b) The Conquest of Prussia and the Polish Campaign QctuXt
Aucrst&dt, Eyiau and Friodland).
ic) The Austrian War of 1809 (Eckmahl, Atpem and.Wagram).
{d) The Russian War of 18x2 (Borodino and the retreat from
Moscow).
{e) The German " War of Liberation," culminating in the Battle
of the Nations around Lcipcig.
(/) The tut campaign in France, 1814.
The naval history of 1803-1815 includes the culmination and the
sequel of the struggle for command of the sea which began tn 1793
and reached its maximum intensity on the day of Trafa^ar.
2. The Campaign of i8oj may be regarded as a measure ot
self-defence forced upon Napoleon by the alliance of Russia
(April xxth), Austria (August 9th) and other powers with Great
Britxiin. The possibility had long been before the emperor, and
his intention in that event to march straight on Vicima by the
valley of the Danube is deariy indicated in his reply (November
27th, 1803) to a Prussian proposal for the neutralization of the
South Gerxnan states. In this he says, " It is on the road from
Slrassburg to Vjeima that the French must force peace on
Austria, and it is this road which you wish us to renouiKx."
When, therefore, on the 25th of August 1805, he learat definitely
that Villeneuve (see Naval operations bdow) had failed in his
purpose of securing the command of the Chaxmd, which was
the necessary preliminary to the invasion of England, it was but
the affair of a few hours to dictate the dispositions necessary to
transfer his whole army to the Rhine frontier as the first step
in its march to the Danube. On this date the army actuaUy
lay in the following positions: —
I. Corps Bemadotte Hanover (GOttingen)
II. „ Marmont Holland
III. „ Davout 1
IV. „ Soult I Camp of Bouk)gne and
V. .. Lannes \ other points on the
VI. .. Ney J EngUshChamiel
VII. ,. Augcreau
Guard Bcssidrcs Paris.
The corps were, however, by no means fit for immediate service.
Bcmadotte's corps in Hanover was almost in the position of a
beleaguered garrison, and the marshal could only obtain his
transport by giving out that he was ordered to withdraw to
France. Marmont and Davout were deficient in horses for
cavalry and artillery, and the troops in Boulogne, having been
drawn together for the invasion of EngUnd, had hardly any
transport at all, as it was considered this want could be readily
supplied on landing. The composition of the army, however, was
excellent. The generals were in the prime of life, had not yet
learnt to distrust one another, and were accustomed to work
under the emperor and with one another. The regiincnta)
officers had all acquired their rank before the enemy and kxx^w
how to manage their men, and of the men themselves nearly
two-thirds had seen active service. The strength of the amy
lay in its infantry, for both cavalry and arrillery were short of
horses, &nd the latter bad not yet acquired mobiliiy and ^in
NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS
217
b Bunoeuvring. Napoleon's determination to undertake the
invasu»i of England has often been disputed, but it js bard to
moffx what other Operation he contemplated, for th« outbreak
of hostilities with his continental enemies found him ill-supplied
«iih intelUgence as to the resources of the country he had then
to travene. To remedy this, Murat and other general officers
as vdl as minor agents were sent ahead and instructed to travel
tliroagh South Germany in plain clothes with a view to collecting
iBf(»ination and mastering the topography. The emperor
was, mortovcr, imperfectly acquainted with the degree of pre-
paratbn of his adversaries' designs, and when he dictated his
prdiminaxy orders he was still unaware of the direction that
the allies' advance would assume. That he foresaw the march
of evrats which ultimately drew Mack to Ulm is inconceivable.
On the 26th of August, however, he learnt that zoo,ooo Russians
vere about to enter Bohemia thence to unite with an Austrian
anny of 80,000 near the junction of the Inn and Danube, and
this information compelled him tO alter the general direction
of his advance so as to traverse the defiles of the Black Forest
north of the Neckar, cavalry only observing the passes to the
south.
5. AtairiaH Army. — ^The Austrians after the defeats' of x8oo
bad endeavoured to reorganize their forces on the French model,
bat they were soon to learn that in matters of organiaation the
spirit is everything, the letter very little. They had copied
the organization of the French corps, but could find no corps
coanuuxiers fit to assume the responsibility for these commands.'
As alvays in such conditions, the actual control of the smallest
movemenu was still centralized in the hands of the army com-
nanders, and thus the rate of marching was incredibly slow.
They had decided that in future their troops in the field should
live by requisition, and had handed over to the artillery, which
needed them badly, a large number of horses thus set free from
the transport service, but they had not realized that men
accQstomed to a regular' distribution of rations cannot be trans-
fonned into successful marauders and pillagers by a stroke of
the pea; and they had sent away the bulk of their army, 120,000
onder their best general, the archduke Charles, into Italy, leaving
Lieut Field Marshal Mack von Leiberich in Germany, nominally
as chief of the staff to the young Prince Ferdinand, btit virtually
in command, to meet the onset of Napoleon at the head of his
veterans. Mack was a man of unusual attainments. He had
reen from tlm ranks in the most caste-ridden army in Europe,
and against untold opposition had carried through army reforms
wfatcfa were correct in principle, and needed only time to develop.
It was his fate to be made the scapegoat for the disasters which
followed, though they need no further ezphination than that,
at the. bead of 80,000 men and exercising only restricted powers
of command, he was pitted against the greatest strategist of all
ages who was responsible to no overlord and commanded, in the
faSeat sense of the term, an army considerably more than twice
asstzoQg.
4. Tke March on Ulm.—thit outbreak of the campaign was
hastened by the desire of the Austrian government to feed their
own army and leave a bare country for Napoleon by securing the
resources of Bavaria. It was also h<q>ed that the Bavarians
with tbeirazmy of 25,000 men would join the allies. In the latter
hope they were deaived, and the Bavarians xmder General
Wrede sli^jped away to Bambeig in time. In the former, how-
ever, they were successful, and the destitution they left in their
vake almost wrecked Napoleon's subsequent combinations.
Mack's match to Ulm was therefore a necessity of the situation,
and his continuance in this exposed position, if foolhardy against
SBch an advciaary, was at any rate the outcome of the high
resolve that even if beaten he would inflict crippling losses upon
the enemy. Mack knew that the Russians would be late at the
rendezvous on the Inn. By constructing an entrenched camp
at dm and concentrating all the available food within it, he
opected to compel Napoleon to invest and besiege him, and
he anticipated that in the devastated country his adversary
would be comp^ed to separate and thus fall an easy prey to the
RttsKans. For tfiat blow hit had determined to make his own
army the anvil. But these views obviously could not be pub-
lished in army orders, hence-the discontent and opposition he was
destined to encounter.
5. Mopemenis of tke French.— Ix was on the aist that Napoleon
learnt of Mack's presence in Uhn. On that date his army had
crossed the Rhine and was entering the defiles of the Black
Forest. It was already beginning to suffer. Boou were worn out,
greatcoats deficient, transport almost unattainable and, accord-
ing to modem ideas, the army would have been considered
incapable of action.
Sept. 28.
Oct. 6.
Oct.9-
Oct. 16.
Bornadotto .
WOrzbuix
Anspach
NOmbeig
Regensburg
Marmont
WQrzburK
Anspach .
NOmberg
Davout . ■
Mannheim
Mcrrontheim
Anspach
Dietfurt
Ney .
Selz
IngoUudt
Lanncs . .
Strassburg
GmQnd
NArdhngen
Neubuig
Soult . .
Landau
Aalen
DonauwOrth
On the 20th of September, its deployment beyond the mountains
was complete, and as Napoleon did not know of Mack's intention
to stay at Ulm and had learned that the Russian advance had
been delayed, he directed his columns by the following roads on
the Danube, between DonauwOrth and Ingobtadt, so as to be
in a position to intervene between the Austrians and the Russians
and beat both in detail. On the 7th of October this movement
was completed— the Austrians abandoned the Danube bridges
after a show of resistance,' retreating westward— and Napoleon,
leaving Murat in command of the V. and VI. corps and cavahy
to observe the Austrians, pressed on to Augsburg with the others
so as to be ready to deaT with the Russians. Learning, however,
that these were still beyond striking radius, he determined to deal
with Mack's army first, having formed the fixed conviction that
a threat at the latter's commum'cations would compel him to
endeavour to retreat southwards towards TiroL Bemadotte
in his turn became an army of observation, and Napoleon
joining Murat with the main body marched rapidly westward
from the Lech towards the Bier.
6. Austrian Plans. — Mack's intentions were not what Napoleon
supposed. He had meanwhile received (false) information of a
British landing at Boulogne, and he was seriously deceived as to
the numbers of Napoleon's forces. He was also aware that the
exactions of the French had produced deep indignation through-
out Germany and espedaUy in Prussia (whose neutrality had
been violated, see ( 14, below). All this, and the almost mutinous
discontent of his generals and his enenu'es of the court drde,
shook his resolution of acting as anvil for the Russians, of whose
delay also he was aware, and about the 8th of October he deter-
mined to march out north-eastward across the French lines of
comnaunication and save his sovereign's army by taking refuge
if necessary in Saxony. Believing impUdtly in the rumours of a
descent on Boulogne and of risings in France which also reached
him, and knowing the destitution he had left behind him in his
movement to Ulm, when he heard of the westward march of
French columns from the Lech he told his army, iq>parently in
all good faith, that the French- were in full march for their own
country.
Actually the French at this moment were suffering the most
terrible distress— up to the Danube they had still found suffident
food for existence, but south of it, in the track of the Austrians,
they found nothing. All march disdpUne disappeared, the men
dissolved into hordes of marauders and even the sternest of the
marshals wrote piteous appeals to the emperor for supplies, and
for permission to shoot some of thdr stragglers. But to all these
Berthier in the emperor's name sent the stereotyped reply^—
" The emperor has ordered you to cany four days' provisions,
therefore you can expect nothing further— you know the
emperor's method of conducting war."
7. Action of Albeck or Hw^A.— Meanwhile Murat, before the
emperor joined him, had given Mack the desired opening.
The VI. corps (Ney) should have remained'on the left bank of
the Danube tadose the Austrian exit on that side, but by mistake
only DupoQt's division had been left at Albeck, the rest being
2l8
NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS
&M|
1
*^* FOriW
ba^ ^ J/
Campaigns in Germany
1796-1809
•....r T ? t
^^
J'^imahtszvs^/^^^J
g^^^^^^
a
— M* /i r W^^^
brought over the river. Mack on the 8th had determined to
commence his withdrawal^ but fortune now favoured the French.
The weather during the whole of October bad been unusually
wet, the swollen Danube overflowed the low ground and the
roads had become quagmires. On the south bank, owing to
better natural drainage and a drier subsoil, movement was fairly
easy, but the Austrians foimd it almost impossible. On the i ith
of October, when they began their march, the road along the
Danube was swept into the riVer, carrying with it several guns
and teams, and hours were consumed in passing the shortest
distances. At length in the afternoon they suddenly fell upon
Dupont's isolated division at Albcck, which was completely
surprised and severely handled. The road now lay completely
open, but the Atistrian columns had so opened out owing to
the state of the roads that the leading troops could not pursue
their advantage — Dupont rallied and the Austrians had actually
to fall back towards Ulm to procure food.
8. Elckingen,-^FoT three more days Mack struggled with an
unwilling staff and despondent men to arrange a further advance.
During these very three days, through a succession of staff
blunders, the French failed to close the gap, and on the morning
of the Z4th of October both armies, each renewing their advance,
came in contact at the bridge of Ekbingen, This bridge, all
but a few road-bearers, had been destroyed, but now the French
gave an example of that individual gallantry which was char-
acteristic of the old revolutionary armies. Running along the
beams under a close fire a few gallant men forced theif way
across. The floor of the bridge was rapidly relaid, and presently
the whde of the VI. corps was deploying with unexampled
rapidity on the farther side. The Austrians, still in their quag>
mire, could not push up reinforcements fast enough, and though
Mack subsequently alleged deliberate obstruction and dis-
obedience on the part of his subordinates, the state of the roads
alone suflices to explain their defeat. Only the right column of
the Austrians was, however, involved; the left* under General
VVemeck, to whom some cavalry and the archduke Ferdinand
attached themselves, did indeed succeed in getting away, but
without trains or supplies. They continued their march, famished
but unmolested, until near Heidenheim they suddenly found
themselves confronted by what from the diversity of uniforms
they took to be an overwhelming force; at the same time the
French cavalry sent in pursuit appeared in their rear. Utterly
exhausted by fatigue, Wcmeck with his infantry, some 8000
strong, surrendered to what was really a force of dismounted
dragoons and foot-sore stragglers improvised by the oommanding
officer on the spot to protect the French treasure chests, which at
NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS
219
thit momciit by actually in the path of the Austrians. The
young archduke with some cavalry escaped.
9. Hack surrmmded.—TYyt defeat at Elchingen on the X4th of
October sealed the fate of the Austrians, though Mack. was still
determined to endure a siege. As the French columns coming
up from the south and west gradually surrounded him, he drew
in his troops under shelter of the fortress and its improvised
entrendied camp, and on the zsth he found himself completely
sumnmded. On the i6th the French field-guns fired into the
town, and Mack realized that his troops were no longer under
sufficient control to endure a siege. When, therefore, next
morning, negotiations were opened by the French, Mack, still
feding certain that the Russians were at hand, agreed to an
armistice and undertook to lay down his arms if within the next
twenty-one days no relief should arrive. To this Napoleon
consented, but hardly had the agreement been signed than he
succeeded in introducing a number of individual French soldiers
into the fortress, who began rioting with the Austrian soldiery.
Then, sending in armed parties to restore order and protect the
bhabitants, he caused the guards at the gates to be overpowered,
and Mack was thus forced into an unconditional surrender.
On the 32nd of October, the day after Trafalgar, the remnant
of the Austrian army, 33,000 strong, laid down its arms. About
5000 men under Jellachich had escaped to Tirol, 3000 cuirassiers
with Prince Ferdinand to Eger in Bohemia, and about 10,000
men under Wemeck, liad surrendered at Heidenbeim. The
losses in battle having been insignificant, there remain some
30,000 to account for — most of whom probably escaped individu-
ally by the help of the inhabitants, who were bitterly hostile to
the French.
la NapeUon*s Advanu to Vienna. — Napoleon now hastened
to reloin the group of corps he had Jeft under Bemadotte in
ohservatioa towards the Russians, for the latter were nearer
at hand than even Mack had assumed. But hearing of his
misfortune they retreated before Napoleon's advance along th^
rij^t bank of the Danube to Krems, where they crossed the river
and withdrew to an entrenched camp near Olmilta to pick up
fresh Austrian reinforcements. The severe actions of DUrrenstein
(near Krems) on the nth, and of HollabrUnn on the i6th of
November, in which Napoleon's marshah learned the tenacity
of their new opponents, and the surprise of the Vienna bridge
rXovembcr 14) by the French, were the chief incidents of
this period in the campaign.
iz. Campaign of ilnj^/ils.— Napoleon continued down the
right bonk to Vienna, where he was compelled, by the con-
dttion of his troops to call a halt to refit his army.
After this was done he continued' his movement to
BrOna. Thither he succeeded in bringing only 55,000 men.
He was again forced to give his army rest and shelter, under
cover of Murat's cavalry. The allies now confronted him with
upwards of 86,000 men, including 16,000 cavalry. About the
2oth of November this force commenced its advance, and
Napoleon concentrated in such a manner that within three days
be could bring over 80,000 French troops into action around
BrSnn, besides 17.000 or more Bavarians under Wrede. On
the 28th Murat was driven in by the allied columns. That night
ocders were despatched for a concentration on BrUnn in expecta-
tion of a cx^lision on the following day; but hearing that the
whole allied force was moving towards him he decided to con-
centrate south-east of Briinn, covering his front by cavalry on
the Pratzen heights. Meanwhile he had also prepared a fresh
fine of retreat towards Bohemia, and, ceruin now of having
Us men in hand for the coming battle, he quietly awaited
events.
The alEes were aware of his position, and still adhering to the
old "linear" system, marched to turn his right flank (see
AcsTEnnz). As soon as their strategic purpose of cutting him
off from Viemu became apparent, the emperor moved his troops
into position, and in the afternoon issued his famous proclamation
to Us troops, pointing out the enemy's misUkes and his plan for
<w<^t^y thesB. At the same time he issued his orders for his
fint great battle as a supreme commander. The battle of
Austerlitx began early next morning and closed in the evening
with the thorou^ and decisive defeat of the allies.
X2. Jena^ 1806, — Around the Prussian army, and particularly
the cavalry, the prestige of Frederick the Great's glory stiU
lingered; but the younger generation had little
experience of actual warfare, and the higher com- flS^f^fg^
manders were quite unable to grasp the changes in
tactics and in the conduct of operations which had grown out
of the necessities of the French Revolution. The individual
officers of the executive staff were the most highly trained in
Europe, but there was no great leader to co-ordinate their
energies. The total number of men assigned to the field army
was 1x0,000 Prussians and Saxons. They were organized in
corps,' but their leaden were corps commanders only in name,
for none were allowed any btitude for individual initiative.
Hi-judged economies had undermined the whole efficiency of
the Prussian army. Two-thirds of the infantry and one-half of
the cavalry were allowed furlough for from ten to eleven months
in the year. The men were unprovided with greatcoats. Most
of the muskets had actually seen service in the Seven Years' War,
and their barrels had worn so thin with constant polishing that
the use of full charges at target praaice had bcsen forbidden.
Above all, the army had drifted entirely out of touch with the
dvil population. The latter, ground down by feudal tradition and
law, and at the same time permeated by the political doctrines
of the late x8th century, believed that war concerned the govern-
ments only, and formed no part of the business of the " honest
citizen." In this idea they were supported by the law itself,
which protected the civilian against the soldier, and forbade
even in war-time the requisitioning of horses, provisions and
transport, without payment. Up to the night of the battle of
Jena itself, the Prussian troops lay starving in the midst of plenty,
whilst the French everywhere took what they wanted. This
alone was a sufficient cause for all the misfortunes which followed.
13. Outbreak of tke ll^or.— During the campaign of Austerlitx
Prussia, furious at the violation of her territory of Anspach,
had mobilized, and had sent Uaugwitz as ambassador to
Napoleon's headquarters. He arrived on the 30th of November,
and Napoleon, pleading business, put off his official reception
till after the battle of Austerlitz. Of ^urse the ultimatum was
never presented, as may be imagined; Haugwitz returned and
the king of Prussia ^lemobilized at once. But Napoleon, well
knowing the man he had to deal with, had determined to force
a quarrel upon Prussia at the earliest convenient opportunity.
His troops therefore, when withdrawn from Austria, were can-
toned in south Germany in such a way that, whilst suspicion
was not aroused in minds unacquainted with Napoleonic methods,
they could be concentrated by a few marches behind the
Thuringian forest and the upper waters of the Main. Here the
Grand Army was left to itself to recuperate and assimilate iu
recruits, and it is characteristic of the man and his methods
that he did not trouble his corps commanders with a single
order during the whole of the spring and summer.
As the diplomatic crisis approached, spies were sent into
Prussia, and simultaneously with the orders for preliminary con-
centration the marshals received private instructions, the pith
of which cannot be better expressed than in the following two
quotations from Napoleon's correspondence : —
" Mon intention est de concentrer toutes met forces sur rextr^mit^
de ma droite en laissant tout I'espace entre le Rhin et Bamberg
enti^rcment d^arni, de maniire k avoir' prte de 300.000 hommes
r^unis tur un mCme champ de bataille; met premieres marches
menacent le cotur de la monarchic prustienne " (No. 10.920).
" Avec oette immense tupdriorit^ de forces r6unis sur un espace si
^troit, vous sentez ^ue je suit d^ns la volont6 de ne rien hasardcr et
d'attaquer I'ennemi partout oO il voudra tenir. Vous pensez bien
que ce serait une belle affaire que de sc porter sur cette place (Dresden)
en un bataiUon carri de 300,000 kommes " (Soult. No. 10,941).
X4. Advance of tke Grande Armie.—On the 7th of (October
the Grande AmUa lay in three parallel columns along the roads
leading over the mountains to Hof, Schleiz and Kronach;
on the right lay the IV. corps (Soult) about Bayreuth; with his
cavalry in rear, and behind these the VI. corps (Ney) at Pegnitz;
in the centre. Bcmadotte's I. corps from Nordhalben, with the
220
NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS
m. ooip€ (D&vout) licbtenfels; Guard and headquarters, | the emperor was still unaware of the position of his principal
Bamberg. The left column was (Composed of the V. (Lannes) | foe, and Muiat with Bemadotte behind him was directed on
Gera for the xzth, the remainder of the army con-
tinuing along the roads previously assigned to
them.
In the meanwhile, however, the Saxons had been
moving from Naumburg through Gera on Jena,
Hohenlohe was near Weimar, and all the other
divisions of the army had closed in a march
eastwards, the idea of an offensive to the south-
ward which Napoleon had himself attributed to
them having already disappeared.
Reaching Gera at 9 A.M. Murat reported the
movement of the Saxons on the previous day,
but omitted to send a strong detachment in
pursuit. The traces of the Saxons were lost, and
Napoleon, little satisfied with his cavalry, author-
ized Lasalle to offer up to 6000 fra. reward for
information of the Prussian point of concentration.
At I AM. of the X3th Napoleon issued his orders.
Murat and Bemadotte via Zeitz to Naumbuxg;
Davout (III. corps and a dragoon division) also to
Naumburg; Lannes to Jena, Augereau following;
Soult to Genu
15. Prussian Movements. — ^In the meantime
the Prussians were effecting their concentration.
Rttchel, who with 15,000 men had been sent into
the mountains as an advanced guard for the pro-
jected offensive, was recalled to Weimar, which
he reached on the xjth. The main body were
between Weimar and Apolda during the lath, and
the Saxons duly effected their junction with
Hohenlohe in the vicinity of Vierzehnheiligen,
whilst the latter had withdrawn his troops all but
some outposts from Jena to the plateau about
Capellendorf,>some 4 m. to the N.W. The whole
army, upwards of x 30,000 men, could therefore have
been concentrated against Lannes and Augereau by
at Hemmendorf , with the VIL (Augereau) extending south to
the Main at Burgebrach.
Napoleon's object being surprise, all the cavalry except a
few vedettes were kept back behind the leading infantry columns
and these latter were ordered to .advance, on the signal being
given, in " masses of manoeuvre," so as to crush at once any
outpost resistance which was calculated upon the time r^uired
for the deployment of ordinary marching columns. This order
has never since found an imitator, but deserves attentive study
as a masterpiece (see H. Bonnal, Afamewere d'lina).
To meet the impending blow the Prussians had been extended
in a cordon along the great road leading from Mainz to Dresden,
Blttcher was at Erfurt, Rttchel at Gotha, Hohenlohe at Weimar,
Saxons in Dresden, with outposts along the frontier. An
offensive move into Franconia was under discussion, and for
this purpose the Prussian staff had commenced a lateral con-
centration about Weimar, Jena and Naumburg when the storm
bunt upon them. The emperor gathered little from the confused
reports of their purposdess.manceuvres, but, secure in the midst
of his " battalion square " of 200,000 men, he remaitted quite
indifferent, well knowing that an advance straight on Berlin
must force his enemy to concentrate and fight, and as they
would bring at most 127,000 men on.tcy the battlefield the
result could hardly be doubtful. On the gtli of October the cloud
burst. Out of the forests which clothe the northern slopes of
the Thuringer Wald the French streamed forth, easily over-
powering the resistance of the Prussian outposts on the upper
Saale,^ and once the open country was reached the cavalry under
Murat trotted to the front, closely followed by Bernadottc's
corps as " general advance guard.*' The result of the cavalry
scouting was however unsatisfactory. On the night of the xoth,
> At the action of Saalfcid on the toth, the young and gallant
Prince Louis Ferdinand of Prussia was kiliecU
the afternoon of the xjth, whilst Soult could only
have intervened very late in the day, and Davout and Bema-
dotte were still .too distant to reach the battlefield before the
14th. All the French corps, moreover, were so exhausted by
their rapid marches over bad roads that the emperor actually
ordered (at x A.11. on the X3th) a day of rest for all except
Davout, Beroadotte, Lannes and Murat.
The Prussian headquarters, however, spent the X2th and x^th
in idle discussion, whilst the troop commanders exerted thrai-
selves to obtain some alleviation for the suffering of their
starving men. The defeats undergone by their outpost detach*
ment had profoundly affected the nerves of the troops, and
on the afternoon of the nth, on the false alarm of a French
approach, a panic broke out in the streets of Jena, and it took
all the energy of Hohenlohe and his staff to restore order. On
the morning of the X2th the Saxon commanding officers
approached Hohenlohe with a statement of the famishing
condition of their men, and threatened to withdraw them
again to Saxony. Hohenlohe -pointed- out that the Prussians
were equally badly off, but promised to do his best to help
his allies. Urgent messages were sent off to the Commissary
von Goethe (the poet), at Weimar for permission to requisition,
food and firewood. These requests, however^ remained
unanswered, and the Prussians and Saxons spent the ni^t
befoie the battle shivering in their miserable bivouacs.
16. The ijlh of October. — During the early morning of the T3th
the reports brought to Napoleon at Gera partially deared up
the situation, though the real tmth was very different from
what he supposed. However, it was evident that the bulk of
the Prussians lay to his left, and instructions were at once
despatched to Davout to turn westward from Naumburg towards
KOsen aad to bring Bemadotte with him if the two were still
together. The letter, however, ended with the words " but I
hope he is already on his way Xo Doraburg." Now Bemadotte
I
NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS
221
had nc^ected to keep the emperor informed as to his where-
iboats. He was still with Davout, but, concluding \hat he had
mised an order directing him to Domburg, he thought to conceal
his error by assuming the receipt of the order evidently alluded
to in the last words, and as a result he marched towards Dom-
burg, and his whole corps was lost to the emperor at the crisis
of the next d4y's battle.
On the road from Gem .to Jena Napoleon was met by
intelligence from Lannes announcing his occupation of Jena and
the discovery of Prussian troops to the northward. Knowing the
emperor's methods, he wisely restrained the ardour of his sub-
ordinates and asked for instructions whether to attack or wait.
The emperor 'rode forward rapidly, reached Jena about 3 P.M.,
and with Laimes proceeded to the Landgrafenberg to reconnoitre.
From thxs point his view was, however, restricted to the im-
mediate foreground, and he only saw the camps of Hohenlohe's
kH wing.' '^At this moment the Prussians were actually on
parade and ready to move off to attack, but just then the " evil
genius " of the Prussian army, von Massenbach, an officer of the
Headquarter Staff, rode up and claiming to speak with the
authority of the king and commander-rin-chief, induced Hohen-
bbe to Older his troops back to camp. Of all this Napoleon
uw Dttthing, but from all reports he came to the conclusion that
the whole Prussian army was actually in front of him, and at
once issued orders for Us whole army to concentrate towards
Jena, marrhing all night if need be. Six hours earlier his con-
dssion woukl have been correct, but early that morning the
Prossian headquarters, alarmed for the safety of their line of
retreat on Bertin by the presence of the French in Naumburg,
decided to leave Hohenlohe and RUchel to act as rear-guard,
and with the main body to commence their retreat towards
the river Unstntt and the Eckhardtsberge where Massenbach
had prerioosly reconnoitred an " ideal " battlefield. This belief
in positions was the cardinal principle of Prussian strategy
m those days. The troops had accordingly commenced their
Barch on the morning of the 13th, and now at 3 pjc. were settling
down into bivouac; they were still but a short march from the
decisive fiekL
17. Baitie cf Jena.— On the French side, Laimes' men were
working their hardest, under Napoleon's personal supervision,
to make a practicable road up to the Landgrafenberg, and all
night long the renudmng corps struggled through darkness
towards the rendezvous. By daybreak on the 14th,' the anni-
versary of Elchingen, upwards of 60,000 men stood densely
battalions were sent forward, and these, delaying their advance
till the fog had sufficiently lifted, were met by French skirmishers,
and small colunms, who rapidly overlapped their flanks and
drove them back in confusion. Hohenlohe now brought up the
remainder of his command, but in the meanwhile the French
had poured across the neck between the Landgrafenberg and the
main plateau, and the troops of Soult and Augereau were working
up the ravines on either hand. In view of these troops the
Prussian lin^, which had advanced faultlessly as if on parade,
halted to prepare its bayonet attack by fire, and, once halted, it
was found impossible to get them to go on again. The French
who had thrown themselves into houses, copses, &c., picked off
the officers, and the flanks of the long Prussian lines swayed and
got into confusion. The rival artilleries held each other too
thoroughly to be able to spare attention to the infantry, whilst
the Prussian cavalry, which had forgotten how to charge in
masses of eighty or more squadrons, frittered away their strength
in isolated efforts. By xo a.m. the fourteen battalions which had
initiated this attack were outnumbered by three to one, and
drifted away from the battlefield. Their places were taken by
a fresh body, but this was soon outnumbered and outflanked
in its turn. By a p.m. the psychic moment had come, and
Napoleon launched his guards and the cavalry to complete the
victory and initiate the pursuit. . Rttchel's division now arrived
and made a most gallant effort to cover the retreat, but their
order being broken by the torrent of fugitives, they were soon
overwhelmed by the tide of the French victory and all organized
resistance had ceased by 4 p.m.
Briefly summarized, the battle came to this— in four successive
efforts the Prussians failed because they were locally out-
numbered. This was the fault of their leaders solely, for, except
for the last attack, local superiority was in each case attainable.
Organization and tactics did not affect the issue directly, for the
conduct of the men and their junior officers gave abundant proof
that in the hands of a competent leader the " linear " principle of
delivering one shattering blow would have proved superior to that
of a gradual attrition of the enemy here,, as on the battlefields of
the Peninsula and at Waterloo, and this in spite of other defects
in the training of the Prussian infantry which simultaneously
caused its defeat on the neighbouring field of AuerstAdt.
18. Battle of Auerstadt. — Here the superiority of French
mobility^ a consequence of their training and not necessarily of
their system, showed its value most conclusively. Davout in
obedience to his orders of the previous morning was marrhing
packed on the narrow plateau of the motmtam, whilst, below
in the ravines on either flank, Soult on the right, and Augereau
on the kft, were getting into position. Fortunately a dense
fog hid the helpless masses on the Landgrafenberg from sight of
the Prussian gunners. Hohenlohe had determined to drive the
Frcxkch into the ravine at daybreak, but had no idea as to the
ooabeia in front of him. For want of room, only a few Prussian
over the Saale at KOsen, when, his advanced guard came in
contact with that of the Prussian main army. The latter with
at least 50,000 men was marching in two columns, and ought
therefore to have delivered its men into line of battle twice as
fast as the French, who had to deploy from a single issue, and
whose columns had opened out in Uie passage of the K5sen
defile and the long ascent of the plateau above. Bat the Prussians
222
NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS
attacked at the old rcgulatioii speed of aeventy-five paces to
the minute, and the French manceuvred at the quick or double
of X20 or 150. The consequence was that the French always
succeeded in reinforcing their fighting line in time to avert
disaster. Nevertheless by mid-day their strength was well-nigh
exhausted, whilst the Prussian reserve, eighteen battalions
of guards under Kalckreuth, stood intact and ready to engage.
But at the critical moment the duke of Brunswick fell mortally
wounded, and Scharnhorst, his chief of the staff, was at the
time absent on another part of the field. Meanwhile rumours
from the battle-field at Jena, magnified as usual, began to
reach the staff, and these may possibly have influenced
Kalckreuth, for when appealed to to attack with his eighteen
battalions and wm the day, he declined to move without the
direct order of the commander-in-chief to do so, alleging that
it vras the duty of a reserve to cover the retreat and he
considered himself personally responsible to the king for the
guards entnisted to his care. Even then the day might have
been saved had BlQcher been able to find even twenty squadrons
accustomed to gallop together, but the Prussian cavalry had
been dispersed amongst the infantry commands, and at the
critical moment it proved impossible for them to deliver a
united and decisive attack.
Seeing further efforts hopeless, Scharnhorst in the duke's
name initiated the retreat and the troops withdrew N.W.
towards Buttelstedt, almost unmolested by the French, who
this day had put forth all that vras in them, and withstood
victoriously the highest average pimishment any troops of the
new age of warfare had as yet endured. So desperate had been
their re^tance that the Prussians unanimously stated Davout's
strength at double the actual figure. Probably.no man but
Davout could have got so much out of his men, but why was he
left unsupported?
Bemadotte, we have seen, had marched to Domburg, or
rather to a point overlooking the ford across the Saale at the
village of that name, and reached there in ample time to intervene
on either field. But with the struggle raging before him he
remained undecided, until at Jena the decision had clearly
fallen, and then he crossed the river and arrived with fresh
troops too late for their services to be required.
XQ. Prussian Retreat. — During the night the Prussians con-
tinued their retreat, the bulk of the main body to S5mmerda,
Hohenlohe's corps towards Nordhausen. The troops had got
much mixed up, but as the French did not immediately press
the pursuit home) order was soon re-established and a combined
retreat was begun towards the mouth of the Elbe and.LUbeck.
Here help was expected to arrive from England, and the tide
might yet have turned, for the Russian armies were gathering
in the east. It was now that the results of a divorce of the army
from the nation began to be felt. Instead of seizing all provisions
and burning what they could not remove, the Prussian generals
enforced on their men the utmost forbearance towards the
inhabitants, and the fact that they were obeyed, in spite of the
inhumanity the people showed to their sick and wounded country-
men, proves that discipline was by no means so far gone as has
generally been believed. The French marching in pursuit were
received with open arms, the people even turning their own
wounded out of doors to make room for their French guests.
Their servility awakened the bitterest contempt of their con-
querors and forms the best excuse for the unparalleled severity
of the French yoke. On the 36th of Octobn Davout reached
Berlin, having marched 166 m. in twelve days including two
sharp rearguard actions, Bemadotte with his fresh troops having
fallen behind. The inhabitants of Berlin, headed by their mayor,
came out to meet him, and the newspapers lavished adulation
on the victors and abuse on the beaten army. On the 38th
Murat's cavalry overtook the renuant of Prhice Hohenlohe's
army near Prenslaii (N. of Berlin) and invited its capitulation.
Unfortunately the prince sent Massenbach to discuss the situa-
tion, and the latter completely lost his head. Murat boasted
that he had xoo,ooo men behind him, and on his return Massen-
bach implored his chief to submit to an unconditional surrender,
advice which the prince accepted, though as a fact Murat%
horses were completely exhausted and he had no infantry what-
ever within calL Only BlUcher now remained in the field, and be
too was driven at length into Lfibeck with his. back to the sea.
20. Campaigns in Poland and East Prussia. — Hitherto the
French had been operating in a rich country,, untouched for
half a century past by the ravages of war, but as the necessity
for a campaign against the Russians confronted the emperor,
he realized that his whole supply and transport service must
be put on a different footing. After the wants of the cavalry
and artillery had been provided for, there remained but little
material for transport work. Exhaustive orders to oisaniae
th^ necessary trains were duly issued, but the emperor seems to
have had no conception of the diffictilties the txack»— there were
no metalled road^— of Poland were about to present to him.
Moreover, it was one thing to issue orders, but quite another
to ensure Xhat they were obeyed, for they entailed a complete
transformation in the mental attitude of the French soldier
towards all t)iat he had been taught to consider his duties in
the field. Experience only can teach the art of packing wagons
and the care o£ draught animals, and throughout the campaign
the small ponies of Poland and East Prussia broke dovni by
thousands from over loading and unskilful parking.
ax. The Russian Army formed the most complete contxast
to the French that it is possible to imagine. Thoo^ dad,
armed and organized in European fashion, the soldiers retained
in a marked degree the traditions of their Mongolian forerunners,
their transport wagons were in t^ype the survival of ages of
experience, and their care for their animals equally the result
of hereditary habit. The intelligence of the men and regimental
officers was very low, but on the other hand service was practically
for life, and the regiment the only home the great majority had
ever known. Hence obedience was instinctive and initiative
almost undreamt of. Moreover, they were essentially a war>
trained army, for even in peace time their long marches to and
fro within the empire had most thoroughly Imued them to hard-
ship and privation. Napoleon might have remembered his own
saying, " La mis^ est I'^le du bon soldat." In cavalry they
were weak, for the Russian does not take kindly to equitation
and the horses were not equal to the accepted European sUndard
of weight, while the Cossack was only formidable to stragglers
and wounded. Their artillery was numerous and for the most
part of heavy calibre— x8- and 24-pounders were commoi^— but
the strength of the army lay in its infantry, with its incomparable
tenacity in defence and its blind confidence in the bayonet in
attack. The traditions of Suvarov and his victories in Italy
(see Fkencb Revolxttionary Wass) were still fresh, but there
was no longer a Suvarov to lead them.
32. Advance to the Vistula. — Napoleon had from the first been
aware of the secret alliance between Prussia and Russia, sworn
by their respective sovereigns over the grave of Frederick the
Great, and this knowledge had been h^ principal reason for
precipitating hostilities with the former. He remained, however,
in complete ignorance of the degree of preparation attained on
the Russian side, and since the seizure of Warsaw together with
the control of the resources of Poland in men and material its
occupation would afford, was the chief factor in his calculation,
he turned at once to the eastward as soon as all further organized
res&tance in Prussia was ended by the surrender of Prenzlaa
and LUbeck. Scarcely leaving his troops time to restore their
worn-out footgear, or for the cavalry to replace their jaded
horses from captured Prussian resources, he set Davout in motion
towards Warsaw on the and of November, and the remainder of
the army followed in successive echelons as rapidly as they could
be de^Mitched.
The cavalry, inoving well in advance, dispersed the Prussian
depots and captured their horses, as far as the Hne of the Vistula,
where at Ust they encountered organized resistance from the
outposts of Lestocq's little corps of 15,000 men — all that was
left of Frederick the Great's army. These, however, gave way
before the threat of the advancing French and alfter a few
trifling skirmishes. Davout entered Warsaw on the 30th of
NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS
223
November, being followed by the V., IV, and Guard corps during
the tuorrding fortnight, whilst the VL and VII. weie echeloned
to their left, and the VIII. (Mortier) and IX. (Jerome Napoleon)
and X. (Lefebvre), all new formations since the outbreak of
the war, followed some marrhfa in the rear. Jerome's corps was
composed of the Bavarians, WOrttembergers and Badensers.
Behind these all Prussia was overrun by newly formed units,
(3rd and 4th battalions) raised from depot companies, conscripts
for 1807, and old soldiers rejoining after sickness or wounds.
Napoleofi caused these to be despatched to the front immediately
after their formation. He had much territory to occapy, and
in the long march of on an average 85 days, he considereid that
they could be organixed, equipped and drilled e» route,
33. Puliusk. — ^The Russians meanwhile had been moving slowly
forward in two bodies, one under Bennigsen (50,000), the other
nnder Buzhowden (35,000), and the French being at this time
in Warsaw, they took up threatening positions about Pultusk,
Fkicfc and Prassnitz. From this triangle they harried the French
communications with Berlin, and to secure a winter's rest for
his men Napoleon determined to bring them to action. On the
33zd of December operations were commenced, but the difficulties
of securing information and msintaining communication between
the respective columns, so unlike what any of the French had
previoosly encountere<J» led to a very partial, success. The idea
had been to induce the Russians to concentrate about Pultusk
and, turning their position from its left, ultimately to cut them
off from Russia, and if possible to surround them. But in this
new and difficult country the emperor found it impossible to time
his marrhrs. The troops arrived late at their appointed positions,
and after a stubborn rearguard action at Ftiltusk itself and
nndcdsive fighting elsewhere (Soldau-Golymin) the Russians
SQCcecded in retreating beyond the jaws of the French attack,
sad Napoleon for the first time found that he had exceeded the
limh. of endurance of his men. Indeed, the rank and file bluntly
toU him as much as he rode with the marching columns. Yield-
ing to the ineviuble, but not forgetting to announce a brilliant
victory in a bulletin, he sent his. troops into winter quarters
along the Pa»arge and down the Baltic, enjoining on h^ corps
commanders most strictly to. do nothing to disturb their
adverttry.
24. Campaign of Eylau. — Bennigsen, now commanding the
whole Russian army which with Lestocq's Prussians amounted
to 100,00a, also moved hdo winter quarters in the triangle
Oemsch-EYlaa-Oiteiode-Alleiistetn. and had every intention
of remaming there, for a fresh army was already gathering in
Russia, the ist corps of which had reached Nur about 50 m.
distant from the French right.
Unfortunately, Ney with his VI. corps about GUgenberg had
received the most poverty-stricken district in the whole region,
and to secure some alleviation for the sufferings of his men he
incautiously extended his cantonmenU till they came in contact
with the Russian outposts. Apparently seeing in this movement
a recommencement of hostilities, Bennigsen concentrated his
troops towards his right and commenced an advance westwards
towards Danzig, which was still in Prussian hands. Before his
advance both Ney and Bemadotte (the latter, between Ney and
the Baltic, covering the siege of Danzig) were compelled to fall
back. It then beome necessary to disturb the repose of the
whole army to counter the enemy's intentions. The latter by
this movement, . however, uncovered his own communication
with Russia, and the emperor was quick to seize his opportunity.
He received the information on the 28th of January. His orders
were at once issued and complied with with such celerity that
by the 3zst he stood prepared to advance with the corps of Soult,
Ney, Davout and Augeitau, the Guard and the reserve cavalry
(80,000 men on a front of 60 m.) from Myszienec through
Wollenberg to Gilgenberg; whilst Lannes on his right towards
Ostrolenka and Lefebvre (X.) at Thorn covered his outer
Bemadotte, however, was missing, and this time through
no fault of his own. His orders and the despatch conveying
Napoleon's instructions fell into the hands of the Cossacks, and
just in time Bennigsen 's eyes were opened. Rapidly renouncing
his previous intentions, he issued orders to concentrate on
Allenstcin; but this point was chosen too far in advance and he
was anticipated by Murat and Soult at that place on the and of
February. He then determined to unite his forces at Joukendorf,
but again he was too late. Soult and Murat attacked his rear-
guard on the 3rd, and learning from his Cossacks that the French
oorps were being directed so as to swing round and enclose him,
he withdrew by a night march and ultimately succeeded in
getting his whole army, with the exception of von Lestocq's
Prussians, together in the strong position along the Alle, the
cenUe of which is marked by Preussisch-Eylau. The oppor-
tunity for this concentration he owed to the time gained for him
by his rearguard at Joukendorf, for this had stood just long
enough to induce the French columns to s^-ing in to surround
him, and the next day was thus lost to the emperor as his corps
had to extend again to their manoeuvring intervals. The truth
is that the days were too short and the roads too bad for Napoleon
to carry out the full purpose his "general advanced guard "
was intended to fulfil. It was designed to hold the enemy in
position by the vigour of its attack, thus neutralizing his inde-
pendent will power and compelling him to expend his reserves in
the effort to rescue the troc^ engaged. But in forests and
snowdrifts the French made such slow progress that no sufficient
deployment could be made until darkness put a stop to the
fighting. Thus, when Ute on the 7th of February 1807 Murat
and Soult overtook the enemy near Eylau (q.v.) the fighting was
severe but not prolonged. Tliis time, however, Bennigsen, with
over 60,000 men in position and 15,000 Prussians expected to
arrive next morning, had no desire to avoid a battle, and deployed
for action, his front protected by great batteries of guns, many
of them of heavy calibre, numbering some 20o.in all.
During the night Augereau and the Guards had arrived, and
Ney and Davout were expected on either fiank in the fore-
noon. This time the emperor was determined his enemy should
not escape him, and about 8 a.m. ordered Soult and Augereau
on the left and right respectively to assail the enemy, Murat
and the Guards remaining in the centre as reserve. Napoleon's
own forces thus became the " general advanced guard " for Ney
and Davout, who were to close in on either side and deliver the
decisive stroke. But here too the weather and the state of the
roads operated adversely, for Ney came up too late, while Davout,
in the full tide of his victorious advance, was checked by the
arrival of Lestocq, whose corps Ney had failed to intercept,
224
NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS
and the attack of Augereau's corps (VU,), made in a blinding
snowstorm, failed with the appalling loss of over 40% killed
and wounded. Augereau himself was severely woimded, and the
remnant of his corps was subsequently distributed amongst the
other corps. 3cnnigsen; however, drew o£f on Key's arrival,
and the French were too much exhausted to pursue him. Again
the emperor had to admit that his troops could do no more, and
bowing to necessity, he distributed them into winter quarters,
where, however, the enterprise of the Cossacks; who were no
strangers to snow and to forests, left the outpoats but little
repose.
A protracted period of rest followed, during which the emperor
exerted himself unremittingly to re-equip, reinforce and supply
his troops. Hitherto he had been based on the entrenched camp
of Warsaw, but he had already taken steps to organize a new line
of supply and retreat via Thorn, and this was now completed.
At the same time Lefebvre was ordered to press the siege of
Danzig with all vigour, and on the 5th of May, after a most
gallant resistance, Kalckreuth, who rnieemed here his failure of
Auersttdt, surrendcnd. English assistance came too late.
By the beginning of June the French had more than made good
that losses and 310,000 men were available for field service.
35. HeUsberg and Friedland. — ^Meanwhile. BennigMn had
prepared for a fresh undertaking, and leaving Lestocq with
30,000 Prussians and Russians to contain Bemadotte, who lay
between Braunsberg and Spandau on the Passarge, he moved
southwards on the snd, and on the 3rd and 4th of June he fell
upon Ney, driving him back towards Guttstadt, whilst with the
bulk of his force he moved towards Heilsberg, where he threw
up an entrenched position. It was not till the 5th that Napoleon
received tidings of his advance, and for the moment these were
so vague that he contented himself by warning the remainder of
jhis forces to be prepared to move on the 6th. Next day, however,
jail doubts were set at rest, and as the Russians advanced south
«f Heilsberg, he decided to wheel his whole force to the right,
ipivoting on the III. corps, and cut Bennigsen <^ from Kdnigsberg
and the sea. On the 8th the VI., III., VIII. and Guard corps,
together with a new cavalry reserve corps under Lannes, in all.
147,000, stood ready for the operation, and with Murat and
Soult as gene^ advanced guard the whole moved forward,
driving the Russian outposts before them. Bemadotte, who was
to have attacked Lestocq, again failed to receive his orders and
took no part in the following operations. .
Murat attacked the Russians, who had halted in their
entrenched position, on tlie nth and drove in their outposts,
but did not discover the entrenchments. Meanwhile Soult
had followed with his infantry in close support, and the emperor
himself arriving, ordered him to attack at once. Now the
Russians uncovered their entrenchments, and in the absence of
artillery preparation Soult's leading troops received most severe
punishment. Fresh troops arriving were sent in to his support,
but these also proved insufficient, and darkness alone put an
end to the struggle, which cost the French x 3,000 killed and
wounded.
Bennigsen, however, learning that his tight was threatened by
the III. corps, and not having as yet completed his concentration,
retreated in the night to Bartenstein, and the following day
turned sharp to right towards SchippenbeiL The emperor
now pressed on towards Friedland, where he would completely
control the Russian communications with Kdnigsberg, their
immediate base of supply, but for once the Russians outmarched
him and covered their movement so successfully that for the
next three days he seems to have completely lost all knowledge
of his enemy's whereabouts. Lestocq in the meantime had been
forced northwards towards KiJnigsberg, and Soult with Murat
was in hot pursuit. The III.,VI., VIII. and Guard corps foIk>wed
the main road towards K&nigsberg, and the former had reached
Mflhihausen, the remainder were about Preussisch-Eylau,
when Latour Maubourg's dragoons sent in intelligence which
pointed to the presence of Bennigsen about Friedland. This
was indeed the case. The Russians after passing Schippenbeil
had suddenly turned northwards, and on the evening of the
X3th were taking up a strong position on the river Alle with
Friedland as a centre.
What followed presents perhaps the finest instance of the
Napoleom'c method. The enemy lay direct to his right, and
Murat, the IV. and III. corps had well overshot the mark.
Lannes's reserve coi^ (cavalry), to whom Latour MaubouxK
reported, lay at Domnau some xo m. to the right. The latter at
once assumed the r61e of advanced guard cavalry and was ordered
to observe the enemy at Friedland, Ney following in dose
support. Davout was turned about and directed on the enemy's
ri^t, and the VIII. corps (Mortier), the Guards and the reserve
cavalry followed as main body. On the X4th (the anniversary
of Marengo) Lannes carried out his r61e of fighting advanced
guard or screen, thewemperor's main body gradually came up,
and the battle of Friedland (f.v.), noUble chiefly for the first
display of the new artillery tactics of the French, ended with
a general attack about 5 p.u. and the retreat of tlie Russians,
after severe losses, over the Alle. Lestocq was, meanwhile,
driven through Kdnigsberg (which surrendered on the xsth)
on Tilsit, and now that he was no longer supported by the
Russians, the Prussian commander gave up the struggle.
36. The Austrian Army in 180Q. — ^Ever since Austerlitz the
Austrian officers had been labouring to reconstitute and reform
their army. The archduke Charles was the foremost amongst
many workers who had realised that numbers were absolutely
needed to confront the new French methods. With these
numbers it was impassible to attain the high degree of individual
efficiency required for the old line tactics, hence they were com-
pelled to adopt the French methods of skirmishers and columns,
but as yet they had hardly realized the increased density
necessary to be given to a line of battle to enable it to endure the
probnged nervous strain the new system of tactics entailed.
Where formerly 15,000 men to the mile of front had been con-
sidered ample for the occupation of a position or the execution
of an attack, double that number now often proved insufficient,
and their front ^ras broken before reinforcements could arrive.
Much had been done to create an efficient staff, but though the
idea of the army corps command was now no new thing, the
senior generals entrusted with these commands were far from
having acquired the independence and initiative of their French
opponents. Hence the extraordinary slowness of their man-
ceuvres, not because the Austrian infantry were bad mardicrs,
but because the preparation and circulation of orders was still
far hehind the French standard. The light cavalry had been
miich improved and the heavy cavalry on the whde proved a
fair match for their exponents.
37. The French Army.^Mier the peace of Tilsit the Grand
Army was gradually withdrawn behind the Rhine, leaving only
three commands, totalling 63,000 men, imder Davout in Prussia,
Oudinot in west central Germany, and Lefebvre in Bavaria, to
assist the princes of the Confederation of the Rhine in the main-
tenance of order and the enforcement of the French law of con-
scription, which was rigorously insisted on in all the States
comprised in this new federation.
In exchange for the subsistence of the French troops of
occupation, a corresponding number of these new levies were
moved to the south of France, where they commenced to arrive
at the moment when the situation in Spain became acute. The
Peninsular War (q.v.) called for large forces of the old Grande
Armie and for a brief period Napoleon directed operations in
person; and the Austrians took advantage of the dissemination
and weakness of the French forces in Germany to push forward
their own preparations with renewed energy.
But they reckoned without the resourcefulness of Napoleon.
The moment news of their activity reached him, whilst still in
pursuit of Sir John Moore, he despatched letters to all the
members of the Confederation warning them that their con-
tingents might soon be required, and at the same time issued a
series of decrees to General Clarke, his war minister, authorizing
him to call up the contingent of x8xo in advance, and directing
him in detail to proce^ with the formation of 4th and 5th
battalions for all the regiments across the Rhine. By these
NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS
225
DKiM Divout's, Oudlnal't and Lefebvre"* commands were
aufCTKiitcd, whiLL in Ittjru^ry and March new corps were formtd
ud npully pushed towards the front.
On hi* nrtum from Spiin, scxing wgr iinmmcn.1, he issu^il 1
mki<A march order* (which dirscrvc the closest aludy in diM:ii])
hy which on ihe isih of April his whole army was Lo bt con-
CEDtnted for manccuvres between Regensburg, Land&hut^ Aug5-
buijs atid DonaiLWijrth, ^nd sending on the Guard iti wagons to
Stru^urg, he despatched Berthier to act a& commatiderbi-chiijf
ULLJ] hk ow-n anival.
ECKMUHL i!l>5
iflL AuftrLfn. Qfffijnw. — The poutioa of assembly \^as <:\-
cdkaUy chosen, buit unrortun^ldy the AustriarjA UKtk t3ic
isiuutve. On ihi^ 9th of AprU their main body of sk Cf>r; 5
ontied the Inn between Brauruiy and Pjssau^ and ^irtiullai^ -
fetttly i»o idditional corps moved from f'il^cn In BMhi-mij vn
^^t^^o&buTg. At this momcn: Davout w,is enterinj; Regent-
biJI with hii leading troops, the remainder si ill s*>me mar^ti^i
iJi rear, ajid it was e^-idenl that ihu whale concfntriUoii
COTiJd no longer be carried out bcfort; the Auriuians would h>i
ifiapoiilJon to intervene* Berth ier received the news whdc smU
«!■ tray to the hnnt. and quhe failed to grasp the situciti'^Ji.
KudltDgDonauw^rth at 8 *»«, on the t.^th of April. heordL-ri.l
Oivo«t Mxd Oudinot to remain at Regensbur);^ v,hibt Lefeb\:.r
and Wndff (B>VArian*) who had fallen bat It before ihe Austriar,^
«ne dented lo reoccu py Land^-ih u [ , Tb ii was i n di rect con t r . l -
<ficljikii with the instruct ioi:is Nafpok-on had given him on ihi?
itth of liarch in view nf this very eTnergency . Devout ulii'> 1 1 ,
but PeoKHHtrated. On the i6th Berthier went on to Augsburg],
be kamt ihal Lefebvre's advanced troops had bctn
I out of Land^huC, thus opening a great gap btvinly-ix
nmei mide between the two wings of the French army,
Uctnvhile Napuleon, who had left Paris at 4 a.U. on tin;
ijtt df April, wai hAitenmg towards the front, but remaiiul
aiD in ijpiorance of Berthier's doings until on Ihe i6lh at S[ui : •
ttrt be (ccdvcd a kltcr fnsm the Marshal dateii the i jth, whith
tiucv him into consternation. In reply he immediately vsrotf;
" Two do not inform me what has rendered necessary such lie;
ertradrdiiiaiy measure which weakens and di^'idcs my troctps "~-
»ad— *' I cannot quite grasp the meaning of your letler yet. I
should havr preferred to see my army concentrated betwcim
Inffinad t and Augibur^, the Bavarians in the first bne, wiiJs
tkeduEeol Danaig in his old positiDn. until we know what the
cMBtf b(«n« to do. Ever>thing would be ejiccdlent if the duV^e
ci AiMtstldl had been at Ingctstadt and the dute of Riv^li
*Tti the Wiiultembergeri and Oudinot 's corps at Augsburt^,
' * . to that just the opposite of wb^t should have be*: i.
dac« his bmi done" (C. N. Iq Bcnhicr, Ludwigsburgf idih
iflp Nep0te^i I4kts command. — Having despatched this severe
fCpRmand he hastened on to Donaii worth, where he arrived at
4 *JL ©fl the ijth, hoping to find Berthier. but (he bner wa.^ at
AuQdntrg. Nrvertheli^*, at jo ah. he ordered Davout .Tml
Oudinot to withdraw at once to Ingolstadt: and Lekbvre an.f
Wrede on the right to support the movement. About noon
Berthier returned and after hearing his explanation Masaena
received orders to move from Augsburg towards Ingolstadt.
" To-morrow will be a day of preparation spent in drawing
closer together, and I expect to be able by Wednesday to
manoeuvre against the enemy's columns according to
circumstances."
Meanwhile the Austrians had approached so near that by a
single day's march it would have been possible to fall upon and
crush by superior numbers either wing of the French army,
but though the Austrian light cavalry successfully covered the
operations of the following troops they had not yet risen to a
conception of their reconnoitring mission, and the archduke,
in ignorance of his opportunity and possessed, moreover, with
the preconceived idea of uniting at Regensburg with the two
corps coming from Bohemia, moved the bulk of his forces in
that direction, leaving only a covering body against Davout
altogether insufficient to retain him. Davout, however, had
left a garrison of 1800 men in Regensburg, who delayed the
junction of the Austrian wings until the aoth inst., and on the
same day the emperor, having now reunited his whole right
wing and centre, overwhelmed the covering dcuchments
facing him in a long series of disconnected engagements lasting
forty-eight hours, and the archduke now found himself in danger
of being forced back into the Danube. But with the Bohemian
reinforcements he had still four corps in hand, and Napoleon,
whose intelligence service in the difficult and intersected country
had lamentably failed him, had weakened his army by deUching
a portion of his force in pursuit of the beaten right wing, and
against the archduke's communications.
30. £cAmu/i/.— When, therefore, the latter, on the 2 and,
marched southward to reopen his communications by the defeat
of the enemy's army, always the surest means of solving this
difficulty, he actually reached the neighbourhood of Eckmtthl
with a sufficient numerical superiority had he only been prompt
enough to seize his opportunity. But the French had been
beforehand with him. Napoleon, who had personally taken part
in the fighting of the previous day, and followed the pursuit as
far as Landshut, whence he had despatched Massena to follow
the retreating Austrians along the Isar, seems to have realized
about 3 A.U. in the morning that it was not the main body of
the enemy he had had before him, but only its left wing, and that
the main body Itself must still be northward towards Regensburg.
Issuing orders to Davout, Oudinot and hb cavalry to concentrate
with all speed towards EckmUhl, he himself rode back along the
Regensburg road and reached the battle-field just as the engage-
ment between the advance troops had commenced. Had the
Austrians possessed mobility equal to that of the French the
latter should have been overwhelmed in detail, but whilst the
French covered 17 and 19 m. the Austrians only marched 10,
and, owing to the defect In their tactical training alluded to above,
the troops actually on the ground could not hold out long enough
for their reserves to arrive. The retreat of the front lines
involved the following ones in confusion, and presently the
whole mass was driven back in considerable disorder. It
seemed as if nothing could save the Austrians from complete
disaster, but at the critical moment the emperor, yielding to
the protestations of his corps commanders, who represented the
excessive fatigue of their troops, stopped the pursuit, and the
archduke made the most of his opportunity to restore order
amongst his demoralized men, and crossed to the north bank
of the Danube during the night.
31. Austrian RetreaL— On the following morning the French
reached Regensburg and at once proceeded to assault its
medieval walls, but the Austrian garrison bravely defended it
till the last of the stragglers was safely across on the north bank.
It was here that for the only time in his career Napoleon was
slightly wounded. Then, leaving Davout to observe the archduke's
retreat, the emperor himself rode after Massena, who with the
major portion of the French army was following the Austrian
weaker wing under Hlller The btter was not so shaken as
Napoleon believed, and turning to bay Inflicted a severe check
on its pursuers, who at Ebelsbers lost 4000 men in three
226
NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS
fruitless assaults. Thus covered by his rearguard Hiller g&ined
space and time to pass his troops over to the north bank of the
Danube and remove all boats on the river. Thb left the direct
road to Vienna open, and Napoleon, hoping to find peace in the
enemy's capital, pushed the whole of his army down the right
bank, and with Murat's cavalry entered the city on the lath of
May, after somewhat severe resistance lasting three days. Mean-
while the archduke and Hiller, both now unmolested, effected
their junction in the vicinity of Wagram, picketing the whole line
of the Danube with their outposts and collecting all the boats.
33. Aspern and Wagram. — ^The reconnaissance of the river
was at once taken in hand by the French upon their arrival
in Vienna, and a point opposite the island of Lobau selected
for the crossing. Thanks to the Austrian precautions it took
four days to collect the necessary material to span the main
branch of the river, here some aooo yds. across, and though
Napoleon personally spurred on ail to activity nearly four days
more were required for iu construction. It was not till the night
of the 19th of May that orders for the passage were finally issued,
and during the night the troops commenced to occupy the island
of Lobau. Surprise, of course, was out of the question, but the
Austrians did not attempt to dispute the passage, their qbject
being to allow as many French as they felt they could deal with
to pass over and then to fall on them. Thus on the aist of
May the battle of Aspcm (q.v.) or Essling began. It ended on
the night of the a2nd with the complete defeat of Napoleon,
the first ever inflicted upon him. The French retreated into the
island of Lobau. By nightfall upwards of 100,000 men, en-
cumbered with at least 30,000 wounded, were crowded together
on the little island scarcely a mile square, short of provisions
and entirely destitute of course of all hospital accessories. The
question then arose whether the retreat was to be continued
across the main stream or not, and for the second time in his
career Napoleon assembled his generals to take their opinion.
They counselled retreat, but having heard them all he replied,
in substance: " If we leave here at all we may as well retire to
Strassburg, for unless the enemy is held by the threat of further
operations he will be free to strike at our communications and
has a shorter distance to go. We must remain here and renew
operations as soon as possible."
Immediate orders were despatched to summon every available
body of troops to concent rate for the decisive si roke. Practically
the lines of communication along the Danube were denuded
of combatants, even Bemadotte being called up from Passau,
and the viceroy of Italy, who driving the archduke Johann before
him (action of Raab) had brought up 56,000 men through
Tirol, was disposed towards Pressburg within easy call. The
arsenal of Vienna was ransacked for guns, stores and appliances,
and preparations in the island pushed on as fast as possible.
By the end of June 200,000 troops were stationed within call,
and on the 4th July the French began to cross over to the left
bank of the Danube. The events which followed are described
under Wackam. The great battle at this place, fought on the
Sth and 6th of July, ended in the retirement of the Austrians.
The only other event which occurred before peace was made
was an unimportant action at Znaym on the nth of July.
33. The Russian War of i5/2.— Whilst the campaign of 1809
had seriously shaken the faith of the marshals and the higher
ranks in the infallibility of the emperor's judgment, and the
slaughter of the troops at Aspern and Wagram had still further
accentuated the opposition of the French people to conscription,
the result on the fighting discipline of the army had, on the
whole, been for good. The panics of Wagram had Uught men
and officers alike a salutary lesson.
Aware of the growing feeling against war in France, Napoleon
had determined to make his allies not only bear the expenses of
the coming campaign, but find the men as well, and he was
so far master of Europe that of the 363,000 who on the 24th of
June crossed the Niemen no less than two-thirds were Germans,
Austrians, Poles or Italians. But though the battlefield discipline
of the men was better, the discipline in camp and on the march
was worse, for the troops were no longer eager to reach the
battlefield, and marched because they were compelled, not of
their own goodwill. The result was apparent in a sudden
diminution in mobility, and a general want of punctuality
which in the event very seriously influenced the course of the
campaign. On the other hand, the Russians, once thdr father-
land was invaded, became dominated by an ever-growing spirit
of fanaticism, and they were by nature too obedient to their
natural leaders, and too well inured to the hardships of cam-
paigning, to lose their courage in a retreat.
34. Tkc Strategic Deployment. — By the middle of June 181 2
the emperor had assembled his army along the line of the Niemen.
On the extreme right stood the Austrian contingent under
Schwanenberg (34,000 men). Next, centring about Warsaw,
a group of three corps (19,000 men) under the chief o>mmand
of Napoleon's brother Jerome. Then the main army under
Napoleon in person (220,000 men; with 80,000 more under the
viceroy of Italy on his right rear); and on the extreme left at
Tilsit a flanking corps, comprising the Prussian auxiliary corT>s
and other Germans (in all 40,000 strong). The whole army
v/as particLlarly strong in cavalry; out of the 450,000, 80,000
belonged to that arm, and Napoleon, mindful of the lessons of
1807, had issued the most minute and detailed orden for the
supply service in all its branches, and the forwarding of reinforce-
ments, no less than 100,000 men being destined for that purpose
in due course of time.
Information about the Russians was very indifferent; it was
only known that Prince Bagration with about 33,000 men lay
grouped about Wolkowysk; Barclay de ToUy with 40,000 about
Vilna; and on the Austrian frontier lay a small corps under
Tormassov in process of formation, while far away on the Turkish
frontiers hostilities with the sultan retained Tschitschagov with
50,000 more. Of the enemy's plans Napoleon knew nothing,
but, in accordance with his usual practice, the position he had
selected met all immediate possible moves.
35. Opening of the Campaign. — On the 24th of June the passa^
of the Niemen began in torrid heat which lasted for a few days.
The main army, with the emperor in person, covered by Murat
and the cavalry, moved on Vilna, whilst Jerome on his right rear
at once threatened Bagration and covered the emperor's outer
flank. From the very first, however, the inherent weakness of
the vast army, and the vicious choice of time for the beginning
of the advance, began to make itself felt. The crops being still
green, and nothing else available as forage for the horses, an
epidemic of colic broke out amongst them, and in ten days the
mounted arms had lost upwards of one-third of their strength;
men died of sunstroke in numbers, and serious straggling began.
Still everything pointed to the concentration of the Russians at
Vilna, and Jerome, who on the 5th of July had reached Grodno,
was ordered to push on. But Jerome proved quite inadequate
to his position, listening to the complaints of his subordinates as
to want of supplies and even of pay; he spent four whole days
in absolute inertia, notwithstanding the emperor's reprimanda.
Meanwhile the Russians made good their retreat— Barclay to-
wards the entrenched camp of Drissa on the Dvina, Bagration
towards Mohilev.
The- emperor's first great coup thus failed. Jerome was
replaced by Davout, and the army resumed its march, this time
in the hope of surrounding and overwhelming Barclay, whikt
Davout dealt with Bagration. The want of mobility, particularly
in the cavalry, now began to tell against the French. With horses
only just recovering from an epidemic, they proved quite unequal
to the task of catching the Cossacks, who swarmed round them
in every direction, never accepting an engagement but compelling
a constant watchfuhiess for which nothing in thdr previous
experience had sufficiently prepared the French.
Before their advance, however, the Russian armies steadily
retired, Barclay from Vilna via Drissa to Vitebsk, Bagration
from Wolkowysk to Mohilev. Again arrangments were made
for a Napoleonic battle; behind Murat's cavalry came the
" general advanced guard " to attack and hold the enemy, whilst
the main body and Davout were held available to swing in on
his rear. Napoleon, however, failed to allow for the psychology
NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS
227
of his opponents, who, utterly indifferent to the sacrifice of life,
refused to be drawn into engagemenls to support an advance
or to extricate a rearguard, and steadily withdrew from every
positioa when the French gained touch with them.
Thus the manceuvre against Vitebsk again miscarried, and
Napoleon found himself in a far worse position, numerically and
Biaterially, than at the outset of the campaign. Then he had
stood with 430,000 men on a front of 160 m., now he had only
329,000 men on a front of 135; he had missed three great
opportunities of destroying his enemy in detail, and in five weeks,
during which time he had only traversed 200 m., he had seen his
troops reduced numerically at least one-third, and, worse still,
his army was now far from being the fighting machine it had been
at the outset.
36. SmoUnsi. — Meanwhile the Russians had not lost a single
gun and the moral of their men had been improved by the result
of the many minor encounters with the enemy, further, the
and then began a scries of rearguard actions and nocturnal
retreats which completely accomplished their purpose of wearing
down the French army. The Russian government, however,
failed to see the matter in its true light, and Marshal Kutusov
was sent to the front to assume the chief command. His inten-
tion was to occupy a strong position and fight one general action
for the possession of Moscow, and to this end he selected the line of
the Kabtscha where the stream intersects the great Moscow road.
37. Borodino. — Here he was overtaken by Mural and Ney, but
the French columns hod straggled so badly that four whole days
elapsed before the emperor was able to concentrate his army foi
battle and then could only oppose 138,000 men to the Russians'
110,000. About 6 a.m. the battle began, but Napoleon was
suffering from one of those attacks of illness and depression
which henceforth became such an important factor in his fate.
Till about midday he followed the course of the action with his
usual alertness, then he appears to have been overcome by a
junction of Bagration and Barcby was now assured in the vicinity
of Smofensk. Towards this place the French advance was now
rcsomcd, and the Russian generals at the head of a united force
of 130,000 men marched forward to meet them. Here, however,
the inefficiency of the Russian staff actually saved them from
the disaster which must certainly have overtaken them had they
realized their intention of fighting the French. The Russians
marched in two columns, which lost touch of one another, and
as it was quite impossible for either to engage the French single-
handed, they both retired again towards Smolensk, where with
an advanced guard in the town itself— which possessed an old-
fashioned brick enceinU not to be breached by field artillery alone
-Hbe two a>Iumns reunited and deployed for action behind the
Ottfofdabk Dnieper.
Marat and Ney as " general advanced guard " attacked the
town in the morning of the i6th of August, and whilst they
fought the main body was swung round to attack the Russian
left and rear. The whole of the 1 7th was required to complete the
Bovement, and as soon as its purpose was sufficiently revealed
to the Russians the latter determined to retreat under cover of
fisdit. Tbctr manoeuvre was carried out with complete success,
kind of stupor and allowed his marshals to fight by themselves.
There was no final decisive effort as at Wagram and the Guard
was not even called on to move. Ultimately the sun went down
on an undecided field on which 25,000 French and 38,000 Russians
had fallen, but the moral reaction on the former was far greater
than on the latter.
38. Moscow.— Y.Ml\3so'v continued his retreat, and Murat
with his now exhausted horsemen followed as best he might.
Sebastiani, commanding the advanced guard, overtook the
Russians in the act of evacuating Moscow, and agreed with the
latter to observe a seven hours' armistice to allow the Russians to
clear the town, for experience had shown the French that street
fighting in wooden Russian townships always meant fire and the
consequent destruction of much-needed shelter and provisions
Towards nightfall Napoleon reached the scene, and the Russians
being now clear the troops began to enter, but already fires were
observed in the farther part of the city. Napoleon passed the
night in a house in the western suburb and next morning rode
to the Kremlin, the troops moving to the quarters assigned
to them, but in the afternoon a great fire began and, continuing
for two days, drove the French out into the country a^ain.
228
NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS
The emperor was now in the direst perplexity. Kutusov was
hovering on the outskirts of the city, bis main body at Kaluga,
some marches to the S.W., where he was in full communication
with the richest portion of the empire; and now news arrived
that St. Cyr, who had relieved Macdonald on his extreme left,
had only 17,000 men left under arms against upwards of 40,000
Russians under Witgenstein; and to the south Tschitschagov's
army, being no longer detained on the Turkish frontier, peace
having been made, was marching to join Tormassov about
Brest-Litewski with forces which would bring the total of the
two well over 100,000 men. Meanwhile Schwarzenberg's force
opposing these had dwindled to a bare 30,000.
The French army was thus disposed almost in an equilateral
triangle with sides of about 570 m., with 95,000 men at the apex
at Moscow opposed to xao,ooo, 30,000 about Brest opposite
100,000, and 17.000 about Drissa confronted by 40,000, whilst in
the centre of the base at Smolensk lay Victor's corps, about
30,000. From Moscow to the Niemen was 550 m. In view of
this situation Napoleon on the 4th of October sent General
Lauriston to the Russian headquarters to treat. Whilst waiting
his return Murat was enjoined to skirmish with Kutusov, and
the emperor himself worked out a scheme to assume the offensive
with his whole army towards St Petersburg, calling in Victor and
St Cyr on the way. This project was persisted with, until on the
1 8th Murat was himself attacked and severely handled (action
of Tarutino or Vinkovo). On the morning of the 19th the whole
army moved out to accept this challenge, and the French were
thoroughly worsted on the 24th in the battle of Maloyaroslavet2.
39. The Rdreai Jrotn Moscow. — ^Then began the celebrated
retreat. It has generally been forgotten that the utter want
of march discipline in the French, and not the climatic condi-
tions, was responsible for the appalling disasters which ensued.
Actually the frost came later than usual that year, the 27th of
October, and the weather was dry and bracing; not till the 8th
of November did the cold at night become sharp. Even when the
Beresina was reached on the 26th November, the cold was far from
severe, for the slow and sluggish stream was not frozen over, as is
proved by the fact that Eble's pioneers worked in the water all
through that terrible day. But the French army was already com-
pletely out of hand, and the degree to which the panic of a crowd
can master even the strongest instinct of the individual is shown
by the conduct of the fugitives who crowded over the bridges,
treading hundreds under foot, whilst all the time the river was
easily fordable and mounted men rode backwards and forwards
across it.
To return to the actual sequence of events. Kutusov had
been very slow in exploiting his success of the 24th and indeed
had begun the pursuit in a false direction; but about the 2nd of
November, headquarters of the French being at Vyazma, the
Cossacks became so threatening that the emperor ordered the
army to march (as in Egypt) in hollow square. This order,
however, appears only to have been obeyed by the Guards, with
whom henceforward the emperor marched.
Kutusov had now overtaken the French, but fortunately for
them he made no effort to close with them, but hung on their
flank, molesting them with Cossacks and picking up stragglers.
Thus the wreck of the Grande Armie, now not more than
fifty thousand strong, reached Smolensk on the 9th and
there rested till the X4th. The march was then resumed, the
Guard leading and Ney commanding the rearguard. Near
Krasnoi on the i6th the Russian advanced guard tried to head
the column off. Napoleon halted a whole day to let the army
close up; and then attacked with his old vigour and succeeded
in clearing the road, but only at the cost of leaving Ney and the
rearguard to its fate. By a night march of unexampled daring
and difficulty Ney succeeded in breaking through the Russian
cordon, but when he regained touch with the main body at
Orcha only 800 of his 6000 men were still with him (21st).
40. The Beresina. — From here Napoleon despatched orders
to Victor to join him at Borisov on the Beresina. The cold now
gave way and thaw set in, leaving the country a morass, and
information came that Tschitschagov from the south had reached
Borisov. He now selected Viesselovo as the point of passage and
at I a.m. on the 23rd sent orders to Oudinot to march thither
and construct bridges. In the execution of these orders Oudinot
encountered the Russian advanced guard near Borisov and
drove the latter back in conftision, though not before they had
destroyed the existing bridge thbre. This sudden rcassumption
of the offensive threw Tschitschagov into confusion. Thus time
was gained for Victor also to come up and for Oudinot to con-
struct the bridges at Studicnka near the above-mentioned
place, but a spot in many respects better suited for the purpose.
Thither therefore Napoleon sent his pontonniers under General
Ebl6, but on their arrival they found that no preparations bad
been made and much time was lost. Meanwhile Victor, in doubt
as to the real point of passage, had left the road to Studaenka
open to Wittgenstein, who had followed hard on his heels.
By 4 p.m. on the 26th the bridges were finished and the passage
began, but not without resbtance by the Russians, who were
gradually closing in. The crossing continued all night, though
interrupted from time to time by failures of the bridges. All
day during the 27th stragglers continued to cross, covered by
such combatants as remained under sufficient discipline to be
employed. At 8 a.m. on the 28th, however, Tschitschagov and
Wittgenstein moved forward on both banks of the river to the
attack, but were held off by the splendid self-sacrifice of the few
remaining troops under Ney, Oudinot and Victor, until about
I p.m. the last body of regular troops passed over the bridges,
and only a few thousand stragglers remained beyond the river.
The number of troops engaged by the French that day cannot
be given exactly. Oudinot's and Victor's men were relatively
fresh and may have totalled 20,000, whilst Ney can hardly have
had more than 6000 of all corps fighting under him. How many
were killed can never be known, but three days later the tot^
number of men reported fit for duty had fallen to 8800 only.
41. Final Operations. — Henceforward the retreat of the army
became practically a headlong flight, and on the 5th of December,
having reached Smorgoni and seeing that nothing further could
be done by him at the front, the emperor handed over the
command of what remained to Murat, and left for Paris to
organize a fresh army for the following year. Travelling at
the fullest speed, he reached the Tuileries on the x8th, after a
journey of 312 hours.
After the emperor's departure the cold set in with increased
severity, the thermometer falling to 23". On the 8th of December
Murat reached Vilna, whilst Ney with about 400 men and Wrede
with 2000 Bavarians still formed the rearguard; but it was quite
impossible to carry out Napoleon's instructions to go into
winter quarters about the town, so that the retreat was resumed
on the xoth and ultimately Kdnigsberg was attained on the
19th of December by Murat with 400 Guards and 600 Guard
cavalry dismounted.
Meanwhile on the extreme French right Schwarzenberg and
his Austrians had drifted away towards their own frontier,
and the Prussian contingent, which under Yorck (see Yobck
VOM Wartenburc) formed part of Macdonald's command
about Riga, had entered into a convention with the Russians
at Tauroggen (December 30) which deprived the French of their
last support upon their left. Konigsberg thus became untenable,
and Murat fell back to Posen, where on th<^ 10th of January
he handed over his command to Engine Bcauhamais and
returned to Paris.
The Russian pursuit practically ceased at the line of the
Niemen, for their troops also had suffered terrible hardships
and a period of rest had become an absolute necessity.
42. The War of Liberation. — The Convention of Tauroggen
became the starting-point of Prussia's regeneration. As the
news of the destruction of the Grande Armie spread, and the
appearance of countless stragglers convinced the Prussian people
of the reality of the disaster, the spirit generated by years of
French domination burst out. For the moment the king and his
ministers were placed in a position of the greatest anxiety, for
they knew the resources of France and the boundless versatility
of their arch-enemy far too well to imapne thai the end of tLcir
NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS
229
faffcriBgi was yet in tight. To disftvow the acts and desves of
iJi^anny and of the secret societies for defence with which all
Borth Gennany was hon^combcd would be to imperil the very
nstence of the monarchy, whilst an attack on the wreck of
tbe Grand Army meant Uie certainty of a terrible retribution
from the new armies now rapidly forming on the Rhine.
But the Russians and the soldiers were resolved to continue
the campaign, and working in collusion they put ixessure on
the not unwilling represenUtives of the dvil power to facilitate
the supi^y and equipment of such troops as were still in the field;
they could not refuse food and shelter to their starving coimtry-
Dxnor their loyal allies, and thus by degrees the French garrisons
scattoed about the country either found themselves surrounded
or were compelled to retire to avoid that fate. Thus it happened
thst the viceroy of Italy felt himself compelled to depart from
the positive injunctions of the emperor to hold on at all costs
to Ids advanced position at Posen, where about i4iOoo men
had gradually rallied around him, and to withdraw step by step
to Magdebttfg, where he met rdnforcements and commanded
the nhoic course of the lower Elbe.
43. Napdecn's Preparations. — Meanwhile the emperor in
Pkiis had been organizing a fresh army for the reconquest of
Prussia. Thanks to his having compelled his allies to fight his
battles for him, he had not as yet drawn very heavily on the
fighting resources of France, the actual percentage of men taken
by the conscriptions during the years since 1806 being actually
kwer than that in force in continental armies of to-day. He
had also created in z8ii-i8ia a new National Guard, organized
in " cohorts " to distinguish it from the reguhtr army, and for
home defence m/y, and these by a skilful app«il to their patriotism
and judicious pressure applied through the prefects, became a
aseful jeservoir of half-trained men for new battalions of the
active army. Levies were also made with rigorous severity
m the states of the Rhine Confederation, and even Italy was
called on for fresh sacrifices. In this manner by the end of
Uarch upwards of 300,000 men were moving towards the Elbe,*
aad in the first fortnight of April they were duly concentrated
in the an^ formed by the Elbe and Saale, threatening on the
one hand Berlin, on the other Dresden and the east.
44- Spring Campaign of 1813,—Tbc allies, aware of the gradual
oreagthening of their enemy's forces but themselves as yet
osable to |mt more than 300,000 in the field, had left a small
ooips of observation opposite Magdeburg and along the Elbe
to give timely notice of an advance towards Berlin; and with
the bulk of their forces had taken up a position about Dresden,
whence th^ had determined to mairch down the course of the
Elbe and roll up the French from right to left. Both armies
were very indififorently supplied with information, as both were
vithout any rdiable regular cavalry capable of piercing the
screen of outposts with which each endeavoured to conceal
his deposition, and Napoleon, operating in a most unfriendly
country, sofiered more in this respect than his adversaries.
On the 35th of April Napoleon reached Erfurt and assumed
the chief command. On this day his troops stood in the following
positions. Eugihie, with Lauriston's, Macdonald's and Regnier's
cocps, on the lower Saale, Ney in front of Weimar, holding the
defile of Kasen; the Guard at Erfurt, Marmont at Gotha,
Bertiand at Saalfeld, and Oudinot at Coburg, and during the
next few days the whole were set in motion towards Merseburg
and Leipzig, in the now stereotyped Napoleonic order, a strong
advanced guard of all arms leading, the remainder— about two-
thirds of the whole— following as "masse de mancenvre," this
time, owing to the cover afforded by the Elbe on the left, to the
ri^t rear of the advanced guard.
Meanwhile the Russians and Prussians had concentrated all
available men and were moving on an almost paraUcl line, but
somewhat to the south of the direction taken by the French.
Oa the ist of May Napoleon and the advanced guard entered
Lfitzen. Wittgenstein, who now commanded the allies in place
of Kutusov, iMaring of his approach, had dcdded to attack
< NajKticoa always gave them out as 300,000. but this number
r attained.
the French advanced guard, which he took to be their whole
force, on iu right flank, and during the morning had drawn'
together the bulk of his forces on his right in the vicinity ol Gross-
Gdnchen and Kaya.
45. Battle of £4Usai.— About 9 a.m. on May snd he began an
atUck on the French advance guard in Latzen, whilst the
remainder of his army was directed against Napoleon's right
and rear. Just as the hitter were moving off the heads of the
French main body suddenly appeared, and at xi a.m. Napoleon,
then standing near the Gustavus Adolphus monument on the
field of Ltttzen, heard the roar of a heavy cannonade to his right
rear. He realized the situation in a moment, galloped to the
new scene of action, and at once grouped his forces for decisive
action — ^the gift in which he was supreme. Leaving the leading
troops to repulse as best they might the furious atUck of both
Russians and Prussians, and caring little whether they lost
ground, he rapidly orgaxiked for his own control a battle-reserve.
At length when both sides were exhausted by their efforU he
sent forward neariy a hundred guns which tore asunder by their
case-shot fire the enemy's line and marched his reserve rig^t
through the gap. Had he possessed an adequate ca^^hy force
the victory would have been decisive. As it was, the allies made
good their retreat and the French were too exhausted for infantry
pursuit.
Perhaps no battle better exemplifies the inherent strength of
the emperor's strategy, and in none was his grasp of the battlefield
more brilliantly displayed, for, as he fully recognized, " These
Prusuans have at last learnt something — they are no longer the
wooden toys of Frederick the Great," and, on the other hand,
the rehitive inferiority of his own men as compared with his
veterans of Austerlitz called for far more individual effort than
on any previous day. He was everywhere, encouraging and
compelling his men— it is a legend in the French army that the
persuasion even of the imperial boot was used upon some of his
reluctant conscripts, and in the result his system was fully
justified, as it triumphed even against a great tactical surprise.
46. Bauteen. — As soon as possible the army pressed on in
pursuit, Ney being sent across the Elbe to turn the position of the
allies at Dresden. This threat forced the latter to evacuate the
town and retire over the Elbe, after blowing up the stone bridge
across the river. Na^leon entered the town hard on their beds,
but the broken bridge caused a delay of four days, there being no
pontoon trains with the army. Ultimatdy on the x8th of May the
march was renewed, but the allies had continued their retreat in
leisurely fashion, picking up reinforcements by the way. Arrived
at the line of the Spree, they took up and foitified a veiy formid-
able position about Bautzen {q.v,). Here, on the aoth, they were
attacked, and after a two days' battle dislodged by Napoleon;
but the weakness of the French cavalry conditioned both the
form of the attack, which was less effective than usual, and the
results of the victory, which were extremely meagre.
The allies broke off the action at their own time and retired
in such good order that the emperor failed to capture a single
trophy as proof of his victory. The enemy's escape annoyed him
greatly, the absence of captured guns and prisoners reminded
him too much of his Russian experiences, and he redoubled his
demands on his corps commanders for greater vigour in the
pursuit. This led the hitter to push on without due regard to
tactical precautions, and Bluchcr took advantage of their
carelessness when at Haynau (May 36), with some twenty
squadrons of Landwehr cavalry, he surprised, rode over and
almost destroyed Maison's division. The material loss inflicted
on the French was not very great, but its effect in raising the
moral of the raw Prussian cavalry and increasing their con-
fidence in their old commander was enormous.
Still the allies continued their retreat and the French were
unable to bring them to action. In view of the doubtful attitude
of Austria, Napoleon became alarmed at the gradual lengthening
of his lines of communication and opened negotiations. The
enemy, having everything to gain and nothing to lose thereby,
agreed finally to a six weeks' suspension of arms. This was
perhaps the gravest military error of Napoleon's whole career,
230
NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS
and his ezcuie for it, " want of adequate cavalry/' is the strongest
testimony as to the value of that arm.
47. Tke Autumn Campaign. — ^As soon as a suspension of arms
(to X5th of August) had been agreed to, Napoleon hastened to
withdraw his troops from the dangerous position they occupied
with reference to the passes leading over the mountains from
Bohemia, for he entertained no doubt now that Austria was also
to be considered as an enemy. Finally he decided to group his
corps round GOrliU and Bautzen whence they could either meet
the enemy advancing from Breslau or fall on his flank over the
mountains if they attempted to force their way into Saxony
by the valley of the Elbe. This latter manoeuvre depended,
however, on his maintenance of Dresden, and to this end he sent
the L Corps up the Elbe to Pima and KOnigstein to cover the
fortifications of Dresden itself. His instructions on this point
deserve the closest study, for he foresaw the inevitable attraction
which a complete entrenched camp would exercise even upon him-
self, and, therefore, limited his engineers to the construction of a
strong bridge head on the right bank and a continuous enceinte,
broken only by gaps for counter attack, around the town itself.
Then he turned his attention to the plan for the coming
campaign. Seeing clearly that his want of an efficient cavalry
precluded all ideas of a resolute offensive in his old style, he
determined to limit himself to a defence of the line of the Elbe,
making only dashes of a few days' duration at any target the
enemy might present.
Reinforcements had been coming up without ceasing and
at the beginning of August he calculated that he would have
300,000 men available about Bautxen and xoo,ooo along the
Elbe from Hamburg via Magdeburg to Toigau. With the
latter he determined to strike the first blow, by a concentric
advance on Berlin (which he calculated he would reach on
the 4th or 5th day), the movement being continued thence
to extricate the French garrisons in KOstrin, Stettin and
Dansig. The moral effect, he promised himself, would be
prodigious, and there was neither room nor food for these
100,000 elsewhere.
Towards the close of the armistice he learned the general
situation of the allies. The crown prince of Sweden (Bemadotte) ,
jmth bis Swedes and various Prussian levies, 135,000 in all, lay
in and around Berlin and Stettin; and knowing his former
marshal well. Napoleon considered Oudinot a match for him.
Blttcher with about 95,000 Russians and Prussians was about
Breslau, and Schwarzenberg, with nearly x 80,000 Austrians and
Russians, lay in Bohemia. In his position at Bautzen he felt
himself equal to all his enemy's combinations.
48. Dresden. — The advance towards Berlin began punctually
with the expiration of the armistice, but with the main army he
himself waited to see more clearly his adversaries' plans. At
length becoming impatient he advanced a portion of his army
towards BlUcher, who fell back to draw him into a trap. Then
the news reached him that Schwarzenberg was pressing down the
valley of the Elbe, and, leaving Macdonald to observe BlQchcr,
he hurried back to Bautzen to dispose his troops to cross the
Bohemian mountains in the genexal direction of Kdnigstein, a
blow which must have had decisive results. But the news from
Dresden was so alarming that at the last moment he changed bis
mind, and sending Vandamme alone over the mountains, he
hurried with his whole army to the threatened poinL This
march remains one of the most extraordinary in history, for the
bulk of his forces moved, mainly in mass and across country,
90 m. in 73 hours, entering Dresden on the morning of the a7th,
only a few hours before the attack of the allies commenced. For
the events which followed see Dresden (JbaUU),
Dresden was the last great victory of the First Empire. By
noon on the 37th August the Austrians and Russians were
completely beaten and in full retreat, the French pressing hard
behind them,but meanwhile Napoleon himself again succumbed
L
NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS
231
to one of his nnaccooBUUe attacks of apparent intellectual
ponlysia. He seemed unaware of the vital importance of the
moment, oouched shivering over a bivouac fire, and finally rode
back to Dresden, leaving no specific orders for the further pursuit.
49. Freuck Defeats. — ^The allies, however, continued to retreat,
but unfortunately Vandamme, with his single corps and un-
supported, issued out of the mountains on their flank, threw
hinudf across their line of retreat near Kulm, and was completely
overwhchned by sheer weight of numbers (39th). In spite of
this misfortttne. Napoleon could daim a brilliant success for
himself, but almost at the same moment news reached him that
Oudinot at Grossbeeren near Berlin, and Macdonald on the
Kaubach opposed to BlQcher, had both been severely defeated.
5a Napalm's Movements. — ^During the next two days the
emperor eTraminrd his situation and dictated a series of notes
idiicfa have been a puzzle to every strategical thinker ever since.
In these he seems suddenly to have cut adrift from every principle
the truth of which he had himself so brilliantly demonstrated,
and we find him discussing plans based on hypothesis, not
knowledge, and on the importance of geographical points without
reference to the enemy's field army. From these reveries be
was at length awakened by news which indicated that the con-
sequences of Macdonald's defeat had been far more serious to
the moral of that command than he had imagined. He immedi-
ately rode over to establish order, and his manner and vblence
wre so improper that Cauhiincourt had the greatest difficulty
in concealing the scandal. Bittcher, however, hearing of his
arrival, at once retreated and the emperor followed, thus
uncovering the passes over the Bohemian mountains, a fact
of which Schwarzenberg was quick to take advantage. Learning
of his approach. Napoleon again withdrew to Bautzen. Then
bearing that the Austrians had counter-marehed and were again
moving towards Dresden, he hastened back there, concentrated
as many men as could convem'cntly be handled, and advanced
beyond Pima and K6nigstcin to meet him. But the Austrians
bad no intention of attacking him, for time was now working
on their side and, leaving his men to starve in the exhausted
district, the emperor again returned to Dresden, where for the
rest of the month he remained in an extraordinary state of
vacillation. On the 4th of October he again drew up a review
of the situation, in which he apparently contemplated giving
up hb communications with France and wintering in and around
Dresden, though at the same time he is aware of the distress
amongst his men for want of food.
S>. Campaign of Leipzig. — In* the meanwhile BlQcher,
Schwarzenberg and Bemadotte were working round his flanks.
Ncy, who had joined Oudinot after Grossbeeren, had been
defeated at Dcnnewiu (6th Sept.)i the victory, won by Prussian
troops solely, giving the greatest encouragement to the enemy.
Suddenly Napoleon's plans are again reviewed and completely
changed. Calling up St Cyr, whom he had already warned to
teiaain at Dresden with his command, he deddes to fall back
towards Erfurt, and go into winter quarters between that place
and Magdeburg, pointing out that Dresden was of no use to him
as a base and that if he does have a battle, he had much better
have St Cyr and his men with him than at Dresden. He then
on the 7th of October drew up a final plan, in which one again
iccognises the old commander, and this he immediately proceeded
to put into execution, for he was now quite aware of the danger
threatening hb line of retreat from both BlUcher and Schwarzen-
berg and the North Army; yet only a few hours afterwards
the portion of the order relating to St Cyr and Lobau was
cancelled axul the two were finally left behind at Dresden. From
the lotb to the xjth Napoleon lay at DQben, again a prey to
the most extraordinary irresolution, but on that day he thought
he saw his opportunity. Blflcher was reported near Wittenberg,
and Schwarzenberg was moving sfewly round to the south of
Lriprig. The North Army under Bemadotte, unknown to
Napoleon, lay on Bltlchcr's left around Halle. The emperor
decided to throw the bulk of his force on Blilcher, and, having
louted him, turn south on Schwarzenberg and sever his com-
with Bohemia. His concentration was effeaed
with his usual sureness and celerity, but whilst the French moved
on Wittenberg, BlOcher was marching to his right, indifferent
to his communications as all Prussia lay behind him.
This move on the 14th brought him into touch with Bemadotte,
and now a single march forward of all three armies would have
absolutely isolated Napoleon from France; but Bemadotte's
nerve failed him, for on hearing of Napoleon's threat against
Wittenberg he dedded to retreat northward, and not all the
persuasions of BlOcher and Gndsenau could move him. Thus
if the French movement momentarily ended in a blow in the.
air, it was indirectly the cause of their ultimate salvation.
53. The *' BattU ef tke Nations,"— On the xsth Napoleon con-
centrated his forces to the east of Leipzig, with only a weak
detachment to the west, and in the evening the allies were prepared
to attack him. Schwanenberg, with 180,000 men available at
once and 60,000 on the following day; BlOcher had about
60,000, but Bemadotte now could not arrive before the x8th.
Napoleon prepared to throw the bulk of his force upon Schwar-
zenberg and massed his troops south-east of the town, whilst
Schwa rze nbe r g marched concentrically against him down
the valley of the Elster and Pleisse, the mass of his troops
on the right bank of the latter and a strong column undier
Giulay on the left working round to join Blflcher on the
north. The fighting which followed was most obstinate, but the
Austrians fafled to make any impression on the French positions,
and indeed Giulay felt himself compelled to withdraw to his
former position. On the other hand, BlOcher carried the
village of Mfickem and came within a mile of the gates of the
town. During the 17th there was only indecisive skirmishing,
Schwarzenberg waiting for his reinforcements coming up by the
Dresden road, BlOcher for Bemadotte to come in on his left,
and by some extraordinary oversight Giulay was brought closer
in to the Austrian centre, thus opening for the French their
line of retreat towards Eriurt, and no imformation of this move-
ment appears to have been conveyed to BlOcher. The emperor
when he became aware of the movement, sent the IVth C6rps
to Lindenau to keep the road open.
On the 1 8th the fighting was resumed and by about noon
Bemadotte came up and closed the gap to the N.E. of the town
between BlOcher and the Austrians. At a p.m. the Saxons,
who had remained faithful to Napoleon longer than his other
German allies, went over to the enemy. All hope of saving the
battle had now to be given up, but the French covered their
retreat obstinately and by daybreak next morning one-half
of the army was already filing out along the road to Eriurt
which had so fortunately been left for them.
53. Retreat of the French and Battle of Hanau.^lt took BlOcher
time to extricate his troops from the confusion into which the
battle had thrown them, and the garrison of Leipzig and the
troops left on the right bank of the Elster still resisted obstinately
—hence no direct pursuit could be initiated and the French,-
still upwards of 100,000 strong, marching rapidly, soon gained
distance enough to be reformed. BlOcher followed by iMralld
and inferior roads on their northern flank, but Schwarzenberg
knowing that the Bavarians also had forsaken the emperor
and were marching under Wrede, 50,000 strong, to intercept
his retreat, followed in a most leisurely fashion. BlOcher dild
not succeed in overtaking the French, but the latter, near
Hanau, found their way barred by Wrede with 50,000 men and
over 100 guns in a strong position.
To this fresh emergency Napoleon and his army responded in
most brilliant fashion. As at Krasnoi in 181 3, they went straight
for their enemy and after one of the most brilliant series of
artillery movements in history, directed by General Drouot,
they marched right over their enemy, practically destroying his
whole force. Henceforward their march was unmolested, and
they reached Maiiu on the 5th of November.
54. The Defensive Campaign.—VJhcn the last of the French
troops had crossed to the westem bank of the Rhine, divided
counsels made their appearance at the headquarters of the allies.
Every one was weary of the war, and many felt that it would be
unwise to push Napoleon and the French nation to extremes.
232
NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS
Hence a prolonged halt arose, utilized by the troops in renewing
their equipment and so forth, but ultimately the Young German
party, led by Blttcher and the principal fighting men of the
army, triumphed, and on the ist of January 18x4 the Silesian
army (50,000) began its passage of the Rhine at Kaub. They
were to be supported by Schwarzenberg with 300,000 men, who
was to advance by Basel and Neu Breisach to the south, and
Bemadotu with the Northern army, about 120,000, was to move
in support on the right flank through the Netherlands and
Laon; this force was not yet ready and did not, in fact, reach the
latter place till March.
To meet these forces the emperor could not collect joo,ooo men
in all, of whom upwards of 100,000 were held by Wellington on
the Spanish frontier, and 30,000 more were required to watch
the debouches from the Alps. Hence less than 80,000 remained
available for the east and north-eastern frontier. If, however,
he was weak in numbers, he was now again operatmg in a
friendly country, able to find
food almost everywhere and
practically indifferent as to his
communications.
On the 25th of January,
Blacher entered Nancy, and,
moving rapidly up the valley
of the Moselle, was in com-
munication with the Austrian
advanced guard near La
Rothidre on the afternoon
of the 28th. Here his head-
quarters were surprised and
he himself nearly captured by
a sudden rush of French
troops, and he learnt at the
same time that the emperor
in person was at hand. He
accordingly fell back a few
miles next morning to a strong
position covering the exits
from the Bar-sur-Aube defile.
There he was joined by the
Austrian advance guard, and
together they decided to ac-
cept battle— indeed they had
no alternative, as the roads
in rear were so choked with
traffic that retreat was out of the question. About noon
the 2nd of February Napoleon attacked them, but the weather
was terrible, and the ground so heavy that his favourite
artillery, the mainstay of his whole system of warfare, was
useless and in the drifts of snow which at intervals swept
across the field, the columns lost their direction and many
were severely handled by the Cossacks. At m'ghtfall the
fighting ceased and the emperor retired to Lesmont, and thence
to Troyes, Marmont being left to observe the enemy.
55. MotUmirail^-^-Owing to the state of the roads, more
perhaps to the extraordinary lethargy which always characterized
Schwarzenberg 9 'headquarters, no pursuit was attempted.
But on the 4th of February BlQcher, chafing at this inaction,
obtained the permission of his own sovereign to transfer his
line of operations to the valley of the Marne; Pahlen's corps
of Cossacks were assigned to hira to cover his left and maintain
communication with the Austrians.
Believing himself secure behind this screen, he advanced from
Vitry^ong the roads leading down the valley of the Marne,
with his columns widely separated for convenience of subsistence
and shelter— the latter being almost essential in the terrible
weather prevailing. Blttcher himself on the night of the 7th was at
Suzanne, on the exposed flank so as to be nearer to hi? sources
of intelligence, and the rest of his army were distributed in
four smaU corps at or near £pemay, MontmiraQ and £toges;
reinforcements also were on their way to join him and were then
about Vitry.
In the night his headquarters were again surprised, and he
learnt that Napoleon himself with his main body was in full
march to fall on his scattered detachments. At the same time
he heard that Pahlen's Cossacks had been withdrawn forty-eight
hours previously, thus completely exposing his flank. He himself
retreated towards £toges endeavouring to rally his scattered
detachments, but Napoleon was too quick for him and in three
successive days he defeated Sacken at Montminul, Yoric at Champ
Aubert and Blttcher and his main body at £toges, pursuing
the btter towards Vertus. These disasters compelled the retreat
of the whole Silesian army, and Napoleon, leaving Mortier and
Marmont to deal with them, hurried back to Troyes with his
main body to strike the flank of Sch warzenberg's army, which had
meanwhile begim its leisurely advance, and again at Mormant on
the 17th of February, Montereau the x8th and M£ry the 21st, he
inflicted such heavy punishment upon his adversaries that they
fell back precipitately to Bar-sur-Aube.
56. Laon.— In the meantime Blttcher had rallied his scattered
forces and was driving Marmont and Mortier before him.
Na^leon, as soon as he had disembarrassed himself of Schwarzen-
berg, coimter-marched his main body and moving again by
S6zanne, fell upon Blttcher's left and drove him back upon
Soissons. This place had been held by a French garrison,
but had capitulated only twenty-four hours beforehand, a fact
of which Napoleon was naturally unaware. The Silesian army
was thus able to escape, and marching northwards combined
with Bemadotte at Laon— this reinforcement bringing the
forces at Blttcher's disposal up to over zoo,ooo men.
On the 7th of March Napoleon fell upon the advance guard of
this force at Craonne and drove it back upon Laon, where a
battle took place on the gth. Napoleon was here defeated, and
with only 30,000 men at his back he was compelled to renounce
all ideas of a further offensive, and be retired to rest his troops
to Reims. Here he remained unmolested for a few days, for
Blttcher was struck down by sickness, and in his absence nothing
was done. On the 14th of March, however, Schwarzenberg;
becoming aware of Napoleon's withdrawal to Reims, again began
his advance and had reached Arcis-sur-Aube when the news of
Napoleon's approach again induced him t6 retreat to Brienne.
57. The Allies March on Porsi.— Thus after six weeks' fighting
the allies were hardly more advanced than at the beginning.
Now, however, they began to realize the weakness of their
opponent, and perhaps actuated by the fear that Wellington
from Toulouse might, after all, reach Paris first, they determined
NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS
233
to maicli to Vtah (then an open dty), and let Napoleon do his
wont to their communications. Actually this was exactly wliat
he was preparing to do. He had determined to move eastward
to St Dizier, rally what garrisons he could find, and raise the whole
county against the invaders, and had actually started, on the
execution of this plan when his instructions fell into the enemy's
hands and his projects were exposed. Regardless of the threat,
the allies marched straight for the capital. Marmont and
Mortier with what troops they could rally took up a position on
Mbntmaitre heighu to oppose them, but seeing further resistance
to be hopeless they gave way on the 31st of March, just as
Napoleon, with the wreck of the Guards and a mere handful of
other detachments, was hurrying across the rear of the Austrians
towards Fontainebleau to join them.
This was the end of the First Empire. The story of the Water-
loo Ci""p«'^ is told under its own heading.
Tke MSUary Character of Napoleon.
No military career has been examined more often and more
freely than that of Napoleon. Yet even so the want of complete
documentary evidence upon which to base conclusions has
vitiated all but the most recent of the countless monographs
and histories that have appeared on the subject. Fortunately
the industry and ability of the military history section of the
French General Staff have rendered available, by the publica-
tion off the original orders issued during the course of his
campaigns, a mass of information which, taken in conjunction
with his own voluminous correspondence, renders it possible
to trace the growth of his military genius with a reasonable
approach to accuracy. Formerly we could only watch the
evnlntion ol his powers of organization and the purely psychic
gifts of resolution and command. The actual working of his
nind towards that strategic and tactical ascendancy that
icndered his presence on the battlefield, according to the testi-
mony of his opponents, equal to a reinforcement of 40^000 men,
was entirely undiscemible.
The history of his youth reveals no special predilection for
the militaiy service — the bent of his mind was political far more
than military, but unlike the politicians of his epoch he con-
sistently applied scientific and mathematical methods to his
theories, and desired above all things a knowledge of facts in
their true relation to one another. His early military education
was the best and most practical then attainable, primarily
because he had the good fortune to come under the influence
off men off exceptional ability — Baron du Kcile, Bois Roger and
othcn. From them he derived a sound knowledge of artillery
and foctification, and particularly of mountain warfare, which
latter was destined to prove of inestimable service to him in
ins first campaigns of 1794-^5 and 1796. In these, as well as
in hb most dramatic success of Marengo in z8oo, we can discern
no trace off strategical innovation. He was simply a master of
the methods of h^ time. Ceaseless industry, energy and con-
spicuous personal gallantry were the principal factors of his
bciOiaxit victories, and even in 1805 at Ulm and Austerliu
it was still the excellence of the tactical instrument, the army,
which the Revolution had bequeathed to him that essentially
produced the results.
Meanwhile the mathematical mind, with its craving for accurate
data OS which to found its plans (the most difficult of all to obtain
under the conditions of warfare), had been searching for ex-
pedienu which might serve him to better purpose, and in 1805
be had recourse to the cavalry screen in the hope of such results.
This proved a palliation of his difficulty, but not a solution.
Cavalry can only observe, it cannot hold. The facts as to the
position off an opponent accurately observed and correctly re-
ported at a given moment, afford no reliable guarantee of his
position 48 hours later, when the orders based on this information
enter upon execution. This can only be calculated on the ground
of reasonable probability as to what it may be to the best interest
of the adversary to attempt. But what may seem to a Napoleon
the best course is not necessarily the one that suggests itself
to a mediocre mind, and the greater the gulf which separates
the two minds the greater the uncertainty which must prevail
on the side of the abler commander.
It was in 1806 that an improved solution was first devised.
The general advanced guard of all arms now followed immediately
behind the cavalry screen and held the enemy in position,
while the remainder of the army followed at a day's march in
a " bataillon carrfe " ready to manoeuvre in any required direc-
tion. The full reach of this discovery seems as yet scarcely
to have impressed itself upon the emperor with complete con-
viction, for in the succeeding campaign in Poland we find that
he twice departed from this form— at Pultusk and Heilsberg—
and each time his enemy succeeded in escaping him. At Fried-
land, however, his success was complete, and henceforth the
method recurs on practically every battlefield. When it fails it is
because iu inventor himself hesitates to push his own concep-
tion to its full development (EckmUhl 1809, Borodino i8x 3). Yet
it would seem that this invention of Napoleon's was intuitive
rather than reasoned; he never communicated it in its entirety
to his marshals, and seems to have been only capable of exercising
it either when in full possession of his health or under the excite-
ment of action. Thus we find him after the battle of Dresden—
itself a splendid example of its efficacy— suddenly reverting
to the terminology of the school in which he had been brought
up, which he himself had destroyed, only 10 revive again in the
next few days and handle his forces strategically with all his
accustomed brilliancy.
In 18x4 and in 1815 in the presence of the enemy he again
rises supremely to each occasion, only to lapse in the intervals
even below the level of his old opponenU; and that this was not
the consequence of temporary depression naturally resulting
from the accumulated load of his misfortunes, is sufficiently
shown by the downright puerility of the arguments by which
he seeks to justify his own successes in the St Helena memoirs,
which one may search in vain for any indication that Napoleon
was himself aware of the magnitude of his own discovery. One
is forced to the conclusion that there existed in Napoleon's
brain a dual capacity— one the normal and reasoning one,
developing only the ideas and conceptions of his contemporaries,
the other intuitive, and capable only of woric under abnormal
pressure. At such momenU of crisis it almost excelled human
comprehension; the mind seems to have gathered to itself
and summed up the balance of all human passions arranged for
and against him, and to have calculated with unerring exacti-
tude the consequences of each decision.
A partial explanation of this phenomenon may perhaps be
found in the economy of nervous energy his strategical method
ensured to him. Marching always ready to fight wherever his
enemy might stand or move to meet him, his mind was relieved
from all the hesitations wUch necessarily arise in men less
confident in the security of their designs. Hence, when on the
battlefield the changing course of events left his antagonists
mentally exhausted, he was able to face them with will power
neither bound nor broken. But this only explains a portion
of the mystery that surrounds him, and which will make the
study of his career the most fascinating to the military student
of all times.
Amongst all the great captains of history Cromwell alone
can be compared to him. Both, in their powers of organization
and the mastery of the tactical potentialities of the weapons
of their day, were immeasurably ahead of their times, and both
also understood to the full the strategic art of binding and
restraining the independent will power of their opponents,
an art of which Marlborough and Frederick, Wellington, Lee
and Moltke do not seem ever even to have grasped the fringe.
(F.N.M.)
Bibliography. — ^Among the principal modem works on Napo*
Icon's campaigns 1 805-1 a are the following: Yorck von Wartenberg.
NapoUon als Feldherr (1866, English and French translations);
H. Camon. La Guerre napoUonienne (Paris, 1903): H. Bonnal.
Esprit de la guerre modeme (a series of works, of which those dealing
with 1805-1 81 2 are separately mentioned below). For 1805 see
Alombcrt and Colin (Frenrh Gen. Staff), Campagne de 180$ en
AUemagne (Paris, 1898-1910): H. Bonnal, De Rosbach d Ulm (Paris,
23+
NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS
1903) : Sir 0. Haig, Cmalry Studies (London. 1907) ; G. A. Fane, Ulm,
TrMoItar and Austerlitt (London, 1905). For t8o&-i8o7, Pr. Kraft
zu Honenlohe-Ingelfingcn, Letters on Strategy (Ens. trans., voL t)
Frciherr v. d. (^oicz, Rossbach und Jena; the new edition of the lame
work. Van Rossbach bis Jena und Auerstddt (Berlin, 1906) and Von
Jena bis Preussisck-Eylau (Berlin, 1908); Studies in French
(3en. Staff Revue d'Histaire Xi9P9): P- Foucart, Cambagne de
Prusse; H. Bonnal, La Mameuvre d lina (Paris, 1904); Memoirs of
Bennigsen (trans, by E. Cazalas, French Gen. Staff, 1900); F. N.
Maude, The Jena Campaign (London, 1909); F. L. Pfetre, napoleon's
Campaign in Poland (London, 1902). For 1809, H. Bonnal, La
Manauvre de Landshut (Paris, 1905); Saski^ Campagne de 1809
(Piiris, 1899-1903); Ritter v. Anseli, Enhenog Karl (Vienna,
1895-1807); Lieut. Field Marshal von Woinovkh (ed.), Das-
Kriegsjakr iSogi Buat, De Ratisbonne 6 Znaim (Paris, 1910).
For i8i3. G. Fabry (French Gen. Staff), Campagne de tSii (Paris.
1904]!; La Guerre ntUionale de 18 1 a (French translation from the
Russian general staff work, Paris, 1904) ; H. Bonnal, La Manteuvre
de Vilna (Paris, 1903); Freiherr v. d. Osten-Sacken, Feldtug t8tM
(Berlin, 1899) ; H. B. Georve, Napoleon's Invasion of Russia (London,
1900). For 16 13, F. N. Maude, The Leipeig Campaign (London,
1908): Lanreaac, La Maneeuvre de LUtten; B. v. Quistorp, Cesch.
der Nordarmee t8tj (1894); v. HoUcben, Cesch. des Fruhjahrs-
fetd»ugi8t3 (Berlin, 1904): Friedrich, Der Herbstfeldtug t8tt
(Berlin, 1903-1906). For 1814, German Gen. Staff, Kriegstesch.
Einulschrtften, No. 13; v. Janson. per Fddtug 1814 in Franheich
(Beriin, 1903-1905). See also works mentioned under French
Rkvolutionary Wars and under biographical headings, as well as
the general histories of the time.
Naval Operations
The French navy came under the direct and exclusive control
of Napoleon after the 18th Bnimaire. At the close of 1799 (see
French Revolutionary Wars) he had three purposes to serve
by the help of his fleet: the relief of the French garrison besieged
by the British forces in Malta; the reinforcement of the army
he bad left in Egypt; and the distraction of Great Britain by
the threat of invasion of England across the Channel, or of
Ireland. The deficiencies both in number and in quality of his
naval resources doomed him to fail in ali three. Though he had
control of what remained of the navies of Holland and Spain,
as well as of the French, he was outnumbered at every point,
while the efficiency of the British fleet gave it a mobility which
doubled its material superiority. All Napoleon's efforts to sup-
port his troops in MalU and Egypt were necessarily made under
the hampering obligation to evade the British forces barring the
road. The inevitable result was that only an occasional blockade-
runner could succeed in escaping detection and attack. The relief
thus brought to Malta and Egypt was not sufficient. In February
1800, the " G^n^reuz " (74), one of the few ships which escaped
from the Nile, sailed from Toulon with three corvettes, under
Rear-admiral Perr£e, to relieve Malta. On the i8th she was
sighted by the blockading squadron, sunounded and captured,
lliree other survivors of the Nile were at anchor in Malta — the
" Guillaume Tell " (80), and two frigates, the " Diane " and the
"Justice." On the 29th of July the "Guillaume Tell" en-
deavoured to slip out in the night. She was sighted, pursued
and overpowered, after a singularly gallant resistance. The
frigates made an attempt to get off on the a4th of August, but
only the " Justice," a solitary survivor of the squadron which
fought at the Nile, reached Toulon. Malta, starved out by the
British fleet, surrendered on the 5th of September 1800. Very
similar was the fate of the efforts to reach and reinforce the
army of Egypt. The British squadrons either stopped the re-
lieving forces at their point of departure, or baffled, when they
did not take them, at their landfall. A squadron of seven sail of
the line, under Admiral Ganteaume, succeeded in slipping out of
Brest, when a gale had driven the, British blockading force off
the coast. Ganteaume met with some measure of success in
capturing isolated British men-of-war, one of them being a 74,
the " Swiftsure." But he failed to give effectual help to the
Egyptian army. He sailed on the 23rd of January x8ox, entered
the Mediterranean and, his squadron being in a bad condition,
steered for Toulon, which he reached on the i8th of February.
On the 19th of March he sailed again for Egypt, but was again
driven back by the same causes on the 5th of April. On the 25th
he was ordered out once more. Three of his ships had to be sent
back as unflt to keep the sea. With the other four he retched
the coast. of Egypt, on the 7th of May, only to sight a powerful
British force, and to be compelled to escape to Toulon, which he
did not reach till the 2 and of July. The French in Egypt were
in faa beaten before he reached the coast. At the beginning of
1 801, a British naval force, commanded by Lord Keith, had
sailed from Gibraltar, escorting an army of 18,000 men under
General Abercromby. It reached Mannorice Bay, in Asia Minor,
on the 31st of January, to arrange a co-operation with the Turks,
and after some delay the army was transported and landed in
Egypt, on the 7th an4 8th of March. Before the end of September
the French army was reduced ^o capitulate.* In the interval
another effort to cany help to it was made from Toulon. On
the 13th of June xSoy Rear-admiral Linois left Toulon with
three sail of the line, to join a Spanish squadron at Cadiz and go
on to Egypt. In the straits he was sighted by the Briti^
squadron under Sir J. Saumarez, and driven to seek the protection
of the Spanish batteries in Algeciras. On the 6th of July he
beat off a British attack, capturing the " Hannibal," 74. On
the 9th a Spanish squadron came to his assistance, and the com-
bined force steered for Cadiz. During the night of the i ath/i3th
of July they were attacked by Sir J. Saumarez. Two Spanish
three^ieckers blew up, and a 74-gun ship was taken. The othen
were blockaded in Cadiz. Tlie invasion scheme was vigorously
pushed after the 3rd of March 1801. Flat-bottomed boats were
gradually collected at Boulogne. Two attempts to destroy them
at anchor, though directed by Nelson himself, were repulsed
on the 4th and i6th of August. But the invasion was so far
little more than a threat made for diplomatic purposes. On
the xst of October x8ox an armistice was signed in London,
and the Peace of Amiens followed, on the 27th of March 1802.
(For the operations in the Baltic in x8qx, see Copenbagen,
Battle of.)
The Peace of Amiens proved to h^ only an tineasy truce,
and it was succeeded by open war, on the x8th of May 1803.
From that date till about the middle of August X805, a space of
some two years and two months, the war took the form of a most
detennined attempt on the part of Napoleon to carry out a|i
invasion of Great Britain, met by the counter measures of the
Britbh government. The scheme of invasion was based on the
Boulogne flotilla, a device inherited from the old French royal
government, through the Republic. Its object was to throw
a great army ashore on the coast between Dover and Hastings^
The preparations were made on an unprecedented scale. The
Republic had collected some two hundred and forty vesaeh.
Under the direction of Napoleon ten times as many were equipped.
They were divided into: prames, ship-rigged, of 35 metres long
and 8 wide, carrying 12 guns; ckaloupes cannoniires, of 24 metres
long and 5 wide, carrjang 5 guns and brig-rigged; bateaux
cannoniers, of 19 metres long by i'56 wide, carrying 2 guns and
mere boats. All were built to be rowed, were flat-bottomed, and
of shallow draft so as to be able to navigate close to the shore, and
to take the ground without hurt. They were built in France
and the Low Countries, in the coast towns and the rivers — even
in Paris— and were collected gradually, shore batteries both fixed
and mobile being largely employed to cover the passage. A
vast sum of money and the labour of thousands of men were
employed to clear harbours for them, at and near Boulogne.
The shallow water on the coast made it impossible for the British
line-of-battle ships, or even large frigates, to press the attack on
them home. Smaller vessels they were able to beat off aini so,
in spite of the activity of the British cruisers and of many sharp
encounters, the concentration was effected at Boulogne, where an
army of x3o,ooo was encamped and was incessantly practised
in embarking and disembarking. Before the invasion was
taken in hand as a serious policy, there had been at least a pro-
fession of a belief that the flotilla could push across the Channel
during a calm. Experience soon showed that when the needful
allowance was made for the time required to bring them out
of harbour (two tides) and for the influence which the Channel
currents roust have upon their speed, it would be extremely rash
to rely on a calm of sufficient length. Napoleon therefore came
NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS
235
eariy to the conclusion that he must bring'about a concentration
of his seagoing fleet in the Channel, which would give him a
temporary command of its waters.
He had a squadron at Brest, ships at L'Orient and Rochefort,
some of his vessels had taken refuge at Ferrol on their way back
from San Domingo when war broke out, one was ^t Cadiz, and
he had a squadron at Toulon. All these forces were watched by
British blockading squadrons. The problem was to bring them
together before the British fleet could be concentrated to meet
them. Napoleon's solution grew, as time went on and circum-
stances changed, in scope and complexity. In July 1804 he
ordered his admiral commanding at Toulon, Latouche Tr6ville,
to seize an opportunity when Nelson, who was in command of the
blockade, was driven off by a northerly gale, to put to sea, with
10 sail of the line, pick up the French ship in Cadiz, join ViUe-
neuve who was in the Aiz roads, and then effect a junction with
Ganteaume and the 21 sail of the line at Brest. He hoped that
if the British ships in the North Sea concentrated with the
squadron in the Channel, he would be able to make use of Dutch
vessels from the TexeL The death of Latouche Tr£ville, 30th of
August 1804, supplied an excuse for delay. He was succeeded by
Villeneuve. Napoleon now modified the simple plan prepared
for Latouche Tr€ville, and began laying elaborate plans by which
French vessels were to slip out and sail for distant seas, to draw
the British fleet after them, and then return to concentrate in
the ChanneL A further modification was introduced by the end
of 1804. Spain, which was bound by treaty to join Napoleon,
was allowed to preserve a show of neutrality by paying a monthly
subvention. Tlie British government, treating this as a hostile
action— as it was— seized the Spanish treasure ships on their
vay from America, near Cape Sanu Maria, on the 5th of October
1804, and Spain declared war on the 12th of December. New
plans were now made including the co-operation of the Spanish
fleet. Amid all the variation in their details, and the apparent
confusion introduced by Napoleon's habit of suggesting alter-
natives and discussing probabilities, and in spite of the prepara-
tions ostensibly made for an expedition to Ireland, which was
to have sailed from Brest and to have carried 30,000 troops
ronunanded by Augereau, the real purpose of Napoleon was
neither altered nor concealed. He worked to produce doubt
and confusion in the nund of the British government by threats
and attacks on its distant possessions, which should lead it to
scatter its forces. One of these ventures was actually carried
out, without, however, securing the cooperation, or effecting
the purpose he had in view. On the ixth of January 1805
Admiral Missiessy left Rochefort with 5 sail of the line, un-
detected by the British forces on the coast. Missiessy carried out
a successful voyage of commerce-destroying, and returned safely
to Rochefort on the 20th of May, from the West Indies. But
the force sent in pursuit of him was small, and the British
goveromtet was not deceived into weakening its hold on the
Channel. It was in fact well supplied with information by
raeaos of the spy service directed by an exiled French royalist,
the count d'Antraigues, who was establishefd at Dresden as a
R]usian diplomatic agent. Through his correspondents in Paris,
some of whom had access to Napoleon's papers, the British
government was able to learn the emperor's real intentions.
ThebkKkadeofBrest wasso strictly maintained that Ganteaume
was allowed no opportunity to get to sea. Villeneuve, who
was to have co-operated with Missiessy, did indeed leave Toulon,
at a moment when Nelson, whose policy it was to encourage
faira to come out by not staying too near the port, was absent,
on the 1 7th of January 1805. The British admiral, when informed
that the French were at sea, justified Napoleon's estimate of his
probable course in such a contingency, by making a useless
cruise to Egypt. But ViUeneuve's iU-appointed ships, manned
hf raw crews. Suffered loss of spars in a gale, and he returned to
Tookm on the axst. His last start came when he sailed, unseen
by Ndsoo, on the 30th of March. Aided by lucky changes of
.viad, he reached Cadiz, was joined by i French and 6 Spanish
ships under Admiral Gravina, which, added to the 1 1 he had
with him, gave him a force of 18 sail. He left Cadiz on the night I
of the 9th loth of April, and reached Fort de France in Martin-
ique on the X4th of May. Here he was to have remained tiU
joined by Ganteaume from Brest. On the ist of June he was
joined by a frigate and two line-of-battle ships sent with orders
from Rochefort, and was told to remain in the West Indies till
the 5th of July, and if not joined by Ganteaume to steer for
Ferrol, pick up the French and Spai^ ships in the port, and
come on to the Channel. Villeneuve learnt on the 8th of June
that Nelson had reached Barhadoes in pursuit of him on the 4th.
The British admiral, delayed by contrary winds, had not been
able to start from the entry to the Straits of Gibraltar till the
nth of May. An action in the West Indies would have ruined
the emperor's plan of concentration, and Villeneuve decided to
sail at once for Ferrol. Nelson, misled by false information,
ranged the West Indies as far south as the Gtllf of Paria, in search
of his opponent whom he supposed to be engaged in attacks on
British possessions. By the Xjth of June he had learnt the truth,
and saOed for Gibraltar under the erroneous impression that the
French admiral would return to Toulon. He sent a brig home
with despatches; on the xpth of June, in lat. 33^ xa' N. and
long. 58** W., the French were seen by this vessel heading for
the Bay of Biscay. Captain Bettesworth who commanded the
brig hurried home, and the information he brought wai at once
acted on by Lord Barham, the First Lord of the Admiralty,
who took measures to station a force to intercept Villeneuve
outside Ferrol. On the 22nd of July, 35 leagues N.W. of Finis-
terre, Villeneuve was met by the British admiral sent to intercept
him. Sir Robert Calder. A confused action in a fog ended in the
capture of a Spanish line-of battle ships. But Sir R. Calder,
who had only 15 ships to his exponent's 20 and was nervous
lest he should be overpowered, did not act with energy. He
retreated to join the blockading fleet off Brest. Villeneuve was
now able to join the vessels at Ferrol. Nelson, who reached
Gibraltar on the very day the action off Ferrol was fought, was
too far away to interfere with him. But Villeneuve, who was
deeply impressed by the inefiSdency of the ships of his fleet and
especially of the Spaniards, and who was convinced that an
overwhelming British force would be united against him in the
Channel, lost heart, and on the xsth of August sailed south to
Cadiz. By this movement he ruined the emperor's elaborate
scheme. Napoleon at once broke up the camp at Bouk>gne and
marched to Germany. The further movements of ViUeneuve's
fleet are told under Tkafalgax, Battle or.
With the collapse of the invasion scheme, the naval war
between Napoleon and Great Britain entered on a new phase.
It lost at once the unity given to it by the efforts of the emperor
to effect, and of the British government to baffle the passage of
the Channel by an army. In place of the movements of great
fleets to a single end, we have a nine years' story (1805-1814)
o£ cniising for the protection of commerce, of convoy, of colonial
expeditions to capture French, Dutch or Spanish possessions
and of combined naval and military operations in which the
British navy was engaged in carrying troops to various countries,
and in supporting them on shore. Napoleon continued to build
line-of-battle ships in numbers from Venice to Hamburg, but
only in order to force the British government to maintain
costly and wearing blockades. He never allowed his lleets to go
to sea to seek battle. The operations of the British fleet were
therefore divided between the work of patrolling the ocean roads
and ancillary services to diplomacy, or to the armies serving in
Italy, Denmark and, after x8o8, in Spain. The remaining colonial
possessions of France, and of Holland, then wholly dependent
on her, were conquered by degrees, ahd the ports in which
privateers were fitted out to cruise against British commerce
in distant seas were gradually rendered harmless. Though
privateering was carried on by the French with daring and a
considerable measure of success, it -did not put an appreciable
check on the growth of British merchant shipping. The function
of the British navy in the long conflict with Napoleon was of the
•first importance, and its services were rendered in every sea,
but their very number, extent and complexity render it impossible
here to record themm detail.
236
NAPOLEONITE— NARA
BiBLiocRAPRY.— Captain 'Mahan, Ififimtnu of Sea Poner upon
Ike French Revolution and the Empire (London, 1892): Chevalier,
Hiitoire de la marine (ran^ise sous le consutat et Fempire (Parii,
1886). All the operations connected with the successive invasion
schemes are recorded, with exhaustive quotations of documentary
evidence, in Projets et tentatives de dibarquenunt aux lies Brilan-
nioues, by Captain Desbriire (Paris, 1901). Capuin Desbri^re's
exhaustive work was done for the historical section of the French
general staff, and is a fine example of the scholariy and conscientious
modem French historical school. (D. H.)
NAPOLEONITB, also called Conite because the stone is
found in the island of Corsica, a variety of diorite which is
characterized by orbicular structure. The grey matrix of the
stone has the normal appearance of a diorite, but contains many
rounded lumps j or a in. in diameter, which show concentric
zones of light and dark colours. In these spheroids also a
distinct and well-marked radial arrangement of the crystals is
apparent. The centre of the spheroid is usually white or pale
grey and consists mainly of felspar; the same mineral nuikes the
pale zones while the dark ones are rich in hornblende and
pyroxene. The felspar is a basic variety of plagiodase (anorthite
or bsrtownite). Though mostly rounded, the spheroids may
be elliptical or subangular; sometimes they are in contact with
one another but usually they are separated by small areas of
massive diorite. When cut and polished the rock makes a beauti-
ful and striking ornamental stone. It has bcen.used for making
paper-weights and other small ornamental articles.
spheroidal structure is found in other diorites and in quite a
number of granites in various places, such as Sweden, Russia,
America, Sardinia, Ireland. It is by no means common, however,
and usually occure in only a small part of a granitic or dioritic mass,
being sometimes restricted to an area of a few square yards. In
most cases it is found near the centre of the outcrop, though ex-
ceptionally it has been found quite close to the margin. It arises
evidently from intermittent ancf repeated crystallization of the rock-
forming minerals in successive stages. Such a process would be
favoured by complete rest, which would allow of supersaturetion of
the magma by one of the components. Rapid cr^^tallixation would
follow, producing deposits on any suitable nuclei, and the crystals
then formed might have a radial disposition on the surfaces on
which they grew. The magma might then be greatly inipoverished
in thb particular substance, and another deposit of a different kind
would follow, producing a cone of different colour. The nucleus for
the spheroidal growth is sometimes an eariy porphyritic crystal,
sometimes an enclosure of gneiss, &c., and often does not differ
essentially in composition from the surrounding rock. When spher-
oids are in contact their inner zones may be distinct while the outer
ones are common to both individuals having the outlinef of a figure
of eight. This proves that growth was centrifugal, not centripetal.
Many varieties of spheroids are described presenting great differ-
ences in composition and in structure. Some are merely rounded
balb consisting of the earliest minerals of the rock, such as apatite,
zircon, biotite and hornblende, and possessing no regular arrani^
ment. Others have as centres a foreign fragment such as gneiss
or hornfels, with one or more zones, pale or dark, around this.
Radial arrangement of the crystals, though often very periect, is
by no jneans universal. The spheroids are sometimes flattened or
e^-shaped, apparently by fluxion movements of the magma at a
time when they were semi-solid or plastic. As a generalrule the
spheroids are more basic and richer in the ferromagnesian minerals
;than the surrounding rock, though some of the zones are often very
rich in quartz and felspar. Graphic or perthitic intergrowths between
the minerals of a zone are frequent. The spheroids vary in width
up to I or a ft. In some cases they contain abnormal constituents
such as calcite, sillimanite or corundum, (J. S. F.)
NAQUET, ALFRED JOSEPH (1834- ), French chemist
and politician, was bom at Carpentras (Vauduae), on the 6th
of October 1854. He became professor in the faculty of medicine
in Paris in 1865, and in the same year professor of chemistry
at Palermo, where he delivered his lectures in Italian. He lost
his professorship in 1867 with his civic rights, when he was
condemned to fifteen months' imprisonment for his share in a
secret society. On a new prosecution in 1869 for his book
Religion^ propriiti, famiUe he took refuge in Spain. Returning
to France under the government of £mile OUivier he took an
active share in the revolution of the 4th of September 1870,
and became secretary of the commission of national defence.
In the National Assembly he sat on the extreme Left, consistently
opposing the opportunist policy of successive governments.
Re-elected to the Chamber of Deputies he began the agitation
against the marriage laws with which his name is especially
connected. His proposal for the re-establishment of divorce was
discussed in May 1879, >nd ftgun in 188 1 and i88a, and became
law two years later. Naquet, although he disapproved in
principle of a second chambo-, secured h^ election to the senate
in 1883 to pilot his measure through that body. In 1886 by his
efforts divorce became legal after three years of definite separa-
tion on the demand of one of the parties concerned. In 1890 he
resigned from the senate to re-enter the Chamber of Deputies,
this time for the 5th arrondissement of Paris, and took his seat
with the Boulangist deputies. After BouUnger's suicide his
political influence declined, and was further compromised by
accusations (of which he was legally cleared) in connexkm with
the Panama scandals.
The thcsb written for his doctorate, AppHcaHon ds Vasulyse
chimifue d la toxicotoeie (1859), was followed by many papen on
chemistry contributed to learned journals, and his Prtncipes de
chimiefondis sur les theories modemes (1865) reached iu 5th edition
in 1890. He is better known by his political works, Socialiswu
colUctiviste et socialisme libiral (1890. Eng. trans., 1891), L'Humaniti
et la patrie (1901), Lot du divorce (i903).7.'ilfMrcAie ei U coUettioisme
(1904), Disarmement ou alliance angUiise (1908).
NARA, an imporUnt water channel in Sind, India, probaUy
representing a former bed of the Indus, though now traversing
the desert far E. of the river. Its total length is aso m.; and by
means of cross cuts, weirs and embankments, it has been made
to irrigate no less than 429 sq. m., with a navigable length of
4»sm.
NARA, a town of Japan, in the province of Yamato, ss| m.
from Osaka by rail. Pop. 32,ock>. It lies on the slope of a range
of picturesque hills, beautifully wooded with cryptomerias,
evergreen oaks, &c. This was the first permanent capital of
Japan. Up to the beginning of the 8th century the imperial
court changed its location at the accession of each sovereign, and
the court's place of residence naturally became the official
metropolis. But Nara remained the metropolis during seven
consecutive reigns (709 to 784), and its seventy-five years of
favoured existence sufficed for the building and furnishing of
several imposing shrines and temples, for the laying out of a
noble park, for the casting of a colossal image of Buddha, and
for the execution of many other beautiful specimens of applied
art. Not much is known of the Nara palace in its original form,
but many of the articles and ornaments used by its inmates
survive in a celebrated collection which, during nearly twelve
hundred years, had been preserved in a store-hoUse (Sboso-in)
near the temple of Todai-ji. This collection cannot be visited
by strangers more than once a year, and even then only by special
permission. The vigorous growth of the Buddhist creed through-
out the Nara epoch was remarkable, and found outward ex-
pression in many striking architectural and artistic works. The
best of these, namely, those dating from the first half of the
8th century, show Indo-Grecian affinities, which gradually grow
fainter as the end of the epoch approaches. The temple called
Todai-ji was completed about 75a At present the buildings
enclose a quadrangle 520 ft. by 620, the south side being mainly
occupied by the huge, ungkinly and no longer perpendicular hall
containing the Dai Butsu, or colossal statue of Buddha. The
casting of this wonderful piece of work was accomplished after
eight failures in 749 by Takusho, an artist from Korea. On two
occasions the head was melted .during the burning of the temple
(1180 and 1567) and from 1567 to.]697 the statue stood exposed
to the weather. The height of the figure is 53 ft. On a hill to the
east of the temple stands a bell-house with a huge bell, cast in
732, 13) ft. high, 9 ft. across the mouth and weighing 37 tons.
The great Buddha is often spoken of as the most remarkable of
the Nara relics; but restorations have so marred it that it can
no longer be compared with many smaller examples of con-
temporaneous and subsequent sculpture. More worthy of dose
attention are two effigies of Brahma and Indra preserved among
the relics of Kobuku-ji, which, with Kasuga-no-Miya, Ni-gwatsu-
da and Todai-ji, constitute the chief religious edifices. These
figures, sculptured in wood, have suffered much from the ravages
of time, but nothing could destroy the grandeur of their propor-
tions or the nuijesty and dignity of their pose. Several other
NARAINGANJ— NARBOROUGH
works of Karcdy inferior eicelleiice may be leen among the
idics, and at the ihrine of Kasuga b perf onned a religious dance
called Kagora, in which the costumes and gestures of the dancers
are doubtless the same as those of twelve centuries back. Kasuga-
Bo-Miya was founded in 767, and its chapels with their rough red-
pamtcd log-work afford fine examples of primitive Japanese
aicfaitecture. In the temple-park are herds of tame deer; and
littk images of deer and trinkets from deer's bom are the favourite
charms purchased by the pilgrims. Within the enclosure stands
a curioos old trunk of seven plants entwined, including a camellia,
cherry and wistaria. Of the great Buddhist temple Kobuku-ji,
founded in 7x0, and burnt for the third time in 17x7, there
xemains littk save two lofty pagodas. A railway now gives
access to the town, but every ^ort is made to preserve all the
andent features of Nara. A museum has been formed, where
many antique objects of great interest are displayed, as well as
works from the hands of comparatively modem artists. Nara
m the days of its prosperity is said to have had a population of
a quarter of a n^on.
lABADMAllJ. or Naiatanoamj, a town of India, in the
Dacca district of eastern Bengal and Assam, situated near the
junction of two rivers with the Meghna, to m. by rail S. of Decca
dty. Pop. (xgox) 24^473. As the port of Dacca, having steamer
coaununication with both CalcutU and Chittagong, it has
become the chief entrepot for the jute trade of easterxi Bengal.
There are 73 jute-presses, employing 6000 hands, and the annual
oport of jute exceeds 300,000 tons. ^It also ranks-as the model
mniridpal ityof Bengal.
MABBOHn, a q^y of France, cai»tal of an arrondissement
in the department of Aude, situate! in a vine-growing plain
5 BL from the Mediterranean, on the railway from Toulouse to
Cette, 37 m. E. of Carcassonne. Pop. (1906) 23,289. TheRobine
canal, a branch of the Canal du Midi, divides Narbonne into two
distinct portions, the bourg and the citi. The latter is one of the
oldest and most interesting of French towns. The former
cathttlral (St Just), which consists onlv of a choir 130 ft. high
and transept, was begun in 1272, and the transept was still un-
finished at the end of the x 5th century. The towers (194 ft. high)
at each extremity of the transept were built about X480. Some
additions towards the west were made early in the x8th century.
An mmsoal effect is produced by a double row of crenellation
taking the fdace of balustrades on the roof of the choir chapels
sad coosiecting the pillars of the flying buttresses. Among the
Kpokfaral monuments, which are the chief feature of the interior,
Buy be noticed the alabaster tomb of Cardinal Guillaume
Briconnet, minister of state under Charles VIII. The chapter-
house, of the xsth century, has a vaulted roof supported on four
free piOaia. The; treasury preserves many interesting relics.
The apse of the cathedral was formeriy joined to the fortifications
d the iidnepboopal pahux, and the two buildings are still con-
nected by a mutilated cloister of the X4th and xsth centuries.
On the front of the palace are three square tower% of unequal
height. Between the Tour des Ta^graphes (13x8), crenellated
and tnrreted at the comers, and that of St Martial (i374)i machi-
colated and pierced by Gothic opem'ngs, a new facade was erected
in the style of the X3th century after the plans of VioUet-le-Duc.
This portion of the building now serves as h6tel de ville, and its
upper stories are occupied by the Narbonne museum of art
and aidiaeology, which indudes a fiine collection of pottery.
The palace garden also contains many fragments of Roman work
ooce built into the now dismantled fortifications; and the
MusCe Lapidaire in the Lamourguier buildings (formerly the
churdi of a Benedictine convent) has a collection of Roman
rcmaina derived from the same source. The church of St Paul,
thoBfl^ partly Romanesque, is in the main striking, and for the
sooth of Fradce a rare example of a building of the first half of
the X3th century in the Gothic style of the north. It possesses
sooK andent Christian sarcophagi and fine Renaissance wood
carving. Narbonne has a sub-prefecture, tribunals of first
i^^a^*^ and of commerce, a board of trade arlntntion, a chamber
of oommerce, a commuria] college for boys and a school of
co mm erc e and industry. It has a good trade in wine and
237
spirituous liquors, and is famous for its honey. The industries
indude cooperage, sulphur-refining, brandy-Kiistilling and the
noanufacture of bricks and tiles and verdigris.
Long before the Roman invasion of Gaul Narbonne waa'a flourish-
ing city, being capital of the Votcae Tectoaages. It was there that
the Romans m 118 n.c. founded their first colony in Gaul, which
bore the name of Harbo MarHus; they constructed great works
to protect the dty from inundatioa and to improve its port, situated
on a lake now filled uo but at that time communicating with the sea.
Capital of Gallia Nainonensis, the scat of a proconsuTand a station
for the Roman fleet. Narbo Martius became the rival of Maasilia.
But in A.D. tm it suffered ipeatly from a conflagration, and the
division of Gallia Narbonenais into two provinces lessened its im-
porunce as a capital. AUns, Suevi, Vaodab, each held the dty
for a brief space, and>at last, in 413, it was occupied by the Visigoths,
whose capital it afterwards became. In 71Q. after a siege of two
years, it was captured by the Sancens, and by them its fortifica-
tions were r e st ored and extended. Charles Maitd, after the battle
of Poitiera, and Pippin the Short, in 752. were both repulsed from
its walb; but on a new attempt, after an investment of seven yearB,
and by aid of a traitor, the Franks managed again to force their
way into Narbonne. Charlemagne made the dty the capital of the
duchy of Gothia, and divided it into three lorcMhips- on e for the
bishop, another for a Frankish lord, and the third for the Jews, who,
occupying their own quarter, pos sei s cd schools, synagogues and a
university famous in the middle ages. The viscounts who succeeded
the Frankish lord sometinies acknowledged the authority of the
counts of Toulouse, sometimes that of the counts of Barcelona.
In the 13th century the crusade against the Albigenses tputd the
dty, but the archbishopric was seised by the poprs Iq^te, Amaud
Amaury, who took the title of viscount of Narbonne. Simon de
Montfort, however, deprived him of this dignity, receiving from
Philip Augustus the duchy of Narbonne along widi the county of
Toulouse. By his expulsion of the Jews Phiup the Fair hastened
the decay of the dty; and about the same period the Aude, which
had formerly been diverted by the Romans, ceased to flow towards
Narbonne and the harbour was silted up, to the further disadvantage
of the place. In 16^ Henri Marouis de Cinq-Mars was arrested at
Narbonne for conspiring against Richelieu. United to the French
crown in 1507, Narbonne was enclosed by a new line of walls imder
Frands'I., but having ceased to be a garrison town it had the last
portions of its ramparts demolished m 1870. The archbishopric
was founded about the middle of the ^ century, its first holder
being Sergius Paulus; it was suppressed in 1790.
NARBONNB-LARA. LOUIS VARIB JAOQUBi AMALRIC;
COMTE DE (i75S-tSi3)f French soldier and diplomatist, was bom
at Colorao, in the duchy of Parma, on the 94th of August 1755.
He was the son of one of the ladies-in-waiting of Elizabeth,
duchess of Parma, and his father was either a Spanish nobleman
01^— as has been alleged— Louis XV. himself. He was brought
up at Versailles with the princesses of France, and was made
colonel at the age of twenty-five. He became marickal-de-
catkp in X79X, and, through the influence of Madame de Stael,
was appointed minister of war. But he showed incapadty in
this post, gave in his resignation, and joined the Army of the
North. Incurring suspidon as a FeuiUant and also by his policy
at the war office, he emigrated after the xoth of August 1792,
visited England, Switzerland and Germany, and returned to
France in x8ox. In 1809 he re-entered the army as general of
division, and was subsequently minister plenipotentiary at
Munich and aide de camp to Napoleon. In r8x3 he was appointed
French ambassador at Vieima, where he was engaged in an un-
equal diplomatic duel with Mettemich {q.v.) during the fateful
months that witnessed the defection of Austria from the cause
of Napoleon to that of the Allies. He died at Torgau, in Saxony,
on the X7th of November 18x3.
See A. F. Villemain, Sowemirs conlemporains (Paris, 1854).
NARBOROUGH, SIR JOHN (d. x688), English naval com-
mander, was descended from an old Norfolk family. He received
his commission in 1664, and in 1666 was promoted lieutenant
for gallantry in the action with the Dutch fleet off the Downs
in June of that year. After the peace he was chosen to conduct
a vojrage of exploration in the South Seas. He set sail from
Deptford on the 26th of November 1669, and entered the Straits
of Magellan in October of the following year, but returned home
in June 167 1 without accomplishing his original purpose. A
narrative of the expedition was published at London in 1694
under the title An AuourU of several late Voyages and Disccneries
lo the South and North. During the second Dutch War Nar-
borough was second captain of the lord high-admiral's ship the
238
NARCISSUS
" Prince/' and conducted himself with tuch conspicuoas valour
at the battle of Solebay (Southwold Bay) in May 1672 that he
won spedal approbation, and shortly afterwards was made rear-
admiiat and knighted. In 1675 he was sent to suppress the
Tripoline pirades, and by the bold expedient of despatching
gim-boats into the harbour of Tripoli at midni^t and burning
the ships he induced the dey to agree to a treaty. Shortly after
his return he undertook a similar expedition against the Algerincs.
In 1680 he was appointed commissioner of the navy, an office he
held till his death in 1688. He was buried at Knowlton church,
Kent, where a monument has been erected to his memory.
See Chamock, Biog. Nov. L; Hist MSS. Comm. 12th Rept.
IIARCI88U8* in Greek mythology, son of the river god
Cephissus and the nymph LeiriOpe, distinguished for his beauty.
The seer Teiresias told his mother that he would have a long
life, provided he never looked upon his own features. His
rejection of the love of the nymph Echo (q.v.) drew upon him
the vengeance of the gods. Having fallen in love with his own
reflection in the waters of a spring, he pined away (or killed him-
self) and the flower that bears his name sprang up on the spot
where he died. According to Pausanias, Narcissus, to console
himself for the death of a favourite twin-sister, his exact oounter-
part, sat gazing into the spring to recall her features by his own.
Narcissus, representing the early spring-flower, which for a brid
space beholds itself mirrored in the water and then fades, is one
of the many youths whose premature death is recorded in Greek
mythology (cf. Adonis, Linus, Hjradnthus) ; the flower itself
was regarded as a symbol of such death. It was the last flower
gathered by Persephone before she was carried off by Hades,
and was sacred to Demeter and Core (the cult name of Perse-
phone), the great goddesses of the underworld. From its
associations Wiescler takes Narcissus himself to be a spirit of
the underworid, of death and rest. It is possible that the story
may have originated in the superstition (alluded to by Arte-
midorus, OneirocrUka, ii. 7) that it was ai) omen of death to
dream of seeing one's reflection in water.
See Ovid, Metam. iii. 34i-5ro; Pausanias ix. 31; Conon,
Narratumes, 2A', F.Wtesder, NarkusosCi6s6); Grev6 m Roacher's
Lexitum d*r MytkohiU; J. G. Fraser, The Golden Bough (1900), i.
293.
HARCISSUS, a genus of bulbous plants belonging to the
family Amaiyllidaceae, natives of central Europe and the
Mediterranean region; one spedes N. Tasetta, extends through
Asia to Japan. From these, or rather from some of these, by
cultivation and hybridization,
have arisen the very numerous
modem varieties. The plants
have long narrow leaves spring-
ing from the bulb and a central
1 scape bearing one or more
generally large, white or yellow,
drooping or inclined flowers,
which are enveloped before
[ opening in a membranous
spathe. The flowers are regular,
with a perianth springing from
above the ovary, tubular below,
with spreading segments and a
central corona; the six stamens
are inserted within the tube.
The most interesting feature
botanically is the " corona " or
" cup," which springs from the
Fig. I.— Flowers of Narcissus base of the flower-segments.
(Narcissiu TauUa) bursting from This gives the spedal char-
the sheathing bract or spathe. 6. ^^^ ^^ ^^^ g^^^ ^^ ^j^
members of the genus are classified according to the length
of this organ as compared with that of the segments. Tlie
most probable supposition is that the cup is simply an
excrescence or " enation " from the mouth of the flower-tube,
and is connected with the fertiliiairioo of the flowers by insect
agency.
There are five well-marked sections.
1. The hoop-petticoat narcissi, sometiroes separated as the 4.
Corbularia, are not more than from 3 to 6 in. in height, and I .
grassy foliage and yellow or white flowers. These have the coronet
m the centre of the flower very larse in proportion to the other parts,
and much expanded, like the old nooped petticoats. They are now
aU rnarded as varieties or forms of the common hoop-petticoat.
N. Sulboeodiumt which has comparatively huge bright y^ow
flowers; N. tenuifolius is smaller and soinewhat paler and with
slender erect leaves; N. citrintu is pak lemon yellow and larger;
while N. numopkyUus is white. The small bulbs should be taken up
m summer and replanted in autumn and earty winter, according
to the sute of the season. They bk)om about March or April in the
open air. The soil shoukl be free and open, so that water may pass
2. A second group is that of the Psendoaarctssi, constituting the
genus Ajax of some botanists, of whkh the daffodil, N. Pseudo-
narcissus is the type. The daffodil (fig. 3) is common in woods anf'
FtG. 9.— Daffodn—C^orminj Pseudtmartissus)*
I, Flower cut open; 3, pistil; 3, horizontal plan of flower.
thkkets in most parts of the north of Europe, but is rare in Scotland.
Its leaves are five or nx in number, are about i ft. in length and 1 in.
in breadth, and have a blunt keel and flat edges. The stem is about
18 in. long and the spathe single-flowered. The flowers are laiiBe.
yrilow, scented and a little drooping, with a corolla deeply cleft
mto six k>bes and a bell-shaped corona which is crisped at the
margin; they appear in March or ApriL In this q)ecies the corona
u also very large and prominent, but is more elongated and triunpet-
shaped, while the other members are regarded as sub^Kcies or
varieties of this. Of thu group the most striking one perhaps b
iV. bkolor, which has the perianth almost white and the corona
deep yellow; it yields a number of varieties, some of the best known
being Empcess, HorsfieMi, Grandee. EUen Willmott. Victoria,
Weardale Perfection. Ac N. moschaius, a native of the Pyrenees
and the Spanish peninsula, is a cream^coJoured su b specie s of great
beauty with several forms. N. cyctamineus is a pretty dwarf sub-
species, native of Portugal, with narrow linear leaves and dnx
flowers with reflexed lemon-vellow segments and an orange-v
corona N. major b a robust form with leaves i-{ in. broad and bright
lemon-yelbw flowers i-^i in. kmg ; maximus b a dosely-related I _
still finer form; obvallarit (the Tenby daffodil) b an early form with
NARCOTICS
239
niramily ycOow flown. N. minor and mimimus are miniature
repe dti on t of the daffodiL All thew grow well in good garden toil,
and bloaom from March onwards, coming in very earfy in genial
3. Aootherjgronp, the mock nardsn or star daffodils, with coronets
of oedinm sue, includes the fine and numerous varieties of N.
mtmpvMUs, one of which, with large, double flowers, is known
as btttter-and-cggs; N. odanu, known as the campemelle jonquil,
has two to four umform bright yeUow flowers, and is considered a
hybrid between N. JonamUa ana N. Pseudonarcissus. A form with
sveet-scented doable flowers is known as Queen Ann's jonquil;
N.jimdfalitu, a graceful little plant from Spain, Portugal and south
France, has one to four small bright ifellow flowers on each xrape.
The hardier forms of this set thrive in the open bonji r, Imi the
araaller sorts, liloe Queen Ann's jonauil, are better ^ <l. n nr, in
aatram and replanted in Februaiy : tney bloom freel >ril
or May. N. trsMdnu^-Oanymede s Cup— b a prett ies
vith white flowers about i in. long: in several of iti the
flovcn are a pale or deeper yellow; they make attractive fH^t j'^^ts.
4. The polyanthus or bunch nardsM form another wiU- marked
pwip, whose peculiarity of producing many flowers on th« «Trm b
laditatcd by the name. In these the corona is small and ^bnllow
as ooatpared with the periamth. Some of the hardier forma.
H. ToMtta itsdf, the type of the group, succeed in the open Ujr^itn
in lieht weU-drained soil, but the bulbs should be d ■ T'Ly pL.imcd,
not kss than 6 or 8 in. bdow the surface, to escape ri-^k rf mjiiry
(n» frosL Many varieties of this form of narcissus, isuch as C>r,uid
Mooarque, Paper white, Soleil d'or, are grown. Tticy adiniE of
beiag forced into eariy bloom, like the hyacinth and tulip. T^tey
vary with a white, creamy or yellow perianth, and a yellow, lemon,
priioroae or white cup or coronet; and, being richly fra^rnnt, they
are feneral favourites amongst sprins flowers. Manv torn ui iheac
flovers aie exported from toe SciUy Isles to the Lonain marknt^i in
qmig. The Chinese sacred lily " t)r " joss flower ' ' h .1 [■ irm of
N. TttteOa. The jonquil, N. JmtquiUa, with yelk>w flosvi r ; . a r^iiive
of toath Europe and Algeria, of which there are singU^ .>n.! r|,»uble
Bowoed varieties, is also grown in pots for eariy flowc ^ ^, ' - loes
wcfl outside in a warm boraer.
S* There remains another little group, the poet's or pheaaant's-
eye nardasi (JV. poeticus), in which the perianth b larse, spreading
and coonicuous, and the corona very small and shallow. These
pheasant s-eye narcissi, of which there are several well-marked
varieties, as radiifiofus^ poetarumt recwvtUt &c., blossom in succession
duriu April and Mav, and all do well in the open borders as perma-
n»t hardy bulbs. N. bi/hrus, the primrose peerless, a two-flowered
whitish yHk>w-cupped species, equally hardy and easy of culture, b
a aatwal hybrid between N. poeHcus and roaeKo. N. tracUis, a
ydknMk>wercd species, has also been regarded as a hybrid between
It. ToMtta and N.pmc^oUus^ and blooms later.
Of late yean some remarkably fine hjrbrids have been raised
between the various distinct groups of narcissi, and the prices asked
(or the bulbs in many cases are exceediiwly high. One of the most
dodnct groups b that known under the name of " Poetaa " — a
oombcaation of poetictu and TaaeUa. The best forms of poetkus
«nwAu have been crossed with the bunch-flowered Tazettas, and
have resulted in producinc varieties with large trusses of exquisite
flowen more or las resembling the omatus parents, and varying in
cdour from the purest white to yellow, the rim of the corona being in
■Dost cases conspicuously and charmingly coloured with red or
crimson. Thb b an exceUcnt group for cutting purposes, but it will
take a few more years to make the varieties common.
For an account of the history and culture of the narcissus see
F. W. Burfoidgc, The Narcissus (1875); a more recent scientific
treatment of the genua will be found in J. G. Baker's Handbook of
AmanUideae (1888); see also Nicholson, Dictionary of Gardtning
(1686) ; and J. Weathers, Practical Gttidt to Garden Plants (1901).
lABOOnCS (Gr. wapMuruAt, making numb), a general term
lor substances having the physiological action, in a healthy
uimal, of producing lethargy or stupor, which may pass into
a itate of profound coma or unconsciousness along with complete
paralysis, terminating in death. Certain substances of thb class
are used in medicine for the relief of pain, and are then called
anodynes, whilst another group produce profound sleep, and are
consequently known as hypnotics. In one sense, anaesthetics,
soch as ddoroform and ether, may be held to be narcotics, but,
as they are usually vobtile substances tauaing unconsciousness
for a comparatively short time, they are conveniently separated
from the true narcotics, the effects of which are much more
lastmg. These distinctions are to a great extent artificial,
as it b evident that a substance capable of producing partial
imcQsibiHty to pain, or sleep, will inevitably in larger doses
cause profound coma ending in death. Hence we find the same
nbst^nces sometimes classed as anodynes and at other times
** bypnotics. For example, small doKi of opium, or of one or
other of its prepAratlons, relieve pain, whibt larger doses act
as hypnotics, causing deep sleep passing into coma. Cannabb
Indica, belladonna and hyoscyarous, are also anodyne in their
action. The chief narcotics are mentioned below.
Opium b the inspissated juice of the Papater somniferum^ con-
taimng 7*5 to 10-5% of anhydrous morphine. Besides morphine
some of the other alkaloids contained in it are of a narcotk nature,
notably papaverine, narceine, meconine, cryptopine and narcotinc,
but the pnncipal anodyne and narcotic effects are due to the mor-
phine alkaUnd. Though seasoned opium ukers may Ukc 30 to 30
grs. without noticeable effects, i to 3 grs. produces marked symptoms
in the western races. Idiosyncrasy b marked in regard to the
amount of opium a person can safely take. The medicinal dose b
up to 2 grs., and the smallest dose that has been known to cause
death in an adult b i gr. The narcotk properties of Morphine vary
as to whether it b taken by the stomach or injected under the skin;
a grs. by the stomach b dangerous, and a safe medkinal dose by the
skin b I to i gr. The smalleat dose that has produced death m an
adult was \ gr. given hypodermkally. The motor centres of the
brain and sptnal cord are first stimuuted by opium and morphine
and bter depressed; death in fatal cases being from paralysb of
the respiratory centre of the meduUa. For the treatment of poisoning
see under OntJM.
Cannabis indica or IncIUn Hntip (set Heup).— The part used in
medicine b the non-feniiL]7.od female spikes of the Canndhis u^ta.
The active constituent i- tini^ wsin ctofitaininij cannabin with the
active principle cannat Ikakildi cannaibiiienf and teCa»H
canabine. CamnaJbis in < m the East yndcr yarious naneib
A confection of the dru^ Arabia i& called hailiisch^ Churrus
b the resin scraped off :^ii ^y^s^a, and the dried leaf b called bang,
Knga or ganga being t]u^ niinve ji;iv«n to the dried flowefiog top* soU
r smoking. The medi* mill du«^ is ^ to 1 Rr. d the exttict, a to 3
m. b a poisonous dose, but there b no recorded taul case bi man.
in Eastern countries i\u- smokiii}!: sA Cannabis imiica prnliiciet a
form of mama. The <Jf'i.i^ <if smaller doit^a are inioxicatioo of a
pleasant character,
dilatation of the pupih
b an uncertain anoayi»
been taken an emetic :
and endeavour to allay
Bdladonna and Atrof
or deadly nightshade
! I. lilac i nations and dcHftum» later
■A, sleep and coma. Indian hemp
. ,,iiut1jC. when Large quflnni!C» h^ve
ilij tK.- givi^n or tlie stomach pump used,
i itrnicrit until the effects have Kis>atd off*
. — Tbe li^VL-4 a\ the Atrctta Btihdonmt
whiE:h the aictive principle it atfopine
adly , . , .
principally used as a sii1r h.uc. A ftmall d0i>c ol belladonn^i or airo-
pine causes dryness of t lie ehrcut and inouih» dilatation of the pupils,
dimness of vision except r.<r dlF^tant obji^^iii and often double >isiDri,
The pulse becomes qurk. u-^tng, iti 3.n adults from io to 120 or 160
b«its per minute; and thvn.' is often a bright red flush over the skin.
The intellectual powen .ire at hm acute and etrting. but they soon
become confused. Hierc ia g:iddine,^p cortfu^aqn of thounht^ excite-
ment, a peculiar talkative wakeful re>tii^'cnc^^p in which the person
shows that hb mind b occupied by a train qI i^ncie* or ii haunted
by visions and spectres. Often there is dotcnt delirium before skep
comes on. The sleep after a Lir^e dose dcrprns into stupor^ with
great "muscuUr prostration or paralysii, Duni^^ ^iH the time the
pupib are widely dilatcfl. Death occurs from faitut? both ot the
ncart's action and of respiration. The minimum Lethal do«e is not
known, but 80 grs. of the T-oat have Ciiuwd deaths s% to iV 8f-
hypodermically have caused daogcfoui &ymi>toms ar.d | ^r. would
almost cert^nly be fatal. For the medicinal preparations and
treatment of poisoning see Belladonna.
Stramonium. — ^The part of the plant used b the leaves and seed
of the Datura Stramonium or thorn apple, the alkaloidal constituent
being daturine, a variable mixture of hyoacine and atropine. The
physiological action b almost identical with belladonna. Poisoning
IS usually due to children eating the seeds; the lethal dose b un-
known. The symptoms produced are divided into three stages —
delirium, sleep and deep coma. In case of slight poisoning a ruh b
one«of the toxic symptoms. The treatment of poisoning b to give
emetics, wash out the stomach and give stimulanu and pilocarpine
subcutancously, also to aoolv warmth and to use artificbl respiration
if necessary.
Hyoscyamus^ the leaves of the Hyoscyamus niger or henbane (f.v.).
The active pnnciple b hyoscyamine. The physiological action is
almost similar to belladonna, with excitement and cardiac stimu-
lation and afterwards depression and stupor, but the action of hyos-
cyamus on the heart is more powerful. In large doses it b a strong
cerebral depressant, and produces dilatation of the pupil ; A Kr.
of hyoscamine produces marked effects, sleepiness and dryness of the
mouth: i gr. by subcutaneous injection has produced fatal results.
The treatment of hyoscyamus poisoning b similar to that of stra-
monium.
Hops (the Humulus Lupulus), containinff the active orindple
lupuline, and Lactucarium, the juke of the Lactuca virosa (lettuce),
containing an alkaloid lactucine, are very feeble narcotics, causing
heaviness and sleep if taken in large doses.
ChUnal Hydrate b a pure hypnotic whkh in larger doses ^b a
powerful narcotk, producing profo
cardiac and motor centres.
, longed sleep with depression of the
It b an intrinsk cardiac ooison, the
240
NARDI— NARSES
heart bring arrested in diastole, with coincident respiratory failure.
Chloral hydrate is not uniform in its action, some people manifesting
great susceptibility to the drug. It is safe in small doses of lo to
aogrs. It is difficult to say what is a lethal dose. Cases are recorded
of recovery after 336 gn. taken with an equal amount of potassif ~
bromide and even after a dose of 595 grs., but in susceptible pcrsi
10 to IS grs. have produced toxic symptoms and death has occurred
after doses of from ^ to 45 gn. If seen early, the treatment b an
enketic, but if the poison snoiud have been already abaorfoed. stimu-
lants, hot coffee, strychnine or digitalin hypodermically, with
perhaps artificial respiration, may be required.
Alcohol in laige quantities is a strong narcotic, producing the
tyi>ical ^stages 01 preliminary eiKitement foUowed Dv drowuness
tay occur. Tne treatment
! absorption of the poison
HARDI, JAOOPO (b. 1476)1 Florentine historian, 'occupied
various positions in the service of the Florentine republic after the
expulsion of the Medici in 1494, and even on their return in 15x2
he continued in the public service. In 1527 he joined in the
movement for the expulsion of the family and was instrumental
in defeating the Medicean troops under Cardinal Pasaerini, who
were attacking the Palazso della Signoria. When the Medici
again definitely became masters of Florence in 1530, Nardi was
exiled from the city and his property confiscated. He spent the
rest of his days in various parts of Italy, chiefly In Venice, and
wrote a statement •of the claims of the Fbrentine exiles against
the Medici, addressed to the emperor Charles V. The exact
date of his death b unknown. His chief work is his IstorU delta
Cittd it PiremCf covering the period from 1498 to 1538, in part
based on Biagio Buonaccorai's Diario.
L. Arbib's edition of Nardi's history (Florence, 18^) contains a
biography of the author, and so does thiat of Agenore GeUi (Fl<nence,
HARES, SIR GBORGB STRONG (X831- ), English Arctic
explorer, son of a captain in the navy, was educated, at the
Royal Naval College at New Cross, and entered the navy in
1846. After being employed for some time on the Australian
station, in 1852 he became mate of the "Resolute" in the
Arctic expedition which was sent out in that year. Serving in the
Crimea upon his return, he was appointed lieutenant in charge
of the naval cadets on the inauguration of the "Britannia"
training ship, and was then empl<^ed in surveying work on the
N.E. coast of Australia and in the Mediterranean,, attaining the
rank of captain in X869. While in command of the" ChaJleniger"
(1872-1874), in the famous voyage of deep-sea exploration
round the world, he was ordered home to take.conmiand of the
Arctic expedition which set sail in the spring of 1875 in the ships
" Alert " and " Discovery." He published a narrative of the
voyage on his return, and for his services was made K.C.B.
( 1 876) . Two years later he was sent in command of the " Alert "
to survey Magellan Strait. From 1879 to 1896 he was attached
to the Harbour Department of the Board of T^de. He retired
from active service in x886, and became a vice-admiral in
1892. (See Polar Regions.)
NARGILB or Naxcileb, the Persian and Turkish name for a
" hookah," a tobacco pipe with a long flexible tube for stem'
passing through a vessel containing water, often perfumed.
This bowl was originally made of a coco-nut (Persian nOrfil),
whence the name, but now glass, metal or porcelain, are dso
used.
NARNI (anc. Umbrian Nequinum, Rom. Namia), a town and
episcopal see of the province of Perugia, Italy, 65 m. N. of Rome
by rail. Pop. (1901) 5200 (town), x 2,773 (commune)% It is
picturesquely situated on a lofty rock (787 fL above sea-level),
480 ft. above the Nera valley, at the point where the river
traverses a narrow ravine, ana commands a fine view. The
cathedral and the portico of S. Maria della Pensola are buildings
of the xxth century with flat arches; the former has some good
Renaissance sculptures. There are other interesting churches;
S. Francesco has a good doorway of the X4th century. In the
town bcU is a " Coronation of the Virgin " by D. Ghirlandaio.
The town also contains some picturesque Gothic houses and
palaces. Near the stau'on, below the town, arc factories of
india-rubber and caldum carbide.
The Umbrian Kequlnnm was ufcen by the Romans after a loog
siei^ in 399 B.C., and a ookmy planted there against the Umbrians,
talang iu name from the river. It was among the twelve cobnies
that were punished for refusing help to Rome in 209 B.C. It was
considered a suitable point to oppose a threatened march of Has-
drubal on Rome. It stood on the Via Flaminia, the great bridge
of which over the river lies below the town. The original main road
ran to Nuoeria by Mevania; a branch by Interanua and Spolctium
joined if at Forum FlaminiL Aooorc&ng to some authon, the
e m peror Nerva was bom at Namia. The town is mentioned in the
history of the Gothic wars. Procopius (B.G. L 17) describes the
site of the town, the river and the bridge — the latter as built by
Augustus, and as having the h^ihest arches that he knew. Inthe
middle am Nami was under the papalpower. It was the birthplace
of the wdl-known oondottiere Erasmo (^ttamdata.
See G. Eroli, MiseOlama StoHca Nameu (a vols., Nami, 1858-
X863), and other works by the same author.
HARRAGAMSBTT, a township of Washington county, Rhode
Island, U.S.A. on the W. shore of Narragansett Bay, about 25 m.
S. of Providence and about 8 m. W.S.W. of Newport. Pop.
(1890) X408; (X900) XS23; (X90S) X469; (X9X0) X250. Ax«a
about 15 sq. DL It is coxmected at Kingston Station (about
9 XXL N.W.) by the Narragansett Pier railway with the shore fa'ne
of the New York, New Haven & Hartford raOway; an electric
line ooxmects with Providence. The southem part of the town-
ship is a peninsula, lying between the mouth 'of Nanagansett
Bay and an inlet separating this part of the township, from
South KingstowxL Nairagansett Pier, within the township, has
a fine bathing beach, which extends akmg the indented coast
between the village and the mouth of the Pattaquamscutt river;
the force of the s\irf is somewhat broken by Point Judith, about
5 m. S. (also In the township), on which there is a lighthouse.
On a ridge overk)oking the ocean and commanding a fine view is
the Point Judith Country Qub, with golf courses, texmis couru
and a polo-field, on which Is held a horse show at the dose of
each season. Many <A the summer visitors at Narragansett Pier
are from New En^and, New York and Philadelphia, but there
is a sufficient number from Baltimore, Washington, Richxnoxid,
Louisville and other Southem cities to give to iu society a
noticeably Southem tone. Narragansett Pier was so-named
from the piers that were built here late in the x 8th century and
eariy in the X9th to provide a port for the Narragansett Country,
OT southem Rhode Island, and it still has a cmI wharf, and a
yacht landing at the Casino. The development of the place as a
summer resort was begun about the middle of the x 9th century
by the erection of a bathing-house and the convexsion of some
farm houses into boarding houses. The erection of iai^e hotels
and private residences soon followed, and the completion of the
railway to the pier m 1876 Increased lu popularity. The District
of Narragansett (in the town of South Kxiigstown) was oisanxzed
in 1888 and in X90X was incorporated as a separate towxiship.
The town is named from the Narragansiet Indians, a oxx«-
powerf ul Algonquian tribe, which occupied much of the shore of
Narragansett Bay. Under their chief Caixmicus (d. 2647) they
were friendly to the early Rhode Island settlers, and under
Miantonomo (9.9.) entered into a tripartite treaty with the
Connecticut colonists and the Mohegans; but after the execu-
tion of Miantonomo the Narragansets under Miantonomo's son,
Canonchet or Nanuntenoo, were less friendly. Their loyalty
to the whites was suspected at the time of King Philip's War,
and on the X9th of December X675, at the Great or Cedar Swamp
(Narragansett Fort) in the present town of South Kingstown
(immediately west of the town of Narragansett), they were
decisively defeated by the whites, under GovenxM' Josiah Winalow
of the Plymouth Colony. The site of the engagement b marked
by a granite monument erected in xgo6 by the Rhode Island
Society of Colonial Wars. Canonchet escaped, but on the 2nd of
August 1676 was captured near Stonington, Connecticut, and on
the following day was executed. Most of the survivors of the
tribe were later settled among the Niantic, to whom the name
Narraganset has been transf exred. There are now few survivors
of pure Indian'blood.
NARSES, Nakseh, Nasscits, king of Persia, son of Shapur I.
He rose as pretender to the throne against his grand-nephew
Bahram III. in A J>. 292, and soon became sole king. He attacked
NARS£S
241
Uw Romans, but after defeating the emperor Clalerius near
faHinimm on the Euphrates in 396 wal completely defeated in
Z97t and forced to conclude a peace, by which western Meso-
potamia and five provinces on the left bank of the upper Tigris
veie ceded to the Romans and their sovereignty over the
kingdom of Armenia was acknowledged. This peace, concluded
in 397, lasted for forty years. Narses died in 303 and was
nccceded by his son Hormisd II. (Ed. M.)
lABSBI (e. 47^573) An important officer of Justinian, in
the 6th century. He was a eunuch, but we are nowhere distinctly
iBfonned that he was of servile origin. A native of Persarmenia
(that portion of Armenia which was allotted to Persia by the
partition of 384), he may have been prepared and educated by
his parents for service in an oriental court. If the statement that
he died at the age of ninety-five be correct, he was bom about
478. He was probably brought young to Constantinople, and
attained a footing in the officium of the grand chamberlain. He
rose to be one of the three (spectabOes) " chartularii," a position
implyiag some literary attainment, and involving the custody of
the arcUves of the household. Hence, probably in middle life, he
became *' praepositus sacri cubiculi," an "illustris," and entitled
along with the praetorian prefects and the generals to the highest
rank at the imperial court. In this capacity, in 530, he received
into the emperor's obedience another Narses, t fellow-country-
maa, with his two brothers, Aratius and Isaac. These Pers-
arroeniam generals, having formerly fought under the standard
of Persia, now in consequence of the successes of Belisarius trans-
ferred their allegiance to the emperor Justinian, came to Con-
stantinople, and received costly gifts from the great minister.
In 533 the insurrection known as the Nika broke out in
Constantinople, when for some hours the throne of Justinian
Kemed doomed to overthrow. It was saved partly by the
ooQrage of his wife, Theodora, and partly by the timely prodigality
of Narses, who stole out into the capital, and with large sums
of money bribed the leaders of the " blue " faction, which was
aforetime loyal to the emperor, to shout as of old " Justiniane
Aagnste tu vincas."
The African and Italian wan followed. In the fourth year
of the latter war (538) the splendid successes of Belisarius
had awakened both joy and fear in the heart of his blaster.
Ketaforcements were sent into Italy, and Narses was placed
at their head. Belisarius understood that Narses came to serve
coder him like any other officer of distinguished but subordinate
rank, and he received a letter from Justinian which seemed to
SQpport this conclusion. But the friends of Narses continually
plied him with suggestions that he, a great officer of the house-
hold, in the secrets of the emperor, had been sent to Italy, not
to serve as a subaltern, but to hold independent command and
win military glory for himself. The truth probably lay between
the two. Justinian could not deprive his great general of the
nipteme command, yet he wished to have a very powerful
emissary of the court constantly at his side. He would have
him watched but not. hampered.
The two generals met (a.d. 538) at Fermo on the Adriatic
coast. The first interference of Narses with the plans of Belisarius
vu beneficial. John, one of the officers highest in rank under
Bdisaritts, bad pressed on to Rimini, contrary to the instructions
of his duef, leaving in his rear the difficult fortress of Osimo
(Aozimam) ontaken. His daring march had alarmed the Goths
for Ravenna, and induced them to raise the siege of Rome;
bttt he himself was now shut up In Rimini, and on the point of
being forced by famine to surrender. Belisarius and his followers
were prepared to let him pay the penalty of his rashness and
disobedience. But his friend Narses so insisted on the blow to
the reputation of the imperial arms which would be produced
by the surrender of Rimini that he carried the councU of war
with him, and Belisarius had to plan a brilliant march across
the mountains, in conjunction with a movement by the fleet,
vbereby Rimini was reUeved while Osimo was still untaken.
When Belisarius and John met, the latter ostentatiously thanked
Nanes alone for his preservation.
His nest use of his authority was less fortunate. Milan,
which was ftolding out for the Romans, was also hard pressed by
famine. The two generals who were sent to relieve it loitered
disgracefully over their march, and, when Belisarius wished to
despatch further reinforcemenU, the commanders of these
new troops refused to stir till Narses gave them orders. Belisarius
wrote to the eunuch pointing out the necessity of unity of purpose
in the imperial army. At length, grudgingly, Narses gave his
consent, and issued the required orders; but it was too late.
Milan had been compelled by extremity of famine to surrender,
and with it the whole province of Liguria fell into the hands ol
the enemy. This event forced Justinian to recognize the dangen
of even a partially divided command, and he recalled Narsa
to Constantinople.
Twelve years elapsed before Narses returned to Italy. Mean-
while there had been great vicissitudes of fortune both for the
Romans and the Gotlu. Italy, which appeared to have been
won by the sword of Belisarius, had been lost again by the
exactions and misgovemment of Alexander. Totila had raised
up a new army, had more than kept Belisarius at bay in five
difficult campaigns (544*548) and now held nearly all the country.
Belisarius, however, in this his second series of campaigns, had
never been properly seconded by his master. In the spring of
55a Narses set sail from Salona on the Dalmatian coast with a
large and well-appointed army. It was a Roman army only
in name. Lombards, Heruli, Htms, Gepidae and even Persians
followed the standard of Narses, men equal in physical strength
and valour to the Goths, and inspired by the liberal pay which
they received, and by the hope of plunder.
The eunuch seems to have led his army round the head of
the Adriatic Gulf. By skilfully co-operating with his fleet,
he was able to cross the rivers of Venetia without fighting the
Gothic general Teias, who intended to dispute their passage.
Having mustered all his forces at Ravenna, he marched south-
ward. He refused to be detained before Rimini, being determined
to meet the Gothic king as soon as possible with his army un-
diminished. The occupation of the pass of Furlo (Petra Pertusa)
by the Goths prevented his marching by the Via Flaminia,
but, taking a short drcuit, he rejoined the great road near Cagli.
A little farther on, upon the crest of the Appenines, he was met
by Totila, who had advanced as far as Tadini, called by Procopius
Tagina. Parleys, messages and harangues by each general
followed. At length the line of battle was formed, and the
Gothic army, probably greatly inferior in number to the Byzan-
tine was hopelessly routed (July 552), the king receiving a
mortal wound as he was hurrying from the battlefield.
With TotOa fell the last hopes of the Ck>thic kingdom of Italy.
Teias, who was proclaimed his successor, protracted for a few
months a desperate resistance in the rocky peninsula of Castella-
mare, overlooking the bay of Naples. At length want of provisions
forced him into the plain, and there by the river Samo, almost
in sight of Pompeii, was fought (553) a battle which is generally
named from the overiooking range of Mons Lactarius (Monte
Lettere). The actual site of the battle, however, a about half
a mile from the little town of Angri, and its memory is still vaguely
preserved by the lutme Poao dei Cott (well of the Goths). In
this battle Teias was killed. He was the last king of the
Ostrogoths.
The task of Narses, however, was not yet ended. By the
invitation of the Goths an army of 75,000 wariike Alamanni
and Franks, the subjects of King Theudibald, crossed the Alps
under the command of two Alamannic nobles, the brothers
Lothair and Buccelin (553). The great strategic talents of
Narses were shown even more conspicuously in this, than in his
previous and more brilliant campaigiu. Against the small but
gallant bands of Totila and Teias he had adopted the policy
of rapid marches and imperative challenges to battle. His
strategy in dealing with the great host from Gaul was of the
Fabian kind. He kept them as long as he could north of the
Apennines, while he completed the reduction of the fortresses
of Tuscany. At the approach of winter he gathered his troops
into the chief cities and declined operations in the field, while
the Alamannic brothers marched through Italy, killing and
la
24-2
NARSINGHGARH— NARVA
plundering. When the spring of 554 appeared, Lofthaire with
his part of the army insisted on marching back to Gaul, there to
deposit in safety the plunder which they had reaped. In an
unimportant engagement near Pesaro he was worsted by the
Roman generals, and this hastened his northward march. At
Ceneda in Venetia he died of a raging fever. Pestilence broke
out in his anny, which was so wasted as to be incapable of
further operations in Italy. Meanwhile his brother Buccelin,
whose army was also suffering grievously from disease, partly
induced by free indulgence in the grapes of Campania, encamped
at Casilinum, the site of modem Capua. Here, after a time,
Narses accepted the offered battle (554)* The barbarians, whose
army was in the form of a wedge, pierced the Roman centre.
But by a most skilful manctuvre Narses contrived to draw
his lines into a curve, so that his mounted archen on each flank
could aim their arrows at the backs of the troops who formed
the other side of the Alamannic wedge. They thus fell in whole
ranks by the hands of unseen antagonists. Soon the Roman
centre, which had been belated in its march, arrived upon the
field and completed the work of destruction. Buccelin and his
whole army were destroyed, though we need not accept the
statement of the Greek historian (Agathias ii. 9) that only five
men out of the barbaric host of 30,000 escaped, and only ei^ty
out of the Roman x 8,000 perished.
The only other important military operation of Narses which
is recorded— and that indistinctly— is his defeat of the Herulian
king Sindbal, who had served under him at Capua, but who
subsequently revolted, was defeated, taken captive and hanged
by the eunuch's order (565). In the main the thirteen years
after the battle of Capua (554*567) were years of peace, and
during them Narses ruled Italy from Ravenna with the title
of prefect.* He rebuilt Milan and other cities destroyed in the
Gothic War; and two inscriptions on the Salarian bridge at
Rome have preserved to modem times the record of repairs
effected by him in the year 564.
1 His administration, however, was not popular. The effect
of the imperial organization was to wring the last splidus out
of the emaciated and fever-stricken population of Italy, and the
belief of his subjects was that no small portion of their contribu-
tions remained in the eunuch's private coffers. At the close of
565 Justinian died, and a deputation of Romans waited upon
his successor Justin II., representing that they found " the
Greeks " harder taskmasters than the Goths, that Narses the
eunuch was determined to reduce them all to slavery, and that
unless he were removed they would transfer their allegiance
to the barbarians. This deputation led to the recall of Narses
in 567, accompanied, according to a somewhat late tradition,
by an insulting message from the empress Sophia, who sent him
a golden distaff, and bade him, as he was not a man, go and
spin wool in the apartments of the women. " I will spin her
such a hank," Narses is represented as saying, " that she shall
not find the end of it in her lifetime "; and forthwith he sent
messengers to the Lombards in Pannonia, bearing some of the
fraits of Italy, and inviting them to enter the lami which bore
such goodly produce. Hence came the invasion of Alboin (568),
which wrested the greater part of Italy from the empire, and
changed the destinies of the peninsula.*
> Gibbon's statemeat that Narns was " the firtt and most powerful
of the exarchs " is more rarrect in subvtance than in form. The
title of exarch does not appear to be given to Narns by any con-
temporary writer. He is always " Praetcctus Italiae." " Patndus '*
or Dux Italiae," except when he bears the style of his former
offices in the imperial household, " Ex-Praepositus [Cubiculi] " or
" Chartularius."
' This celebrated story seems to be unknown to strictly con-
temporary authors We find no hint of it in Agathias (who wrote
t *^ -_j _«_» . «* . ,_^_ _.*» . ^ f of Toufs
I Isidore
,^ „, Frede-
garius (lo-called). who probably wrote in the middle of the 7th
century, and Paul the Deacon, towards the close of the 8th. supply
the saga-like details, which become more minute the farther the
narrators are from the action. On the whole, the transaction,
though it b too well vouched for to allow us to dismiss it as entirely
fabulous, cannot uke its place among the undoubted facts of history.
Narses, who had retired to Naples, was persuaded by the pope
(John III.) to return to Rome. He died there about 573, and
his body, enclosed in a leaden coffin, was carried to Constantinople
and buried there. Several years after his death the secret of
the hiding-place of his vast stores of wealth is said to have
been, revealed by an old man to the emperor Tiberius II., for
whose charities to the poor and the captives they furnished an
opportune supply.
Narses was diort in stature and lean in figure. Hb frcehandcd-
ness and affability made him very popular with hb soldiers. Eva-
griuB telb us that be was very religious, and paid especial reverence
to the Virsin, never ennging in battle till he conceived that die
had given him the signal Our best authorities for hb life are his
contemporaries Procopius and Anthias. See Gibbon, Dedime and
FaU, vob. iv. and v.. edited by J.IS. Bury (1898). (T. H.)
NARSINGHGARH, a native sute of Central India, in the
Bhopal agency. Area, 741 sq. m.; pop. (1901) 93«093; esti-
mated revenue, £33^000; tribute to Holkar, £40oa The chief,
whose title u raja, b a Rajput <^ the Omat clan. The state was
founded about x68x by a minuter of Rajgarh, who compelled
the ruler of that state to transfer to him half hb territory.
The town of Narsinghgarh had a population in 1901 of 8778.
NARSINGHPUR, a town and dbtrict of British India, in the
Nerbudda division of the Central Provinces. The town b on the
river Singri, and has a railway station 5 a m. £. of Jubbulpore;
pop. (1901) X 1,333. I^c dbtrict has an area of 197^ aq. m.
It forms a portion of the upper part of the Nerbudda valley.
The first of those wide alluvial basins whidi, alternating with
rocky gorges, give so varied a character to the river's course,
opens out just below the famous marble rocks in Jubbulpore, and
extends westward for 225 m., including the whole of Narsinghpur,
together with the greater part of Hoshangabad. The Satpurm
hiUs to the south are here a generally regular range, nowhere
more than 500 ft. above the plain, and nmning almost paralld
to the river, at a dbtance of 15 or ao m. In the intervening
valley, the rich level of Uack wheat land b seldom broken,
except by occasioiuil mounds of gravel or nodular limestone,
which afford serviceable village sites. Along the foot of the
boundary hilb the alluvium gives way to belts of red gravelly
soil, rice and sugar-cane take the place of wheat, and forest trees
that of mango groves. The population in 190X was 3x5,5x8,
showing a decrease of x4-5% in the decade, due to famine.
The principal crops are wheat, millets, rice, pulses, oO-seeds
and cotton. There are manufactures of cotton, silk, brass and
iron-ware. At Mohpani are coal-mines. The Great Indian
Peninsula railway runs through the dbtrict, with a branch to
Mohpani.
See Narsingfipur Distria Goidteer (Bombay, X906).
NARTHBX (Gr. y^vi the name of the plant giant-fennd,
in Lat. fenda), the name applied in architecture, probably from
a supposed resemblance in shape to the reed-like plant, to the long
arcaded porch forming the entrance into a Chrbtian church,
to which the catechumens and penitents were admitted. Some-
times there was a second narthex or vestibule within the church,
when the outer one was known as the exonarthex. In Bysantine
churches thb inner narthex formed part of the main structure
of the church, being divided from it by a screen of columns-
A narthex b found in some German churches, where, however,
it had no ritual meaning but was introduced as a western
transept to give more importance to the west end. One of the
finest examples to be found in England b that of Ely cathedral,
where its northern portion, however, was apparently never
completed.
NARVA (Rugodiv of Russian annab, also Ivaniorod)^ a seaport
and fortress of Russia, in the government of St Petersbui^,
xoo m. by rail W.S.W. of the city of St Petersburg. P<9.
(X897) x6,577. It stands on the Narova river, whkh flows
from Lake Peipus or Chudskoye, and enters the Gulf of Finland
in Narva Bay, 8 m. below this town. The town was founded in
12 23 by Danes, and changed hands between the Teutonic
knights, Danes, Swedes and Russians until it was taken by
Peter the Great in X704, after the Russians had suffered here a
terrible defeat at the hands of Charles XII. of Sweden four years
NARVACAN— NASCIMENTO
243
before. Its fortros, built on the right bank of the river, and
known as Ivangorod, has lost its importance, and was abandoned
in 1864. The cathedral and the town hall (1683) contain
interesting antiquities. There are here an arsenal, a small
ffliisettm and a school of navigation. Several manufaaories
utilixe the waierfaUs of the Narova, e.g. cotton-mills, woollen
doth mills, flax and jute mills, saw-mills and steam flour mills.
The total trade falls short of half a million sterling annually. A
watering-place has grown up at Ust-Narova, or Hungerburg, at
the mouth of the Narova.
MABVACAMf a town of the province of Hocos Sur, Luzon,
Philippine Islands, near the coast and on the main road 15 m.
S.S.E. of Vigan, the capital. Pop. (1903) 19,575. It lies in a
level valley surrounded by mountains, and has a cool and healthy
dimate. The soil, both in the valley and on the neighbouring
Boontain-sides, is very fertile, and produces rice, vegetables,
Indian com, indigo, cotton, tobacco, maguey and sugar-cane.
Cotton fabrics are woven by the women and sold to the mountain
tribes. The language of the town b llocano.
lABVAEZ. PANFILO DB (c. 1480-1528), Spanish adventurer,
was an hidalgo of Castile, bom at VaUadolid about 1480. He
was one of the subordinates of Velasquez in the reduction of
Cuba, and, after having held various posts under his governor-
ship, was pot at the head of the force sent to the Aztec coast to
compel Cortes to renounce his command; he was surprised and
defeated, however, by his abler and more active compatriot at
CempoaUa, and made prisoner with the loss of an eye (1520).
After his return to Spain he obtained from Charles V. a grant of
Florida as far as the River of Palms; sailing in 1527 with five
ships and a force of about 600 men, he landed, probably near
Pensacok Bay, in April 1528, and, striking intend with some 300
of his followers, reached " Apalache " on June 25. The prospects
of fabulous wealth which bad sustained them in their difficult
and perilous journey having proved illusory a return to the
coast was determined, and the Bahia de los Caballos, at or near
St Mark's, was reached in the following month. Having built
rade boats, the much-reduced company sailed hence for Mexico
<m September 2a, but the vessel which carried Narvaez was
driven to sea in a storm and perished. His lieutenant, Cabeza
de Vaca, with three others who ultimately reached land, made his
way across Texas to the Gulf of California. (See Flosida.)
See Preacott, CcnqtuU of Mexico-, H. H. Bancfoft, Mexko (1882-
1890): and the Naufragio of Alvaio NuAez Cabeza de Vaca ui the
BteU&Uoa of Rivadeneyra, xxxi.
NARVABZ. RAMON MARIA (1800-1868), Spanish soldier and
statesman, was bom at Loja, Granada, on the 4tb of August 1800,
entered the army at an early age, and saw active service under
Mina in Catalonia in 1822. He was in his sympathies a Con-
serratJve, and could not go all lengths with the Radical opposi-
tion to Ferdinand VII., whom he served after his restoration.
When the king died, Narvaez became one of the Conservative
supporters of Isabel II. He achieved great popularity by his
victory over Gomez, the Carlist general, near Arcos, in November
i6j6, and after clearing La Mancha of brigands by a vigorous
poUcy of suppression in 1838 he was sppointed captain-general
of Old Castile, and commander-in-chief of the army of reserve.
In 1840, for the part he had taken at Seville in the insurrection
against Espartero and the Progresista party, he was compelled
to take refuge in France, where, in conjunction with Maria
Crittioa, be planned the expedition of 1843 which led to the
overthrow of his adversary. In 1844 he became prime minister,
aod was created field-marshal and duke of Valencia, but his
policy was too reactionary to be tolerated long, and he was
oompeBed to quit office in February 1846. He now held the post
of ambassador at Paris, until again called to preside over the
council of ministers in 1847; but misunderstandings with
Maria Crislina led to his resignation in the followipg year.
His ministry succeeded that of O'Donnell for a short time in
1856-1857, and he again returned to power for a few months
in 1864-186$. He unce more replaced O'Donnell in July 1866,
and was still in office when he died at Madrid on the 23rd of
April 1868.
Some very curious noticet of Narvaez may be found in the letters'
of Prosper Merimie to Panizzi (1881). For his general poUcical
career see Hermann Baumgarten, Gesckichte Spanietu v. Ausbruck d.
frantds. Revol. bu attf unsere Tau (1865-1871): and the Historia
ConUmparanea of Antonio Piimla (1871-1879).
NARVIK or Victobiahavn, a seaport on the OfoUn Fjord of
'the north-west coast of Norway, in Nordland ami (county),
68** 30' N. It is wholly modem, developed by the construction
and completion (1903) of the Ofoten railway, the most northerly
in the world. There are extensive quays, from which is shipped
the iron ore from the rich districts traversed by the line. Narvik
is 167 m. N.W. of Gellivara, and 982 N. by W. of Stockholm by
the riulway. In summer express trains cover the whole distance
in two days. Narvik is a convenient point from which to visit
the beautiful Lofoten Islands.
NARWHAU the Scandinavian name of a cetacean {Monodcn
moHoceros), characterized by the presence in the male of a long
horo-like tusk. In the adult of both sexes there are only two
teeth, both in the upper jaw, which lie horizontally side by side,
and in the female remain throughout life concealed in cavities
of the bone. In the male the right tooth usually remains similarly
concealed, but the left is immensely developed, attaining a length
equal to more than half that of the entire animal In a narwhal
12 ft. long, from snout to end of tail, the exserted portion of the
tusk may measure 6 or 7 and occasionally 8 ft. in length. It
projecu horizontally forwards from the head in the form of a
cylindrical or slightly tapering, pointed tusk, composed of ivory,:
with a central cavity reaching almost to the apex, without
enamel, and with the surface marked by spiral grooves and
ridges, running in a sinistral direction. Occasionally both left
and right tusks are developed, in which case the direction of the
grooves is the same in both. No instance has ever been met
with of the complete development of the right tusk associated
with a rudimentary condition of the left. In young animals
several small additional teeth are oresent, but these usually
disappear soon after birth.
liie head is rather short and rounded; the fore limbs or
paddles are small and broad compared with those of most
dolphins; and (as in the bduga) a dorsal fin, found in nearly all
other members of the group, is wanting. The general colour of
the surface is dark grey above and white below, variously
marbled and spotted with shades of grey.
The narwhal is an Arctic whale, frequenting the icy drcum-
polar seas, and rarely seen south of 65** N. lat. Four instances
have, however, been recorded of its occurrence on the British
coasts, one on the coast of Norfolk in 1588, one in the Firth of
Forth in 1648, one near Boston in Lincolnshire in 1800, while
a fourth entangled itself among rocks in the Soimd of Weesdale,
Shetland, in September 1808. Like most cetaceans it is gregari-
ous and usually met with in " schools " or herds of fifteen or
twenty individuals. Its food appears to be cuttlefishes, small
fishes and crustaceans. The purpose served by the tusk — or
" hom '* — ^is not known; and little is known of the habits of
narwhals. Scoresby describes them as " extremely playful,
frequently elevating thdr horns and crossing them with each
other as in fendng." They have never been known to charge and
pierce the bottom of ships with their weapons, as the swordfish
does. The name " sea-unicora " is sometimes applied to the
narwhal. The ivory of which the tusk is composed is of very
good quality, but owing to the central cavity, only filled for the
manufacture of objects of small size. The entire tusks are
sometimes used for decorative purposes, and are of considerable,
though fluctuating, value. (See Cetacea.) (W. H. F.)
NASCIMENTO, FRANCISCO MANOEL DB (i734'i8i9).
Portuguese poet, better known by the literary name of Pitinto
Elysio, bestowed on him by the Marqueza de Alorna, was the
reputed son of a Lisbon boat-owner. In his early years be
acquired a love of national customs and traditions which his
humanist education never obliterated, 'while, in addition, he
learnt to know the whole range of popular literature {litteratura
de cordel) — songs, comedies, knightly stories and fairy tales,
which were then printed in loose sheets (Jolkas votantes) and sold
by the blind in the streets of the capital. These circumstances
244
NASEBY
explain the richness of his vocabulary, and Joined to an ardent
patriotism they fitted him to become the herald of the literary
revival known as Romanticism, which was inaugurated by h^
distinguished follower Almeida Garrett. Nascimento began to
write verses at the age of fourteen. He was ordained a priest in
1754, and shortly afterwards became treasurer of the Chaf||as
church in Lisbon. He led a retired life, and devoted his time
to the study of the Latin classics, especially Horace, and to the
society of literary friends, among whom were numbered some
cultivated foreign merchants. These men nourished the common
ambition to restore Camoens, then half forgotten, to his rightful
place as the king of the Portuguese Parnassus, and they pro-
claimed the cult of the Quinhentistas, regarding them as the best
poetical models, while in philosophy they accepted the teaching
of the French Encyclopaedists.
Nascimentp's first publication was a version of one of
Metastasio's operas, and his early work consisted mainly of
translations. Though of small volume and merit, it sufficed
to arouse the jealousy of his brother bards. At this time the
Arcadia was working to restore good taste and purify the
language of gallicisms, but the members of this society forgot
the traditions of their own land in their desire to imitate the
classics. Nascimento and other writers who did not belong
to the Arcadia, formed themselves into a rival group, which met
at the Ribeira das N&os, and the two bodies attacked one
another in rhyme without restraint, until the " war of the poets,"
as it was called, ended with the collapse of the Arcadia. Nasci-
mento now conceived a strong but platonic affection for D.
Maria de Almeida, afterwards Condessa da Ribeira, sister of
the famous poetess the Marqueza de Aloma. This lady sang
the chansonnettes he wrote for her, and their poetical intercourse
drew from him some lyrics of profound emotion. This was
the happiest epoch of his life, but it did not last long. The
accession of D. Maria I. inaugurated an era of reaction against
the spirit and reforms of Pombal, and religious succeeded to
political intolerance. In June 1778 Nascimento was denounced
to the Inquisition on the charge of having given vent to heterodox
opinions and read "the works of modem philosophers who
follow natural reason." The tribunal held a secret inquiry, and
without giving him an opportimity of defence issued an order
for his arrest, which was to take pla<5s early in the morning of
the 14th of July. He had received a wamingf and succeeded
in escaping to the house of a French merchant, Verdier, where
he lay hid for eleven days, at the end of which his friend the
Marques de Marialva put him on board a Frsnch ship which
carried him to Havre. Nascimento took up his residence in
Paris, and his first years there passed pleasantly enough. Soon,
however, his circumstances changed for the worse. He received
the news of the confiscation of his property by the Inquisition;
and though he strove to support himself by teaching and writing
he could hardly make both ends meet. In 179a his admirer
Antom'o de Araujo, afterwards Conde de Barca, then Portuguese
minister to Holland, offered the poet the hospitality of his house
at the Hague, but neither the country, the people, nor the
language were congenial, and when his host went to Paris on a
diplomatic mission in 1797 Nascimento accompanied him, and
spent the resi of his life inland near the French capital. He
retained to the end an intense love of country, which made him
wish to die in Portugal, and in 1796 a royal decree permitting
his return there and ordering the restoration of his goods was
issued, but delays occurred in its execution, and the flight of
the court to the Braxils as a result of the French invasion finally
dashed his hopes. Before this the Conde de Barca had obtained
him a commission from the Portuguese government to translate
the De Rebus Emanudis of Osorio; the assistance of some
fellow-countrymen in Paris carried him through his last years,
which were cheered by the; friendship of his biographer and
translator Alexandre San^ and of the Lusophil Ferdinand
D6nis. Lamartine addressed an ode to him; he enjoyed the
esteem of Chateaubriand; and bis admirers at home, who
imitated him extensively, were called after him Os FUintisUu.
Exile and suffering had enlarged his ideas and given him a xense
of reality, making his best poems those he wrote between the
ages of seventy and eighty-five, and when he passed away, it
was recognized that Portugal had lost her foremost contempo-
rary poet.
Garrett declared that Nascimento was worth an academy in
himself by his knowledge of the language, adding that no poet
since Camoens had rendered it such valtutble services; but his
truest title to fame is that he brought literature once more into
touch with the life of the nation. By his life, as by his works,
Nascimento links the i8th and X9th centuries, the Neo-Classical
period with Romanticism. Wieland's Oberom and Chateau-
briand's Martyrs opened a new world to him, and his conies
or scenes of Portuguese life have a real romantic flavour; they
are the most natural of his compositions, though his noble
patriotic odes— those " To Neptune speaking to the Portuguese "
and " To the liberty and independence of the United States " —
are the most quoted and admired. On leaving Portugal, he
abandoned the use of rhyme as cramping freedom of thought
and expression; nevertheless his highly polished verses are
generally robust to hardness and overdone with archaisms.
His translations from Latin, French and Italian, are accurate
though harsh, and his renderings of Racine and the Fables of
Lafontaine entirely lack the simplicity and grace of the originals.
But Nasdmento's blank verse translation of \hc Martyrs is in
many ways superior to Chateaubriand's prose.
Bibliography.— The most useful edition of his collected works
is that in 22 vola., Lisbon, 1836-1840. See Innocencio da Silva,
Ditcionario btblioiraphiee Portugutt, ii. 4^6-457 and ix. 333-336;
also Filinto Elysio e a sua^poca, by Perein da Silva (Rio, 1891);
and Filinto Elysio^ by Dr Theophik> Braga (Oporto, 1891).
P«.)
NASBBT, a village of Northamptonshire, Kngjland, 7 m
S.S.W. of Market Harborough, famous as the scene of the battle of
June X4, 1645, which dedd^ the issue of the first Civil War (see
Great Rebellion). The army of King Charles I. was less than
10,000 strong, while the " New Model " army of the parliament,
commanded by Sir Thomas Fairfax, numbered some 23^00^
yet it was not without considerable hopes of victory that Uie
Royalists drew up for battle, for although Lieutenant-General
Cromwell had made the New Model cavalry formidable indeed,
the Royalist foot had become professionalized in several yean
of war, whereas the Parliamentarian foot was newly organised,
and in part at least but half-trained. Fairfax and Cromwell,
however, were still more confident, and with better reason.
The battlefield lies between Naseby and Sibbertoft (3 m. N.
of Naseby) and is an undulating ridge which, near the centre
of England, forms the " divide " between the Avon and the
Welland rivers. Across this ridge the two armies were drawn
up, the New Model fadng north and the king's army soutli,
the horse on the flanks and the foot in the centre in each army.
At the first shock the Royal foot asserted its superiority over
the opposing infantry, four out of five regiments in the first
line were broken, and Skippon, the major-general of the foot,
was wounded. But Fairfax's regiment held its ground, until
the second line of infantry advanced and re-established the front.
Meantime the Royalist right wing of horse, led by Prince Ropert,
had completely routed the horse of Colonel I eton which opposed
them. But the victors as usual indulged in a disorderiy pursuit,
and attempted to overpower the baggage guard of the enemy
near Naseby village. Their incoherent attack was repulsed,
and when Rupert, gathering as many of his men as he could,
returned to the battlefield, the decisive stroke had been delivered
by Cromwell and the right wing of Parliamentary horse. In
front of him, in somewhat broken ground, was Sir Mannnduke
Langdale's cavalry, which the lieutenant-general with his own
well-trained regiments scattered after a short, fierce encounter.
Cromwell's " godly " troopers did not scatter in pursuit. A
few squadrons were ordered to keep the fugitives on the run, and
with the rest, and such of Ireton's broken troops as he could
gather, Cromwell attacked the Royalist centre in rear while
Fairfax and his foot pressed it in front. Gradually the Royalist
infantry, inferior in numbers, was disintegrated into small groups,
which surrendered one after the other. But one brigade, called
NASH— NASHE, THOMAS
245
tlie " BhieoMti," hdd out to tfafe I&t, and was finally broken
by a combined cfaarse of Fairfax's regiment of foot, led by
Cronnrdl, and the general't personal escort, led by Fairfax
hinaelf, who captured a cdour with his own hand. The renmant
of the king's army, re-formed by Rupert, stood inactive and
irresolute while its infantry was being destroyed and then fled.
The spoib included too standards and colours and the king's
private papers. But more important than trophies was the
pnctical annihilation of the last field army of which the king
disposed. Half the Royalists were captured, and about xooo
fdl, in the battle and the pursuit which followed it. In addition
all the artiliery and the muskets (to the number of 8000) and
uuDonition without which the king could scarcely create a new
inny, fell into the hands of the victors.
lliSH, RICHARD (1674-1762), English dandy, better known
as ** Beau Nash," was bom at Swansea on the i8th of October
1674. He was descended from an old family of good position,
but his fatlier from straitetied means had become partner in a
glass business. Young Nash was educated at Carmarthen
gnnunar school and at Jesus College, Oxford. He obtained a
commissbn in the army, which, however, he soon exchanged for
the study of law at the Temple. Here among " wits and men
of plessnxt " he came to be accepted as an authority in regard
to dress, manners and style. When the members of the Inns of
(^oort entertained William III. after his accession, Nash was
chosen to conduct the pageant at the Middle Temple. This duty
be per f onned so much to the satisfaction of the king that he
was offered knighthood, but he declined the honour, unless
accompanied by a pension. As the king did not take the hint,
Nash found it necessary to turn gamester. The pursuit of his
oOing led him in 2705 to Bath, where he had the good fortune
almost immediately to succeed Captain Webster as master of the
cocnooies. His qualifications for such a position were unique,
lad under his authority reforms were introduced which rapidly
seemed to Bath a leading position as a fashionable watering-place.
He drew tip a new code of rules for t&e reguktion of balls and
asRmblies, abolished the habit of wearing swords in places
of poblic amusement and brought duelling into disrepute,
iadoced gentlemen to adopt shoes and stockings in parades and
assemblia instead of boots, reduced refractory chairmen to
sAntia^oa and dvility, and introduced a tariff for lodgings.
Thmigh his exertions a handsome assembly-room was also
erected, and the streets and public buildings were greatly
improved. Nash adopted an outward state corresponding to his
Boodnal dignity. He wore an immense white hat as .a sign of
oflke, and a dress adorned with rich embroidery, and drove in
a chariot with six greys, laced lackeys and French horns. When
the act of parliament against gambling was passed in 1745, he
«as deprived of an easy though uncertain means of subsistence,
bot the oorpocation afterwards granted him a pension of six score
pnaeas a year, which, with the sale of his snuff-boxes and other
trinkets, enabled him to support a certain faded splendour
tin his death on the 3xd of February 1762. He was honoured
with a public funeral at the expense of the town. Notwith-
standing his vanity and impertinence, the tact, energy and
sapeificial devemess of Nash won him the patronage and notice
of the great, while the success of his ceremonial rule, as shown
ia the increasing prosperity of the town, secured him the gratitude
of the corporation and the people generally. He was a man of
Strang personality, and considerably more able than peau
Bnuamell, whose prototype he was.
See Lewis Melville. BaA under Beau Nask (1908). with full list of
aathoritics; Oltver Goldsmith. Life of Richard Nash (1763). See
%ho GmllaMmV Maiatine (1763;; London Magatino^ vol. xxxi.;
" The Mooaidi cd Bath " in Blackwood's Maf/uine, voL xlviiL
lASHB (or Nash), THOMAS (z 567-1601), Englidi poet,
playwrigbt and pamphleteer, was bom at Lowestoft in Z567.
Hb father bek>nged to an old Herefordshire family, and is
vagndy described as a " minister." Nashe spent nearly seven
]«ars, 1582 to r589, at St John's College, Cambridge, taking
his BX degree in r 585-1 586. On leaving the university he tried,
liU (rteeoe and Karlowe, to make his living in London by
literature. It b probable that his first effort was The A natomie of
Absurditie (1589) which was perhaps* written at Cambridge,
although he refers to it as a forthcoming publication in his
preface to Greene's Menaphon (i 589). In this preface, addressed
to the gehtlemen students of both universities, he makes boister-
ous ridicule of the bombast of Thomas Kyd and the EngUsh
hexameters of Richard Stanihurst, but does not forget the praise
of many good books. Nashe was really a journalist bom out of
due time; he boasts of writing " as fast as his hand could trot ";
he had a brilliant and picttircsque style which, he was careful to
explain, was entirely original; and in addition to his keen sense
of the ridiculous he had an abundance of miscellaneous learning.
As there was no market for his gifts he fared no better than the
other university wiu who wero trying to live by letters. But
he found an opening for his ready wit and keen sarcasm in
the Martin Marprelate controversy. His share in this war of
pamphlets cannot now be accurately determined, but he has,
with inore or less probability, been credited with the following:
A Countercuffe given io Martin Junior (1589), Martins Months
Minde (1589), The Relume oj the renowned Cavaliero PasquiU
and his Meeting with Marforius (i 589), The Pirsi Parle cf Pasquilt
ApeiogU (1590), and An Almond f^r a Parral (1590). He edited
an unauthorked edition of Sidney's poems with an enthusiastic
preface in 1591, and A WonderfuU AstrologicaU Prog^oslicaUon,
in ridicule of the almanac-makers, by " Adam Fouleweather,"
which appeared in the same year, has been attributed to him.
Pieru PenHesse, His Supplieation to the Divell^ published in 1592,
shows us his power as a humorous critic of national nuizmerst and
tells incidentally how hard he found it to live by the pen. It
seems to Pierce a monstrous thing that brainless dradges wax
fat while " the seven liberal sciences and a good leg will scarce
get a scholar bread and cheese." In this pamphlet, too, Nashe
began his attacks upon, the Harveys by stow fling Richard,
who had written contemptuously of his preface to Greene's
Menaphon. Greene died in September 1592, and Richard's
brother, (Gabriel Harvey, at once attacked his memory in his
Poure Letters, at the same time adversely criticizing Pierce
Penilesse. Nashe replied, both for Greene and for himself,
in Strange Newes of the interupting certaine Letters, better known,
from the running title, as Poure Letters Confuted (1592), in which
all the Harveys are violently attacked. The autumn of 1592
Nashe seems to have spent at or near Croydon, where he wrote
his satirical masque of Summers Last Will and Testament at
a safe distance from London and the plague. He afterwards
lived for some noonths in the Isle of Wi^t under the patronage
of Sir George Carey, the governor. In 1593 he wrote Chrisls
Teares ever Jerusalem, in the first edition of which he made
friendly overtures to Gabriel Harvey.- These were, however,
in a second edition, published in the following year, replaced
by a new attack, and two years later appeared the most violent
of his tracts against Harvey, Have with yon to Scfron^walden,
or, Gabriell Harveys Hunt is up (1596). In 1599 the controversy
was suppressed by the archbishop of Canterbury. After
Marlowe's death Nashe prepared his friend's unfinished tragedy
of Dido (1596) for the stage. In the next year he was in trouble
for a play, now lost, called The Isle of Vogs, for only part of
which, however, he seems to have been responsible. The
"seditious and slanderous matter" contained in this play
induced the authorities to close for a time the theatre at which
it had been performed, and the dramatist was put in the Fleet
prison. Besides his pamphlets and his play-writing, Nashe
turned his energies to novel-writing. He may be regarded as the
pioneer in the English novel of adventure. He published in
1594 The Unfortunate Traveller, Or the Life of Jach Wilton, the
history of an ingenious page who was present at the siege of
T£rouenne, and afterwaids travelled in Italy with the earl of
Surrey. It tells the story of the earl and Fair Geraldine,
describes a tournament held by Surrey at Florence, and relates
the adventures of Wilton and his mistress Diamante at Rome
after the eari's return to England. The detailed, realistic
manner in which Nashe relates his improbable fiction resembles
that of Defoe. His last work is entitled Lenten Stuffe{jS99)
246
NASHUA— NASHVILLE
and ii nomiiiany " in pnlie of the red herring," but rally a
description of Yarmouth, to which pbce he had reUxed after-
his imprisonment, written in the best style of a '^^ special corre-
spondent." Naahe's death is referred to in Thomaa Dekker'a
Kmg/U^s Cm^itring (X607), a kind of sequel to Piarce FemUsse,
He is there represented as joining his boon companions in the
Qysian fields " still haunted with the sharp and satiricsl spirit
that foUowed him here upon earth." Had his patrons under-
stood their duty, he would not, he said, have shortened his days
1^ keq>ing company with pickled herrings. It may therefore
be reasonably supposed that he died from eating bad andin--
suffident food. The date of his death is filed 1^ an elegy on him
printed in Fitzg^Ere/s Affamae (1601).
The worio of Thomas Nashe were edited by'Dr A. B. Graetrt m
1881-1885, and more recently by RonaM B. McKerrow <I9<H)*
An acooont of his woric as a novdist may be fouiul in the Bn^tsk
Hcfod M ike Time ef Shakespeare, by J. j. JuaKtand (Eng. trans..
1890). The VnSerkmaie TraaeUer was edited with an mtroductioa
by Edmund Goase in 189a. See alao " Nash's Unfortunate Traveller
nmA ttmimA'm Pnopliali Xirttntm Aim ViaiAtttt Vt» »i rvtumirt t»tmr «1*a ^nflrliM^h^n
und Head's Enf^ish Rogue, die beiden Hauptvertreter des engUachen
Schelmenromans,'* by W. Kolhnann in Anfiia (Halle, voL boi., 1899,
pp. 81-140).
HASHUA, a dty and one of the county aeaU of Hillsboro
county, New Hampshire, U.S.A., at the confluence ol the Nashua
and Merrinaac rivers, 55 m. S.SX. of Concord and 40 m. N.W. of
Boston by EsiL Fop. (1890) X9»3ix; (1906) 23,898, of whom
8093 were fordgn-bom; (19x0 census) 36,005. Nashua is
served by the Boston 8c Maine railroad, whose several divisions
centring here give the dty commerdsl importance, and by
electric lines to Hudson, litchfiekl, PeUuim, Dracut and
Tyngsboro. Theareaofthedtyinx9o6was3o-7xsq.m. To the
N.,W. and S.W. of the dty there are beautiful hills and moun^
tains. The church of Saint Francis Xavier and the First Con-
gregational church are architecturally iwteworthy. The dty has
a soldiers' monument, a public library, a court house and two
hospitals. There is a United States fish hatchery here, and until
after the close of the x8th century fishing was the prindpal
industry of the place, as manufacturing is now. Water-power is
furnished by the Nashua river and by Salmon Brook, and the
dty b extensively engsged in manufactures, notably cotton goods,
boots, shoes, and foundry and machine-shop products. Tlie
value of the dt/s factory products increased from $10,096,064
in X900 to 1x2,858,383 in 1905, or 37*4 %> And in 1905 Nashua
ranked second among the manufacturing dties of Uie state.
Nashua is one of the oldest intierior settlemenU of the state. The
first settlement here was established about 1665; and in 1673 the
township of Dunstable was incorporated by the General Court
of Massachusetts. In X74X, when the boundary between Massa-
chusetts and New Hampshke was settled, the jurisdiction of this
portion of Dunstable was traxisferred to New Hampshire; five
years later it was incorporated under the laws of that state; and
in 1803 the settlement, originally known as Indian Head, was
incorporated as a village under the name of Nashua, and in 1836
the township of Dunstable also recdvcd the name Nashua. The
town of Nashville was set Kput from the town of Nashua in 1843,
but the two towns were united under a dty charter obtained in
1853. In Z795 the first stage coach was run through here from
Boston to Amherst, and at about the same time a canal was.
built around Pawtucket Falls on the Merrimac at LowelL In
1833 a manufacturing company was formed, which at once began
to devebp the water-power and in X835 erected the first cotton
mi|L Thirteen years later the Nashua & Lowdl railroad (now
leased to the Boston & Maine) first reached Nashua.
See The History ef Oie City if Nadma, edited by E. E. Psiker
(Nadiua, 1897).
HABHYILLB, the capital d Teniiessee, U.S.A., and the
county-seat of Davidson county, on the Cumberland river, x86 m.
S.S.W. of Louisville; Kentucky. Pop.. (X890) 76,168; (1900)
80,865, of whom 3037 were fordgn-bom and 30,044 were negroes;
(X910 census) 1x0,364. Nashville is served by the Tennessee
Central, the Louisville & Nashville, and the Nashville, Chat-
tanooga & St Louis railways, and by several steamboat lines.
.The Cumberland river is crossed here by four foot-bridges.
^Nashville is situated on and between hills and bluffs in an un-
dulating valley; its streeU are paved with brick or granite
blocks in the business sertion and mafsrfamiff.cd or paved with
asphalt in the residential sections. The dty has fine public
buildings, many handsome residences, and several beautiful
parks. The prindpal building is the State House, a fine example
of pure Gred^ architecture, on the most prominent hill-top, with
a tower 305 ft. in height. On the grounds about it area bronze
equestrian sutue of Andrew Jackson, by (Hark Mills (x8x 5-1883),
and the tomb of President James K. Polk, who lived in Nashville.
Other prominent buildings and Institutions are the United
Sutes Government Building, the County Court House, the City
Hall, the Tennessee School for the Blind, the Tennessee Industrial
School, the Sute Library, the Library of the Sute Historical
Sodety housed in Watkins Institute; a Carnegie library, park
buQdxngs, the State Penitentiary, VendAme Theatre, the Board
of Trade BuiUing, the Qty Hospital, the St Thomas Hospital
(Roman (Catholic), and, near the dty, a Confederate Soldiers'
Home and a Sute Hospital for the Insane. Eleven miles east of
thedty is the " Hermitage," which was the residence of Presid^t
Andrew JacksoiL
The.grounds of the Tennessee Centennial Expodtkm of 1897
(commemoratixig the admission of Tennessee into the Union) on
the west border of the dty now constitute Centennial Park, in
which still stand the reproduced Parthenon of Athens, the
History Building, which in general outline is a reproduction oC
the Erectheum and contains a museum and an art gallery, and «
monument to the memory of James Robertson (X741-X814), the
founder of the dty. Besides this there are four other parka: Glea-
dale Park in the south section, a place of much natural beauty;
Shdby Park, in the eastern part of the dty, fronting the ixver;
Watkins Park, on the north; and Cumberiand Driving Park.
In Mount Olivet Cemetery is a beautiful Confederate Soldiers'
monument surrounded by the gnves of 3ooo Confederate soldiers^
and a little to the north of the dty is a National Cemetery in
which x6,643 Federal soldiers are buried, the names of 47x1 of
them being unknown.
Nashville is one of the foremost educatiomd centres ia tlie
Southern sUtes. In the western part of the dty b Vaaderbilt
University. This institution, opened in x875» is under the
patronage of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South, and was
named in honour of Cornelius Vanderbilt, - who contributed
$1,000,000 to its funds, and whose son, W. H. VanderbOt, mnd
grandsons, W. K. Vanderbilt and Cornelius Vanderbilt, gave to
the university about $830,000. It b coeducational and embraces
an academic department, a biblical department, and departments
of engineering, law, medidne^ pharmacy and dentistry; in X909
it had X35 instructors and 959 students. The University ol
Nashville b a non-sectarian institution embracing a ooUege
department, a medical department, a preparatory department,
and the (SeorgePeabody College for Teachers; it was incorporated
under the laws of North (Carolina as Davidson Academy in 1785
and under the laws of Tennessee as Cumberland College in 1806,
and the present name was adopted in 1826. The George Peabody
College for Teachers, an important part of the institution, wras
opened as a normal school in X875; in X907-X908 it had an
enrolment (induding the stmimer session) of 647 students. In
X909 it recdved $x, 000,000 from the Peabody Fund, later supple-
mented by $350,000 from the state, $300,000 from the dty and
$100,000 from Da\'idson couiUy. The University of Tenncsace,
located mainly at Knoxville, has at Nashville its medical and
dental departments. Ward Seminaxy, opened in 1865, Boeoobd
College, opened in X889, and Buford, Belmont and Radnor colleges
are all non-sectarian ix»titutions of Nashville for the higher educa-
tion of women. For the education of negroes the dty has Fisk
University (opened in x866, incorporated in x867)» under the
auspices of the American Misuonary Association and the Western
Freedman's Aid Commission of the Congregational Church (iK>ted
since X87X for itsJubUeeSingers,who raised money for Jubilee Rail,
finished in X876) ; it embraces a college department, a preparatory
department, a normal department and departments of theology,
music and physical training; and Walden University, founded as
Central Tennessee College in x866, under the auspices ol the
NASI— NASIK
247
ICetbodbt Episcopal Chwch, and embradni; • coHege depart^
mcnt, a normal deparUnent, an industrial department, and
d^MrtmenU of English, commerce, law, medicin e , dentistry,
pharmacy; mostc, bible training, nurse training and domestic
science. The Baptist, the Methodist Episo^ (South), the
Cumberiand Presbyterian, and the African Baptist and the
African Methodist Episcopal churches have publishing houses
h NashviUe.
Hie leading manufactuict of the dty are flour and grist mill
pfoducts (valued, at $4,343,49x In 1905), lumber and timber
tmducta— NashviUe is one <^ the greatest hard wood markets in
tbe United States, and in 1905 the value of lumber and timber
products was $z,i 19,16a and of i^aning-mill products, $1,399,066
— coostruction and repair of steam lailway can ($1^734,007 in
190s), tobacco ($i,3XX|Oi9 in 1905), fertilizaB ($846,5x1 in 1905),
BMn's clothing ($720,237 in 1905), saddlexy, harness, -soap and
candles. The total value of the products of the factories increased
from $15,301,096 in 1900 to $33,109,601 (i6'8% ol the entire
factory product of the state) in X905, amounta greater than
those of any other dty in the state. Nashville has a large trade
in grain, cotton, groceries, dry goods, drugs, and bootaand shoes.
The water-works and the dectric lighting plant are owned and
operated by the munidpality.
Nashville was founded in X780 aa '* the mdvanoe guard of
western dvillsation " by a company of two hundred or more
pioneers under the leadership of James Robertson, the nearest
settlement bdng at the time about three hundred miles distant.
When &st settled it was named Nashborough in honour of Abner
Nash (X7X6-1786), who was at the time governor of North Caro-
fina, or more probably in honour of the Revolutionary general,
Fssncis Nash (X720-X777), a brother of Abner, killed at German-
town; but when, in 1784, it was incorporated as a town by the
North Carolina legislature the present name was substituted.
In z8o6 NashviUe was chartered as a dty. Although i% was not
Bade tbe capital of the state untfl 1843, the legislature met here
from x8i3 with the exception of the period from 18x5 to 1826.
Many of the pioneers of NashviUe were slain by the Creek and
Cbeiokee Indiana, and at times the settlement was saved from
destruction only by the heroism of Robertson, but in X794'the
savages were dealt a crushing blow at Nickojack on the lower
Tennessee and much more peaceful relations were established.
On the 3rd of June X850 a convention, known as the Southern or
NashviUe Convention, whose action was generaUy considered
a threat of disuxuon, met here to consider the questions at issue
between the North and the South. Since such a meeting had
fint been proposed by a sUte convention of Mississippi, the
famous Compiomise Measures of 1850 had been introduced in
Congress and the support of the movement had been greatly
weakened thereby except in South Carolina and Mississippi.
Nine states, however, were represented by about xoo delegates,
mostly Democcata, and the convention denounced the WOmot
Pkoviso, and, as '^ an extreme concession on the part of the.
Sooth," piomised to agree that, W. of Missouri, there should be
riav«y only in the territory S. of 36*36' N. lat. At an adjourned
nceting in November it expressed its dissatis^ction with the
Compromise Measures of (^ongreast and asserted the right of the
&Qth to secede.
During the (Hvfl Wsr Kashvflle wasat&st bdd by the Con-
federates, bat eariy in 1863 it was occupied by the Federab,
who retaiiDed possession of it to the end. The battle of Nashvflle
was fought on the 15th and x6th of December 1864 betireen
the Unjon army under Major-(jen^ G. H. Thomas and the
Confederates nnder Gencxal J. B. Hood. The Union ddences
cstended in a semidrde round NashviUe, the, flanks on the
river above and below. Hood's army was to the south-east,
ligfatly entxtached, with its flanks on two creeks which empty
tntc thedunboland above and bdow NashvUle. Thispodtion
he desired to maintain as long as possible so as to gather recruits
and supplies in safety. If Tlomas, whose army was of motley
compositJOD, attacked, lie hoped to ddeat htm and to enter
>Nasfavflle 00 his heels. Thomas^ however, would not strike
ttotil he bad his army organised. Then, on the x^th« he emerged
from the entrenchments and by a vigorous attack on the Con*
federate Idt forced back Hood's line to a second position x| m.
to the south. Hood, having detached a part of his army, dedxcd
to gain time to brixtg in his detachments by holding this line for
another day. Thomas, however, gave him no respite. On the
x6th the Union army deployed in front of him, a^dn over-lap-
ping his left flank, and although a frontal attack was repulsed,
the extendon of the Federal rig^t wing compelled Hood to
extend his own lines more and more. Then the Federals broke
the attenuated Une of defence at iu left centre, and Hood's
army drifted away in disorder. The pursuit was vigorous,
and only a remnant of the Confederate forces reassembled at
Cdttmbia, 40 m. to the south, whence they feU back without
delay behind the Tennessee.
NASI, JOIBPH (x6th century), Jewish sUtesman and financier,
was born in Portugal of a Jewish (Marano) f anuly. Emigrating
from his native land, he founded a banking house in Antwerp.
DtspLtt his financial and social prosperity there, he fdt it irk-
some to be compeUed to wear the guise of CathoUdsm, and
determined to settle in a Mahommedan land. Afttr two troubled
years In Venice, Naa betook himself to Constanrinople. Here
be proclaimed his Judaism, and married his beautiful cousin
Reyna. He rapidly rose to favour, the sultans Suleiman and
SeUm promoting him to high office. He founded a Jewish colony
at Tiberias which was to be an asylum for the Jews of the Roman
Campagna. In 1566 when SeUm ascended the throne, Nad was
made duke of Naxos« He had deserved weU of Turkey, for he
had conquered Cyprus for the sultan. Nad's influence was so
great that foreign powers often negotiated through him for
concessfons which they sought from the sultan. Thus the
emperor of (jermany, Maximilian n., entered into direa oone-
spondence with Nad; WiUiam of Orange, Sii^smund August U.,
king of Poland, also conferred with him on poUtical questions
of moment. On the death of SeUm in XS74, Nad receded from
his poUtlcd podtion, but retained his wealth and offices, and
passed the five years of life remdnmg to him in honoured
tianquiUity at Belvedere (Constantino^). He died in 1579.
His career was not productive ol direct results, but.it was of
great mord importance^ It was one of the tokens of the new
era that waa to dawn forthe Jews aa trusted pubUc ofl&dals
and as members of the state.
See Giaeta, Hulory 0f Hu Jem <Eng. trans.), vol fv. dis. xvi.-
ami ; Jtwtfk EmeydoptdM, ix. X7a. • (I. A.)
NA8IK, a town and district of British India, in the central
division of. Bombay. The town iS on the Godavari river, con-
nected by a tramway {$ m.) with NasUc Road raUway station,
X07 m. N.E. of Bombay. Pop. (x9ox) 3x,49o. It is a very holy
place of Hindu |»]grimage, bdng 30 m. from the source of the
Godavari. Shrines and temples line the river banks^ and some
stand even in the river. In the vicinity there are a number
of sacred caves, amofig which those of Pandu Lena are the most
noteworthy. They are andent Buddhist .caves dating from the
3rd century before Christ to the 6th century after: There are
numerous inscriptions of the highest historical vdue. ' Nasik.
has m an uf ac t ures of cotton goods, brass-ware and mineral
waters.
The DxBTUCT OP Nasxk bas aa area of 5850 sq. m. With
the exceptioa of a few vfllages fai the west, the whole district
is dtiiated on a tableland from X300 to 2000 fL above sea-levd.
The western portion is hiUy, and intersected by ravines, and
only the dmplest kind of cultivation is posdble. The eastern
tract is open, fertile and weU cultivated. The Sahyadri range
stretches from north to south; the watershed is formed by the
Chander range, which runs east and west. AU the streams
to the south of that range are tributaries of the Godavari. To
the north of the watershed, the Gima and its tributary the Mosam
flow through fertUe vaUeys into the TaptL The district generally
is destitute of trees, and the forests whidi formerly dothed the
Sabjradri hilla have neariy disappeared; efforts are now bdng
made to prevent further destruction, and to redothe some of
the slopes. The district contdns several old hiU forts, the scenes
of many engagemenU during the Mahratta waxs. Nasik district
248
NASIR KHOSRAU— NASMYTH, A.
became British territoiy in x8x8 on the overthrow oC the peshwa.
The population in 1901 was 816,504, showing a decrease of
3% in the decade. The principal crops are millet, wheat, pulse,
oil-seeds, cotton and sugar cane. There are also some vineyards
of old date, and much garden cultivation. Yeola is an important
centre for weaving silk and cotton goods. There are flour-niills
at Malegaon, railway workshops at Igatpuri, and cantonments
at Deolali and Malegaon. At Sharanpur is a Christian village,
with an orphanage of the C.M.S., founded in 1854. The district
is crossed by the main line and also by the chordlinepf the Great
Indian Peninsula rulway.
NASIR KHOSRAU (Nasui Khusni), Aba Mu*in-ed-din NSsir b.
Rhosrau (1004-1088), whose mm de plume was Hujjat, the first
great didactic poet of Persia, was bom, according to his own
statement, A.H. 394 (aj>. X004), at Kubidiy&n, near Balkh in
Khorfts&n. Tlie fitst forty-two years of his life are obscure;
we learn from incidental remarks of his that he was a Sunnite,
probably according to the Hanifite rite, well versed in all the
branches of natural sdence, in medidne, mathematics, astronomy
and astrology, in Gtttk philosophy, and the interpreution of
the Koran; that he was much . addicted to worldly pleasures,
especially to excessive wine drinking. He had studinl Arabic,
Turkish, Greek, the vernacular kmguages of India and Sind,
and perhaps even Hebrew; he had visited Multftn and Lahore,
and the splendid Ghaznavide cour^ under Sult&n MahmOd,
FirdousTs patron. Later on he chose- Merv for his residence,
and was the owner of a house and garden there. In A.H. 437
(a.d. X045) be appears as financial secretary and revenue
collector of the SeljQk sultan Toghrul Beg, or. rather of his brother
J&ghir Beg, the emir of KhorSsftn, who had conquered Merv
in X037. About this time, inspired by a heavenly voice (which
he pretends to have heard in a dream), he abjured all the luxuries
of life, and resolved upon a pilgrimage to the holy shrines of
Mecca and Medina, hoping to find there the solution of all his
religious doubts. The graphic description of this journey is
contained in the Sajamima^ which possesses a special value
among books of travel, since it contains the most authentic
account of the state of. the Mussulman world in the middle of
the nth century. The minute sketches of Jerusalem and its
environs are even now of practical value. During the seven
years of his journey (a.d. 1045-X052) Nisir visited Mteca four
times, and performed all the rites and observtmces of a zealous
pilgrim; but he was far more attracted by Cairo, the capital
of Egypt, and the residence of the F&timite sultan Mostan^ir
billAh, the great champion of the Shf a, and the spiritual as well
as political head of the house of 'Ah, which was just then waging
a deadly war against the *Abbflside caliph of Bagdad, and the
great defender of the Sunnite creed, Toghrul Beg the SeljQk.
At the very time of N&sir's visit to Cairo, the power of the
Egyptian F&timites was in its zenith; Syria, the HejSz, Africa,
and Sicily obeyed Mostansir's sway, and the utmost order,
security and prosperity reigned in Egypt. At Cairo he became
thoroughly imbued with Shi a doctrines, and their introduction
into his native country was henceforth the sole object of his life.
The hostility he encountered in the propagation of these new
religious ideas after his return to KhorSsin in 1053 and Sunnite
fanaticism compelled him at last to flee, and after many wander-
ings he found a refuge in Yumg&n (about 1060) in the mountains
of Badakshtn, where he spent as a hermit the last decades of
his life, and gathered round him a considerable number of devoted
adherenU, who have handed down his doctrines to succeeding
generations.
Most of Niair's lyrical poems were composed in his retirement,
and their chief topics are— «n enthusiastic praise of 'All, his de-
acendants, and Mostansir in particular; paauonate outcries against
Khoris&n and its rulers, who had driven him from house and home:
the hkhest satisfaction with the quiet solitude of Yum^fln; and
utter despondency again in seeing himself despised by his former
associates and for ever excluded Irom participation in the glorious
contest of life. But scattered through all these alternate outbursts
of hope and despair we find precious lessons of purest morality, and
solemn warnings against the tricks and perfidy of the world, the
vanity of all earthly splendour and greatness, the folly and injustice
of men, and the hypocrisy, frivolity and viciousoess of fashionable
society and princely courts in particular. It is tha same strain
which runs, although in a somewhat lower key. through his two
larger mathnawis or double-rhymed poems, the /{itiAaiidriidiiia, or
" book of enlightenment," and the Sa'A/o/fidma, or " book of feli-
city.'' The former is divided into two sections: the first, df a meta-
physical character, contains a sort of practical cosmo^phy, chiefly
based on Avicenna's theories, but frequently intermixed tioth with
the freer qxxulations of the well-known philosophical brotherhood
of O^jsra^ the IkliwSnHL'^-Ljirii'iH and purely Shi'ite or Isroa'ilite
idci]^; ihc iecQnd, or cthiul •=• 1 r ion of the poem, abounds in moral
rruixjrns and ingcniauB thouglun on man's good and bad qualities,
on the nwLvs&ixy of Khiinnine'i^.: company <N fools and double-faced
fricftds. on the de€trpt^v^ aHiin ments of the world and the secret
snatt^i of aiiibctioua craving fur r ink and wealth. It concludes with
»n STti^gin^ry viTvion of a bcjut UnJ world of spirits who have stripped
OfT thq fctttrt of earthly cjr-:^ ,ind sorrows and revel in the pure
Ueht uf divine? ttjsdoTTi jind Iq^i . If we compare this with a similar
allegbry in N'S^r'^ diwi'm. which ciilminates in the praise d Mostansir,
wo arc UitXy ctiiitlcd to Icxok upon tt as a covert allusion to the
emiiitnt men who rcvisalid to t fie poet in Cairo the secreu ol the
Uma'ilitic faiih, and showtd HIki what he conudered the " heavenly
ladder " to superior k no* ledge ^uid spiritual bliss. The passage, thus
tntcrpnrt(Ed, lends addition^ i&t L,.:ht to the corre ctn ess of Dr £th6's
nconst ruction of the date of th" RushandinOmat viz. A.B. 440 (a.d.
KM9)' which, notwithsundiniT M. Schefer's objections, is warranted
both by the astronomkjil detail, and by the metrical requirements
of the respect ive vcnurs. That ot course does not exclude the poui-
biijty of the butk of iJlie poem having been composed at an earlier
ptriod; k only ascribes it a completion or perhaps final revisioa to
Kisir^g sojourn in Lrypt.
A ■imilar srries o\ csceJIent teachiiy;s on practical wisdom and
the blcssingt of a. virtuous life, ijniy ot a severer and more uncom-
firomisEUE character, ii conLaint::! in the Sa'ddatnAma; and, judging
torn the cstremr biUcrncss o\ tone manifested in the *' reproaches
of IctnKB and emirs," v-c thou Id be inclined to consider it a protest
a£4iin5t the vile aopci^tDns poured out upon N&sir's moral and
rc%k>us attitude during iho^se persecutions which drove him at
last to YumgiLn. Of all the ciiher works of our author mentioned
by Oriental urittrs th^^re has a^ yet been fouiid only one, the Z6d-
dmns^^H or " trxivdhn^ provjuoos of pilgrims" (in the private
po^^c^s^ion of M. Schemer, [\iri ), a theoretical description of hn
reCigious and philosophical prinrples; and we can very well dismiss
the: ii:st a& bring probably iu' t . apocryphal as N&sir's famous auto-
biography {fciund in, E< ' rsian tadhldras or biographies of
ptK'it'), «i mctt: forgery t<i t extravagant descripti<m, which ii
mainly responsible for i / isbn in names and dates in okler
accounts of our author.
See Spr%n gcr's Ca4<iioiiig tj the Libraries of tike King cf Ouih ( 1 854) ;
K. BtM. '^NAsir Chu^rju^ RushandinOma," in Zeiischriftder
^vffchcn fltffrjfrftlcrt^j.^rJ" . . Isckaftt xxxiiL, xxxiv., 1879-1880;
L" in vol. xxxiv. of the same loumal.
itfJk, ptMii. traduit el an$u)U (Paris,
E. Fa^nan, " Lc Llvrc d'-
64:^-074: Cb, Sch^-fcr, ■>
ih^\). and by Guy le SiransL 1 i Pilgrims* Text Society (^1888): H.
Ethf. in Cotiinger N<irkrichi(it, r882, pp. 134-1^2, Z.D.M.C., 1882,
pp, 47S'5oS; aod Grl^r'> (i'^^tdriss der irantschen Pkiiologie iL
p, 278; Faznan in Jour . th ser. vol. xiii. pp. 164 seq., and
Ricu, Col. Ffri. MSS. i s., concluded that the poet and the
E'fknm wen! diffcrtn E j ; *he opposite view was developed by
.Lli^j. (H. E.)
NASIRABAD, or Myiiensingh, a town of British India,
headquarters of M3rmensingh district in Eastern Bengal and
Assam, situated on the left bank of the old channel of the Brahma-
putra, which is only navigable during the rainy season. . Pop.
(1901) 14,668. It has a station on the branch of the Eastern
Bengal r^way from Dacca to Jagannathganj, on the Jamuna
or main stream of the Brahmaputra. The earthquake of the
X2th of June 1897 destroyed the church and the high school, and
seriously dams^jged other public buildings.
NxsiaABAD b also the name of a town and cantoBment in the
district of Ajmere. Rajputana. Pop. (1901) 22.494. It forms the
headquarters of a brigade in the 5th division of the Southern army.
NASMTTH. ALEXANDER (175&-X840), Scottish portrait and
landscape painter, was bom in Edinburgh on the 9th of September
1758. He studied at the Trustees' Academy under Rundman,
and, having been apprenticed as an heraldic painter to a coach-
builder, he, at the age of sixteen, attracted the attention cf Allan
Ramsay, who took the youth with him to London, and employed
him upon the subordinate portions of his works. Nasmyth
returned to Edinburgh in 1778, and was soon largely patroniaed
as a portrait painter. He also assisted Mr Miller of Dalswinton,
as draughtsman, in his mechanical researches and experiments;
and, this gentleman having generously offered the painter a loan
to enable ^m to pursue his studies abroad, he left in X782 for
Italy, where be remained two years. On his return be painted
NASMYTH, J.— NASRIDES, THE
the excellent portrait of Bums, now in the Scottish National
Gallery, well known through Walker's engraving. Political
feeling at that time ran high in Edinburgh, and Nasmyth's
pronounced Liberal opinions, which he was too out^x>ken and
sincere to disguise, gave o£Fencc to many of his aristocratic
patrons, and 1^ to the diminution of his practice as a portraitist.
In his later years, accordingly, he devoted himself mainly to
landscape work, and did not disdain on occasion to set his hand
to scene-painting for the theatres. He has been styled, not
unjustly, the " father of Scottish landscape art." His subjecu
are carefully finished and coloured, but are wanting in boldness
and freedom. Nasroyth was also largely employed by noblemen
throughout the country in the improving and beautifying of their
estates, in which his fine taste rendered him especially skilful;
and he was kiwwn as an architect, having designed the Dean
Bridge, Edinburgh, and the graceful circular temple covering
St BernaxYl's Well. Nasmyth died in his native dty on the loth
of April 1840. His youngest son, James, was the well-known
inventor of the steam-hammer. His six dtaughters all attained
a certain local reputation as artists, but it was in his eldest son,
Patrick ( 1787-2831), that the artistic skill of his family was most
powerfully developed. Having studied under his father, Patrick
went to London at the age of twenty, and soon attracted atten-
tion as a clever landscapist. He was a diligent student of the
works of Claude and Richard Wilson, and of Ruysdael and
Hobbema, upon whom his own practice was mainly founded.
His most characteristic paintings are of English domestic scenery,
foU of quiet tone and colour, and detailed and minute expression
of foliage, and with considerable brilliancy of sky effect. They
were executed with his left hand, his right having In early life
been Injured by an accident.
For an account of the Nasmyth family lee James Nasmyth's
Awtobiotrapky (1883).
■ASHTTH, JAMES (1808-1890), Scottish engineer, was bom
la Edinburgh on the iglh of August 1808, and was the youngest
son of Alexander Nasmyth, the "father of Scottish landsaipe
art." He was sent to school in his native dty, and then attended
classes in chemistry, mathematics and natural philosophy at the
nniversity. From an early age he showed great fondness for
nechaniad pursuits, and the skOl he attaineid in the practical
oie of toob enabled him to make models of engines, &c., which
found a ready sale. In 1839 he obtained a position in Henr)'
Maudslay's works in London, where he stayed two years, and
then, in 1834, started business on his own account in Manchester.
The beginnings were small, but they quickly developed, and in a
few years be was at the head of the prosperous Bridgewater
foundry at Patricroft, from which he was able to retire in 1856
with a fortune. The invention of the steam-hammer, with which
hb name is associated, was actually made in 2839, a drawing of
the device appearing in his note-book, or " scheme-book," as he
called it, with the date 24th November of that year.. It was
designed to meet the difficulty experienced by the builders of
the Great Britain steamship in findings firm that would under-
take to forge the large paddle-wheel shaft required for that
vcssd, bat no machine of the kind was constructed till 1842.
In that year Nasmyth discovered one in Schneiders' Creuzot
works, and he found that the design was his own and had been
copied from his " scheme-book." His title, therefore, to be
called the inventor of the steam-hammer holds good against the
daims sometimes advanced In favour of the Schneiders, though
apparently he was antidpated in the idea by James Watt.
Nasmyth did much for the improvement of machine-toob. and
his inveadve gemus devised many new appliancefr— a planing-
fluchine (" Nasmyth steam-arm **), a nut-shaping machine,
steam pile-driver, hydraulic machinery for various purposes, &c.
In hb lettrement he lived at Penshurst in Kent, and amused
fainuell with the study of astronomy, and espedally of the moon,
on which be publbhed a work . Tke Moon eonndered as a Planet,
s World and a SateUite, In conjunction with James Carpenter in
1874- He died in LoodoD 00 the 7th of May 1890.
Hb AtOtkior^fky, edited by Dr Samuel Smibs, was publbhed
bi883.
249
NASR-BD-DIN [NA^iru'd-Din] (1829-1896), shah of Persia,
was bom on the 4tb of April 1829. Hb mother, a capable princess
of the Kajar family, persuaded Shah Mahommed, hb father, to
appoint him heir apparent, in preference to his elder brothers:
and he was accordingly made govemor of Azerbaijan. His
succession to the throne, 13th October 1848, was vigorously
dbputed, espedally by the followers of the reformer £1 Bab,
upon whom he wreaked terrible vengeance. In 1855 he re-
esublbhed friendly rebtions with France, and coming under the
influence of Russia, signed a treaty of amity on the 17th of
December with that power, but remained neutral during the
Crimean war. Ini856 he seised Herat, but a British army under
Outram landed In the Persbn Gulf, defeated hb forces and
compdled him to evacuate, the territory. The treaty of peace
was signed at Parb, on the 4th of March 1857, and to the end of
hb reign he treated Great Britain and Russia with equal friend-
ship. In 1866 the shah authorised the passage of the telegraph
to India through hb dominions and reminted hb currency in the
European fashion. In 2873, and again in 2889, he visited
England in the course of hb three sumptiilous journeys to Europe,
2873tt878,2889. The only resulu of hb contact with Western
dvilbation appear to have been the prodamation of religious
toleration, the institution of a postal service, accession to the
postal union and the establishment of a bank. He gave the
monopoly of tobacco to a private company, but was soon com-
pelled to withdraw it in deference to the resbtance of hb subjects.
Abstemious in habits, and devoted to music and poetry, he was
a cultured, able and well-meaning raler, and hb reign, already
unusually long for an Eastern potentate, might have bsted still
longer had it not been for the unpopular sale of the tobacco
monopoly, which was probably a factor in his assassination at
Teheran on the rst of May 1896 by a member of the Babi faction.
He was succeeded by hb son Muzaffar-ed-din.
NASRIDES, THB, of Granada, were the last of the Mahom-
medaix dynasties in Spain. They ruled from 2232 to 2492. They
arose at the time when the king of Castile, Femando the Saint,
was conquering Andalusia. The dynasty was of remote Arabic
origin, but its immedbte source was the mountain range of the
Alpujarra, and the founder was Yusuf (or Yahia) I'Nasr, a chief
who was engaged in perpetual conflict with rival chiefs and in
particular with the family of Bcni-Hud,once kings at Saragossa,
who held the fortress of Granada. Yusufs nephew (or son)
Mahommed completed the defeat of the Beni-Hud largely by the
help of the king of Castile, to whom he did homage and paid
tribute. Mahommed I., called d Ghalib, t.e. the Conqueror ( 1 238-
2273), served the Christian king against his own co-religionists
at the siege of Seville and contrived to escape in the general
wreck of the Mahommedan power. The internal history of the
dynasty b largely made up of civil dissensions, personal rivalries,
palace and harem intrigues. The direct male line of Mahommed
el Ghalib ended with the fourth sultan, Nasr, in 2314. Nasr was
succeeded by hb cousin Imail (2324-1325), who is said to have
been connected with the original sto^ only through women.
From Mahommed el-Ghalib to Mahommed XI., called Boabdil,
and also the little king " £1 Rey Chico " by the Christ ians, who lost
Granada in 24921 there are counted twenty-nine reigns of the
Nasrides, giving an average of nine years. But there was not the
same number of sultans, for sevend of them were expelled and
restored two or three times. Nor did all the members of the
house who were allowed to have been sultans reign over all the
territory stUl in Mahommedan hands. There were contemporary
reigns in different parts, and tribal or local rivalries between'
plain and hUl, and the chief towns, Granada, Malaga and Guadix.
The dissensions of the Nasrides reached their greatest pitch of
fury during the very years in which the Catholic sovereigns were
conquering their territory piecemeal, 2482-2499> Thdr position
imposed a certain consistency of policy on these sultans. They
submitted and paid tribute to the kings of Castile when they
could not hdp doing so, but they endeavoured to use the support
of Mahommedan ralers of northem Africa whenever it was to be
obtained. Granada became the recognized place of refuge for
rebellious subjects of the kings of Castile, and on occasion
2SO
NASSARAWA— NASSAU
supported them against rebels. The end came when the weakness
of Mahommedan rulers in Morocco coincided with the rule of
strong sovereigns in Castile. Frontier wars between Mahom-
medan and Christian borderers were incessant, and at long
intervals the kings of Castile made invasions on a considerable
scale, without, however, following up any successes they might
gain. The comparative proq>erity of Granada was due to the
concentration of a large population driven from other parts of
Spain, and the consequent necessity for the intensive cultivation
of the rich valleys lying among the ranges of mountains which
encircle the kingdom, and the extensive " Vega " or plain of
Granada. The reputation for civilization which the agitated
Mahommedan state enjoys in history is based on the surviving
parts of the highly decorated fortress palace of the Alhambra,
which was mainly the work of three of the sultans, the founder,
Mahommed el Ghalib, and his two successors.
See S. Lane-Pbole, Tlu MakommedaH Dynasties (London. 1894):
and Hisloria de Granada, by Don M. Lafuente AlcAntara (Granada,
1884).
NASSARAWA, a province of the British protectorate of
northern Nigeria, lying approximately between 6* 40' and 9* £.
and between 7** 40' and 9* 40' N. It is situated on the northern
bank of the river Benue, which in its windings forms the southern
frontier of the province. Nassarawa is boonded E. by the
province of Muri, N.E. by Bauchi, N. by Zaria and W. by Nupe
and the trans-Nigerian portion of the province of Kabba. It
has an area of 18,000 sq. m. and an estimated population of
1,500,000. The province, like that of Bauchi, is traversed
by mountainous regions. It possesses valuable forests and
many fertile river valleys. Native products include rubber,
palm kernels and beni seed. Cotton is grown extensively.
Until the middle of the i8th century Nassarawa appears to have
been peopled by many native tribes of a primitive type. About
1750 an important pagan tribe, the Igbira, came from the south-
west across the Niger and established two rival kingdoms in the
western portion of the province. Later the native inhabitants
of iSaria, driven before the Fula, came from the north and
occupied the central portion of Nassarawa. Later still (about
1840) certain Fula of Zaria themselves conquered portions of
the province, founded Keffi, spread as far as the Benue in the
south-west comer and occupied the town and district of Abuja
in the west. Fula also made a settlement at the town of
Nassarawa and at Darroro in the N.E. A colony from Bomu
entered the province and founded the important town of Lafia
Berebere in the eastern district. As a result of these movements
the aboriginal tribes were driven into the hilly regions of the S.E.
and N.E. The Munshi, a truculent and hardy people, hold a
portion of the northern bank of the Benue, and the Kagoro and
Attakar tribes hold the hilly country to the N.E., through
which the road passes from Keffi and Lafia to the Bauchi high-
lands. Before the British occupation the state of Nassarawa had
become a partially subdued Fula emirate, exercising doubtful
sway over the native pagans and paying a scarcely less doubtful
allegiance on its own part to the Fula ruler of Zaria. The riverain
tribes of Nassarawa were among the first to break into open
aggression against the British administration established at
I^koja. In January 1900 they attacked a telegraph construe-
tion party in the Mundii country on the banks of the Benue.
The result was the occupation of Keffi by British troops and
the gradual subjugation of the province. In 1903 the first
British resident, Captain Moloney, was murdered at Keffi by
an official of the emir's court. The emir repudiated all re-
sponsibility for the crime, and the murderer fled to Kano,
where his reception on friendly terms was among the incidents
which determined the Sokoto-Kano campaign of 1903. The
British were now recognised as the rulers of Nigeria, and the
emir of Nassarawa threw in his lot with the British government.
SUve raiding was abolished and the slave trade made illegal.
A British court of justice was established at the provincial head-
quarters and native courts in every district. Roads have been
opened and trade is steadily increasing. In 1905 an expedition
was required against the Kagoro people, who occupy a vast open
plateau having an elevation of about 1800 ft. through which a
short road to the Bauchi tin mines passes from the Benue.
These people had been raiding the Fula for cattle and murdering
traders upon the road. A splendid grazing country, healthy
and also rich in rubber, was opened. The road to the tin mines
was rendered safe and is now the Bauchi mail route. There is a
cart road from Loko on the Benue to Keffi. (F. L. L.)
NASSAU, a territory of Germany, now forming the bulk of the
government district of Wiesbaden, in the Prussian province of
Hesse-Nassau, but until 1866 an independent and sovereign duchy
of Germany. , It consists of a compact mass of territory, i8jo
sq. m. in area, bounded on the S. and W. by the Main and Rhine,
on the N. by Westphalia and on the £. by Hesse. This territory
is divided into two nearly equal parts by the river Lahn, which
flows from east to west into the Rhine. The southern half is
almost entirely occupied by the Taunus Mountains, which
attain a height of 3900 ft. in the Great Feldberg, while to the
north of the Lahn is the barren Westerwald, culminating in
the Salzbttxgerkopf (2000 ft.). The valleys and low-lying
districts, especially the Rheingau, are very fertile, producing
abundance of grain, flax, hemp and fruit; but by far the most
valuable product of the soil is iU wine, which includes several of
the choicest Rhenish varieties, such as Johannisberger, Marco-
brunner and Assmannsh&user. Nassau is one of the most thickly
wooded regions in Germany, about 43% of its surface being
occupied by forests, which yield good timber and harbour large
quantities of game. The rivers abound in fish, the salmon
fisheries on the Rhine being especially important. There are
upwards of a hundred mineral springs in the district, most of
which formerly belonged to the duke, and afforded him a ccm-
siderable part of his revenue. The best known are those of
Wiesbaden, Ems, Soden, Schwalbach, Schlangenbad, Geilnnu
and Fachingcn. The other mineral wealth of Nassau includes
iron, lead, copper, building stone, coals, slate, a little silver
and a bed of malachite. Its manufactures, including cotton
and woollen goods, are unimportant, but a brisk trade is carried
on by rail and river in wine, timber, grain and fruit. There are
few places of importance besides the above-named spas; Hfichst
is the only manufacturing town. Wiesbaden, with 100,955
inhabitants, is the capital of the government district as it
was of the duchy. In 1864 the duchy contained 468,311 in«
habitants, of whom 242,000 were Protestants, 315,000 Ronnan
Catholics and 7000 Jews. The ecclesiastical jurisdiction was
in the hands of the Protestant bishop of Wiesbaden and the
Roman Catholic bbhop of Limburg. Education was amply
provided for in numerous higher and lower schools. The annual
revenue of the dukedom was about £400,000 and it furnished a
contingent of 6000 men to the army of the German Confederation.
History, — During the Roman period the district enclosed by
the Rhine, the Main and the Lahn was occupied by the Mattiact
and hiter by the Alamanni. The latter were subdued by the
Franks under Clovis at the end of the 5th century, and at the
pa^ition of Verdun in 843 the country became part of the East
Prankish or German kingdom. Christianity seems to have been
introduced in the 4th century. The founder of the house of
Nassau is usually regarded as a certain Drutwin (d. 1076),
who, with his brother Dudo, count of Laurenburg, built a castle
on a hill overlooking the Lahn, near the present town of Nassau.
Drutwin's descendant Walr&m (d. 1 198) took the title of count of
Nassau, and placed his lands under the immediate suzerainty
of the German king; previously he had been a vassal of the arch-
bishop of Trier. Then in 1255 Walram*s grandsons. Walram
and Otto, divided between them their paternal inheritance,
which had been steadily increasing in size. Walram took the
part of Nassau lying on the left bank of the Lahn and made
Wiesbaden his residence; Otto took the part on the right bank
of tl^e river and his capital was Siegen. The brothers thus founded
the two branches of the house of Nassau, which have flourished
to the present time.
The fortunes of the Ottonian, or younger line, belong mainly
to the history of the Netheriands. The family was soon divided
into several branches, and in the x 5th century one of its members.
NAST
251
Cooot Engelbert I. (d. 1443)1 obtAined through nunuge lands
in Holland. Of his two tons one took the Dutch, and the other
(he Gemuui pocaeirions of the house, but these were united again
in 1504 under the sway of John, count of Nassau-Dillenburg,
the head of a branch of the family which, in consequence of a
Kzks of deaths, the last of which took place in xs6i, was a few
ytu% later the sole rcpresenUtive of the descendants of Count
Otto. John's son was Count William the Rich (d. 1559), and his
giandnn was the hero, William the Silent, who inherited the
principality of Orange in 1544 and surrendered his prospective
fflheziiance in Nassau to his brother John (d. 1606). William
and his descendants were called princes of Orange-Nassau, and
the line became extina when the English king William III.
died m 1702. Meanwhile the descendants of Count John,
the mleis of Nassau, were flourishing. They were divided into
several braBcfacs, and in xyoa the head of one of these, John
William Friso of Naaaau-DieU (d. 171 1), whose ancestor had been
made a prince of the Empire in 1654, inherited the title of prince
of Orsnge and the lands of the En|^ king in the Netheriands.
A few years later in 1743 a number of deaths left John William's
KB, William, the sole represenUtlve of his family, and as such
he ruled over the ancestral lands both in Nassau and in the
Netherlands. In 1806, however, these were taken from a
moccedlng prince, William VI., because he refused to join the
Confederation of the Rhine. Some of them weregiven in i8is
to the other main line of the family, the one descended from
Count Walram (see below). In 18x5 William VI. became king
of the Netheriands as William I., and was compensated for this
ksi by the grant of parts of Luxemburg and the title of grand-
dnkc. When in 2890 WHIiam's male line died out Luxemburg,
Eke Nassau, passed to the -descendants of Count Walram. In
the female line . he it now represented by the queen of the
Nctherianda.
Adolpta of Nassau, a ton of Walram, the founder of the elder
fiae of the bouse of Nassau, became German king in xaQS, but
was defeated and slain by his rival, Albert of Austria, in 1998*
The territories of his descendants were partitioned several
times, but these branch Imes did not usually perpetuate them-
selves beyond a few generations, and Walram's shiare of Nassau
was again united in 1605 under Louis II. of Nassau-Weilburg
(d. 1636). Soon, however, the family was again divided; three
bnaches were formed, those of SaarbrOcken, Idstein and Weil-
bsrg, the heads of the first two becoming princes of the Empire
in 1688. Other partitions followed, but at the opening of the
19th century only two lines were flourishing, those of Nassau-
Vflogen and Nassau-Weilburg. In i8ox Charies William,
prince of Nassau-Usangen, was deprived by France of his Unds
00 the left bank of the Rhine, but both he and Frederick William
of Nassau-Weilburg, who suffered a similar Ums, received ample
compensation. In 1806 both Frederick William and Frederick
AngBstna, the brother and successor of Charies William, joined
the Coofcdcration of the Rhine and received from Napoleon
the title of duke, but after the battle of Leiprig they threw in
their lot with the allies, and in 1815 joined the German Con-
federation. As a result of the changes of 181 5 Frederick Augustus
of Naiaau-Usingen ceded some of his newly-acquired lands to
Prussia, receiving in return the greater part of the German
pofis iop s of the Ottonian branch of the house of Nassau (see
above). In March 1816 he died without sons and the whole
ef Nassau was united under the rule of Frederick William of
Nasiatt-Weilburg as duke of Nassau. Already in 1814 Frederick
William had granted a constitution to his subjects, which pro-
vided for two representative chambers, and under his son William,
who succeeded in 181 6, the first landtag met in 1818. At once,
however, it came into collision with the duke about the ducal
dmains, and these dissensions were not settled until 1836.
la thss year the duchy took an important step in the devdop-
BMst of its material praaperity by joining the German ZoUverein.
In 1848 Duke Adolph, the son and successor of Duke William,
was compelled to yield to the temper of the times and to grant
a more liberal constitution to Nassau, but in the following years
a series of reactionary measures reduced matters to their former
unsatisfactory condition. The duke adhered stedfastly to his
conservative prindplea, while his people showed their sympathies
by electing one liberal Undtag after another. In x866 Adolph
espoused the cause of Austria, sent his troops into the field and
asked the Undtag for money. This was refused, Adolph wat
soon a fugitive before the Pruatian troops, and on the 3rd of
October x866 Nassau wat formally incorporated with the
kingdom of Prussia. The deposed duke entered in 1867 into a
convention with ftuaaa by which he retained a few castkt aiMl
received an indemnity of about £1,500,000 for renouncing hit
claim to Nassau. In x89o,oli the extinctkm of the collateral line
of his house, he became grand-duke of Luxemburg, aiMl he died
on the X7th of November X905.
The town of Nassau (Lat. Noionga) on the right bank of the
Lahn, xs m. above CoUens, is interesting at the birthph^e of
the Prutsian statesman, Freiherr von Stein. Pop. (1905) 3238.
It has a Roman Catholic and an Evangelical church, while iu
main industries are brewing and muting. Near the town are
the ruins of the castle of Stein, first mentioned in X138, with a
nnarble sUtue of Stein, while the ruins of the ancettral cattle
of the houte of Natsau may also be teen.
For the history of Naaaau see Hennes. CtKhidOi dtr Crohn ami
Nastam bis 1*55 (Cok)gne, 1843) : von Schttu, CtsckickU des H«notr
tmiu Nassau (Wksbaden, ism); von Witzlebeo, Genealotk und
GescMdUr dtr F^sleukauses Nasmm (Stuttgart, 1855); F. W. T.
Schliephake and K. Menael. Cesekkktt wa Nassau (Wiesbaden.
186S-1889); the Ccdtx dithmaikus nassoicus, edited by K. Menael
and W. Saucr (i88|-i887) ; and the Annaieu des VereiusfOr MMaa-
NASTt THOMAS (1840-1903), American caricaturist, wat bom
on the a7th of Sq)tember 1840, in the military barracks of
Landau, Germany, the son of a musician in the Ninth regiment
Bavarian band. His mother took him to New York in 1846.
He studied art there for about a year with Theodore Kaufmann
and then at the school of the NaUonal Academy of Design.
At the age of fifteen he became a draughtsman for Prank
Leslie's lUustrated Newspaper; three years afterwards for
Harper's Weekly, In x86o he went to England for the Nem
York Illustrated News to depict the prise^fight between Heenan
and Sayers, and then joined Garibaldi in Italy as artist for
Tke illustrated London News, His first serious work in caricature
was the cartoon " Peace " in x86a, directed against those in
the North who opposed the prosecution of the Civil War. This
and his other cartoons during the Civil War and Reconstruction
days were published in Harper's Weekly; they attracted great
attention, and Nast was called by President Lincobi " our best
recruiting sergeant." Even more able were Nast's cartoons
againtt the Tweed Ring conspiracy in New York dty; his
caricature of Tweed being the means of the latter's identifica-
tion and arrest at Vigo. In 1873, 1885 and 1887 Nast toured
the United Sutes as lecturer and sketch-artist, but with the
advent of new methods and younger blood his vogue decreased.
He had been an ardent Republican in his earlier 3rears; had
bitterly atucked President Johnson and his Reconstruction
policy; had ridiculed Greeley's candidature, and had opposed
inflation of the currency, notably with his famous " rag-baby "
cartoons, but his advocacy of dvH service reform and his distrust
of BUine forced him to become a Mugwump and in 1884 an open
supporter of the Democratic party, from which in 189a he re-
turned to the Republican party and the support of Harrison.
He had lost praaically all of his earnings by the failure of Grant
and Ward, and in May 1902 was appointed by President Roosevelt
consul-general at Guayaquil, Ecuador, where he died on the 7th
of December b the same year. He did some painting in oil
and some book illustrations, but these were comparatively
unimportant, and his fame rests on his caricatures and political
cartoons. Nast introduced the donkey to typify the Democratic
party, the elephant to typify the Republican party, and the
tiger to tjrpify Tammany Hall, and introduced into American
cartoons the practice of modernizing scenes from Shakespeare
for a political purpose.
See A. B. Paine. Tkomas Nast, kis Period and kis Pictures tNew
York. 1904).
252
NASTURTIUM— NATAL
NASTURTIUM, or Indian csess, Tropaedum majus, a
perennial climber, native of Peru, but in cultivation treated
as a hardy annual. It climbs by means of tiie long stalk of the
peltate leaf which is sensitive to contact like a tendril. The
irr^:ular flowers have five sepals united at the base, the dorsal
one produced into a spurred development of the axis; of the
five petals the two upper are slightly different and stand rather
apart from the lower three; the eight stamens are unequal and
the pistil consists of three carpels which foi[m a fleshy fruit
separating into three one-seeded portions. The flowers are
sometimes eaten in salads, and the leaves and young green fnu'ts
are pickled in vinegar as a substitute for capers. "Die pungency
of the nasturtium officinaUt the water-cress, gave it its name
nasi-iortiumt that which twists the nose. The plant should
have a warm situation, and the soil should be light and well
enriched; sow thinly early in April, either near a fence or wall,
or in an open spot, where it will require stakes 6 to 8 ft. high.
The dwarf form known as Tom Thumb (T. m. naHum)^ is an
excdlent bedding or border flower, growing about a foot high.
Sow in April in the beds or borders; and again in May for a
succession. Other fine annual Tropacolums are T. LoNnanum
with long spurred orange flowers and numerous varieties; and
T. minust a kind of miniature T. majus with yellow, scarlet and
crimson varieties.
The genus Tropaeolum^ native of South America and Mexico,
includes about 35 species of generally climbing annual and
perennial herbs with orange, yellow, rarely purple or blue,
irregular flowers, T. peregrinum is the well-known canary
creeper. The flame nasturtium with brilliant scarlet blossoms
is T. speciosum from Chile; it has tuberous roots, as have also
such well-known perennials as T. pdypkyUum^ T. petUapiyUum.
Of these T. speciosum should be grown in England in positions
facing north; it flourishes in Scotland.
NATAL, a maritime province of the Union of South Africa,
situated nearly between a?*" and sx*" S., 29** and 33*" £. It is
bounded S.E. by the Indian Ocean, S.W. by the Cape province
and Basutoland, N.W. by the Orange Free SUte province, N.
and N.E. by the Transvaal and Portuguese East Africa. It has a
coast line of 376 m.; its greatest length N. to S. in a direct line
is 347 m.; its greatest breadth E. to W., also in a direct line^
aoo m. Natal has an area of 35,371 sq. m., being nearly three-
quarters the size of England. (For map see South Africa.)
The province consists of two great divisions, namely Natal
proper and Zululand (q.v.}. Natal proper has a seaboard of 166 m.
and an area of 34f9io sq. m., Zululand, in which is included
Amatongaland, a seaboard of a 10 m. and an area of 10,461 sq. m.
It lies north-east of NataL In this article the description of the
physical features, &c. refers only to Natal proper.
Physical Features. — The terrace formation of the land char-
acteristic of other coast regions of South Africa pre^naOs in Natal.
The country may be likened to a steep and gigantic staircase
leading to a broad and level land lying beyond its borders.
The rocky barrier which shuts off this land is part of the Drakens-
berg range. From the mountain sides flow many rivers which
dash in magnificent waterfalls and through deep gorges to the
sea. Falling 8000 or more feet in little over 200 m., these streams
are unnavigable. The south-eastern sides of the mountains are
in part covered with heavy timber, while the semi-tropical
luxuriance of the coast belt has earned for Natal the title of
" the garden colony."
The coast trends, in an almost unbroken line, from S.W.to N.E.
It extends from the mouth of the Umtamvuna river (31^ 4' S.,
30^ 1 2' E.), which separates Natal from the Cape, to the mouth of
the Tugela (29* 15" S., 31^ 30^ E.), which marks the frontier
between Natal and Zululand. The only considerable indentation
is at Durban, about two-thirds of the distance from the Umtam-
vuna to the Tugela, where there is a wide and shallow bay,
covering with its islands nearly 8 sq. m. The coast, though low
tnd sandy in places, is for the most part rocky and dangerous.
The warm Mozambique current sweeps down from the N.E.,
setting up a back drift close in shore. The southern entrance
to Durban harbour is marked by a bold bluff, the Bluff of Natal,
which is 250 (t. high and forested to the water's edge. Opposite
the Bluff a low sandy spit called the Point forms the northern
entrance to the harbour. North of Durban the coast belt,
hitherto very narrow, widens out and becomes more flat. But
the greater part of the coast region, which has an average depth
of 15 m., is broken and nigged. Ranges of hills lead to the first
plateau, which has an average elevation of 2000 ft. and is of
ill-defined extent. Here the land loses its semi-tropical character
and resembles more the plains of the Orange Free State and the
Transvaal. The second plateau, reached by a sleep ascent,
has an elevation of from neariy 4000 to fully 5000 ft. It is an
undulating plain, grass-covered, but for the most part without
trees or bush. It continues to the foot of the Drakensberg range,
the mountains rising towards the S. W., with almost perpendicular
sides, 6000 to 7000 ft. above the country at their base. North-
west, towards the Transvaal, the mountains are of lower elevation
and more rounded contours.
Mouniains.—Ahhouih the division of the country into terraces
separated by ranges of hills is clearly marked in various districts,
as for instance between Durban and Colenso. the province is traversed
by many secondary chains, as well as by spurs of the Drakensberv.
The hijghest points of that range, and the highest land in Africa aotiui
of Kilimanjaro, lie within the borders of NataL The Drakensbrrig
(q.v.)t from Majuba Hill on the N.W. to Bushman's Nek in the S.VV.,
form the frontier of the province, the crest of the ranee being gener-
ally within Natal. This is the case in the Mont-aux'Sources (i 1.170
ft.) and Cathkin Peak or Champagne Castle (10.357 ft.); the top of
the third great height. Giant's Castle (9657 ft.), is m Basutoland, but
its seaward slopes are In Natal. From Giant s Castle to Mont-aux-
Sources, in which, forsaking their general direction, the Drakensberg
run S.E. to N.W., the mountains attain an elevation of 10,000 to
1 1,000 ft., with few breaks in their face. North of Mont-aux-Sources
the mountain ridge sinks to 8000 and less feet, and here are several
passes leading into the Orange Free State. Laing's Nek is a pass
into the Transvaal. The chief heighu in Natal between Mont-aux-
Sources and Laing's Nek are Tintwa (7500 ft.). Inkwelo (6808 ft.)
and the flat-topped Majuba (7000 ft.). Spurs from the Dtakensberg.
at right aneles to the main range, cross the plateaus. The roost
northern, which runs E. from Majuba to the Lebombo Mountains,
orincides roughlv with the northern frontier of NataL It b one of
the transverse chains connecting the eastern coast range with the
higher terraces and goes under a variety of names, such as Elands
Baz <^n<l Ingome Mountains. A second range, the Biggarsberg.
starts from the Drakensbcn near Mount Malani and goes ES.E.
to the junction of Mooi. Bunalo and Tugela rivers. This range con-
tains, in Indumeni (7200 ft.), the highest mountain in Natal outside
the main Drakensbeig. A third range runs N.E. from Giant's Castle
towards the BiggarsSen. It lies north of the Mooi river, and its
most general name is Mooi River Heights. A fourth range also
diverges from Giant's Castle and ramifies in various branches over
a large tract of country, one branch running by Pietermaritaburg
to the Berea hills overlooking DurtMin. The chief height in this
fourth ranee is Spion Kop (7037 ft.), about 25 m. S.E. of Giant's
Castle. This is not the Spion Kop rendered famous during the
Anelo-Boer War of 1890-1902. That Spion Kop. with Vaal Krans
ana Pieter's Hills, are heights on the northern bank of the upper
Tugela.
Secondary ranges with heights of 5000 and more feet are numerous,
whilst k>fty isolated mountains rise from the plateaus. The greatest
of these isolated masses is Mahwaqa (68aa ft.), in the south-west
¥irt of the country. Of many flat-topped hills the best known is the
able Mountain east of Pietermaritsburg.
Rivers.— AW the rivers of Naul not purely coast streams have
their origin in the Drakensberg or its secondanr ranges. The largest
and k>n^, the Tugela. with the Buffalo, Moot. Klip and other
tributaries is treated separately. The Tugela basin drains the
whole country north of a line drawn in a direct line east from Giant's
Castle. The Umkomaas (" gatherer of watere ") rises in Giant's
Castle and flows in a south-easterly course to the sea. Though it
makes no large sweeps it has so tortuous a course that its length
(some aoo m^ is twice that of the valley through whidi it flows.
Its banks in its upper course are wild and picturesque, with occasional
wide deep valleys, with climate and vegetation resembling the coast
belt. The Umzinrikulu river rises in Bamboo Castle, in the Drakens-
berg, and, with bokier curves than the Umkomaas, runs in a course
generally parallel with that stream S.E. to the sea. lU mouth being
about 40 m. south of that of the Umkomaas. The Ingwangwane
rises in the Drakensberg south of the Umztmkulu, which it ioins
after a course of some 50 m. Below the junction the Umamkulu
forms for some distance the frontier between Natal and the Griqua-
land East dividon of the Cape. The scenery ak>ng the river valley
(lao m. long) is very striking, in turns rugged and desolate, verdant
and smilin|[. with patches of dense forest and heights wooded to
their summit. Port Shepstone is situated at the mouth of the river,
which, like that of all others in NaUl, is obstructed by a bar. As a
NATAL
253
result et liarboQr woiics, lKnra%«r, * diannd ha* beta deared and
steamen can ascend the river for 6 m.
The Pooeola rises in the Transvaal in high ground N.E. of Wakker-
■tfiKMn and flows £.. forming, for the sreater part of its courw, the
northeni frontier of the province. After piercing the Lebombo
Moantains, it turns N. ana joins the Maputa, a river ^mptjring into
Ddagoa Bay. The Umgeni, which rises in the Spion Kop hilb some
30 m. S.E. 01 Giant's Castle, passes throueh the central part of Natal
and reaches the sea 4 m. N. of Durban. It flows alternately through
mountainous and pastoral country, and is known for two magnificent
waterfalls, both within 13 m. of Pictermaritaburg. The upper fall
is dose to the village of Kowick. Here the Umgeni leaps in a single
iheet of water down a precipice over 350 ft. high, more than double
the height of Niagara, forming, when the river is swollen by the
rains, a spectacle of rare manuficence. Some 12 m. below are the
Kartdoof or Lower Falls, wnere in a scries of beautiful cascades
the water descends to the plain. Other rivers of Natal which rise
in tht spurs of the Drakensberg or in the higher terraces are the
Umvt^ which runs south of the Tugela and rives its name to a
county division, the Umlaas (which gives Duroan its main water
Hipply, the Illovo, which traverse the country between the
Umgeni and Umkomaas, and the Umtamvuna, noteworthy as
forming the boundary between Natal and Pondoland. There are
also seventeen distinct coast streams in the colony.
[Geology.^ — ^The general geological structure of Natal and Zululand
is simpfe. It consists of a series of plat^us formed of sedimentary
rocks which mainly belong to three formations of widely separated
ages, and which rest on a platform of granitic and roetamorphic
rocks.
The geokigical formations represented include.*—
Post-Cretaceous
and Recent
Cretaceous
U. Karroo
L. Karroo
Cape System
Littoral of Zululand.
'Plateau Basalts.
- Cave Sandstone.
Red Beds.
'Stormberg Series.
Beaufort Series.
' Ecca Series.
.Ecca Glacial Series (Dwyka Conglomerate).
Table Mountain Sandstone Series.
{Quartzites, Conglomerates and Shales of
Nkandhla. UnUolosi river.
Gneisses. Schists, Marbles, Granites (Swazi-
land Series).
Pre-Cape Rocks. — ^The granites and schists occur in close associa-
tion. The series covers considerable areas in the lowest parts of the
valtevs and near the coast. The widest areas are in Zululand. In the
Unmmkulu river and in the Tugela river below its junction with the
Baffak>. metamorphic limestones are associated with schisU, gneisses
and granites. A group of highly inclined quartzites, altered con-
glomerates and iasperoid rocks which crop out on the Umhlatuzi
river, b e t ween Melmoth and Nkandhla and on the White Umfolod
river aborve Ulundi Plains, b considered by Anderson to represent
some portion of the Lower Witwatersrand series. The conglomerates
are true " banket " and are auriferous, but the gdd has not been
met with in payable quantities.
TahU liauniaim Sandskmt Serits. — ^This rests unconformably
on the pre-Cape rocks. Traced northwards, the series becomes
thinner and finally dies out. As a rule denudation, whkh has acted
on a magnificent scale, has removed all but a few hundred feet of
the basement beds. The maximum thickness of aooo ft. occurs near
Melmoth. The beds are usually thin false-bedded sandstones with
an almost complete absence of shales. A conglomerate at the base
contaii» traces of gold. Griesbach mentions tne occurrence of some
nnaJl bivalves in the shales of Greytown, but Anderson failed to
find any fossils.
Ecca Glacial Series. — A great unconformity separates the Table
Mountain and Ecca series. In the Cape this gap is represented by
the Witteberg and Bokkeveld series. The Dwyka conglomerate
rarely attains any great thickness thouj^h forming wide outcrops.
It is mually a hard compact rock contaming striated stones. The
Umgeni quarries, where the rock is used for road-metal, furnish the
best exposures^
Ecca Saries. — ^With the Beaufort series this occupies over two-
thirds of the western portion of the province and has wide outcrops
in Zululand and in the Vryheid districts. The Ecca shales contam
some of the best coals of South Africa, but the seams conuin much
unmarketable coal. Around Dundee and Newcastle the coals are
txtominotts. In Zululand they are chiefly anthracitic The fossils
mdnde aeveral species of GlossopUris among them: Clouopteris
* See C. L. Griesbach, " On the Geology of Natal in South Africa."
Qmart. Joum. Gael. Soc voL xxvii. pp. <3-73 (1871); P.- C. Suther-
Uad, " Notes on an Ancient Boulder Clay of Natal." ^Horl. Joum.
G*ei. See. vol. xxvL pp. ' .... * « . .
GatL - "
1904).
3!ba-rj2 (Cape Town. 1905),
517 (1870); W. Anderson, Reports,
Sec. vol. zxvi. pp. ^14-517 (1870); W. Anderson, Reports
Smvey, Natal and Zululand (Pietermaritzburg, 1901 ; London
I: and " Science in South Africa," Handbook, Brit, Assoc, pp
hrowniana' sor indieaj Bunb. PhyUotheea ZeiOeri eth, fil.; Estheria
Greyii, Jones, indkatmg a Permo-Carboniferous age.
Beaufort Senes. — The Ecca series graduates upwards into the
highly coloured sandstones and shales of the Beaufort series. Fossil
reptilian remains, chiefly Dicynodon, are abundant.
Stormberg Series. — ^This consists of sandstones and shales with thin
seanu of coal. The chief outcrops occur around Bigsarsberg and
alonjg the upper slopes of the Drakensberg. The fossil flora — Tktnn-
feidta odontopteroides, Morr. and a PterofkyUum — indicate a Rhaetic
age. No reptilian remains have been found.
Upper Karroo. — ^Tbe Red beds and Cave sandstones occur along
the eastern flanks of the Drakensberg.
Cretaceous. — Deposits of this age are confined to the littoral.
They are exceedingly prolific in fossils which prove them to be of
Upper Cretaceous age. A long list of fossils has been obtained from
UmkiveUne Hill. Zululand. W.G.*1
Climate. — With a rise in level (not reckoning the mountain tops)
of 5500 ft. in a distance of 170 m.. Natal possesses several varieties
of climate but is 'nowhere unhealthy. Tne climate u comparable
to that of north Italv. The valleys and coast belt, though practically
free from malarial fever, are hot and humid, and fires in dwelling
houses are seldom required even in the coolest months; the lower
plateaus are cool and the air dry; the uplands are bracing and
often very cold, with snow on the eround in winter. The year is
divided into two seasons, summer, which begins in October and ends
in Mareh. and winter, which fills up the rest of the jfcar. Summer
u the rainyseason, and May. June and luly the driest months of
the vear. The mean temperature at Durban, records taken at 260
ft. above the sea, is 70* F., varying from ^* in winter to 98* in
summer. The average summer humidity is 76%, that of winter
74 %. At E^etermaritzburg. 4 1 m. inland and 2200 ft. above the sea,
the te m p erature is about 64*. In the uplands the heat of summer is
often greater than on the coast, but the air is less humid and the
nights are generally cooL Both the humidity and the temperature
are increased by the great mass of water, the Mozambique current,
flowimr south from the equatorial regions. At Durban the annual
rainfafl is about 40 in., at Pietermaritzbuig a8. The average for the
province u believed to be about 30 in. In 18^3, the year of highest
recorded rainfall, 70 in. fell on the coast districts. Thunderstorms,
averaging nearly one hundred in the yrear, and violent hailstorms,
occur in summer, being most severe m the interior. The storms
serve to modify the intense heat, though the lightning and hail
cause considerable danuge. The prevailing winds on the coast are
north'east, warm and humid, and south-west, cool and bracing,
though in summer the south-west wind brings rain. Inland, chiefly
in early summer, a hot dry wind, often accompanied by a dust
storm, bk>ws from the north. These winds, which blow on an
average twenty-five days in the year, seldom reach the coast and are
generally followed by rain. Inhabitants of Natal are practically
exempt from chest diseases.
Flora. — Botankally, Natal is divided into three zones: (i) the
coast belt, extending from the sea inland to heights of 1500 ft.,
and in some cases to 1800 and aooo ft.; (2) the midland region,
which rises to 4000 ft.; (3) the upper rwions. In these zones the
flora varies from sub-tropical to sub-alptne. The heaths and pro-
tends common at the Cape peninsula, in Basutoland and other parts
of South Africa, are rare m Natal, but almost any species of the flora
of semi-tropical and temperatecountriesintroducedattains perfection.
The trees and plants characteristic of each zone are not always
confined to that zone, but in several instances, when common to the
coast belt and the midlands, their character alters according to the
elevation of the land. The dense bush or jungle of evergreen trees,
climbers and flowering shnib*.^ which up to the rniHdlr rrf the t<"'^
century covered the ^rt-jtcr part ol the coast litEt, hx^ 3.ir;£i.[y iji%-
appeared. There are sttilL honrrvrr, in the coast btlt wckxIs oT
leguminous evergreecii l^ahn.^ bright -colou red Bowers. The trees
in these woods are gi-ncraily from 20 to jo h, in hciRht aiwi include
the knob-thorn, waicT-boiDm, kafir-bciom (with brill iiint scarkt
flowers), the Cape ch>>fi>i4r find miikwoods (Mim^fopi). But the
most striking of the c ' ' ^' Kunian: the tr^pic^ifoTma^—tJiepaiiti*
mangrove, wild bana - .^ aupt^}t tree- f cms, tree eu phorbia^
candelabra spurge « ' mednaee* Of ftalms thcrr are two.
varieties, the ilaU (J r?>.^TV f^rn-" nrt> k.- tk,. ^ , ^hr-fi*
and a mile or two inland, ^inJ \hc i::u.^^^-u. \,L .i.^tox ....'..-.jj'cjj, marc
widespread and found at heights up to 2000 ft. or even higher.
^i. 1 vf_._t _!.— * — J ^iefly near the sea, b one of
leaves are of a glossy dark
green, its flower white and star-shaped, and its fruit resembles the
plum. Other wild fruits are the so-called Cape gooseberry (not
native to Natal) and the kaw apple or Dingaan apricot, which grows
on a species of ebony tree.
The midland region is characterized by erass lands fthe Natal
grasses are long and coarse) and by consideraole areas of nat-topped
thorn bush nmnosa. The bush is not as a rule dense, nor u it 01 any
sreat height. A tree peculiar to thu zone b the Alberta mapta.
It has duU pink flowers, succeeded by seed vessels, each of which is
crowned by two scarlet-coloured leafy lobes. A grass belt separates
the thorn bush from the districts carrying hoivy timber, found
mainly in the upland zone, along the sides of the mountains ex-
posed to the rains and in Idoofs. The indigenous timber trees are
The amatungulu or Natal plum, found chiefly
the few wild plants'with edible fruit. Its leavi
254
NATAL
principally the yellow wood (Poioearpus), tneesewood (PUroxyton
utiU), stinlcwooa ijOrtodapkne huUaUi), black ironwood (CV«a lauri'
folia), white ironwood ( V*pris la n ceoUua), and umtomboti (Exoeearia
africana) : all are very useful woods, and the yellow wood, sncese-
wood, Btinkwood and ironwood when polished have grain and
cok>ur equal to maple, walnut and ebony. The " rooibesje," red
pear and milkwood trees are used for boatouilding. The Australian
Bucalyjftus and Quuariua in great variety, and many other imported
trees, including syringas, wattles, acacias, willows, pines, cypress,
cork and oak all thrive when properiy planted and protected from
Brass fires. The black wattle has been extensively planted and
tlouri^es at elevations of from looo to ^ooo ft. Its bark forms a
valuable article of commerce.
Flowers which bloom in the eariy spring are abundant, especially
on the edges of forests. Among those found throughout the country
are the Dieranta penduta, the orchid and the " everlasting." As a
rule flowers common to all xones are on the coast smaller and with
paler colours than they are in the midlands. Akies are common;
in part of the midland zone they form when in bloom with abundance
of orange and scarict flowers a most picturesque sight. Of Cyca>
daceae the Stamgeria paradoxa u peculiar to Natal. There is but
one cactus indigenous to Natal; it is found hanging from perpen-
dicular rocks in the midlands. There are, however, several species of
euphorbia of the miscalled cacti. Climbing plants with gorgeous
flowers are common, and there are numerous species of Compositae
and about a hundred cinchonaceous plants. Bulbous plants are
also very numerous. The most common are the NataJ lily with
pink and white ribbed bells, the fire-lily, with flame<oloured blos-
soms, ixias, gladiolas. the Ifafa lily, with fuchsia-like c;yusten, and
the arum lily. A conspicuous veld plant is the orange and crimson
Uonotis, growing 6 ft. high. Geraniums are somewhat scarce. Fern
life is abundant; 126 species are indigenous, two beins tree-ferns.
One of these, Cyatkea dretei, found in mdst places ana open land,
has a stem 20 ft. high; the stem of the other, HemiUlia capensis.
sometimes reaches 30 ft. The ferns are most common in the midland
sone and in the heavy timber forests. Sucty different species have
been identified in one valley not more than i m. long and about
100 ydf. in breadth. Among fruit trees, beskles the wild fruits
already mentioned, are the pineapple, mango, papua, guava, grena-
dilla. rose apple, custard apple, soursop, loquat, naartje. shaddock
and citrous fruits.
Fauna. — ^The larger antnuls which abounded in Natal in the first
half ot the 19th century have been exterminated ordrivenout of the
country. This fate has overtaken the elephant, ffiraffe, the buffalo,
quagga, gnu, blesbok, gemsbok and ostrich. If the Vryheid district
be excluded, the lion and rhinoceros may be added to this list;
and the Vryheid district bek>ngs geo^phically to Zululand. Hip-
popoumi are still found in the Umgem river and crocodiles in several
of the coast streams. Leopards and panthers are found in thickly
wooded kloofs. Hyenas, jackals, wild pis, ookcats and wild don
(Cants pieius) of different species are still found in or about bush
jungles and forest clumps; dands {Aniilope areas) are preserved on
some estates, and there are at least ten dbtinct species of antek>pe
(hartebeest, bushbok, duiker, rietbok, rhebok, rovibok, blauwbolc.
&c.). In the Vryheid district the kudu, blue wildebeest, wateibuck,
rcedbuck, impala, steinbok and klipspringer are also found. Several
of these species are now preserved. Ant-eaters {prycteropus capensis),
porcupines, weasels, squirrels, rock rabbiu, hares and cane rats are
common in different localities. Baboons {Cynoupkalus parcarius)
and monkeys of different kinds frequent the mountains and rocky
kloofs and bush and timber lands. The birds of NataM are of
many species: some have beautiful plumage, but none of them,
with the exception of the canary, are to be considered as songsters.
Among the larger birds are cranes, herons, the ibis, storks, eagles,
vultures, falcons, hawks, kites, owls, the secretary birds, pelicans,
flamingoes, wild duck and geese, gulls, and of game oirds, the paauw.
koraan, pheasant, partridge, guinea fowl and quail. The other birds
include parrots, toucans, gaudily coknired cuckoos, lories, swalbws.
shrikes, sun-birds, kingfisbers, weavers, finches, wild pigeons and
crows. The otter is found in some of the rivers, which are also fre-
quented, near their mouths, by turtles. These last are also found
in the coast lagoons and sometimes are of great siae. Iguanaa, 4 and
« ft. long, are found on the wooded banks of the rivers; small
ficards and chameleons are commbn, and there are several varieties
of tortoise.
Of snakes there are about forty distinct species or varieties.
The most dreaded by the nadvct are called " imamba," of which
there are at least eight different lands; these snakes elevate and
throw themselves forward, and have been known to pursue a horse-
man. One sort of imamba, named by the natives ^' indkkmdUo,"
is crested, and iu body is of a bright flame cokxir. The sluggish
puff-adder lOotko arielans) b common and voy dangerous. A
hooded snake (iVo/s kaemackaUs), the «fii/«sf of the natives, b
dangerous, and spiti or ejects its poison: besides thb there are a
few other varieties of the cobra species. The laiijest of the serpent
tribe, however, b the python {Hortulia nataUnsts), called inklwati
by the natives; its usual haunts are by streams amongst rocky
boulders and in jungles, and instances are recorded of its strangling
1 See R. B. and J. D. Woodward, Natal Birds (Maritzburg, 1899)-
and crushing adult natives. It b common in the coast districta.
and b sometimes 30 ft. long. Insects abound in great numbers,
the most troublesome and deitructive being the tick {Ixddes natal-
ensis), which infests the pasturage, and the white ant {Tarmes
mardax). Occasionally vast armies of kxusts or caterpillars advance
over laiKe tracts of country, devouring all vegetation in their line
of march. The fish moth, a stfel-grey slimy active fish-shaped
insect, b found in every house and b very destructive. Fish of
excellent quality and in great quantities abound on the coast. They
include shad, rock cod, mackerel, muUet. bream and soles; sharica,
stingrays, cuttlefish and the octopus are also common in the waters
off the coast of Natal. Prawns, crayfuh and oysters are also ob-
tainable, and turtle (Ckelonia mydas) are frequently captured.
Freshwater scale-fish are mostly lull of bones, but fine eeb and
barbel are plentiful in the rivers. Trout have been introduced 'into
some of the higher reaches of the riven.
JnkabiiaHts. — At the census of 1904 the population of the
province, including Zululand, was 1,108,754.* Of this total
8-8%, or 07>iO9> were Europeans, 9%, or 100,918, Asiatics and
the rest natives of South Africa, mainly of Zulu-Kaffir stock.
Of the 824,063 natives, 203,373 lived in Zululand. Hie white and
Asiatic population nearly doubled in the thirteen yean since
the previous census, allowance being made for the Utrecht and
Vryheid districts, which in 1 891 formed part of the Transvaal
Of the total population 985,167 live in rund areas, the average
density for the whole country being 32 '34 per sq. m. The
white population b divided into 56,758 males and 40,351 females.
Of the white inhabitanU the great majority are British. Some
12,500 are of Dutch extraction; these live chiefly in the districts
of Utrecht and Viyheid. There are also about 4500 Natalians of
German extraction, settled mainly in the New Hahover and
Umzimkulu dbtricts. The Asiatics at the 1904 census were
divided into 63,497 "u^es and 37,421 females. They inchade a
few high caste Indians, Arabs and Chinese, but the great majority
are Indian coolies. The Asiatics are mainly congregated in thie
coast dbtricts between the Umzimkulu and Tugela riven.
In this region (which includes Durban) the Asiatic population
was 61,854. In none of the inland dbtricts did the Asiatic
inhabitants number 2000. The coolies are employed chiefly on
the sugar, coffee, cotton and other plantations, a small proportioa
being employed in the coal-mines.
The native inhabitants of Natal proper were almost exter-
minated by the Zulus in the eariy years of the 19th century.
Before that period the natives of what b now Natal proper were
estimated to number about 100,000. In 1838 when the Zufai
power was first checked the natives had been reduced to about
10,000. The stoppage of intertribal wars by the British, aided
by a great influx of refugees from Zululand, led to a rapid increase
of the population. With the exception of a few Bushmen,
who cling to the slopes of the Drakensbeig, all the natives are of
Bantu stock. Before the Zulu devastations the natives belonged
to the Ama-Xosa branch of the Kaffirs and are said to have been
divided int«. ninety -four different tribes; to-day all the tribes
have a large admixture of Zulu blood (see Kaitiss, Zuluiamd
and Bantu Languages). The Natal natives have preserved
their tribal organization to a considerable extent. Nearly 50%
live in special reserves or locations, the area set apart for native
occupation being about 4000 sq. m. exclusive of Zululand.
Most of the remainder are employed on or live upon farms owned
by whites, paying annual rents of from £1 to £5 or more. There
were, however, in 1904, 69,746 male natives and 10,232 female
natives in domestic service. Of the tribes who were in Natal
before the Zidu invasion about 1812, the two largest are the
Abatembu (who are in five main divisions and number about
30,000) and the Amakwabe (seven divisions and about 20,000
people). Other huge tribes are the Amanyuswa (ten divisions —
38,000 people), the Amakunu (three divisions— 26,000 people),
and the Amabomvu (five divisions — 25,000 people). The three
last tribes are among those which sought refuge in Natal from
Zulu persecution, before the establishment of British nile in
1843. The number of half-castes is remarkably small, at the
census of 1904 the number of "mixed and others," which
* The following is the official estimate of the population ea the
31st of December 1908: Europeans 91.443. natives 998.264 (in-
eluding 7386 " mixed and others^'). Asiatks 1 16,679 : touf I ,ao6 JB6.
NATAL
255
indndn Griqnai and Hottentots and non-aboriginal negroes,
was 00^ 6686.
OM rowiu.*— The nat of the pfovindal government is Pieter-
BiariMmfg {q.t.). commonly called Maritzbui|[ (or P.M.B.), with a
popuktioo (1904) of ji.iQQ* It is 71 m. by rail N.N.W. ot Durban
^a). the naport ana ooly hirge dty in Natal, pop. 67,84a. Lady-
enith (f.K). 0op. 5568, ranks next m siae. It la m the north-west
of the provinoe, is famous for its investment bv the Boera in 1890-
1900 and is an important railway junction. North-east of Lady-
mudi are Dundee (281 1) and Newcastle (2950). Dundee is the centre
of the ooal-niltting district. Newcastle b also a mining town, but
depends diiefly on its large trade in wool It is named after the
duke of Newcastle who was secretary for the cdonies in 1853 and
1859. Vrvhdd (»87) is in the centre of a highly mineralized
ditfrict. Utrecht (800) lies be tw een Newcastle and Vryheid, and
was one of the first towns founded by the Transvaal Boeis. There
are coal-mines on the town lands. Grevtown (2436). a wool and
nttle trading centre, is fn central Nats! Verulam (1325), 19 m.
alow the coast north of Durban, serves as centre for si^ar, tobacco
andirait phntations. It was founded by em^rants from St Albans,
Esghad— whence the name. Port Shepstone, at the mouth of the
Umamkuln river, b the natural outlet for south-west Natal. Est-
oourt b a trading centre, 75 m. bv rail N.N.W. ci Pietermaritsbuig
and b 29 m. dbtant from the viuage of Weenen V* Weeping ")» io
aamed uf the first Boer aettlen in memorv of a Zulu raid. Another
viSage, Colenso, on the south bank of the Tugela, 16 m. by rail
msth of Ladysmtth, was the headquarten of Sir Redvera Buller
at the battle of Colenso on the X5th of December 1809.
CommmtkaHons. — Durban (Port Natal) U in reguuir oommunica-
tioB with Europe via Cape Town and via Sues by several lines of
sceamers, the cnief being the boats of the Union-Castle line, which
b3 from Southampton and follow the west coast route, those of
the German East Africa line, which sail from Hambuig andeo via
d« cast coast route and those of the Austrian Lloyd from Trieste,
abo by the east coast route. By the Uhion-Castle boats there b a
vcddy mail service to England. There are also two direct lines of
steamers be tw e en London and Durban (a distance of 6993 nautical
iaHes), average passage about twenty-sbc days; the mail route taking
twenty to twenty-two days. Durban b also in regular and frequent
oooaanication by passenger steamen with the other South African
port^ as wen as Mauritius, Zanzibar, &c^^ and with India, Australia,
the United States and South America. The works which have made
Port Natal the finest harbour in South Africa are described under
DuuAsr.
The first railway buOt in South Africa was a a-m. line from
The Point (or harbour) to the town of Durban. It was opened for
trafic in iSite and in 1874 was extended some 4 m. to the Umgeni
rhrer. Tola line was of i ft 8| in. gauge and was Fvivately owned,
bat, when in 1876 the Natal government determined to buOd and
own a railway system which should in time cover the country, the
CBstiiK Gae was bought out and the gauge altered to 3 ft. 6 in.
Oa t^ the normal South African gauge, all the Natal railways,
Bve a few a-f t. branch lines, are buut. ^ The main line starts from
1 passing throudi Pjetermantsbuig (71 m.), Ladysmith
I Newcastle (268 m.) pierces the Dralransberg at Laing's
k by a tonnd 2213 ft. fei^, and 3 ra. beyond Charlestown reaches
the Transvaal frontier at mile ^07. Thence the railway b continued
to Jobanaesbuig, Ac The distances from Durban to the places
oKBtiooed by thb route are: Johannesburg, 483 m.; Pretoria
sn m.; Ktinberley, 793 m.; Bulawayo, 1508 m.; Delagoa Bay,
From Ladysmith a brandi line runs north-west into the Oran^
Free State, crossing the Drakensberg at Van Reenen's Pass. This
Eoe b continned vhi Harrismith and Bethldiem to Kroonstad
I m. irtxa Durban) 00 the main Cape Town, Bk)emfontein and
, aaoesbuig raOway and b the shortest. route between Durban
and Cape Town (127 1 ro.). It also affords via Bkwmfontein the
dmrteat route (622 m.) between Durban and Kimb«1ey. From
Glenooe junction, 42 m. north of Ladysmtth on the direct line to
Johaanesbarg, a branch railway goes N.E. to the Dundee coal-
sefab. Vryheid (59 ro.) and Hk>bane (76 ra.). Two lines branch off
from Pietermaritzburg. One (62 m. long) goes N.E. to Greytown,
KTvittg the east<etttial part of the provina; the other line (108 m.
bsg) goes SW. to Riverside Statkm, forming a link in the Scheme
fordiffcij ooflununication between Natal and East London and Port
ESabcth.
Darban' is the starting-point of two coast lines. The south coast
Ibe, which runs close to the sea, goes to Port Shepstone (79 m.).
A 3-ft. owe railway (102 m.), which leaves the south coast bne at
Akxaadra Junction (44 m. from Durban), runs N.W. by Stuarts-
tovn and joins the PictermaritzburgrRiverside line. The north coast
railway (167 m. long) crosses the Tugela 70 m. from Durban and
ocntianed through Zululand to Somlule, the centre of the Santa
Lsda coal-fidds.
As rabht be expec te d in a country possessing the physical features
of Natal, the gnufients and curves are exceptionally severe. Not
leas than 43 m. are upon mdes of I in 30 and i in 3«, and curves of
900 to 350 ft. radius, wnue on over 100 m. more there are grades
aoder 1 in 60 and curves of less than 450 ft. radius. The main trunk
line reacbea an altitude of 3054 ft. at a point 58 m. distant from
Durban; after falling 1000 ft. in its farther progress to Pbter-
maritzbufg, it again rises, 12 m. after leaving that dty, to a height
of 3700 ft. above the sea; at a point 134 m. from Durban it has
reached an altitude of 51JS2 ft., but on reachii^ Ladyamith, 191 m.
from Durban, the altitude has decreased to 3284 ft. The summit
oftheBigi
at
steep gracfients the whole of its own course In j^atal territory, an3
when it gains the summit at Van Reenen's Pass it b 5500 ft. above
the sea. The mileage open in loio was 1 173. The cost of construc-
tion, to the same year, esceedea £14,000,000, the interest earned per
cent since 1895 not being leas than £3,- 12s. in any one year. In out-
lying districts post carts and Oa wagons are the usual moans of con-
veyance. Thoe are about 5000 m. of h^h roads kept in rq)air by
the govei'ument.
There b a wdl-organued postal and telnraphic service. Land
lines connect Natal with every part of South Africa and with Nyasa-
land and Ujiji. A submarine cable from Durban goes to Zanrihar
and Aden, whence there b communication with every quarter of the
gbbe. The first telegra|rfi line in Natal was opened in 1873; in
X878 communication was esublished with Cape Town and m the
following year with Delagoa Bay.
AtriaiUun and AUied Indmslnes. — The diversity of soil and climate
leads to a great diversity in the uricultural produce. The chief
drawback to fanning in the midland and upper districts b the con-
siderable propo rt ion of stony ground, and. in some cases, the lack
of runnli^ water. The area of bnd under tillage b less than a
twentieth of the whole surface, the crop most extensively grown
being maiae or " mealies." Thb b universally grown by the natives
andiorms their staple food; it b also grown by the Indians, and
by the white farmen for export. Besides maize the crops cultivated
by the natives are Kaffir com or amabele (Sortkum a^ffrprum) —
used m the manufacture of utyuaiot native beer— imfi CSorgkum
saukanUum)^ tobacco, pumpkins and sweet poutoes. The chief
wealth of the natives consists, however, m their Urge herds of cattle
te thrivca f -»..--.
(see mfra). While nuJze thrivca in every part of the country,
wheat, barley and oats— cultivated by the white farmers^— flourish
only in the rnidbnds and uplands. More important than the cereal
crops are the tropical and sub-tropical products oi the coast zone.
Bendes fruits of nearly all kinds there are cultivated in the low
moist regions the sugar-cane, the tea, coffee and tobacco plants,
arrowroot, cayenne pepper, cotton, &c. The area under sugar in
I9<^ was 45,840 acres and the produce 532.067 cwt. (a large quantity
of sugar-cane is grown for feeding stock). In the same vear the
production of tea was 1,633,178 lb; of coffee^ 24.859%; of maize,'
2,101470 busheb; of potatoes, 419.946 busheb; and of sweet
Ctoes, 181. 105 bushels. The tea plant was first introduced in
il in 1850. but little attention was paid to it until the failure of
the coffee plantatioos about 187s. since when only small quantities
of coffee have been produced. In 1877 (renewed efforts were made
to Induce tea cultivation, and by 1881 it had become an established
industry. The variety chiefly grown b the Assam indigenous.
Most Of the tea estates are situated in the coast belt north of Durban.
The sugar cane, Uke tea, was first introduced m 1850, the first canes
being brought from Mauritius. The industry b steadily jnowing,
as are the dependent manufactures of molasses and rum. The fruit
industry b of consklerable importance and by 1905 had reached a
turnover of over £100.000 a year. , ^
Extensive areas in the midland and upland districts are devoted
to the raising of stock. Horee-breeding b successfully carried on
in the upper districts. The higher the altitude the healthier the
animab and the greater their immunity fh>m disease. Horse-
sickness, a kind of malarial fever, which takes an epidemic form in
very wet seasons, causes considerable kns. The Natal horse b small,
wiry, and has great powen of endurance. Cattle-breeding b probably
the most lucrative branch of stock-farming, the country being
pre-eminently adapted for homed cattle. Rinderpest in 1896-1897
swept through South Africa, and probably carried off in Natal from
30 to 40 % of the stock of Europeans, while the natives' losses were
even heavier. Serum and bile inoculation were the means of saving
a consklerable percentage of the herds. The farmera soon began to
recover from their kmn, but- in 1008-1909 another serious loss of
stock resulted from the ravages of East Coast fever. The cattle
consist chiefly of die Zulu and Africander breeds, but attention
has been given to improving the breed by the intrtxluction of Short-
horn, Devon and Holstein (or Friesbnd) stock. The chief market
for cattle b Johannesburg. The principal breed of sheep b the
merino, which docs well m the higher altitudes. A Scab Act is m
force, and b stringently carried out by government inspectors
with most satbfactory results. The Angora goat thrives well in
cerUin distrkts. Ostriches do well in the dry, arid valleys of the
Tugela and Mooi rivers. In 1908 Europeams were returned as
owning 32,000 hones, 220,000 homed cattle. 765,000 sheep. 68,000
goats, 25,000 pigs, 960 ostriches and 384,000 poultry. Large herds
of cattle— over 500,000 in the aggregate— are owned by the
natives, who also possess vast flocks of goats and sheep. The
daily industry b well established, and Naul better commands a
ready sale.
256
NATAL
Valuable timber u obtained from the forests. Stinkwood is
, larfely employed in the malunff of wagons, and is also used for making
furniture. Black ironwood u likewise used in buildinff wagons,
'while sneezewood is largely utilized for supports for piers and other
marine structures, being mipcrvious to the attacks of the Teredo
navalis. More imporunt b the cultivation of the black wattle
{Acada moUissima), whkh began in 1886. the bark being exported for
tanning purposes, the wood also commanding a ready sale. This
wattle thrives well in most localities, but especially in the highbtnds
of central Natal. In 1905 the production of watue bark was 11.620
tons, and the area planted with the tree over 6ox)oo acres. Aloes
and ramie are cultivated to some extent for their fibre.
The government maintains experimental farms and forestry
plantations and a veterinary department to cope with lung
rinderpest. East Coast fever and such like diseases. It also conducts
camMugns against locusu and other pests and helps irrigation
settlements. By means of an Agricultural Bank it affords assistance
to farmers.
J/tKtNg.— There are several highly mineralixed areas in the
country. The existence of coal in the north-east districts on or near
the sunace of the ground was rerk^r^ 1 i^ * rirlv n^ -"" •- ' '" —as
not untU 1880 that steps were 1 . m cx;imi[jc tilt cLufiK'lJs.
This was done by F. W. North, v! rvjKjftcd in iBSt that in the
Klip river (Dundee) district thei v. , .in arts of (350 aq. m. that
might be depended upon for tin- Piipply of cuol, whkh i* of all
characters from lixnite to anthracite. In iS^ tht^ eicten^ioTi or the
railway from Laoysmith through th& coal ^fva hnt midr coal-
mining profitable. In 1896 the tQt^l output of cosl wai ^ 16^1 06
tons (valu«l at £108,053 at the pit'? tnouih ). in j^ k had mctrrATcd
to 1 ,669.774 tons (valued at the p 1 1'± tnim that £^37 h 1 69) ■ There i* a
considerable trade in bunker am! import coal at Durban., thtr coal
bunkered having increased from iiB,740 tont in 1900 to 7[>?.777 in
1908. In the 1^-named year 44^1.015 tons of coal wftc cxpcirtfid.
Besides the mines in the Newcanlie and Dundre dtstrici tht-Tu ore
extensive coal-fields at Hlobane iil thu Vr>heid dittrict and ir> j^islu-
land (9.V.). Iron ore is widely disiribiiicd and tf found In the n< i^h-
bourhooa of all the coal-fields. Then? arc extensive copper and gold-
yielding areas, and in some dislrictf thnc mct^W ajv tniJ^cd* On
the lower Umzimkulu. near Port Shep^tone', nuubk- h iouoA in great
quantities.
' Commerce.— The chief exports, not all products of the province,
are coal, wool, mohair, hides and skins, wattle bark, tea, sugar,
fruiu and janu. The import trade is of a most varied character,
'and a large proportion of the goods broueht into the country are in
(transit to the Transvaal and Orange Free State, Natal affordine, next
to Oelagoa Bay, the shortest route to the Rand. Textiles, largely
cotton goods, Hardware, mining and agricultural machinery, tobacco
and foodstuffb form the bulk of the imports. In 1896 the value
of exports was £1,785,000; in 1908 the value was £9,623,000. In
1896 the imporu were valued at £54^7.000, in 1908 at ^[8.3^0.000
(a decrease of £a,AOO,ooo compared with 1905). ^ Th^ bulk of these
exports are to the Transvaal and neighbouring countries, and
prevk>usly figure as imports, other exports, largely wool and hides*
are first imported from the Transvaal. Over three-fifths of the
imports are from Great Britain, and about one-seventh of the
exports go to Great Briuin. The shipping, which in 1874 was
126,000 tons, was in 1884 i/>l3,ooo; in 1894. m63/X)o; in 1904
^.263,000; and in 1908, 5.028,000. Over six-sevenths of the shippii^
IS British.
Government and Constitution.— Nttal was from 2893 to 2910
a self-governing colony. It is now represented in the Union
Parliament by eight senators and seventeen members of the
House of Assembly. The qualifications for electors and members
of the Assembly are the same, namely men of full age owning
houses or land worth £50, or who rent such property of the 3rearly
value of £10; or who, having h'ved three years in the province,
have incomes of not less than £96 a year.
Coloured persons are not, by name, excluded from the franchise,
but no persons " subject to special laws and tribunals/' ^ in which
category idl natives are included, are entitled to vote. Another
law,* directed against Indians, excludes from the franchise,
naUves, or descendants of natives in the male line, of countries
not possessing elective representative institutions. Exemption
from the scope of these provisions 2nay be ^granted by the
govemor-gentfsl and under such exemption a few Kaffirs are
on the roll of electon.
At the head of the provincial government is an administrator,
appointed by the Union BliniUry, who holds office for five
years. He is as^sted by an executive committee of four members
elected by the provincial coundL This council to which is
* Act No. a (of the Natal Lecudature) of 1883.
• Act No. 8 of 1896. The Indians whose names were " rightly
contained ** in the voCen* roUs at the date of the act retain the
franchise.
entrusted the management of affairs purely provindal consists
of 25 members, elected by the parliamentary voters and each
representing a separate constituency. The council si* s for a
statutory period of three years. For local government purposes
the province is divided into counties or magisterial divisions;
Zululand being under special jurisdiction. The chief towns-^
Durban, Maritsburg, Ladysmith, Newcastle and Dundee — are
governed by municipal corporations and minor tow2is by local
boards.
Reveniu and Expenditure. — ^Revenue b derived chiefly from
customs and excise, railways, land sales, posts and telegraphs and a
capitation tax. The e]q)enditure is largely on reproductive works
(railways, harbours, post office, &c.), on the judiciary and police,
education and military defence. The majority of these services are.
since 1910, managed by the Union Government, but the provincial
council has power to levy direct taxation, and C^ith the consent
of the Union Government) to raise loans for purely provincial
purposes. Its revenues and powers are those pertainii^ to local
ffovemment. Some particulars folknr as to the hnancial position of
Natal previous to the establishment of the Umoo.
In 1846, the first year of Natal's separate existence, the revenue
was £3073 end the expenditure £6005. In 1852 the revenue was
£27,158 and the expenditure £24,296, and in 1862 the corresponding
figures were £98t799 snd £85,928. In 1872 revenue had risen to
£180499 and expenditure to £132.978. Ten yean later the figures
were, revenue £657.738, expenditure £6^,03 1 . The rise of Johannes-
burg and the opening up of the Dundee coal-fiekls. as well as the
development 01 agriculture, now caused a rapid increase on both
ndes of the account. In 1888 the revenue for the first time exceeded
a million, the figures for that year bong, revenue £1.130.614. ex-
penditure £781^26; in 1898-1899 the figures were £2.081.349 and
£1.014.725. The Ani^lo-Boer War (i 899-1902) caused both revenue
and omenditure to nse abnormally, while the depreanon in trade
which followed the war adversely affected the exchcouer. In 1903-
1904 there was a slight credit balance, the figures oeing, revenue
£4,160,145, expenditure £4,071,439. For the next four years
there were deficits, but in 1908-1909 a surplus was realized, the
revenue being £3.569.27^ aiid the expenditure £3>S30.576. For
190^1910, the last year of Natal's existence as a colony, the revenue,
£4f035/XK>, again exceeded the expenditure. The public debt.
£2,101,500 in 2882, had risen at the ckxe of the Boer War in 290s
to £12.519,000, and was in June 1909, {^luaofioo.
Defenu. — A small ^rrison of impnial troops is quartered at
MantdMirg. The provincial force consists of a muitia, fully equipped
and armed with modern weapons. It is divided into mounted rifle-
men, about 2000 stronff, four field batteries of 340 men and two
infantry battalions, each of over 800 men. There is also an armed
and mounted police force of 870 Europeans. Military training b
compulsory on all lads over ten attending government adxmls.
The boys are oraaniacd in cadet corps. A senior cadet corps b
formed of ^uths between sixteen and twenty. There are also many
rifle assoaations, the memben of which are liable to be called out
for defence. Durban harbour b defended by batteries with heavy
modera guns. The batteries are manned by the naval corps (150
strong) of the Natal militia. Natal makes an annual contribution of
£35.000 towards the upkeep of the British navy.
Law and Justice.— The South Africa Act 2909 established a
Supreme Court of South Africa, the former supreme court of Natal
becoming a provincial divbbn of the new supreme court. The
Roman-Dutch law, as accepted and administered by the courts of
Cape Cok>ny up to 2845 (the date of the separatbn of^Natal from the
Cape), b the law of the land, save as modified by ordinances and
laws enacted by the local legislature, mostly foundied upon imperial
statute law. The law of evidence b the same as that ^ the courts
of England. Natives^ however, are not justiceable under the Roman-
Dutch law, but by virtue of letters patent passed in 2848 they are
judged by native laws and customs, except so far as these may be
repugnant to natural equity. The native bws were first codified in
2878, in 2887 a board was appdnted for their revision, and the new
code came mto operation in 2902. Providon b made whereby a
native can obttin relief from uie operation of native law and be
subject to the cotonial law (Law No. 28 of 2865). Specbl laws have
been passed for the benefit of the coolie immigrants. The ad-
ministration of justice b conducted by magbtrates' courts, circuit
courts and the provincial divbum of the supreme court. The magi-
strates have both dvil and criminal jurisdiction in nuncr cases.
Appeab can be made from the magbtrates' dedsbns to the pn>>
vincial or dreuit court. The provinaal court, consisting of a judge
president and three puisne judges, sits in Pietermaritsburg and has
lurisdktion over all causes whether affecting natives or Europeans.
The judges also hold circuit courts at Durban and other pUcaes.
App^ds from the circuit courts can be made to the provincial court;
and from the provincial court appeab lie to the appctUte division
I of the Supreme Court of South Africa^ dtting at Bloemfontetn.
Criminal cases are tried before a single judge and a Jury of nine —
of whom not fewer than seven determine the verdict. ' There b a
1 VKe<idmiralty court, of which the judge-prcsadent b judge and
NATAL
257
In native cases the chiefs have dvfl jurisdiction in
di^tes among their own tribesmen and criminal jurisdiction over
Datives except in capital cases, offences against the person or
property o£ non-nattves, pretended witchcraft, cases arising out of
marriages by Christian ntes, &c. An appeal lies to a magistrates'
court from every judgment of a native chief, and from the magis-
trates' judgment on such appeal to a native high court. Thu native
high court consists of a judge-president and two other judees, and sits
in full court at Maritzburg not less than three months and at Eshowe
not less than once in the year. There is no jury in this tribunal
r^i r--h JU'ISTF —IV V--M d^ruit courts, ^^'ith certain exceptions
^■.-%rrtd lor lUt; pivW4i.L,^J ^-.>iin (»u4.h j.^ in.-.K-.'ncy, ownership of
LQiEndvablc iimpccty and divasn), the luci^c ingh court exercises
jiifisdieLloa when aJI parties to the wh art ji: lives; it also has
]iiri!K|iktiaif ^hcn the c:oEiipUtnant U aut ^ r^-jave, but all other
jMiftiei to the ?uil an; naiivcj*
i^iFNfn, — The majuhty pf the white inN^biT^r^tsare Protestants,
tbe bocjci ■^ith the bluest RUcnbcr of adherents being the Anglicans,
Diitdi Rcfornird Chunrh, Pn^byttriani t^aJ Wcsleyans. The
Aiiglrc^iiu art dlvidtd into two pdrtii.-V"lho4C belonging to '* the
Clonrh of the Province of South Africa/' tht body in communion
wftb the Church Gf Enelaiid* ind thg^c vha ^ct independently and
coDstkute " the Chufcn ot En^^l^nd in N'^tjl" The schism arose
mn of the aJl^^cd heirrodi^v vtc^^^i Bishop Coltnso (c.«.), who had
bt^ created bi^on of Natal by fc.tten patent in iSm. In 1863
tikr mrtTctpol ita r^ ol Cd p^ Tow n , si hud af the Ch u rch of the Province
nlSorth Mtvtit excommunicated Dr Cole n so anti consecrated a rival
bkbop Car Natalt who toitik tbe til le of biihop oi Pietermaritzburg.
DrCbtefuOi who Qbtained a dtrci^Eon oi the privy council confirming
^ dalia to b^ bitJ^cp of Xai^l and po^jscs^ior rjf the temporalities
&n>t>t7d to the btihopdc, died in i^y Afitr his death those
lEicKibm of the Anglican commuaiEy vho objrcud to the constitu*
tJ.^Fs rV tN<' jv^jii iiwial church maintained th«^ir organization while the
terr - — r^rjFod in the h.jn''. ■ f :.r:tors. Reunion in
^h■ ■■*t'vcf, bcrn ]■■ ■'. iected. Moreover,
iR^ : .:. :-^!j'i...fluiT><Tit passed in i^HHjpioMd the temporalities
into commission in the persons of the bishop and other trustees of
tbe Natal diocese of the Provincial Church ; reservations being made
ta favour of four congregations at that time unwilling to unite with
the main body of churchmen.* At the census of 1904 the Anglicans
numbered 40.880. The Presbyterians numbered 12.184. the Wes-
kyan Methodists ii,9Q3, the Dutch Reformed Church 11.340, the
Lutherans 4852, and the Baptists 2193. The Roman Catholics, at
whose hesul is a vicar-apostolic, numbered 10,419. All these figures
are exclusive of natives, of whom the churches named — notably the
Angilcans and Weslcyans — have many converts. The Jewish com-
munity in 1904 numbered 1406. Of the Asiatics, 87,234 were classed
asHiodusand lo.iii as Mahommedans.
EdacaUon. — Education other than elementary is controlled by the
Union government. Public schools, and private schools aided by
provincial grants provide elementary education for white children.
Edttcatioo IS neither compulsory nor free; but the fees are low
'is. to 58. a month) and tew children are kept away from school.
There are government secondary and art scnoob at Durban and
Marit^Mirg. and a Technical Institute at Durban. For higher edu-
catk» provision was made by the affiliation of Natal to the Cape of
Good Hope University and by exhibitions tenablp at English universi-
ties. An act of the Naul legislature, passed December 1909, provided
for the establishment at Maritzburg of the Natal University College,
the course of studies to be such as from time to time prescribed by
the Cape University. In 1910 £30,000 was voted for the University
College buildings. State aid and inspection is given to private
schooU for natives. In the native schools— almost all maintamed by
Christian missions— Zulu and Engli^ are taught, the subjects taken
being usually reading, writing, arithmetk:, grammar, geography
and history. The sUte provides elementary and higher grade
schoob for Indian diildren. In 1908 there were 52 government
schools and 472 schools under Inspection; 304 European, 21 coloured,
168 native and 31 Indian, with an aggregate attendance of y>,^
scholars. There are in additran many private and denominational
Khools and colleges not receiving state aid. Of these, two of the
best known are Hilton College and Hermansberg College, many
prominent Nataiians having been educated at one or the other of
these establij^ments. To encourage the instruction of children
who by reasm of distance cannot attend a government or govem-
ment-akkd s^ool, grants-in-akl are made for each pupil attending
farm frhoolf-
Tkt Pres*.— The first newspaper in Natal waa the NatalUr, z.
Dutch print published at Mantzburg; it was succeeded by the
PatricL Tbe first English paper was the Natal Witness, started in
1845 and still one of tne leading organs of publk opinwn. In 1851
the Natal Times appeared, and is now continued as the Times of
Na^L Another leading paper, the Natal Mercury, dates from 1852.
It b a morning newspaper and b issued at Durban. The Natal
Aisertiaer is a Durban evening paper. Sir John Robinson, the first
premier of Natal under responsible government, was the editor of
the MercKry from i860 until he became prime minister in 1893.
( For a summary of the Natal church controversy see The Guardian
(Loadon March 11, 1910).
In 1886 a new Dutch paper, De Afrikaner, was started at Maritzburg.
The Kaffirs have thdr own organ, IpiPa la Hlttnga (the paper of
grievances), issued at Maritzburg. and the Asbtics. Indian Opinion
a weekly paper started in 1903 and printed in English. Cujarati.
Hindi and Tamil, Local papers are published weekly at Lady&mith.
Dundee and Greytown. The AgricuUural Joumu, a government
publication issued fortnightly b oif great service in the promotioo of
agricultural knowledge.
HistoTf'
Vasco da Gam on hb voyage to India sighted the bluff at
the entrance to the bay now forming the harbour of Durban
on Christmas Day 2497 ^^d named the country Terra
Natalis. Da Gama made no landing here and, like '^!^*7
the rest of South Africa, Natal was neglected by the' SSp^
Portuguese, whose nearest settlement was at Delagoa
Bay. In 1576 Manuel de Mesquiu Perestrello, commanded by
King Sebastbn to ezpbre the coast of South Africa and report
on suitable harbours, made a rough chart, even then of little use
to navigators, which b of value as exhibitmg the most that was
known of the country by its discoverers before the advent of their
Dutch rivab, who established themselves at Cape Town in 1652.
Perestrello states that Natal has no poru but otherwise he gives
a fairly accurate description of the country—noting particu-
larly the abundance of animab and the density of the population.
The first detailed accounts of the country were received from
shipwrecked mariners. In 1683 tbe English ship " Johanna "
went ashore near Delagoa Bay and the crew made a remarkable
journey overland to Cape Town, passing through Natal, where
they were kindly received by the natives. About the same time
(in 1684) an English ship put into Port Natal (as (he bay came
to be known) and purchasied ivory from the natives, who, how-
ever, refused to deal in slaves. In May 1685 another English
ship the " Csood Hope " was wrecked in crossing the bar at Port
Natal and in February 1686 the " Stavenisse," a Dutch East
Indiaman, was wrecked a little farther south. Survivors of
both vesseb lived for nearly a year at Port Natal and there built
a boat in which they made the voyage to Cape Town in twelve
days. They brought with them 3 tons of ivory. Thb fact
and their reports of the immense herds of elephants which roamed
the bush led Simon van der Stell, then governor at Cape Town
to despatch (1689) the ship " Noord " to Port Natal, with instruc-
tions to her commander to open up a trade in ivory and to acquire
possession of the bay. From the chief of the Amatuli tribe,
who inhabited the adjacent dbtrict, the bay was " purchased '*
for about £50 worth of goods. No settlement was then made
and in 1705 the son of the chief repudiated the bargain. In
X721 the Cape government did form a settlement at the bay,,
but it was soon afterwards abandoned. Thereafter for nearly,
a hundred years Natal was again neglected by white men.
A ship now and again put into the bay, but the dangerous bar
at its entrance militated against its frequent use. When in
2824 the next attempt was inade by Europeans to form a settle-
ment at the bay, Cape Colony had passed from the Dutch
into the possession of Great Britain, while in Natal great
changes bad come over the land as a result of wars between the
natives.
From the records of the 17th and x8th centuries it b apparent
that the people then inhabiting Natal were Bantu-negroes of
the Kaffir (Ama Xosa) branch. There b no mention of Hotten-
tots, and the few Bushmen who dwelt in the upper regions by the
Drakensberg did not come into contact with Europeans. The
sailors of the " Stavenisse " reported the most numerous and
most powerfid tribe to be the Abambo, while that which came
most in contact with the whites was the Amatuli, as it occupied
a considerable part of the coast-land. These Kaffirs appear to
have ^n more given to agrictdture and more peaceful than
their neighbours in Kaffraria and Cape Colony. But the quiet of
the country was destroyed by the inroads of Chaka, the chief of
the Zulus (see Zuliiland). Chaka between xSiiS and 1820
ravaged the whole of what b now known as Natal, and after
beating his foes in battle, butchered the women, children and
old men, incorporating the young men in hb impb. The popula-
tion was greatly reduced and Urge areas left without a single
2S8
NATAL
By rigiit of conquest Cbaka became ondisputed
master of the country.
Such was the situation when the first British settlement was
made in Natal. In 1823 Francis Cieorge Farewell, formerly a
lieutenant in the British navy, with other merchants of Cape
Town, formed a company to trade with the natives of the south*
east coast. In the brig ** Salisbury," commanded by James S.
King, who had been a midshipman in the navy. Farewell visited
Port Natal, St Lucia and Delagoa Bays. The voyage was not
successful as a trading venture, but Farewell was so impressed
with the possibilities of Natal both (or trade and colonization that
he resolved to establish himself at the poet. He went thither with
ten companions, among them Henry Francis Fynn. AU the rest
save Farewell and Fynn speedily repented of their adventure and
returned to the Cape, but the two who remained were joined by
three sailors, John Cane, Henry Ogle and Thomas Holstead, a
lad. Farewell, Fynn and the others went to the royal kraal of
Chaka, and, having cured him of a wound and made him various
presents, obtained a document, dated the 7th of August 1824,
ceding to " F. G. Farewell & Company entire and full possession
in perpetuity " of a tract of land including " the port or harbour
of Natal." On the 27th of the same month Farewell hobted the
j^/ifgf Union Jack at the port and declared the territory he
Btia$t had acquired a British possession. In 1825 he was
Mtti^ joined by King, who had meantime vbited England
**"* and had obtained from the government a letter of
recommendation to Lord Charles Somerset, governor of the Cape,
granting King permission to settle at Natal. Farewell, King and
Fynn made independent settlements at various parts of the
bay, where a few Amatuli still lingered. They lived, practically,
as Kaffir chiefs, trading with Chaka and gathering round them
many refugees from that monarch's tyranny. Early in 1828
King, accompam'ed by two of Chaka's indunas, voyaged in the
*' Elizabeth and Susan," a small schooner built by the settlers,
to Port Elizabeth. He appears to have been coldly received by
the authorities, who were even unable to ascertain the nature of
Chaka's embassy. Soon after his return to Natal King died, and
in the same month (September 1828) Chaka was murdered by
his brother Dingaan. In the December following Farewell went
in the " Elizabeth and Susan " to Port Elizabeth. On this
occasion the authorities were more hostile than before to the
Natal pioneers, for they confiscated the schooner on the ground
that it was unregistered and that it came from a foreign port.
Farewell was not daunted, and in September 1829 set out to
return overiand to Port Natal. He was, however, murdered in
Pondoland by a chief who was at enmity with the Zulus. Fynn
thus became leader of the whites at the port, who were much at
the mercy of Dingaan. In 1831 that chief raided their settle-
menU, the whites all fleeing south of the Umzimkulu; but at
Dingaan's invitation they soon returned. Dingaan declared
Fynn his representative, and " great chief of the Natal Kaffirs."
In 1834, however, Fynn accepted a post under the Cape govern-
ment and did not return to Naul for many years. It was in this
year that a petition from Cape Town merchants asking for the
creation of a British colony at Natal was met by the statement
that the Cape finances would not permit the establishment of
a new dependency. The merchants, however, despatched an
expedition under Dr Andrew Smith to inquire into the possibilities
of the country, and the favourable nature of his report induced a
party of Dutch farmers under Piet Uys to go thither also. Both
Dr Smith and Uys travelled overland through Kaffraria, and
were well received by the English living at the bay. The next
step was taken by the settlers at the port, who in 1835 resolved
to lay out a town, which they named Durban, after Sir Benjamin
d'Urban, then governor of Cape Colony. At the same time the
settlers, who numbered about 50, sent a memorial to the governor
calling attention to the fact that they were acknowledged rulers
over a large tract of territory south .of the Tugela, and asking
that this urritoiy shoidd be proclaimed a British colony under
the name of Victoria and that a governor and council be appointed.
To all these requests no official answer was returned. The
settlers had been joined in the year named (1835) by Captain
GanUner, a naval officer, whose chief object was the evangeBsft-
tion of the natives. With the support of the traders he founded
a mission station on the hill overlooking the bay. In 1837
Gardiner was given authority by the British government td
exercise jurisdiction over the traders. They, however, refused
to acknowledge GardineHs authority, and from the Cape govern-
ment he received no support.* It was not until their hand was
forced by the occupation of the interior by Dutch farmers that
the Cape authorities at length intervened.
The British settlers had, characterisUcally, reached Natal
mainly by way of the sea; the new tide Of immigration was by
land— the voortrekkers streamed through the passes of ^^^^^
the Drakensberg, bringing with them their wives and mutu
children and vast herds of cattle. The reasons which
caused the exodus from the Cape are discussed else-
where (see South Africa and Cape Colony), here it is
only necessary to point out that those emigrants who entered
Natal shared with those who settled elsewhere an intense desire
to be free from British control. The first emigrant Boers to entei
the country were led by Pieter Retief (e. 1 780-1838), a man of
Huguenot descent and of marked ability, who had formerly lived
on the eastern frontier of Cape Colony and had suffered severely
in the Kaffir wars. Passing through the almost deserted upper
regions Retief arrived at the bay in October 1837. He went
thence to Dingaan's kraal with the object of securing a formal
cession of territory to the Dutch farmers. Dingaan consented
on condition that the Boers recovered for him certain cattle
stolen by another chief; this task Retief accomplished, and with
the help of the Rev. F. Owen, a missionary then living at
Dingaan's kraal, a deed of cession was drawn up in English and
signed by Dingaan and Relief on the 4th of February 1838.
IVwo days after the signature of the deed Retief and all of his
party, 66 whites, besides Hottentot servants, were treacherously
murdered by Dingaan's orders. The Zulu king then commanded
his impis to kill all the Boers who had entered Natal. The Zulu
forces crossed the Tugela the same day, and the most advanced
parties of the Boers were massacred, many at a spot near where
the town of Weenen now stands, its name (meaning wailing or
weeping) commemorating the event. Other of the farmers
hastily laagered and were able to repulse the Zulu attacks; the
assailants suffering serious loss at a fight near the Bushman's
river. Nevertheless in one week after the murder of Retief
609 Boers^roen, women and children— had been killed by the
Zulus. The English settlers at the bay, hearing of the atUck on
the Boers, determined to make a diversion in their favour, and
some 20 men under the command of R. Biggar and with a
following of 700 friendly Zulus crossed the Tugela near its mouth.
In a desperate fight (April 17) with a strong force of the
enemy the English were overwhelmed and only four Europeans
escaped to the bay. Pursued by the Zulus, all the surviving
inhabitants of Durban were compelled for a time to take refuge
on a ship then in harbour. After the Zulus retired, less than a
dozen Englishmen returned to live at the port; the missionaries,
hunters and other traders returned to the Cape. Meantime the
Boers, who had repelled the Zulu attacks on their laagers, had been
joined by others from the Drakensberg, and about 400 men under
Hendrik Potgieter and Piet Uys advanced to attack Dingaan.
On the nth of April, however, they fell into a trap laid by the
Zulus and with difficulty cut their way out. Among those slain
were Piet Uys and his son Dirk, aged 15, who rode by his side.
The Boer farmers were now in a miserable pUght, but towards the
end of the year they received reinforcements, and in December
460 men set out under Andries Pretorius to avenge themselves
on the Zulus. On Sunday the x6th of December, while laagered
near the Umslatos river, they were attacked by over 10,000
Zulus. The Boers had firearms, the Zulus their assegais only,
and after a three hours' fight the Zulus were totally defeated.
losing thousands killed, while the farmers' casualties were under
• Captain Allen Francis Gardiner (1794*1851) left NaUl in 1838,
subscauently devoting himself to missionary work in South Anenca,
bein^ known as the missionary to Patagoma. He died of sUrvation
in Tierra del Fuego.
NATAL
259
t dotoL (TUi memonbie victoiy it umqany fiommemoimted
by the Boen as Diogun's Day, wUle the Uoislatos, which ran
ted with the blood of the aUin, was renamed Blood river.)
Diogatan fled, the victorious Boers entered the royal kraal, gave
decent burial to the skeletons of Retief and his party, and refunded
themselves as now undisputed masters of Natal They had
Rcovered from a leather pouch which Retief carried the deed by
vbicfa Dingaan ceded " to Retief and his countrymen the place
ciOed Port Natal together with all the lands annexed ... as
fir as the land may be useful and in my possession." This was
the sth or 6th cession made by Chaka or Dingaan of the same
territory to different individuak. In every case the overiordship
of the Zulus was assumed.
Returning south, Pretorius and his commando were surprised
to leara that FOrt Natal had been occupied on the 4th of December
by a detachment of the 7 and HigUanders sent thither from the
C^pe. The emigrant farmers haid, with the assent of the few
Roaining Englishmen at Port •Natal, in May 1838 issued a
proclamation taking possession of the port. This had been
followed by an intimation from the governor of the Cape (Major-
Gcneial Sir George Napier) inviting the emigrants to return to the
colony, and sUting that whenever he thought it desirable he
fhouki take military possession of the port In sanctioning the
occupation off the port the British government of the day had no
iatention of making Natal a British colony, but wished to prevent
the Boets establishing an independent republic upon the coast
with a harbour through which access to the interior could be
pined. After remaining at the port just over a year the
Higfakwkn were withdrawn, on Christmas Eve 1839. Mean-
time the Boers had founded Pietermaritsburg and made it the
leat of their volksraad. They rendered their power in Natal
abnhitc, for the time, in the following month, when they joined
with Panda, Dingaan*s brother, in another attack on the Zulu
kiag, Dingaan was utterly defeated and soon afterwards
perished, Panda becoming king in his stead by favour of the Boers.
At this time, had the affairs of the Boer community been
maoagcd with prudence and sagadty they might have estab-
lohed an enduring state. But their impatience of control,
reflected in the form of government adopted, led to disastrous
coasequeooes. Legislative power was vested, nominally, in the
volksraad (consisting of twenty-four members),while the president
aad executive were changed every three months. But whenever
any measure of importance was to be dedded a meeting was
railed of kel fnUiek, that is, of all who chose to attend, to
sanctioa or reject it. " The result," says Theal, " was utter
anarchy. Dedsions of one day were frequently reversed the
sect, and every one held himsell free to disobey any law that he
did nut approve of . . . . Public opinion of the hour in each
aectjon of the community was the only force in the land"
{History 0/ SctUk Africa 1834-1854^ chap. idiv.). While such
was the domestic state of affairs during the period of self-govem-
Baent, the settlers cherished large territorial views. They were
in loose alliance with and in quasi'Supremacy over the Boer
communities which had left the Cape and settled at Winburg
.and at PbtdiefstroooL They had declared themselves a free
a&d indqjendent sUte under the title of " The Republic of
Pbn Natal and adjacent countries,"* and sought (September
1S40) from Sir George Napier at the Cape an acknowledgment
of their independence by Great Britain. Sir George, bdng
vhhoat deSntle Instructions from England, could give no decisive
answer, but he was friendly disposed to the Natal farmers.
This feeling was, however, changed by what Sir George (and many
cf the Dutch in Natal also) thought a wilful and unjustifiable
stuck (December 1840) on a tribe of KaflJirs on the southern,
or Cape Cbiooy, frontier by a commando under Andries Pretorius,
whkh set out, nominally, to recover stolen cattle. Having
at leagth reodved an intimation from London that the queen
" oooki not acknowledge the independence of her own subjects,
but that the trade of the emigrant farmers would be placed
OQ the same footing as that of any other British settlement,
upon thor reodving a military force to exclude the interference
I Cooaioiily called the RcpubUc of Natalia or NataL
with or possession of the country by aay other European power,"
Sir George communicated this dedsion to the volksraad in
September 1841. Under the arrangement proposed the Boeia
m^t easily have secured the benefiu of sdf-govemment,
subject to an acknowledgment of British supremacy, together
with the advantage of military protection, for the British govern-
ment was then extremdy reluctant to extend its colonial re-
sponsibilities. The Boers, however, strongly resented theconten-
tk>n of the British that th^ could not shake off British nationality
though beyond the bounds of any recognised British possession,
nor were they prepared to see their only .poft garrisoned by
British troops, and they rejected Napier's overtures. Napier,
therefore, on the and of December 1841, issued a proclamation
in which he sUted that in consequence of the emignuit farmers
refusing to he treated as British subjects and of tbdr attitude
towards the Kaffir tribes he intended resuming militaiy occupation
of Port NataL This proclamation was answered in a lengthy
minute, dated the a 1st of February 184a, drawn up by J. N.
Boshof (afterwards president of the Orange Free Sute), by far
the ablest of the Dutch who had settled in NataL In this minute
the fanners ascribed all thdr troubles to one cause, bmum
namdy, the absence of a representative govenmient, yf ^
which had been repeatedly asked for by them while **^**
still living in Cape Colony and as often denied or ""
deUyed, and concluded by a protest against the occupation
of any part of their territory by British troops. An inddent
which happened immodiatdy alter these events greatly en-
couraged the Boers to persist in their opposition to Great Britain.
In March 1842 a Dutch vessd sent out by G. G. Ohrig, an
Amsterdam merchant who Sjrmpathiaed warmly with the cause
of the emigrant farmers, reached poft Natal, and its supercargo,
J. A. Smellekamp (a man who subsequently played a part in
the early history of the Transvaal and Orange Free Sute), con-
cluded a treaty with the volksraad assuring them of the pro-
tection of Holland. The Natal Boers believed the NetherUnds to
be one of the great powers of Europe, and were firmly persuaded
that its government would aid them in resisting England.
On the 1st of April Captain T. C. Smith with a force of S63 men
left his camp at the Umgasi,on the eastern frontier of (Upe Cotony,
and marching overland reached Durban without opposition, and
encamped, on the 4th of May, at the base of the Berea hills.
The Boers, cut off from thdr port, called out a commando of some
300 to 400 men under Andries Pretorius and gathered at Congella
at the head of the bay. On the night of the 23rd of May Smith
made an unsuccessful attack on the Boer camp, losing his guns
and fifty men killed and wounded. On the 26th the Boers
captured the harbour and settlement, and on the 31st blockaded
the British camp, the women and children bdng removed, on the
suggestion of Pretorius, to a ship in the harbour of which the
Boers had taken possession. Meantime, an old Durban resident,
Richard (commonly called Dick) King, had undertaken to convey
tidings of the perik>us position of the British force to the com-
mandant at Graham's Town. He started on the night of the
a4th and escaping the Boer outposts rode through the dense bush
and across the bridgeless riven of Kaffraria at peril of his life
from hostile natives and wild beasts, and in nine days reached
hb destination— a distance of 360 m. in a direct line, and nearly
600 by the route to be fdlowed. This remarkable ride was
accomplished with one change of mount, obtained from a mis-
sionary in Pondoland. A oomparativdy strong force under
Cdond A. J. Ckwte was at once sent by sea to Port Natal, and on
the 26th of June Captain Smith was relieved. The besieged had
suffered greatly from lack of (pod. Within a fortnight Colond
Cloete had received the submission of the volksraad at Pieter-
maritzburg. The burghers represented that they were under
the protection of Holland, but this plea was peremptorily r^ected
by the commander of the British forces.
The British government was still undedded as to its policy
towards NataL In April 184a Lord Stanley (afterwards 14th
eari of Derby), then secretary for the colonies in the second INed
Administration, wrote to Sir George Napier that the establishment
of a cok>ny in Natal would be attended with little prospect of
26o
NATAL
advantage, but at the same time stated that the pretensioos of
the emigrants to be regarded as an independent community
could not be admitted. Various measures were proposed which
would but have aggravated the situation. Finally, in deference
to the strongly urged views of Sir George Napier, Lord Stanley,
in a despatch of the 13th of December, received in Cape Town
on the 33rd of April 1843, consented to Natal becoming a
British colony. The institutions adopted were to be as far as
possible in accordance with the wishes of the people, but it was
a fundamental condition " that there should not be in the eye of
the law any distinction or disqualification whatever, founded
on mere difference of colour, origin, language or creed." Sir
George then appomted Mr Henry Cloete (a brother of Colonel
Cloete) a special commissioner to explain to the Natal volksraad
the decision of the government. There was a considerable party
of Natal Boers still strongly opposed to the British, and they
were reinforced by numerous bands of Boers who came over the
Drakensberg from Winburg and IV>tchefstroom. Commandant
Jan Mocke of Winburg (who had helped to besiege Captain Smith
at Durban) and others of the " war party " attempted to induce
the volksraad not to submit, and a plan was formed to murder
Pretorius, Boshof and other leaders, who were now convinced
that the only chance of ending the state of complete anarchy
into which the country had fallen was by accepting British
sovereignty. In these circumstances the task of Mr Henry
Cloete was one of great difficulty and delicacy. He behaved with
the utmost tact and got rid of the Winburg and Potchefstroom
burghers by declaring that he should recommend the Drakensberg
as the northern limit of Natal. On the 8th of August 2843
the Natal volksraad unanimously agreed to the terms
proposed by Lord Stanley. Many of the Boers who
would not acknowledge British rule trekked once
more over the mountains into what are now the Orange
Free State and Transvaal provinces. At the end of 1843 there
were not more than 500 Dutch families left in Natal. Cloete,
before returning to the Cape, visited Panda and obtained from
him a valuable concession. Hitherto the Tugela from source to
mouth had been the recognised frontier between Natal and
Zululand. Panda gave up to Natal all the territory between
the Buffalo and Tugela rivers, now forming Klip River county.
Although proclaimed a British colony in 1843, and in 1844
declared a part of Cape Colony, it was not until the end of 1845
that an effective adininistration was installed with Mr Martin
West as lieutenant-governor, and the power of the volksraad
finally came to an end. In that year the external trade of Natal,
almost entirely with Cape Colony, was of the total value of
£43,000—01 which £32,000 represented imported goods.
The new administration found it hard to please the Dutch
farmers, who among other grievances resented what they con-
sidered the undue favour shown to the Kaffirs, whose numbers
had been greatly augmented by the flight of refugees from Panda.
In 1843, for instance, no fewer than 50,000 Zulus crossed the
Tu^la seeking the protection of the white man. The natives
were settled in 1846 in specially selected locations and placed
under the general supervision of Sir (then Mr) Theophilus Shep-
stone (9.V.). Sir Harry Smith, newly appointed governor of the
Cape, met, on the baxJcs of the upper Tugela, a body of farmers
preparing to. recroas the Drakensberg, and by remedying their
grievances induced many of them to remain in NataL Andrics
Pretorius and others, however, declined to remain, and from this
time Pretorhis (^.t.) ceased hk connexion with Natal. Although
by this migration the white population was again considerably
reduced, those who remained were contented and loyal, and
through the arrival of 4500 emigrants from England in the years
1848-185 1 and by subsequent immigration from oversea the
colony became overwhelmingly British in character. From the
time of the coming of the first considerable body of British
settlers dates the development of trade and agriculture in the
colony, followed somewhat later by the expk)iution of the
minenl resources of the country. At the same time schools were
established and various churches began or increased their work
in the cok>ny. Dr Colenso. appointed bishop of Natal, arrived in
1854. In 1856 the dependence of the country on Cape Colony was
put to an end and Natal instituted a distinct colony with a
legislative council of sixteen members, twelve elected by the
inhabitants and four nominated by the crown. At the time the
white population exceeded 8000, While dependent on the Cape,
ordinances had been passed establishing Roman-Dutch law as
the law of Natal, and save where modified by Iqpslation it
remained in force.
^ The British settlers soon realized that the coast lands were
suited to the cultivation-of tropical or semi-tropical products, and
from 1852 onward sugar, coffee, cotton and arrow-root fadba
were introduced, tea being afterwards substituted for cmMm
coffee. The sugar industry soon became of importance, * g ^
and the planters werecompelledtoseekf or large numbers
of labourers. The natives, at ease in their locations, did not
volunteer in sufficient numbers, and recourse was had to coolie
labour from India. The first coolies reached Natal in i860. They
came under indentures, but at the expiration of their contract
were allowed to settle in the colony.* This proved one of the
most momentous steps taken in the history of South Africa, for
the Indian population rapidly increased, the " free " Indians be-
coming mariiet gardeners, farmers, hawkers, traders, and in time
serious competitors with the whites. But in x86o and for many
years afterwards these consequences were not foreseen, and alone
among the South Africa states Natal offered a welcome to Asiatics.
In x866 the borders of the colony were extended on the south-
west by the annexation of part of Kaffraria that had formerly
been under the sway of the Pondo chief Faku, who ^^
found himself unable to maintain his authority in f f^ ^^
a region occupied by many diverse tribes. The newly mwstdt.
acquired territory was named Alfred county in memory
of a visit paid to Natal by Prince Alfred (afterwards duke of
Saxe-Coburg-Gotha). In 1867 R. W. Keate (1814-1873) became
lieutenant-governor, a post which he filled until 1872. His
administration is notable, not so much for internal affairs but
from the fact that he twice acted as arbitrator in disputes in
which the Boer states were involved. In a dispute between the
Transvaal and the Orange Free Sute he decided (February 1870)
that the Klip river and not the upper Vaal was the frontier
stream. A more famous decision, that known as the Keate
Award, was given in October 1871. It concerned the south-
western frontiers of the Transvaal, and the award, which was
against the Transvaal pretensions, had important effects on
the history of South Africa (see Transvaal and South Africa).
During all this time little was done to alter the condition of
the natives. There was scarcely an attempt to copy the policy,
deliberately adopted in Cape Colony, of educating and civilizing
the bUck man. Neither was Natal faced with the Cape problem
of a large half-caste population. The Natal natives were left
very much in the sute in which they were before the advent of
the white men. While this opportunity of educating and training
a docile people was in the main neglected, savage abuse of power
by their chiefs was prevented. Under the superintendence
of Shepstone the original refugees were quiet and contented,
enjoying security from injustice and considerable freedom.
Thb ideal lot, from the native point of view, drew such numbers
of immigrants from disturbed districts that with the natural
increase of population in thirty years the native inhabitants
increased from about 100,000 to fuUy 350,000. New generations
grew up almost as ignorant as their fathers, but not with the
same sense of dependence upon the white men. In this way was
sown the seed of future trouble between the two races. The
first serious collision between the natives and the government
occurred b 1873. The Amahlubi, one of the highet in rank
of the Bantu tribes of South Africa, fleeing from the cruelties of
* Between i860 and 1866 aome 5000 Indians entered the colony.
Immigration then ceased, and was not resumed until 1874. By that
year the natives from Portuguese territory and elsewhere who had
found employment in Natal had been attracted to the Kimbcricy
diamond mines, and the Natal natives not coming foiward (save under
compulsion), the importation of Indian coolies was again petmitted
(see the Natal Blue Book. Report of the Indian Immigratio* C
tOOQ).
NATAL
261
Buula, had been loctted by the Natal government under their
diieC Langaiibalelc ((.e. the great sun which shines and burns)
in 1848 at the foot of the Drakensberg with the object of prevent-
ing the Bushmen who dwelt in the mountains plundering the
upland farmers. Here the Amahlubi prospered, and after the
diamond fields had been discovered many of the young men
who had been to Kimberlcy brought back firearms. These
I.angalibalflr refused to register, and entered into negotiations
with several tribes with the object of organizing a general revolt.
Prompt action by Sir Benjamin Pine, then fa'eutenant-govemor
of the colony, together with help from the Cape and
ta^SS ' Basutoland, prevented the success of Langalibalele's
wiiBTtft plan, and his own tribe, numbering some 10,000 persons,
was the only one which rebelled. The chief was
ctptured, and exiled to Cape Colony (August 1874). Permitted
to return to Natal in 1886, he died in 1889.
This rebellion drew the attention of the home government to
the native question in NataL The colonists, if mistaken in
thdr general policy of leaving the natives in a condition of
mitigated barbarism, had behaved towards them with uniform
kindness and justice. They showed indeed In their dealings both
with the natives within their borders and with the Zulus beyond
the Tugcla a disposition to favour the natives at the expense
of their white neighbours in the Transvaal and Orange Free
State, and their action against Langalibalde was fully justified
and the danger of a widespread native revolt real. But there
were these, including Bishop Colenso, who thought the treatment
of the Amahlubi wrong, and their agitation induced the British
^ovemxnent to recall Sir Benjamin Pine, Sir Garnet Wolseley
being sent out as temporary governor. Sir Garnet reported
the natives as ** happy and prosperous— well oflf in every sense." ,
As a result of consultations with Shcpstone certain modifications
were made in native policy, chiefly in the direction of more
European supervision.
Meantime the colony had weathered a severe commercial
crisis brought on in 1865 through over-speculation and the
,^ neglect of agriculture, save along the coast belt. But
the trade over berg largely dcvelc^xxl on the dis-
covery of the Kimberlcy diamond mines, and the
progress of the country was greatly promoted by the
substitution of the railway for the ox wagon as a means of
transport. There already existed a short line from the Point
at Durban to the Umgeni, and on the ist of January 1876 Sir
Henry Bulwer, who had succeeded Wolseley as governor, turned
the first sod of a new state-owned railway which was completed
as far as Mariuburg in i88a At this date the white inhabitants
numbered about ao,ooo. But besides a commerdal crisis the
cobmy had been the scene of an ecclesiastical dispute which
attruted widespread attention. Bishop ColensoC^.v.), condemned
in 1863 on a charge of heresy, ignored the authority of the court
of South African bishops and was maintained in his position by
decision of the Privy Council in England. This led to a division
among the Anglican community in the colony and the consecra-
tion in 1869 of a rival bishop, who took the title of bishop of
Maritzborg. Colenso's bold advocacy of the cause of the natives
—which be maintained with vigour until his death (in 1883) —
attracted almost equal attention: His native name was Usobantu
ifcther cf tJk peopU):
For some years Natal, in common with the other countries of
South Africa, had suffered from the absence of anything resem-
bling a strong government among the Boers of the Transvaal,
neighbours of Natal on the north. The annexation of the
Transvaal to Great Britain, effected by Sir Theophilus Shepstone
in April 1S77, would, it was hoped, put a period to the disorders
in that cotmtry. But the new administration at Pretoria in-
herited many dilutes with the Zulus, disputes which were in
large measure the cause of the war of 1879. ^^^ X^^^^ the
Zulus had lived at amity with the Natalians, from whom they
received substantial favours, and in 187 a Cctywayo (9.V.),
<» sooceeding his father Panda, had given assurances of good
behavioor. These promises were not kept for long, and by 1878
bis attitude had become so hostile towards both the Natal and
Transvaal governments that Sir Bartle Frere, then High Com*
missioner for South Africa, determined on hb reduction. During
the war (see Zululand) Natal was used as the British base,
and the Natal volunteecs rendered valuable service in the
campaign, which, after opening with disasters to the British
forces, ended in the breaking of the Zulu power. (F. R. C.)
Scarcely had the colony recovered from the shock of the
Zulu War than it was involved in the revolt ot the Transvaal
Boers (1880-1881), an event which overshadowed all tuaial
domestic concerns. The Natalians were intensely mrndtka
British in sentiment, and resented deeply the policy JS^%/
adopted by the Gladstone - administration. At In-
gogo, Majuba and Laing's Nek, all of them situated within
the colony, British forces had been defeated by the Boers.
And the treaty of retrocession was never regarded in Natal as
anything but a surrender. It was dearly understood that the
Boers would aim to establish a republican government over the
whole of South Africa, and that the terms of peace simply meant
greater bloodshed at no distant date. The protest made by
the Natalians against the settlement was in vain. The Transva^
Republic was csUblished, but the prediction of the colonists,
ignored at the time, was afterwards fulfilled to the letter. In
justice, however, to the colonists of Natal it must be recorded
that, finding their protest with regard to the Transvaal settle-
ment useless, they made up their minds to shape their policy
in conformity with that settlement. But it was not long before
their worst fears with regard to the Boers began to be realized,
and their patience was once more severely taxed. The Zulu
power, as has been recorded, was broken in 1879. After the
war quarrels arose among the petty chiefs set up by Sir Garnet
Wolseley, and in 1883 some Transvaal Boers intervened, and
subsequently, as a reward for the assistance they had rendered
to one of the combatants, demanded and annexed 8000 sq. m.
of country, which they styled the " New Republic." As the
London Convention had stipulated that there should be no
trespassing on the part of the Boers over their specified boundaries,
and as Natal had been the basis for those operations against
the Zulus on the part of the British in 1879, which alone made
such an annexation of territory possible, a strong feeling was
once more aroused in NataL The " New Republic," reduced in
area, however, to less than aooo sq. m., was nevertheless recog-
nized by the British government in x886, and in x888 its consent
was given to the territory (the Vryheid district) being incor-
porated with the Transvaal. Meantime, in 1887, the remainder
of Zululand had been annexed to Great Britain (see Zululand).
In 1884 the discovery of gold in De Kaap Valley, and on
Mr Moodie's farm in the Transvaal, caused a considerable rush
of colonists from Natal to that country. Railways were still
far from the Transvaal border, and Natsd not only sent her own
colonists to the new fields, but also offered the nearest route for
prospectors from Cape Colony or from Europe. Durban was
soon thronged; and Pietermaritzburg, which was then practi-
cally the terminus of the Natal railway, was the base from which
nearly all the expeditions to the goldfidds were fitted out.
The journey to De Kaap by bullock-waggon occupied about
six weeks. "Kurveying" (the conducting of transport by
bullock-waggon) in itself constituted a great industry. Two
years later, in 1886, the Rand goldfields were proclaimed, and
the tide of trade which had already set in with the
Transvaal steadily increased. Natal colonbts were ^
not merely the first in the field with the transport
traffic to the new goldfields; they became some of
the earliest proprietors of mines, and for several years many of
the largest mining companies had their chief ofllices at Pieter-
maritzburg or Durban. In this year (1886) the railway reached
Ladysmith, and in 1891 it was completed to the Transvaal
frontier at Charlestown, the section from Ladysmith northward
opening up the Dundee and Newcastle coalfields. Thus a new
industry was added to the resources of the colony.
The demand which the growing trade made upon the one
port of Natal, Durban, encouraged the colonists to redouble
their efforts to improve their harbour. The question of a fairway
262
NATAL
from ocean to harbour has been a difficult one at nearly every
port on the African coast. A heavy sea from the Indian Ocean
is always breaking on the shore, even in the finest weather,
and at the mouth of every natural harbour a bar occurs. To
deepen the channel over the bar at Durban so that steamers
mi^t enter the harbour was the cause of labour and expenditure
for many years. Harbour works were begun in 1857, piers and
jetties were constructed, dredgers imported, and controversy
raged over the various schemes for harbour improvement In
1 881 a harbour board was formed under the chairmanship of
Mr Harry Estdmbe. It controlled the operations for improving
the sea entrance until 1893, when on the establishment of re-
sponsible government it was abolished. The work of improving
the harbour was however contmucd with vigour, and finally, in
1904, such success was achieved that vessels of the largest class
were enabled to enter port (see Durban). At the same time
the railway system was continually developing.
For many years there had been an agitation among the
colonists for self-government. In 1883 the colony was offered
self-government coupled with the obligations of
self-defence. The offer was declined, but in 1883 the
legislative council was remodeUed so as to consist of
23 elected and ' 7 nominated members. In 1890
the elections to the council led to the return of a majority in
favour of accepting self-government, and in 1893 a bill in favour
of the proposed change was passed and received the sanction
of the Imperial government. At the time the white inhabitants
numbered about 50,000. The electoral law was framed to
prevent more than a very few natives obtaining the franchise.
Restrictions in this direction dated as far back as 1865, while in
1896 an act was passed aimed at the exclusion of Indians from
the suffrage. The leader of the party which sought responsible
government was Sir John Robinson (1839-1903) who had gone
to Natal in 1850, was a leading journalist in the colony, had
been, a member of the legishitive council since 2863, and had
filled various official positions. He now became the first premier
and colonial secretary with Mr Harry Escombe (^.v.) as attorney-
general and Mr F. R. Moor as secretary for Native Affairs. The
year that witnessed this change in the constitution was also
notable for the deatfi of Sir Theophilus Shepstone, Natal's
most prominent citizen. In the same year Sir Walter Hely-
HutcKinson became governor. His immediate predecessors
had been Sir Charles Mitchell. (1889-1893) and Sir Arthur
Havelock (i 886-1 889). Sir John. Robinson remained premier
until 1897, a year marked by the annexation of Zululand to
Natal. In the following year Natal entered the Customs Union
already existing between Cape Cok>ny and the Orange Free
State. Sir John. Robinson had been succeeded as premier by
Mr Harry . Escombe (February-October 1897) and Escombe
by Sir Henry Binns, on whose death in* June 1899 Licut.-Cotonel
(afterwards Sir) Albert Hime formed a ministry which remained
in office until after the conclusion of the Anglo-Boer War. Mean-
time (in 1901) Sir Henry McCallum had succeeded Sir Walter
Hely-Hutchinson as governor.
For some years Natal had watched with anxiety the attitude
of increasing hostility towards the British adopted by the
Pretoria administration, and, with bitter remembrance of the
events of 1881, gauged with accuracy the intentions of the Boers.
So suspicious had the ministry become of the nature o^ the
military preparations that were being made by the Boers, that
in May 1899 they communicated their apprehensions to the
High Commissioner, Sir Alfred Milner, who telegraphed on the
a 5th of May to Mr Chamberlain, informing him that Natal was
uneasy. The governor expressed his views to the prime minister
that the Natal government ought to give the British government
every support, and Colonel Hime replied that their support
would be given, but at the same time he feared the
^*|JJJJ^ consequences to Natal if, after all, the British govem-
t§§t, ment should draw back. In July the Natal ministry
learnt that it was not the intention of the Imperial
government to endeavour to hold the frontier in case hostilities
arose, but that a line of defence considerably south of the frontier
would b6 taken up. This led to a request oa their part that if
the Imperial government had any reason to antldpatie the
breakdown of negotiations, "such steps may be at once taken
as may be necessary for the effectual defence of the Whole
colony." Sir William Penn Symons, the general commanding
the British forces in Natal in Septeiiiber, decided to hold Glencoe.
On the arrival of Lieut.-General Sir George White from India,
he informed the governor that he considered it dangerous to
attempt to hold Glencoe, and urged the advisability of with-
drawing the troops to Ladysmith. The gpveinor was strongly
opposed to this step, as he was anxious to protect the coal supply,
and also feared the moral effect of a withdrawal. Eventually
Sir Archibald Hunter, then chief of staff to Sir Redvers Bullcr,
was consulted, and stated that in his opinion, Glencoe being
already occupied, " it was a case of balancing drawbacks, and
advised that, under the circumstances, the troops be retained
at Glencoe." This course was then adopted.
On the nth of October 1899 war broke out. The first act was
the seizure by the Boers of a Natal train on the Free State border.
On the 1 2th Laing's Nek was occupied by the Boer forces, who
were moved In considerable force over the Natal border. New-
castle was next occupied by the Boers unopposed, and on the
3oth of October occurred the battle of Talana .Hill outside
Dundee. In this engagement the advanced body of British
troops, 3000 strong, under Symons, held a camp called Craigside
which lay between Glencoe and Dundee, and from this position
General Symons hoped to be able to hold the northern portion
of NataL There is no doubt that this policy strongly'
commended itself .to the governor and. ministers of Natal,
and that they exercised considerable pressure to have it
adopted. But from a military point of view.it was not at all
cordially approved by Sir George White, and it was after-
wards condemned by Lord Roberts. ■ Fortunately Symons was
able to win a complete victory over one of the Boer columns at
Talana HilL He himself received a mortal wound in the actioiL
Brigadier-General Yule then took command, and an overwhelm-
ing force of Boers rendering the further occupation of Dundee
dangerous, he decided to retire his force to Ladysmith. On the
2ist of October General Sir George White and General (Sir John)
French defeated at Elandslaagte a strong force of Boeis, who
threatened to cut off General Yule's retreat. He again attacked
the Boer forces at Rietfontein on the 34th of October, and on
the 26th (General Yule reached Ladysmith in safety. Ladysmith
now became for a time the centre of military Interest. The Boets
gradually surrounded the town and cut off the communications
from the south. Various engagements were fought in ' the
attempt to prevent this movement, including the aak>na of
Farquhar's Farm and Nicholson's Ndc on the 30th (see Trans-
vaal). The investment of Ladysmith continued tOl the a8th of
February 1900, when, after various attempts to relieve the
beleaguered garrison. Sir Redvers Buller's forces at last entered
the town. During the six weeks previoiis to the relief, 200
deaths had occurrwl from disease alone, and altogether as many
as 8424 were reported to have passed through the hospitah.
The relief of Ladysmith soon led to the evacuation of Natal by
the Boeriorces, who trekked northwards.
During the Boer invasion the government and the loyal
colonists, constituting the great majority of the inhabitanU of
the colony, rendered the Imperial forces every assistance. A
comparatively small number of the Dutch colonists joined the
enemy, but there was no general rebellion among them. As the
war progressed the Natal volunteers and other Natal forces took
a prominent part. The Imperial Light Horse and other irregular
corps were recruited in Natal, although' the bulk of the men in
the forces were Uitlanders from Johannesburg. As the nearest
colony to the Transvaal, Natal was resorted to by alarge number
of men, women and children, who were compelled to leave the
Transvaal on the outbreak of the war. Refugee and Uitlander
committees were formed both at Durban and Maritzburg, and,
in conjunction with the colonists, they did all in their power to
assist in recruiting irregular corps, and also in furnishing xdiel
to the sick and needy.
NATAL
263
M one result of the war, tn addition wit made to the territory
oomprised in Natal, consisting of a portion of what had previously
heen included in the TransvaaL The Natal government origin-
ally made two proposals for annexing new territory^—
I. It was propoaed that the following districts should be trans-
fared to Natal, viz. the district of Vrvbeid. the district of Utrecht
aod Mich portion of the district of Wakkentroom as was comprised
bv a line drawn from the north-eastern comer of Natal, east by
Volksnist in a northeriy directum to the summit of the Drakcnsbcrg
Range, akxie that range, passing just north of the town of Wakker-
stroom. to the head waters of the Pongola river, and thence follow-
iflf the Pongola river to the border of the Utrecht district. In
ctnsidoatkm of the advantage to Natal from this addition of terri-
tory. Natal shouU take over (icojooo of the Transvaal debt.
3. It was nropomtd to include in Natal such portbns of the Harri-
niith and Vrede districts as were comprised by a line following the
Elands river north from iu source on the Basutoland
border to .its junction with the WUse river, and thence
drawn straight to the point where the txmndaries of Naul,
the Transvaal and the Orange River Cokmy meet on the
Dtakensberg. In consideratkm of this addition to her
territory. Natal shouki take over a portion of the Orange
River Cdooy debt, to be raised at the end of the war, to the amount
of £wo.ooo.
The Imperial government decided to sanction only the 6rst
of these two proposals. For this course there were many reasons,
the Transvaal territory annexed, or the greater part of it (the
Vryhcid district), having been only separated from the rest of
Zuloland in 1883 by a raid of armed Boera. ** In handing over
this district to the administratwn which controls the rest of
Zttlubnd, His Majesty's government," wrote Mr Chamberlain,
under date March 1903, " feel that they are reuniting what ou^t
never to have been separated."
With regard, however, to U^e proposed transfer of territory
hum the Orange River Cok>ny, the circumstances were different.
"There is," laid Mr Chamberhun, ** no such historical reason
as cdsU in the case of Viyheid for making the transfer. On the
oontraiy, the districts in question have invariably formed part
of the state from which it is now proposed to sever them, and
they are separated from Natal by mountains which form a well-
defined naturalboundary. In these circumstances, His Majesty's
Sovcnunent have decided to confine the territory to be trans-
ferred to the districu in the Transvaal."
^ The districts added to Natal contained about 6000 white
inhabitaats (mostly Dutch), and some 93,000 natives, and had
an area of neariy 7000 sq. m., so that this annexation meant an
addirioB to the white population of Natal of about one-tenth,
to her native populatkm of about one-tenth also, and to her
territory of about one-fourth. An act authorizing the annexation
nas pased during 1902 and the territories were formally trans-
ferred to Natal in January 1903., (A. P. H. ; F. R. C.)
The period following the war was succeeded by commercial
' o, though in Natal it was not so severely felt as in other
sutes of South Africa. The government met the crisis
by r^ewed energy in harbour works, railway construc-
r tions and the development of the natural resources
of the country. A railway to the Zululand coalfields
was completeid in 1903, and in the same year a line
was opened to Vryheid in the newly annexed territories.
Natal farther built several railway lines in the eastern half of
the Oruge River Colony, thus opening up new markets for her
produce and fadlitating her transit trsde. Mr Chamberlain on
kis vittt to South Africa came iirst to Natal, where he landed in
the last days of 1902, and conferred with the leading colonists.
la August 1903 the Hime minbtry resigned and was succeeded
by s cabuiet under the premiership of Mr (afterwards Sir) George
Satton, the founder <^ the wattle mdustry in Natal and one of
the pkmeers in the coal-mining ^idustry. In May 1905 Sir
George Suttoo was replaced by « coalition ministry under Mr
'C. J. Smythe, who bad been colonial secretary under Sir Albert
Hime. These somewhat frequent changes of ministry, char-
actcTtttic of a coontxy new to responsible government, reflected,
chiefly, differences concerning the treatment of commercial
qoestioos -and the policy to be adopted towards the natives.
Towards those Dutch colonisU who had joined the enemy
daring the war lenicDcy was shown, aO rebds being pardoned.
The attitude of the natives both in Natal proper and in Zululand
caused much disquiet. As eariy as July 1903 rumours were
current that Dinizulu (a son of Cetywayo) was disaffeaed aod
the power he exercised as representative of the former royal house
rendered his attitude a matter of great moment. Dinisulu,
however, remained at the time quiescent, though the Zulus were
in a state of excitement over incidents connected with the war,
when they had been subjea to raids by Boer commandoes, and
on one occasion at least had retaliated in characteristic Zulu
fashion. Unrest was also manifested among the natives west of
the Tugela, but it was not at first cause for alarm. The chief
concern of the Natal government was to remodel their native
policy where it proved inadequate, especially hi view of the
growth of the movement for the federation of the South African
colonies. During 1903-1904 a Native Affairs* Commission,
representative of all the states, obtained much evidence on the
status and conditions of the natives. Its investigations pointed
to the loosening of tribal ties and to the corresponding growth
of a spirit of individual independence. Among its recommoida-
tions was the direct political representatfon of natives in the
colonial legislatures on the New Zealand model, and the imposi-
tion of direct taxatk>n upon natives, which should not be less
than £1 a year payable by every adult male. The commission
also called attention to the numerical insufficiency of magistrates
and native commissioners in certain parts of Natal. With some
of the recommendations the Natal commissioners disagreed;
in 1905, however, an act was passed by the Natal legislature
imposing a poll-tax of £1 on all males over x8 in the colony,
except indentured Indians and natives paying hut-tax (whidi
was X4S. a year). Every European was bound to pay the tax.
In X906 a serious rebellion broke out in the colony, attribuUble
ostensibly to the poll-tax, and spread to Zululand. It was
suppressed by the coh>nlal forces under Colonel (afterwards Sir)
Duncan McKenxie, aided by a detachment of Transvaal
volunteers. An incident which marked the beginnhig of this
rebelUon brought the Natal ministiy into sharp conflict with
the Imperial government (the Campbell-Bannerman administra-
tion). Early in the year a farmer who had insisted that the
Kaffirs on his farm should pay the poll-tax was murdered, and on
the 8th of February some forty natives in the Richmond district
forcibly resisted the collection of the Ux and killed a sub-
inspector of police and a trooper at Byrnetown. Two of the
natives implicated were court-martiaUed and shot (February 15);
others were subsequently arrested and tried by court martial.
Nineteen were sentenced to death, but in the case of seven of the
prisoners the sentence was commuted. On the day before that
fixed for the execution Lord Elgin, then Secretary of r„t v,t
Sute for the Cobnies, intervened and directed the ^lui tim
governor to postpone the execution of the sentence. hom»
Thereupon the Nats] ministry resigned, giving as their J**"*"
reason the importance of maintaining the authority of ""^
the colonial administration at a critical period, and the con-
stitutional question involved in the interference by the imperial
authorities in the domestic affairs of a self-governing colony.
The action of the British cabinet caused both astonishment and
indignation throughout South Africa and in the other self-
governing states of the empire. After a day's delay, during which
Sir Henry McCallum reiterated his concurrence, already made
known in London, in the justice of the sentence passed on the
natives, Lord Elgin gave way (March 30). The Natal ministry
thereupon remained in office. The guilty natives were shot on
the and of April.* It was at this time that Bambaata, a chief
in the Greytown district who had been deposed for misconduct,
kidnapped the regent appointed in his stead. He was pursued
and escaped to Zululand, where he received considerable help.
He was killed in battle in June, and by the close of July the
rebellion was at ah end. As has been stated, it was ostensibly
attributable to the poll-tax, but the causes were more deep-
seated. Though somewhat obscure they may be found in the
* Subsequently three other natives, after trial by the supreme
court, were condemned and executed for their share in the Byrne-
town murders.
264
NATAL
growing sense of power and solidarity among 9II the Kaffir
tribes of South Africa— a sense which gave force to the " Ethio-
pian movement," which, ecclesiastical in origin, was political
in its development. There were moreover special local causes
such as undoubted defects in the Natal administration.^ Those
Africans whose " nationalism " was greatest looked to Dtnizulu
as their leader, and he was accused by many colonists of having
incited the rebellion. Dinizulu protested his loyalty to the
British, nor was it likely that he viewed with approval the action
of Bambaata, a comparatively unimportant and meddlesome
chief. As time went on, however, the Natal government,
alarmed at a series of murders of whites in Zululand and at the
evidences of continued unrest among the natives, became con-
vinced that Dinizulu was implicated in the rebellious movement.
When a young man, in 1889, he had been convicted of high
treason and had been exiled, but afterwards (in 1897) allowed to
return. Now a force under Sir Duncan McKcnzie entered
Zululand. Thereupon Dinizulu surrendered (December 1907)
without opposition, and was removed to Maritzburg. His trial
was delayed until November 1908, and it was not until March
1909 that judgment was given, the court finding him guilty only
on the minor charge of harbouring rebels. Meantime, in February
1908, the governor— Sir Matthew Nathan, who had succeeded
Sir Henry McCallum in August 1907— had made a tour in
Zululand, on which occasion some 1500 of the prisoners taken
in the rebellion of 1906 were released.
The intercobnial commission had dealt with the native
question as it affected South Africa as a whole; it was felt that
fitiii^ a more local investigation was needed, and in August
A/Mr^ 1906 a strong commission was appointed to inquire
^■" into the condition of the Natal natives. The general
mlBMha. gipcjiQQ which was held in the following month turned
on native policy and on the measures necessary to meet the
commercial depression. The election, which witnessed the return
of four Labour members, resulted in a ministerial majority of a
somewhat heterogeneous character, and in November 1906 Mr
Smythe resigned, being succeeded by Mr P. R. Moor, who in
his election campaign had criticized the Smythe ministry for
their financial proposals and for the " theatrical " manner in
which they had conducted their conflict with the home govern-
ment. Mr Moor remained premier until the office was abolished
by the establishment of the Union of South Africa. In August
1907 the report of the Native Affairs' Commission was published.
The commission declared that the chasm between the native
and white races had been broadening for years and that the
efforts of the administration — especially since the grant of
responsible government — to reconcile the Kaffirs to the changed
conditions of rule and policy and to convert them into an element
of strength had been ineffective. It was not sufficient to secure
them, as the government had done, peace and ample means of
livelihood. The commission among other proposals for a more
liberal and sympathetic native policy urged the creation of a
native advisory Board entrusted with very wide powers. " Per-
sonal rule," they declared, " supplies the keynote of successful
native control "—a statement amply borne out by the influence
over the natives exercised by Sir T. Shepstone. The unrest in
Zululand delayed action being taken on the commission's report.
But in Z909 an act was passed which placed native affairs in the
hands of four district commissioners, gave to the minister for
native affairs direct executive authority and created a council
for native affairs on which non-offidal members had seats.
While the distria commissioners were intended to keep in close
touch with the natives, thecouncil was to act as a " deliberative,
consultative and advisory body."
Concurrently with the efforts made to reorganize their native
policy the colony also endeavoured to deal with the Asiatic
question. The rapid growth of the Indian population from
about 2890 caused much disquiet among the majority of the
white inhabitants, who viewed with especial anxiety the activities
* The causes, both local and eeneral. are set forth in a despatch
by the eovemor of the aist of June 1906 and printed in the Blue
of the ** free,** l.e. unindentured Indians. An act of 1895, which
did not become effective until 1901, imposed an annual tax of £3
on time-expired Indians who remained in the colony
and did not reindenture. In 1897 an Indian
Immigration Restriction Act was passed with the
object of protecting European traders; in 1903
another Immigration Restriction Act among other things, per-
mitted the exduuon of all would-be immigrants unable to write
in the characters of some European language. Under this act
thousands of Asiatics were refused permission to land. In 1906
municipal disabilities were imposed upon Asiatics, and in 1907
a Dealers' Licences Act was passed with the object, and effect,
of restricting the trading operations of Indians. In 1908 the
government introduced a bill to provide for the cessation of
Indian emigration at the end of three years; it was not pro-
ceeded with, but a strong commission was appointed to inquire
into the whole subject. This commission reported in 1909, its
general conclusion being that in the interests of Natal the
importation of indentured Indian labour should not be dis-
continued. For sugar, tea and wattle growing, fanning, coal-
mining and other industries indentured Indian labour appeared
to be essential. But the evidence was practically unanimous that
the Indian was undesirable in Natal other than as a labourer
and the commission recommended compulsory repatriation.
While desirous that steps should be taken to prevent an increase
in the number of free Asiatic colonists, the commission pointed
out that there were in Natal over 60,000 " free " Indians whose
rights could not be interfered with by legislation dealing with the
further importation of coolies. But these Indians by reindcntur-
ing might come under the operation of the repatriation proposaL
Nothing further was done in Natal up to the establishment of
the Union of South Africa, when all questions specially or
differentially affecting Asiatics were withdrawn from the com-
petence of the provincial authorities.
Not long after the conclusion of the war of 1 899-1903 the
close commercial relations between the Transvaal and Natal
led to suggestions for a imioh of the two colonies, but
these suggestions were not seriously entertained. The m^ JSr**
divergent interests of the various colonies threatened — jba.
indeed a tariff and railway war when the .Customs
Convention (provisionally renewed in March 1906) should
expire in 1908. But at the close of 1906 the Cape ministry formally
reopened the question of federation, and at a railway con-
ference held in Pretoria in May T908 the Natal delegates
agreed to a motion affirming the desirability of the early union
of the self-governing colonics. 'The movement for union rapidly
gained strength, and a National Convention to consider the
matter met in Durban in October 1908. In Natal, tspedaJly
among the older colonists, who feared that in a united South
Africa Natal interests would be overborne, the proposals for
union were met with suspicion and opposition, and the Natal
ministry felt bound to submit the question to the people. A
referendum act was passed in April 1909, and in June following
the electors by zi,i3i votes to 370X dedded to join the Union.
(See South Africa.)
Natal was concerned not only with the poliUcal aspttits of
union, and with its natives and Indian problems, but bad to
safeguard its commercial interests and to deal with a revenue
insufficient for its needs. In 1908 an Income Tax and a Land
Tax Act was passed; the land tax being a halfpenny in the £
*' on the aggregate unimproved value "*4t brought in £30,000
in 1908-X909. Meantime it was agreed by the Cape, Transvaal
and Natal governments that, subject to Natal entering the
Union, its share of the Rand import trade should be 35% before
and 30% after the establishment of the Union. Previously
Natal had only 32^% of the traffic, and this agreement led to a
revival in trade. Moreover, the development of its coal-mines
and agriculture was vigorously prosecuted, and in 19x0 it was
found possible to abolish both the.Incoroe Tax and land Tax
and yet have a surplus in revenue. The closing months of
Natal's existence as a separate colony thus found her peaceful
and prosperous. The governor, Sir Matthew Nathan, had
NATAL— NATHANAEL
265
rerarned to Eogland in December xqoq, and Lord Methuen was
governor irom that time imtil the 31st of May 1910. On that
date the union of South Africa was established, Natal becoming
one of the Qrlgin;!] pnuxincL^^ ni the UoJoin.
BiauocRAriiif.— tt. Hyi^ll, The C^ifd^n Coi^tty. Tkt Su^ry of
Satalamdils AVisft/^MJi (Landon, i^iu tflj, a ^txni gutttr^t accouat;
H. Brooks (ftJkrd by R, J, M^nn), Natal, thiU^ry mml DeH^^^ion
tf tkt Colony, tffc, {Lonik)!), 1S76); J, F, lOErnTn^ NaJalnj. e t.7«-
ienud Histoty ef tke Ejpkrsittm and Cnhnu^aiwn vf Nu^Ud *ind
ZtdtdaHd (Lcn.^on, ]^7h ^' F"- Luc^^p llnUtrifoi Gs^imphy vf the
Briiish CdmtP.K vol. iv. ''" South and^ Eia*i Africa " (Oxford, i^>7),
aUo general ^urvei'*. ^ TTBmiizth-Cnxiu^ry Imt^r^Ttfru c/ i^'iital
(Looooo, lOO'^i') drali with the pcoplr^, commerce, industrirs rj,nd
resources 01 the colony; the Censia of tfu CoUfny 0/ Natatr April
tga4 (Maritibur^, t9^5) contain :» a Lir^c amount of duthariLicive
ioibnnatkm; Tic Nglut Almanac i§ a directory and ytarly stri^iTter
published at Ml^ritiburg. See alwj the ofhclal SUiiisiwixt Year 3\'ok.
For the native inhabitants, besidei the works quoted undt-T Kaffirs,
valuable infor:riJ.t ion wilt be found in Native Customi. H.C. 393 O^m).
the Report tffi^f Nant Af airs' CtfmmUsitm. ic<>^i^7, Cd. ;>>i89
(1908); the r.iivrt iff tiu sintik AJrUan AToJirv Affairs' Li'mmisaan,
1903-tgos, Cd. 2y^ {1905); and other pnfiiatncnUfy papers
(consult The Cjiemml Omcr List. London, yearly)'.
For detailed hiitoncaT study consult C M. Thcal, ilhlcry oj South
Africa, 1834- t^S 4 (Ijondon, 1893), fdth notes on cirJy boi:il;^ on
NataL Aroor:>j ihese the most valuable anr: M. lsiac%, Tfuvth jud
AitentMres w Eojiem Africa. . . . viih a Sketch of NataS {i vois..
Loodod. 1836); H. Cloete, Emipalion of the Dutch Farmers from
the Cape and their Settlement %n Naial. . . (Cape Town. 1856).
reprinted as The History rf the Great Boer Treh (London. 1899). an
authoritative record; J. C. Chaae. Natal, a Reprint of all Authentic
NaHus. &c (Grahamstown. 1843); W. C Holden. History of the
Celony of Natal (London. 1855); J. Bird. The Annals of Natal,
1405 to 1^45 {2 vols., Maritzburg, 1888), a work of permanent value,
cunautiflg of oflidal records, ac.; Sbepstone, Historic Shetch of
Natal (1&4). See also South Africa Handboohs, useful reprints from
the paper South Africa (London, N.D. (1900 ct seq.]); Martineau's
Lift of Sir Barde Frere, the Autobiography of Svr Harry Smith, and
Sir J. Robinson's A Li/etttne in South A/nca (London. 1901) ; George
Union, or the First Years of an Enfdish Colony (London, 1876).
Bishop A. H. Bayncs's Handboohs ef En^ish Church Expansion.
Settth Africa (London, N.D. [1908]) gives the story of the Coienso
cootroversy and its results.
Fv further historical works and for information on flora, fauna,
cSmate. law. church, &c. see the bibliography under South Africa.
(See also Zm.mji»D : Bibliography.) (F. R. C.)
lATAU a dty and port of Brazil and capital of the state of
Rio Grande do Norte, on the right bank of the Rio Potengy,
or Rio Grande do Norte, about 2 m. above its mouth. Pop. of
the municipality (1890) 13.735. Natal is the starting-point of
the Natal and Nova Cruz railway, and is a port of call for coast-
vise steamers, which tisually anchor outside the bar. It is a
stagnant, poorly built town of one-storeyed houses and mud-
walled cabins, with few public edifices and business houses of
a better type. The only industry of note is the manufacture
of cotton. The exports are chiefly sugar and cotton. Natal was
founded in 1597 as a military post to check an illicit trade in
BruH-wood. In 1633 it was occupied by the Dutch, who
remained until 1654. It became the capital of a province in
rSza In early works it is sometimes termed Cidade dos Rcis
(C^ ol the Kings).
HATAIIZ* a minor province of Persia, situated in the hilly
(fistiict between Isfahan and Kashan, and held in fief by the
family of the Hissam es Saltaneh (Sultan Murad Mirza, d. 1883).
It contains eighty-two villages and hamlets, has a revenue of
about £4000, and a population of about 33,000. It is divided
ntto foor districts: Barzrud, Natanzrud, Tarkrud and Badrud.
Natanz pears are famous throughout the country. The western
pan of the province is traversed from north to south by the
dd high-^oad between Kashan and Isfahan, with the well-known
stations of Kuhrud (7140 ft.) and So (7560 ft.). This road was
pncticaUy abandoned when the Indian government telegraph
fine, which ran along it, was removed to a road farther east in
1906. The capital <rf the little province is NATAifZ, a large village
with a popnlation of about 3000, situated 69 m. north of Isfahan,
tt an eievatjon of 5670 ft. It has an old mosque, with a minaret
12$ ft in hei ght, buHt in 1315.
lATCBEZ. a dty and the county-seat of Adams county,
Umampfi, U.S.A., on the Misiissipi^ river, about 100 m. S.W.
of Jadaon. Pop. (1890) 10,101, (1900) 13,310, of whom 7090
were negroes, (19x0 census) 11,791. It is served by the
Yazoo & Mississippi Valley, the St Louis, Iron Moimtain &
Southern, the New Orleans & North- Western and the Mississippi
Central railways, and by steamboats on the Mississippi river.
The dty, which has an area of 3*19 sq. m., is mostly on a bluff
that rises 300 ft. above the river, the wharfs and landings, and a
few old buildings being the only reminders of what was before
the Civil War the prindpal business section. Among the dty's
institutions are the Fisk Public Library, a charity hospital,
two sanatoriums, three orphan asylums, Stanton College for
girls (non-sectarian; opened in 1894 and lodged hi the old Fisk
mansion), St Joseph's College for girls, the Jefferson Military
College (1803), 6 m. from the dty, and Natchez College for
negroes. The dty has four public parks, three on the river
front, and one. Memorial Park, in honour of Confederate dead,
in the heart of the dty. On a neighbouring bluff is a national
cemetery. Just outside the dty limits, at Gloster, the former
estate of Winthrop Sargent, first governor of the Territory of
Mississippi, are the graves of Saigent and S. S. Prentiss, who lived
in Natchez for some years. In and near the dty are many
handsome old residences typical of ante-bellum Natchez, among
them bdng: Monmouth, General (^tman's estate; Somerset
and Oakland, long in the Chotard family; and The Briars,
the home during girlhood of Varina Howell, the wife of Jefferson
Davis. A Roman Catholic cathedral (1841), Trinity Protestant
Episcopal Church (1835) and a Presbyterian diuxch (18^9)
are the prindpal church buildings. The Prentiss and the Elk
are the leading dubs. Mardi Gras is annually celebrated. The
leading industries are the shipment of cotton (70,000 to 90,000
bales are handled annually) and the manufacture of cottonseed
oil and cake — ^the first cottonseed-oil mill in the country was
built here in 1834— cotton goods, rope and yams, lumber,
brick, drugs and ice. Natchez was the first dty in the state to
own municipal water-works and sewage system.
The dty was named from the Natchez Indians who lived on
its site when the country was first settled. In 17x6 on the bluff
Le Moyne de Bienville built Fort Rosalie for the protection of
some French warehouses, and later the French demanded a
neighbouring hill for another settlement. This offended the
Natchez, and on the 38th of November 1739 they massacred the
French and destroyed the fort, which was immediately rebuilt,
and in 1764 was handed over to the English in accordance with
the treaty of Paris, and became Fort Panmure; in 1779 it was
turned over to the Spanish, who held it until 1798, when they
withdrew and United States troops occupied the place. Under
Spanish rule Natchez was the seat of government of a large district,
and from X798 to 1803 and from 181 7 to 183 1 it was the capital of
MississippL It was chartered as a dty in 1803. On the 7th of
May 1840 a large part of the dty was destroyed by a tornado,
but it was soon rebuilt, and at the outbreak of the Civil War was
a place of considerable wealth and culture. For several years it
was the home of General John Anthony i^tman (x 799-1858).
Natchez surrendered to Union forces during the Vicksburg
campaigns, first on the i3th of May 1863, and again on the
13th of July 1863. On the 3nd of September 1863 the
Union iron-dad "Essex," commanded by William David
Porter, bombarded the dty and put an end to the commercial
importance of the river front section.
NATHANAEL, a character in the New Testament, who appears
in John i. 45 sqq. as one of the first disciples of Jesus. In John
xxi. 3 he is described as bdonging to Cana of Galilee. The
account of his call reveals to us a man of a deeply spiritual
and sincere nature. Otherwise we know nothing beyond the
mention of his name as one of the seven to whom, after the
Resurrection, Christ revealed himself at the sea of Tiberias
Qohn xxi. 2). But the interest he has evoked b shown by the
attempts to identify him with other New Testament characters.
Of these the one which has found most favour sees in him
the apostle Bartholomew (q.v.),. The actual identification must
however remain a matter of pure conjecture. Still less can
be said for the . attempts to find in Nathanad another
name for the apostle Matthew, or for Matthias, or for Paul " the
266
NATHUBHOY, SIR M-— NATIONAL DEBT
apostle of visioiis," or even for the writer of the Fourth Gospel
himself.
Bibliography.— For the story of Nathanad's call see Archbishop
Trench. Studies in lk$ Cospds, No. a, and on his charscter, J. H.
Newman's Sermons for the festivals of the Churcht No. 77.
NATHUBHOY. SIR MANGALDAS (1832-18^;, Seth or head
of the Kapol Baola caste» well known for their thrift and keen
commercial instincts. He was bom on the 15th of October
1833, of a family whose ancestors emigrated from Diu to
Bombay soon after Bombay came into British possession. His
grandfather, Ramdas Manordas, amassed a considerable fortune,
which, owing to the premature death of his father, came into
the sole possession of Mangaldas at the age of eleven. He had
to take charge of the business in early life, though he gave some
time to English studies. On the death of his wife he esublished
a dispensary at Kaljran in her memory and also a special female
ward in connexion with the David Sassoon hospital in Poona.
As a merchant Mangaldas was upright and stiocessfuL In social
matters he stood forth as a reformer, and to him the change to
election from hereditary succession to the headship of the caste
is due. In 1863 he founded a fellowship in Bombay university
to allow graduates to spend some years in Europe. A bequest
in his will enabled the university to establish sewn similar
scholarships. He took keen interest in learning, and in such
institutions as the Asiatic and geographical societies. In x866
he was nominated to the legislative council and sat till 1874.
In 1867 he revived the Bombay association, a political body,
over which he presided for a time. In 1873 he was made C.S.I.,
and in 1875 the dignity of Knight Bachebr was conferred on
him. Besides a large donation to the Indian Famine Fund,
Sir Mangaldas is known to have expended £500,000 on charities.
He died at Bombay on the 9th of March 1890
NATICK, a township of S.E. Middlesex county, Massachusetts,
U.S.A., on the S.E. end of Cochituate Lake. Pop. (1890) 91x8;
(1900) 9488, of whom 1788 were foreign-bom; (1910 census)
9866. The area of the township is X 3-375 sq.m. The township's
brgest village, also named Natick, lying 18 m. W.S.W. of Boston,
is served by the Boston & Albany raikoad; it has the Walnut
Hill preparatory school, the Leonard Morw hospital, and a public
library, the Morse institute, which was given by Mary Ann
Morse (1825-1863) and was built in 1873. In the village of
South Natick is the Bacon Free Library (1880), in which is
housed the Historical, Natural History and Library Society.
In 1905 the factory product was valued at $3,453,094; the
boou and shoes manufactured in X905 were valued at $3,896,1 10
or 83*9% of the town's total, the output of brogans being
espedally important. Other distinctive manufactures are shins
and base-balls. Natick is the Indian name, signifying "our
land," or " hilly land," of the site (originaUy part of Dedham)
granted in 1650 to John Eliot, for the " prsying " Indians.
There was an Indian church in Natick, at what is now called
South Natick or " Oldtown," from 1660 to 17x6; and for some
years the community was govemed, in accordance with the
eighteenth chapter of Exodus, by "rulers of tens," "rulers
of fifties," and " rulers of hundreds." Until 17x9 the Indians
held the land in common. In 1735 the few Indians remaining
were put under guardianship. The township owns a copy
of Eliot's Indian Bible. An Eliot monument was erected in
1847 on the Indian buxying-ground near the site of the Indian
church, now occupied by a Unitaiian church. Of the Eliot
oaks, made famous by LongfeUow's sonnet, one was cut down
in 1843, the other still stands. Henry Wilson learned to make
shoes here, and in the presidential <*■ t«p«t(p in 1840 gained the
sobriquet of the " Natick cobbler." By the colonial authorities
Natick mi considered as a " plantation " unto the establishmeiit
of the church; in 1763 the parish (erected in 1745) became a
district, and in x 78 x this was incorporated as a town.
See " Natick/* by S. D. Hosmer. Daniel Wight and Austin Bacon,
in vol. 2 of S. A. Drske's History of Middlesex County (Boston, 1880) ;
and aiver N. Bacon, History of the Town of Natick (Boston, 1856).
If ATIOlf AL AMTHBIIS OR HYMNS. The selection of some
particular songs, words and music, as the formal expression
of national patriotism, is a comparatively modem development
of ceremonial usage. In Europe the chief natknal •*»■»— t
are: The United Kingiomi " God save the king " (see below);
France: "The Marseillaise," by Rouget de Lisle; Cermamyi
"Heil dir im Siegeskranai" words by Bslthasar Gerhard
Schumacher, music of " God save the King "; Stritterlandi
" Rufst du, mein Vaterland," music of " God save the King ";
Italy: the " Royal Maidi " by G. GabetU; Austria: " Gott
erhalte unsem Kaiser," words by L» L» Hsschka, music by
Haydn; Hungary: " Isten aid meg a Magyart "; Bdgimmi
" La Brabanconne," by F. Campenhoat; HeOand: ** Wica
Nierlansch "; Denmark: " Heil dir, dem Liebenden," words
by H. Harries, music of "God save the King," and "King
Kiistian stod ved hojen mast," words by Ewaki, music by
Hartman; Sweden: "Ur Svenska hjeitans"; Russia:
"Bozhe Zaria chrany," words by J. J. Canas, music by D.
Jenko; Rumania: " Trseasca Re^^e," words by V. Alexandri,
music by £. A. Hflbsch; Spain: " Himno de Riq(o," music
by Herta. In the United States, the " Star SpaniM Banner "
(18x4; words by F.S. Key, music by J. S. Smith) and " KaH
Columbia" (1798; words by Joseph Hopkinson, music by
Fyles) share the duties of a national anthem, while the tune
of " God save the King " is sung to words beginning " My
country, 'tis of thee," by Samuel F. Smith (1808-1895).
The most celebrated of all national anthems is the F.nglttfi
" God save the King," which is said to have been fixst sung
as his own composition by Henry Carey in 1740; and a veruon
was sssigned by W. Chappell {Popular Music) to the Harmonia
An^icana of 1743 or X743, but no copy exists and this is now
doubted. Woids and music were printed in the Gendemean^s
Magasine for October 1745. There has been much contiovcfsy
as to the authorship, which is complicated by the fact Jtbat
earlier forms of the air and the words are recorded. Sucbi are
an " Ayre " of 16x9, attributed to John Bull, who has long been
credited with the origin of the anthem; the Scottish cmrol,
" Remember, O thou man," in Ravenscroft's Mdismala, x6xi;
the ballad " Franklin is fled away " (printed 1669; and a
piece in Purcell's Choiu Collection for the Harpsichord (1696).
The words or part of them are also found in various forms from
the x6th century. The question was disoisscd in Richard
Clarke's Account of ike National AntMem (1833), and has been
reinvestigated by Dr W. H. Cummings in his (M sawe the
King (1903). Carey and Bull, in the general opinion of mnsical
historians, divide the credit; but in his Minstrelsy of Bmg^asad
(1901) Frank Kidson introduced a new claimant, James Oawmld*
a Sootsnum who settled in London in X743, and worked for
John Simpson, the publisher of the eariy copies of God sane ike
King, and who became rhsmhrr composer to George UL Wh&t
appears to be certain is that 1745 is the earliest date assignable
to the substantial national anthem as we know it, and that
both words and music had been evolved out of earlier forms.
Bull's is the earliest form of the air; Carey's daim to the i«-
modelling of the anthem rests on an uiuiuthoriutive tradition;
and, on general probabilities, Oswald is a strong candidate.
The tune was adopted by Germany and by Denmark befoie
the end of the x8th centuxy.
. If ATIONAL DEBT. Details as to the recent figures of the
national debts of individusl countries are given under the
heading of each country, and the reader is also referred to the
article FXNANCB. Here the subject is coosidcMd in iU technical
aspects— including the special character of the institution, the
different classes of debt, the various methods of rsising loans,
interest, funding syjitems, comparative sutistics of national
debu and other points.
National debt is so universal that it has been described as
the first stage of a tuition towards dvilixation. A nation, ao
far as its finsnces are concerned, may be regarded as a corporate
body or even as an individual like the one or the other it may
borrow money at rates of interest, and with securities, general
or special, proportionate to its resources, credit and stability.
But, while in this respect there are certain points of analogy
between a state and an individual, there are important points of
difference so far as the question of debt is concerned. A state.
NATIONAL DEBT
267
for enmple, may be regsrded as imperiabable, and iu debt as a
permanent institution idiich it is not bound to liquidate at any
definite period; the interest, unless specially stipulated, being
thus of the nature of transferable permanent annuities. While
an individual who borrom engages to pay interest to the lender
penonally, and to reimbuTse the entire debt by a certain date,
a state may have an entirely difEoent set of creditors every six
months, sod may make no stipulation whatever with regard to
the prindpaL A state, moieovcr, is the sole Judge of its own
solvency, and is not only at liberty dther to repudiate its debu
or compound with its creditors, but even when perfectly solvent
may materially alter the conditions on which it originally
borrowed. These distinctions exphun many of the peculiarities
of natiooal debts as contrasted with those of individuals —
tlMngh a nation, like an ihdividua], may by reckless bad faith
Qttcriy destroy fts credit and eathaust its borrowing powers.
A veil-organized state ought to have within iftelf tlw means of
meeting all its ordinary enpensca; where this is not the case,
eitlier tfaroo^ insufSdency of resources or maladministFstion,
and where borrowing is resorted to for what may be regarded as
cnrreDt npfroips, a state imperils, not only its credit, but, when
any crisis occurs, its very existence; in illustration of this we need
only refer to the cases of Turkey in Europe and some of the states
of Central and South America. Even for meeting emergencies
it is not always inevitable that a sUte should mcur debt; iU
ordinaiy resources, from taxation or from state property, may
so exceed its ordinary expenses as to enable it to accumulate
a hud for extraordinary contingencies. This, it would seem, was
a method commonly adopted in ancient states. The Athenians,
for fiample, amassed 10,000 talents in the interval between the
Penmn and the Peloponnesian wars, and the Lacedaemonians
are said to have done the same. At Susa and Ecbatana Alexander
found a great treasure which had been accumulated by Cyrus,
la the early days of Rome the revenue from certain sources was
accufflolated as a sacred treasure in the temj^e of Saturn;
&ad we know that when Pompey left Italy he made the mistake
of leaving behind him the public treasury, which fell into the
hands of Caesar. In later times, also, the more prudent emperors
vere in the habit of amassing a hoard. We find that the method
of sccomulating reserves prevailed among some of the eariy
French km^ even down to the time of Henry IV. This system
ioDg prevailed in Prussia. Frederick II., when he ascended the
throne, found m the treasury a sum of 8,700,000 thalers, and
it is estimated that at his death he left behind him a hoard of
from 60 to 70 million thalers. And similarly, in our own time,
of the five milliards of indemnity paid by France as a result of
the Fcaaoo-German War, 150 millions were set apart to recon-
stitute the traditional war-treasuiy. The German empire,
apart from the individual states which comprise it, had in r88a
a debt of about £34^ooo»ooo, whfle its invested funds amounted
^^ £37>390«ooo, including a war-treasure of £6,000,000. The
majority of economists disapprove of such an accumulation of
fimds by a state as a bad finanrial policy, maintaining that the
itnuHxm of a proportionate amount of taxation woxild be much
more for the real good of the nation. At the same time the
posKSiioQ of a moderate war-fund, it must be admitted, could
not but give a state a great advantage in the case of a sudden
var. In the case of England, apart from the private hoardings
of a few sovereigns, there does not seem to have existed any
dehlKratdy accumulated public treasure; before the time of
WiDiam and Mary English monarchs borrowed money occasion-
ally fxmn Jews and from the city of London, but emergencies
were generally met by " benevolences " and inaeased imposts.
An modem states, it may be said, have been compelled to
have recourse to loons, either to meet war expenses, to carry out
great paUk undertakhigs or to make up the recurrent deficits of
a mismanaged revenue. Resources obtained in this way are
vhat constitute national debt proper. Loans have been divided
Qto forced and voluntary. Forced loans ran, of course, only be
raised within the bounds of the borrowing country; and, apart
from the injustice which is sure to attend such an impost, it is
*t*ays economically mischievous. The loans which the kings
of England were wont to exact from the Jews were really of
the character of forced loans, though the method has never been
used in England in modem times so extensively as on the
continent. There the sum sought to be obtained in this way has
never been anything like realised. In r793, for example, a loan
of this daas was imposed in France, on the basis of income;
and of the milliard (francs) which it was sought to raise only
100 millions were realised. In Austria and Spain, also, recourse
has been had at various Umcs to forced loans, but invariably
with unsatisfactory results. Other methods of a more or less
compulsory character have been and are mad^ use of in various
states for obtaining money, which, as they involve the payment
of interest, may be regarded as of the nature of loans; but the
debt incurred by such methods is comparatively insignificant,
and some of the methods adopted are peculiarly irritating and
mischievous. . On the other hand, it has occasionally been
attempted to raise voluntary loans by appeals to a nation's
patriotism; the method has been confined almost exclusively
to France. After the revolutiotm of 1830 and 2848 appeab were
thus made to the patriotism of French capitalists to buy 5%
direct from the govemment at par, at a time when the French 5%
were selling at 80; but the results were quite insignificant.
In short, the only economically sound method of meeting ex-
penses which the ordinary resources of a state cannot meet is
by borrowing in the open market on the most advantageous terms
obtainable. On this normal method of borrowing, loans are
divided into different categories, though there are really only
two main classes, which may be designated perpetual and
terminable. Borrowing in quasi-perpetuity has hitherto been
the mode adopted by most states in the creation of the bulk of
their debt. Not that any state ever borrows with the avowed
intention of never payhig off debts; but cither no definite
period for letmbunciinent is fixed, or the limit has been so
extended as to be practically perpetual, or in actual practice
the debt has been got rid of by the creation of another of equal
amount under similar or slightly differing conditions as to interest.
Of course a state is not bound to retain any' part of its debt as
a perpetual burden; it is at Uberty to liquidate whenever it suits
its convenience. This quasi-perpetuity of debt in the case of a
state in a sound financial condition involves no hardship upon its
creditors, who may at any moment realize their invested capita]
by selling their titles as creditors in the open money market, it
may be at the price they paid, or it may be a h'ttle below or a
little above it, according to the state of the market at the time.
Loans, again, contracted on the terminable principle are of
various cUases; the chief of these are (i) life annuities, (2)
terminaUe annuities, (3) bans repayable by instalments at
certain intervals, (4) loans repayable entirely at a fixed date.
From the time of William IU. life and terminable annuities
have been a favourite mode in England either of borrowing
money or of commuting, and thus gradually paying off, the
existing funded debt. At first, and indeed until comparatively
recent times, the system of life annuities resulted in serious loss
to the country, owing to the calculation of the rate of annuity
on too high a scale, a result arising from imperfect data on which
to base estimates of the average duration of life. The system of
life armuities was sometimes combfaied in England with that of
perpetual annuities, or interest on the permanent debt — the
life aimuity forming a sort of additional inducement to lenders
of limited means to invest their money. At one time the form
of life annuities known as tontine was much in vogue both in
England and France, the principle of the tontine bdng that the
proceeds of the total amount invested by the contributors
should be divided among the survivors, the Isist survivor receiving
the whole interest or annuity. The results of this system were
not. however, encouraging to the state. In England, at least,
the terminable annuity has been a favourite mode of borrowing
from the time of William m.; it has been generally conjoined
with a low rate of permanent interest on the sum borrowed.
Thus in 2700 the mterest on the consolidated debt amounted
to only £260,000, while the terminable annuities pa>'able
amounted to £308,407-. • In 1780 a loan of 12 millions was raised
268
NATIONAL DEBT
at 4% &t pftr, with the additional benefit of an annuity of
lif 1 6s. 3d. % for eighty years. Even so late as the Crimean
Wai in 1855, a loan of x6 millions at 3% at par was contracted,
the contributors receiving in addition an annuity of 143. 6d.%
for thirty years.
The third method of contracting terminable loans, that of
gradual repayment or amortization within a certain limit of
years, has been a favourite one among certain nations, and
specially commends itself to those whose credit is at a low ebb.
When the final term of repayment is fixed upon, a calculation is
easily made as to how much is to be paid half-yearly until the
expiry of the term, so that at the end the whole, principal and
interest, will have been paid. At first, of course, the amount
paid will largely represent interest, but, as at each half-yearly
drawing of the numbers of the bonds to be finally paid off the
principal will be gradually reduced, there will be more and more
money set free from interest for the reduction of the actual debt.
This method, as we have said, has its advantages, and when
conjoined with stipulations as to liberty of conversion to debt
bearing a lower rate of interest than that originally offered, and
when the bonds are not issued at a figure much below par,
might be the most satisfactory method of raising money for a
sute under wcertain emergencies. What is known as the " Morgan
loan " of France in 1870 was contracted on such conditions.
The last form of temporary loan, that repayable in bulk at a
fixed date, is one which, when the sum is of considerable amount,
b apt to be attended with serious disadvantages. The repayment
may Iiave to be made at a time when a state may not be in a"
position to meet it, and so to keep faith with its creditors may
have to borrow at a higher rate in order to pay their claims.
It has, however, worked well in the United States, most of the
debt of which has been contracted on the principle of optional
payment at the end cf a short period, say five years, and com-
pulsory payment at the end of a longer period, say twenty years.
Thus the loan of 515 millions of dollars contracted in 1 86a was
issued on this principle, at 6%, and so with other loans between
that year and 1868. In European states, however, the risks
of embarrassment are too great to permit of the application
of this method on an extensive scale; and for loans of great
amount the methods most likely to yield satisfactory results
are loans bearing quasi-perpetual Interest, or those repayable
by instalments on the basis of half-yearly drawings within a
certain period.
What are known as lottery loans are greatly favoured on the
continent, either as an independent means of raising money, or
as an adjunct to any of the methods referred to above. These
must not be confounded with the lottery pure and simple, in
which the contributors run the risk of losing the whole of their
investment. The lottery loan has been found to work well for
small sums, when the interest is but little bdow what it would
have been in an ordinary loan, and when the percentage thus
set aside to form prizes of varying amounts forms but a small
fraction of the whole interest payable. The principle is that
each contributor of such a loan has a greater or less chance of
drawing a prize of varying amount, over and above the repayment
of his capital with interest.
What are known in England as exchequer bills and treasury
bills may be regarded as loans payable at a fixed period of short
duration, from three months upwards, and bearing very in-
significant interest, even so low as i%. They are a useful
means of raising money for immediate wants and for local loans,
and form handy investments for capitalists who are reserving
their funds for a special purpose. Exchequer bonds are simply
a special form of the funded dfbt, to be paid off generally within
a certain period of yean.
.There are two prindpal methods- of issuing or effecting a loan.
Either the state may appeal directly to capiulists and invite sub-
scriptions, or it may delegate the negotiation to one or more bankers.
The former method has been occasionally followed in France and
Russia, but in practice it has been found to be attended with so
many disadvanta^ to the borrowing state or dty that the best
financial authorities consider it unsound. The great banking-
houses have such a command over the money-marlnt that it is
difficult to keep even a direct loan out of their hands. The majority
of loans, therefore, are negotiated by one or more of these bouses,
and the name of Rothschild is familiar to every one in connexion
with such transactions. By thu method a borrowing state can
assure itself of having the proceeds of the kian with the least poasible
delay and with the minimum of trouble. A loan may be issued at,
above, or below par, though senerally it is either at or bdow par—
" par " being the normal or tneoreti(^ price 6f a single share m the
loan, the sum which the borrowing government undertakes to pay
back for each share on reimbursement, without discount or premium.
Very generally, as an inducement to investors, a loan is offered at a
greater or less discount, according to the credit of the borrowii^
government. Sometimes a sute may offer a loan to the highest
bidders; for exaiftple, the city of Auckland in 1875 invited sub-
scriptions through the Bank M New Zealand to a loan of £100,000
at 6%; offcn were made of six times the amount, but only thcMe
were accepted which were at the rate of 98 % or above. The rate of
interest offered generally depends on the credit of the state issuing
,_ I percen _ ,
always an index o( the cost of a loan to a state, as the history of
the debt o( England disastrously shows. During the i8th century
various expedients were employed, besides that of terminabte
annuities already referred to, to raise money for the great wan
of the period, at an apparently low perocnuge. For example, from
3 to 5% would be offered for a loan, the actual amount of stock
per cent, allotted being sometimes 107 1 or even in; so that
between 1776 and 1785, for the £91,763.8^2 actually borrowed by
the government. £115.267,993 was to be paid back. In 1797 a loan
of £1.620,000 was contraa«l, for every £100 of which actually
subscribed, at 3%. the sum of £219 was allotted to the lender.
In 1793 a 3 % loan of 4I millions was offered at the price of £72 %,
the government thus making itself liable for £6,250.000. Greatly
owing to this reckless method the debt of Great Britain in 1815
amounted to over 900 millions. France in this respect has been
quite as extravagant as England; many of her loans during the
19th century were issued at from 52^ to 84%, one indeed (1848)
so low as 45%— as a rule with 5% interest. The enormous and
embarrassing increase of the French debt during the loth century
was doubtless greatly due to this disastrous system. Nearly cwry
European state and most of the Central and South American states
have at one time or another aggravated their debu by this method
<A borrowing, and got themselves into difficulty irith their creditors.
Financiera almost unanimously maintain that in the long run it is
much better for a sute to borrow at high interest at or near par.
than at an apparently low interest much below par. A sute of even
the highest rank may find itself in the midst 01 a crisis that will for
a time shake its cr«lit; but when the crisis is past and its credit
revives it will be in a much more sound position with a high intctcst
for a debt contracted at par than with a comparatively low interest
on a debt much in excess of what it really received. If a state, for
example, borrows at par at 6% when its credit is low, it may easily
when again in a flourishing condition reduce the interest on its debt
to a or even 3%. The United States eovemment actually did so
with the debt it had to contract at the time of the Civil War. This
method of reducing the burden of a debt is evklently no injustice to
the creditors of a government, when used in a legitimate way. A
sute is at liberty at any time to pay off iu debts, and, if it can
borrow at 3% to pay off a 6%4lebt, it may with perfect justice
offer its creditors the optk>n of payment of the principal or of holding
it at a reduced interest. Government debts are, however, sometimes
redu<»d after a fashion by no means so legitimate as this. Other
sUtes have been even more unprincipled, and have g^ rid of their
debts at one sweep by the simple method of repudiation.
When a sUte has a variety of loans at varying rates of interest,
it may consolidate them into a single debt at a uniform interest.
For example, in I7<SI several descriptions of English debt were con-
solidated into one fund bearing a uniform interest of 3%, an opera-
tion which gave origin to the familiar term " consols " (*' consoli-
dated annuities "). In the eariy days of the English national debt,
a special tax or fund was appropriated to the payment of the interest
on each particular loan. This was the original meaning of " the
funds." a term which has now come to sisnify the national debt
generally. So also the origin of the term " funded " as applied to a
debt which has been recognized as at least quasi-permanent, and for
the payment of the interest on which regular provision is made.
Unfunded or floating debt, on the other hand, means strictlv kans
for which no permanent provision requires to be made, which ha\'e
been obtained for temporary purposes with the intention of paying
them off within a brief penod. Exchequer and treasury bills are
included in this category, and such other moneys in the hands of a
government as it may be required to reimburse at any moment.
Where a government is the recipient of savings banks deposits, these
may be included in iu floating debt, and so also may the papers
money which has been issued so largely by some governments. A
state with an excessive floating debt must be regarded as m a very
critical financial condition. ... . .
National debt, again, is divided into external and internal, accord-
ing as the loans have been raised within or without the country—
NATIONAL DEBT
269
, the smalter ones, having
amount of ocFusively internal debt, though it is obvioiu that the
balk of lational debts are both external and intecnal.
We referred above to various ways of reducing the burden of a
debt, and also to methods of contracting loans by which within a
certain period they are amortised or extinguished. Most states,
hovcrer. are burdened with enormous quasi-pennanent debts, the
reduction or extinction of which gives ample scope for the financial
sidO of statesmen. A favourite method of accomplishing this is by
the csUbliahment of what is known as a sinking 'fund, formed by
the setting aside of a certain amount of national revenue for the
redaction of the principal of the debt. (J* S. K.)
The following table shows the general state of the world's
public indebtedness at the beginning of the 20th century, divided
according to the loore important cotintries, the bracketed
figures in black type indicating the position of the country
referred to under each heading in the list. The figures are given
by preference for the year zgoo, as more representative, in a case
like this, than for some later years; for the Boer War, as regards
the United Kingdom, and also the Russo-Japanese War, intro-
duced new debt and new considerations, hardly fair to the
comparison, while this stands at the end of a long period of
peace. The figures in every case are not to be supposed to be
absdtttely accurate; statistics of national debts differ, often
ranarkabiy, and it is practically impossible to give a perfectly
satisfactory comparison, owing partly to difficulties of computing
the exchange, partly to inaccurate accounts, and partly to the
varieties of debt (reproductive or non-reproductive, &c).
Kingdom (756 mlDlolis) stood second to that of France (1000
millions), in 1900 it stood third to France and Russia; whereas
in 1883 iu wdgfat per head of population was third, in 1900 it
was eleventh: whereas in 1883 its annual charge stood second.
In 1900 it stood fourth; and whereas the weight of the charge
per head of population in 1883 was fifth, in 1900 it was eleventh.
The indebtedness of the great British dependencies, on the
other hand, had increased from 303 millions to 544 millions
sterling, or by 243 millions; and the local (municipal) debt of
Great Britain had risen from about 100 millions to upwards of
300 millions.
It is interesting to recall the history of the British national
debt during the 19th century. The debt at the ckne of the
Napoleonic war (18x6) was nearly 887 millions sterling, mmmx
and at the be^tung of 2900 this debt had been •/
reduced to 62 1 millions,* or a decrease of 266 millions — Btm»h
notwithstanding interim additions of about 367 ^"^
millions, which made the gross reduction during that period
633 millions sterling, an amount actually larger than the whole
(dead- weight*) debt at the end of the century. No country
(except the United States, to a smaller amount) has ever
redeemed its obligations on such a scale, and this was done
while all other European countries of similar standing were
piling up debt.
This enormous reduction was effected at different rates of
speed. Between 18x7 and 1830, when what was known as
The PrincipQl PiMk DeU» of the World, tgoo.
Country.
Population.
Total Debt.
Per Head.
Annual Charge.
Per Head.
The Unitsd Kincix>m
BsrrisB Domikioms ovbe Sba-
India . . , . .
Australian States
New Zealand . . . .
Canada
apeCokmy , . . .
Natal
France
Russia
Anstxia
Hangary
Italy ....
United States of America
Spain ....
TudEey . . . -
Ejypt ....
Pnusa ....
Gennaa Empire .
PonunI
Holland . . .
Bc%ium
Japaa ....
China ....
Arfcntina
Bfaril ....
40.909.925
330,000,000
3.707.905
8t 5,830
5.338,883
1,527,324
„ 902.365
38.517.975
I39,3tt,113
35,886,000
19.203.531
32449.754
76^03,387
18,089,500
33,880,000
9,734,000
3^473,509
50.345.000
5.049.729
5.104,137
6,744,000
43.759.577
390,000.000
4400,000
17,000,000
(3) £638,978,782
(II) £15 7 6
(4) £33.216,657
(II) £0 II 4
210,333,937
195.324.717
47,874,^53
9.019.143
1,086.315,535
656,000,000
358438.000
i8a,6oo,ooo
586,000,000
393,316.365
433.283,066
170,000,000
103.372,000
329,584,000
118,554.789
177.192,795
96,561,287
104,551,000
52,903.000
55,000,000
103,000,000
81,710.000
o 18 6
52 13 o
58 12 o
10 o o
18 5 o
10 o o
38 4 o
520
13 16 II
9 14 o
18 o o
3 15 6
24 I 5
700
10 13 4
9 7
3 3
?i.S
15 13
« 4
o 3
23 13
4 16
6,595.732
7.595.074
1,717.910
3,678496
1.331.737
350,204
49.844.652
39,000,000
14,067,000
11.977,6^
37,000,000
6,709,036
16,743,385
5,148450
4,333,379
13.923.170
3,794461
4434.243
2,926,553
3,330404
3.176,759
3.000,000
6,301419
The total indebtedness of the cotmtries named in the table
imoonted to £6,311,017,478, and the total indebtedness of the
worid (t/. including coimtries not here mentioned) for the year
1898 was computed by Lord Avebury {Jotam. Roy. Stat, Soc.
voL bdv. part L) as £6433,757,000, as against £5,097,910,000
iQ 1S88. This compares (taking figures compiled by Mr Dudley
Baxter itt/MTff. Roy.Stat. Soc., March 1874) withatotal mdebted-
QOB of 4680 miUions sterling in 1874 and 1700 millions sterling
in 1848. The United Kingdom had diminished its total debt
saa 1883 by 137 millions, the amount per head by £6, the annual
charge by 6 millions, and the charge per head by 5s. 8d. The
Waited States debt was lower by nearly a himdred millions.
Japan, Egypt and Brazil had sensibly improved their positions.
Bat the uAomng countries bad increased theu: debts: France
(by 86 milfions), Russia (by some 340 millions), Italy (by ^40
iiAns), Austria^Hungaiy (by 70 millions), Spain (by 190
auQIoQs), Prussia (by 337 mfllions), Portugal (by 80 millions),
HoIIaod (by 18 miBons), Bdgiiun (1^33 millions), and Argentina
(bjr 73 miUiofis).
JU result is that, whereas in 188^ the total debt of the United
Pitt's sinking fund was in operation (depending upon the
devotion of surplus income to the repayment of debt, but much
complicated by the raising of fresh loans), a net reduction was
made of £29,488,072 — an annual average of £2,268,313. From
1830 to 1876 the system of using surplus revenue — the so-called
old sinking fund — ^for redeeming debt, was steadily applied,
together with the creation of terminable annuities, by which
definite blocks Qf debt were cancelled and the mhxAe amount
paid off in a term of years. During this period the debt was
reduced by £85,175,782, an annual average of £1,851,647. In
1876 Sir Stafford Northcote's (Lord Iddesleigh's) new sinking
fund came into operation, in aiddition to previous methods of
redeeming debt By this system a definite annusl sum was set
aside for tHe service of the debt, the difference between it and
^ Leaving out of account 8 millions of unfunded debt raised for
the Boer War.
■ The " dead-weight " debt, or national debt proper, excludes what
are treated in the public accounts as "other capital liabilities." the
interest on which is not included in the fixed charge; but it is taken
to include the new debt of all sorU raised in 1900, 1901 and 1902
for the Boer Wv •
270
NATIONAL DEBT
the amount required for payment of interest forming a (new)
sinking fund devoted to repayment of capital This fixed chuge
was gndually reduced from about 29 niillions to a6 millions in
1888, to 25 millions in xSgo, and to 23 millions in 1899.
The amount paid off during this period by means of old
sinking fund, terminable annuities and new sinking fund, down
to March X900, was £x 55)238,639, or an annual average of
£6468,276.
It will be observed that the burden of the debt incurred
previously to 28x7 has thus been borne very unequally by
different ages of " posterity." While the generations immedi-
ately succeeding the Napoleonic war paid off about £2,000,000
a year, the taxpayers between X876 and X900 paid at three
times that rate. They did so largely without knowing it, since
a large part of the amount was wrapped up in the terminable
aimuities; but it is very questionable justice that so laxge a
proportion of the. burden should have been imposed upon
them.
The great bulk of the funded national debt consists of what
axe known as " consols." This name dates from X751, when
nine different government annuities at 3% were
consolidated into one, amoimting to* £9,137,82 x.
These '* consolidated annuities " formed the germ of what has
since become the type of British government stock. At the same
time some of the annuities at a higher rate of interest were
combined and the interest reduced to 3%, and this stock
was known as "reduced," the two 3% stocks remaining
side by side, until in 1854 the 3}% government stock was
also converted into 3%, under the style of "new threes."
"Consols," "reduced" and "new threes" formed thenceforth
a solid body of British 3% stock, until in 1888 the whole
amount was converted (see Conversions below) by Mr (after-
wards Lord) Goschen into 2!%. "Consols" were added to
from time to time when fresh loans were needed: from
39 millions in X77X they rose to 71 millions
in 1781, to xox millions m 1783, 278
millions in x8ox, 334 millions in x8zi,
and 400 millions in 1858; but in x888
they had decreased, by redemptions, to
£322,681,035. " Reduced " were also added
to: from 17 millions in X75Z they rose to
X64 millions in 18x5, and then gradually
diminished to xos millions in X869, and to £68,912,433 in
X887, when they were converted with "consols" into the
new consols (or " Goschens ") at 2i%» to be reduced to 2)%
in X903.
The lowest price ever quoted for ** consols" was 47I on 20th
September X797, owing to the mutiny at the Nore; the highest
was 1x4 in X896 owing* to scarcity of stock, the operation of the
sinking funds, and the demand for investment of savings bank
moneys.
The high premium to which conads roie towards the end of
the century may be briefly explained. Pari passu with the re-
duction of the debt went a dwindlins of the amount of consols
open to investors, and hence occurrea a continued normal appre-
ciation of the stock. In 1817 the amount of British government
stock per head of the population was £40, los.; in 1896 this figure
had decreased to £14* 12s. The ordinary law of supply and demand
would therefore m any case tend to increase the pnoe of govern-
ment stock. This has always happened. The amount of 3^
diminished from 528 milUons in 181 7 to 498 in 1827, and to 407 m
1837, and the average prices in these years were 73, 83 and 90;
additions were made to the stock, and in 1847 (the amount beine
910 milUons) the price was 86|; again the amount decreased, and
in 1852 (SCO millions) the prke was 98 ; then a ^reat conversion raised
the amount to 734 millions in 1854, and the price went down to 90I ;
but by 1887 the amount decreased by about 200 millions, and the
price rose well above par: and though the reduction in interest in
1888 set back the price, it rose a^n as the amount of available
stock diminished. Many causes, into which it is not necessary to
enter, operated no doubt in keeping up the demand for British
government credit. Moreover, apart from the fact that in 1882
there were 689 millions of 3% and in 1900 only 501 millions
of 2|% in existence, the amount held by government departments
and therefore mactically locked up from the market, gradually
increased, until from tnis cause alone the amount of available
stock was diminished by upwards of 200 millions; and a larRe
amount mote was practkally locked tip by being hekl by trustees,
or by banks, insurance societies, &c. The savings banks deposit*,
increasing as they did by about £1.000,000 per month (owing partly
to the raising in 1894 of the nuiximum limit), had to be invesied
in government securities: and the compulsory activity of the
government as a buyer of consols, both on this account and also
for sinkiiMt fund purposes (in order to obtain stock to redeem debt
on the increased scale already indicated) operated as an abnornul
cause for sending the price of consols high above par. Even at that
figure (the average prices for consols Being 101 1^ in 1894, xo6| in
1805, iio| in 1896, Ii2i| in 1897, iio|S in 1898 and io6i— having
fallen owing to war prospecu— in 1899) it was difficult for the govern-
ment broken to obtain consols, and it was principally owing to this
sute of things that in 1890 Sir Michael Hicks-Beach reduced the
fixed annual charge for the (kbt (and pro tanto the new sinking fund)
from £25,000,000 to £23,000,000.
It may be useful to give the figures for the British national
debt in 1902, after the disturbance due to the South African
War. During the years X900 and 190X the new sinking fund was
suspended, as well as the payments on the terminaUe annuity
debt applicable to repayment of capital (except in so far as
annuities to individuals were concerned); so that the debt was
not reduced, as it would otherwise have been, by £4,547,000 in
X900 and by £4,68x,ooo in t90x. On the contrary, it was
increased by itah borrowings. Consols were raised (in 1901 and
X902) to the extent of £92,000,000; a " War Loan " of 2!%
stock and bonds, redeemable in X9X0, was raised (1900) to the
amount of £30,000,000; 2!% exchequer bonds were raised
(in X900) to the amount of £24,000,000, and treasury bills (in
1899 and X900), £13,000,000. The total war borrowing amounted
accordingly to £159,000,000, raised at a discount of (£6,585,000)
4'X4%. This includes the whole new borrowing in 1902, a
portion of which was intended after the peace to be paid back
in the current year; but for this no allowance can here be made.
The accompanying table shows the totals for the " dead-weight
debt " in X900, 190X and X902, and, for convenience, also the
"other capital liabilities."
"Dead-weight
Debt."
Chief Cause of Difference.'
"Other
LiabiUties."
31st March 1900 . .
„ 1901 . .
,. 1903 . .
July 1902 . .
£628,978,782
690,993.621
747.876.000
779.876.000
( +" War Loan," £30,000,000
4- Exch. Bonds. 24,000.000
•fTreas. Bills. 5,000,000
-fConsob, 32,000.000
£10.186,482
14.731 .256
20.532,000
" Other liabilities " it must be remembered, represent money
advanced (generally by terminable annuity) on ref»oduclive
objects — telegraphs, barracks, public works, Uganda railway.
&c. — and they could not, obviously, be property induded in
the national debt imless at the same time a set-off were made
for the valuable assets held by the British government, such as
the Sues canal shares, which in 1902 were alone worth upwards
of £26,ooo,ooa (H. Ch.)
Briiish National Debt Conversions.— The great bulk of the
funded debt of the United Kingdom consists of annuities, which
are described as perpetual, because the state is under no obliga-
tion to pay off at any time the capital debt which they reprcsenu
All that the public creditor can daim is to receive payment of
the instalments of annuity as they fall due. On the other hand,
the government has the right to redeem the annuities idtimately
by payment of the capital debt; though it may, and frequently
does, bind itself not to exerdse tliat right as regards a particular
stock of annuities imtil after a definite period. So bng as a
stock is thus guaranteed against redemption, the only way in
which the aimua] charge for that portion of the debt can be
reduced is by the government buying back the annuities in the
open market at their current price, which may be more or may
be leas than the nominal debt, according to general financial
conditions and to the state of the national credit. The liability
of the stock to redemption at par, when the period of guarantee
has expired, prevents its market price from rising materi^ly
above that level. To enable the right of oompubory redemption
to be enforced, it is only necessary that the government should
* Other causes are redemption of land tax, variation in caphal
value of terminable annuities and minor treasury operatkMu.
NATIONAL DEBT
271
bave command of sufficient funds for the purpose of paying off
the stockholders, or should be able to raise those funds by
borrowing at a rate of interest lower than that borne by the
stocL Any circumstances which might tend to raise the price
of the stock above par would also assist the government in
nisiag its redemption money on more favourable terms. When
the amount of stock to be dealt with is large, the raising by a
fresh ban of the amount required for redemption would occasion
great disturbance. A more convenient method is the conversion
of the existing stock to a kmer rate of interest by agreement
with the stockholders, whose reluctance to accept a reduction
d income is overborne by their knowledge that the power of
redemption exists and wfll be put in force if necessary. The
opportunity for conversion may be looked for when the price of a
redeemable stock stands steadily at or barely abo\-« par. Observa-
tion of the movements in the price of other securities will serve
to show whether this stationary price represents the real market
vihie of the stock, or whether that value is subject to depression
owing to an expectation of the stock being convened or redeemed.
Accordingly, the course of prices of other government stocks
which are free from the liabOity to redemption, of the stocks of
foreign countries and the colonies, and of the large municipalities,
must be watched by government in order to determine, first,
whether the conversion of a redeemable stock is feasible, and,
secondly, to what extent the reduction of the interest in the
stock may be carried.
The credit for the first measure of conversion bdongs to Walpole,
thcM^ it was carried through by Stanhope, his successor as cnan*
__ odlor of the exchequer. In 17 14 the legal rate of interest
* for private transactions, which had been fixed at 6%
in the year of the Restoration, was reduced to 5% by the act 12
Anne. stat. a. c 16 But the bulk of the national debt still bore
bterctft at 6%, the doubtful security of the throne and the too
frequent irregularities in public payment having hitherto precluded
any comiderable borrowing at lower rates. Walpole saw that the
m requirement was to give increased confidence to the public
creditors. Three acts were passed dcalins respectively with debts
due to the general public, to the Bank of England and to the South
Sea Comnuiy. Three separate furids — the general furid, the aftgre-
fate fund and the Soutn Sea fund — were assigned to the- service
of the several classes of debt, each of these funds being credited
with the produce of epeci&ed taxes, which were made permanent
for the purpose; and it was further provided that any surplus of
the runds, after payment of the interest of the debts, should be
sp{^cd in reduction of the principal. Such was the success of this
laeasure that, in spite of the reduction of interest from 6 to 5%
which was also enacted, the paning of the acts was followed by a
rise in the price of stocks. A curious preliminary to the introduction
of these measures was the passing of a resolution by the House of
Commons, which invited advances not exceedii^ ffioojooOf to be
n^iaid with interest at 4% out of the first supfdies of the year.
The result showed that the time was not ripe for such a reduction
of interest, as only a sum of £45,000 was offered on those terms. A
further resolution was then passed, substituting 5% as the rate of
interest, and the whole sum sras at once subscribed. Besides accept-
iog the reduction of interest on their own debts, the Bank of EngUnd
and the South Sea Company agreed to assist the Kovemment by
advancing a\ millions at the reduced rate, to be employed in paying
off any oi vie general creditors who might refuse assent to the con-
venioo. The assistance was not required, as all the creditors
signified assent. The debts thus dealt with amounted altogether
to about 25} milUons, and the annual saving of interest effected
Gochiding that upon a large quantity of exchequer bills for which
the Bank had been receiving over 7 %) was £^29.000.
Watpole had a further opportunity of effecting a conversion in
1737- la the meantime much of the 5% debt had been reduced to
g.^^ 4% by arrangements with the Bank of England and the
*^ South Sea Company, and further borrowings had taken
place at that rate and even at 3%. In 1737 ^^ 3% stood above
par, and Sir John Barnard proposed to the HQuse of Commons a
scheme for the gradual reduction of the 4 %• As a financial measure
the scheme would doubtless have succeeded ; but Walpole, moved
appsrentty by consideration for his capitalist supporters, opposed
and for the time defeated it. A scheme on simibr lines was carried
through by Pelham as chancellor of the exchequer in 1749 and em*
bodied in the act 23 Geo. 11. c i. By that act holders of the 4%
securities, amounting Jto neariy £58.000.000. were offered a con-
tinuance of interest at 4 % for 00c year, followed by 3} % for seven
years, during whidi thry were guaranteed against redemption, with
a final reductioo to 3% thereafter. It was necessary to contiriue
the rate of 4% for the first year, as any objecting stockholders
could not be paid off writhout a year's notice. Three months were
aOowed for signifying assent to the proposal. At first it was viewed
with disfavour, and both the Bank and the East India Company
opposed it. But the pens of the government painphleteers were
busily occupied in showing the advantages of the offer, and at the
ckMe of the three months acceptances had been received from the
holders of neariy £39.000.000 of the stocks, or more than two*thi<xis
of the whole. A further opportunity was afforded to waverers by a
second act (23 Gea II. c 22}, which allowed three months more for
consideration; but for hokleis accepting under thb act the inter-
mediate period of 3|% interest was rnluccd from seven years to
fivez These terms brought in an additional £15.600000 of stock;
and the bahince left outsunding. amounting to less than 3k millions,
was paid off at par by means of a new louu The annual saving of
interest on the stock converted was at first £272,000, increasing to
f ' rseven years.
three-quarters of a century no further conversion was
]i ! >^ re, 1 .1 , , I {n that period the total debt had been increased tenfold,
iLciil I 'u' (TiDjfce of borrowing in times of war by the issue ^^
<iF sn iriMu'd capital, bearing nominally a low rate of *■*'•
i'Hi p-i. [T'-'^ented recourse to conversion as a means of reducti^
tlr bur [' r> lifter peace was restored. But in 1822 Mr Vansittart—
Vh.ho f.i.jr >t'irs earlier had effected a conversion in the opposite
i'r cf II n. t itrnina £27.000,000 of stock from 3 into 3J %, in order to
<'l:l^,] i n 1 >' ii:i r.he holders an advance of £3.000.000 without adding to
1 1 1 1 I f f . r. 1 1 n r the debt— was able to dealwith the 5 %• These stocks
iinsou fiu J Uj £iu,ooo,ooo out of a total funded debt of £795.000,000.
The tihtii i\t whkh the chief denominations of government stocks
KtcMxf in ihi: tnarket in the early part of 1822 indicated a normal rate
ol inter e:£i ot more than 4 but considerably less than 4) %. In these
circumstances|. to propose the conversion of the 5% stocks to 4i %
would probably have been futile, unless the new stock were guaran-
teed for a long period, as hokiers woukl have stood in fear oi a
speedy further reduction. Nor could the government hope to suc-
ceed m a reductkm to 4%. Mr Vansittart 's plan was to offer £105
of stock bearing 4% in exchange for £100 of 5% stock, thus adding
slightly to the capital of the d«)t, but effecting a large annual saving
in interest. These terms were highly succesdul. HoMers of nearly
£150.000,000 accepted, leaving less than £3,000,000 of the stock to
be paid off. and the annual saving obtained was £1, 197.00a The
new 4% stock was made irredeemable for seven years (act 3. Geo.
IV c. 9).
There were, however, other 4 % stocks, amounting to £76,000,000,
whkh were not secured against redemption. Two years later, the
conditions being favourable for their conversxm, the act ^_^
5 Geo. IV. c. 24 was passed, offering hokiers in exchange *''**
a 3i % stock, irredeemable for five years. The offer was accepted
as regards ^70.000,000, and the remaining £6,000,000 paid off, the
annual saving on interest being £381, 00a
In 1830 the guarantee given to the 4 % stock of 1822 had
and the stock stood at a price of 102). Mr Goulbum d<
attempt iu conversion without delay, and accordingly by
the act II Gea IV. c 13 hokiers were offered in excnange
for each £100 of the stock, either £100 of a 3^ % stock, irredeemable
for ten years, or £70 of a 5 % stock, irredeemable for forty-two years,
these two optk>ns being considered of approximately equal value.
No difficulty was found in securing assent. Over £150,000.000 of the
stock was converted..almost wholly into the 3} % stock; the balance
of leas than £3.000,000 was pakl on, and an annual saving of £754.000
in interest was the result.
It was again Mr Goulbum*s fortune to carry out a Urge and
successful conversion in 1844. At that date the funded deot was
made up of 3% and 3!% stocks in the>roportk>ns of
about two to one. the only other denomination being the
trifling amount of 5 % stock created in connexion with the conver*
years and a euarantee against redemption for a long term. Accord-
ingly the holders of the several 3) % stocks were offered an exchange
to a new- stock bearing interest at 3} % for ten years and at 3 % for
the following twenty years. Practically the whole of the stock,
amounting to £249.000.000. was converted on these terms, only
j[ 1 03.000 beine Toft to be paid off at par. The immediate saving of
interest was £622.000 a year for ten years, and twice that rate in
subsequent years (acts 7 & 8 Vict, cc 4 and 5).
Mr Gladstone's only attempt at the conversion of the debt was
made in his first y«u- as chancellor of the exchequer. Hb primary
purpose was to extinguish some snudl remnants of 3%
stocks which stood outside the main stocks of that de- *■**
nomination. The act 16 Vict. c. 23 offered to holders of these
minor stocks, amounting altog^ether to about 9i millions, the option
of exchanging every £100 for either £82, los. of a 3} % stock guaran-
teed for 40 years, or /no of a 2^ % stock guaranteed for the same
period, or else for exchequer bonds at par. In the result stock to the
amount of only about £1.500.000 was converted, and the remaining
£8.000.000 had to be paid off at par. with some apparent loss of
capital, as the current market price of the 3 % was less than par.
The failure was largely owing to the fact that, between the initiation
and the execution of the scheme, the train of events leading up to
the Crimean War had become manifest, with unfavourable results
262
NATAL
from ocean to harbour has been a difficult one at nearly every
port on the African coast. A heavy sea from the Indian Ocean
is always breaking on the shore, even in the finest weather,
and at the mouth of every natural harbour a bar occurs. To
deepen the channel over the bar at Durban so that steamers
might enter the harbour was the cause of labour and expenditure
for many years. Harbour works were begun in 1857, piers and
jetties were constructed, dredgers imported, and controversy
raged over the various schemes for harbour improvement. In
1881 a harbour board was formed under the chairmanship of
Mr Harry EsiOmbe. It controlled the operations for improving
the sea entrance until 1893, when on the establishment of re-
sponsible government it was abolished. The work of imprdving
the harbour was however continued with vigour, and finally, in.
1904, such success was achieved that vessels of the largest class
were enabled to enter port (see Durban). At the same time
the railway system was continually developing.
For many years there had been an agitation among the
colonists for self-government. In 1882 the colony was offered
g^ii^ self-government coupled with the obligations of
self-defence. . The offer waS declined, but in 1883 the
legislative council was remodelled so as to consist of
33 elected and ' 7 nominated members. In 1890
the elections to the council led to the return of a majority in
favour of accepting self-government, and in 1893 a bill in favour
of the proposed change was passed and received the sanction
of the Imperial government. At the time the white inhabitants
numbered about so,ooa The electoral law was framed to
prevent more than a very few natives obtaining the franchise.
Restrictions in this direction dated as far back as 1865, while in
1896 an act was passed aimed at the exclusion of Indians from
the suffrage. The leader of the party which sought responsible
government was Sir John Robinson (1839-1903) who hisd gone
to Natal in 1850, was a leading journalist in the colony, had
been, a member of the legislative council since 1863, and had
filled Various official positions, tie now became the first premier
and colonial secretary with Mr Harry Escombe (q.v.) as attorney*
general and Mr F. R. Moor as secretary for Native Affairs. The
year that witnessed this change in the constitution was also
notable for the deat6 of Sir Theophilus Shepstone, Natal's
most prominent dtizen. In the same year Sir Walter Hcly-
Hutchinson became governor. His immediate predecessors
had been Sir Charles Mitchell . (1889^1893) and Sir Arthur
Havelock (x886>i889). Sir John Robinson remained premier
until 1897, a year marked by the annexation of Zululand to
Natal. In the following year Natal entered the Customs Union
already existing between Cape Colony and the Orange Free
State. Sir John. Robinson had been succeeded as premier by
Mr Harry . Escombe (February-October 1897) and Escombe
by Sir Henry Binns, on whose death in- June 1899 Licut.-Colonel
(afterwards Sir) Albert Hime formed a ministry which remained
in office until after the conclusion of theAnglo-Bocr War. Mean-
time (in 1901) Sir Henry McCallum had succeeded Sir Walter
Hely-Hutchinson as governor.
For some years Natal had watched with anxiety the attitude
of increasing hostility towards the British adopted by the
Pretoria administration, and, with bitter remembrance of the
events of i88x, gauged with accuracy the intentions of the Boers.
So suspicious had the ministry become of the nature of the
military preparations that were being made by the Boers, that
in May 1899 they communicated their apprehensions to the
High Commissioner, Sir Alfred MOner, who telegraphed on the
asth of May to Mr Chamberlain, informing him that Natal was
uneasy. The governor expressed his views to the prime minister
that the Natal government ought to give the Brit^ government
every support, and Colonel Hime replied that their support
would be given, but at the same time he feared the
l^^J^ consequences to Natal if, after all, the British govern-
ig$g^ ment should draw back. In July the Natal ministry
leamt that it was not the intention of the Imperial
government to endeavour to hold the frontier in case hostilities
arose, but that a line of defence considerably south of the frontier
would b6 taken up. tliis led to a request on their part that if
the Imperial government had any reason to anticipate the
breakdown of negotiations, "auch steps may be ft once taken
as may be necessary for the effectual defence of the *lxde
colony." Sir William Penn. Symons, the general commanding
the British forces in Natal in September, decided to hold Glenooe.
On the arrival of Lieut.-Genenl Sir George White from India,
he informed the governor that be considered it dangerous to
attempt to hold Glcncoc, and urged the advisability of with-
drawing the troops to Ladysmitb. The gpveinor was strongly
opposed to this step, as he was anxious to protect the coal supply,
and also feared the moral effect of a withdrawal. Eventually
Sir Archibald Hunter, then chief of staff to Sir Redvers BuUer,
was consulted, and stated that in his opinion, Glencoe being
already occupied, " it was a case of balancing drawbacks, and
advised that, under the circumstances, the troops be retained
at Glencoe." This course was then adopted.
On the I xth of October 1899 war broke out. The first act was
the seizure by the Boers of a Natal train on the Free State border.
On the lath Laing's Nek was occupied by the Boer forces, who
were moved in considerable force over the Natal border. New-
castle was next occupied by the Boers unopposed, and on the
soth of October ocdlrxed the battle of Talana HiU outside
Dundeew In this engagement the advanced body of British'
troops, 3000 strong, under Symons, held a camp called Craigside
whidi lay between Glencoe and Dundee, and from this position
General Symons hoped to be able to hold the northern portion
of Natal. There is no doubt that this policy strongly'
commended itself .to the governor and. ministers of Natal,
and that they exercised considerable pressure to have it
adopted. But from a military point of view. it was not at all
cordially approved by Sir George White, and it was after-
wards condemned by Lord Roberts. - Fortunately Symons was
able to win a complete victory over one of the Boer colunms at
Talana HilL He himself received a mortal wound in the action.
Brigadier-General Yule then took command, and an overwhelm-
ing force of Boers rendering the further occupation of Dundee
dangerous, be decided to retire his force to Ladysmith. On the
2ist of October General Sir George White and General (Sir John)
French defeated at Ehwdslaagte a strong force of Boers, who
threatened to cut off General Yule's retreaL He again attacked
the Boer forces at Rietfontein on the a4th of October, and on
the 26th General Yule reached Ladysmith in safety. Ladysmith
now became for a time the centre of military interest. Tbe Boers
gradually surrounded the town and cut off the communications
from the south. Various engagements were fought in ' the
attempt to prevent this movement, including the actions of
Farquhar's Farm and Nicholson's Nek on the 30th (see Tkans-
vaal). The investment of Ladysmith continued till the aSth oi
February 1900, when, after various attempts to relieve the
beleaguered garrison. Sir Redvers Buller's forces at last entered
the town. During the six weeks previous to the relief, 900
deaths had occurred from disease alone, and altogether as many
as 8424 were reported to have passed through the hospitals.
The relief of Ladysmith soon led to the evacuation of Natal by
the Boer/orces, who trekked northwards.
During the Boer invasion the government and the loyal
colonists, constituting the great majority of the Inhabitanta of
the colony, rendered the Imperial forces every assistance. A
comparatively small number of the Dutch colonists joined the
enemy, but there was no general rebellion among them. As the
war progressed the Natal volunteers and other Natal forces took
a prominent part. The Imperial Light Horse and other irregular
corps were recruited in Natal, although' the bulk of the men in
the forces were Uitlanders from Johannesburg. As the nearest
colony to the Transvaal, Natal was resorted to by alarge number
of men, women and children, who were compelled to leave the
Transvaal on the outbreak of the war. Refugee and Uitlander
committees were formed both at Durban and Maritzbuxg, and,
in conjunction with the colonists, they did all in their power to
assist in recruiting irregular corps, and also in furnishing idicf
to the sick and needy.
NATAL
263
As one resalt of the war, an addition waft made to the territory
comprised in Natal, consisting of a portion of what had previously
been included in the Transvaal The Natal government origin-
aDy made two proposals for annexing new territory: —
1. It was proposed that the following districts should be trja»>
fared to Naul, viz. the district of Vryheid. the distri< i nf t irurht
and Rich portion of the district of Wakkerstroom as w] > h- fti] n icd
by a Ene drawn from the north-eastern comer of Niir^il, fit by
V(dkinist in a northerly direction to the summit of the I >rj C; < 1 . l>erg
Rai^, akMie that range, passing just north of the town <:>( V\ .. ^i.cr-
ttroom. to the head waters of the Pongob river, and thence fotiow-
ing the Pongola river to the border ol the Utrecht district. In
codskknition of the advantage to Natal from this addition of terri-
tor>'. Natal should take over £700,000 of the Transvaal debt.
2. It was proposed to include in Natal such portions of the Harri-
smith and Vrcde districts as were comprised by a line following the
^ Elands river north from its source on the Basutoiand
JrJ*^ border to its junction with the Witoe river, and thence
^ * drawn straight to the point where the boundaries of Natal,
the Transvaal and the Orange River Colony meet on the
Drakensberg. In consideration of this addition to her
territory. Natal ahoukl take over a portion of the Orange
River Cotooy debt, to be raised at the end of tne war. to the amount
of (200,000.
The Imperial government decided to sanction only the first
of these two proposals. For this course there were many reasons,
the Transvaal territory annexed, or the greater part of it (the
Vryheid district), having been only separated from the rest of
Zoluland in 2883 by a raid of armed Boers. ** In handing over
this district to the administration which controls the rest of
Zuhiland, His Majesty's government," wrote Mr Chamberlain,
oflder date March 1903, " feel that they axe reuniting what ought
never to have been separated."
With regard, however, to the proposed transfer of territory
bcm the Orange River Colony, the circumstances were different.
"There a," "Said Mr Chamberlain, *' no such historical reason
as exists in the case of Vryheid for making the transfer. On the
contrary, the districts in ques^n have invariably formed part
of the state from which it is now proposed to sever them, and
they aie separated from Natal by mountains which form a well-
defined natural boundary. In these circumstances. His Majesty's
government have decided to confine the territory to be trans-
ferred to the districts in the Transvaal."
The districts added to Natal contained about 6000 white
inhabitants (mostly Dutch), and some 93,000 natives, and had
an area of nearly 7000 sq. m., so that this annexation meant an
additkn to the white poptdation of Natal of about one-tenth,
to her native population of about one-tenth also, and to her
territory of about one-fourth. An act authorizing the annexation
was passed during 190s and the territories were formally trans-
ferred to Natal in January 1903., (A. P. H.; F. R. C.)
The period following the war was succeeded by commercial
depresskm, though in Natal it was not so severely felt as in other
^._ states of South Africa. The government met the crisis
by r^ewed energy in harbour works, railway construc-
r tions and the development of the natural resources
^^ of the country. A railway to the Zululand coalfields
was completed in 1903, and in the same year a line
was opened to Vryheid in the newly annexed territories.
Natal further built several railway lines in the eastern half of
the Orange River Colony, thus opening up new markets for her
produce and facilitating her transit trade. Mr Chamberlain on
bis visit to South Africa came first to Natal, where he landed in
the Ust days of 1902, and conferred with the leading colonists,
tn August 1903 the Hime ministry resigned and was succeeded
by a cabinet luider the premiership of Mr (afterwards Sir) George
Sutton, the founder o| the wattle industry in Natal and one of
the pioneers in the coal-mining Industry. In May 2905 Sir
George Sutton was replaced by « coalition ministry under Mr
"C. J. Smythe, who had been colonial secretary under Sir Albert
Hime. These somewhat frequent changes of ministry, char-
acteristic of a country new to responsible government, reflected,
chiefly, differences concerning the treatment of commercial
qucstkms and the policy to be adopted towards the natives.
Towards those Dutch colonists who had joined the enemy
daring the war Icmency was. shown, all rebels being pardoned.
The attitude of the natives both in Natal proper and in2ululand
caused much disquiet. As early as July 1903 rumours were
current that Dinizulu (a son of Cetywayo) was disaffected and
the power he exercised as representative of the former royal house
rendered his attitude a matter of great moment. Diniaulu,
however, remained at the time quiescent, though the Zultis were
in a state of excitement over incidents connected with the war,
when they had been subject to raids by Boer commandoes, and
on one occasion at least had retaliated in characteristic Zulu
fashion. Unrest was also manifested among the natives west of
the Tugela, but it was not at first cause for alarm. The chief
concern of the Natal government was to remodel their native
policy where it proved inadequate, especially in view of the
growth of the movement for the federation of the South African
colonies. During 1903-1904 a Native Affairs' Commission,
representative of all the sutes, obtained much evidence on the
status and conditions of the natives. Its investigations pointed
to the loosening of tribal ties and to the corresponding growth
of a spirit of individual independence. Among its recommenda>
tions was the direct political representation of natives in the
colonial legislatures on the New Zealand model, and the imposi-
tion of direct taxation upon natives, which should not be less
than £1 a year payable by every adult male. The commission
also called attention to the numerical insufficiency of magistrates
and native commissioners in certain parts of Natal. With some
of the recommendations the Natal commissioners disagreed;
in 1905, however, an act was passed by the Natal legislature
imposing a poll-tax of £1 on all males over x8 in the colony,
except indentured Indians and natives paying hut-tax (which
was 14s. a year). Every European was bound to pay the tax.
In 1906 a serious rebellion broke out in the colony, attributable
ostensibly to the poll-tax, and spread to Zululand. It was
suppressed by the colonial forces under Colonel (afterwards Sir)
Duncan McKenzie, aided by a detachment of Transvaal
volunteers. An incident which marked the beginning of this
rebellion brought the Natal ministry into sharp conflict with
the Imperial government (the Campbiell-Bannerman administra-
tion). Early in the year a farmer who had insisted that the
Kafiirs on his farm should pay the poll-tax was murdered, and on
the 8th of February some forty natives in the Richmond district
forcibly resisted the collection of the tax and killed a sub-
inspector of police and a trooper at Byrnetown. Two of the
natives implicated were court-martialled and shot (February 1 5);
others were subsequently arrested and tried by court martial.
Nineteen were sentenced to death, but in the case of seven of the
prisoners the sentence was commuted. On the day before that
fixed for the execution Lord Elgin, then Secretary of ^^^^^
State for the Colonies, intervened and directed the wUk tin
governor to postpone the execution of the sentence. hom»
Thereupon the Natal ministry resigned, giving as their J"!]^**
reason the importance of maintaining the authority of ""^
the colonial administration at a critical period, and thie con-
stitutional question involved in the interference by the imperial
authorities in the domestic affairs of a self-governing colony.
The action of the British cabinet caused both astonishment and
indignation throughout South Africa and in the other self-
governing states of the empire. After a day's delay, during which
Sir Henry McCallum reiterated his concurrence, already made
known in London, in the justice of the sentence passed on the
natives, Lord Elgin j^ve way (March 30). The Natal mmistry
thereupon remained in office. The giu'lty natives were shot on
the and of April.* It was at this time that Bambaata, a chief
in the Gre)rtown district who had been deposed for misconduct,
kidnapped the regent appointed in his stead. He was pursued
and escaped to Zululand, where he received considerable help.
He was killed in battle in June, and by the close of July the
rebellion was at ah end. As has been stated, it was ostensibly
attributable to the poll-tax, but the causes were more deep-
seated. Though somewhat obscure they may be found in the
> Subsequently three other natives, after trial by the supreme
court, were condemned and executed for their share in the Byrne-
town murders.
27+
NATURAL GAS— NATURALISM
above aea-Ievel, is the great natural curiosity from which it
derives its name — a bridge of natural rock 90 ft. long and from
50 to 150 ft. wide, which spans Cedar Creek at a height of 315 ft.
above that stream. It consists of horizontal limestone strata,
and is the remains of the roof of a cave or underground tunnel
through which the creek once flowed. It is crossed by a public
road. In the village are magnesia and lithia springs and a salt-
petre cave, which was worked during the War of 1813 and the
Civil War. A royal grant dated the 5th of July 1 774 conveyed to
Thomas Jefferson a tract of 157 acres, " including the Natural
Bridge on Cedar Creek," and it did not pass from his estate until
1833.
NATURAL GAS, the name given to the inflammable gas occur-
ring in petroliferous formations. It consists mainly of hydro-
carbons of the paraffin series, principally marsh gas, which
constitutes from 50 to 90 % of the Pennsylvanian gas. Members
of the olefine series are also present, especially in the gas of Baku.
Varying amounts of carbon dioxide, sometimes as much as 10%
or more, and small quantities of carbon monoxide, nitrogen,
hydrogen and oxygen are also found. For particulars of the
geological occurrence, and the collection and distribution, of
natural gas, see Petroleum.
NATURAUSM. "Nature" is a term of very uncertain
extent, and the " natural " has accordingly several antitheses,
often more or less conflicting, and only to be learnt from the
context in which they occur. Thus, though Man and the World
are often opposed as respectively subject and object, yet the
word nature is applied to both: hence Naturalism is used in
both a subjective and an objective sense. In the subjective
sense the natural, as the original or essential, is opposed to what
is acquired, artificial, conventional or accidental. On this
opposition the casuistry and paradoxes of the Sophists largely
turned; it determined also, at least negatively, the conduct of
the Cynics in their contempt for the customary duties and
decencies; and it led the Stoics to seek positive rules of life in
" conformity to nature." This deference for the " natural "
generally, and distrust of traditional systems of thought and
even of traditional institutions, has pbycd a large part in
modern philosophy, especially British philosophy. It was
perhaps the inevitable outcome of the reaction, which began
with the Renaissance, against the medieval domination of mere
authority. " L'homme qui m£dite est un animal d£prav£,"
said Rousseau; and again, " Tout est bien aortant des mains de
I'auteur des choses,tout d6g£ndre entrc les mains de Thorome."*
In psychology and epistcmology, " no one," as Green has said,
" is more emphatic than Locke in opposing what is real to what
we * make for ourselves ' — ^the work of nature to the work of the
mind. Simple ideas or sensations we certainly do not ' make
for ourselves.' They therefore, and matter supposed to cause
them, are, according to Locke, real. But relations are neither
simple ideas nor their material archetypes. They therefore,
as Locke explicitly holds, fall under the bead of the work of the
mind, which is opposed to the real."* This opposition again led
Hume, in the first place, to distinguish between natural and
philosophical relations — the former determined simply by associa-
tion, the latter by an abitrary union of two ideas, which we
may think proper to compare — and then, in the next, to reduce
identity and causality, the two chief " philosophical rclaUons,"
to fictions resulting from " natural relations," that is to say, from
associations of similarity and contiguity. Subjective naturalism
thus tended to become, and in the end became, what is more
commonly called Sensationalism or Associaiionism, thereby
approximating towards that objective naturalism which reduces
the external world to a mechanism describable in terms of matter
and motion — ^a result already foreshadowed when Hartley
connected ideas and their association with brain vibrations and
vibratiundes. In ethics, also, the striving to get back to the
natural entailed a similar downward trend. From the Cambridge
Platonists, from Locke and Clarke, we hear much of rational
* Quoted by Eisler, Wirterbuch der pkilosopkiscken Begriffe (1899),
f.v. *^ NaturaltsmuB."
* T. H. Green. ProUgomena to Ethics (1883), | aa
principles of conduct, comparable in respect of intelligibility
with the truths of mathematics; but already we find that in
Shaftesbury the centre of ethical interest is transferred from the
Reason, conceived as apprehending either abstract moral dis-
tinctions or laws of divine legislation, to the " natural affections "
that prompt to social duty;' and when we reach Bentham,
with pleasure and pain as " sovereign masters," and the Mills,
with love of virtue explained by the laws of association, all
seems to be non-rational.^ There is much resemblance, as well
as some historical connexion, between the naturalism of moralists
such as Shaftesbury and Hutchcson and the Common-Sense
metaphysics of Reid and his school.* Hence Kant, distinguishing
between a " naturalistic " and " scientific " or critical method
in metaphysics, styles Rcid and his followers " naturalists of pure
reason," satirically comparing them to people who think they can
settle the size and distance of the moon by direct eyesight better
than by the roundabout calculations of mathematics.
So far we have seen the natural approximating to the non-
rational. But when used in a subjective sense in opposition to
the supernatural, it means the rational as opposed to what is
above reason, or even contrary to reason. It is in this sense that
the term Naturalism most frequently occurs; and It was so
applied specially to the doctrines of the Englbh Deists and the
German Illuminati of the 17th and i8th centuries: those of
them who held that human reason alone was capable of attaining
to the knowledge of God were called theological naturalists
or rationalists, while those who denied the possibility of revela-
tion altogether were called philosophical naturalists or naturalists
simply.* In these controversies the term Naturalist was also
sometimes used in an objective sense for those who identified
God and Nature, but they were more frequently styled Spinozists,
Pantheists or even Atheists. But it is at once obvious that
dispute as to what is natural and what supernatural is vain and
hopeless till the meanings of reason and nature are clearly defined.
" The only distinct meaning of the word " [natural], said Butler,
" is stated, fixed or settled] since what is natural as much requires
and presupposes an intelligent agent to render it so, i.e. to effect
it continually, or at stated times, as what is supernatural or
miraculous does to effect it for once. And from hence it must
follow that persons' notion of what is natural will be enlarged
in proportion to their greater knowledge. . . . Nor a there any
absurdity in supposing that there may be beings in the universe,
whose capacities . . . may be so extensive, as that the whole
Christian dispensation may to them appear natural, i.e. analogous
or conformable to God's dealings with other parts of His creation;
as natural as the visible known course of things appears to us." '
The antithesis of natural to spiritual (or ideal) has mainly
determined the use of the term Naturalism in the present
day.* But current naturalism is not to be called materialism,
though these terms are often used synonymously, as by Hegel,
Ueberweg and other historians of philosophy; nor yet pan«
theism, if by that b meant the immanence of all things in one
God. We know only material phenomena, it is said; matter ia
an abstract conception simply, not a substantial reality. It b
therefore meaningless to describe mind as its effect. Moreover,
mind also is but an abstract conception; and here again all
our knowledge is confined to the phenomenal. To identify the
two classes of phenomena is, however, impossible, and indeed
absurd; nevertheless we find a constant concomitance of
psychosis and neurosis; and the more sensationalist and associa>
tionist our psychology, the easier it becomes to correlate the
• Cf. Sidgwick. History of Ethics (1886), p.'i8l.
* Cf. W.Tl. Soricy, The Ethics of Naturalism (1885). pp. x6 aqq.
*Cf. W. R. Scott, Francis HuUheson; his Life, Teackini and
Position in Philosophy ((900), pp. 121. 26^ sea.
*See Rationalism; Kant, Religion innerhalb der Grenten der
blossen Vernunft^ Hartenstein't edition, vi. 253; and Lechlcr, Gr-
sckichte des Enghschen Deismus (i 841), pp. 454 tqa.
^^ Analogy, part i. chap. i. end. Cf. also J. S. Mill. Logic, book
tit. chap. XXV. ft 2, and Essays on Religion.
' In aesthetics we find mturalism used in a cognate acnse: the
Flemish painters, such writers as Flaubert or Zola, for example, being
called naturalistic or realistic, in contrast to the Italian painters or
^Titers like George Sand or the Bront£s.
NATURALIZATION
275
psychical and the physical m but " two aspects " of one and the
same fact. It is therefore simplest and sufficient to assume an
underlying, albeit unknown, unity connecting the two. A
monism— so far neutral, neither materialistic nor spiritualistic —
is thu5« characteristic of the prevailing naturalism. But when
the question arises, how best to systematize experience as a
whole, it is contended that we must begin from the physical side.
Here we have precise conceptions, quantitative exactness and
thoroughgoing continuity; every thought that has ever stirred
the hearts of men, not less than every breeze that has ever
rippled the face of the deep, has meant a perfectly definite re-
dkribution of matter and motion. To the mechanical principles
of this redistribution an ultimate analysis brings us down;
acd-~beginning from these— the nebular hypothesis and the
theory of natural selection will enable us to explain all subsequent
synthesis*' Life and mind now deariy take a secondary place;
the cosmical mechanism determines /Aem, while they are poweriess
to modify it. The spiritual becomes the " epiphenomenal," a
merely incidental phosphorescence, so to say, that regulariy
accompanies physical processes of a certain type and complexity.
(See also Psychology.)
This absolute naturalism, as we may call it, the tmion, that
is, of psychological and oosmological naturalism, is in fact a
species of Fatalism, as Kant indeed entitled it.* It is the logical
OQtcome of a sensationalist psychology, and of the epistemology
which this entails. As long as assodation of ideas (or sensory
residua) is held to explain judgment and conscience, so long may
oaturalism stand.
Tbe ttaturalistk work of chief account at the pceaent day is
E. Haeckel't Die WdtraUd^ gaiicinoerstdndlicke Shidiem Hber
metttUUcke Pkilosobkie (5th ed., 1900}, of whkh an English trans-
latim has appeared. Encctive refutations will be found in the works
of two of Hacckers colleagues, O. Liebmann, Zur Analysis der
WirUkkkeit (yd ed.. IQOO) : R. Euckcn. Di€ Einheit des GeisUsUbens
« Bewssisein umd Thai dtr Mauekheit fi888, Eng. trans.); Der
Kampf WK ei9€u geisii^ LtbensinhaU (1898). See also A. J.
BaHour, Foundations oJBdief (8th cd., 1901); J. Ward, Naturalism
ud Apiasticism (1899). Q. W.*)
lATURALIZATION, the term given in law to the acquisition
by an alien of the national character or citizenship of a certain
state, always with the consent of that sute and of himself,
bat not Deccasarily with the consent of the state to which he
previously belonged, which may refuse to its subjects the right
of renouncing its nationality, called "expatriation," or may
aOow the right only on conditions which have not been fulfilled
in the particular case. Hence although nationality in strict
theory is always single, as liege homage was and allegiance in its
proper sense b, it often happens that two states claim the same
person as their national or subject. This conflict arises not only
from naturalization having been granted without the corre-
sponding expatriation having been permitted, but also from the
faa that biith on the soil was the leading determinant of nation-
ality by feudal law, and still is so by the laws of England and the
United States C/m i^O* while the nationality of the father is its
leading determinant in those countries which have accepted
Roman prindples of jurisprudence (Jus sanguinis). The conflict
is nsoally solved for practical purposes by an understanding
which is approximately general, namely that, in cases not pro-
vided for by treaty, no state shall protect those whom it claims
as its natbnals while residing in the territory of another stale
which daims them as its own nationals by any title, whether
/ttf sdi, jus sanguinis, naturalization, or the refusal to allow
opairiation. On this footing the British foreign office, while
it srants passports for travel to naturalized persons, will extend
00 protection to them against a claim of their former country, if
they return to it, to exact military service due to it. The United
Slates, asserting tlutt expatriation is an inalienable right of man,
Bsiatains that, to lose his right to American protection, the
ooigraQt who has bieen naturalized in the United Stales must
Ittve done that for which he might have been tried and punished
at the moment of his departure; it claims to protect him against
the exaction of what at that moment was merely a future liability
' Cf. Spencer, First PrincipUs (1867), p. 398.
*Q.FrUe^meue, §60,
to military service, and this doctrine has been practically accepted*
by France in her dealings with America. Germany also accepted
it by the treaty of 1868 between the United Sutes and the
North German Confederation, now in force for tbe German
empire, subject to provisions that the emigrant's fixing his
domicile in the old country shall be deemed a renunciation
of his naturalization in the new, and that his living in the old
country for more than two years may be deemed to imply the
absence of an intention to return to the new. Between the
United States and Great Britain the convention of the 13th of
May 1870 provides that naturalization in either is to be valid
for all purposes immediately cm its completion, but that if the
resident shall renew his residence in his old country he may be
readmitted to his old nationality, on his application and on such
conditions as the readmitting government may Impose.
The Naturalization Act 1870, which now governs the matter
for EngUnd, docs not say that the person naturalized becomes
thereby a British subject, to which, if it had been said, a proviso
might have been added saving the above-mentioned policy of
the foreign office as to not protecting him in his old country,
although even without such a proviso the foreign office would
have been free to follow that policy. The act in question (s. 7)
gives him the righu'and imposes on him the duties of a natural^
bom British subject in the United Kingdom, and provides that,
when within the limits of his old country, he shall not be deemed
a British subject unless he has ceased to be a subject of that
country, by its kws or in pursuance of a treaty. On this wording
it has been maintained that British naturalization is not really
naturalization at all; but leaves the naturalized person as he
was with the addition of a certain quality within the United
Kingdom; and on that ground it has been considered in France
that a Frenchman, obtaining naturalization in England, does not
fall within the French law (Code Civil, Art. 17) which pronounces
the expatriation of citizens who cause themselves to be naturalized
abroad. This is the Bourgoise Case, 41 Ch. D. 310, in which,
when it came before the English courts, Mr Justice Kay inclined
to the same view, but the court of appeal avoided giving an
opinion on the point. Professor Dicey leans to the same view
(5 Law Quarterly Review, 438) ; but Sir Thomas Barclay (4 L.Q.R.
226), Sir Malcolm Mcllwraith (6 L.Q.R. 379), and Professor West-
lake (International Law — PeacCf and ed. p. 234; Private Int^'
national Law, 4th ed. p. 356) adopt the view that the Naturaliza-
tion Act 1870 makes the naturalized person a full British subject,
only to be treated in his old country in accordance with the
international principles recognized by the British executive.
And the foreign office, by granting passports to naturalized
persons, acts on the same view. The point is important with
reference to the question whether the naturalization of the father
in the United Kingdom confers the character of British subjects
on his children afterwards bom abroad. (See Alien.)
An analogous question arises on the provision in the Naturaliza*
tion Act 1870, sec. 16, that the legblaturc of any British posses-
sion may make laws " for imparting to any person the privileges
of naturalization, to be enjoyed by such person within the limits
of such possession." This, in accordance with the wider view
of the eiifcct of naturalization in the United Kingdom, may mean
that naturalization in pursuance of a colonial law confers the
full character of a British subject, only without removing
disabilities^ such as that to hold land, under which the naturalized
person may have lain as an alien in any other British possession.
On that footing the foreign office grants passports to the holders
of colonial certificates of naturalization, and protects them in all
foreign countries but that of their origin; and the Merchant
Shipping Act 1894, sec. i, allows persons naturalized in British
possessions to be owners of British ships. On the other hand,
those who maintain the narrower view of the eflfect of natural-
ization in the United Kingdom naturally hold that colonial
naturalization has no effect at all outside the British possession
in which it b granted.
Naturalization in India is regulated by the British Indian
Naturalization Act, No. 30 of 1852, under which it may be
granted to subjects of the several princes and states in India
276
NAUARCHIA— NAUCRATIS
as well as to those who are entirely aliens to the British empire.
The former, however, are treated for several purposes as British
subjects even without being so naturalized.
In most countries a lengthened sojourn is a condition precedent
to naturalization. In Belgium, the United Kingdom, North
America and Russia the period of such sojourn is fixed at five
years, in France, Greece and Sweden at three, in the Argentine
Republic two, while in Portugal a residence of one year is
suffident. In Germany, Austria and Italy no period of residence
is prescribed, while in Austria a ten years' residence confers
per se the righU of citizenship. In the United States an alien
desiring to be naturalized must dedare on oath his intention
to become a dtizen of the United States; two years afterwards
must dedard on oath his intention to support the constitution
of the United States and renounce allegiance to every foreign
power, including that of which he was before a subject; must
prove residence in the United States for five yean, and in the
state where his application is made for one year, as a good
dtizen; and must renounce any title of nobility. In France
an alien desiring naturalization, if he has not resided continuously
in the country for ten years, must obtain permission to establish
his domidle in France; three years after (in spedal cases one
year) he is entitled to apply for naturalization, which involves
the renunciation of any esristing allegiance.
Sec further, Allbgiancb, Inteknational Law (Private): also
Bar. PrHnU Interitationat Law (Gillespie's translation); Hansard,
Law reUUifn to Aliens', Cutler, Law of Naturalization; Gxkburn,
Nationality; Cogordan. NationaliU; Heffter, Europdiukes Volker-
recki; Hall, Foreign Jurisdiction of the British Crown; Westiake,
International Law— Peace, and PrieaU International Law (4th ed.).
(JNO. W.)
NAUARCHIA (Gr. PoSui, ship, ipxht command), the supr^e
command of the Spartan navy. The office was an annual one
and could not be hdd more than once by the same man (Xen.
Hell. ii. X. 7). This law might be evaded in special cases; the
new admiral might not be sent to take over the command until
some time after his dcction, which took place at midsummer
(Beloch in Philologus, xliii. p. 272 sqq.), and meanwhile his pre-
decessor remained de facto admiral; or the retiring admiral
might, after the expiry of his term, hold an appointment as
secretary UrunoKtin) to one who, though titular admiral,
was reaUy placed under his orders or even kept at Sparta alto-
gether. Being independent of the kings and hampered by no
colleague, the nauarch widded such power that Aristotle is
hardly going too far when he says {Politics, ii. 9. 22), 4 cauopxia
axii^ iripa fiaaiKda KoBkaniKtp. He was subject only to the
ephors, who, if he proved incompetent, could depose him (Thuc.
viii. 39), though they usually preferred to send out an advisory
committee (<rOfifiov\oi). An admiral might appoint his hnoroKeus
to command a portion, or even the whole, of the fleet, and if
the former died in office the secretary succeeded to his post.
For a detailed discussion sec J. Beloch, " Die Nauarchic in Sparta,"
in the Rheinisches Museum, xxxiv. (1879) 1 17-130, where a complete
list of nauarchs known to as will be found; regarding the time of
the election this b corrected by a btcr article of the same writer
(Philologus, loc. cit.). See also A. Solan. Ricerche Spartane
(Livomo, 1907), 1-58; G. Busolt, " Staats- und RcchtsaltertUmcr "
ilwan Mailer B Handbuch der klassischen Altertumswissenschaft, iv.),
96; G. E. Underbill's edition oi Xcnophon, Hellenica, i., ii., note
on 1.5. I. (M.N.T.)
NAUCK, JOHA^fN AUGUST (i82»-x893), German classical
scholar and critic, was bom at Auerst&dt in Prussian Saxony
on the i8th of September 1822. After having studied at Halle
and hdd educational posts in Berlin, he migrated in 1859 to
St Petersburg, where he was professor of Greek at thft imperial
historico-philological institute (1869-1883). He died on the
3rd of Augxist 1892. Nauck was one of the most distinguished
textual critics of his day, although, like P. H. Peerlkamp. he
was fond of altering a text in accordance with what he thought
the author must, or ought to, have written.
rhe most important of his writings, all of which deal with Greek
language and literature (especially the tragedians) are the following:
Euri^Qes, Tragedies and Fragments (1854, 3rd ed., 1871); Siudta
Eurtpidea (1859-1862); Tragtcorum Graecorum Fragmenta (1856,
last ed., 1889), his chief work; Index to the Fragments (1892):
text of Sophocles (1867) ; revised edition of Schneidewin's annouted
Sophocles (1856. Ac.): texto of Homer. Odyssey (1874I and Iliad
(1877-1879); the fragmenu of Aiistophancs of Byzantium (1848),
still indispensable; Porphyrius of Tyre (i860. 2nd ed., 1886):
lamblichus, De Vita Pythagprica (1884) ; Lexikon Vindobonenu (1867),
a meure compilatMn of the 14th or isth century. See memoir
by T. Zielinski, in Bursian's Biographisches Jahrbueh (1894). ami J. £.
Sandys, History of Classical Scholarship, iii. (1908), pp. 149-152.
WAUCRARY, a subdivision of the people of Attica, which
was certainly among the most primitive in the Athenian sute.
The ivord is derived dther (i) from rovi (a ship) and describes
the duty imposed upon each naucrary, of providing one ship
and two (or, more probably, ten) horMmen; or (2) from
pokur (to dwdl), in which case it has to do with a housdiolder
census. The former is generally accepted in view of the faa
that the naucraries were certainly the units on which the Athenian
fleet was based. The view once hdd (on the strength of a
fragment of Aristotle, quoted cardessly by Photius) that the
naucrary was invented by Solon may now be regarded as obsolete
(see the Aristotelian CoHstilution, viii. 3). Each of the four
Ionian tribes was divided Into three triUyes (" thirds ")> each
of which was subdivided into four naucraries; there were
thus 48 naucraries. The earliest mention of them is in Herodotus
(v. 71), where it is sUted that the Cylonian conspiracy was
put down by the " Piytaneis (chief men) of the Naucraries."
Although it is generally recognized that in this passage we can
trace an attempt to shift the responsibility for the murder of
the suppliants from the archon Megacles, it is highly improbable
that the PryUneis of the Naucraries did not play a part in the
tragedy. Tliucydides is probably right, as against Herodotus, in
asserting that the nine archons formed the Athenian executive at
this period. It may be conjectured, however, that the military
forces of Athens were organized on the basis of the naucraries,
and that it was the duty of the presidents of these distacts
to raise the local levies. It is certainly remarkable that the
Aristotdian Constitution of Athens docs not connect the naucrary
with the fleet or the army; from chapter viii. it would appear
that its importance was chiefly in connexion with finance
{&PX^ Ttrartykvn irpbn re rdt do^ofAs Koi rdt ba.riiMVi). The
naucrary consisted of a number of villages, and was, therefore,
a local unit very much in the power of the naucraros, who was
selected by reason of wealth. The naucraros superintended
the construction of, and afterwards captained, the ship, and
also assessed and administered the taxes in his own area. In
the reforms of Cleisthencs, the naucraries gave place to the
demes as the poUtical unit. In accordance with the new decimal
system, their number was increased to fifty. Whether they
continued (and if so, how long) to supply one ship and two' (or
ten) horsemen each is not certainly known. Cheidemus in
Photius asserts that they did, and his statement is to a certain
extent corroborated by Herodotus (vi. 89) who records that,
in the Aeginetan War before the Persian Invasion, Clie Athenian
fleet numbered only fifty sail.
See Photius (s.v,), who is dearly using the Atk. Pol. (he quotes
from it the last part of his article totidem verbis): SchOmana,
Antiq. (p. 326, Eng. trans.)— quoted by J. E. Sandys (Atk, Pol, viii.,
13)— -refutes Gilbert, Creeh Constitutional Antiquities (Eng. trans..
1895). and in Jahrb. Class. PhU. cxi. (1875) pp. 9 seq.; A. H. J,
Greenidge. Handbooh of Greek Const. Hist. p. 134: history uf Greece
in general; for derivation of name, G. Meyer, CurHus' Stmdien (viL
175). where Wecktein is refuted. (j. M. M.)
NAUCRATIS, an andent Greek settlement in Egypt. The
site was discovered by Professor W. M. Flinders Peine in 1884,
on the eastern bank of a canal, about 10 m. W. of the present
Rosetta branch 6f the Nile. In andent times it was approached
by the Canopic mouth, which was farther to the west. The
identification of the site is placed beyond doubt by the discovery
of inscriptions, with the name of the town, ^nd of great masses
of cariy Greek pottery, such as could not have existed anywhere
else. The site was excavated in 1884-1886 by the Eg^ Ex-
ploration Fund, and a supplementary excavation was made by
the British School at Athens in 1899. A list of the temples of
Naucratis b given by Herodotus (ii. 178); they were the
Hdlenion, common to all the colonizing dties, and those dedicated
> See footnote to Cleisthskes (1). ad An,
NAUD^— NAUHEIM
277
by the Aeginetans to 2Seus, by the SamUiw to Hera, and by the
ftUesiaDs to Apollo. A temple of Aphrodite is also mentioiied
by Atheoaeus. Traces of all. these temples, except that of
Zeis, or at least dedications coming from them, have been found
io the excavations, and another has been added to them, the
temple of the Dioscuri. The two chief sites to be cleared were
the temples of ApoUo and of Aphrodite, in both of which succes-
sive buQdings of various date were found. Both were remarkable
for the great mass of early painted pottery that was found;
in the temple of Apdlo this had been buried in a trench; in
Uut of Aphrodite it was scattered over the whole surface in
two distinct strata. A great deal of it was local ware, but there
were also imported vases from various Greek sites. In addition
to these temples, there was also found a great fortified enclosure,
&boat 860 ft. by 750, in the south-eastern part of the town;
within it was a square tower or fort; a portico of entrance and
an avenue of rows of sphinxes was added in Ptolemaic times,
ts is shown by the foundation deposits found at the comers
of the portico; these consisted of models of the tools and materials
used in the buildings, models of instruments for sacrifice or
ceremonies, and cartouches of King Ptolemy Philadelphus.
Professor Petrie naturally supposed this great enclosure to be
the HeUenion or common sanctuary of the Greeks, but Mr.
Hogarth subsequently found traces of another great walled
encbsure to the north-east of the town, together with pottery
dedicated roitrciv'EXX^vwr $toit,and he claims with reason that
this endoMire b more likely than the other to be the HeUenion,
since ao eariy Greek antiquities have been found in the southern
part of the town, which seems rather to have been a native
seitJeaient. The cemetery of the ancient town was found
on two low mounds to the north, but was mostly of Ptolemaic
date.
Apart from the historic interest of the site, as the only Greek
colony in Egypt in eariy times, the chief importance of the
eicavations lies in the rich finds of early pottery and in the
inscriptions upon them, which throw light on the early history
of the alphabet. The most flourishing period of the town was
from the accession of Amasis II. in 570 b.c to the Persian
invasion of 520 11.C., when the contents of the temples must
have been destroyed. The earlier chronology has been much
disputed. There are dear traces of a settlement going back
to the 7th century, tnduding a scarab factory, which yielded
numerous scarabs, not of native Egyptian manufacture, bearing
the names of the' kings that preceded Amasis. Among these
were fragments of early Greek pottery. It seems a fair inference
that the makers of these were Greeks, and that they probably
represent the eariy Milesian colony, settled here in the time
of Psammetichus I., before the official assignment of the site
by Amasis to the Greek colonists of various dties. The most
important of the antiquities found are now in the British Museum.
See W. M. F. Petrie, ftc, Naukraiis /., third Memoir of the Egypt
Explocatioa Fund (1886); E. A. Gardner, &c., Naukraiis II., sixth
Memoir of same (1889): D. G. Hogarth. Ac, Annual of Ike BrUisk
Scioid of Atkau (1898-1899). (E. Ga.)
KAUDI; OABRIBL (z6oo-z653>, French librarian and scholar,
was bom in Paris on the and of February 1600. He studied
medicine at Paris and Padua, and became physician to
Louis XHL In 1629 he became librarian to Cardmal Bagni at
Rome, and on Bagni's death in 1641 librarian to Cardinal
BaitterinL At the desire of Richelieu he began a wearisome
controversy with the Benedictines, denying Gerson's authorship
of De Imitaiione Ckristi. Richelieu intended to make Naud£
his libnxian, and on his death Naud£ accepted a similar offer on
the part of Mazarin, and for the next ten years devoted himself
to brining together from all parts of Europe the noble assemblage
of books known as the Bibliothdque Mazarine. Mazarin's
Gbraiy was sold by the parlement of Paris during the troubles
of Cbe Fronde, and Queen Christina invited Naud£ to Stockholm.
He was not happy in Sweden, and on Mazarin's appeal that he
sbould re-form his scattered library Naud6 returned at once.
Bat his health was broken, and he died on the journey at Abbe-
vifle on the 30th of July 1653. The friend of Gui Patin, of Pierre
Ganendi and all the liberal thinkers of his time, Naud6 was no
mete bookworm; his books show traces of the critical spirit
which made him a worthy colleague of the humorists and
scholars who prepared the way for the better known writers of
the " 8i£de de Louis XIV."
Including works edited by him, a list of ninety-two pieces is
given in the Naudaeana. The chief are Le Mar/are, ou dueours
cantn Us.libelUs (Paris, 1620), very rare, reprinted 1868; Instruction
d la France sur la vMti de fkistoire des Frires de la Rou-Crotx
(1623, 1624), displaying their impostures. Apfdotte pour tons Us
grands perumnans faussemenl souPjConnet de magie (162%, 1652.
1669. 171 2). Pythagoras, Socrates, Thomas Aquinas and Solomon
arc atnong those defended; Advis pour dresser une biUiotkique (1627,
1644. 1676: transhted by J. Evelyn. 1661). full of sound and liberal
views on librarianship; Addition H Fkistoire de Louys XL (1630),
thb includes an account of the oriein of printing; BibHograPkia
folitiea (Venice, 1633. ftc; in French. 1642), a mere essay of no
bibliographical value; De audio liberali syntaema (1632. 1654), a
practical treatise found in most collections of directions for studies;
De studio militari syntagma (1637), esteemed in its day; Considira-
tions politiques sur les coups d'iiat (Rome (Paris], 1639: first edition
rare, augmented by Dumay. 1792), this contains an apology for the
massacre of St Barthok>mew; BMiotk. Cordesianae Cdtaloius (1643),
classiBed; Jugement de lout ce qui a iti imprimi contre le Card.
Mazarin (1649). Naud^'s best work, and one of the ablest defences
of Mazarin : it is written in the form of a dialogue between Saint-
Ange and Mascurat, and is usually known under the name of the
latter.
AuTHORrrtES.— L. Jacob, G. Naudaei tumulus (1659); P. Hall£,
Elogium Naudaei (1661): Niceron, Mhnoires, vol. ix.; L. Jacob,
NAUGATUCK, a township and borough of New Haven
county, Connecticut, U.S.A., on the Naugatuck river, 5 m. S.
of Waterbury, with an area of 17 sq. m. in 1906. Pop. (1890)
62x8, (1900) 10,541, of whom 3432 were foreign-born, (1910
census) 12,722. It b served by the New York, New Haven
8c Hartford railroad and by interurban electric railways.
Among the prindpal pubh'c buildings are the Whittemore
Memorial Public Library (1892), a fine high school and the
large Salem school (part of the public school system), all given
to the borough by John Howard Whittemore of Naugatuck,
who in addition endowed the library and the high school The
river furnishes water-power. Among the manufactures are
rubber goods, chemicals, iron castings, woollen goods, cutlery,
8cc. The value of the factory products increased from $8,886,676
in 1900 to $11,009,573 in 1905, or 23*9%. The prominence of
the rubber industry here is difb to Charles Goodyear (^.v.), who
in 1 82 1 entered into partnership with his father Amasa Goodyear
for the manufacture of hardware. Vulcanized rubber overshoes
were first made in Naugatuck, and in 1843 the Goodyear's
Metallic Rubber Shoe Company was established here. The
township was formed from parts of Waterbury, Bethany and
Oxford, and was incorporated in 1844; the borough was
chartered in 1893; and the two were combined in 1895.
NAUHEm, or Bao-Naitheim, a watering-place of Germany,
in the grand-duchy of Hesse-Darmstadt, situated on the north-
east slope of the Taunus Mountains, 24 m. by rail N. of Frankfort-
on-Main on the main line of railway to Cassd. Pop. (1905)
5054. It has three Evangdical, a Roman Catholic and an
En^ish church. lU thermal waters (84° to 95** F.), although
knowQ for centuries, were, prior to 1835, only employed for the
extraction of salt. They now yield about 2000 tons annually.
The town has several parks, the largest being the Kurpark,
X25 acres in extent, in which are the Kurhaus and the two chief
springs. The waters, which are saline, strongly impregnated
with carbonic add, and to a less extent with iron, are prindpally
used for bathing, and are spedfic in cases of gout and rheumatism,
but especially for heart affections. Three smaller springs,
situated outside the Kurpark, supply water for drinking. -In
1899-1900 a new spring (saline) was tapped at a depth of 682 ft.
Another attraction of the pbce is the Johannisberg, a hill
773 ft. high, immediately overlooking the town.
Nauheim, which was bestowed by Napoleon upon Marshal
Davout, became a town inr 1854. From 181 5 to 1866 it belonged
to the electorate of Hesse-Cassel, but in 1866 it was ceded to
.278
NAULETTE— NAUPACTUS
the grand-duchy of Hesse-Darmstadt. It was the scene of
fighting between the French and the Germans in 1763 and again
in 1702.
See Grtdel. Bad Nauheim, seine Kurmittei (9th cd., Friedberv.
1903): Credncr. Die KurmiUd in Bad Nauheim (Leipzig. 1894):
Bode, Bad Nauheim, seine KurmiUd und Erfolte (Wiesbaden. 1889) :
and Weber, Die Park- und Waldaidaien vom Bad Nauheim (Nauheim».
1906).
NAULETTB, a large cavern on the left bank of the Lesse,
which joins the Meuse above Dinant, Belgium. Here in 1866
Edou-ird Dupont discovered an imperfect human lower jaw,
now in the Brussels Natural History Museum. It is of a very
ape-like type in its extreme projection and that of the teeth
sockets (teeth themselves lost), with canines very strong and
large molars increasing in size backward. It was found associated
wiUi the remains of mammoth, rhinoceros and reindeer. The
Naulette man is now assigned to the Moustcrian Epoch.
See G. dc Morttllct. Le Prihistorique (iQOo); E. Dupont. Etude
sur lesfouiUes uienlifiques exicuUes pendant I'hioer (1865-1866), p. ai.
NAUMACHIA. the Greek word denoting a naval battle (voDi,
ship, and/i&xi7> battle), used by the Romans as a term for a mimic
sea-fight. These entertainments took place in the amphitheatre,
which was flooded with water, *or in specially constructed
basins (also called naumachiae) . The first on record , representing
an engagement between a Tyrian and an Egyptian fleet, was given
by Julius Caesar (46 B.C.) on a lake which he constructed in the
Campus Martins. In 3 B.C. Augustus, at the dedication of the
temple of Mars Ultor, exhibited a naumachia between Athenians
and Persians, in a basin probably in the korli Caesaris, where
subsequently Titus gave a representation of a sea-fight between
Corinth and Corcyra. In that given by Claudius (a.d. 53) on
the locus Fucinus, 19,000 men dressed as Rhodians and Sicilians
manoeuvred and fought. The crews consisted of gladiators and
condemned criminals; in later times, even of volunteers.
See L. FriedlSnder in J. Marquardt, Romische Staaincrwdtung, iti.
(1885) p. 558.
NAUMACHIUS, a Greek gnomic poet. Of his poems 73
hexameters (in three fragments) are preserved by Stobaeus in his
FlorUegium\ they deal mainly with the duty of a good wife.
From the remarks on celibacy and the allusion to a mystic
marriage it has been conjectured that the author was a Christian.
The fragments, translated anonymously into English under the
title of Advice to the Fair Sex (1736), arc in Gaisford's Poetae minores
Graeci, iii. (1823).
NAUMANN, GEORG AMADEUS CARL FRIEDRICH (1797-
1873), German mineralogist and geologist, was bom at Dresden
on the 30th of May 1797, the son of a distinguished musician
and composer. He received his early education at Pforta, studied
at Freiberg under Werner, and afterwards at Leipzig and Jena.
He graduated at Jena, and was occupied in 1823 in teaching in
that town and in 1824 at Leipzig. In 1826 he succeeded Mohs
as professor of crystallography, in 1835 he became professor
also of geognosy at Freiberg; and in 1842 he was appointed
professor of mineralogy and geognosy in the university of Leipzig.
At Freiberg he was charged with the preparation of a geological
map of Saxony, which he carried out with the aid of Bemhard
von Cotta in 1846. He was a man of encyclopaedic knowledge,
lucid and fluent as a teacher. Early in life (i 821-182 2) he
travelled in Norway, and his observations on that country, and
his subsequent publications on crystallography, mineralogy and
geology established his reputation. He was awarded the
Wollaston Medal by the Geological Society of London in 1868.
He died at Leipzig on the 26th of November 1873.
He published Beitrdge tur Kenntniss Norwegens (a vols., 1824) ;
Z^ehrbuch der Mineraiorie (1828); Lehrbuch der reinen und ante-
wandten KrystaUographte (2 vols, and atlas, 1830); Elemente der
Mineraiogie (1846; cd. 9. 1874; the loth ed. tby F. Ztrkel, 1877);
Lehrbuch der Ceognosie {2 volt, and atlas, 1849-1854, ed. a, 1858-
187a).
NAUMBURG, a town of Germany, in the province of Prussian
Saxony, the seat of the provincial law courts and court of appeal
for the province and the neighbotiring districts. It is situated
on the Saale, near iu junction with the Unstrut, in the centre
of an amphitheatre of vine-dad hills, 29 m. S.W. from Halle,
on the railway to Weimar and Erfurt* Pop. (1905) 2$,i37-
The cathedral, an imposing building in the Romanesque Transi-
tion style ( 1 207-1 242), has a Gothic choir at eadh end, and
contains some interesting medieval sculptures. It is remarkable
for its large crypt had its towers, a fourth having been added
in 1894, the gift of the emperor William II. There are also
four other Protestant churches (of which the town church,
dedicated to St Wenceslaus and restored in 1 892-1 894, possesses
two pictures by Lucas Cranach the elder), a Roman Catholic
church, a gymnasium, a modem school, an orphanage and three
hospitals. A curious feature of the town is the custom, which has
not yet died out, of labelling the houses with signs, such as the
" swan," the " leopard '* and the " lion." The industries of the
place mainly consist in the manufacture of cotton and woollen
fabrics, chemicals, combs, beer, vinegar and leather. On the
hills to the north of the town, across \he Unstrut, lies Schenkd-
burg, once the residence of the poet Gellert, and noticeable
for the grotesque carvings in the sandstone rocks.
In the roth century Naumburg was a stronghold of the mar-
graves of Meissen, who in 1029 transferred to it the bishopric of
Zeitz. In the history of Saxony it is memorable as the scene of
various treaties; and in 1561 an assembly of Protestant princes
was held there, which made a futile attempt to cement the
doctrinal dissensions of the Protestants. In 1 564 the last bishop
died, and the bishopric fell to the elector of Saxony. In 1631
the town was taken by Tilly, and in 1632 by Gustavus Adolphus.
It became Prussian in 1814. An aimual festival, with a pro-
cession of children, which is still held, is referred to an apocryphal
siege of the town by the Hussites in 1432, but is probably con-
nected with an incident in the brothers' war (1447-51). between
the elector Frederick II. of Saxony and his brother Duke Williaoa.
Karl Peter Lepsius (1775-1853), the antiquary and his more
distinguished ion Richard the Egyptologist, were bom at
Naumburg.
See E. Borkowsky. Die Gesckidite der Sladi Naumburg an der Saaia
(Stuttgart, 1897) ; E. Hoffmartn, Naumburg an der Saale im ZeitalUr
der Reformation (Leipzig, 1900); S. Bnun,Naumburmer Annaleu
vom Jahre 799 bis 1613 (Naumburg, 1892); Puttrich. Naumburg an
der Saale, sein Dom und andre altertumliche Baunerke (Leipzig. 1841*
1843): and Wispel, Entwickelungsgeschichte der Stadl Naumburg an
der Saale (Naumburg, 1903).
NAUNTON, SIR ROBERT (i 563-1635). English politician, the
son of Henry Naunton of Alderton, Suffolk, was educated at
Trinity College, (Cambridge, becoming a fellow of his college in
1585 and public orator of the university in 1594. Waiter
Devereux, earl of Essex, enabled him to spend some time abroad,
sending information about European affairs. Having returned
to England, he entered parliament in 1606 as member for
Helston, and he sat in the five succeeding parliaments; ia 1614
he was knighted, in z6i6 he became master of requests and later
surveyor of the court of wards. In z 61 8 his friend Buckingham
procured for him, the position of secretary of state. Naunton's
strong Protestant opinions led him to favour more active inter-
vention by England in the interests of Frederick V., and more
vigorous application of the laws against Roman Catholics.
Gondomar, the Spanish ambassador, complained to James, who
censured his secretary. Consequently in 1623 Naunton resigned
and was made master of the court of wards. He died at Lether-
ingham, Suffolk, on the 27th of March 1635. Naunton's valuable
account of Qncen Elizabeth's reign was still in manuscript when
he died. As Fragmenta regalia^ toriUen by Sir Robert NttusUam,
it was printed in 1641 and again in 1642, a revised edition,
Fragmenta Regalia^ or Observations on the late Queen Elisabeik,
her Times and FavouriUs^ being issued in 2653. It was again
published in 1824, and an edition edited by A. Arber was brought
out in 187a It has also been printed in several collections and has
been translated into French and Italian. There are sevetml
manuscript copies extant, and some of Naunton's lettcn «ze in
the British Museum and in other collections.
See Memoirs 0/ Sir Robert Nasmton (1814).
WAUPACTUS (Ital. Lepanto, mod. Gr. Epakto), a town to
the nomarchy of Acaroania and Aetolxa, Greece, situated on a
bay on the north side of the straits of Lepanto. The haxbottr,
once the best on the northern coast of the Corinthian Gulf, b now
1^
NAUPLIA— NAUTILUS
279
ilmost entirely choked up, and is accessible only to the smallest
craft. Naupactus is an episcopal see; pop. about 2500. In
Greek legend it appears as the place where the HeracUdae built
a fleet to invade Peloponnesus. In historical times it belonged
to the Ozolian Locrians; but about 455 B.C., in spite of a partial
resettkment with Locrians of Opus, it fell to the Athenians,
vbo peopled it with Messenian refugees and made it their chief
naval station in western Greece during the Peloponnesian w.ir.
In 404 it was restored to the Locrians, who subsequently lost
it to the Achaeans, but recovered it through Epaminondas.
Philip IL of Macedon gave Naupactus to the Aetolians, who held
it till igi, when after an obstinate siege it was surrendered to the
Romans. It was still flourishing about a.d. i 70, but in Justinian's
rdgD was destroyed by an earthquake. Inr the middle ages it fell
into the hands of the Venetians, who fortified it so strongly that
ia 1477 >t successfully resisted a four months' siege by a Turkish
army thirty thousand strong; inx499, however, it was taken
by Bayezid II. The mouth of the Gtdf of Lepanto was the scene
of the great sea fight in which the naval power of Turkey was
for the time being destroyed by the united papal, Spanish and
VeoeUan forces (October 7, 1 57 1). See Lepanto, Battle op. In
167S it was recaptured by the Venetians, but was again restored
b 1699, by the treaty of Karlowiu to' the Turks; in the war of
independence it finally became Greek once more (March 1829).
See Strabo ix. pp. 436-437: Pausanias x. 38. 10-13; Thucydidcs
i^-itl passim: Ll>^. blc. xxxvi. passim; E. L. Hicks and G. F. Hill,
Crtek Historical Inscriptions {Oxiord, 1901), No. 35.
MAUPUA. a town in the Pelc^nnesus, at the head of the
Argolic Gulf. In the classical period it was a place of no import-
ance, and when Pausanias lived, about a.d. i 50, it was deserted.
M a very early time, however, it seems to have been of greater
Bote, being the seaport of the plain in which Argos and Mycenae
are situated, and several tombs of the Mycenaean age have been
found. \ hero Nauplius took part in the Argonautic expedition ;
another was king of Euboea. The mythic importance of the town
revived in the middle ages, when it became one of the chief cities
of the Morea. It was captured in 1 3 1 1 by Godfrey Villehardouin
vith the help of Venetian ships; a French dynasty ruled in it for
some time, and established the feudal system in the country. In
ijSS the Venetians bought Argos and Nauplia. In the wars
between Venice and the Turks it often changed masters. It
▼as given to the Turks at the peace concluded in 1540;
it was recaptured by Venice in 1686, and Palamidhi on the hill
overhanging the town was made a great fortress. In 1 71 5 it was
taken by the Turks; in 1770 the Russians occupied it for a short
lime. The Greeks captured it during the War of Independence
on the i2ih of December 1822, and it was the seat of the Greek
administration. till 1833, when Athens became the capital of
the country. It is the chief town of the department of Argolis
(pop. in 1907, 81,943). Pop. about 6000.
NAUSEA (from Gr. yoDy, a ship), sea-sickness, or generally
any disposition to vomit; also used figuratively to denote
feelings of strong aversion or dislike.
NAUSICAA, in Greek legend, daughter of Alcinous, king of
the Phaeacians in the island of Scheria (Odyssey, vi. 15-315,
via. 457.) When Odysseus (Ulysses) was swept into the sea from
th« raft on which he had left the home of Calypso, he swam
ashore to Scheria, where he fell asleep on the bank of a river.
Here be was found by Nausicaa, who supplied him with clothes
and took him to her father's palace, where he was hospitably
enienained. She is said to have become the wife of Telemachus.
The incident of Odysseiis and Nausicaa formed the subject of a
l«»i play by Sophocles and was frequently represented in ancient
an.
VAUTCR (Hindostani niack), an Indian ballet-d£Lnce. The
nautch is performed by nautch-girls, who move their feet but
little, and the dance consists of swaying the body and posturing
^»h the arras.
lAUTILUS. The term nautilus, meaning simply " the sailor,"
*2» applied by the ancient Greeks to the genus of eight-armed
^ttlefishesor octopods which is now known as the paper nautilus,
*nd whose sdentific name is Argonauta (see Cephalopoda).
This animal is not uncommon in the Mediterranean, and from
its habit of floating at the surface attracted the attention of the
fishermen and sailors of the Aegean Sea from the earliest times.
The popular belief that the expanded arms are raised above the
water to act as sails and that the other arms are used as oars
was not based on any actual observation of the living animal, and
it is now known that although the animal floats at the surface
it does not sail, the expanded arms being applied to the exterior
surface of the shell, which is secreted by them. The eggs are
carried in the shell, and as this structure is entirely absent in the
males, there is good reason to conclude that the habit of carrying
the eggs and using one pair of arms for that purpose gave rise
to the modification of those am\s and the secretion of the shell
by them. Huxley once expressed the truth of the matter with
characteristic felicity in the remark that if the shell of the
Argonaut is to be compared to anything of human invention or
construction at all, it should be compared, not to a ship or boat,
but to a perambulator.
The shell of Argonauta (see fig. i) is spirally coiled and sym-
metrical, and thus bears a remarkable resemblance to the ^ell
of the pearly nautilus and the extinct ammonites, especially
Fig. I. — ^The Argonaut in life. (After Lacaze'Dutkiers.)
Tr, Float; Br.a, ventral or posterior arms; Br.p, dorsal or
anterior arms; V, the expanded portion of them, once called the
sails; B, the beak; C, the shell; En, the funnel.
as it is like that of the pearly nautilus coiled towards the dorsal
or anterior surface of the animal. It is ornamented by ridges
and furrows which pass in transverse curves from the inner to
the outer margin of the coils. The outer margin or keel is some-
what flattened and the whole shell is compressed from side to side.
It diflers entirely from the shell of the pearly nautilus in the
absence of internal septa and siphuncle and in the absence of
any attachment between it and the body. It is in fact entirely
different in origin and relations to the body from the typical
molluscan shell secreted by the mantle in other Cephalopods and
other types of MoUusca. It is a structure sui generis, unique
in the whole phylum of Mollusca.
The only description of the living animal by a competent
observer which we have is that of Lacaze Duthiers, made on a
single specimen on the Mediterranean coast of France, and pub-
lished in 1892, and even this is in some respects incomplete.
The specimen after capture was carried in a bucket, and became
separated from its shell. When placed with the shell in a large
aquarium, tank the animal resumed possession of the shell and
assumed the attitude shown in fig. i. The shell floated at
the surface, doubtless in consequence of the inclusion of some
air in the cavity of the shell. It is not known with certainty
that the animal is able in its natural state to descend below the
surface; the specimen here considered never did so of its own
accord, and when pushed down always rose again.
28o
NAUVOO
The siphon or funnel U unusually larse and prominent, and is the
chief or only organ of locomotion, the water which is expelled from
it drivins the animal backwards. The arms are usually turned
backwaros and carried inside the shell, to the inner surface of which
the suckers adhfcre. but one or two arms are from time to time
extended in front. This does not apply to the dorsal arms which are
applied to the outside of the shell, and the expanded membrane
of these arms covers the greater part of its surface. The dorsal arms
are turned backwards, and each is twisted so that the oral surfaces
face each other and the suckers are in contact with the diell. The
membrane or velum is thin, and is really a great expansion of a dorsal
meipbrane similar to that which is found along the median dorsal
line of the two posterior arms. The suckers of the originallv posterior
aeries of each dorsal arm lie along the external border of tne shell,
and the arm with its two rows oTsuckers extends round the whole
border of the membrane, the arm being curved into a complete loop,
so that its extremity reaches almost to the origin of the membrane
near the base of the arm, the extremity being continued on to the
internal surface of the membrane. The external row of suckers,
originally the posterior row^are united by membrane which is con-
tinuous with the velum. The smaller suckers on the more distal
part of the arm, which extends along the edse of the shell-aperture,.
are quite sessile. In the figure of Lacazc-Duuiiers (fi^. i ) the suckers
appear to be turned away from the shell, but this is erroneous.
A figure showing the natural position is gfven in the Monograph of
the Cephalopoda in the series of Monographs issued by the Zoological
Sution of Naples.
The animal described by Lacaze-Duthiers lived a fortnight in
ca(>tivity, during which time it devoured with avidity small fishes
which were presented to it, seizing them, not by throwing out all
the ventral arms, but by means of the suckers near the mouth.
Judging from these observations, Argonauta is a pelagic animal
wUch lives and feeds near the surface of the ocean. Several
q>edes of Argonauta are known, distributed in the tropical parts
of all the great oceans. The male is much smaller than the
female, not exceeding an inch or so in length. It secretes no
shdl and its dorsal anns are not modified. The third arm on
the left side, however, is modified in another way in connexion
with reproduction.
Argpnauta is one of the Cephalopods in which the process known
as hcctocotylization of one arm is developed to its extreme degree,
the arm affected becoming ultimately detached and left by the male
in the mantle cavity of xSt female where it retains for some time its
life and power of movement. The hectocotylus or copulatory arm in
the Argonaut is developed at first in a closed cyst (fig. 3), which
Fic. 2. — a. Male of Argonauta argo, with the hectocotyliaed arm
still contain«l in its enveloping cyst, four times enlarged (after H.
MQller). b, Hectocotylus of Tremoctopui tiolaceus (after Kdlliker).
afterwards bursts, allowing the arm to uncoil ; the remains of the
cyst form a sac on the back of the arm which serves to contain the
spermatophores.
The animal known as the Pearly Nautilus was unknown to the
^ ancient Greeks, since its habitat is the seas of the far East,
but in the middle ages, when its shell became known in Europe,
it was called, from its superficial similarity to that of the original
nautilus, by the same name. It was Lihnaeus who, in order to
distinguish the two animals, took the name " nautilus " from
the animal to which it originally belonged and bestowed it upon
the very different East Indian Mollusc, giving to the original
nautilus the new name Argpnaula. Zoological nomenclature
dates from Lixmaeus, and thus the nautilus is now the name of the
only living genus of Tetrabranchiate Cephalopods. A detailed
description of this animal is given in the article C^halopoda
{q.9.)i it is only necessary to add here a brief account of its mode
of life and habits.
Four spedes are known from the Indian and Pacific oceans; they
are gregarious and nocturnal animals living at some depth and
apparently always on the bottom. The natural attitude of the
ammal as represented by Dr Willey is with the oral surface down-
wards, the tentacles spread out, and the shell vertical The chambers
of the shell have no communication with one another nor with the
siphuncle, they are air-tight cavities and filled, not with water, but
with a nitrofsenous gas. This necessarily very much reduces the
specific gravity of the animal, but it is still heavier than the water
and does not seem capable of riane to the surface an^ more than an
octopus. Nautilus is rather abundant at some localities in the East
Indian Archipelago, for example at Amboyna in the Moluccas. In
1^1-1902 Dr Arthur WiUcy of Cambridge University spent some
time in that region for the purpose of investigating the reproduction
and devck>pment of the animaL He sutioned himself at New
Britain, known to the Germans as Neu Pommem, an island of the
Bismarck Archipelago off the coast of Papua. The natives of this
island use the nautilus for food, capturing them by means of a large
fish-trap simiUr in construction to the cylindrical lobster-traps us«i
by British fishermen. Fish is used for bait. Dr Willey found the
males much more numerous than the females; of fifteen specimens
captured on one occasion only two were females. He kept specimens
ahve both in vessels on shore and in Urge baskets moored at the
bottom of the via. He found that when they were placed in a vessel
of sea water numbers of a small parasitic Crustacea issued from the
mantle cavity. Some of the females laid eggs in captivity, but
these were found not to be fertilized ; they were about 1-5 centi-
metres lon^ and attached singly by a broad base to the sides of the
can in which the animals were confined.
LiTBRATU RB.— Lacaze-Duthiers,"Observation d'un arsooautede la
M6diterran6e," Arck. tool, explr. x. (1903), p. 1893. Cepkahpoda, by
Jalta ; Fauna und Flora des Cotjes von Neatd, monographs issued by
the Zoological Station of Naples. Bashford Dean, "Notes on Living
Nautilus," Amer. Natur. xxxv. (1901). A. Willey, Contributum to
the Natural History of the Pearly hfautilus; A. Willey *s Zoological
Results, pt. vi. (1902). (J. T. C.)
NAUVOO. a dty of Hancock county, Illinois, U.S.A., on the
Mississippi river at the head of the lower rapids and about 50 m.
aboveQuincy. Pop. (1900) 1321 ; (1910) 1020. On the opposite
banic of the river is Montrose, Iowa (pop. in 1910, 708), served
by the Chicago, Burlington & (^uincy niilway. Nauvoo is the
scat of St Mary's Aaidemy and Spalding Institute (1907).
two institutions of the Benedictine Sisters. " Commerce City "
was laid out here in 1834 by Connecticut speculators; but the
first settlement of importance was made by the Mormons (9.*.)
in 1 839- 1840; they named it Nauvoo,* in obedience to a
" revdation " made to Joseph Smith, and secured a dty charter
in 1840. Four years later its population was about 15,000, and
a large Mormon temple had been built, but internal dissensions
arose, "gentile" hostility was aroused, the charter of Nauvoo
was revoked in 1845, two of the leaders, Joseph Smith and his
brother Hyrum, were killed at Carthage, the county-seat, by
a mob, and in 1846 the sect was driven from the state. Traces of
Mormonism, however, still remain in the ruins of the temple
and the names of several of the streets. Throe years after the
expulsion of the Mormons Nauvoo was occupied by the remnant
(some 250) of a colony of French communists, the Icarians,
who had come out under the leadership of £tienne Cabet iq.t.).
For a few years the colony proq)ercd, and by 1855 its membership
had doubled. It was governed under a constitution, drafted
by Cabet, which vested the legislative authority in a general
assembly composed of all the males twenty years of age or over
and the administrative authority in a board of six directors,
three of whom were dected every six months for a term of one
year. Each family occupied its own home, but property was
hdd in common, all ate at the common table, and the children
were taught in the community school. In December 185 s
C^bet proposed a revision of the constitution to give him greater
authority. This resulted in rending the colony into two irrecon-
cilable factions, and in October 1856 C^bct with the minority
(172) withdrew to St Louis, Mo., where he died on the 8th off
November. In May 1858 the surviving members of his faction
together with a few fresh arrivals from Franre established a new
> The Mormons said the name was of Hebrew origin an^ meant
" beautiful place !'; Hebrew " navch " means " pleasant."
NAVAHO— NAVARRE
281
loiuo colony at Cheltenham near St Loab, but this survived
only for a brief period. Nauvoo was never intended to be more
than a temporary borne for the Icarians. Soon after the schism
of 1856 those who had rebeUed against Cabet began to prepare
a permanent home in Adams county, Iowa. There too in 1879
the community split into two factions, the Young Party and the
Old Party. Some time before this separation a few members
of the ookMiy removed to the vicinity of Cloverdale, Sonoma
cottQty, California, and here most of the memben of the Young
Pvty joined them early in 1884 in forming the Icaria-Speranxa
Cominttnity. This society tried a government quite different
from that first adopted at Nauvoo, but it ceased to exist after
about three yean. The Old Party also adopted a new constitu-
lioQ, but it too was dissolved in 189s.
See Albert Shaw, Jcaria: A Chapter in ike History of Ommwnsm
(New York. 1884); Jules Prudhommeaux, Jcaria et son fondateur
Etienne Cabet (Pant, 1907}: and H. Lux. Elienne Cabet md der
Ikmsthe KommuKisMus (Stuttgart, 1894).
HAVAHO, or Navajo, a tribe of North American Indians of
Athabascan stock. They inhabit the northern part of Arizona
lad New Mexico. The majority live by breeding horses, sheep
and goats. They are well known for their beautiful blanket
weaving. (See Indians, Nokth American.)
HAVAJf. a market town of county Meath, Ireland, situated at
thecoofiuence of the Black water with the Boyne. Pop. (1901)
3859. It IS a railway junction of some importance, where the
CloQsilla and Kingscourt branch of the Midland Great Western
raSvay crosses the Drogheda and Oldcastle branch of the Great
Northern. By the former it is 30 m. N.W of Dublin. Navan
is the principal town of county Meath (though Trim is the county
(own), and has considerable trade in com and flour, some manu-
(actoce of woollens and of agricultural implements, and a tannery.
Nii^tt was a barony of the palatinate of Meath, was walled and
fortified, and was incorporated by charter of Edward IV. It
suffered in the civil wars of 1641, and returned two members to
the Irish parliament until the Union in 1800. It is governed by
aa urban district council, and is a favourite centre for rod-fishing
for trout and salmon.
lAVABIMO. BATTLE OP. fought on the 30th of October 1827,
the decisive event which established the independence of Greece.
By the treaty signed in London on the 6th of July 1827 (see
Gi£ECE, History), England, France and Russia agreed to demand
as armistice, as preliminary to a settlement. Sir Edward
Codrington, then commander-in-chief in the Mediterranean,
rccdved the treaty and bis instructions on the night of the
loth/i ith of August at Smyrna, and proceeded at once to Nauplia
to communicate them to the Greeks. His instructions were to
demand an armistice, to intercept all supplies coming to the
Turkish forces in the Morea from Africa or Turkey in general,
and to look for directbns to Stratford Canning (Lord Stratford
de Reddiffe), the British ambassador .at Constantinople. The
ambassador's instructions reached Codrington on the 7th of
September. He was accompanied to Nauplia by his French
ooQeague, Rear-Admiral de Rigny. The Greek government
agreed to accept the armistice. Admiral de Rigny left for a
cruise in the Levant, and Sir Edward Codrington, hearing that an
Egyptian armament was on its way from Alexandria, and
believing that it was bound for Hydra, steered for that island,
which he reached on the 3rd of September, but on the 12th of
September found the Egyptians at anchor with a Turkish squadron
at Navarino. The Turkish government refused to accept the
armistice. On the 19th of September, seeing a movement among
the Egyptian and Turkish ships in the bay, Codrington informed
the(XuMnan admiral, Tahir Pasha, that he had orders to prevent
hostile movements against the Greeks. Admiral de Rigny joined
him immediately afterwards, and a joint note was sent by them
<n the 22nd of September to Ibrahim Pasha, who held the
wperior command for the sultan. On the 25th an interview
took place, in which Ibrahim gave a verbal engagement not to act
against the Greeks, pending orders from the sultan. The allies,
*ho were in want of stores, now separated, Codrington going to
Zaate and de Rigny to Cervi, where his store ships were. Frigates
were left to watch Navarino. The 'British admiral had barely
anchored at Zante before he was informed that the sulun's
forces were putting to sea. On the 29th of September a Greek
naval force, commanded by an English Philhellene, Captain
Frank Abney Hastings, had destroyed some Turkish vcsseb in
Salona Bay, on the north side of the Gulf of Corinth. From
the 3rd to the sth of October Codrington, who had with him
only his flagship the " Asia " (84) and some smaller vessels,
was engaged in turning back the Egyptian and Turkish vessels,
a task in which he was aided by a violent gale. He resumed his
watch off Navarino, and on the 13th was joined by de Rigny
and the Russian rear-admiral Hdden with his squadron.
By general agreement among the powers the command was
entrusted to Codrington, and the allied force consisted of three
British, four French and four Russian sail of the line, if the
French admiral's flagship the " Sirine " (60), which was technic-
ally " a double banked frigate," be included. There were four
British, one French and four Russian. frigates, and six British
and French brigs and schooneis. The Egyptians and Turks had
only three line of battleships and fifteen lartp frigates, together
with a swarm of small craft which raised their total number
to eighty and upwards. Ibrahim Pasha, though unable to
operate at sea, considered himself at liberty to carry on the war
by land. His men were actively employed in burning the
Greek villages, and reducing the inhabitants to slaveiy. The
flames and smoke of the destroyed villages were dearly seen
from the allied fleet. On the 17th of October, a joint letter of
expostulation was sent in to Ibrahim Pasha, but was returned
with the mam'festly false answer that he had left Navarino, and
that his officers did not know where he was. The admirals,
therefore, decided to stand into the bay and anchor among the
Egyptian and Turkish ships. A French officer in the Egyptian
service,' of the name of Letellier, had anchored the vessels of
Ibrahim and the Turkish admiral in a horseshoe formation, of
which the points touched the entrance to the bay, and there were
forts on the lands at both sides of the entry. The allies entered in
two lines— one formed of the French and British led byCodrington
in the " Asia," the other of the Russians, — and began to anchor
in the free water in the midst of Ibrahim's fleet. The officer
commanding the British frigate " Dartmouth " (42), Captain
Fellowes, seeing a Turkish fireship dose to windward of him,
sent a boat with a demand that she should be removed. The
Turks fired, killing Lieutenant G. W. H. Fiuroy, who brought
the message, and severalof the boat's crew. The " Dartmouth "
then opened " a defensive fire," and the action became general
at once. The allies, who were all doatly engaged, were anchored
among their enemies, and the result was obtained by thdr heavier
broadsides and their better gunnery. Three-fourths, of the
Turkish and Egyptian vessels were sunk by the assailants, or fired
by thdr own crews. On the allied side the British squadron
lost 75 killed and 197 wounded; the French 43 killed and 183
wounded; the Russians 50 killed and 139 wounded. In the
British squadron Captain Walter Bathurst of the " Genoa " (74)
was slain. The loss of the Turks and Egyptians was never
accurately reported, but it was certainly very great.
In its effects on the international situation Navarino may be
reckoned one of the decisive battles of the world. It not only
made the efforu of the Turks to suppress the Greek revolt hope-
less, but it made a breach difficult to heal in the traditional
friendship betweea Great Britain and Turkey, which had its
effect during the critical period of the struggle between Mehemet
Ali and the Porte (1831-1841). It predpiuted the Russo-
Turkish war of 1828^1829, and, by annihilating the Ottoman
navy, weakened the resisting power of Turkey to Russia and
later to Mehemet Ali.
See Memoir of Admiral Sir B. Codrington, by his daughter Lady
Bourchicr (London. 1S73); Naval History of Great Britain, by W.
James and Captain Chamier, vol. vL (London, 1837). (D. H.)
NAVARRE (Span. Navarra), an inland province of northern
Spain, and formerly a kingdom which included part of France.
The province is bounded on the N. by France (Basses Pyr^n^es)
and Guip(izcoa. E. by Huesca and Saragossa, S. by Saragossa
282
NAVARRETE, J. F.— NAVARRETE, M. F. DE
and Logrofto aod W. by Alava. It b traversed from east to
west by the Pyrenees and the Cantabrian Mountains, and almost
the whole of the province is ovemin by the ramifications of these
ranges. From Navarre there are only three practicable roads for
carriages into France— those by the Pueru de Vera, the Pueru de
Maya and Roncesvalles. The highest summit in the province
is the Monte Adi (4931 ft.). The chief river flowing towards the
Atlantic is the Bidasoa, which rises near the PuerU de Maya,
and after flowing southwards through the valley of Baztin takes
a north-easterly course, and for a short distance above its outfall
at Fuenterrabia constitutes the frontier between France and
Spain (Guipiizcoa); by far the larger portion of. Navarre is
drained to the Mediterranean through the Ebro, which flows
along the western frontier and crosses the extreme south of the
province. The hilly districts consist almost entirely of forest
and pasture, the most common trees being the pine, beech, oak
and chestnut. Much of the lower ground is well adapted for
agriculture, and yields grain in abundance; the prindpal
fruit grown is the apple, from which cider is made in some
districts; hemp, flax and oil are also produced, and mulberries
are cultivated for silkworms. The wine trade is active, and the
products of the vineyards are in great demand in sduth-west
France and at Passages in Guipiucoa for mixing with French
wines. Navarre is one of the richest provinces of Spain in live
stock. Game, both large and small, is plentiful in the mountains,
and- the streams abound with trout and other fish. Gypsum,
limestone, freestone and marble are quarried; there are also
mines of copper, lead, iron, zinc and rock salt. Mineral and
thermal springs are numerous, but none is of more than local
fame. The other industries include manufactures of arms,
paper, chocolate, candles, alcohol, leather, coarse linens and
doth. The exports both by rail and by the passes in the
Pyrenees consist of h've stock, oil, wine, wool, leather and paper.
The Ebro Valley railway, which traverses southern Navarre
and skirts the western frontier, sends out a branch line from
Castejon to Pamplona and Alsasua junction, where it connects
with the Northern railways from Madrid to France. Narrow-
gauge railways convey timber and ore from the mounuins to
these main hnes. Pamplona, the capital (pop., 1900, 28,886),
and Tudela (9449) are described in separate artides. The only
other towns with more than 5000 inhabitants are Bazt&n (9234).
Corella (6793). Estella (5736) and Tafalla (S494).
History.^The kingdom of Navarre was formed out of a part
of the territory occupied by the Vascones, i.e. the Basques and
Gascons, who occupied the southern slope of the western Pyrenees
and part of the shore of the Bay of Biscay. In the course of the
6th century there was a considerable emigration of Basques to
the north of the Pyrenees. The cause is supposed to have been
the pressure put upon them by the attacks of the Visigoth kings
in Spain. Yet the Basques maintained their independence.
The name of Navarre is derived by etymologists from " nava "
a flat valley surrounded by hills (a commonplace name in Spain ;
cf . Navas de Tolosa to the south of the Sierra Morena) and " crri "
a region or country. It began to appear as the name of part of
Vasconia towards the end of the Visigoth epoch in Spain in the
7th century. lu early history is more than obscure. In recent
times ingenious attempts have been made to trace the descent
of the first historic king of Navarre from one Semen Lupus, duke
of Aquitaine in the 6th century. The reader may consult La
Vasconie by Jean de Jauxgain (Paris, 1898) for the latest example
of this reconstruction of andent history from fragmentary and
dubious materials. Jauigain has been subjected to very damag-
ing criticism by L. Barrau-Dihigo {Revue Hispanique, t. vii.
141). The first historic king of Navarre was Sancho Garcia,
who ruled at Pamplona in the early years of the loth century.
Under him and his immediate successors Navarre reached the
height of iu power and its extension (see Spain: History, for
the reign of Sancho el Mayor, and the esUblishment of the
Navarrese line as kings of Castile and Leon, and of Aragon).
When the kingdom was at its height it induded all the modem
province of the name; the northern slope of the western Pyrenees
caUed by the Spaniards the " Ultra-puertos " or country beyond
the passes, and now known as French Navarre; the Basque
provinces; the Bureba, the valley between the Basque Mountains
and the Monies de Oca to the north of Burgos; the Rioja and
Tarazona in the upper valley of the Ebro. In the laih century
the kings of Castile gradually annexed the Rioja and Aiava.
While Navarre was reunited to Aragon— 1 076-1 t34^see
Spain: History) it was saved from aggression on the east, but
did not recover the territory taken by Castile. About the year
1200 Alfonso VIII. of Castile annexed the other two Basque
provinces, Biscay (Vizcaya) and Guipiizcoa. Tarazona re-
mained in possession of Aragon. After 1 234 Navarre, though the
crown was daimed by the kings of Aragon, passed by marriage
to a succession of French rulers. In 1516 Spanish Navarre
was finally annexed by Ferdinand the Catholic. French Navarre
survived as an independent little kingdom till it was united to
the crown of France by Henry IV. founder of the Bourbon
dynasty. From 15 10 until 1833, when it was fullv incorporated
with Spain, Navarre was a viceroyalty.
As originally oreanized. Navarre was divided into Merindadea. or
districts, governccTbv a Merino (mayorino) as representative of the
king. They were tne Ultra pucrtos (French Navarre), Pamplona.
Estella, Judela, Saneucsa. In 1407 Oliie was added. The Cortet of
Navarre began with the kine's council of churchmen and nobles.
3ut in the course of the I4tn century the burgesses were added.
Their presence was due to the fact that the king had need of their
co-operation to raise money by grants and aids. When fully con-
stituted, the Cortes consisted of the churchmen, the nobles and the
representatives of twenty-seven " good towns " — that is to say,
towns which had no feudal lord, and, therefore, held directly of the
king. 1 n the later stages of its history the Cortes of .Navarre included
the representatives of thirty-eight towns. The independence of the
burcesses was better secured in Navarre than in other parliaments of
Spain by the constitutional rule which required the consent of a
majority of each order to every act of the Cortes. Thus the buf^esscs
could not be outvoted by the nobles and the Church. Even in the
i8th century the Navarrese successfully resisted the attempt of the
kings of the Bourbon dynasty to establish custom houses on the
French frontier. Vet they were loyal to their Spanish sovereigns,
and no part of the country offered a more determined or more skilful
resistance to Napoleon. Navarre was much under clerical influence.
This, and the resentment felt at the loss of their autonomy when they
u-ere incorporated with the rest of Spain in iSij. account for the
strong support given by many Navarrese to the Carlist cause.
See Htstoria Compendiada dd Naoarra by Don J. M. Yanguas.
(San Sebastian, 1833).
NAVARRETE, JUAN FERNANDEZ (1526-1579). sumamed
El Mudo (The Mule), Spanish painter of the Madrid school,
was bom at Logrofk) in 1526. An illness in infancy deprived him
of his hearing, but at a very early age he began to express his
wants by sketching objects with a piece of charcoal. He received
his first instructions, in art from Fray Vicente de Santo Domingo,
a Hieronymite monk at Estella, and afterwards he visited Naples,
Rome, Florence and Milan. According to the ordinary account
he was for a considerable time the pupil of Titian at Venice. In
156S Philip II. summoned him to Madrid with the title of king's
painter and a salary, and employed him to execute pictures \oz
the Escorial. The most celebrated of the works he there pro-
duced are a " Nativity" (in which, as in the well-known work on
the same subject by Correggio, the light emanates from the
infant Saviour), a*'Baptism of Christ" (now m the Af adrid Picture
Gallery), and " Abraham Receiving the Three Angels " (one of his
last performances, dated 1576). He executed many other
altarpieces, all characterized by boldness and freedom in design,
and by the rich warm colouring which has acquired for him the
surname of " the Spanish Titiah." He died at Toledo in February
«579.
NAVARRETE. MARTIN FERNANDEZ DE (1765-1844).
Spanish historian, was Ix>m at Abalos on the 9th of November
1765, and entered the navy in 1780. He was engaged in the
unsuccessful operations against Gibralur in 1782, and afterwards
in the suppression of Algerine pirates. Ill-health compelled him
for a time to withdraw from active service, but he devoted this
forced leisure to historical research, and in 1789 he was appointed
by the crown to examine the national archives relating to the
maritime history of Spain. Rejoining the navy in 1703, be was
present at the siege of Toulon, and afterwards received command
of a frigate. From 1797 to 1808 he held in succession various
NAVARRO— NAVE
283
important posts in the ministry of marine. In 1808 the French
invasion led to his withdrawal to Andalusia, and the rest of his
life was entirely devoted to literature. In 1819 appeared, as an
appendix to the Academy's edition of Don Quijote^ his Vida de
Cenantes, and in 1825 the first two volumes of the Cdeccion de
hs Vutjes y Descuhrimientos que kicieron per Mar los EspalUAes
iadifitus del Siglo XV. (jitl voL, 1829; 4th vol., 1837). In
1S37 he was made a senator and director of the academy of
history. At the time of his death, on the 8th of October 1844,
he was assisting in the preparation of the Caieuion de Docu-
mentos Ituditos para la Historia de Espana. His DiserUuion
ttihre la Historia de la Nautica (1846) and Biblioteca Marilima
EspaHola (1851), were published posthumously.
MAVABRO. PEDRO (c. 1460-1528), Spanish military engineer
aod general, of obscure parenUge, was bom probably about 1460.
He began life as a sailor; and was employed later as moao de
apuda^ or running footman, by the Cardinal Juan de Aragon;
on the death of his employer in 1485 he enlisted as a
mercenary in a war between Florence and Genoa; and was sub-
sequently engaged for some years in the warfare between the
Genoese corsairs and the Mahommedans of Northern Africa.
Navarro was not faiore scrupulous than others, for in 1499 he was
at Civitavecchia, recovering from a gunshot wound in the hip
received in a piratical attack on a Portuguese trading ship.
When Gonsalvo de C6rdoba was sent to Sicily, to take part with
the French in the partition of Naples, Navarro enlisted under
him; and in the expulsion of the Turkish garrison from Cepha-
bnia in 1500 he helped by laying mines to breach the walls,
though not at "first with much success. The Spanish commander
gave him a captain's commission. During the campaigns of
1503 and 1503 he came to the front among the Spanish officers
by the defence of Canosa and of Taranto, by his activity in
partisan warfare on the French lines of communication, and
by the part he took in winning the battle of Cerinola. But his
great reputation among the soldiers of the time was founded
on the vigour and success of his mining operations against the
castles of Naples, held by French garrisons, in 1503, and he was
undoubtedly recognized as the first nulitary engineer of his age.
Vthen the French were expelled from Naples he received from
Gonsalvo a grant of land and the title of count of Olivetto.
In 1506 he was in Spain, and for several years he was employed
m wars on the north coast of Africa. In 1 508 he took Velez de
Gomera, largely by means of a species of floating battery which
he invented. In X509 he accompanied Ximenez in the conquest
of Oran, and did excellent service. Till 1511 he continued in
service in Africa, and took Bougie and Tripoli in 1510. The
disasters at Gerba and Kerkenna did not materially afiFect his
rq>tttation. There was some talk of appointing him to command
the army of the league formed against the French in 1512;
bat his humble birth was thought to disqualify him. He was,
however, sent as a subordinate general. At the battle of Ravenna
be covered the orderly retreat of the Spanish foot, and was
struck from hb horse by a shot which failed to pierce his armour.
Being taken prisoner by the French, he was sent to the Castle
of Loches. Ferdinand, whom the soldiers called an Aragonese
skinflint, would not pay his ransom, and after three years of
imprisonment he entered the service of Francis I. in a pique.
The rest of his life was spent as a French officer. He distin-
guished himself in the passage of the Alps, at the battle of
Marignano, by the taking of the citadel of Milan, and in the long
siege of Brescia. He was at the battle of Pa via, and in 1522
was taken prisoner at Genoa by his own countrymen. He was
confined at Naples till the peace of 1 526, but beyond the confisca-
tion of his estate at Olivetto no punishment was inflicted for his
treason. His last service waa.in the disastrous expedition of
Laotrec to Naples in 1527, which was ruined by the plague. He
died near the end of 1528.
A fife of Navarro by Don Martin de los Heros. is published In the
Dxumeatos imUilos para la Historia de Espana^ voL xxv. (Madrid.
1854).
■AV^ ecdestastically considered, that part of a church
appropriated to the laity as distinguished from the chancel,
the choir or the presbytery, reserved for the deigy. In a X4th-
century letter (quoted in Gasquet's Parish Life in Medieval
England, 1906, p. 45) from a bishop of Coventry and Lichfield
to one of his clergy, the reason for this appropriation is given.
" Not only the decrees of the holy fathers but the approved
existing customs of the Church order that the place in which
the clerks sing and serve God according to their offices be
divided by screens from that in which the laity devoutly pray.
In this way the nave of the church ... is alone to be open to
lay people, in order that, in the time of divine service, clerics
be not mixed up with lay people, and more espedaUy with women ,
nor have communication with them, for in this way devotion
may be easily diminished." The word " nave " has been
generally derived from Lat. navis, ship. Du Cange {Clcssarium,
s.v. *' Navis ") quotes from the Ckronicon Moriniacense, of the
1 2th century, as to the popular origin of the name, Exterius
etiam tabemaculum, quod ecclesiae navis a poptdo vocatur ....
Salmasius in his commentary on Solinus (1629) finds the origin
in the resemblance of the vaulted roof to the keel of a ship, and
refers to Sallust {Jugurtka, 18. 8) where is noticed a similar
resemblance in the huts {mapalia) of the Numidlans. The use
of the word nans may, however, be due to*the early adoption
of the " ship " as a symbol of the church (see Skeat's note on
Piers Plowman, xl. 32). The Greek ya6t, Attic Ptut (raiciy,
to dwell), the inner shrine of a Greek temple, the cetla, has also
been suggested as the real origin of the word. This derivative
must presume a Utinized corruption into navis, for^the early
application of the word ifor ship to this part of a church building
is undoubted.'
Architecturally considered the nave is the central and principal
part of a church, extending from the main front to the transepts,
or to the choir or chancel in the absence of transepts. When
the nave is flanked by aisles, light is admitted to the church
through clerestory windows, some of the most ancient examples
being the basilica at Bethlehem and the church of St Ellas,
at Thessalonica, both of the 5th century; numerous churches
in Rome; and in the 6th century the two great basilicas at
Ravenna; in all these cases the sills of the clerestory windows
were raised sufficiently to allow of a sloping roof over the side
aisles. When, however, a gallery was carried above the side
aisles, another division was required, which is known as the
triforium, and this subdivision was retained in the nave even
when it formed a passage only in the thickness of the wall.
In Late Gothic work in England, the triforium was suppressed
altogether to give more space for the clerestory windows, and
roofs of low pitch were provided over the side ^ea.
The longest nave in England is that of St Albans (300 ft.), in
which there are thirteen nave arches or bays on each side: in
Winchester (264 ft.) there are twelve bays; in Norwich (250ft.)
fourteen: Peterborough (226 ft.) eleven: and Ely (203 ft.) twelve
bays. Most of these dimensions are in excess of those of the French
cathedrals: Bourges is 300 ft. long, but as there are no transepts
this dimension includes nave and choir. Quny was 7X0 ft. with
eleven bays; Reims is 235 ft. with ten bays; Paris 170 ft. with ten
bays: Amiens 160 with ten bays; and St Ouen. Rouen, 200 ft. with
ten bays. In Gtraany the nave of Cologne cathedral is only 190 ft.,
including the two bays between the towers. The cathedral at
Se\ille in Spain is 300 ft. long, with only five bays. In luty the
cathedral at Milan b 270 ft. long with nine bays; at Florence. 250 ft.
long with only four bays; and St Peter's in Rome 300 ft. long with
four bays. (Jn the other hand, the vaults in the nave of the con-
tinental cathedrals are far higher than those in England, that of
Westminster Abbey being only 103 ft. high, whilst the choir of
Beauvais is 150 ft. The result is that the naves of the English
cathedrals not only are longer in actual dimensions, but appear
much longer in consequence of their inferior height.
> Vessels mcmbling boats or ships are familiar in medieval art
and later. Thus " Incense-boats " (navettes) somewhat of this shape
are found in I2th-Gentuiy sculptures. By the 16th century they
approximated still more closely to a model of a ship. A large vessel,
also in the shape of a boat or ship, and known as a n^, was used at
the table of jmnces and great personages to contain the knives,
spoons, &c. Some very elaborate examples of these survix'e. such as
the 15th-century i»*f of St Ursula in the treasure of the cathedral at
Reims, and that of (Hiaries V. of France in the Mus*e Cluny. A
16th-century nef, adapted for use as a cup. is in the Franks Collection
at the British Museum. (See Drinking Vessels.)
284
NAVEL— NAVIGATION
NAVEL ( 0. Eng. najda, a word common to Teutonic languages;
cf. Ger. Nabd, Swed. najtd; the Sanskrit is. nabkUa; the
English root is also seen in '* nave," the hub of a wheel), in
anatomy, the umbilicus (Gr. 6/100^61), the depression in the
abdomen which indicates the point through which the embryo
mammal obtained nourishment from its mother (see Anatomy:
section Superficial and Artistic).
NAVIGATION (from Lat. naois, ship, and agere^ to move), the
sdence or art of conducting a ship across the seas. The term
is also popularly used by analogy of boats on rivers, &c., and of
flying-machines or similar methods of locom6tion. Navigation,
as an art applied properly to ships, is technically used in the
restricted sense dealt with below, and has therefore to be
distinguished from "seamanship" iqv.), or the general
methods of rigging a ship (see Rigging), or the management
of sails, rudder, &c.
History.
The early history of the rise and progress of the art of naviga-
tion is very obscure, and it is more easy to trace the gradual
advance of geographical knowledge by iu means than the
growth of the practical methods by which this advance was
attained. Among Western nations before the introduction of
the mariner's compass the only practical means of navigating
ships was to keep in sight of land, or occasionally, for short
distances, to direct the ship's course by referring it to the sun
or stars; this very rough mode of procedure failed in cloudy
weather, and even in short voyages in the Mediterranean in
such drcumstanccs the navigator generally became hopelessly
bewildered as to bis position.
Over the China Sea and, Indian Ocean the steadiness in direc-
tion of the monsoons was very soon observed, and by running
directly before the wind vessels in those localities were able to
traverse long distances out of sight of land in opposite directions
at different seasons of the year, aided in some cases by a rough
compass iq.v.). But it is surpri»ng when we read of the progress
made among the andents in fixing positions on shore by practical
astronomy that so many years should have passed without its
application to solving exactly the same problems at sea, but
this is probably to be explained by the difficulty of devising
instrdments for use on the unsteady platform of a ship, coupled
with the lack of sdentific education among tho^K who would
have to use them.
The assodation of commerdal activity and nautical progress
shown by the Portuguese in the early part of the 15th century
marked an epoch of distinct progress in the methods of practical
navigation, and initiated that steady improvement which in
the 3oth century has raised the art of navigation almost to the
position of an exact sdence. Up to the time of the Portuguese
exploring expeditions, sent out by Prince Henry, generally
known as the " Navigator," which led to the discovery of the
Azores in 1419, the rediscovery of the Cape Verde Islands in
1447 and of Sierra Leone in 1460, navigation had been conducted
in the most rude, uncertain and dangerous manner it is possible
to conceive. Many years had passed without the least improve-
ment being introduced, except the application of the magnetic
needle about the beginning of the 14th century (see Coupass
and Magnetism). Prince Henry did all in his power to bring
together and systematize the knowledge then obtainable upon
nautical affairs, and also established an- observatory at Sagres
(near Cape St Vincent) in order to obtain more accurate tables
of the declination of the sun. John II., who ascended the throne
of Portugal in 1481, followed up the good work. He employed
Roderick and Joseph, his physicians, with Martin de Bohemia,
from Fayal, to act as a committee on navigation. They calcu-
lated tables of the sun's declination, and improved the astrolabe,
recommending it as more convenient than the cross-staff. The
Ordenanzas of the Spanish coundl of the Indies record the course
of instruction prescribed at this time for pilots; it included the
De Sphaera Mundi of Sacrobosco, the spherical triangles of
Regiomontanus, the Almagest of Ptolemy, the use of the astrolabe
and its mechanism, the adjustments o! instruments, cartography
and the methods of observing the movements of heavenly bodies
The then backward state of navigation is best understood from a
sl^tch of the few rude appliances which the mariner had, and even
these were only intended for the purpose of ascertaining the latitude.
The mystery of finding the longitude proved unfathomable for many
vears after the time of the Armada, and the very inaccurate know-
ledge existing of the positions of the heavenly bodies themselves fully
justified the quaintly expressed advice given in a nautical work «
repute at the time, where the writer observes, " Now there be some
that are very inquisitive to have a way to get the longitude, but that
is too tedious for seamen, since it requireth the deep knowledge of
astronomy, wherefore I would not have any man think that the
longitude is to be found at sea by any instrument ; so kt 00 seamen
trouble themselves with any such rule, but (according to their
accu^omed manner) let them keep a perfect account and reckonins
of the way of their ship." Such record of the " way of the ship
appears to have been then and for many years later recordedf in
chalk on a wooden board (log board), which folded like a book, and
from which each day a position for the ship was deduced, or from
which the more careful made abstracts into what was termed the
" journal."
A compass, a croes-suff or astrolabe, a fairly good taMe of the
sun's declination, a correction for the altitude of the pde star, and
occasionally a very incorrect chart formed all the appliances of a
navirator in the time of Columbus. For a knowledge of the speed of
the ship one of the earliest methods of actual measurement in use
was by what was known as the " Dutchman's log," which consisted
in throwing into the water, from the bows of tne Ship, something
which would float, and noting the interval between its apparently
drifting past two observers standing on the deck at a known distance
apart. No other method is mentioned until 1577, when a line was
attached to a small log of wood, which was thrown overboaid, and
the lensth measured which was carried over in a certain interval of
time ; tms interval of time was, we read, generally obtained by the
repetition of certain sentences, which were repeated twice if the ship
were only movine slowly. It is unfortunate that the words of this
ancient diibboleth are unknown. Thb b mentioned by Purchas as
being in occasional lise in 1607, but the more usual method (as we
tnddentallv see in the voyages of Columbus) was to estimate or guest
the rate 01 progress. It was customary by one or other of these
methods to determine the speed of a ship every two hours, " royal *'
ships and those with very careful captains doing so evenr hour.
When a vessel had been on various courses during the two hours, a
record of the duration on each was usually kept by the helmsman on
a traverse board, which consisted oi a board havii^ 3a radial Unes
drawn on it representing the points of the compass, with holes at
various disunces from the centre, into which pegs were inserted, the
mean or average course beine that entered on the log board. .
Some idea 01 the speed of ordinary ships in those days may be
gathdifed from an observation in I5<i of a '* certain shipp whidi,
without ever strildng sail, arrived at Naples from Drepana, in Sidly.
in 37 hours" (a distance of 300 m.); the writer accountii^ for
" such swift motion, which to the common sort of man aeemeth
incredible," by the fact of the occurrence of " violent floods and
outrageous winds." In 1578 we find in Bourne's Imentiens amd
Devices a description of a proposed patent log for recording a vessel's
speed, the idea (as far as we can gather from iu vague description)
being to register the revolutions oil a wheel enclosed m a case towed
astern of a ship (see Log).
Whether the property of the lodestone was independen t ly dis-
covered in Europe or introduced from the East, it does not appear to
have been generally utilized in Europe earlier than about a.D. 1400
(see Compass). In Europe the card or " flie " appears to have been
attached to the magnet from the first, and the whole suspended as
now in gimbal -rings within the " bittade," or, as we now spell the
word, " ninnacle. The direction of a ship's head by compass was
termed how she " capes." From the accounts exunt of the st
supplied to ships in 1588, they appear to have usually had two
compasses, costing 3s. 4d. each, which were kept in charge by the
boatswain. The fact that the north point of a compass does not, in
most places, pdnt to the true pole but eastward or westward of it,
by an amount which is termed by sailors " variation." appean to
have been noticed at an early date; but that the amount of variation
varied in different localities appears to have been first obaerved by
either Columbus or Cabot about 1490. and we find it used to be the
practice to ascertain this error when at sea either from a bearing ol
the pole star, or by uking a mean of the compass bearinf^s of the son
at both rising and setting, the deviation of the compass in the ships
of those days bang too small a quantity to be generally noticra.
though there is a very sugeestivc remark on the eHcct of moving the
position of any iron placed near a compass, by a Captain Stormy of
Bristd in 16^9. In order, partially to obviate the error of the
compass (vanation), the magnets, which usually consisted of two
steel wires joined at both ends and opened out in tne middle, were not
placed under the north and south line <A the compass card, but with
the ends about a point eastward of north and westward of south, the
variation in London when first observed in 1580 being about 11* £.;
the change of the variation year by year at the sanu base was first
noted by Gcllibrand in 1635.
The * cross-staff " appears to have been used by astronomers at a
very earty period *id subsequently by seamen for nwasuring
NAVIGATION
285
^^
zsocs
Fic. I.
ikHudes at m. It was one of the few instruments possesee d by
Columbus and Vasoo da Gama. The old crosS'SUff. called by .the
Spaniards " ballestilla." consisted of two light battens. The part
ve may call the staff was about l) in. square and 36 in. long. The
cross was made to fit closely and to slide upon the staff at right
angles ; its length was a little over 26 in., so as to allow the " pinules "
or fights to be placed exactly 26 in. apart. A Mght was also fixed on
the Mid of the staff for the eye to look through so as to see b<rth those
00 the cross and the objects whose distance apart was to be measured.
It was made by describing the angles on a table, and laying the staff
upon it (fig. 1). The scale of degrees was marked on the uoper face.
Afterwarda iborter crosses weie introduced, so that smaller angles
could be taken by
the same instrument.
These angles were
marked on the sides
of the staff.
To observe with
thu instrument a
meridian altitude of
the sun the bearing
was taken by com*
pass, to ascertain
when it was near
the meridiail; then
the end of the long
staff was placed close
to the observer's eye,
and the transver-
sary, or cross, moved
until one end exactly
touched the horizon,
and the other the sun's centre. This was continued until the sun
dipped, when the meridian altitude was obtained.
Another primitive instrument in common use at the beginning
of the i6ch century was the astrolabe (a.*.), which was more con-
venient than the cross-staff for uking altitudes. Fig. a represents
an astrobbe as described by Martm Cortes. It was made of
copper or tin, about i in. in thickness and 6 or 7 in. in diameter,
and was circular except at one place, where a projection was provided
for a hole by which it was suspended. Weight was considered
desirable in order to keep it steady when in use. The face of the
metal having been well polished, a plumb line from the point of
suspension marked the vertical line, from which were derived the
boruonul line and centre. The upper left quadrant was divided
ioto degrees. The second part was a pointer p< of the same metal
and thickness as the drcuUr plate, about i} in. wide, and in leneth
equal to the diameter of the circle. The centre was bored, and a line
was drawn across it the full length, which was called the line of
On the ends of that Tine were fixed plates, s, s, having
each a small hole, both exactly over the line
of confidence, as sights for tlie sun or stars.
The pointer moved upon a centre the sixe of
a goose ouill. When the instrument was sus-
pended the pointer was directed by hand to
I the object, and the angle read on the one
quadrant only. Some years later the opposite
quadrant was also graduated, to give the
benefit of a second reading. The astrcdabe was
used by Vasco da Gama on his first voyage
p_ 2 round the Cape of Good Hope in 1497: but
the movement of a ship rendered accuracy
impossible, and the liability to error was increased by the necessity
for three observers. One held the instrument by a rine passed
over the thumb, the second measured the altitude, and tne third
read off.
For finding btitode at night by altitude of the pole star taken by
cmss-staff or astrolabe, use was made of an auxiliary instrument
caOed the " nocturnal." From the relative positions of the two
stars in the constellation pf the " Little Bear " farthest from the
pole (known as the Fore and Hind guards) the position of the pole
star with regard to the pole could be inferred, and Ubies were drawn
up termed the " Regiment of the Pole Star," showing for eight
positioos of the guards how much should be added or subtracted
ffom the altitude of the pole star; thus, " when the ffuards are in the
N.W. bearing from each other north and south ado half a degree,"
Ac The bearings of the guards, and also roughly the hour of the
i^rikt, were found by the nocturnal, first descritedoy M. Coignet in
The ooctnnud (fig. 3) consisted of two concentric circular pUites.
the outer being about 3 in. in diameter, and divided into twelve equal
parts corresponding to the twelve months, each being again sub-
divided into groups of five days. The inner circle was graduated into
tventy-four equal parts, corresponding to the hours of the day, and
•pin subdivided into quarters: the handle was fixed to the outer
arcle in such a way that the middle of it corresponded with the day
of the month on which the guards had the same right ascension as
the sun— or, in other words, crossed the meridian at noon. From the
common centre of the two circles extended a long index bar, which,
tofetbcr with the inner drde, turned freely and independently
aboiyt this tcfitre, which wat pierced with a round hole. To use the
inMrumcmt, the projccibn at twelve hours on the inner plate was
turn'-^l \ix\ii\ it c^uncBiHj with the day of the month of observation,
an* I ih^ in&trumfMit huld with Its plane roughlv parallel to the equi-
noi tL-ii; or cvlirfE.ial eq,a4tar» the observer looking at the pole star
thr> u^h the hole in the c^Jitiw and turning the long central mdex bar
uni.i1 iht jcu^dA were mxn jtist
toij. hiog m tiigc; the hoijr In
liac with thit ddge read fM on
the inner pUte wad^ roughly, the
tirofr. Occaaiorallly fhe oixturoa]
wa«' c^ruitriicted ao &k to find
the limt by observaitapi of tht
poit3i4LT« in the Gf&at Pear.
The rough durtt used by j» few
of the more enptrt navigator* ai
the Time t^c refer tt* wit! be mofc
f ur ' ' . '5 Lit LTfH^ al ui M A f
an ! ]iv). NiuEicalm^pfl
or \ ipprart.-diri haty at
th< I i-i Mi ihE i^th tcniur>-, but
it 1- Mid that the f\nx »frv in
E^vL^n^d was brought by Bar-
tlu.l.'FTiew Cotumbut in y\^^
Among the earliest authors
who touched upon navigation
was John Werner of Nurem-
berg, who in 1 514, in his notes
upon Ptolemy's geography, de-
scribes the cross-staff as a very
andent instrument, but says Fio. 3.
that it was only then beginning to be generally introduced
among seamen. He recommends measuring the distance
between the moon and a star as a means of ascertain-
ing the longitude; but this (though developed many years
after into the method technically known as " lunars ") was at
this time of no practical use owing to the then imperfect know-
ledge of the true positions of the moon and stars and the non-
existence of instrumental means by which such distances could
be measured with the necessary accuracy. •
Thirty-eight years after the discovery of America, when
long voyages had become comparatively common, R. Gemma
Frisius wrote upon astronomy and cosmogony, with the use
of the globes. His book comprised much valuable information
to mariners of that day, and was translated into French fifty
years later (1582) by Claude de Bossi^. The astronomical
system adopted is that of Ptolemy. The following are some
of the points of interest relating to navigation. There is a good
description of the sphere and its circles; the obliquity of the
ecliptic is given as 23* 30'. The distance between the meridians
is to be measured on the equator, allowing 15** to an hour of time;
longitude is to be found by eclipses of the moon and conjunctions,
and reckoned from the Fortunate Islands (Azores). Latitude
should be measured from the equator, not from the ecliptic,
" as Clarean says." The use of globes is very thoroughly and
correctly explained. The scale for measuring distances was
placed on the equator, and 15 Orman leagues, or 60 Italian
leagues, were to be considered equal to one degree. The Italian
league was 8 stadia, or 1000 paces, therefore the degree is taken
much too small. We are told that, on plane charts, mariners
drew lines from various centres iix. compass courses), which
were very useful since the virtue of the Ipdestonc had become
recognized; it must be remembered that parallel rulers were
unknown, being invented by Mordente in 1 584. Such a confusion
of lines has been continued upon sea charts till comparatively
recently. Gemma gives rules for finding the course and distance
correctly, except that he treats difference of longitude as
departure. For instance, if the difference of latitude and
difference of longitude arc equal, the course prescribed is between
the two principal winds — that is, 45". He points out that the
courses thus followed are not straight lines, but curves, because
they do not follow the great drde, and that distances could be
more correctly measured on the globe than on charts. The tide is
said to rise with the moon, high water being when it is on the
meridian and 12 hours later. From a table of latitudes and
longitudes a few examples are here selected, by which it appears
that even latitude was much in error. The figures in brackets
286
NAVIGATION
represent the positions according to modem tables, counting
the longitude from the western extremity of St Michael. (Flores
is s» 8' farther west.)
Alexandria . 31° o'N. (
Athens . . 37 15
ji^mO 6o»3o'E. (
37 58) 5a 45
i^^
Babylon. . 35 <
33 3a) 79
Sp:
Dantxic . . 54 30
54 21) 44 15
London . . 52 3
51 31) 19 15
35 43) 38 45
25 54
MalU . . 34
40 311
Rome . . 41 SO
41 54) 36 30
Ss 30)
The Utitude of Cape Gear is given 34' in error, and the
longitude 4i°; the Scilly Islands are given with an error of
one degree in latitude and x° 10' in longitude; while Madeira
is placed 3° 8' too far south and 4° 20' too far west» and Cape
St Vincent x^ 25' too far south and 6° too far west.
In XS34 Gemma produced an " astronomical ring," which he
dedicated to the secretary of the king of Hungary. He admitted
that it was not entirely his own invention, but asserted that
it could accomplish all that had been said of quadrants, cylinders
and astrolabes— also that it was a pretty ornament, worthy
of a prince. As it displayed great ingenuity, and was followed
by many similar contrivances during two centuries, a sketch
with brief description is here given (fig. 4).
The outer and principal sustaining circle EPQ represents the
meridian, and it about 6 in. in diameter; Pv, are the poles. The
upper quadrant it divided
into degrees. It is tus*
pended by fine cord or
wire placed at the tup-
posed latitude. The
second circle EQ is fixed
at right angles to the
first, and represents the
equinoctial line. The
upper side is divided into
twenty-four parts, repre-
senting the hours from
noon or midnight. On
the inner side of that
circle are marked the
months and weeks. The
third ring CC is attached
to the first at the poles,
and revolves freely within
it. On the interior are
marked the months, and
on another ude the cor-
responding signs of the
coaiac; another u gradu-
Fic. 4. ated in degrees. It is
fitted with a groove
which carries two movable sights. On the fourth side are
twenty-four unequal divisions (tangents) for measuring heights.
Its use is illustrated by twenty problems, showing it carable of
doing roughly all that any instrument for taking angles can. Thus, to
find the latitude, set the sights C, C to the place of the sun in the
sodiac, and shut the circle till it corresponds with 12 o'clock. Look
through the sighu and alter the point of suspension till the greatest
elevation is attained: that time will be noon, and the point of sus-
pension will be the latitude. The figure u represented as slung at
fat. 40^ either north or south. To find the hour of the day, the
latitude and declination being known: the sighu C, C being set to
the declination as before, and the suspension on the latitude, turn the
ring CC freely till it points to the sun, when the index opposite the
equinoctial circle will indicate the time, while the meridional circle
ime. whii(
e place.
wdl coincide with the meridian of the
There is in the museum attached to the Royal Naval College
at Greenwich an instrument described as Sir Francis Drake's
astrolabe. It is not an astrolabe, but may be a combination
of astronomical rings as invented by Gemma with additions,
probably of a later date. It has the appearance of a large gold
watch, about 2) in. in diameter, and contains several parts
which fall back on hinges. One is a sun-dial, the gnomon being
in connexion with a graduated quadrant, by which it could
be set to the latitude of the place. There are a small compass
and an hour drcle. It is very neat, but too small for actual
use, and may be simply an ornament representing a larger
instrument. There is a table of latitudes engraved inside one
lid; that given for London is 51® 34', about 3 m. too much.
Though clocks are mentioned in 1484 as recent inventions.
watches were imknown till about 1530, when Gemma seized the
idea of utilizing them for the purpose of ascertaining the difference
of k>ngitude between two places by a comparison between their
local times at the same instant. They were too inaccurate,
however, to be of practical use, and their advocate proposed
to correct them by water<lock8 or sand-docks. For rough
purposes of keeping time on board ship sand glasses were em-
ployed, and it is curious to note that hour and half-hour glasses
were used for this purpose in the British Navy until 1839. The
outer margin of the compass card was early divided into twenty-
four equal parts numbered as hours until the error of thus
determining time by the bearings of the sun was pointed out
by Davis in 1607.
In 1537 Pedro Nimez (Nonius), cosmographer to the king
of Portugal, published a work on astronomy, charts and some
points of navigation. He recognized the errors in plane charts,
and tried to rectify them. Among many astronomical problems
given is one for finding the latitude of a place by knowing the
sun's declination and altitude when on two bearings, not
less than 40" a^iart. Gemma did a similar thing with two stars;
therefore the problem now known as a " double altitude " is
a very old one. It could be mechanically solved on a large
globe within a degree. To Nunez has been erroneously attributed
the present mode of reading the exact angle on a sextant, the
scale of a barometer, &c., the credit of which is due, however,
to Vernier nearly a hundred years later. The mode of dividing
the scale which Nunez published in X542 was the following.
The arc of a large quadrant was furnished with forty-five con-
centric segments, or scales, the outer graduated to 90^, the
others to 89, 88, 87, &c., divisions. As the fine edge of the
pointer attached to the sights passed among those numerous
divisions it touched one of them, suppose the fifteenth division
on the sixth scale, then the angle was if of go'^is* 52' 56'.
This was a laborious method; Tycho Brahe tried it, but aban-
doned it in favour of the diagonal lines then in common use,
and still found on all scales of equal parts.
In IS45 Pedro de Medina published Arte de narigar at Valla-
dolid, dedicated to Don Philippo, prince of Spain. This appears
to be the first book ever published professedly entirdy on naviga-
tion. It was soon translated into French and Italian, and many
years after into English by John Frampton. Though this pre-
tentious work came out two years after the death of Copemi9is,
the astronomy is still that of Ptolemy. The general appearance
of the chart given of the Mediterranean, Atlantic, and part of
the Pacific is in its favour, but examination shows it to be very
incorrect. A scale of equal parts, near the centre of the chart,
extends from the equator to what is intended to represent
75" of latitude; by this scale London would be in 55* faistead
of si)**, Lisbon in 37^** instead of 38^ 42'. The equator is made
to pass along the coast of Guinea, instead of being over four
degrees farther south. The Gulf of Guinea extends 14^ too
far east, and Mexico is much too far west. Though there are
many vertical lines on the chart at unequal distances they do
not represent meridians; and there b no indication of longi-
tude. A scale of 600 leagues is given (German leagues, fifteen
to a degree). By this scale the distance between Lisbon and
the dty of Mexico is 1740 leagues, or 6960 miles; by the vertical
scale of degrees it would be dbout the same; whereas the actual
distance b 4820 miles. Here two great wants become apparent—
a knowledge of the aaual length of any arc, and the means
of representing the surface of the globe on flat paper. There
is a table of the sun's declination to minutes; on June 12th and
December nth (o.s.) it was given as 23^ 33'. The directions
for finding the latitude by Ihe pole star and pointers appear
good. For general astronomical ^formation the book is inlerior
to that of Gemma.
In 1556 Martin Cortes published at Seville Arte de tuniiqr.
He gives a good drawing of the cross-staff and astrolabe, also
a table of the sun's declination for four years (the greatest value
t>^S 33*^ 330> and a calendar of saints* days. The motions
of the heavens are described according to the notions then
prevalent, the earth being considered as fixed. He recommends
NAVIGATION
287
the altitude of the pole being found frequently, as the esti-
mated distance run was imperfect. He devised an instrument
whereby to tell the hour, the direction of the ship's head, and
where the sun would set. A very correct table is given of the
distances between the meridians at every degree of latitude,
whereby a seaman could easily reduce the difference of longitude*
to departure. In the rules for finding the latitude by the
pole star, that star is supposed to be 3' from the pole. Martin
Cortes attributes the tides entirely to the influence of the moon,
and gives instructions for finding the time of high water at Cadiz,
when by means of a card with the moon's age on it, revolving
within a circle showing the hours and minutes, the time of high
water at any other place for which it was set would be indicated.
Directions are given for making a compass similar to those then
in common use^ also for ascertaining and allowing for the varia-
tion. The east b here spoken of as the principal point, and
marked by a cross.
The third part of Martin Cortcs's work is upon charts; he
laments that wise men do not produce some that are correct,
and that pilots and mariners will use plane charts which are
not true. In the Mediterranean and " Channel of Flanders"
the want of good charts is (he says) less inconvenient, as they
do not navigate by the altitude of the pole. ,
As aoine subsequent writers have attributed to Cortes the credit
of first thinking of the enlar^ment of the degrees of latitude on
Mcrcator's principle, his precise words may be cited. In making a
chart, it is recommended to choose a well-known place near the
centre of the intended chart, such as Cape St Vincent, which call
37*1 " and froM thence towards the Arctic pole the degrees increase:
and from thence to the equinoctial line they go on decreasing, and
from the line to the Antarctic pole increasing." It would appear
at (int tight that this implied that the degrees increased in length as
well as bnng called by a higher number, but a specimen chart m the
book does not justify that conclusion. It is from 34* to aq% and the
<£visioiis are unequal, but evidently by accident, as the highest and
lowest are the kmgest. He states that the Spanish scale was formed
bv counting the Great Berling as 3" from Cape St Vincent (it is under
2)°). Twenty English leagues are equal to 17I Spanish or 25 French,
and to I* of latitude. Cortes was evidently at a loss to know the
kiigth of a dcsree, and consequently the circumference of the globe.
The degrees 01 longitude are not laid down, but for a first meridian
«e arc tokl to draw a vertical line " through the Azores, or nearer
Spain, where the chart is less occupied." It is impossible in such
annim^anccs to understand or check the longitudes assigned to
pboes at that period. Martin Cortes's work was lield in high estima-
tion in England for raan^ years, and appeared in several translations.
A reprint, with additions, of Richard Eden's (1561), by John
Tapp and published in 1609, gives an improved table of the
sun's declination from 1609 to 163^ — the maximum value being
23* to 30'. The declinations of the pniKJpal stars, the times of their
passing the meridian, and other improved tables, are given, with
a very poor traverse table for eight points. The cross-staff, he
said, was in most common use; but he recommends Wright's sea
quadrant.
Wil£am Cuningham published in 1559 a book called bis
Astrommical doss, in which he teaches the making of charts
by a central meridional line divided into equal parts, with other
meridians on each side, distant at top and bottom in proportion
to the departure at the highest and lowest latitude, for which
purpose a table of departures is given very correctly to the third
place of sexagesimals. The chart would be excellent were it not
that the ponllcls are drawn straight instead of being curved.
In another example, which shows one-fourth of the sphere, the
meridians and parallels are all curved; it would be good were
it oot that the former are too long. The hemisphere is also
shown upon a projection approaching the stcreographic; but
the eighteen meridians cut the equator at equal distances apart
instead of being nearer together towards the primitive. He
gives the drawing of an instrument like an astrolabe placed
horizontally, divided into 33 points and 360 degrees, and carrying
a small magnetic needle to be used as a prismatic compass,
or even as a theodolite.
In 1581 Michael Coignet of Antwerp published sea charts, and
iko a small treatise in French, wherein he exposes the errors of
Medina, and was probably the first who said that rhumb lines
form spirals roupd the pole. He published also tables of declina-
tion of the sun and observed the gradual decrease in the obliquity
of the ecliptic. He described a cross-staff with three transverse
pieces, which was then in common use at sea. (Coignet died in
1633.
The Dutch published charts made up as atlases as early as
1584, with a treatise on navigation as an introduction.
In 1585 Roderico Zamorano, who was then lecturer at the naval
college at Seville, published a concise and dearly-written com-
pendium of navigation; he follows Cortes in the desire to obtain
better charts. Andres* Garcia de Cespedcs, the successor of
Zamorano at Seville, published u treatise on navigation at Madrid
in 1606. In 1593 Petrus Plandus published his universal map,
containing the discoveries in the East and West Indies and
towards the north pole. It possessed no particular merit; the
degrees of latitude are equal, but the distances between the
meridians are varied. He made London appear in 51* 33' N.
and long. 33^, by which his first meridian should have been
more than 3* east of St MichaeL
For Mercator's great improvements in charts at about this date
sec Map; from facsimiles of his early charts in Jomard, Les
Monuments de la giosraphie, the following measurements have
been made. A general chart in 1569 of North America, from
lat. 35^ to lat. 79", is 2 ft. long north and south, and 30 in. wide.
Another of the same date, from the equator to 60** south lat.
is 15-8 in. long. The charts agree with each other, a slight
allowance being made for remeasuring. As compared with
J. Inman's table of meridional parts, the spaces between the
parallels are all too small. Between 0^ and 10° the error is 8'; at
so* it is 5'; at 30', 16'; at 40% 39'; at 50', 61'; at 60**, 104';
at 70*^, X58' ; and at 79**, 183' — ^that is, over three degrees upon
the whole chart. As the measures are always less than the
truth it is possible that Mercator was afraid to give the whole.
In a chart of Sidly by Romoldus Mercator in 1589, on which
two equal degrees of latitude,. 36^ to 38°, extend 9) in., the
degree of longitude is quite correct at one-fourth from the top;
the lower part is i m. too long. One of the north of Scotland,
published in 159s, by Romoldus, measures xo| in. from $8^ so'
to 61* ; the divisions are quite equal and the lines parallel;
it is correct at the centre only. A map of Norway, x 595, lat. 60"
to 70^=9! in., has the parallels curved and equidistant, the
meridians straight converging lines; the spaces between the
meridians at 60^ and 70* are quite correct.
In 1594 BlundeviUe published a description of Mercator's
charts and globes; he confesses to not having known upon what
rule the meridians were separated by Mercator, unless upon such
a table as that given by Wright, whose table of meridional parts
is published in the same book, also an exceUent table of sines,
tangents and secants— the former to seven figures, the Utter
to eight. These are the tables made originally by Regiomontanus
and improved by Clavius.
In X594 the cdebrated navigator John Davis published a
pamphlet of eighty pages, in black letter, entitled The Seaman's
SecretSf in which he proposes to give all that is necessary for
sailors — not for scholars on shore. He defines three kinds of
sailing: horizontal, paradoxical and great drcle. His horizontal
sailing consists of short voyages which may be delineated upon
a plain sheet of paper. The paradoxical or cosmographical
embraces longitude, latitude and distance — the combining many
horizontal courses into one " infallible and true," i.e. what is
now called traverse and Mercator's sailings. His " paradoxical
course " he describes correctly as a rhumb line which is straight
on the chart and a curve on the globe. He points out the errors
of the common or plane chart, and promises if spared to publish
a " paradoxall chart." It is not known whether such appeared
or not, but he assisted Wright in produdng his chart on what
is known as K^ercator's projection a few years later. Great
drcle sailing on a globe is clearly described by Davis, and to
render it more practicable he divides a long dbtance into several
short rhumb lines quite correctly. From the practice of
navigators in using globes the prindples of such sailing were not
unknown at an earlier date; indeed it is said that S. Cabot
projected a voyage across -the North Atlantic on the arc of a
great cirde in 1495.
J
288
NAVIGATION
The lut of Liiitfuiiientfi Eivcn by Davit ai necessary td a ildtful
seaman comprii^Mi the »ca c<)rfipa^„ crosA^M^fit chart, quadrant,
astrolabe, an " irb»trijmcnt rna^fVJiical '' iar findinif; the variatirm oi
the compass, a. horizontaL pUne sphere, a alobo and a paradoxical
compass. The Ar^t three are iaid to be sumcient far use at ^m, the
astrolabe and quadrant bein;;; uncertain for E^a obscrvatiDns. 1'he
importance ^..if knowing the limea of the tides when approach in;; udal
or barred h,)rbours ia clearly pointed out, eiI«j the mode of asccrt^m*
tng them by t he moon's a^e. A table of the sun't declination ia ^^iven
for noon each day during Tour years IS93^^I597< from the cphcm-iTiiles
of J. Stadius. The grtratest given vahie is 13* j8'. Several cournea
^id
distances^ with the reauhing dilterencr ot latitude and ^ie-
:urei arc correctK' worked out. A specimen log-book provides one
line only for each day, but the columns are arran^^d similarly to
those of a modern \og^ Under ihe head of remarks after Icavmir
Brazil, we read^ ^* the compass varied 9", the south point westw,ird.
He states that the firit meridian pa &se<i through StMicHatl, been use
there was no variation at that ptace, and therefore that this merJ'Uan
passed through the magnetic pole as well aa the pole of the en,ri:h.
He makes r..* mention of Mercator'i chart by name nor of Corti -^or
other writer- on navigation. Rules are piven for 5ndin]E the latii ude
by two altitudes of the sun and intermediate aEimuih,^ also by it/o
fixed stars, ii-lrig a globe. There is a drawing of a quadrant, wir Ii a
plumb line, fi>r measuring the Kjnith distance, and one of a nirHljn^:a-
tion of a cn3>>'itaiT using which the observer stands with hh bat V to
the sun, toiking at the horizon through a sight on the end of the
staff, while t hf shadow of the top of a movable projection, falls f.<n the
sight; thta^ kjiown at the back-staff , was an improvement on the
cross-staff. It wa^ fitted vith a reflector, and was thus the first
rough idea of the principle of the quadrant and sextant. This
remained in common use till superseded in 1731 by Hadley's quad-
rant. The eighth edition of Davis's work was printed in 1657.
Edward Wright, of Caius College, Cambridge, published in
1599 a valuable work entitled Certain Errors in Navigation
Detected and Corrected. One part is a translation from Roderico
Zamorano; there is a chapter from Cortes and one from Nunez.
A year later appeared his chart of the world, upon which both
capes and the recent discoveries in the East Indies and America
are laid down truthfully and scientifically, as well as his know-
ledge of their latitudes and longitudes would admit. Just the
northern extremity of Australia is shown.
Wright said of himself that he had striven beyond his ability to
mend the errors in chart, compass, cross-staff and declination 01 sun
and stars. He considered that the instruments which had then
recently come in use " could hardly be amended." as they were
growing to " perfection " — especially the sea chart and th^ compass,
bough he expresses a hope that the latter may be " freed from that
rude and gross manner ofhandling in the making." He gives.a table
of magnetic declinations (variation) and explains its geometrical
construction. He states that Medina utterly denied the existence of
variation, and attributed it to bad construction and bad obacrva-
tions. Wrisht expresses a hope that a right understanding of the dip
of the needle would lead to a knowledge of the latitude, " as the
^ variation did of the longitude." He gives a table of declination of
'the sun for the use of English manners during four years — the
greatest given value being 23* 31' 30'. The latitude of London he
made 51 33'. For these determinations a quadrant over 6 ft. in
radius was used. He also treats of the " dip " of the sea horizon,
refraction, parallax and the sun's motions. With all this knowledge
the earth u still considered as stationary — althoueh Wright alludes
to Copernicus, and says that he omitted to allow for parallax.
Wright ascertained the declinations of thirty-two stars, and made
many improvements or additbns to the art of navigation, considering
that all tne problems could be performed trigonometrically. without
globe or chart. He devised sea rings for takme observations, and a
fica quadrant to be used by two persons, which is in some respects
timibr to that by Davi*. while di | .loring the neglectcxi state which
navigation had been in, he rejoices lUat the worshipful society at the
Trinity House (which had been established in 1514), under the favour
of the king (Henry V[||.}^ had rennA'ed " many gross and dangerous
enormities." He joins the brcthnn of the Tnnity House in the
desire that a kctLintshlp th^^oEd tx^ i«tablished on navigation, as at
Seville aiul Cadi^; al^ th^t ji ^mnd pilot should be appointed, as
Scbastlaa Cabot had bci^n in Spain, r) examine pilots (i.e. mates) and
BAV%atars. Wright's dc^ttt was ri;drtially fulfilled in 1845, when an
Act of PdrHaTTiefiC paved the way f >r the compulsory qualification
of matters and mates of mercha nt ^H i ps : but such was the opposition
by shipowner* that it wa* even ihvn left voluntary for a few years.
EnKtand was in this respect faore ilian a century behind Holland.
It has been said that Wntht aocompinicd the earf of Cumberland to
the Aujrcs in 1589^ and tnat he waf\ allowed Ao a year by the East
India Company as lecturer on navi^:: tion at CTrcsham College, Tower
Street.
The great mark which Wright made was the discovery of a
correct and uniform method of dividing the meridional line and
making charts which arc still called after the name of Mcrcator
He considered such charts as true as the globe itself; and lo
they were for all practical purposes. He commenced by dividing
a meridional line, in the proportion of the secants of the latitude,
for every ten minutes of arc, and in the editk>n of his worit
published in 1610 his calculations are for every minute. His
method was based upon the fact that the radius bears the same
proportion to the secant of the latitude as the difference of
longitude does to the meridional difference of latitude— a rule*
strictly correct for small arcs only. One minute is taken as the
unit upon the arc and 10,000 as the corresponding secant, »'
becomes 30,000, 3' « 30,000, &c., increasing uniformly till 49',
which is equal to 490,001; i® is 600,012. The secant of to*
is 13,351,192, and for 20" x' it will be 13,351,193+10,643 —
practically the same asithat used in modem tables.
The principle is simply explained by fig. 5, where b is the pde and
bf the meridian. At any point a a minute of longitude: a min. of
Eat.: : ea (the semi-diameter of the parallel): 1^
(the radius). Again ea:kf: :k/ :ki :: radius : sec.
akf (sec. of lat). To keep this proportion on the
chart, the disunces between points of latitude ^
must increase in the same proportion as the r
secants of the arc contained between those points •[■'
and the eouator, which was then to be done by the
" canon 01 triangles."
Wright gave tne folk>wing excellent popular de-
scription of the principle of Mcrcator's charts;
" Suppose a spherical globe (representing the |
world) inscribed in a concave cylinder to swell
like a bladder equally in every part (that is as
much in longitude as in latitude) until it joins
itself to the concave surface of the cylinder, each parallel in-
creasing successively from the equator towards either pole until
it u of equal diameter to the cylinder, and consequently the
meridians widening apart until they are everywhere as aistaat
from each other as they are at the equator. Such a spherical surface
is thus by extension made cylindrical, and consequently a plane
Earallelogram surface, since the surface of a cylinder is nothing else
ut a plane parallek>gram surface wound round it. Such a cylinder
on being opened into a flat surface will have upon it a reprcsentatxm
of a Mercator's chart of the world."
This great improvement in the principle of constructing charts
was adopted slowly by seamen, who, putting it as they supposed
to a practical test, found good reason to be disappointed. The
positions of most phices in the world had been originally laid
down erroneously, by very rough courses and estimated distances
upon the plane chart, and from this they were transferred
to the new projection, so that errors in courses and distances,
really due to erroneous positions, were wrongly attributed to the
new and accurate form of chart.
When Napier's Canon Mirificus appeared in x6x4» Wright at
once recognized the value of logarithms as an aid to navigation,
and undertook a translation of the book, which he did not live to
publish (see Napier). Guntcr's tables (1620) made the applica-
tion of the new discovery to navigation possible, and this was
done by Addison in his Arithmetical Navigation (1625), as well as
by Gunter in his tables of 1624 and 1636, which gave logarithmic,
sines and tangents, to a radius of 1,000,000, with directions for
their use and application to astronomy and navigation,.and also
logarithms of numbers from x to xo,ooo. Several editions
followed, and the work retained its reputation over a century.
Gunter invented the sector, and introduced the meridioiud line
upon it, in the just proportion of Mcrcator's projection.
The means of t^ng observations correctly, either at sea or
on shore, was about this time greatly assisted by the invention
bearing the name of Pierre Vernier, the description of which was
published at Brussels in x 631. As Vernier's quadrant was
divided into half degrees only, the sector, as he called it, ^read
over 14I degrees, and that space carried thirty equal divisions,
numbered from o to 30. As each division of the set 'or contained
29 min. of arc, the vernier could be read to minutes. The verniers
now commonly adapted to sextants can be re: J to xo sees.
Shortly after the invention it was recommended for use by P.
Bouguer and Jorge Juan, who describe it in a t .-eatise entitled
La Construction, &e., du quadrant nouveau. Al out this period
Gascoigne applied the telescope to the quadra.nt as used on
shore; and HeveUus invented the tangent screw, to give slow
and steady motion when near the desired position. These
NAVIGATION
289
pncticil improvements were not applied to the rougher nautical
iioiiuinents until the invention of Hadley's sextant in 1731.
In 1635 Henry Gcllibrand published his discovery of the annual
doAge in variation of the needle, which was effected by compar-
ing the results of his own observations with those of W. Borough
and Edmund Gunter. The latter was his predecessor at Gresham
CoUege.
In 1637 Richard Norwood, a sailor, and reader in mathematics,
published an account of his most laudable exertions to remove
ooe of the greatest stumbling-blocks in the way of correct
navigation, that of not knowing the true length of a degree or
nautical mile, in a pamphlet styled The Seaman's Practices.
Norwood ascertained the latitude of a position near the Tower
o( London in June 1633, and of a place in the centre of York
in June 1635, with a sextant of more than 5 ft. radius, and,
having carefully corrected the declination of the sun and allowed
for refraction and parallax, made the difference of latitude
3° iff. He then measured the distance with a chain, taking
borinntal angles of all windings, and made a special table for
correcting elevations and depressions. A few places which he
was unable to measure he paced. His conclusion was that a
degree contained 367,176 English feet; this gives 2040 yds.
to a nautical mile — only about 12 yds. too much. Norwood's
work went through numerous editions, and retained its popularity
over a hundred years. In a late edition he says that, as there
is DO means of discovering the longitude, a seaman must trust
to his reckoning. He recommends the knots on the log-line
to be placed 51 ft. apart, as the just proportion to a mile when
loed with the half-minute glass. To Norwood is also attributed
the discovery of the " dip " of the magnetic needle in 1576.
The progress of the art of navigation was and is still of course
inseparably connected with that of map and chart drawing and
the correa astronomical determinations of positions on land.
Vrliile as we have seen at an early period simple practical astro-
nomical means of finding the latitude at sea were known and in
Qse, DO mode could be devised of finding longitude except by
the rough method of estimating the run of the ship, so that the
only mode of arriving at a port of destination was to steer so as to
get into the latitude of such a port either to the eastward or west-
ward of its supposed position, and then approach it on the parallel
(tf its latitude. The success of this method would of course greatly
depend upon the accuracy with which the longitude of such
port was known. Even with the larger and more accurate
instruments used in astronomical observatories on shore the
means of ascertaining latitude were far in advance of those by
^>kh longitude could be obtained, and this equally applied
to the various heavenly bodies themselves upon which the
terrestrial positions depended, the astronomical element of
dedination (corresponding to latitude) being far more accurately
determined than that of right ascension (corresponding to
longitude).
Almanacs were first publbhed on the continent of Europe m
t4S7. but the eariiest printed work of that kind in England is
dued 1497. The only portions of their contents of use to seamen
were ubfes of the declination of the sun, rough elements of the
positions of a few stars, and tables for finding latitude by the
pole star.
No accurate predictions of the positions of the moon, stars
and planets could, however, be made untQ the laws governing
their movements wrere known, such laws of course involving a
knowledge of their aaual positions at different widely separated
tpochs.
In 1699 Edmund Halley (subsequently astronomer royal), in
command of the " Paramour," undertook a voyage to improve
the knowledge of longitude and of the variation of the compass.
The results of his voyage were the construction of the first
^nrinwn chart, and proposals for finding the longitude by
occulutionsof fixed stars.
The neceiaity for having more correct charts being ecjuallcd by
the preanng need of obtaming the longitude by some simple and
correct means available to seamen, many plans had already been
t^oo^ht ci for this purpose. At one time it was hoped that the
longitude might be diroctly discovered by observing the variation
of the compass and comparing it with that laid down on charts.
In 1674 Charies II. actually appointed a commission to investigate
the pretensions of a scheme of this sort devised by Henry Bond, and
the same idea appears as bte as 1777 in S. Dunn's Epiltme. But the
only accurate method of ascertaining the longitude u by knowing the
difference of time at the same instant at the meridian of the obsnver
and that of Greenwich; and till the invention and perfecting of
chronometers this could only be done by finding at two such places
the apparent time of the same celestial phenomenon.
A class of phenomena whose comparative (n^wr^cy rnrommcfidinj
them for bngitude observattonS|^ viz. the ^< h\--n% o\ Juijit<:r'«
satellites, became knowm through Galileo's dift^>>'Hvr>' uf thc^ Loika.
(1610). Tables for such eclipses were publishi >^t ly Dmnifitc Cawinl
at Bologna in 16S8, and repeated in a more oc-e^^ l [..rr^i ai P;iri4 in
1693 by his son, who was folk>wed by J. Pour^j, J. Brjtjky* R W.
Wargentin, and many other astronomers. But iha nwihod, though
useful on land, is not suited to mariners; when W. VVy«t»n. lor
example, in 1737 recommended that the sarrilitrtf thf»tiM h> un-
served by a reflecting telescope, he did not si . ' c [tie
difficulty of using a telescope at sea.
Another method proposed was that of comparing the local time
of the moon's crossing the meridian of the observer with the predicted
time of the same event at Greenwich, the difference of the two de-
pending upon the moon's motion during the time represented by the
longitude; thus Heme's Longitude Unveiled (1678), proposes to find
the time of the moon's meridian passage at sea by equal altitudes with
the cross-staff, and then compare apparent time at ship with London
time. The accuracy of this, as in the case of lunar problems, would
obviously depend upon a more perfect knowledge of the laws of the
moon's motion than then existed.
The celebrated problem of finding longitude by lunars (or by
measurement of * lunar distances '7 occupied the attention of
astronomers and sailors for many years before being superseded by
the more simple and accurate modem method by the use of chrono-
meters, and was the principal reason for establishing the Royal
Observatory at Greenwich and the subsequent publication of the
Nautical Almanac. The principle was simple, depending upon the
comparatively rapid movement of the moon with re|^rd to the
heavenly bodies lying in her immediate path in the heavens. It is
evident that if the theory of this movement were perfectly under-
stood and the positions of such heavenly bodies accuratefy dcter^
mined, the distances of the moon from those at any instant of time at
Greenwich could be accurately foretold so that if such predictions
were published in advance, an observer at any place in the world, by
simply measuring such distances, could accurately determine the
Greenwich time, a comparison of which with the kx:al time (which in
^Ser can be frequently and simply determined) would give
th' I < ^•' ide. This, as previously mentioned, was foreseen by J.
W r . .1 early as 1514, but very great difficulties attendee! its
pi.,i .• lI pplication for many years. Until the establishment of
n&'.- >:. lI i tronomical observatones it was impossible to accumulate
th< ^ t r timber of observations necessary to fulfil the astronomical
CO- '.'■. > and until the invention of the sextant no instrument
exiMcd <^pable of use at sea which would measure the distances
required with the necessary accuracy, while even up to the time when
the problem had attained its greatest practical accuracy the calcula-
tions involved were far too intricate for general use among those for
whom it was chiefly intended. The very principles of a theory of the
movements of the moon were unknown before Newton's time, when
the lunar problem begins to have a chief place in the history of
navigation; the places of stars were formerly derived from various
and widely discrepant sou/ces.
The study of the lunar jbroblem was stimulated by the reward of
1000 crowns offered by Philip III. of Spain in 1598 for the dis-
covery of a method of finding loq^tude at sea; the States-general
followed with an offer of 10,000 flonns. But for a long time nothing
Practical came of this; a proposal by J. B. Morin, submitted to
lichelieu in 163^, was pronounced by commissioners appointed to
judge of it to be impracticable through the imperfection of the lunar
tables, and the same objection appli«l when tne question was raised
in England in 1674 by a proposal of St Pierre to find the longitude by
using the altitudes of the moon and two stars to find the time each
was from the meridian. When the king was pressed by St Pierre,
Sir J. Moore and Sir C. Wren to establish an observatory for the
benefit of navigation, and especially that the moon's exact position
might be calculated a year in advance. Flamsteed gave his judj^ment
that the lunar tables tncn in use were quite useless, and the positions
of the stars erroneous. The result was that the king decided upon
establishing an observatory in Greenwich Park, and Flamsteed was
appointed astronomical observer on March 4. 1675. upon a salary of
£100 a year, for which also he was to instruct two boys from Christ's
Hospital. While the small building in the Park was in course of
erection he resided in the Queen's House (now the central part of
Greenwich Hospital school), and removed to the house on the hill
on the loth of July 1676, which came to be known as " Flamsteed
House." The institution was placed under the surveyor-general of
ordnance — perhaps because that office was then held by Sir Jonas
Moore, himself an eminent mathematician. Though this was not the
first observatory in Europe, it was destined to become the most
useful And has amply fulfilled the imporunt duties for which it was
290
NAVIGATION
dengned. It was ctUblished to meet the exigencies of navigation.
as was clearly sUted on the appointment of Flamsteed, and on
several subseouent occasions; we see now what an excellent foster-
mother it has oeen to the higher branches of that science. This has
been accomplished by much labour and patience; for, though
originally the most suitable roan in the kingdom was placed in
charge, it was so sUrved and neglected as to be almost useless during
many years. The government did not provide a sing^ie instrument.
Flamsteed entered upon his important duties with an iron scxUnt of
7 ft. radius, a quadrant of 5 ft. radius, two telescopes and two docks,
the last given by Sir Jonas Moore. Tycho Brahe's caulogue of 777
stars, formed in about 1590, was hb only guide. In 168 1 he fitted a
mnnU arc which proved a failure. Seven years after another mural
arc was erected at a cost of £i30, with which he set to work in
earnest to verify the latitude, and to determine the position of the
equinoctial point, the obliquity of the ecliptic and the right ascen-
sions and declinations of the stars; he obtained the positions of
a884 which appeared in the " British catalogue " in 1723 (see
Flamstebd, and Astronomy).
Flamsteed died in 17 19, and was succeeded by Halley, who paid
particular attention to the motions of the moon with a view to the
longitude problem. A paper which be putdished in the Phil. Trans.
(173 1) shows what had been accompushed up to that date, and
proves that it was still impossible to find the longitude correctly by
any observation depending upon the predicted position oi the moon.
He repeats what he had published twenty years before in an appendix
to Thomas Street's Caroline ubles, which contained observations
made by him (Halley) in 1683-168A for ascertaining the moon's
motion, which he thought to be the only practidu method of
" atuining " the longitude at sea. The Caroline tables of Street,
though better than those before his time as well as those of Tycho,
Kepler, BuUialdus and Horrox, were uncertain; sometimes the
errors would compensate one another; at others when they fell the
same way the result might lead to a position being 100 leagues in
error. He hopes that the taUes will be so amended that an error
may scarce ever exceed 3 minutes of are (equal to i\* of loneitude).
Sir Isaac Newton's tables, corrected by himself (Halley) and others
up to 1713, would admit of errors of s minutes, when the moon was
in the third and fourth quarters. He blames Flamsteed for neglecting
that portion of astronomical work, as he was at the observatory more
than two per^s of eighteen years. He himself had at this time seen
the whole period of the moon s apogee— less than nine years— during
which he observed the right ascensions at her transit, with great
exactness, almost fifteen hundred times, or as often as Tycho Brahe,
Hcvelius and Flamsteed together. He hoped to be able to compute
the moon's position within a minutes of arc with certainty, which
would reduce errors of position to 20 leagues at the equator and 15 in
the Channel ; he thought Hadley's ouadrant might be applied to
measure lunar distances at sea with the desired accuracy .>
The rise of modem navigation may be fairly dated from the
invention of the sextant in 1737 and of the chronometer in 1735;
the former a complete nautical observatory in itself, and the
latter an instrument which in its modem development has
become an almost perfect time-keeper. It was a curious co-
incidence that these two invaluable instruments were invented
at so nearly the same time. Until 1731 all instruments in use
at sea for measuring angles either depended on a plumb line or
required the observer to look in two directions at once.
'Their imperfections are clearly pointed out in a paper by IHerre
Bouguer (1720) which received the prize of the Paris Academy of
Sciences for the best method of taking the altitude of stars at sea.
Bouguer himself proposes a modification of what he calls the English
auadrant, probably the one suggested by Wright and improved by
^avis. FIe. 6 represents the instrument as proposed, capable of
measuring fully oo** from E to N. A fixed pinule was recommended
to be placed at £, through which a ray from the sun would pass to
the sight C. The sight F was movable. The observer, standing with
his back to the sun would look through Fand C at the horizon, shifting
the sight F up or down till the ray irom the sun coincided with the
horizon. The space from E to F would represent the altitude, and
the remaining part F to N the zenith distance. The English quad-
rant which thb was to supersede differed in having about half the
arc from E towards N, and. instead of the pinule beinE fixed at E,
it was on a smaller arc represented by the dotted line «B, and
movable. It was placed on an even number of degrees, cbnsidcrably
less than the altitude; the remainder was measured on the larger arc,
as described.
* HsJley's observations were published posthumously in 174a. and
' loni *
(n 1765 the commissionera of longitude paid his daughter £100 for
MSS. supposed to be useful to navigation. As the moon passes the
stars lying in her course through the heavens at the mean rate of 33'
In one minute of time, it is obvious that an error to that amount in
measuring the distance from a star would produce an error of 15 m.
in longitude. As the moon's motion with regard to the sun is neariy
one degree a day less, a similar error in the distance would produce
still more effca.
Fic. 6.
Hadley's instrument, on the other hand, described to the
Royal Society in May 1731 (Phil. Trans.)^ embodies Newton's
idea of bringing the reflection of one object to coincide with the
direct image of the other. He calls it an octant, as the arc is
actually 45°, or the eighth part of a drde; but, in consequence
of the angles of incidence and
reflection both being changed
by a movement of the index,
it measures an angle of 90**, and
is graduated accordingly; the
same instrument has therefore
been called a quadrant. It was
very slowly adopted, and no
doubt there were numerous
mechanical difficulties of cen-
tring, graduating, &c., to be
overcome before it reached per-
fection. In August 1733, in
pursuance of an order from the
Admiralty, observations were
made with Hadley's quadrant
on board the "Chatham"
yacht of 60 tons, below Sheer-
ness, in rough weather, by persons — except the master attendant
— unaccustomed to the motion; still the results were very satis-
factory. A year later Hadley published (Phil. Trans., 1733) the
description of an instrument for taking altitudes when the
horizon b not visible. The sketch represents a curved tube or
spirit-level, attached to the radius of the quadrant, since which
time many attempts have been unsuccessfully made to construct
some form of artificial horizon adapted to use at sea on board
ship, a discovery which would greatly facilitate observations at
night and at the many times when the natural or sea horisoti is
imperfectly visible.
From the year 17x4 the hbtoiy of navigation in England is
closely associated with that of the " Commissioners foe the
discovery of longitude at sea," a body constituted in that year
with power to grant annually sums not exceeding £2000 to
assbt experiments and reward minor discoveries, and also to
judge on applications for much greater rewards which were
from time to time offered to open competition. For a method
of determining the longitude within 60 geographical miles, to
be tested by a voyage to the West Indies and back, the sum of
£10.000 was offered; within 40 m., £iSiOoo; within 30 m.,
£20,ooa £10,000 was also to be given for a method that would
determine longitude within 80 m. near the shores of greatest
danger. No action seems to have been taken before 1737;
the first grant made was in that year, and the last in 18x5, but
the board continued to exist till 1828, having disbursed in the
course of its existence £101,000 in all.* In the interval a number
of other acts had been passed either dealing with the powers,
constitution and funds of the commissioners or encouraging
nautical discovery; thus the act x8 Creorge II. (1745) offered
£20,000 for the discovery by a British ship of the North-West
Passage, and the act x6 George III. (1776) offered the same
reward for a passage to the Pacific either north-west or north-
east, and £5000 to any one who should approach by sea within
one degree of the North Pole. All these acts were swept away
in 1828, when the longitude problem had ceased to attract
competitors, and voyages of discovery were nearly over.
The suggestions and applications sent in to the commisMoners were
naturally very numerous and often very trifling; but they some-
times furnish useful illustrations of the state of navigation. Thua^
in a memorial by Captain H. Lanoue (1736), he records a number of
recent casualties, which shows how carelesdy the largest ships 1
then navigated. Several men-of-war off nymouth in 1691
' This total comprises the large sums awarded to Harrison and to
the widow of Mayer, the cost cl surveys and expeditions in varicma
parts of the globe, large outlays on the Nautical Almanac and oci
subsidiary calculations and tables, rewards for new methods assd
solutions of problems, and many minor grants to watchmakers or fos-
improvements in instruments. Thus Jesse Ramsden recetved in
1775 and later about £1600 for hb improvements in gnduatkMk
(g-vOi and E. Massey in 1804 got £200 for hb log (see Uoc).
NAVIGATION
291
WRcfaed tfarougfa mbtaking the Deadman for Berry Head. Admiral
Wheeler's squadron in 1694, leaving the Mediterranean, ran on
Gibraltar when they thought they had paaaed the Strait. Sir
Cloudesley Shovel's squadron, in 1707, was lost on the rocks off
Sdlly. by erring in their latitude. Several transports, in 171 1, were
kst near the river St Lawrence, having erred 15 leagues in the
reckoning during twentv-four hours. Lord Bclhaven was lost on
tlK Lizard on the 17th of November 1721, the same day on which he
aailfid from Plymouth.
Many rewards were paid by the commissioners for methods by
vfaich the tedious calculations involved in "clearing the lunar
distance" could be abbreviated; thus Israel Lyons (17^9-1775)
received £10 for his solution of this problem from the commissioners
in 1769: and in 1773 he and Richard Dunthome (1711-1775)
each obtained £50. George WhichcU, master of the Royal Naval
Academy, Portsmouth, conceived a plan whereby the correction
could be taken from a table by inspection. In October 1765 the
commissioncTS of longitude awarded him £100 to enable him to
ooopkte and print looo copies of his table. On the following
April they gave nim £200 more. The work was continued on the same
pba by Antony Shepherd, the Plumian profesacMr of astronomy,
Cambridge, with some additions by the astronomer-royal. The total
cost of the ponderous 410 volume up to the time of publication in
Inae 1773 was £3100, after which £200 more was paid to the Rev.
Thomas Parkinson and Israel Lyons for examining the errata. It
«as a vciy large and expensive volume — ill-adaptea for ship's use.
CoDsiderabk sums were paid by the commissioners from time to
time for other tables to facilitate navigation — not always very
jodkioualy. It is sufficient to mention here the tables of Mkhael
Taylor and those of Mendoza, published in 181 5. The proposals
sabmitted to the board to find the longitude by the time of the
noon's meridian passage are very numerous.
One of the first points to which the attention of the com-
nussiooen was directed was the survey of the coasts of Great
Britain, which was pressed on them by Whiston in 1737. He
was appointed surveyor of coasts and headlands, and in 1741
received a grant for instruments. An act passed in 1740
enabled the commissioners to spend money on the survey of
the coasts of Great Britain and the " plantations." At a later
date they bore part of the expenses of Cook's scientific voyages,
aad of the publication of their results. Indeed it is to them
thai wt owe all that was done by England for surveys of coasts,
both at home and abroad, prior to the establishment of the
hydrographic department of the Admiralty in 1795. But their
cLief work lay in the encouragement they gave on the one hand
to the improvement of timepieces, and on the other to the
perfecting of astronomical tables and methods, the latter being
published from time to time in the Nautical Almanac. Before
»e pass on to these two important topics we may with advantage
take a view of the state of practical navigation in the middle
of the i8tb century as shown in two of the principal treatises
thencnnent.
John Robertson's Elements 9f Narigatum passed through six
editions between 1755 and 1796^ It contains good teaching on
arithnKtic. geometry, spherical trigonometry, astronomy, geography,
viods and tides, also a small useful table for correcting the middle
tine between the equal altitudes of the sun — all good, as is also the
mnaric that " the greater the moon's meridian altitude the greater
geneTally the tides will be." He states that Lacaille recommends
equal altitudes being observed and worked separately, in order to
iad the time from noon, and the mean of the results taken as the
tnith. There is a sound article on chronology, the ancient and
modem modes of reckoniiig time. A long list of latitudes, longitudes
and times of high water finishes vol. i. The second volume is said
bv the author to treat of navigation mechanical and theoretical ; by
tee former be means seamanship. He gives instructions for all kinds
of tailings, for marine surveying and making Mcrcator's chart.
There are two good traverse tables, one to quarter points, the other
to every 15 minutes of arc; the distance to each is 120 m. There is
a table tf meridional parts to minutes, which is more minute than
costomary. Book ix., upon what is now called " the day's work,"
or dod-rcckoning, appears to embrace all that is necessary. A great
maoy methods, we are told, were then used for measuring a ship's
n>te of sailing* but among the English the log and line with a
haif.fninute guss were generally used. Bouguer and Lacaille pro-
posed a k» with a diver to avoid the drift motion (1753 and 1760).
KobertsoD s rule of computing the equation of equal altitudes is as
Kood as any used at the present day. He gives also a description
of an equal* altitude instrument, having three horizontal wires,
Fft4>abiy auch as was used at Portsmouth for testing Harrison's
t^m efc e^jcr. The mechanical difficulties must have been great in
P*eservu^ a perpendicular stem and a truly horizontal sweep for the
<<:ie«ope. It gave place to the improved sextant and artificial
horizon. The second edition of Robertson's work in 1 764 contains an
ocellcnt diasertatioii on the rise and progicis of modem navigation
by Dr James Wilson, which has been greatly used by all subsequent
writers.
Don Jorge Juan's Compendia de Navegacion, for the use of mid-
shipmen, was published at Cadiz in 1757. Chapter i. explains what
pilotage is, practical and theorctkal. He speaks of the change of
variation. " whkh sailors have not believed and do not believe now."
He describes the lead, log and sand-glass, the latter corrected by
a pendulum, charts plane and spherical. Supposing his readers to
be versed in trigonometry, he explains what latitude and longitude
are, and shows a method tor finding the latter different from what has
been taught. He explains the error oS middle latitude sailing, and
shows that the longitude found by it is always less than the truth.
(It is strange that while reckoning was so rough and imperfect in
many respects such a trifle as that is in low latitudes should be
noticed.) After speaking of meridional parts, he offers to explain the
English method, whkh was discovered by Edmund Halley. but omits
the principles upon which Halley founded his theory, as it was " too
embarassing." He gives instmctions for allowing for currents and
leeway, tables of declination, positions of a few stars, meridional
parts, &c It is worthv of remark that, after giving a form for a
log-book, he adds that this had not been previously kept by any one,
but he thought it shouki not be tmsted to memory. He only re-
quires the knots, fathoms, course, wind and leeway to be marked
every two hours. He gives a sketch of Halley's quadrant, but
without a dampii^ screw or tangent screw.
To ascertain local time at sea by astronomical observations
by the altitude of suitably-situated heavenly bodies was an old,
well-known and frequently practised operation, so that a
comparison could thus be easily made between such local time
and the Greenwich time if known at the same instant. The
introduction of timekeepers by which Greenwich time can be
carried to any part of the world, and the longitude found with
ease, simplicity and certainty is due to the invention of John
Harrison.
The idea of keeping time at sea by watches was no novelty, but the
practical difficulty arose from their very irregular rates owing to
changes of temperature and the motion of the ship. Huygens nad
applied pendulums to the regulation of clocks on snore in 1656, and
in 1675 his application of spiral springs as regulators of watches
made them available for use at sea. William Derham published a
scientific description of various kinds of timekeepers in 7m Artificial
Clock-Maker, in 1700, with a table of equations from Fhunstecd to
facilitate comparison of mean time with that shown by the sun-dial
or apparent time. In ijia Henry Sully, an Englishman, published
a treatise at Vienna, on finding time artificially. He went to France,
and spent the rest of his life in trying to make a timekeeper for the
discovery of the longitude at sea. In 17 16 he presented a watch of
his own make to the Academy of Sciences, which was approved;
and ten years later he went to Bordeaux to try his marine watches,
but diea before embarking. Julien le Roy was his schcdar, and
perfected many of his inventions in watchmaking.
Harrison's great invention was the principle of compensation
through the unequal contraction of two metals, which he first applied
in the invention in 1726 of the compensation (gridiron) pendulum,
still in use, and then modified so as to fit it to a watch, devising at the
same time a means by which the watch retains its motion while being
wound up. With regard to the success of the trial journey (see
Harrison, John) to Jamaica in 1761--1762, it mav be noted that
by the journal of the House of Commons we find that the error of
the watch was ascertained by equal altitudes at Portsmouth and
Barbados, the calculations being made by Short; these errors, came
greatly within the limits of the act. At Jamaica the watch was only
in error five seconds (assuming that the longitude previously found
by the transit of Mercury could be closely depended on, which as we
now know, was not the case, the observations oeine too few in number,
and taken with an untmstworthy instmment). ^ort at Portsmouth
found the whole unallowed-for error from November 6th, I76i, till
April 2nd, 1762, to be i**M".5 -■ 18 geographical miles in the latitude
of Portsmouth. During tne passage home in the " Merlin " sloop^f-
war the timekeeper was placed in the after part of the ship, because
it was the dryest place, and there it receivied vk>lent shocks which
retarded its motron. It lost on the voyage home i*49**i6geo>
graphical miles.
One might have supposed that Harrison had now secured the
prize; but there were powerful competitors who hoped to gain it
by lunars, and a bill was passed through the House in 1763 which
left an open chance for a lunarian during four years. A second West
Indies trial of the watch took place between Novemberi763 and
March 1764, in a voyage to Barbados, which occupied four months;
during which time it b said, in the preamble to act 5 Geo. III. 1765,
not to have erred 10 geographical miles in longitude. We only find
in the public records the equal altitudes taken at Portsmouth and
at Bridgetown. Barbados. Willfam Harrison assumed an average
rate of I* a-day gaining, and he anticipated that it would go slower
by I" for every 10* increase in temperature. The longitude of
Bridgetown was determined by N. Maskelyne and C. Green by nine
emersions of Jupiter's first satellite, against five of Bradley s and
292
NAVIGATION
two at Greenwich Observatory, to be 3^ S4* ^<^ ^"^^ ^ Greenwich.
In February 1765 the commtssionerB 01 longitude expressed an
opinion that the trial was satisfactory, but required the principles
to be disclosed and other watches niade. Half the great reward was
paid to Harrison under act of parliament in this year, and he and his
son gave full descriptions and drawings, upon oath, to seven persons
appointed by the commissioners of longitude.* The other half of the
great reward was promised to Harrison when he had made other
timekeepers to the satisfactbn of the commisuoners, and provided
he gave up everything to them within six months. The second half
was not paid till 1773. after trials had been made with five watches.
These trials were partly made at Greenwich by Maskelyne, who, as
we shall see, was a great advocate of lunars, and was nc^ ready to
admit more than a subsidiary value to the watch. A bitter contro-
versy arose, and Harrison in 1767 pubHshed a book in which he
charges Maskelyne with exposing his watch to unfair treatment.
The feud between the astronomer*royal and the watchmakers con-
tinued long after this date.
Even after Harrison had received his £ao,ooo, doubts were felt
as to the certainty of his achievement, and fresh rewards were
offered in 1774 both for timekeepers and for improved lunar tables
or other methods. But the tests proposed for timekeepers were very
discouraging, and the watchmakers complained that this was due to
Maskelyne. A fierce attack on the astronomer's treatment of himself
and other watchmakers Was made by Thomas Mudge in 17^2, in
A Narrative of Facts, addressed to the first lord of the Admiralty,
and Maskelyne's reply does not convey the conviction that full
justice was done to timekeepers. Maskelyne at this'date still says
that he would prefer an occultation of a bright star by the moon and
a number of correspondent observations of transits of the mcx>n
compared with those of fixed stars, made by two astronomers at
remote places, to any timekeeper. ^ The details of these controversies,
and of subsequent improvements in timekeepers, need not detain us
here. In England the names of John Arnold and Thomas Eamshaw
as watchmalwra are prominent, each of whom received, up to 1805,
£3000 reward from the commissioners of longitude. It was Arnold
who introduced the name chronometer. The French emulated the
English efforts for the production of good timekeepers, and favour-
able trials were made oetween 1768 and 177a witn watches by Le
Roy and F. Berthoud.
The marvellous accuracy with which the modem chronometer
is constructed is doubtless greatly stimulated by the annual
competition at Greenwich, from which the Admiralty purchase
for the British navy. These chronometers are all fitted with
secondary compensation balances, and it is therefore unusual
in the navy to apply any temperature correction to the rate.
The perfection obtainable in compensation may be illustrated
by the performance of a chronometer at the Royal Observatory
in 1886, which at a mean temperature of 50** F. had a tpeekly
rate of x-6 sees, losing; and on being further tested at a mean
temperature of qs** F., it only changed its wukly rate to 3*9 sees.
losing. In the mercantile marine cheaper chronometers without
secondary compensation are more commonly used, and tempera-
ture corrections applied, calculated from a formula originally
proposed by Hartnup, formerly of the Liverpool Observatory.
Great success attends this mode of procedure, as illustrated by
the following facts. From the discussion of the records of per-
formance of the chronometers of the Pacific Steam Navigation
Company during twenty-six voyages from London to Valparaiso
and back, by giving equal weight to each of the three chrono-
meters carried by c^ch ship, the mean error of longitude for an
average voyage of xox days was less than three minutes of arc.
As a single instance, in the s.s. Orellana, on applying temperature
rates during a voyage of 63 days, the mean accumulated error
of the three chronometers was only 2*3 sec. of time.
While chronometers were thus rapidly approaching their
present perfection the steady progress of astronomy both by the
multiplication and increased accuracy of observations, and
by corresponding advances in the theory, had made it possible
to construct greatly improved tables. In observations of the
moon Greenwich still took the lead; and it was here that Halley's
successor Bradley made his two grand discoveries of aberration
and nutation which have added so much to the precision of
modem astronomy. Kepler's Rudolphine tables of 1627 and
Street's tables of x66i, which had held their groimd for almost
*The explanations and drawings are at the British Museum ;
and two of his watches, one of which was used by Captain Cook in the
" Resolution," are at Greenwich Observatory. In 1767 Harrison
estimates that a watch could be made for £100. and ultimately for
£70 or £80.
a century, were rendered obsolete by the observations of Halley
and his successor. At length, in 1753, in the second volume of
the Commentarii of the Academy of GSttingen, Tobias Mayer
printed his new solar and lunar tables, which were to have so
great an influence on the history of navigation. Mayer after-
wards constmcted and submitted to the English government in
X755 improved MS. tables. Bradley found that the moon's
place by these tables was generally correct within i', so that the
error in a longitude found by lunar would not be much more than
half a degree if the necessary observations could be taken
accurately at sea. Thus the lunar problem seemed to have at
length 'become a practical one for mariners, and in England it
was taken up with great energy by Nevil Maskelyne — " the
father," as he has been called, " of lunar observations."
In 1761 Maskelyne was sent to St Helena to observe the
transit of Venus. On his voyage out and home he used Mayer's
printed tables for lunar determinations of the longitude, and
from St Helena he wrote a letter to the Royal Society (pkit.
Trans.^ 1762), in which he described his observations made with
Hadley's quadrant of 20 in. radius, constmcted by John Bird,
and the glasses ground by Dollond. He took the observations
both ways to avoid errors. The arc and index were of brass,
the frame mahogany; the vernier was subdivided to minutes.
The telescope was 6 in. long, magnified four times, and inverted.
Very few seamen in that day possessed so good an InstrumenL
He considered that ship's time should be ascertained within
twelve hours before or after observing the lunar distance, as a
good common watch will scarcely vary above a minute in that
time. This shows that he must have intended the altitudes to
be calculated — which would lead to new errors. He considered
that his observations would give the longitude within i| degrees.
On the nth of Febmary he took ten observations; the extremes
were a little over one degree apart.
On his return to England Maskelyne prepared the British
Mariner* s Guide (1763), in which he undertakes to fumhh
complete and easy instmctions for finding the longitude at sea
or on shore.withm a degree, by observing the distance between
the moon and sun, or a star, by Hadley's quadrant. How far that
promise was fulfilled, and the practicability of the instmctions,
are points worth consideration, as the book took a prominent
place for some years. The errors which he said were inseparable
from the dead-reckoning " even in the hands of the ablest and
most skilful navigators," amounting at times to 15 degrees,
appear to be overestimated. On the other hand, the equations
to determine the moon's position at time of observation from
Mayer's tables, would, he believed, always determine the longi-
tude within a degree, and generally to half a degree, if applied
to careful observations. He recommends the two ahitudes and
distance being taken simultaneously when practicable. The
probable error of observation in a meridian altitude he estimated
at hnt or two minutes, and in a lunar distance at two minutes.
He then gave dear mies for finding the moon's position and
distance by ten equations, too laborious for seamen to undertake.
Admitting the requisite calculations for finding the moon's
place to be difficiUt, he desired to see the moon's longitude
and latitude computed for every twelve hours, and hence
her distance from the sun and from a proper star on each side of
her carefully calculated for every six hours, and puUisbcd
beforehand.
In 1765 Maskelyne became astronomer-royal, and was able
to give effect to his own suggestion by organizing the publication
of the Nautical Almanac, The same act of 1765 which gax-e
Harrison his first £10,000 gave the commissioners authority
and funds for this undertaking. Mayer's tables, with his MS.
improvements up to his death in 1762, were bought from his
widow for £3000; £300 was granted to the mathematician L.
Euler, on whose theory of the moon Mayer's later tables were
formed; and the first Nautical Almanac^ that for 1767, was
published in the previous ye&r, at the cost and under the authority
of the commissioners of longitude. In 1696 the French nautkal
almanac for the following year appeai;pd, an improvement 00
what had been before issued by private persons, but it did mH
NAVIGATION
293
attempt to give lunar distances.* In the English Nautical
Almanac for 1767 we find everything necessary to render it
worthy of confidence, and to satisfy every lequirement at sea.
The great achievement was that of giving the distance from the
moon's centre to the sun, when suitable, and to about seven fixed
stars, every three hours. The mariner has only to find the
apparent time at ship, and clear his own measured lunar distance
from the effects of parallax and refraction (for which at the end
of the book are given the methods of Lyons and Dunthome),
and then by simple proportions, or proportional logarithms, find
the time at Greenwich. The calculations respecting the sun and
moon were made from Mayer's last manuscript tables under the
iospection of Maskclyne, and were so continued till 1804.* The
calculations respecting the planets are from Halley's tables,
and those of Jupiter's satellites from tables made by Wargentin
and published by Lalande in 1759 (except those for the fourth
satelliic). The ori^nal Nautical Almanac contained all the
priodpal points of information which the seaman required, but
the great value of such an authentic publication to the whole
astronomical worid led soon to a considerable increase to its
contents. As much of this was unnecessary for the ordinary
requirements of navigation, since 1903 it has been issued in two
forms, the larger for observatory purposes, the smaller for the
dass for wlram it was originally intended.
Various usi/uL rukis- ^jiA tabtcA were Appended to early volumes
of the Alwmmsf. Thiiji that lor 1 77 1 contains a Fn^thijii J An^l c ibic for
determiiung the laiiidd*: by^ t^o AltitLiiJ(.-» ;ind the Erla^iTf U ciinc (first
pul^shed by CcH-itlius Downed of Amitcni^^ i^ ^l-V^)- At the
e»l of the Alifuif^m fur 1773 MdShkL-lyoc and VVhLchi:ll ^.wc three
spcdal table? fof cU.-^riiig the lunar distaniirf : tXiW thtir rule is
aeither short auf easily rtmcnitwa'd^ An (mpr<;ni'cracfii tf Dun-
thome's sotuiicii} is «]«> ipv^^ru In the txthltin. for 177J a u<-v table
for eqoatioos lA equal ailit udc was |i vm \ ty W. VV j k^. J cs [ I losc ^or
1797 and iSqo tables wert addtdlay Juhd BfinkK-y for i:<l adcnng
tie calculatioiu Im doubk? ^UituFji.-» caj^ivr.
The plan of the Miw^ifaf Aima^nai ft.ii sottKi iitiifatcrJ by other
In France ihe Ac^O^^mk' KovjtL- rJL' M jrinr hiid ill 1 he lunar
dittancestratniilatrd from rlic- ftriU-,li jVniMJi/di Aiman^ Uyr 1 773 and
foQoviog yeaiK rttamiitg Crcvnwicb tlmt for the thru ■hourly
flwlan c ct . Ihc tdtln wcrt; coii*idefcd fMntlkftt, and naci'ui.il pride
•as satisfied by ihcir having Iwea formed ofi iht plan proposed
hy LacaiUe. Thoy d'id not imitate the mode Eivca for cUiring the
lanar distance^ considtring their own better,
Thoogh the Sfanlanl^ wt^re badvrs in ibe art of navij^jti-iin during
the i6th and i7th wciturir*, It was nut till! November 1. i j^jl, that
thdr first nautJul alnunac wa* print c>d at Madrid, fiavK^g been
pirriously caknil4ted at Cidii ffttr Uir ycaf 1791. They acknmled^
borrovin^ fiom the Eni^Uih and French. Th*? t'xceHi^jit Berlin
Astnmomnsches Jakfbuih bcpn td appear in [776. the Anerican
Epheauris in 1849, These two ephemeride* and the Frinch Con-
naissaact des Umpi ar? independent and valuable works.
A book of raWifj Req-AiiHi iQ hi L'W U'llft th^ NautU^ Eohemeris
was publisheiJ by Matkclyne at the ume time as th« riri^t AimanaCf
and ten thoasand copies were quickly sold. A MTond edieion, pre-
pared by Wales, appeared in 1781. an octavo of 3^7 pages, in the
preface of which it u stated that it contains everything necessary for
computing the latitude and longitude by observation. There are in
afl twenty-three tables, the traverse table and table of meridional
parts alone being deficient as compared with modem works of the
nod; dnd-reclconing Maskelyne did not touch. He gave practical
wfthods for working several problems; that for computing the lunar
'The French nautical almanac or Connaissance des temps ap-
peared nnder letters patent from the king, dated 34th March 1679 —
se v ent een years before the first issue. The following is a literal trans-
bttoa of its advertisement: " This little book is a collection of holy
days and festivals in each month. The rising and setting of the
nooa wboi it w visible, and of the sun every day. The aspects of the
pboets as with respect to each other, the moon and the fixed stars.
The lonatioas and eclipses. The difference of longitude between the
B^idian of Paris and the principal towns in France. The time of
(be sun's entrance into the twelve siens of the zodiac. The true place
of the planets every fifth day, and of the moon every day of the year,
ia kngitode and latitude. The moon's meridian passage, for finding
Ox time of hraih water, ' as well as for the use of dials by moonlight/
A table of refraction. The equation of time [this table is strangely
arranged, as though the clock were to be reset on the first of every
mtmtn. ajid the explanation speaks of the ' premier mobile ']. The
time of twiligfat at Paris. Tne sun's right ascension to hours and
orinotcsL The sun's declination at noon each day to seconds. The
whole accompanied by necessary instructions."
■Mayer's tables were printed at London under Maskelyne's
saperinteadence in 177a
especially is an improvement on those by Lyons and t>unthome. and
a rule given for clearing the dis t ance, called Dunthome's improved
method, is remarkably short. Maskelyne's rule for finding the
latitudoi by two altitudes and the elapsed time is also good. Tbs
third edition of the Tables was issued in 1803.
The publicatmn of the RtquisUe Tables met a great want, and the
existence of such accurate and conveniently-arranged mathematical
ubles for the special purposes of nautical calculations led to the more
general use of many refinements which had been prcviouslv neglected.
They formed the ori«nal of manv subsequent and greatly extended
collections, of which those by J. W. Norie are the more generally used
in modem times in the mercantile marine, and the very accurate and
comprehensive tables by James Inman (originally published in 1823)
are constantly used in the British navy.
Unril the middle of the 17th century mariners generally employed
small collections of Dutch charts, known as waggoners from
Waghenair, the name of a celebrated Dutch hydrographer in 1584.
In 167 1 appeared the En^isk Pilot by John Sellers, who b styled the
" Hydrographer Royal.' It forms a collection of rude sketches of
the coasts of England, the North Sea, France and Spain, with safling
directions, and on its appearance the importation of Dutch charts
was prohibited. Private enterprise, for many years after that,
supplied both the British navy and the Britisn mercantile marine
with constantly improving charts, especially latterly, under the
powerful patronage of the East India Company, whose hydrographer
(Alexander Dalrymple). in 1795, was selected as the first hydro-
grapher of the Admiralty. This post has since been occupied by a
succession of distinguished luval officers under whom have grown
up a large school 01 able nautical surveyors, the results of whose
labours are now published in the welt-known Admiralty charts.
Prior to the issue of charts by the Admiralty, the instractions to
masters of vessels in the British navy enjoined them to " provide such
charts and instruments as they considered necessary for the safe
navigation of the ship," while on the completion 01 a voyage of
discovery it was customary for the results to be published for the
Admiralty by private firms.
The establishment of the Admiralty Hydrographic Office in
1795 marked a great step in the advancement of the art of naviga-
tion. On the 12th of August of that year an order in council
placed all such nautical documents as were then in the possession
of the Admiralty in charge of Dalrymple, whose catalogue,
compiled for the use of the East India Company in 1 7S6, contained
347 charts between England, the Cape, India and China; thus
the germ of the present hydrographic department was estab-
lished. The expense was then limited to £650 a year. The first
official catalogue of Admiralty charts was issued in 1830, the
total number being then 963.
After the close of the long devastating war in 1815 both trade
and sdence revived, and several governments besides that of
Great Britain saw the necessity of surveying the coasts in various
parts of the globe; the greater portion of the work fell to the
English hydrographical department, which took under its charge
nearly every place where the inhabitants were not able to do it
for themselves. Since that time its career of usefulness has
steadily developed, and it not Increly undertakes the constant
improvement of the charts of the whole worid, but periodically
issues for the use of the seafaring community a vast amount of
most accurate and practical nautical information on the various
closely allied subjects of navigation, tides, compass adjustment
and ocean meteorologjr.
A knowledge of the times and heights of high and low water and
the directions of the tidal streams due to those phenomena are in
many parts of the worid (and especially round our own coasts) of
vital importance to navigation. The theory of the tides was first
laid down by Newton and Laplace, and in Phil. Trans., 1683. there
is an account of Flamsteed's tide table for London Bridge, which
gave the times of each high tide on every day in the year. For a
long subsequent period empirical tide tables for a few places in
England were published by private individuals, but in 1833 the
researches of Dr W. Whewell and Sir J. W. Lubbock enabkd official
tide Ubles to be issued by the Admiralty. These have steadily
advanced in detail and accuracy, being now in many cases based on
continuous tidal observations for a whole lunar period of 18} years,
and represent the practical epitome of our knowledge of the tides
and tidal currents of the whole world. The formulae and tables on
which these predictions are based are given in the introductbn to
each annual volume (see Tide).
MoDESN Navigation
Having thus sketched the progress of the art of navigation
from an early period to the present time, we will now describe
the modem methods by which it is brought into practical usei
294
NAVIGATION
referring our readers for more technical information to the
professional text-books enumerated at the end of this article.
The great development in both size and speed of modern ships
enormously increases the responsibilities of those who command
and navigate them, and has led to a careful examination of
the existing modes of determining a ship's position at all times
by day or night, both when in sight of land and on the open ocean.
An examination of the present text-books on the subject of
navigation shows how problems and methods which Mrere formerly
considered chiefly as theoretical exercises have now, from the
altered conditions of the navigation of very fast ships, become
methods of frequent practice, while corresponding improvements
have been mad» in the instruments, such as compasses* charts
and chronometers, by the aid of which more satisfactory results
are now attained. Much has also been done to advance the
study of this and its numerous allied subjects by the development
of the Royal Naval College at Greenwich and the United Sei vice
Institution; also by the establishment of shipmasters' societies
(of which the well-known society in London is typical), where
during the year valuable papers are read and useful discussions
take place among those actually carrying out the practice of
navigation.
In planning out in advance a long ocean voyage the experienced
navigator would first, by laying down the track from port to
port on a great circle chart, ascertain the shortest route between
them, remembering that the greatest saving in distance over
other routes is when the ports are far apart in longitude and
both in high latitudes of the same name. On examining such
a track in conjunction with the wind and current charts it will
be seen what modifications the intervention of land, unfavourable
currents or winds, ice or unduly high latitude render necessary,
and such modified route would be finally adopted subject to
possible change as the voyage progressed. The judgment
formed on the best route to follow would also be largely influenced
by the remarks in the volumes of Sailing directions or " Pilots "
relating to the region about to be traversed,while among the
many excellent modem publications of the Hydrographic
Office of the Admiralty perhaps the Ocean Passage Book is one
of the most generally useful, since, when used in combination
with the admirable charts of suggested full-powered and auxiliary
tracks, it very greatly assists all navigators in planning out
a successful voyage. Finally the intended route would be trans-
ferred from the great circle chart to one on Mercator's projection,
which is the more convenient for purposes of navigation since
yi constructing the former for the sake of simplicity a projection
of the coast's surface is adopted on which great circles are
correctly shown as straight lines (gnomonic), while for practical
purposes in navigation such a representation on which a ship's
track when steering a continuous course (technically termed a
rhumb line) is truly shown as a straight line (Mercator) is the
most convenient, although in high latitudes giving a very
distorted representation of the surface depicted. It is well to
remember that on great circle charts rhumb lines become curves
and 'great circles straight lines, and, vice versa, on Mercator
charts, the rhumb line on each projection being that nearer
to the equator, all meridians and the equator on both projections
are shown as straight lines.
Ships rarely steer on great circles, which would generally
theoretically involve continually altering course, but a series
of chords of such circles are described of lengths such as involve
a practical change of course of one or two degrees on the com-
pletion of each.
Great circle charts are very useful for drawing what is known
as a composite track where if the great circle route would lead
into too high a latitude the shortest route to and from the highest
desirable parallel is readily laid down, the intervening track
being pursued on that parallel.
A method of drawing approximate great circles directly
on Mercator charts was proposed by Airy in i8s8. and is some-
times very useful. The excellent idea, originally suggested
by M. F. Maury, of establishing steam *' lanes " in localities
where there u much ocean traffic, so as to minimize the risks of
collision b e tween outward and homeward bound ships, has been
successfully carried out in the North Atlantic The leading
transatlantic steamship companies now agree to follow great
circle routes from the Irish coast to points on the Banks of
Newfoundland, which vary somewhat in position with the
season of the year, but are published in advance. These " lanes "
being avoided by sailing vessels, risks of collision are materially
lessened.
Having thus planned the most desirable general track to
pursue, three methods are employed to ascertain the position
of the ship at any time during such voyage: these are (z) pro-
jecting the track on charts; (2) simple trigonometrical calcub-
tions where the data are the course steered and distance run;
and (j) astronomical observations, which form an entirely
independent method.
Of these the first is the least trustworthy, owing to the usual
difficulties attending accurate graphic methods and the small
scales on which ocean charts are necessarily drawn. When
near the land the larger scale coast charts are used, and in the
approaches to harbours stiU larger scale ^ans give increasing
accuracy to this record of a ship's position. Index charts of
all [Kirts of the world are provided, by referring to which the
navigator ascertains which chart or plan to employ, always
preferably using that on the largest scale.
On leaving harbour, and while near the coast, the position
is not found by calculation but by frequently observing (when
a variety of objects is in sight) (1) simultaneous sextant angles
between suitably situated objects subsequently laid down on
the chart by a station pointer; (2) simultaneous compass
bearings of two or more objects (technically known as cross
bearings); or (3) a combination of both methods by employing
one bearing and one angle. All such methods are capabte of
considerable accuracy if the observations are made simultane-
ously. Should only a small number of objects, or sometimes
only one, be visible (as frequently occurs at night) other and
rougher methods are practised, depending upon the change
of beanng of an object while a certain distance in a certain
direction is traversed by the ship, such knowledge being based
in many cases on an estimate of the action of the tide. When
a ship is steaming at the rate of 20 knots the navigator remembers
that a mile is passed over in three minutes, and that if in sight
of land and fixing positions by objects on shore, it is essential to
adopt, some rapid method; otherwise when laid down on the
chart the position shows where the ship war, and not where
she is. This difficulty has led to the more general use of methods
of obtaining positions by angles instead of bearings, and laying
them down on the chart by the aid of the station pointer. Many
advantages accrue from this, as the observer is not restricted
in position on board, as is the ^ase when using the compass,
and especially if a double sextant (having two index glasses
and one horizon glass) is employed two angles can be measured
simidtaneously, the rcsiilt on the chart being very rapidly
arrived at. An ingenious combination of sextant and station
pointer in one has been proposed, and most simply carried out
by attaching vertical sights to the legs of a station pointer,
which is put on a suitable horizontal stand, and the legs moved
until the sights are in line with the objects observed. To assist
the navigator in the choice of suitable objects between which
to measure the angles, a very useful pamphlet is issued by the
Admiralty, from the diagrams in which it can be seen at a glance
which combination of objects in sight gives the most favoimble
result, always remembering as a broad principle that nearer
objects are more suitable than distant ones, and that the accuracy
of position determined depends on the relative distances of the
objects as well as on the magnitude of the angles between them.
In these circumstances, which render these rougher methods
those only available, and especially in hazy weather in many
known localities (such as the English Channel), a conHnmcus
line of deep sea soundings at fairly even distances apart affords
an additional verification of position, remembering that only
an occasional sounding might prove very misleading.
The chronicle of progress in the art of navigation would be very
NAVIGATION
295
incoiDpIete without reference to the extended use of Lord
Kelvin's sounding machines, either in the original form, where
the increased pressure at different depths is recorded by dis-
coloration of chemical tubes, or in the later form known as the
"depth recorder," where similar results are obtained by the
aatomatic record of the position of a piston forced upwards
a a tube by this increased pressure. Very satisfactory results
can be obtained at speeds of 15 or 16 knots, enabling that great
safeguard of navigation in many places, vix. a continuous line
of ioundings, to be accurately and rapidly obtained. In con-
nexion with this should be mentioned a most ingenious invention
knovn as the " submarine sentry,'* which on being set for any
desired depth and towed overboard remains at that depth what-
ever the speed of the ship may be. On striking bottom it at once
floats to the surface and rings a warning belL Such an instru-
ment is of obvious value in ships where, owing to the small
cumber of available men, it is difficult to maintain a continuous
line of soundings. To avoid an unnecessarily wide ditour in
rounding points and shoals, mtensive use is now made of both
horizontal and vertical danger angles ; the former is the angle
on the arc of a horizontal circle passing through a point at the
required distance from the danger, and through two previously
selected, easily recognized, fixed objects. Should circumstances
enable the selection to be made of an angle of about 90^, the
ship by continually measuring the angle may be steered on the
arc of such a circle with great precision, and may even be safely
taken through a channel between two dangers. The vertical
danger angle enables similar results to be attained by measuring
the vertical angle subtended by a known height; but except
where the selected object is one whose height is well determined,
such as a lighthouse, this method is not so trustworthy as the
former.
Before k)sing sight of land the latitude and longitude of the last
«ell<determined position found by the methods referred to is
taken from the coast chart, transferred to the ocean or small scale
chart, and considered to be the " departure " or starting-point of
the ocean voyage, and from that point the course and distance
run by the ship is laid down, being rectified on every occasion
when the position is more accurately determined by astronomical
means. To obviate the inevitable inaccuracies attending this
fraphic method and as a corroboration of the ship's position,
the changes of latitude and longitude involved in each alteration
of course are daily calculated by plane trigonometry, such
calculations being materially abbreviated by the use of the
Traverse Table, which is a tabulated expression of the solutions
of right-angled plane triangles.
The foregoing modes of keeping account of a ship's position are
technically known as " dead reckoning." The general introduc-
tion of compasses with short needles and slow periods of vibration
has done very much towards improving the accuracy with which
a ship's " dead reckoning." is kept. The original model of these
was that patented by Lord Kelvin in 1876, and since adopted in
the British navy as the standard. In this instrument we have
a compass specially designed to enable the principles of com-
pensatk>n or correction proposed by Sir G. B. Airy in 1837 to
be accurately carried out, while its slow period of swing renders
it in all circumstances extremely steady.
The record of distance run is always obtained from the patent
log, usually in the form of the Cherub or Taffrail log introduced
b 1878. The common or hand log has ceased to be regarded as
anything but the very roughest of guides, and the patent log
in its original form, in which it recorded the revolutions of a small
screw towed by the ship, docs not give satisfactory results at
great ^>eeds, nor can anything more favourable be said of those
forms where pressure on known areas b employed. The revolu-
tions of the engines, with due allowance made for the condition
of the ship's bottom, afford now perhaps the best means of
rslimating tspttd (see Log).
Astronomical observations afford the most accurate means
of ascertaining positions at sea, other methods (dead reckoning)
being only relied upon when the weather does not admit of the
practice of these, though by utilizing twilight and night observa-
tions of moon, Stan and planets, the navigator in most parts
of the world need seldom proceed far without the means of
astronomically rectifying his position either in latitude,' longitude
or both at the same time.
The practical problems involved are precisely those employed
at astronomical observatories, but it is not possible to attain
similar accuracy of results, for though the sextant (the instru-
ment always employed at sea in making such observations)
is capable of marvcUous accuracy, yet, as practically all such
observations depend directly upon altitudes measured above
the sea horizon, the uncertainty and variability of the true
position of this, due to the changing effects of refraction, much
affect observations made at any one time. This error in practice
is greatly .reduced by methods of combining several observations
made at different times and using their mean or average result.
A notable feature of the progress of the art of modem navigation
is the greatly increased practice of star navigation, and many of
the supposed difficulties of night observations are found to be
removed by experience. Determinations of positions at sea by
'twilight observations, when the brighter stars become visible
while the horizon is still well defined, are probably the most
accurate means we possess; and the careful navigator, by
combining for latitude stars passing north and south of the zenith,
and for longitude those near the prime vertical both east and west,
can generally depend upon a good result, especially if suitable
stars can be found for each pair at about the same altitudes.
For these purposes the armiUaiy sphere b extremely useful:
this is a small celestial globe on which are depicted the principal
stars visible to the naked eye. On elevating the pole to the
approximate latitude of the observer, and turning the sphere
until the sidereal time is under the fixed meridian, a correct
representation of the heavens at the time of observation is
obtained; the stars are then easily identified by their bearings
and altitudes. This valuable instrument is not merely useful
when at twilight, only a few of the brighter stars being visible, the
constellations to which they belong are difficult of recognition,
but it enables arrangement to be made in advance for such
observations as are desired to be taken during the night. By
marking in pencil on the globe the positions of the planets in
right ascension and decb'nation, the same sphere is also available
for their identification. The heavenly bodies commonly observed
at sea are: The Sun, Moon, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, the
Pole star, and the larger (or first magnitude) fixed stars, the
positions of all of which in the heavens are given in the NauiicaJ
Almanac for fixed epochs at Greenwich, with the requisite data
for computing their positions at all other times in all other places.
The chief astronomical obflcrvations made at sea are those for
ascertaining (i) btitudc, (2) time and thence longitude, (3) error of
compass, and (4) latitude and longitude simultaneous] v.
To ascertain latitude by itself altitudes of heavenly bodies are
measured above the horizon when they arc on or near the meridbn
and therefore exactly or nearlv north or south of the observer: in
the case of the sun, of course, thh means at or near noon, and in the
case of other bodies such local times arc previously accurately
ascertained by a simple calcubtion made from the Nautical Almanac
or more roughly found from an armillary sphere. The principle
involved is the simple one that by subtracting the observed altitude
when on the meridian from 90* the distance of the zenith or point
overhead north or south of the heavenly body is found; then by
combining with this the distance, obtained from the Nautical
Almanact of the bod^ considered north or south of the celestial
equator at the same instant, it is found how far the zenith is north
or south of the cclcstbl equator, and this is exactly the same as the
latitude of the observer since the celestial equator is merely the
imaginary extension of that of the earth. Such observations are n'ot
necessarily restricted to that which can be taken at the instant when
the body observed is on the meridbn (meridian altitude); equally
accurate and multiplied observations can be made on either or both
sides of the meridbn if the body b somewhat near it (cx-meridian
and circum-meridbn altitudes), and a simple calculation or reference
to a specblly constructed table or graphic curve gives the' required
result.
Errors arising from uncertainty as to the true position of the
horizon are with twilight and night observations largely counter-
made of heavenly bodies crossing the meridian both north and
south of the observer, taken as nearly at the same time as convenient.
In northern btitudes the pole star is so near to the pole that
296
NAVIGATION
parity
obfcrvations of it can be Uken at anv time when it is visible, and
from a convenient table given in the rfautical Almanac the altitude
of the (wle itself (which equals the latitude) is readily obtained.
Lonratude at sea Is in modern navigation always found by com-
aring local or ship mean time with Greenwich mean time, the latter
jeing accurately known from the chronometers and the former from
astronomical observations of suitably placed heavenly bodies. It
may be assumed in all well found modern ships that on applying the
known errors and accumulated rates to the times shown by the
chronometers the Greenwich time at any instant is practically
accurately known, and as the distance east or west of any place is
merely thie difference between the two local times at any instant ex-
pressed in degrees, so also is the distance east or west of Greenwich
(longitude) the difference between time at place and Greenwich time
at any one instant. The connexion bet%vcen time and degrees depends
upon the complete rotation of the earth in twenty-four hours, causing
meridians 15 apart to pass under the same fixcdpoint in the heavens
at intervals of one hour, those east of Greenwich passing earlier and
those west later, resulting in local time being in advance m Greenwich
time in east longitude and vice versa in west longitude.
The errors ami rates of gaining or losing of the chronometer re-
ferred to are known from observations made on shore prior to the
beginning of the voyage with a sexUnt and artificial horizon, and
these observations are capable of almost as great accuracy as those
taken at fixed astronomical observatories. As this knowledge is
absolutely essential every opportunity is taken at each principal port
visited 01 either repeating such observations or obtaining the infor-
mation from time balls dropped from observatories on shore at the
Greenwich times indicated in the Time-ball pamphlet. Local or ship
time can only be found with fair accuracy from calculations based on
altitudes of heavenly bodies, when they are ncariy east or west of the
observer or techniodly on the prime vertical. Such times can be
approximately seen from the azimuth diagrams or from tablesof true
bearings of heavenly bodies, and the error involved by uncertainty
as to the position of the horizon can be grratly obviated in twilight or
at night by taking the mean of results arising from neariy simultane-
ous observations of bodies bearing both cast and west. In the usual
case of determining time by observations of the sun the results arising
from morning observations are compared with those similariy ob>
tained in the aftefnoon. It will of course be remarked that should
any unallowed-for error in the chronometer exist it will affect the
resulting longitude by its full amount.
In considering the foregoing methods 01 astronomically fixing a
ship's position we notice that ^ways when the two elements of
latitude and longitude are determined at different times, and gener-
ally, as we shall presently see, when they are determined together
(though usually for a shorter time) the navigator has to depend for
some time on the accuracy of the course steered and estimated
distance run; also when cloudy weather prevails he has to depend
entirely on those elements for a knowledge of the ship's position.
The frequent astronomical observation of tne error of the compass is
therefore a most important and fortunately simple duty. In practice
the error is found by a comparison between the compass bearing of a
heavenly body and its true bearing, obtained either by calculation, or
more generally from a graphic diagram (Weir's azimuth diagram) or
tables from which at practically any time when above the horizon the ,
true bearings of the principal heavenly bodies are taken by in-
spection. These important observations are most accurately made
when the body observed is bearing neariy east or west true, if not
too high, but if clouds prevent observations at such times, fairly good
results can be obtained by observing the compass -bearing when the
object u on the meridian (if not too high) and therefore lying north
or south true. » ^
The causes of the changing errors of a compass in an iron ship
are described elsewhere (see Compass), but by making comparisons
as above the navigator can at^'once ascertain what is termed the
" total " error, and if he takes from that the portion of error due to
the earth, or what is termed variation (known from a chart of such
elements), the remaining error is that caused by the iron of the ship,
technically known as deviation.' The latter method of procedure has
the great advantage of enabling the navigator to ascertain during a
voyage whatever magnetic changes in the ship are taking place other
than those he would expect to occur on change of position. The
total error is that applied to compass courses.
Deviations greater than a few degrees are not merely inconvenient
but in modern compasses produce unsteadiness or oscillation of the
compass card, so that, especially in new ships, the skilful navigator
reduces such errors by adjusting the compensating magnets when
favourable occasions offer. Recognizing the great value of a sound
knowledge of compass adjustment, the British Board of Trade have
included thb among the compulsory subjects of examination for the
rank of master, thus following the example of the navy, where all
navigating officers have to attend a practical course of study on the
subject.
The practical problem of finding both latitude and longitude at the
same time is the most important of all in modem navi^tion, and is
rapidly superseding other modes of ascertaining a ship's position.
The principle involved depends upon the fact tnat every heavenly
body is at each partkular instant of time directly overhead or in the
vemth of sotiu place on the earth. Thus, if we take the sun as an
instance, it is noon at all places on the meridian of 60* W. when it b
exactly 4 p.m. at Greenwich, and at the oiu spot on that meridian
where the observer is as far north or south of the terrestrial equator
as the sun is north or south of the celestial equator (declination) it will
not only be noon but the sun will be immediately overhead and will
have an altitude of 90". Thi% therefore, at any instant defines the
position where the sun is vertical; its latitude must equal the sun's
declination and lu longitude in time equal the time since noon at
Greenwich. Now at a disunce of te m. in every direction on the
surface of the earth from the point thus defined the sun will have an
altitude of 89* and in all directions at a distance of laoo m. its
altitude will be 70" ( «90''-30*), so that on a globe, by marking the
position where at a certain instant the sun is vertical and taldiw
that as a centre, a scries of concentric circles may be drawn, on att
points of each of which the sun's altitude will be the same. . When,
therefore, at sea we measure with a sextant at any time the altitude
of the sun (say te* 10'^ we at once know we are somewhere on the arc
of a circle navinjg for its centre the spot where the sun is vertical at
that instant, andtor radiitsa distance equal to 1790' ( ~9o"— 60* lo*).
Such information, combined with the bot and most recent knowledge
we have of the ship's latitude at the time, will of itself afford valuaUe
information as to the position, but by making two such obwrvatioiis,
separated by a sufficiently long interval for the position having the
sun vertical to have moved considcraUy (owing to the rotation of
the earth), we are able to Consider with certainty that we must be at
one or other of the widely separated intersections of two such
circles, the movement of the ship in the interval between the two
observations being duly allowed for. The dead reckoning affords
informaition as to which of these interstetioos is the true poMtion.
Now even, on a large globe it would be practically impossible to
obtain very accurate results from thb problem by drawing aucfa
circles, but on a large scale chart (or ordinary squared paper) much
greater accuracy b obtainable. The method commonly used on a
Mcrcator chart involves two suppositions: (l) that the concentric
circles we have referred to will be correctly represented as circles on
the chart, and (3) that these are of such diameters, that a portion of
say 100 m. of arc may be considered to be a straight line coincident
with the tangent to the circle and therefore at nght angles to the
direction of the sun. Except in hi^h latitudes (above te^ M etcator's
projection fulfils the first condition sufficiently well for practical
purposes, and, except when the altitude b greater than 70*, the
second condition b also approximately true since the radii of such
circles will exceed laoo m.
Prcmising^ these conditions, supjiose that on a certain day at 9 a.m.
when the 6hif)'s approximate position, known from previous observa-
tions and laid down on the
chart, is supposed to be at A
(fig. j), an observation of the
sun IS made from which the
longitude b calculated, the
result being that on the sup-
position tl»t the latitude of
A b correct, the ship's position
b probably at B. Now by
drawing a straight line ab
through B at right ancles to
the true bcarine of the sun
at the time 01 observation
fwhkh b most readily known
from the azimuth tables) we
are obviously right in assum-
ing the ship s position to be somewhere on that line if we consider
it as approximately an arc of a laige circle having the place where
the sun is then vertical as • centre, the direction of such place being
indicated by an arrow.
If our supposed latitude be right the position will be at B, but if
not correct it must still be on the line oft, and if near land or any
danger the direction of this line, even if no subsequent observation
be available, will often give most valuable information. If, whOe
waiting for the sun to change its bearing, the ship runs from B to C.
a line cd drawn through C parallel to ab will represent an arc on which
the position lies when she is probably at C, which at thb instant
(10-30 a. m.) b the most probable position of the ship.
If another observation of the sun for longitude b now made and
the resulting position is D (lying of course in the same latitude as C).
on drawing tnrough D a line ej at right angles to the bearing of the
sun (indicated by an arrow) we arc nght in assuming the postioo to
be somewhere on such an arc as b represented by thb hne.
Hence E, the intersection of the two arcs on which the position IJes
at the same instant, must be the true place when the last observatiuo
was taken at the supposed position D. the discrepancies being entirely
due to the original unknown error in the assumed latitude of A, for
had that been accurate the position on the original line a& WT>uld
have been such that on laying off the course and distance from that
position C would have coincided with E.
Errors in the assumed latitude of as much in man^ cases as 30 ra.
will often be found to produce no practical difference in the resultant
position, but of course the accuracy of the longitude found is entirely
dependent upon the chronometer, and in such cases aa arise when the
intersecting arcs make a small angle 119th each other great aocuracT
Fig. 7.
NAVIGATION
297
« fequired in the ooune and distance run b e tw een the times of
observation.
This method of findii^ both btitude and longitude at the same
time s commonly known as " Sumner's " method from the publicity
given to it in 1847 by the publication of an excellent pamphlet on the
Eub^ b]r a master of that name in the American mercantile marine,
althousfa in a modified form it was practised at a much eariier date
in the British navy under the name of " cross bearings of the sun."
Prior to the publication of azimuth tables in 1866 the calculatbn
was more lengthy and troublesome, the work being practically
doubled.
We have taken an illustration from observations of the sun, but
die met!ind is obviously applicable to all heavenly bodies provided
they are so situated that the arcs drawn will intersect at a good
aogle; this in twilight or at night-time is readily done by selecting
two heavenly bodies whose bearimrs differ consideiably, ajid in such
cases the small complication of allowing for the run of the ship is
often obviated by making the observations simultaneously. The
armillary gphat or star globe is useful in selecting objects suitably
sitiated.
The prindf^ of Sumner's method has of recent years
'"TT impoi^TTt a^ri valuable d-^"^-'pmeTlt under the n:ivne of the
" i^cv luvigAtica/' In I his [net hoi, ori|;iiia,lly prapotied by NfarcSt
Hikin, a oompa risen is madf between [he altitude of a heavenly
bodf as artually ebtrrttd and that iolcidaird imm the supposed
portion of the ship. For insitance, the position of an obMrn'er at the
lOijant of observing a {true) altitude of the tun of aq^ lo' must be
Kflicwhere on a portion of thi? cirrumferTnce of a circlx (usuallv of
inch Hae that the portion considered may be represented onacliart
hf 4 itraiEfiE line) having its centtF in latitude equal to the sun's
^cfedj^lion^ and in lonsitude equat to the Greenwich ap^aient time
af tiac tnstani, the rariiui of ^ych a circle being equal to the sun's
mtith distance of 49' 50'. if at the same time the (rue aUitudt." of
the vjn a from the fitiiniitfd pcwition of the <ihtp calculated to be
<o* 1', hh evident that the giicaicr obscnrd altitude mu&t be owning
to the dtip being ntairr to tht; centre of the circle than wascuppo^«a,
and a, hne of po»itJon drawn thruugh the estimated position at right
aufksto the bearing of the sun mu5t be rran^ftirred parallel to itself
tlubush a distance of 5' towanda the direction of the tuns bearing.
The iC^Dfid line of position, obtained when the eun's bearing has
altered socne 35', is dealt wiih in a liimibr way, sind the intcrsrction
iif the two Une* to Dbtatwd ^W^ the positmriof ihcshipai the time
of lecood obeervation. Tlii* modt of pnicHurf cuisblrs a El obscrva-
litnu. whetlier war or far from the mf^ridbin. to Ixr simii^irly dealt
•nrthj in atl cases the altitude the h^avetily body itufuM fiavr is
computed and co*ts pared with »hat it artuiilly has. The practler of
probkmM tach it the forejcoing h gi^atly facilitated by the c^itcnrled
mean* of finding at any moment the azimuth or true Ixaring of a
heavtnJy body, UVn the arimuth wAi. only rt^uirrd for the de-
tttmuatioit of coin pan error, the valu^ibk tabk^t from which the
CEanpatKl pckJu could be obtained by inspection, were limited to
ihost casKof moft practica] iinportance, but from the iniscniou^ and
•imple gnphica] fona known as Weir's asimulh diapam azimuths
of an hcamly bodies, whose declioatiofu eirtcnd from 60" N. to
60* S,, eaa be obtained during the whole time they ar? above the
IwrifOfl, thiB gTQtfy facilitating^ the tayinE down lines of pc^^iiion.
A careful rtcord of eiittything prrtaining to the navigatitjn of the
•hip. with the rRulli of all obwrvations and calculated position^ . is
ktjH in the ship's lew, an official twok of grrat imnrMnance, a rrnigh
ongiial of which h fcept on deck with entries m^clo in it of all •■lich
emts at the time of thtir occurrence A c^npy of the headings, <A a
pvgt of this a* CTAiiwcnntd imo the oflftcLil ]q^ U hcrv given :
Diracikm.rFoice.
The coarse entered here is that which would be indicated by the
" standard " compass of the ship (placed in the most favourable
magnetic position on board); that actually steered by is the one
most conveniently seen by the helmsman. Comparisons between
the btter and the " standard " are frequently nutde, their indications
genetaDy varying somewhat owinff to the difference of deviation in
different positions on the ship. Ine compass card is usually gradu-
ated into points and degrees, but the course is always estimated in
d^rees. The ^wed b ascertained from the indication of the patent
toe. the hand log being generally only used as a rough check on this.
Wmd direction and force are the rewlt of estimation; as the speed
sad ooorae of the ship so greatly affect the apparent direction and
velocity no practical anemometer for use on board ship exists. Wind
force as estimated in terms of what b known as the " Beaufort "
Kale, baaed on the supposed amount of sail a vessel could carry at
the time. The height of the mercurial barometer b carefully read at
the end of each watch, as ahp b the thermometer; the more senutive
aneroid barometer b kept in a very accessible positbn and more
frequently referred to by the oflBcer of the watch. When navi^ting
ia locaKtira luid during seasons at which circubr stornu or hurricanes
may be expected (as known from the Barometer Manual) the baro-
meter is anxiously and frequently watched, and at all times its indi-
cation b cn-fTrf-d with that nnr»r-''v /^xrv-'r-—:^. '- -'-.- V..— '"'y
traversed as rh^isfc'n. on sho tiarometer thjris, due .illoWAnrc- (xuig
made in the tropics for the ordinary daily movement. All obscn^a-
tions relatiriB to ocean meteorology arp of great service in the com-
pilation and miprovemeni of wind and current charts, and in m^^ny
ships more extensive meteomlo^cal journaU a.re voluntarily kept
on forms supplied by the Meteorological OfBce. A knowled;^eof the
temperature of the surface of the sea is often of great practicaf use in
navigation as giving v-arning of change in direction of the suKace
ocean current, cspeiially in Itxralitic^ where there exist near to each
other warm and cLid currents s^ttinji in different directions, a*, for
instance, near the edge of the Gulf Sire-im. As an indication of the
vicinity of ice such obser^'aiicnia att uf^ually much lcs» trustworthy.
On the completion of the cakubtioas Ei^'ir^K the ship's posit ion
at noon each day the rciult^ an; tabulate in the ship's log ca the
following form :
Com*
DiMUKC.
Latitude.
Lonsitade
Variukm
Allowed.
liTilKS
niadecood
Made
Good.
Through
the water.
D.R.
Oba.
DJL
Ofaa.
Cunwa.
The counc and distance made good each day are calculated by
trigonometry betwrcn thi? be^t determined positions at two successive
noonji^ such p09J tions in fine weather beinfj always those determined
astronomicafly, and the current being considered the dLfference in the
positions at noon_3i:a dt.-terminc>d astronomically and as calculated by
dead rc^rkoning; fiin<-e the previous noon; such differences, howrver,
obviouftty include the errors of aii kinds* The latitude and toitgiEirile
found by dend reckoning arc enu-rixi under that biding (D^It).
The astronomical paaitiona of latitude and longitude (catered ai
" ohs. ' or "' by ob«f\'aticin ") are very M^ldom Mtb determined at
noon, but are carried up or back to that Inii^ti^nt by calculation frem
the intervenine dead reckoning. The vamiion allowed is taken
fro^ tbepubli^wd variation chart, on which I he latent results of such
ohssvatioiis are embodied at inttn,'ala of about ten yeans with the
annitat cbaQges (■star as ksown) in different localities^ thus enabling
the navigKtor lo obcain its value at intermediate dates. Finally the
course and distance are calculated from the position of the ship at
noon to either the port of destination or some prominent position of
danger near to which the veabel must paso. Thjs is entered under the
heading " true bearings and dbtance."
AuTHOUTiBS.— The following Ibt of some writers of navigation
whose works have not been alrady mentioned may be found useful
to refer to: Thomas Addison, Arithmetical Nantaiion (i6as) — he was
the first to apply logarithms; Antonio de Najera (^Lisbon, i6a8)
follows Nufiex and Ceqxdes, but corrects the declination of sun and
stars; Sir R. Dudley, L'arcano def mare (1630-1646, and ed.,
Florence, i66x)— ^00 ponderous for the use of seamen; Sir Jonas
Moore (i68i)---one of the best books of the period; William jones
(1703) — a useful compendium containing trigonometry applied to the
various sailings, the use of the log, and tables of logarithms; IHerre
Jean Bouguer. TraitS camplet de la namgation (folio, i6()8> — good but
toe I'^nr; Maniiei Pimental, VArte de n^ee^ (Lisbon, 171a) i
Pi( ■ Ikiuffuer, jun., Nouvrav traiU de n,a^gait0n U75j)-^without
tal ' publjisihed at the request of the minister of marine, improved
an ; rtened in IJ^J under the Eupertntendcnce of the a»tnjnomiDr
La !■ ; Nathaniel Col-crn, Th^ Mariner's AW Ciiknda.r U-j:^^)—^
go ■ * ik: Seller, Prtxtiicci N^itfigntipn — a book very poputar in its
tic ■ rhicre was an edition as bte a-<f 1739); Samuel Dunn published
;o^M> -<Ldr charts and tables of Latitude and longitude (1737), and
rraiiu:'iJ concise rules for many problems on navigation (publu^ed by
the lf?'>drd of longitude): John H. Moore, Ttu Fraciuai Na^fokiT
and Seaman's ^trw DaUy Xisistmi [i77J>^verv popular, and gener-
ally used in the llritl'^h navy^-^the t8th and tgth editions (t4ito,iflu>
were improved by J* Dcssiou; W. Wtlaon (Edinburgh^ 1773)^
treatise of eckxI rx-pute at the time; Samuel Dunn, New Ep^i&mt of
Proftuai l¥at^■ig^llw>t, or Guidt io the Indian 5^aj (i777)^^for the
longitude he dep^ndj chiefly on a variation chart from observations
bv lui'^t fndiamen, and he still makes no mention of the Ntmliejii
Ahr.,i'uzt or of ptiirallet mlera; Samuel Dunn (probably a mtt of the
la^t n.Tmcd, 17S1J la the but writer who gives instructions for the une
of the- ri«rolabc^ he also wnatc on " lunara " (1783, 1793), a name
■ ' ■ iIjI! ' ■
theft- h no inst rye lion fof finding lonetiude by the chronometer,
Ks'lly. Spkftkal TrigmtamHry and Nautical Aitton^my (1796,
ath cd,, 1813)— tlear and simple: N. Bowditch, Fraitif^ Nasigaior
(iSqo)— paswd throutfh tnany editions and is new tin a revised form)
the official text boodt of the L'niicd States navy; J. W, None,
£;'r;-rrrr ^jT f^^mgatiQn fiSo3, atst ed. tfl?!!)— still a fa^-oufitc in the
m^ n intile marine from its simplicrity, and because navigation can
be liirned from it u-ithout a teacher; T. Kerigan, Tht Yaun%
Na^imor't Gstide to Ntmtiiol Aiirouaitiy fi«jr); Irtmant Epil^tme
oj Naniatim ti8?l)— with an excellent volume of tablrst formerly
298
NAVIGATION LAWS
I and Pfaultcal Astronomy urd ed. IB24. qtn ed.. Dy l:.9cott. I871},
1 worthy of its high repuution ; J. T. Towson, TabUsfor Rtdtutiom
Ex-mendian Altitudes (4th ed. 18^4)1 vety uteful; H. Raper»
take of NttpiiiUion (1840, loth ed. 1870), an excellent book;
largely used in the British navy. 9th ed. (i8m): E. Riddle. Nnita-
Iton and Nauliad Astronomy (3rd ed. 1824. Qtli ed.. by Escott. 1871),
■till worthy of it- •-'-*- ^—■' -r t t-^iJ- /_ o-v^-..„
of Ex-mertdian
Practke of Nm . . , . ...
H. Evers, NavipUum and Great Circle Sailing (1850), other works on
the same subject by Merrificld and Evers (1868) and Evers (187^):
R. M. Inskip, Navigatum and Nautical Astronomy (1865), a useful
book, without tables; T. H. Sumner, A Method of finding a Skip's
Position by two Observations and Greenwich Time by Chronometer —
this is set forth as a novelty, but was published by Captain R. Owen,
R.N., early in the century, and practised by many oflkers: H. W.
Jeans, Narifption and Nautical Astronomy (1858); Marbord,
Glossary of Narigation (1863. enlarged ed. 1883), a very excellent
book of reference; W. C. Beigen. Practice and Theory of Navigatum
(187a): Sir W. Thomson. Navigation, a Lecture (1876). well worth
reading; Lecky, Wrinkles in Navigation (1880); Martin, Navig^Hon
and Nautical Astronomy, sanctioned for use in the British navy.
(W. R. M.*)
NAVIGATION LAWS. The laws grouped under this Utle are
a branch rather of munidpal law than of the general maritime
law. They are baaed upon the right of a sUte to regulate the
navigation of its own waters and to protect its own commerce.
One of the most curious tuiy books on the subject is Captain G.
.St Lo, En^ofuPs Safetie or a Bridle to the French King, proposing
a sun Method for enetmraging Navigatum (London, ^nd ed.
1693). Navigation laws may be divided into two classes. The
first dass includes all laws designed to secure a commercial
monopoly to the sUte which enacted them. In Great Britain
the object was attained by the Navigation Acts, the earliest of
which were those of 1381 and 1390, ordaining that no merchandise
should be shipped out of the realm except in British ships on
pain of forfeiture. The principal Navigation Act was that of
1660 (Scottish, i66x, c. 45)- Up to 1854 coasting trade was
wholly restricted to British ships, and a British ship must have
been navigated by a master who was a British subject, and by
a crew of whom a certain proportion must have been British
subjects. After 1854 the only relics of such restrictions were
found in the provisions of the Customs Consolidation Act 1853,
I 334, by which, in order to secure reciprocity, prohibitions or
restrictions may by order in council be imposed upon the ships
of any country in which British ships are liable to similar pro-
hibitions or restrictions. Subject to these exceptions, a foreign
ship is in the same position as a British ship with regard to
British trade. Thift ri^t of foreign ships is expressly recognized
by the Customs Law Consolidation Act 2876; by | 141 of that
act foreign ships engaged in the coasting trade are not to be
subject to hi^er rates than British ships. Any advantages
which a British ship has, e.g. the right of claiming protection
for her flag, the non-attachment to her of a maritime lien for
necessaries supplied in a British port, are not directly connected
with the poUcy under which the Navigation Acts have become
obsolete. These advantages are not secured to a British ship
until she is registered. United Sutes law agrees with British
In this respect. " The United Sutes have imitated the policy
of England and other commercial nations in conferring peculiar
privileges upon American-built ships and owned by our own
citizens. . . . The object of the Registry Acts is to encourage
our own trade, navigation and shipbuilding by granting peculiar
or exclusive privileges of trade to the flag of the United States,
and by prohibiting the communication of those immunities
to the shipping and mariners of other countries " (Kent,
Comm. iii. 139). It may be noticed that an alien is generally
inca[>able of becoming the owner of a ship. This incapacity was
specially preserved in the case of British ships by the Naturaliza-
tion Act 1870, 1 14.
The second dass of navigation laws indudes those which deal
with the navigation of any waters over which a state has any
control, and embraces all that is necessary for the due use of such
waters, as rules of the road, management of harbours and light-
houses, and licensing and control of pilots. Such laws may deal
with (i) the high seas, (2) tidal waters other than the high seas,
(3) non-tidal waters.
I. The claims of various nations to dominion over parts of the hign
seas have now become matters of merely historical interest. Such
claims have been at different times advanced by Great Britain.
Holland. Spain and Portugal, and were once suffidently important
to evoke the Mare Liberwn of Grotius and the Mare Qamsnm d
John Selden. It may be noted that in 1893 the Court of AriMtration>
on the Berins Sea Fisheries found that Russia had never claimed or
exercised exclusive jurisdiction over the Bering Sea outside terri-
torial waters and that the United States had no further risht than
had Russia at the time of the cession of Alaslcs in 1867. Rules for
the navigation of the high seas may still be promulgated by any
government. In Great Britain such rules, generally known as the
Sailing Rules." have been made by order in council under the
powers of the Merchant Shipping Act 1863 ; the rules at present in
force are those contained in the order of the 37th of November 1896,
L.G. No. 1083, as amended by subsequent orders in coundL The
order of 1896 was extended by the order of 1807. L.G. No. 573, to the
ships of most foreign countries, with a special provision as to China.
In the case of a state which has not assented to them, the only rules
enforceable are the general rules of the sea, gradually ascertained by
individual cases before courts of admiralty.
3. For the navigation of its tidal waters— as far as they are
territorial— a state may legislate without the assent of other states.
An example of such legislation is afforded by the Territorial Waters
Jurisdiction Act 1878, a measure passed in consequence of the
celebrated case oiR.v. Keyn, L.R. 2 Ex. D.. I36 (the^' Franconia "
case), in 1876. Under the head of territorial waters would fall the
" narrow seas '* (as the Bristol Channd. Great Bdt or Straits of
Messina), bays and harbours, estuaries and arms of the sea. navigable
tidal ri\-ers, and the sea for the distance of a marine league from the
shore. Such waters bdnf; res puUicae though not res CMmmmex. aa
are the high seas, are prima facie subject to the jurisdictidb of the
state. In England the soil under such waters, or at least under all but
the last kind, w prima facie vested in the crown, subject to the oublic
rights of fishery and anchorage. For the distance of a marine wague
from few-water mark the crown has certainly jurisdiction for police
and revenue purposes. This is a rule of general international law.
It may be noted that the Institut de Droit IntemaHonal p rop o sed to
double this limit. See Hall, International Law (^th ed.), p. 154. In
England the navigation of most of the prinapal tidal waters ia
governed by rules contained in acts of corliaroent and orders in
council, the latter for the most part promulgated under the authority
given by the Merchant Shipping Act 1863. For instance, there are
numerous orders relating to the Thames, Mersey. Tecs and other
important rivers.
3. Non-tidal waters, even though navi^ble. are in Great Britain
pnma facie private waters, in which the nght of navigation does not
exist as a public franchise, but can only be acouircd by prescripcioo
founded on a presumed grant by an owner. In Roman law and in
the Code Napdfon it is otherwise. Navigable rivers in those systems
are always ptMici juris, whether tidal or non-tidal. Navigation of
non-tidal waters in the United Kingdom, whether natural or artificiaL
u now almost entirely regulated oy various Nav^tion and Con-
servancy Acts, e.g. tne Tnames Conservancy Acts, the Shannon.
Trent. Lee, Ac, Navigation Acts, and the various Canal Acts,
espedally the Manchester Ship Canal Act 1885. It may be noticed
that the crown u empowered by the Merchant Shipping Act 1863
to make rules for the navigation of inland waters, even when artificial,
on the application of the proprietors. Examples of such rales are
the orders in council regulating the Mersey and Irwell navigation and
the Bridgewater navigation. i8th May 1870. Such waters bein^
private property, the application for the rules by the proprietoca la
redted in tne order in coundl.
The distinction drawn in the United States between navigable and
boauble rivers seems to be peculiar to that country, unless indeed It
b analogous to the " fleuves et rivi&res navigables ou flottables *' of.
the Code Nap616on, | 538. It is at least unknown in Great Britain.
Remedies for Obstruction and Pollution.— Theve^ may be either
criminal or ci\'il — the criminal by indictment or inforniatioa. the
dvil by action for damages or fur an injunction, in addition to the
criminal remedy, where special damage has been sustained. Pollu-
tion is expressly provided for by the Rivers Pollution Prevention
Act X876, which gives jurisdiction to county couru in caaea within
the act. ... , . ,
International Law.— Tht international law aa to the navigation of
the high seas has been sketched above. Reference should also be
made to what b known aa the " Rule of the War of 1736 " to the
effect that where a cok>nial or coasting trade is prohibited to other
nations in time of peace, a neutral by engaging in this trade by
permission of a beUigerent in time of war is liable to the other
belligerent. The leading case b The Immanud (i799). a C.
Robinson's Rep. 186. Resubtions for the coasting trade may be
made by the government of Indb under the powers of the Customs
Consolidation Act 1853. I 3^9. and by the legislature of a British
possession under the Merchant Shippins Act 1894. | 730. As to
territorial waters, it is the general thougn not the universal opuiicn
of jurists that the sute to which the territorial waters belong has a
right to forbid their navigation by foreigners. The free navigation of
rivers has often been the subject of treaties, almost necessarily so
where a river is the boundary between two states. In such a case,
if a state were to maintain the strict letter of its rights, navigation
would be almost impossibte, as each state is proprietor down to the
middle line of the bed of the river, the medium filum aquae or thalweg.
NAVIUS— NAVY AND NAVIES
299
Bv the treaty of Vienna in 1815 it was provided that dw navigation
01 all riven leparating or traverring the itatea that were partiea
thereto ahould be open for commercial purpoaea to the veaaeb of all
aatioD9k wbject to a uniform syatem of police and tolla. The treaty
of Paris. 1856, extended this principle to the Danube. In America
the caaca of the M isnanppi and the St Lawrence are important. By
the treaty of Venailles. 1783. it was provided that " the navigation of
the Miaeostppi shall for ever remam free and open to the aubjccta
of Great Bntain and the citizens of the United States." But the
Unitrd Sutes afterwards aoiuired Louisiana and Florida; and. the
stipulation as to British subjects not being renewed in the treaty of
Ghent. 1814, the United Sutes maintains that the right of navigat-
ing the Mississippi ia vested exclusively in its dtiaens. As to the St
Lawmice. after disputes for a kmc oenod between Great Britain and
the United States, the right 01 Iree navigation for purposes of
commero: was secured to the United States by the treaty of washing-
ton. 1 87 1. There are some waters, such as the Sues Canal and the
Panama Canal, which are subject to peculiar cnrageroents by treaty
or convention. The former depends on the Convention of Con-
Aantinople, 3Qth of October 1888, the latter—as far as regards the
United Kingdom and the United States— on the Hay-Pauncefote
Treaty, x8th of November 1901. But as a rule it may be said that in
time of peace the territorial waters of a state are open to foreigners
for commercial purposes, subject to observance of any rules as to
police, pilotage, ike., imposed by the state. Tolls may be imposed by
the state upon foreigners. This right is expressly recognised in most
commercial treaties. A notable instance was the claim of Denmark
to charge what were called the " Sound dues " from all vessels passing
Ebioore. though the Sound was not strictly her territorial water.
The right was not universally recognized, though it had prescription
io its favour and was invariably paid. In 1857 /the dues were
abolished, and a>mpensation paid to Denmark for the loss of her
alleged right. (J. W.)
lAVIUS, ATTUS, in Roman legendary history, a famous
ivgat during the reign of Tarquinius Priscus. When the latter
desired to double the number of the equestrian centuries, Navius
opposed him, declaring that it must not be done unless the
omens were propitious, and, as a proof of his powers of divination,
cut through A whetstone with a razor. Navius's statue with
veiled head was afterwards shown in the comitiura; the whet-
stone and razor were buried in tlie same place, and a puteal
placed over them. Hard by was a sacred fig-tree, called after
him the Navian fig-tree. It was reported that Navius was subse-
qaeslly put to death by Tarquinius. According to Schwegler,
the put^ originaUy indicated that the place had been struck
by Ugfatning, and the story is a reminiscence of the early struggle
between the state and ecdesiasticism.
See Livy L 36; Dion. Halic. iii. 70; Aurclius Victor, De viru
iBmOribus, 6; Schwegler, Romische CtukichU, bk. xv. 16.
■AWT, a labourer employed in the digging and excavatmg
of earth, &c, in the construction of railways, docks, canals or
otiur engineering operations. The word is a shortened form of
" navigator," applied during the 18th and early part of the 19th
centuries to a labourer at work on canals, to which the name
" navigation " is often applied. Power-machines (excavators)
for performing such work are consequently known as " steam-
nawies."
lAVY and NAVIES. The navy of a country was in its
original meaning the total body of its shipping, whether used
for war, for oversea and coasting traffic, or for fishing — the
total in fact of its ships (Lat. naves). By custom, however, the
irord has come to be used only of that part of the whole which
B set aside for purposes of war and police. Every navy consists
of a materia] part (see Ship), i.e. the vessels, with their means
of propulsion and their armament, and of a human organization,
narady the crews of all ranks, by which the vesseb are handled.
Ships and men are combined in divisions, and are ruled by an
organ of the government to which they belong (see Aomiralty
AoodasTXAnoN)
PCRSONTfEL
The personnel of the liritish navy is composed of two difierent
bodies of men, the seamen and the marines, each of which has its
appropriate officers. The marines are the subject of a separate
article.
The officers of the navy are classed as follows in the order of their
rank: flag-officers (see Admiral), commodores, captains, staff
captains, commanders, staff commanders, lieutenants, navigating
Keutenants, sub-lieutenants, chief gunners, chief boatswains, chief
cafpentera, gunners, boatswains, carpenters, midshipmen, naval
cadets.
FUg-of&cers are divided into three ranks, viz. rear-admiral, vice-
admiral, admiral. There is also the rank of " admiral of the fleet " :
such an officer, if in command, would carry the union flag at the main.
All flag-officers, commanders-in-chief, are considered as responsible
for the conduct of the fleet or squadron under their command. They
are bound to keep them in perfect condition for service; to exercise
them frequently m forming orders of sailing and lines of battle, and
in performing all such evolutions as may occur in the presence of an
enemy; to direct the commanders of squadrons and divisions to
inspect the sute of each ship under their command ; to see that the
esubltshed rules for good order, discipline and cleanliness are ob-
served; and occasionally to inquire into these and other matters
themselves. They are required to correspond with the secreury of
the admiralty, and report to him all their proceedings.
Every flag-officer serving in a fleet, but not commanding it, is
required to superintend all the ships of the squadron or division
placed under his order»-^to see that their crews are properly
disciplined, that all orders are punctually attended to. that the
stores, provisions and water are kept as complete as circumstances
will admit, that the seamen and marines are frequently exercised,
and that every precaution is Uken for preserving the health of their
crewsL When at sea. he is to Uke care that every ship in his division
preserves her station in whatever line or order of sailing the fleet
may be formed; and in battle he b to observe attentively the
conduct of every ship near him, whether of the squadron or division
under his immediate command or not; and at the end c^ the battle
he is to report it to the commander-in-chief, in order that commenda-
tion or censure may be passed, as the case may appear to merit ; and
he is empowered to send an officer to supersede any captain who may
misbehave in battle, or whose ship is evidently avoiding the en-
ea^ment. If anv flag-officer be killed in battle his flag is to be kept
viy\n%, and signals to be repeated, in the same manner as if he were
still alive, until the battle shall be ended; but the death of a flag-
officer, or his being rendered incapable of attending to his duty, is to
be conveyed as exneditiously as possible to the commander-in-chief.
The captain of the fleet is a temporary rank, where a commander-
in-chief has ten or more ships of the line under his command ; it may
be compared with that of adjutant-general in the army. He may
either be a flag-officer or one of the senior captains; in the former
case, he takes his rank with the flag-officers of the fleet ; in the latter,
he ranks next to the junior rear-admiral, and is entitled to the pay
and allowance of a rear-admiral. All orders of the commander-in-
chief are issued through him, all returns of the fleet are made through
him to the commanocr-in-chief, and he keeps a journal of the pro-
ceedings of the fleet, which he transmits to the admiralty. He is
appointed and can be removed from this situation only by the lords
commissioners of the admiralty.
A commodore is a temporary rank, and of two kinds-^he one
having a capuin under him in the same ship, and the other without a
captain. The former has the rank, pay and allowances of a rear-
admiral, the latter the pay and allowances of a captain and special
allowance as the lords of the admiralty may direct. They both carry
distinguishing pennants.
When a captain is appointed to command a ship of war he com-
missions the ship by hoisting his pennant ; and if^ fresh out of the
dock, and from the hands ol the dockyard officers, he proceeds im-
mediately to prepare her for sea, by demanding her stores, provisions,
guns and ammunition from the respective departments, according
to her establishment. He enters such petty officers, leading seamen,
able seamen, ordinary seamen, artificers, stokers, firemen and boys
as may be sent to him from the flag or receiving ship. If he be
appointed to succeed the captain of a ship already in commission, he
passes a receipt to the said captain for the ship's books, papers and
stores, and becomes responsible for the whole ot the remaining stores
and provisions.
The duty of the captain of a ship, with regard tothe several book?
and accounts, pay-books, entry, musters, discharges, &c., is regulated
by various acts 01 parliament ; but the state of the internal discipline,
the order, rcgulanty, cleanliness and the health of the crews will
depend mainly on himself and his officers. In all these respects the
Krneral printed orders for his guidance contained in the King's
egulations and Admiralty Instructions are particularly precise and
minute. And. for the information of the ship's company, he is
directed to cause the articles of war, and abstracts 01 all acts of
parliament for the encouragement of seamen, and all such orders and
regulations for discipline as may be established, to be hung up in
some publkpart of the ship, to which the men may at all times have
access. He u also to direct that they be read to the ship's company,
all the officers being presrtit, once at least in ev«y month. He is
desired to be particutarly careful that the chaplain have shown to
him the attention and respect due to his sacred office by all the
officers and men, and that divine service be performed every Sunday.
He is not authorized to inflict summary punishment on any com-
missioned or warrant-officer, but he may place them under arrest,
and suspend any officer who shall misbehave, until an opportunity
shall offer of trying such officer by a court-martiaL He is enjoined
to be very careful not to suffer the inferior officers or men to be
treated with cruelty and oppres«on by their superiors. He is the
authority who can order punishment to be inflicted, which he is
never to do without sufficient cause nor ever with greater severity
than the offence may really deserve, nor until twenty-four hours after
300
NAVY AND NAVIES
[ ANCIENT
the crime has been committed, which mint be tpeciSed in the warrant
ordering the punishment. He may delegate this authority to a
limited extent to certain oflken. All the officers and the whole
ship's company are to be present at every punishment, which must
be inserted in the log-boolc, and an abstract sent to toe admiralty
eveiy quarter.
The commander has the chief command in small vessels. In larger
vessels he is chief of the staff to the captain and assiau him in main-
taining discipline, and in sailing and fighting the ship.
The lieutenants take the watch by turns, and are at such times
entrusted, in the absence of the captain, with the command of the
sUp. The one on duty is to inform the captain of all important
occurrences which take place during Ms watch. He is to see that the
whole of the duties of the ship are carried on with the same punctu-
ality as if the captain himself were present. In the absence of the
captain, the commander or senior executive officer is responsible for
evMvthing done bn board.
Tne navigating officer receives his orders from the captain or the
senior executive officer. He b entrusted, under the command ci the
captain, with the charge of navigating the ship, brinring her to
anchor, ascertaining the latitude and longitude of her place at sea,
surveying harbours, and making such nautical remarks and observa-
tions as may be useful to navigation in general.
The warrant-officers of the navy may be compared with the non-
commissioned officers of the army. Tney take rank as follows, viz.
gunner, boatswain, carpenter; and, compared with other officers,
they take rank after sub-lieutenants and before midshipmen.
The midshipmen are the principal subordinate officers, but have no
specific duties assigned to them. In the smaller vessels some of the
seitior ones are entrusted with the watch; they attend parties of
men sent on shore, pass the word of command on board, and see that
the orders of their superiors are carried into effect ; in short, they are
exercised in all the duties of their profession, so as, after five years*
service as cadets and midshipmen, to qualify them to become
lieutenants, and are then rated sub-lieutenants provided they have
passed the requisite examination.
The duties and relative positions of these officers remain practi-
cally unaffected by recent changes; but a profound modification was
made in the constitution of the corps of officers at the close of 1903.
Up to the end of that year, officers who belonged to the " executive "
branch, i^. from midshipmen to admiral, to the marines and the
engineen. had entered at different ages, had been trained in separate
schools, and had formed three co-operating but independent lines.
For reasons set forth in a memorandum by Lord Selborne (December
16, 1903)— from the desire to give a more scientific character
to naval education, and to achieve complete unity among all claaees
of officers — it was decided to replace the triple by a single system of
entry, and to coalesce all classes of officers, apart from the purely
civil lines— suigeons and paymasters (formerly " pursers ") — into
one. Lads were in future to be entered toother, and at one training
establishment at Osborne in the Isle of \A^ht, on the distinct under-
standing that it was to be at the discretion of the admiralty to assign
them to executive, marine or engineer duties at a later penod. After
two years' training at Osborne, and at the Naval College at Dart-
mouth, all alike were to go through the rank <A midshipman and to
pass the same examination for lieutenant. When in the mtermediatc
pomtion of sub-licutcnant, they were to be assigned to their respec-
tive branches as executive officer, marine or ei^neer. The engincera
under this new system were to cease to be a civil branch, as they had
been before, and become known as lieutenant, commander, captain
or rear-admiral E. (Engineer).
The crew of a ship of war consists of leading seamen, able seamen,
ordinary seamen, engine-room artificcra, other artificers, leading
stokers, stokcre, coal-trimmen, boys and marines. The artificera
and stokera and the marines are always entered voluntarily, the
latter in the same manner as soldiers, by enlisting into the corps, the
former at some rendezvous or on board particular ships. The supply
of boys for the navy, from whom the seamen class of men and petty
officen is recruited, is also obtained by voluntary entry.
Merchant seamen are admitted into the royal naval reserve, receive
an annual payment by way of retainer, perform drill on board His
Majesty's ships, and are engaged to serve in the navy in case of war
or emergency.
There are two schemes for forming reserves. The Royal Naval
Reserve scheme draws men from the mercantile marine and fishing
population of the United Kingdom. The Royal Fleet Reserve
scheme, introduced in 1901, while it gave a better system of training
to the pensionera, was mainly designed to obtain the services in war
of the men who had quittea the navy after the expiration of their
twelve yean' service.
So far as other countries are concerned, the staff of officen does not
differ materially from one navy to another. In all it consists of
admirals, captains, lieutenants, midshipmen and cadets receiving
their training in special schools. With the exception of the navy of
the United States, all the important naval forces of the world are
raised by conscription.
The strength and general condition of navies at any given time
must be learnt from the official publications of the various powers,
and from privatelycomposed books founded on them. The yeariy
•utemenu of the Firet Lord of the Admiralty in Great Britain, the
Reports of the Secretary of the Navy in the United States, and the
Reporu of the Budget Committees of the French-Chamber conuin
masses of information. The Naval Annual, founded by Lord Brasaey
in 1886, M the model of publications which appear in nearly every
country which posses s es a navy. Mr F. T. Jane's All Ike WoMt
F^kHug Ski^ is a survey of the malMd of navies since 189B.
History or Navies
Every navy was at its beginning formed of the fighting men
of the tribe, or dty, serving in the ship or large boat, which was
used indifferently for fishing, trade, war or piracy. Ilie develop-
ment of the warship as a special type, and the formation of
organized bodies <^ men set aside for military service on the lea
came later. We can follow the process from its starting-point
in the case of the naval powers of the dark and middle ages,
the Norsemen, the Venetians, the French, the English fleet and
others. But centuries, and indeed millenniums, before the
modem world emeiged from darkness the nations of antiquity
who lived on the shores of the Mediterranean had formed
navies and had seen them oUminate and decline. The adven-
tures of the Argonauts and of Ulysses give a legendary and
poetic picture of an *' age of the Vikinga " which was coming
to an end two thousand years before the Norsemen first vexed
the west of Europe. At a period anterior to written hj^<»y
necessity had dictated the formation of vessels adapted to the
purposes of the warrior. Long ships built for speed (/lai^al 1^,
naves longae) as distinguished from round ships for burden
{arpcyyO^Ai f^cs, naves onerariae) are of extreme antiqtiity
(see Ship). Greek tradition credited the Corinthians with the
invention, but it is probable that the Hellenic peeves, in this
as in other respects, had a Phoenician model before them. So
little is known of the other early navies, whether Hellenic or
non-Hellenic, that we must be content to take the Athenian
as our example of them all, with a constant recognition of the
fact that it was certainly the most highly developed, and that
we cannot safely aigue from it to the rest.
The Athenian navy began with the provision of warships
by the state, because private dtixens could not supply them
in sufficient numbers. The approach of the Persian .
attack in 483 B.c. drove Athens to raise its establish* ^"•■"^
ment from 50 to xoo long ships, which were paid for out of
the profits of the mines of Moroneia (see Theiustocles). The
Persian danger compelled the Greeks to form a league for their
common naval defence. The League had its first headquartcfs
at Delos, where iu treasury was guarded and administered by
the''E^Xlrrar(VlIat (Hellenotamiai), or trustees of the Hellenk
fund. Her superiority in maritime strength gave Athens a
predominance over the other members of the League like that
which Holland enjoyed for the same reason in the Seven United
Provinces. The Htdlenotamiai were chosen from among her
citizens, and Pericles transferred the fund to Athens, whidi
became the mistress of the League. The allies sank in fact to
subjects, and their contributions, aided by the produce of the
mines, went to the support of the Athenian navy. The hundred
long ships of the Persian War grew to three hundred by the end
of the 5th century B.C. (see Peloponnesian Wajk), and at a
later period (when, however, the quality of ships and men alike
had sunk) to three hundred and sixty. The aindent world did
not attain to the formation of a dvil service — at least until the
time of the Roman Empire — ^and Athens had no admiralty
or navy office. In peace the war-vessels were kept on slips under
cover in sheds. In war a straUgos was appointed to the general
command, and he chose the trierarchs, whose duty it was to
commission them partly at their own expense, under supervisioin
of the state exercised by special inspectors (^ToaroXfcs). The
hulls, oars, rigging and pay of the crews were provided by the
state, but it is certain that heavy charges fell upon the trierarchs,
who had to fit the ships for sea and return th«n in good condi-
tion. The burden became so heavy that the trierarchies were
divided, first between two citizens in the Peloponncuan War,
and then among groups (syntdeiat) consisting of from five to
sixteen persons Individual Athenians who were wealthy and
patriotic or ambitious might fit out ships or spend freely qq
fiRITISH)
NAVY AND NAVIES
301
thdr command. But these voluntary gifts were insuffident
to maiotain a great navy. The necessity which oompellcd
modern nations to form permanent sUte navies, instead of
rdying on a levy of ships from the porU, and such vessels as
EogUsh nobles and gentlemen sent to fight the Armada, prevailed
in Athens also. The organization of the crews bore a dose
resemblance in the general lines to that of the English navy as
it vu till the z6th and even the 17th century. The trierarch,
other the dtiaen named to discharge the duty, or some one whom
be paid to replace him, answered to the captain. There was
t sailing master (n^^^rl^), a body of petty officers, mariners
lad oarsmen (dmnM^fa), with the soldiers or marines {hnfikrai).
As the andent warship was a galley, the number of rowers
leqtiired was iomiense. A hundred triremes would require
tircnty thousand men in all, or more than the total number of
dews of the twenty-seven British line of battleships which
foiight at Trafalgar. And yet this would not have been a great
fleet, as compared with the Roman and Carthaginian forces,
vbidi contenided with hundreds of vessels and multitudes of
iDcn, numbering one hundred and fifty thousand or so, on each
ii6t, in the first Punic War.
Until the use of broadside artillery and the sail became
universal at the einl of the 16th century, all lutvies were fordbly
organized on much the same lines as the Athenian, even in the
western seas. In the Mediterranean the differences were in
Dames and in details. The war fleets of the successors of
Alexander, of Carthage, of Rome, of Byzantium, of the Italian
lepubtics, of the Arabs and of Aragon, were galleys rdying on
thdr power to ram or board. Therefore they present the same
elementt— a chief who is a general, captains who were soldiers,
or knights, sailing masters and deck hands who navigate and
tend the few sails used, marines aiKl rowers. A few words may,
however, be said of Rome, which transmitted the tradition of
the andent world to ConsUntinople, and of the Constantino-
politan or Byzantine navy, which in turn transmitted the tradi-
tion to the Italian dties, and had one peculiar point of interest.
As a trading dty Rome was eariy concerned in the struggle
lor predominance in the western Mediterranean between the
_^ Etruscans, the Greek colonies and the Carthaginians.
Its care of its naval interests was shown by the appoint-
ment of navy commissioners as eariy as 311 B.C. {DuavinnavaUs).
la the first Punic War it had to raise great fleets from its own
resources, or from the dependent Greek colonies of southern Italy.
After the fall of Carthage it had no opponent who was able to force
it to the same efforts. The prevalence of piracy in the ist century
B.C again compdled it to attend to its navy (see Pompey). The
obfigttiaii to keep the peace on sea as weU as on land required
the em p e ro r s to maintain a navy for police purposes. The
oiguuzation was very complete. Two itudn fleets, called the
Praetorian, guarded the coasts of Italy at Ravenna and Misenum
(daaes Fraetariae), other squadrons were stationed at Forum
Jttlti (Fr^jus), Sdeuda at the mouth of the Orontes (Nahr-d-Asy),
tailed the classis Syriaea^ at Alezandria (ckusis Auiusta AUx-
aidriM)t St Carpathos (Scaxpanto, between Crete apd Rhodes),
Aquilda (the dassis Venetum at the head of the Adriatic),
the Black Sea {dassis Pontica)^ and Britain {dassis Britannica).
River flotillas were maintained on the Rhine {dassis GerManica),
on the Danube {dassis Pannomca and htaesica) and in later days
at lost on the Euphrates. All these squadrons did not exist
St the same time. The statlbn at Forum Julii was given up
soon alter the reign of Augustus, and the dassis Venetum was
formed later. But an organized navy always existed. A body
of soldiers, the dassieif was assigned for its service. The
commander was the Fraefedus Classis.
When Constantine founded his New Rome on the site of
Byzantinm, the navy of the Eastern Empire may be said to have
m-^^^g^. begtin. Its history is obscure and it suffered several
^'■" ec^pses. While the Vandal kingdom of Carthage
lasted (428-534), the eastern emperors were compdled to
attend to their fleet. After its fall their navy fell into neglect
tin the rise of the Mahommedan power at the end of the 7th
century again compelled them to guard their coasts. The
eastern caliphs had fleeU for purposes of conquest, and so had
the emirs and caliphs of Cordova. The Byzantine navy reached
iu highest point under the able sovereigns of the Macedonian
dynasty (867-1056). It was divided into the imperial fleet,
commanded by the Great Drungarios, the first recorded lord high
admiral, and the provincial or thematic squadrons, under their
slrategri. Of these there were three, the Cibyrhaeotic (Cyprus
aiul Rhodes), the Samian and the Aegean. The thematic
squadroits were maintaiited permanently for police purposes.
The imperial fleet, which was more powerful when in commission
than all three, was kept for war. A peculiar feature of the
Bjrzantine navy was the presence in it of a corps answering to the
seaman gunners and gunnery officers of modem navies. These
were the sipkonaribi, who worked the siphons {9t4Qins) used for
discharging the " Greek fire." When the Turkish invasions
disorganized the Eastern Empire in the isth century, the
Byzantine ruivy withered, and the emperors were driven to rely
on the hdp of the Venetians.
The Italian republics of the middle ages, and the monarchical
states bordering on the Mediterranean, always possessed fleets
which did not differ in essential particulars from that
of Athens. There is, however, one fact which must not
be overlooked. It is that the seamen of some of them, and
mpre eq>edally of Genoa, served the powers of western Europe
from a very eariy date. Diego Gelmirez, the first archbishop of
Santiago in Gallida, employed Genoese to construct a dockyard
and build a squadron at Vigo in the isth century.
Edward IIL of En^and employed Genoese, and others were
engaged to create a dockyard for the French kings at Rouen.
By them the naval science of the Mediterranean was carried
to the nations on the shores of the Atlantic. The Mediterranean
navies noade their last great appearance in history at the battle
of Lepanto (r57i). Thmceforth the main scene of luval activity
was on the ocean, with very different ships, other armaments
and organizations.
The great navies of modem history may best be discussed by
taking first certain specially imporunt national navies in thdf
earlier evolution, and then, considering those which are of present
day interest in thdr relations to one another.
The British Navy.
The Royal Navy of Great Britain stands at the head of the
ruivies of the modem world, not only by virtue of its strength,
but because it has the bngest and the most consistent historical
devdopment. The Norse invasions of the gth century forced the
English people to provide for thdr defence against stuck from
oversea. Though thdr efforts were but partially successful,
and great Norse settlements were made on the eastern side of
the island, a national organization was formed. Every shire was
called upon to supply ships " in proportion to the number of
hundreds and from the produce ot what had been the folkland
contained in it " (Stubbs, Const. Hist. L 116). Alfred and his
successors had also ships oi thdr own, maintained out of the
royal revenue of which jthey had complete control. Before the
Conquest the system of contribution by the shires had largely
broken down. Yet In its main lines the method of providing a
navy adopted by Alfred and his immediate successors remained
in existence. There were the people's ships which represented the
naval side of the fyrd-^.e. the general obligation to defend the
realm; and there were the king's own vessels which were his
property. By the nth century a third source of sui^ly had '
beenfoimd. This was the feudal array. Towns on the sea coast
were endowed with privileges and franchises, and rendered
definite services in return.
The Norman Conquest introduced no fundamental difference.
In the lath century the kings of the Angevine dynasty made the
military resources <rf thdr kingdom available In three ways;
the feudal array, the ruttional militia and the mercenaries.
Dover, Sandwich, Romney, and the other towns on the south-
east coast which formed the Cinque Ports represented the naval
part of the feudal array. In the reign of Henry III. (i 316- 1 373)
their service was fixed at 57 ships, with 1197 men and boys, for
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NAVY AND NAVIES
[BRITISH
fifteen days in any year, to count from the time when they weighed
anchor. During these fifteen days they served at the expense
of the towns. Beyond that date they were maintained by .the
king. The Cinque Ports Squadron has been spoken of as the
foundation of the Royal Navy. But a feudal array is wholly
alien in character to a national force. The Cinque Ports, after
playing a prominent part iix the xjth century, sank into in-
significance. They were always inclined to piracy at the expense
of other English towns. In 1 297, during one of the expeditions to
Flataders, they attacked and burnt twenty ships belonging to
Yarmouth under the eyes of Edward I. (x27»-i307). The
national militia had a longer life. The obligation of the coast
towns and counties to provide ships and men for the defence
of the realm was enforced till the X7th century. Nor did the
method of enforcing that obligation differ materially. In the
reign of King John (zi09-z3x6), when the records began to be
regularly kept, but when there was no radical change in system,
the reeves and bailiffs of the seaports were bound to ascertain
by a jury the number, size and quality of all ships belonging to
the port. When the ships were required for the king's service
they were embargoed. The local authorities were then bound
to ace that they were properly equipped and manned. It was
the duty of the reeves and bailiffs to arrange that they shoulcf
reach the place named by the king as rendezvous at the time
fixed by him. These embargoes inflicted heavy loss even when
they were honestly imposed, and loud complaints were heard
in Parliament from the later years of Edward III. (1327-1377)
that they afforded the king's officers many openings for oppression
and corruption.
The true ancestors of the modem navy must be sought in
the third element of the navy of the middle ages— the king's
ships and his " mercenaries." Under King John we find the
full record of a regular organization of a Royal Navy as apart
from the feudal array of the Cinque Ports or the fyrd. In 1205
he had in all 50 " galleys "—long ships for war— distributed in
various ports. William of Wrotharo, archdeacon of Taunton,
one of the king's " clerks," or ecclesiastical persons who formed
his civil service, is named, sometimes in combination with
others, as " keeper of the king's ships," " keeper of the king's
galleys " and " keeper of the king's seaports." The royal
vessels cannot have differed from the 57 warships of the Cinque
Ports, and at first his navy was preferable to the feudal array,
or the levy from the counties, mainly because it was more fully
under his own control. They were indeed so wholly his that
he could hire them out to the counties, and at a much later
period the ships of Henry V. (1413-1423) were sold to pay his
personal debts after his death. Yet though the process by which
the king's ships became the national navy was slow, the affilia-
tion is direct from them to the fleet of to-day, while the permanent
officials at Whitehall are no less the direct descendants of
William of Wrptham and the king's clerks of the 13th century.
When on active service the command was exercised by repre-
sentatives of the king, who were not required to be bred to the
sea or even always to be laymen. In the crusade of X190 the
fleet of Richard the Lion Hearted (z 189-1 199), drawn partly
from England and partly from his continental possessions, was
governed by a body of which two of the members were chureh-
men. They and their lay colleagues were described as the
ductores ei guhematores totius navigii Regis. The first commanders
of squadrons were known as justkiarii naoigii RegUt ductores el
constabularii Regis.
The crusade of 1x90 doubtless made Englishmen acquainted
with the title of " admiral '*-, but it was not till much later
that the word became, first as " admiral and captain," then as
" admiral " alone, the title of an officer commanding a squadron.
The first admiral of all England was Sir John Beauchamp,
appointed for a year in X360. The permanent appointment
of a lord admiral dates from X406, when John Beaufort, natural
son of John of Gaunt, and marquess of Somerset and Dorset,
was named to the post. The crews consisted of the two elements
which, in varying proportions and under different names, have
been and are common to all navies— the mariners whose business
it was to navigate the ship, and the soldiers who were put m
to fight. Until the vessel had been developed and the epoch of
ocean voyages b^an, the first were few and subordinate. As
the seas of Britain were ill adapted for the use of the galley
in the proper sense, though the French employed them, English
ships relied mainly on the sail. They used the oar indeed but
never as a main resource, and bad therefore no use for the
" turma " (ciurma in Italian, chiourme in French, and ckusma
in Spanish) of rowers formed in the Mediterranean craft. Creirs
were obtained partly by free enlistment, but also to a great
extent, by the press (see Impressment). The code of xuival
discipline was the laws of Oleron (sec Sea Laws), which embodied
the general " custom of the sea." By the reign of Edward III.
(X327-X377) the duties and jurisdiction of the admiral w-ere
fixed. He controlled the returns of the ships made by the
reeves, selected them for service, and chose his officers, who
had their commission from him. A rudimentary code of signals
by lights or flags was in use.
The history of the middle ages bears testimony to the general
efficiency and energy of the navy. Under weak kings, and at
certain periods, for instance in the latter years of Edward 111.
and the reign of his grandson Richard II. (1377-1399), it fell
into decay, and the coast was ravaged by the French and their
allies the Basque seamen, who maimed the navy of Castile.
Henry IV. (i399-i4X3)» though an astute and vigorous ruler,
was driven to make a contract with the merchants, mariners
and shipowners, to take over the duty of guarding the coast
in X406-X407. Their admirals Richard Clitherow and Nicholas
Blackbume were appointed, and ezerdsed their commands.
But the experiment was not a success, and was not renewed.
Apart from these periods of ech'pae, the navy in all its elements,
feudal, national and royal, was more than a match for its enemies.
The destruction of the fleet prepared by Philip Augustus, the
French king, for the invasion of England in 12x3 at Damme,
the defeat of Eustace the Monk in 12x7 off Dover, the victory
over the French fleet at Sluys in X340, and the defeat of the
Spaniards off Winchelsea in 1350, were triumphs never quite
counterbalanced by any equivalent overthrow. Still better
proofs of the ability of any navy to discharge its duties
were the long retention of Calais, and the constant success
of the rulers of England in their invasions of France. The
chum to the sovereignty of the seas has been attributed on
insufficient evidence to King John, but it was enforced by
Edward III.
Under the sovereigns of the Tiidor dynasty (14S5-X603) the
development of the navy was steady. Though Henry VII.
(1485-X509) made little use of his fleet in war, he built ships.
His son Henry VIII. (1509-1547) took a keen interest in hb
navy. Shipbuilding was improved by the importation of Italian
workmen. The large resources he obtained by the plunder of
the Chureh enabled Henry VIII. to spend on a scale which had
been impossible for his predecessors, and was to be impossible
for his successors without the aid of grants from Parliament.
But the most vital ser\dce which he rendered to the navy was the
fbrmation of, or rather the organization of existing officials
into, the navy office. This measure was taken at the very cikI
of his reign, when the board was constituted by letters patent
dated 24th of April 1546. It consisted of a Ueutenant of the
admiralty, a treasurer, a comptroller, a surveyor, a derk of the
ships, and two officials without special title. A master of the
ordnance for the ships was also appointed. Henry's board,
commonly known as the navy board, continued, with soxse
periods of suspension, and with the addition of different de>
partments— the victualling board, the transport board, the
pay office, &c., added at various times — to be the administrative
machinery of the navy till X832. They were all theoretically
subject to the authority of the lord high admiral, or the com-
missioners for discharging his office, who had the military and
political control of the navy and issued all commissions to its
officers. In practice the boards were very independent. Tlie
double government of the navy, though it lasted long, vas
undovbtedly the cause of much waste— partly by the creatioa
BRITISH]
NAVY AND NAVIES
303
of superfluous officials, but more by the opening it provided
for corruptioQ.
The i6th century in England as elsewhere saV a great develop-
ment in the size and capacity of ships, in the length of voyages,
and consequently in the sciences of navigation and seanuuiship,
which brought with them the predominance of the seaman
element hitherto subordinate. In the reign of Henry VIII.,
when a squadron was commissioned in 151 a, out of a total of
3000 men, 1750 were soldiers. By the end of the reign of his
daughter Elizabeth (155S-1603) it was calculated that of the
8346 men required to man bo* fleet 5534 were seamen, 604
vcre gunners, and only aoo8 were ioldiers. In the early years
of his reign Henry VUI. equipped his squadrons on a ^stem
viucfa beats some resemblance to the Athenian trierarchies.
He made a contract with his admiral Sir Edward Howard (i477~
1513)1 by which the king supi^ed ships, guns and a sum of
money. The admiral, who had full power to " press," named the
officers and collected the crews. Among them are named
contingents from particular towns— the representatives of the
fyri. With the exception of the captain, who received eighteen
pence a day, all were paid at the same rate, 5s. wages and 5s. for
rations per month. Extra sums called " dead shares," the
wages of so many imaginary men, and rewards, were provided
for the nsaster and warrant officers. Until the regular returns
known as the *' weekly progress of the dockyards" and the
*' monthly lists of ships in sea pay " were established in 1773,
DO constant strict account of the strength of the lutvy was kept.
The figure must therefore be accepted as subject to correction,
bat Kuig Henry's navy is estimated to have consisted of 53
vessds of 11,268 tons, carrying 237 brass guns and 1848 of iron.
It sank somewhat during the agitated reigns of his successors
Edward VL (2547-1553) and Mary (1553-1558). By Elizabeth
it was weil restored. In mere numbers her navy never equalled
ber father's. At the end of her reign it was composed of 43
vessels, but they were of 17,055 tons, and therefore on the average
much larger. The military services rendered by the great
ctaeen's fleet were brilliant. No organic change was introduced,
and fleets continued to be made uo ^ including vessels belonging
to the difTerent ports.
The two most notable advances in organisation were the
estaUtshmcnt of a graduated scale of pay by rank in 158a, and
the formation of a fimd for the relief of sick and wounded
seamen. Thb was not a grant from the state but a species of
compulsory insurance. All men employed by the navy, including
sMpwn^ts, were subject to a smaU deduction from their pay.
The amount was kept in the chest at Chatham, from which the
fund took iu name, and was managed by a committee of five,
ieacfa of whom bad a key, and of whom four were elected by the
contributors. The commissioner of the dockyard presided.
It was between the accession and the fall of the House of
Stoart (1603-1688) that the navy became a truly national force,
mamtahied out of the revenue voted by parliament, and acting
without the co-operation of temporary levies of trading ships.
The rdgn of James I. (1603-1625) is a period of great importance
in Its history. The policy of the king was peaceful, and he only
once sent out a strong fleet — ^in 1620 when an expedition was
despatched against the Barbary pirates. He took, however,
a Ihrdy interest in shipbuilding, and supported his master ship-
wright Phineas Pett (1507-1647) against the rivals whom he
offended by disregarding their rules of thumb. Under the lax
zdministration of the brd high admiral Nottingham, better
known as Lord Howard of Efiingfaam, many abuses crept into
the navy. Tbou^ more money was spent on it than in the
rnga of the queen, it had sunk to a very low level of effective
strength in 1618. In 16x9 the old lord admiral was persuaded
to retire, and was succeeded by George Villiers, duke of Bucking-
bam, the king's favourite. Nottingham's retirement was made
compulsory by the report of a committee appointed to inquire
iato the condition of the navy in 161 8. They reported that
vbUe numbers of new offices had been created at a cost treble
tbe whole expense of the permanent staff of Queen Elizabeth's
time, the dockyards had bcirome nests of pilfering and corruption.
Ships were rotting, and money was yearly drawn for vessels
which had ceased to exist. The committee undertook to meet
the whole ordinary and extraordinary charges of the navy
(upkeep and new building) for £30,000 a year. The ahips in
commission at that time during peace were confined to the
diminutive winter and summer guards, whose duty was to
transport ambassadors to and fro across the Channel and to
hunt the pirates who still swarmed on the coast. Buckingham
left the adnunistration of the navy in the hands of the com-
missioners, who by dismissing superfluous officers and paying
better salaries had by 1624 fulfilled their promise to restore
tbe fleet. The esUblishment they proposed was only of 30 ships,
but they were larger in aggregate tonnage by 3050 tons than
(^een Elizabeth's.
Charles I. (1625-1649) carried on the work of his father as far
as his limited resources allowed. The pay of the sailors, fixed
in 1585 at 106., was increased to Z5S. A captain received from
£4, 68. 8d. a month of 28 days (the standard of the navy) to £14,
according to the size of his ship. Lieutenants, who were only
carried in the larger ships, received from £2, 16s. to £3, zos., the
sailing-master from £2, 6s. 8d. to £4, Z3S. 9d., and the warrant
officers from £r, 3s. to £2, 4s. The rating of ahips by the number
of men carried was introduced in this reign. Vessels of good
quah'ty were built for the king, and he showed a real understand-
ing of the necessity for maintaining a strong fleet.
But the time was coming when the hereditary royal revenue
was no longer adequate to meet the expense of a navy. By the
middle of the 17th century a costly warship, far larger than the
trading-ship in size and much more strongly built, had been
developed.. The extension of British commerce called for
protection which an establishment of 40 to 50 vessels could not
give. When the Great Rebellion broke out in 1641 the navy
of King Charles consisted of only 43 vessels of 22,4x1 tons. At
the Restoration (z66o) it had grown to 154 ships for sea service,
of 57,463 tons. Such a force could only be maintained out of
taxes granted by the parliament. The efforts of King Charles
to obtain funds for his navy had a large influence in provoking
the rebeUion (see Ship Money). The government of the navy
during this reign remained in the hands of the committee of
i6z8, under the lord high admiral Buckingham, till he was
murdered in 1628. It was then entrusted to a spedal commission,
who were to have held it till the king's second son James, duke
of York, was of age. In 1638 the kiiig restored the office of lord
high admiral " during pleasure " in favour of Algernon Percy,
roth earl of Northumberland, by whom the fleet was banded
over to the parliament.
During the Great Rebellion and the Protectorate the navy
was governed by parliamentary conunittees, or by a committee
named by the Council of State, or by Cromwell. The need,
first for cutting the king off from foreign support, and then for
conducting successive struggles in Ireland, or with the king's
partisans on the sea, with the Dutch and with the Spaniards
during the Protectorate, led to a great increase in its size. These,
too, were years of much internal development. Blake and the
other parliamentary officers found that the pressed or hired
merchant ships were untrustworthy in action. The ships were
not strong enough, and the officers had no military spirit.
Parliainent therefore provided its own vessels and its own
officers. The staff was strengthened by the appointment of
second lieutenants. The Dutch AVar of 1653753 may be said
to have seen the hist of the national militia, /yrj or levy of ships
from the ports for warlike purposes. After the war a code of
" fighting inst ructions " was issued. During it a code of discipline
in 39 articles was established. Both embodied ancient practices
rather than new principles, yet it marked a notable advance in
the progress of the navy towards complete organization that
it should pass from the state of being governed by traditional
use and wont, or by the will of the commander for the time
being, to the condition of being ruled by fixed and published
codes to which all were subject. The high military command
during the interregnum 1649-1660 was entrusted to committees
of admirals and generals at sea.
304
NAVY AND NAVIES
(BRITISH
With the Kstoration of Charles II. (1660-1685) the modern
period in the history of the navy began. The first steps were
taken to form a corps of officers. Lads of gentle birth were
sent on board ships in commission with a letter of service — from
which came their popular name of " king's letter boys " — ^to
the captain, instructing him to treat them on the footing of
gentlemen and train them to become officers. After the Dutch
War of 1664-67 a body of flag-officers were retained by fixed
aUowances from the crown. This was the beginning of the half-
pay list, which was extended by successive steps to include
select bodies of ^captains and lieutenants,' and then all com-
missioned officers. The process of forming the corps was not
complete till the end of the reign of Queen Anne (1702-1714).
Spedal training and a light to permanent payment are the
essentials of a sute service. The fleet was, at least in the earlier
part of the reign, used for the promotion of British interests and
the protection of trade In distant seas. One squadron was sent
to take possession of Bombay,, which formed part of the dower
of Queen Catherine. Tangier, which was acquired In the same
way, was occupied as a naval station till the cost of maintaining
it proved excessive and it was evaciutted in 1685. A series
of effective attacks was made on the Barbary pirates, and ships
were stationed in the West Indies to check piracy and buccaneer-
ing. Until 1673, when he was driven out of office by the Test
Act, the king's brother James, duke of York, afterwards James
II., held office as lord high admiral. He proved an able admini-
strator. The navy office was thoroughly organised on the lines
laid down by the earl of Northumberland, and revised " sailing
and fighting instructions," as well as a code of discipline, were
issued. During the latter years of the reign of Charles II. the
administrative corruption of the time affected the navy severely..
The fixed charge for ordinary and extraordinary expenses whidi'
had risen to £300,000 a year was mostly wasted,- under the lax
or dishonest supervision of the commission appointed by the
king after his brother left office. James II. (X685-Z688), who
kept the admiralship in his own hands and governed largely
through his able secretary, the diarist Samuel Pepys, did mucli
to restore its efficiency. The navy he left was estimated to
consist of X73 ships of 101,893 tons carrying when In commission
43,003 men and armed with 6930 guns.
The evolution of the navy was completed by the Revolution
of 1688. It now, though still called royal, became a purely
national force, supported by the yearly votes of parliament,
and governed by parliamentary committees, known as the com-
mission for discharging the office of lord high admiraL A lord
high admiral has occasionally been appointed, as in the case
of Prince George of Denmark, husband of Queen Anne, or the
duke of Clarence, afterwards King William IV. But these were
formal restorations. As no organic change was made till 1832,
it will now be enough to describe the organization as it was
during this century and a half.
The discipline of the navy was based on the Navy Discipline
Act of x66o (13th of Charles II.). The act was found to require
amending acts, and the whole of them were combined, and
revised by the aand of George II., passed in x 749. Some scandals
of the previous years had caused great popular anger, and the
alternative to death was taken from the punishment threatened
against officers who failed to show sufficient seal in the presence
of the enemy. It was under this severe code that Admiral Byng
was executed. In 1780 an amending act was pasted which
allowed a court martial to assign a lighter penalty.
The government, political and military, was in the hands of the
admiralty. The administration was carried on in subordination
to the admiralty by the navy board and the other civil depart-
ments, the victualling board, the board of transport, the pay
office, the sick and hurt office and some others. At the head
were the flag-officen, who were divided as follows: —
Admiral of the Fleet. | Vice-Admiral Red. I Reaf-Admiral Red.
i. M White. .. .. White. „ „ White.
,. .. Blue. 1 .. „ Blue. I ,, ., Blue.
The Red, White and Blue squadrons had been the divisions of the
great fleets of the X7th century, but they became formal terms
indicating only the seniority of the flag-officen. It was the
intention of parliament to confine the flag list to these nine
officen, but as the* navy grew this was found to be impossible.
The rank of admiral of the fleet remained a solitary distinction.
The captains, oommanden and lieutenants were the com-
missioned officen and received their oonunissions from the
admiralty. Promotion from them to flag rank was not at fiurst
limited by strict rules, but it tended to be by seniority. During
the war of the Austrian Succession, in X747, a regular system
was introduced by which when a captain was promoted for
active service— to hoist his fl^, as the phrase went — ^he was made
rear-admirsl of the Blue squadron. Captains senior to him
were promoted rear-4dmirsl in general terms, and were placed on
the retired list. They were familiarly called " yeUow " admirals,
and to be promoted In this way was to be " yellowed." Pro-
motion to a lieutenant's commission could be obtained by any one
who had served, or whose name had been on the books of a sea-
going ship, for five years. Whether he entered with a king's letter
of service or from the naval academy at Portsmouth, as a sailor
or as a ship's boy, he was equally qualified to hold a commission
if he had fulfilled the necessary conditions and could pass an
examining board of captains, a test which in the case of lads who
had interest was genmlly a pure formality. He was supposed
to show that he knew some navigation, and waaa practicii sea-
man who could hand, reef and steer. As captains were allowed
a .retinue of servants, a custom arose by which they put the
names of absent or imaginary lads on the .books as servants
and drew the pay allowance for them. It was quite illegal,
and constituted the offence known as " false musters," punish-
able by d ismis sa l from the service. But this regulation was even
less punctually observed than the rule which forbade the carry-
ing of women. Till the beginning of the 19th century many
distinguished officen were borne on a ship's books for two or
three yean before they went to sea. The navigation was en-
trusted to the sailing-master and his mates. He. had often heen
a merchant captain or sailor.. The captains and lieutenanu
were supposed to undentand navigation, but it was notorious
that numy of them had forgotten the little they had learnt in
order to pass their qualifying examination. As the navy was
cut down to the quick in peace, the supply of officen was in-
sufficient at the beginning of a war, and it was found ncccasaiy
to give commissions to men who were illiterate but were good
practical seamen. Officen who had not begun as gentlonen
" on the quarter deck " were said to have come in '* throu^
the hawse hole " — ^the hole by which the cable runs out at the
bow. Some among them rose to distinction. The accountant's
work was done by the purser, who in bad times was said to be
often in league with the captain to defraud both the govenuncnt
and the crew. The medical service in the navy during the
i8th century was bad. The position of the surgeons who were
appointed by the navy office was not an enviable one, and the
medical staff of the navy was mudi recruited from licentiates
of Edinburgh, or Apothecaries Hall. Finally it is to be observed
that when a ship was pdid off only the commissioned ofl&cers,
masten and surgeons were entitled to half-pay, or had any
further necessary connexion with the navy.
The crews were formed partly by free enlistment and partly
by impressment. When these resources failed, priaoikeia,
criminal and political, were allowed to volunteer or were drafted
from the jails. The Patriotic Society, formed at the bcginmng
of the Seven Yean' War, educated boys for the navy. During
the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wan the counties were called
upon to supply quotas, which they commonly secured from the
debton* prison or the workhouse. A ship was supposed to
be wdl manned when she had one-fifth of her crew of marines*
and one-third of men bred to the sea. This proportion of seamen
wss rarely reached. As the navy did not train its men from
boyhood in peace, the genuine sailon, known as " prime seamen '*
and " saiiormen," who were the skilled artificen of the time*
had to be sought for among those who had served their apprentkc-
shtp in the merchant service. They never enlisted v^untarily,
for they disliked the discipline of the navy, and the pay was
FSENCtq
NAVY AND NAVIES
30s
both bad and given in an oppressive way. Hie pay of a seaman
was 32S. 6d. a month for able seamen, the rate fixed in the reign
of Charies II., and x^s. for ordinary seamen. This sum was not
pud at fixed dates, but at first only at the end of a commission,
and after 1758 whenever a ship which had been a year in com-
mission retttrned home — up to six months before the date of her
arrival, the balance being kept as a security against desertion,
which was then incessant anid enormous. As men were often
turned over from ship to ship they had a sheaf of pay notes to
present on reaching home. The task of making up accounts
was slow, and the men were often driven to sell their pay notes
to low class speculators at a heavy discount. Discipline was
mainly enforced by the lash, and the «buse of their power by
captains was often gross.
These grievances led to a long series of single ship mutinies,
which cuLminated in the great mutiny of X797* The fleets at
Spithead, the Nore, Pljrmouth, the South of Ireland and Cape of
Good Hope mutinied one after another. The government had
aa;ravatcd the danger by drafting numbers of the United
Irish into the fleet, and the quotas from the counties contained
many dangerous characters. The crisis which seemed to threaten
the country with ruin passed away. Concessions were made
to the just claims of the men. When political agitators en-
deavoured to make use of the discontent of the sailors for treason-
able ends, the government stood firm, and the patriotism of the
tmi bulk of the men enabled it to restore discipline. The
" breeze at Spithead," as the mutiny, was nicknamed in the navy,
was the beginning of the reforms which made the service as
popular as it was once hateful.
The administration of the navy throughout the x8th century,
and in a less degree after x8o6 up to 1832, was in many respects
slovenly, and was generally corrupt. The different branches,
military and dvH, were scattered and worked in practical
independence, though the board of admiralty was supposed to
have absolute authority over all. The admiralty was at White-
hall, the navy office in Seething Lane near the Tower, and after
i73o at Somerset House. The victualling office was on Tower
Hill, the pay office in Broad Street, where also was the Sick and
H'on office. In 1749* when the sUte of the navy excited just
discontent, the adndralty first established regular visitations
of ihedockjrards which in a time of general laxity had become
nests of corruption. These visitations were, however, not
regalariy made. By the end of the century, and in spite of
sporadic efforts at reform, the evil had become so generally
lecogniied that Eari St Vincent, then first lord, persuaded
parliament in xSos to appoint a parliamentary commission of
inquiry. Its reports, thirteen in number, were given between
1S04 and 1806. They revealed much waste, bad management
and corruption. The tenth report showed that money voted
for the navy was used by the then treasurer, Henry Dtmdas
(L(»rd MdviUe), for purposes which he refused to reveal. In
1S06 another commission was appointed to revise and digest the
civil affairs of the navy, and a considerable improvement was
ejected.- Much remained to be done. There was no strict
appn^riation of money. Accounts were kept in complicated,
old-fashioned ways which made it impossible to strike a balance.
In 1853 Sir James Graham, first lord in Earl Grey's adminis-
tration, obtained the support of parliament for his policy of
sweeping away the double administration of the navy, by
admhalty and navy office, and combining them into one divided
into five departments. With this great organic change the navy
entered on its modem stage.
Stibject to the warning that for the reason given above, the figures
do not deserve absolute confidence, the material strenffth of the
British navy fixim the death of Queen Anne to the fall of Napoleon
^ns'-— Ships. Tons.
At the death of Queen Anne, 1714 . 347 167,319
George I., 1727 . 233 170.863
„ George II.. 1760 •. 413 331,104
In 1783 ^ 617 500.781
In 1793 411 403.555
In 1816 776 734.810
The figures for 1783, and for 1816. are swollen by prizes and worn
cot ships. An the figures include vessels unfit for service, or useful
XIX 6
only for harbour worle. or ordered to be built, but not actually in
existence. The number of men varied enormously from a peace to
war establishment. Thus in 1755 on the eve of the Seven Years'
War parliament voted ia,ooo seamen. In 1763 the vote was for
70,000 men, including 19,061 marines — the corps having been created
in the interval. In 177^, on the eve of the American War of Inde-
pendence, the vote was for 18.000 men for the sea service, including
4354 marines. At the close of the war in 1783 the vote was for 1 10,000
men, including 35.391 marines, from which it fdl in 1784 to 36,000
(marines 4495 included) and in 1786 to 18,000 men, dT whom 3860
were marines. In 1813, when the navy was at the highest level of
strength it reached, the vote was for 113,000 seamen and ^1,400
marine*. From this level it fell in 1816 to 34X>oo seamen ana 90OO
marines. These figures represent paper strength. Owing to the
prevalence of desertion, and the diflkulty of obtaining men, the
aaual strength was always appreciably tower.
The French Naty,
Before the French monarchy could possess a fleet, iuearly kings,
whose rule was effective only in the centre of the country, had
first to conquer their sea coast from their great vassals. Philip
Augustus (1 180-X333) began by expelling King John of P"g^«nf<
from Normandy and Poitou. The process was not completed
until Louis XII. (1498-x 51 5) united the duchy of Brittany to the
crown by his marriage with the duchess Anne. Long before the
centralization of authority had been completed the French kings
possessed a fleet, or rather two fleets of very distinct character.
Her geographical position has always compelled France to draw
her navy from two widely different sources— from the Channel
and the coast of the Atlantic on the north and west and on
the south from the Mediterranean. This separation has imposed
on her the diffioilt task of concentrating her forces at times of
crisis, and the concentration has always been hazardous. Like
their English rivals, the French kings of the middle ages drew
their naval forces from the feudal array, the national levy and
their own ships. But the proportion of the elements was not the
same. Many of the great vassals owed the service of ships, and
their obedience was always less certain than that of the Cinque
Ports. The trading towns were less able, and commonly less
willing, than the English to supply the king with ships. He was
thus driven to trust mainly to his own vessel»--and they were
drawn at first exclusively, and always to a great extent, from the
Mediterranean seaboard. His own territories in the south were
insufficiently provided with seamen, and the French king had
therefore to seek his captains, his men and his vessels by purchase
or by subsidies from Genoa, or in a less degree from Aragon.
When Saint Louis (i 336-1 370) sailed on his first crusade in x 34Q,
he formed the first French royal fleet, and created the first French
dockyard at Aigues Mortes. Ships and dockyard were bought
from, or were built by, the Genoese at the king's expense. His
admirals, the first appointed by the French crown, Ugo Lercari
and Jacobo di Levante, were Genoese. Saint Louis created the
office of admiral of France. When in later times Aigues Mortes
was cut off from the sea by the encroachment of the land,
Narbonne and Marseilles were used as ports of war. This fleet
was purely Mediterranean in character. It consisted of galleys,
and though the sail was used it was dependent on the oar, and
therefore on the " turma " (chiourme) of rowers, who in earlier
times were hired men, but from the middle of the 15th century
began to be composed of galley slaves— prisoners of war, slaves
purchased in Africa, criminals and vagabonds condemned by the
magistrate to the chain and the oar. Philip IV. le Bel (1385-
13x4) was led by his rivalry with Edward I. of England to create
a naval establishment on the Channel. He found his materials
in the existing Mediterranean fleet. A dockyard was built for
him at Rouen, again by the Genoese Enrico Marchese, Lanfranc
Tartaro and Albertino Spinola. It was officially known as the
Tersenal or Dorsenal, but was commonly called the clos des galUes
or galley yard, and it existed from 1394 to 14x9. The French
navy has always suffered from alternations of attention and
neglect. In times of disastrous wars on land it has fallen into
confusion and obscurity. Except when Francis I. (1515-1547)
made a vigorous attempt to revive it at the very close of his
reign, the French navy languished till the X7th century. Its very
unity of administration disappeared in the X5th century, when
3o6
NAVY AND NAVIES
(SPANISH
L
the jurisdiction of the admiral of France was invaded and defied
by the admiralties of Guyenne, Brittany and the Levant. These
local admiralties were suppressed by Francis L
Richelieu, the great minister of Louis XIII., found the navy
extinct. He was reduced to seeking the help of English ships
against the Huguenots. From him dates the creation of the
modern French navy. In 1626 he abolished the office of admiral
of France, which had long been no more than a lucrative place held
by a noble who was too great a man to obey orders. lie himself
assumed the title of grand mattre et surinUndarU de la navigation,
and the military command was entrusted to the admirals du
Ponantt i.e. of the west or Atlantic and Channel, and du Levant,
i. e. of the Mediterranean. But Richelieu's establishment
shrivelled after his death. It was raised from its ruins by the
pride and policy of Louis XIV. (1643-1715). Under his direc-
tion a numerous and strongly organized navy was created. A
very full code of laws— the ordonnance—vfus framed by Colbert
and Lyonne with the advice of the ablest officers, and was
promulgated on the 5th of April 1689. Though modified by other
ordonnances in 1765, 1772, 1774, 1776 and 1786, in the main lines
it governed the French navy till the Revolution.
By this code the French navy was based on the Inscription
maritinu, a very severe law of compulsory service, affecting the
inhabitants of the coast and of the valleys of rivers as far up as
they were capable of floating a lighter. The whole body of
officials and officers was divided into the dvil branch known as
la plume, and the military branch called V6pie. The first had
the entire control of the finances, and the dockyards of Toulon,
Brest and Rochfort, with an intendant de la marine at the head
of each. The general chief was the sous secritaire au dipartement
de la marine, the title of the French minister of marine till the
Revolution. Under Louis XIV. a civil officer, the intendant des
armies navales, who ranked as an admiral, sat on councils of war
and reported on the conduct of the naval officers. He must not
be confused with the intendant de la marine. The military branch
had at its head the admiral of France, the office having been
re-created in 1669 by Louis XIV. in favour of his natural son the
due de Vermandois. In theory the admiral was the administra-
tive military and judicial head of the admiralty. In practice
the admirals were princes of the blood, who drew pay and fees,
but who never went to sea, with the one exception of the count
of Toulouse, another natural son of Louis XIV. Two vice-
admirals of France du Ponant and du Levant commanded in the
Mediterranean and on the ocean. A third office of vice-admiral
of France was created for Suffren. The lieutenant giniral (vice-
admiral) came next, and below him the chef d'escadre (rear-
admiral), capitaine de vaisseau (post captain), capUaine de briUoi
(fircship) or de frigate (commander), and the major, a chief of the
staff on board who commanded all landing parties. There was
no permanent body of marines in the French navy, the infanterie
de la marine being troops for service in the colonics, which were
administratively connected with the navy and governed by
naval officers. The lieutenant needs no explanation, and the
enseigne was a sub-lieutenant. The corps of officers was recruited
from les gardes de la marine, answering more or less to the English
midshipmen — who received a careful professional education and
were required to be of noble birth. Besides the grand corps
de la marine there was a fleet of galleys with a general at its head,
and a staff of officers also of noble birth. It was suppressed in
1748 as being a useless expense. Officers not belonging to the
grand corps were sometimes taken in from the merchant service.
They were known as officiers hieus, because their uniform was
all blue, and not, as in the case of the noble corps, blue and red.
On paper the organization of the French royal navy was very
thorough. In reality it worked ill ; the severity of the inscription
maritinu made it odious, and owing to the prevailing financial
embarrassment of the crown after 1692 the sailors were ill-paid,
ill-fed and defrauded of the pensions promised them. They fled
abroad, or went inland and took up other trades. The military
and civil branches were always in a state of hostility to one
another, and their pay also was commonly in arrears. The noble
Gorpt was tenacious of its privileges, and extremely insolent
towards the ojiciers Ueus. By Louis XV. (17x5-1774) the navy
was neglected till the last years of his reign, when it was revived
by the due de Choiseul. Under Louis XVI. (1774-1792) when
the Revolution broke out the long accumulated hatred felt for
the noble officers had free play. Louis XVI. had indeed relaxed
the rule imposing the presentation of proofs of nobility on all
naval officers, but the change was made only in 1786 and it came
too late. The majority of the noble officers were massacred by
the Jacobins or driven into exile.
The Revolution subjected the French navy to a series of
disorganizations and reorganizations by which all tradition and
discipline were destroyed. Old privileges and the office of Grand
Admiral were suppressed. The attempt to revive the navy in
the face of the superior power of England was hopeless. Neither
the Republic nor the Empire was able to create an effective navy.
They had no opportunity to form a new body of officers out of
the lads they educated.
^ The strength of the French Royal Navy is difficult to estimate,
since for long periods of the i8th century it was rotting in harbour
and its ships were rarely commissioned. Louis XIV. is credited with
95 ships of the line and 29 frigates, together with many smaller
vessels, in 1692. At the dose oithe Seven Years' War it nad sunk
to 44 ships of the line and 9 frigates. By 1778 the French navy
had risen to 78 of the line with Trigates and smaller vessels whicn
brought the total to 264. In 1 795 on the outbreak of the revolution-
ary war, it was estimated to consist of 83 ships oi the line, mostly
fine vessels, and of frigates with lesser craft which brought it to a
total of 250. Under Napoleon the mere number was very^ much
more considerable and included ships built in the annexed territories,
' ' timber, were meant
but they were largely constructcxl of green timb
merely to force England to maintain blockades, and
wereneveri
Spanish Noty,
The administrative history of the Spanish navy is aingolarly
confused and broken. It might almost be said that the country
had no navy in the full sense of the word — that is to say, do
organized maritime force provided and governed by the state
for warlike purposes only — until one was created on the French
model by the sovereigns of the Bourbon dynasty i.e. after 1700.
Yet the kings of the Spanish peninsula, whether they wore the
crown of Castile and Leon or of Aragon, had fleets, formed, like
all the others of the middle ages, partly of ships supplied by the
coast towns and populations, partly of the royal veaaels. Aragon
was a purdy Mediterranean power. Its fleets, which were chiefly
supported by Barcelona, a flourishing commercial dty, were
composed of galleys. With the union of the crown in 1479
Aragon fell into the background, and its nav>' continued to be
represented only by a few galleys, for service in the Mediterranean
against the pirates. The dominions of Castile stretched from
the Bay of Biscay to the Mediterranean. Its kings, therefore,
had need both of ships (naos) and galleys. The first be^nnings
of the Castilian navy were not due to the king, but to the forc&ight
and enterprise of Diego Gelmirez, bishop and afterwards first
archbishop of Santiago in Gallida. In or about 1 1 30 he employed
the Genoese Ogerio to form a dockyard at Iria, and to build
vessels. The naval activity of the coast of the Bay of Biscay
developed so rapidly that in 1147 a squadron from the northern
ports took part in the conquest of Almcria by Alfonso VII.
(11 20-1 1 57) in alliance with the Pisans. A century later (i 24S)
another squadron constructed at the expense of the king
Fernando III. El Santo (1317-1353), and commanded by Count
Ramon Bonifaz of Burgos, the first admiral of Castile, took a
decisive part in the conquest of Seville. The annexation of Anda-
lucia and the necessity for guarding against invasions from Africa
cUled for a great extension of the navy of Castile. Alfonso X.
£1 Sabio (1353-1384) founded the great galley dockyards of
Seville— the arenal. It was also the work of Genoese builden
and administrators. In the course of the 13th century the
tOAvns of the northern coast formed one of the associations so
common in Spanish history, and known as hermandades (brother-
hoods). The first meeting of its delegates took place at
Caslrourdiales near Bilbao in 1 396, when the towns of Sant ander,
Laredo, Bermeo, Guetaria, San Sebastian and Vitoria were
represented. The hermandad de la marisma (of the sealaie^)
DOTCHJ
NAVY AND NAVIES
307
of Castile supplied the squadrons which took an active part
ia the wars of the X4th and 15th c<inturic8 between France and
England as allies of the French. Its history is obscure, and
it came to an end with the establishment of the full authority
of the crown by the Catholic sovereigns Ferdinand and Isabel.
The discovery of America, the acquisition by marriage or
conquest of SicUy, Naples and Flanders, gave the kings of
Spain a yet stronger motive for maintaining a powerful navy,
liw maxim that their ships were the bridges which joined their
widely scattered dominions was fully accepted by them and
their servants. But neither the Catholic sovereigns nor the
Habsburgs who held the throne till 1700, made any attempt
to organize a common navy. The sources from which the naval
armaments of Spain were drawn during the greatness and
decline of the country were these. Galleys were maintained
in the Mediterranean, but they were mainly found by Sicily
and Naples, or by the contracts which the kings of Spain made
vith the Genoese house of Doria. On the ocean the chief object
of the Spanish government was to conduct and protect the severely
regulated trade with America. Thus it was mainly concerned
for long to obtain the lumbering and roomy vessels called
"galleons," first designed by Alvaro de Bazan, marquess of
Santa Cruz, which were rather armed traders than real warships.
The czDwn did not build its own ships, but contracted for
them with its admirals. The American convoys sailed from and
Rtumed to the Bay of Cadiz. One squadron, the fiota,
carried the trade, was navigated by the admiral, with whom was
anociated a general, who commanded the few warships proper,
and was answerable for the protection of the whole. Another
squadron, called of Caatabria, was mamtained on the north
coast, and was employed to see the convoy on its way and meet
it on its return home. It had its own admiral and general.
The ships were always treated as if they were transports for
carrying soldiers. The seamen element was neglected. The
command was divided between the capitan de mar (sea captain)
who was responsible for the navigation and the capitan de gucrra
(soldier captain) who fought the ship. The same division went
through' aU ranks. The soldiers would neither help to work
the ship nor fight the guns. They used musketry only, or
relied on a chance to board with sword and pike. Properly
^leaking there was no class of naval ofiicers, and the overworked
and depressed seamen cotdd not supply good gimners. No
general naval adnunistration existed. The ofiice of admiral
of Castile became purely ornamental and hereditary in the
family of Henriquez. It was not replaced by a navy office.
One of the innumerable juntas or boards, through which the
Spanish kings governed, look^ after the making of contracts,
and CD-operated with the coimcil of the Indes which was specially
ooncemed with the American convoys. After the disasters
of the later years of Philip II. (see Akm.\da) some efforts at
impro v ement were made. Better ships were built , and something
was done to raise the condition of the seamen. But no thorough-
going organization was ever created, and in the utter decadence
of tht X7th century the Spanish navy and seafaring population
alike practically disappeared.
Under the Bourbon dynasty which attained the throne in
1700 the Spanish navy was revived, or rather a navy was create<l
on the French model. Don Jose Pati(k>, a very able man, was
named inUndente de la marina in 2715, and in 1717 he drew up
a draft naval organization and code, founded on the French
erdotmance of 1689. Patifk>'8 draft was the basis of the
ordenanzas generates (general code) issued in 1 748. The Spaniards
even set up a squadron of galleys with a separate staff of officers,
also on the French model, which was, however, suppressed in
the year of the issue of the ordenanzas generales. Fine arsenals
were organized at Ferrol and Carthagena. The navy thus
created produced some distinguished officers, and fought some
brilliant single ship actions. But the embarrassments of the
treasury, the tendency of several of the kings to sacrifice their
navy to political schemes requiring mainly the employment
of troops and the ruin of the seafaring poptdation during the
Z7th catar^, prevented it from ever atuining to a high level
of efficiency. During the Peninsular War the new navy all
but disappeared as the old had done. The want of pecuniary
resources and internal instability have prevented its revival
on any considerable scale.
The navy created by Patifio consisted in 1737 of 56 ships in all, of
which 28 were of the line, of from 50 to 80 guns, with one of X14
funs. In 1746 the number of shi|>s of the line had increased to 37..
n 1759 the list of line of battle ships wasso— of which the majority,
if not all, had been constructed by English shipbuilders, In the service
of the Spanish government. In 1 778, when at the height of its power,
it contained 62 ships of the line.
Dutch Navy.
The Dutch fleet arose out of the great struggle with Spain in
the i6th century. The Ncthcrlanders had been a maritime
people from the earliest antiquity. Under their medieval
rulers, the counts of Holland and of Flanders and the House of
Burgundy, they had rendered service at sea. The freemen
owed the service known as the rienUal {riem, an oar)l An
admiralty office was established in 1397. But during the revolt
against Philip U. of Spain, new naval forces were formed which
had no connexion with the medieval navy, save in so far as the
governments established in the different states which afterwards
formed the Seven Provinces took possession of the jurisdiction
and the dues of the medieval admiralty. The naval part of
the war with Spain was for long conducted by the adventurers
known as the *' beggars of the sea," and was mainly confined
to the coasts and rivers. In 1597, when the Confederation was!
formed and had provided itself with a common government
in the states-general, the need for a regularly organized sea-i
going fleet was felt. In that year the banner of the states-
general, the red lion with the arrows in its paw, was first hoisted
during the expedition to Cadiz in alliance with Engknd. On
the 13th of August 1597 the states-general issued the decree*
(Inslruclk) which regulated the naval administration of the
Republic until 1795. The attachment of the Netherlanders
to their local franchises was too strong to permit of the establish-
ment of a central authority with absolute powers. It was
therefore necessary to make a compromise by which some
measure of unity was secured while the freedom of the various
confederate states was effectually guarded. Five boards of
admiralty (Admiraliteits coUegien) were recognized. They were:
South Holland, or the Maas, sitting at Rotterdam; North
Holland, or Amsterdam; Westfricsland (the western side of
the Zuyder Zee), at Hoom or Enkhuizen on alternate years;
Zealand at Middleburg; and Fricsland at Dokhum, or after
1645 at Harlingen. These bodies enjoyed all the rights of the
admiralty and collected the port dues, out of which they provided
for the current expenses of their respective squadrons. Extra-
ordinary charges for war were met by grants from the province
to which each board belonged. Some measure of unity was
secured among these five independent authorities by three
devices. Each board consisted of seven persons, of whom four
were named by the province and required confirmation by the
states-general, while three Were chosen from other provinces
to secure a representation of the commonwealth. The members
of the boards took an oath of fealty to the states-general. The
stadtholdcr was admiral-general. He presided at the board,
and commanded the squadron. In his absence his place was
taken by his lieutenant admiral-general. An oath of fealty
was also taken to him, and all armed ships whether men-of-war
or privateers sailed with his commission. He chose the captains
from two candidates presented to him by the board. Delegates
from the boards met twice a year to consult on the general
interest. When the stadtholdership was suspended in 1650
the powers of the admiral-general were absorbed by their high
mightinesses {Hunne Hogen Mogen) of the states-general.
The staff of officers began with the lieutenant admiral-general
and descended through the vice-admiral, the quaintly named
Schout-bij-nackif who was and is the rear-admiral, and whose
title means " commander by night." These flag officers were
named by the admh-al-general or states-general. The captain
iZeecapitUn) was selected from the provincial list. The lieutenants
3o8
NAVY AND NAVIES
lUNITED STATES
were appointed by the local boards. No regular method of
recruiting the corps of officers existed.
This compromise was in itself a bad system. With the
exception of the board of North Holland, which was supported
by the wealth of Amsterdam, the admiralties were commonly
distressed for money. Unity of action was difficult to obtain.
Much of the work of convoy which the state squadrons should
have performed was thrown in the 17th century on directorates
{Directiiu) of merchants who fitted out privateers at their own
expense. When there was no sUdtholder, the local governing
bodies trenched on the authority of the states-general, and
indulged in a great deal of favouritism. In one respect the navy
of the Dutch republic might have been Uken as a model by its
neighbours. The feeding of the crews was contracted for by the
captains, who were required to enter into securities for the
execution of the contract, and who had a reputation for probity.
The Dutch crews, being better fed and looked after than the
English, suffered less from disease. The clumsy organization
of the Dutch navy put it at a disadvantage in its wars with
England, but the seamanship of the crews, their good gunnery,
and the great ability of many of their admirals made them at
all times formidable enemies. No organic change was made
till Z79S, when the victories of the French revolutionary armies
led to the formation of the Batavian republic The five
admiralties were then swept away and replaced by a committee
for the direction of naval affairs, with a unified administration,
organized by Pieter Paulus, a former official of the board of the
Maas. As Holland was now swept into the general convulsion
of the French Revolution, it followed the fortunes of France.
Its navy, after belonging to the BaUvian republic, passed to
the ephemeral kingdom of Holland, created by Napoleon in
favour of his brother Louis in x8o6 and annexed to France in
1 8 10. The Dutch navy then became absorbed in the French.
After the fall of Napoleon a navy was created for the kingdom
of the Netherlands out of the Dutch fragments of the Imperial
force.
The United States,
The American navy came into existence shortly after the
Declaration of Independence. As early as October 1775 Congress
authorized the construction of two national cruisers, and, at the
same time, appointed a marine committee to administer naval
affairs. The first force, consisting of purchased vessels, badly
fitted and built, and insufficiently equipped and manned,
embraced two ships of 34 guns each, six brigs carrying from
10 to 12 guns, two schooners each with 8 guns, and four sloops,
three of 10 gims and «ne of 4 guns. On December 3 and a
personnel of officers was selected, one of the lieutenants being
the well-known Paul Jones. Esek Hopkins was made com-
mander-in-chief, but, having incurred the censure of Congress,
he was dismissed early in 1777, and since then the title has never
been revived except in the person of the president. In November
1776 the grades of admiral, vice-admiral, rear-admiral and
commodore were assimilated in rank and precedence to relative
army titles, but they were never created by law until 1862.
During the war a number of spirited engagements occurred,
but there was a great lack of effident material at home,- and
agents abroad were not able to enlist the active sympathies
of nations or rulers. Benjamin Franklin did manage to equip
one good squadron, but this was rendered almost useless by
internal dissensions, and it required the victory of Paul Jones
in the " Bon Homme Richard " over the ** Serapis " to bring
about any tangible result for the risk taken. During the war
800 vessels of all dasses were made prizes, but the navy lost
by capture 11 vessels of war and a little squadron of gunboats
on the lakes; and, with 13 ships destroyed to avoid capture
by the British, 5 condemned, and 3 wrecked at sea, the country
was practically without a naval force between 1780 and 1785.
Owing to the depredations upon commerce of the Barbaiy
powers. Congress in 1794 ordered the construction of six frigates,
prescribing that four of them should be armed with 44 guns
and two with 36 guns; but, the Berbers having made peace.
the number of vessels was reduced one-half, and no additions
were made until 1797, when the "Constitution," ''United
States " and " Constellation " were built. The navy was at
first placed under the war department, but a navy department
with a secretary of its own was created in 1798. From 18x5
to 1843 the secretary was aided by a board of commissioners
chosen from among the naval officers, but in the latter year the
department was reorganized into five bureaus, which were
increased to eight in 1863. Each has a naval officer at its head.
They deal with navigation, ordnance, equipment, navy yards,
medidnes, provisions, steam engineering and construction.
The excellent naval academy at Annapolis was founded in 1845
by the then secretary of the navy, G. Bancroft. The war college
for officers at Coasters Harbor, Newport, RJ., dates from 1884.
The Balance of Nanes in History.
The five navies above discussed daim special notice on various
grounds: the British, Dutch and French because they have
been leaders and models; the Spanish because it has been
dosely associated with the others; the American because it
was the first of the extra-European sea forces. But these great
examples by no means exhaust the list of navies, old and new,
which have played or now play a part. Every state which has
a coast has also desired to possess forces on the sea. Even the
papacy maintained a fighting force of galleys which took part
in the naval transactions of the Mediterranean for centuries.
The Turkish stdtans have fitted out fleets which once were a
menace to southern Europe. But in a survey of general naval
history it is not necessary to give all these navies sp«dal mention,
even though some of them have a certain intrinsic interest.
Some, the Scandinavian navies for instance, have been confined
to narrow limits, and have had no influence either by their
organization, nor, save locally, by action. Others again have
been the purely artificial creation of governments. Instances of
these on a small scale are the navies of the grand duchy of
Tuscany, or of the Bourbon kings of Naples.
A much greater instance is the navy of Russia. Founded by
Peter the Great (1689-1735), it has been mainly organized and
has been most succenfully led by foreigners. Whoi -^
the Russian government has desired for political
reasons to make a show of naval strength, it has been numexous.
In 1770, during the reign of Catherine II. (X763-X796), a Russian
fleet, nominally commanded by the empress's favourite Orloff,
but in reality directed by two former officers of the British
navy, John Elphinston (1732-1785) and Samud Grdg (1735-
X788), gained some successes against the Turks in the Levant.
But when opposed to formidable enemies, as in the Crimean
War, it has dther remained in port, or has, as in the case of the
war with Japan (1904-1905), proved that its vitality was not
in proportion to its size.
The innumerable navies of South American republics are
small copies of older forces.
The X9th century did indeed see the rise of three navies, which
are of a very different character — the Italian, which was the result
of the unification of Italy, the German, which followed ^^^
the creation of the German Empire, and the Japanese.
But all three are contemporary in their origin, and
have inevitably been modelled on older forces — the
British and the French. With them must go the Austrian navy,
exceUent but unavoidably small.
If we look at the relations which the navies of the modem
world have had to one another, it will be seen that the great
discoveries of the later isth century shifted the seat _
of naval power to the ocean for two reasons. In the Jj*""""
first place they imposed on all who wished to sail the pJHH^^
wider seas opened to European enterprise by Vasco
de Gama and Columbus the obligation to use a vessel wbicb
could carry water and provisions suffident for a large crew during
a long voyage. The Mediterranean states and their seaxncn
were not prepared by resources or habit to meet the call. But
there was a second and equally effective reason. The powers
which had an Atlantic coast were incomparably better placed
BALANCE OF NAVIESl
NAVY AND NAVIES
30Q
Uian the Italian atatcs, oc the dties of the Baltic, to take
advantage of the maritime discoveries of the great epoch which
stretches from 1493 to 1526. In the natural course the leadership
fcQ to Portugal and Spain. Both owed much to Italian science
and capital, but the profit fell ineviubly to them. The reasons
why Spain faOed to found a permanent naval power have been
given, and they apply equally to Portugal. Neither achieved
the formation of a solid navy. The claim of both to retain a
monopoly of the right to settle in, or trade with, the New World
and Asia was in due course contested by neighbouring nations.
France was torn by internal dissensions (the Wars of ReUgion and
tbe Fronde) and could not compete except through a few private
adventurers. England and Holland were able to prove the
essential weakness of the Spaniards at sea before the end of the
x6th century. In the 17th century the late allies against Spain
now fought against one another. Her insular position, her
security against having to bear the immense burden of a war
00 a lud frontier, and the superiority of her naval organization
over the divided administration of Holland, gave the victory to
Great Britain. She was materially helped by the fact that the
French monarch attacked Holland on hmd, and exhausted its
lesoorces. Great Britain and France now became the tom-
petitors for superiority at sea, and 10 remained from 1689 till
the faO of Napoleon in 1815.
During this period of a century and a quarter Great Britain
had again the most nuiterial advantage: that her enemy was ru>t
only contending with her at sea, but was engaged in endeavouring
to fsTaMidi and maintain a military preponderance over her
neighbours on the continent of Europe. Hence the necessity for
her to support great and costly armies, which led to the sacrifice
of her fleet, and drove HoUaiid into alliance with Great Britain
(Wars of the League of Augsburg, of the Spanish Succession,
of the Austrian Succession and the Seven Years' War). During
the War of American Independence France was in alliance with
Spain and HoUand, and at peace on land. She and her allies
were a.Ue to impose terms of peace by which Great Britain
BaTTeadered positions gained in former wars. But the strength
of the British navy was not broken, and in quality it was shown
to be eaentially superior.
The French Revolution undid all that the government of
France had gained between 1778 and 1783 by attention to its
aavy and abstinence from wars on land. The result of the
upheaval in France was to launch her into schemes of universal
conquest. Other nations were driven to fight for existence with
the help of Great Britain. In that long struggle all the navies
of Europe disappeared except the Froich, which was broken
by defeat and rendered inept by inaction, and the victorious
Britoh navy. When Napoleon fell, the navy of Great Britain
was not merely the first in the world; it was the only powerful
navy in existence.
The pre-eminent position which the disappearance of possible
rivals had given to Great Britain lasted for several years un-
chaUenged. But it was too much the consequence of a com-
binatioa of circumstances which could neither recur nor endure.
The French navy was vigorously revived under the Restoration
and tbe government of Louis Philippe (the periods from 1815
to 1850 and 1830 to 1848). The emperor Nicholas I. of Russia
(1835-1855) buht ships in considerable numbers. As early as
1858 the fear that the naval superiority of Great Britain would
be deatrc^red had already begun to agiute some observers.
Tbe "extremely reduced state" of the British . navy, and* the
dangR- that an overwhelming force would be suddenly thrown
on the English coast, were vehemently set forth by Commander
W. H. Craufurd, and by an anonymous flag-officer. The peril
to be feared, it was argued, was an alliance between France and
Roasia. In 1838 the Britidi navy contained, built and building,
90 ships of the line, 93 frigates and 12 war steamers; the French,
49 of tbe line, 60 frigates and 37 war steamers, including armed
pa^ets; Russia, 50 of the line, 35 frigates and 8 steamers; the
United Sutes, 15 of the line, 35 frigates and x6 war steamers.
The agitation of 1838 passed away, and the Crimean War,
CBtsiKng as it did the destruction of a great part of the Russian
fleet at Sebastopd, and proving the weakness of the Baltic
fleet; and having, moreover, been conducted by an alliance of
France and Great Britain against Russia, would seem to have
Shown that the anjfieties of 1838 were exaggerated. But the
rivalry which is mherent in the very position of states possessing
sea coasts and maritime interests could notecase. The French
imperial government was anxious to develop its navy. By the
construction of the armoured floating batteries employed in
bombardment of Kinbum in October 1855, and by the launch
of the first seagoing ironclad " La Gloire " in 1859, it began a
new race for superiority at sea, which has shown no sign of
sbckening since. The launch of the " Gloire " was followed by
political events in Europe which brought forward new com-
petitors, while great navies were developed in America and Asia.
The year 1871 was the beginning of a vast growth of naval
armaments. It saw the completion of the unity of Italy and the
formation of the German empire, two powers which f^^f^^
could not dispense with strong fleets. But for some meaism
years the Italian and German navies, though already wiratyM
in existence, were still in a youthful stage. The rapid <""•-
growth of the United States navy dates from about '"**^
1890, and the Japanese is a few years younger. France, Russia
and Great Britain, hi answer to them, began the race in which
the efforts of each had a stimulating effect on the others. Though
the alliance between France and Russia was not formed till
later, their common interests had marked them out as allies
from the first, and it will be no less convenient than accurate to
treat Great Britain and the partners in the Dual Alliance as for
some time opposed to one another.
In the general reorganisation of her armaments undertaken
by France after the war of 1870-71, her navy was not neglected.
Large schemes of construction were Uken in hand.
The instability of French ministries, and the differences
of principle which divided the authorities who favoured
the construction of battleships from those who were
partisans of cruisers and torpedo-vessels, militated against a
coherent policy. Yet the French navy grew in strength, and
Russia b^an to build strong vessels. As early as 1874 the
approaching launch of a coast-defence ironclad at Kronstadt
(the " Peter the Great " designed by the English constructor
Sir £. J.- Reed) caused one of the successive " naval scares "
which recurred frequently in the coming years. It was, however,
largely fictitious, and passed away without producing much
effect. In 1878 the prospect of a war arising out of the Russian
and 'Turkish conflict of that year, again stirred doubts as to the
sufficiency of her naval armaments in England. Yet it was not
till about X885 that an agitation for the increase of the British
fleet was begun in a consistent and continuous way. The con-
troversy of the succeeding years was boundless, and was perhaps
the more heated because the controversialists were not con-
trolled by the necessity for using terms of definite meaning, and
because the lists published for the purpose of making comparisons
were ineviubly of doubtful value; when ships built, building
and ordered to be built, but not begun, were counted togethei^-
or as not infrequently happened, were all added on one side,
but not on the other. The belief that the British navy was not
so strong as it should be, hi view of the dependence of the BriUsh
empire on strength at sea, q>read steadily. Measures were first
taken to improve the opportunities for practice allowed to tbe
fleet by the establishment of yearly naval manoeuvres in 1885,
and the lessons they afforded were utilized to enforce the necessity
for an increase of the British fleet. In 1888 a committee of three
admirals (Sir W.Dowell,SirVescyHamiltonand Sir R. Richards),
appointed to report on the manoeuvres of that year, gave it as
their opinion that " no time should be lost in placing the British
navy beyond comparison with that of any two powers." This
verdict met a ready acceptance by the nation, and in 1889
Lord George Hamilton, then first lord of the admiralty, intro-
duced the Naval Defence Act, which provided for the addition to
the navy within four and a half years of 70 vessels of 3x8,000 tons
at a cost of £21,500,000. The object was to obviate the risk of
sudden reductions for reasons of economy in the building vote.
3IO
NAVY AND NAVIES
(BALANCE OF NAVIES
Later experience proved that the practice of fixing the amount to
be spent for a period of years operated to restrict the freedom of
government to make additions, for which the necessity had not
been foreseen when the money was voted. But the act of 1889
did effect an immediate addition to the British fleet, while as was
inevitable it stimulated other powers to increased efforts.
The rivalry between Great Britain and the states composing
the Dual Alliance may be said to have lasted till 1904, when the
course of the war in the Far East removed Russia from the field.
It must be borne in mind that during the latter part of these
twenty years Russia was largely influenced by the desire to arm
against the growmg navy of Japan. Comparisons between the
additbns to the fleets made on either side, even when supported
by a great display of figures, are of uncertain value. Number
is no' sufficient test of strength when taken apart from quality,
distribution, the command of coaling stations^which are of
extreme value to a modem fleet — and other considerations.
But the respective lisu of battleships supply a rough and ready
standard, and when taken with the number of men employed
and the size of the budgets (both subject to qualifications to
be mentioned) does enable us to see with some approximation to
accuracy how far the rivals have attained their desired aims.
In 1889, before the passing of the Naval Defence Act, the British
navy contained 32 battleships of 262,340 tons. The united
French and Russian fleets had 32 of 150,655 tons: of these 17
were French, 7 being vessels of wood plated with iron and
therefore of no value when exposed to the fire of modem ex-
plosives. This is but one of many examples which might be
given of the fallacious character <^ mere lists of figures. In 1894,
when the Naval Defence Act had produced its effect, the com-
parative figures were: for Great Britain, 46 ironclads (or battle-
ships) of 441,640 tons, and for the Dual Alliance 35 of 270,953 — in
which, however, the seven wooden vessels were still induded.
France and Russia had then large schemes of new construction —
60,300 tons of ships over 10,000 tons for France, and 78,000 tons
for Russia. The British figure was 70,000 tons. But the French
and Russian list included mere names of vessels, of which the
plans were not then drafted.
The rivalry in building went on as eagerly after 1894 as before.
At the beginning of 1904 Great Britain had 67 battleships of
895.370 tons, as against 57 of 635,500 belonging to the powers
of the Dual AUiance. The difference in favour of Great Britain
was therefore xo battleships, and 259,870 tons. Vessels not
ready for service were induded in the list, which therefore in-
cludes potential as well as actual strength. The balance in favour
of Great Britain was less in 1904 than it had been in 1885 in mere
numbers. During this period the naval budget of Great Britain
had risen from £12,000,000 in 1885 to £34»4S7t5Po in i9O3~i904'
The number of men employed had grown from 57,000 to 127,000.
The figures for the Dual Alliance cannot be given with equal
confidence. France had transferred the troupes de la marine or
colonial troops from the navy to the army, which introduced
a confusing element into the comparison, and the figures for
Russian expenditure are very questionable. The total credit
demanded for the French navy in 1890, the year after the passing
of the British Naval Defence Act, was frs. 217,147,462. By
X903 the sum had risen to frs. 35x^471,524. The Russian figures
for 1890 are not attainable, but her budget for 1903 was
£x X ,067,889 sterling. A comparison in numbers of men available
is wholly xnisleading, since the British navy contains a large
number of voluntarily enlisted men who serve for many years,
and a small voluntary reserve, while France and Russia indude
all who are liable to be cdlcd out for compulsory service during
a short period. There is no equality between them and the highly
trained men of the British navy. The immense increase in its
staff represents an addition to real power to which there is
nothing to correspond in the case of continental states.
While this vast growth of naval power was going on in Great
Britain, France and Russia, other rivals were entering into the
lists with various fortunes. Italy may be said to have been the
first comer. Her national navy, formed out of the existing
squadrons of Sardinia, Tuscany and Naples, had stood the strain
of war in x866 very ilL The conditions in which the unity of
the country had been achieved during the Franco-Prussian War
of 1870-7 r, together with the obvious need for a navy comncti
in the case of a nation with a very extended sea coasts ooa «#
animated the Italians to great and even excessive atw
efforts. Their policy was controlled by the knowledge »*^im
that they could not hope to rival France in numbers, ''*^*
and they therefore aimed at obtaining individual vessels of a
high level of strength. Italy may be said to have set the example
of building monster ships, armed with monster guns. But she
was unable to maintain her position in the race. The too hopeful
finance in which she had indulged in the first enthusiasm of
complete political unification led to smous embarrassment in
1894. Her naval budget sank from £4,960,000 in 1891 to
£3,776,845 in X897-X898, and only rose slowly to £5,037,642 in
X905-X906. As a candidate in the race for naval strength she
necessarily hdd a subordinate place, though always to be ranked
among the important sea powers. In 1903, when the rivalry of
Great Britain and the Dual Alliance was at its height, her
strength in battleships was x8, of 226,630 tons. In number,
therefore, they did more than cover the balance in favour of
Great Britain as against the Dual Alliance, but not in tonnage,
in which the difference in favour of Great Britain was 259,870.
The history of the German navy is one of foresight, calculation,
consistency and therefore steady growth. The small naval force
maintained by Prussia became the navy of the North - ^ ^^^
German Federation after the war of x866, and the """•^^
Imperial navy after 1871. Until 1853 it had been wholly de-
pendent on the war office. In that year an admiralty was created
in favour of Prince Albrecht, but this office was abolished in x 861,
and the navy was again placed under the war office. The first
ministers of the navy under the North German Federation were
generals; so was the first imperial minister, General Stosch (187 x).
Admiral Tirpiu, appointed in X897, was the first minister who
was bred a seaman. His predecessor, General Stosch, had been
an excellent organizer and had done much for the effidency of
the service. It has been the rule of the German government,
both before and since the foundation of the empire, to advaxKc
by carefully framed plans, without adhering to them pedantically
when drcumstanccs called for a modification of their lines. As
early as 1867 a scheme had been formed for the construction of
a navy of x6 ironclads and 50 smaller vessels, at a cost ol
£5«395iS33* It was not suffidently advanced in executioo to
allow Germany to make any efforts at sea in the war of X870-7X.
In X872 a supplementary grant of £3.791.666 was made for
construction in view of the increased cost of armour and arxna-
ments. In X882 a revised scheme was made which contemplated
the constmction of xoo vessels, and it was completed in x8SS
by another which provided for the construction of 28 vessels,
of which 4 should be battleships of the largest size, within the
next six years. In 1894 and for some years afterwards the Reich-
stag showed itself hostile to a heavy expenditure on the ixavy,
and refused many votes asked for by the government. Under
the pressure of ambition and of the real needs of a xiation with
an extensive and growing maritime commerce, the expenditure
grew in spite of the opposition of the Reichstag. Between 1874
and X889 it rose from £1,950,000 to £2,750,000, and was increased
in the folIov(>ing year to £3,600,000, from which figure it advanced
by X898 to £5,756,135. Anothte building scheme was framed
in that year, but it was swept aside in 1900, under the combined
influence of the exhortations of the emperor William II., and of
the anger caused in Germany through the arrest by a British
cruiser of a German steamer (the " Bundesrath ") on the coast of
Africa on a charge of carrying contraband of war to the Boers.
The emperor was now able to obtain the consent of the Reichstag
to an extended Naval Defence Act. By the terms of this measure
it was proposed to spend £74,000,000 on construction, and
£20,000,000 on the dockyards. With this money, by the year
19 1 7 Germany was to be provided with a fleet of 38 battleships,
together with a proportionate number of cruisers and other
smaller vessels. Rapid progress was made not only with the
programme itself but with the equipment of German do<^yazds
BALANCE OF NAVtESf
NAVY AND NAVIES
3i»
and other establishments for providing the matirid of a great
savy. In the spring of 1909 the serious menace to British
supremacy at sea, represented by the growth of the new German
fleet of battleships, led in England to a " scare " which recalled
tbst of 1888, and to an energetic campaign for additional
expenditure on the British navy.
During the years following, on the American Civil War (1862-
66) the Unit^ States paid small attention to the navy. In
.. ^ i88x a board was appointed to advise on the needs
51^^ of the navy, and in 1890, the board recommended
the formation of a fleet of xoo vessels of which 20
sbould be battleships of the largest chus. The reviving interest
in the navy was greatly stimulated by the diplomatic difference
with Great Britain which arose over the frontier question between
her and the republic of Venezuela in 1896. Resolutions were
passed in congress approving of an increase of the navy. The
war with Spain in 1898 completed the revival of American
intenst in the navy. The acquisition of Porto Rico, and the
protectorate of Cuba in the West Indies, together with the annexa-
tion of the Philippines, and the visible approach of the time
when the relations of the powers interested in the Pacific would
can for regulation, confirmed the conviction that a powerful
fleet naust be maintained. In 1889 the United States possessed
JK> modem battleship. In 1899 there were 4 built and 8 building.
At the dose of 1903 there were built and building 97 of 353,260
toss, only two of them being of less than xo,ooo tons. From
£5,119,850 in 1890 the expenditure grew to £16,355,380 in 1903.
The navy of Japan, the last comer among the great naval
forces of the world, may be said to date from 1895, from, in
iy„^ fact, the eve of the war with China. As an insular
power with a largt seafaring population, Japan is
called upon to possess a fleet. Even in the days of its voluntary
isolation it had a known capacity for maritime warfare. Its
capacity for assimilating the ideas and mastering the mechanical
skill of Europe have been in no respect better shown than in
Bsval mattcis. From the moment it was compelled to open
its ports it began not only to acquire steamers but to apply
itself under European guidance to learning how to make and
we them. A navy on the western model was already organized
by 1895, but it ^was still of trifling proportions. In 1896 the
Japanese navy had become an object of serious attention to
the world. A pUn was drafted in that year, and confirmed
ia the next, by which Japan arranged to supply itself, mainly
by purchase in Europe, with a fleet containing 4 of the most
powerful battleships. The scheme was modified m detail in
18981 when the decision was taken to increase the tonnage of the
vessels. A little later additions were arranged for, and vessels
building for South America states in English ports were purchased.
The British model was carefully followed in naval organization,
the alliance with England giving special facilities for this. And
by 1904, when the war with Russia begiui, the unknown Japanese
fleet proved its competence by viaories at sea which put the
seal on her position as a naval power.
C^neficriMi.— When we look over the whole period from
the end of the Napoleonic wars, one great fact is patent to our
vkw. It is that this was an epoch of revival or development
in the naval power of the whole world, i.i the course of which
the position held by Great Britain in 1816 was partially lost
amply by the growth of other powers. The situation in that
year was by its very nature temporary, and a quotation of the
respective numbers of warships then possessed by the world
vould have no value. An instructive comparison can, however,
be made between the year 1838, when Great Britain began to
be serioudy conconed with the rise of possible enemies at sea,
and the ev« of the war between Russia and Japan. Battleships
oiay a^utt be taken as the test of strength, since nothing happened
in the Rosso-Japanese War to show that they do not still form
the most vital clement of naval power. We may also leave
M3a6c the many small fleets which cannot act collectively, and
which individually do not weigh in the balance. The figures
for 1838 are given above, but may be repeated for comparison.
Id that year Great Britain possessed^ btiHt and bxiilding, 90
ships of the line; France 49; Russia 50; the United States
15. In X903 the number of vessels recognized as battleships,
possessed by the great powers, was for Great Britain 67; for
France 39; for Russia x8; for the United States 37; for Germany
27; for Italy 18; for Japan 5. At the fixst date the British
fleet was among great powers as 90 to 1x4. At the latter it
was as 67 to X34.
Such comparisons, however, aa these Decome much more
complicated in later years, when the importance of the preponder-
ance of " Dreadnoughts "—the new type of battlohip — (see
Ship and Shipbuiioing) — ^waa realuetd. By the invention
of this type Great Britain appeared to obtain a new lead; and
in X907, when it was calculated that by 19x0 there would be
ten British "Dreadnoughts" actually in commission while
neither in Europe nor America would a single simihur ship have
been completed by any foreign power, the situation seemed
to be entirely in favour of complete supremacy at sea for the
British fleet. But the progress of German and American con-
struction, and particularly the experience gained of German
ability to build and equip much more rapidly than had been
supposed, showed by 1909 that, so far as " Dreadnoughts *'
were concerned at all events, the lead of Great Britain could only
be maintained by exceptional effort and exceptional expenditure*
It was admitted in parliament by the prime minister, first lord
of the admiralty and foreign secretajy— themselves Liberals
who had flirted with proposals for disarmament, and who de-
pended for office on the support of more extreme "pacifists" who
objected on principle to heavy military and naval expenditure —
that, while for the moment the Briti^ " two-power standard "
was still in existence, the revelations as to German shipbuilding
showed that it could only^be maintained in the future by the
creation of a new fleet on a scale previously not contempkted.
The supremacy of Great Britain in ships of the older types
would be of no avail as years went by and other powers were
equalling her in the output of ships of the new type, and a new
race thus began, of which it is impossible here to indicate more
than the start. It was no longer a question of completed ships,'
but one still more of programmes for building and of. the rate
at which these programmes could be accomplished. At the
beginning of 19x0, while Great Britain had her ten " Dread-
noughts," it was not the case that other powers had none:
Germany already had four and the United States two; and
a knowledge of the naval progranunes of both these countries,
to speak of no others, showed that, unless either their policy
changed or the British shipbuilding programme was modified
so as to keep up with their progress, it would not take many
years before the theory of the equality of the British fleet in
" capital ships " to those of the next two naval powers would
have to be abandoned. In England this situation created a pro-
found sensation in 1909, since it was conunon ground that her
fleet was her all in aU, on which her empire depended; and the
result was seen, not only in a considerable increase in the Naval
Estimates of 1910-191 1, but also in the beginning of a serious
attempt to organize their fleets on the part of the British colonial
dominions, which should co-operate with the mother country.
The British Admiralty figures for the state of the principal
fleets as on March 31st,. 1910, are summarized below. The
letters at the heads of the columns have the following significa-
tion: E., England; F., France; R., Russia; G., Germany;
I., luly; U., United States; and J., Japan:—
Ships Bitilt
E. F. R. G. I. U. J.
Battleships . . . 56 17 7 33 10 30 14
Armd. CD. Vessels . . . 8 a 7 . 10 . .
Armd. Cruisers . 38 30 4 9 8 15 la
Protected Cruisers, I. 18 5 7 ... 3 a
11. 35 9 2 23 3 16 II
„ ., III. 16 8 a 13 II a 6
Unprotected Cruisers a .... 10 . . 5 6
Scouts 8 3
Torpedo Vessels . . 33 10 6 i 5 a a
T.B. Destroyers . . 150 60 97 85 ai 35 57
' Torpedo Boats . . 1 16 346 63 82 96 30 69
Submarines ... 63 56 30 8 7 18 9
312
NAVY AND NAVIES
PTRATECY AND TACTICS
Skips BuitmHo
9
9
IL G.
I &
L
U. J.
4 }
Bftttleshipi , . ,
Armd. Cfutseri . .
Protected CmbcrsH II
Unpfatccted Crui«7n
T.B. OerstrDyen . . J7 17 . . 13 3 IS ^
Submarine . . ii 13 j * .. to 3
• Number uncertain.
BpilicxjRAFKV. — AniUnt and C^fi^fl/:— Acdoum* of the n^va!
oilfamzatLons of the aocirnt world, and uf thir ^cn fig tiling of the time
are to be found in the hbtorijiTH o( Cfe«e and Ruth^: Si^noT
G. Cora,E£ini has wriitcn a. Staria dtlla manma miliiart aniica (Livorna,
e&Bj). Valuable detaib ol the [rti penal Roman navy and oi the
Byxaittirtc navy ^iU be (OMUd in Frcfessor Bury't appendicet to hla
editioA of Gibbon ^t Df<lisu and FalL vol. i. apx. 5, and vol. vL
ApX- s* Gencnal historie} of the navies of the world have been
i»'ntten, but they are inevitably apt to be little more than jejune
review* ol the dates, and results of battles. Thia is certainly the
case with the great folio of the En^li&h writer josLih EJunchctt, A
Complete History 0/ tht moii rrmar table transa^tiojii at Sea, Jrtfm the
earliesi accounU of time to the conslu-iiim oj tXe Uut ■atar with France^
whsrein ti fiiren an account of the mtfii ioniuLerahiA Nfscl E^pfdititrfti^
Sea Fiihii. Stratagemi, DtidTPiTir^ afd etktr Mviiimt Ota ur rentes
tkfii ktae kappated armtni aU nofuinf thai kam fleuritkid at Sra; a^d
in a more particular mannrr of Gftai BfUam pern the timt of the
Rfvolidian m i638 te the ajoreiaid ptrwd fij^oj. The later ^rt b
however valuable, for Bunrhctt, who was sccrcuiry to the adifni rally,
had access to good authorititj for his own time, and had «Tvtd at
■ca as iecretary to Russeil. Loftl Offord^ There U an Hi^toirt dt ia
marine de Ions ks peupUs, by M^ A* du Scifi {Paris, tS79> which \i of
no ETieat value.
Mitflan/:— At tc^idi the mn^iesiil navirs the Rrst p^ce may be
AUs««d to tbe ttaliani. A |[eneral bibliogfaphy of haiian oautica]
litecatuEV. Sattia di UJta bthtia^rafia m&rtuima ittiliana, occupying
fifty-eight pAgnj drawn uftby Signor Enrico Celanii will be found in
the RftriJta maf0ima^ feupplemcnl for 1^94 (Rome). The histories
of the different Hrpublic* of ihe middk ag"^ record their fnarjtlme
enterpfiie^ An excellent book, which eivos fir oiarr than iti title
yrotxaa/a/i'i the Sioria delia maritm pimiijicia of A. GuglXdmotti, Q.P„
m 19 volumes published at different times, and in two editions, at
Fkxcoce 1^56, &c. The general man time history of the Mediter-
imoett) in the middle a^eii is well illustrated tn the Afcmxirias jobre
ia #uniia comerrio y orUi df Bar^dana {i-^-q-i^qi) by Don A.
Capmany. The naval entcrprisrs of the N^orsemen are dealt with in
a scholarly fa^ahton by M. G. B, Depping, Hiiioire des expMitiimi
ntarttimrs dei Normands (1626I; and with newer knowledge by Mr
C. F. Keary, The Vikingi ej Western Ckriiter^m (1891). The
medieval perrioda of Western navies are trealcd in llwyLr respective
naval histories.
Great Britain :^The History af the Royal Navy ta the French
Rfvotidian, by Sir N. Harris Nicolas {l^47). is unfortunately in-
i^mpkte. tt ends at the year ]4J2« but is the work of a most labori-
ous and exact antiquary, who had been a naval ofhcer in his youtii..
The administrative history of the British navy untd ttJ60 is the
iubject of the History of the Administration of the Nary and of
Merihiint Shipping in relation to the Navy (l S96) by Mr M. Oppenheim
— ^n mosE valuable collection of materials. The cam|::iaigns^nd battles
ol the navy are totd^ generally from the public letters of thearlmirals^
and with no ipvat measure of criticism in w^eral compi La Lions.
The Na^ History of Engteind (1735) by MrT. LediardK is copious and
uiefut The Naznu Chronolfgy, or an Historical Summary of Naval
And Maritime Events from t£e Time of the Romans to the Trealy tf
Peace jBQ3,hy Captain Isaac Schomberp (ifloj), contiiins a miss of
valuable information, lists of ships, dates of constmction, Acr.» and
some admtni<.traEi\'e details. Less comprehensive, but tAiW u rueful. Is
such a compilation as Tiie General Hiitory of the Late War (that i^,
the Seven \ cars' War)^ by Dr John Enlick " and o+her gentlemen "
'17611). A much better book is The Na^i and Mditary Memoirs of
Jreai Britain tj3j to 178J (iSoi) by Mr R. I^atson, a very careful
ftnd well-informed writer who had seen some service as a marine
od^cer. The Lnns of the British Admirals, containing a new and
ti£cifrait Naval History from the earliest periifds, by Dr J. Campbell
f 1 779). may be profitably consulted, with caution, for it by no n-
h
Chamier in l8j7, ia a standard authority. A far le« ui^ful wrjf k.
whiih^ however, is in parts written from first- hand l;no«lede<?r i* The
Napal History of Great Britain by Captain \\\ P. Brent on, fir^i
published in tS2|, and republished in 1S^6. Thi Field iff Man, a
compilation in dicrionar^' form pLbliihed in i7Bi,wich an enormous
liIle-pap^^ Ls not without value for £ome of the naval transaclioni of
the tain century. The Hiitory of the British Nas^ from the Earlieil
Ferij^d to ihf Ffeitnl Time (1^3) hy Pr C, D. YonEen coniain* iome
original matter for tbenav^il trar. i^cl.jns of the i^th century. F/i*
Royai Nary, in 7 large volumes [1 &t 7-1903) , edit mi and partly written
by Sir W. L. Clows, u a coBipiktioa of uoequal vaJue, Some el
a
Sir W. L^ Oowvs'« coftdjuton, notably Ca^^tain Mahdn ttid Sir C. R.
Markham, are of high standing and authority. Tbe book jj oopioukt)-
Ulusti^ted. The Naxal Chroniele^ t799-tilt8t a maga^ne, «'»?«yiint
masaesof useful matter^ for the Revolutionary and Napoleooic Ware.
The Royai Navai Biography of Captain John Marshall, Halving the
lives of all onicers on the list in l&3y or promoted Later (18^3—1835),
with a supplement (18J7-1S30), may be consulted, but ia too un-
critical and too uniformly Laudatory, The Naval Biograpkicai
Dicti4>nary; UJe and jemcc j of rviry liting ofiier (i 846) , by Lieutenant
W, R. O'lJrync, is a ^lid book of reference* The publications of tbe
Navy Recorii Society (1^94 and subsequent years) contain large and
valuable publication^ of original niatter, with some reprints of old
authorities^ »uch as Sir W, Monson't Ttacth which were diflicult of
«cccis. Sec abo A Short Huliory cf th^ Mttyai No^t by David
Hannay-
Franeei — The naval history of Franci; has been much written
about since fSiO^ Xot many of ilsc iKiok^ published ha^^t been of
considerable value. The Hiitmrt marktme de la France of M. Lfon
Guerin (tS44), was meant to meet a po|pular demand and sat^y
national vantty. The Histoire de la marine fran^aise of h>l. Eugene
Sue (jB4.5-i84'&) is mainly a romance, but it contains tome useful
evidence. The Histoire de la marine Jranqaise of Le Comtiz de Bonfiis
Labl6nie (]il4^>, a naval officer, is of more value* but is somewhat
wanting in cnticism. The Fricis kiitorigiie de fa marinf f nu f oi s e
of M. Chasseriau (i94f); the Histoirt gfnhaU de h marine (1853):
the Histmrt de la martne Jron^ise of M. le Saint (16177): aiid toe
Iliitm-re nati^naie di la mnhne Jraniaisf depui$ Jion Bart (1878)
of M. Trousset an? compilation^. La Afarine de guffttr J^-s instUw
lioni miistaires depuis ion ori^ine jusqitA noi j^urs^ by CapM
Goulard (1877); the Eisai mr I'hisiJtre de Vodminiitraiion d* la
marine fro.H<;^iie of M. Lambert de Sairite Croix t[99J)^ «nd the
e.\cctlent little book of M, Loir on 7^ Marine royalc, tjSo (n^.),
may be consulted with pleasure and prof^t< The three books of
M, Jal, ArdUdoiU nai-ale (1^40), Ciostairf navlique (1448) and
Abraham du Quesne «t la mojrine de son temps (ia7J)areaQoi high
value* Les BaiaitUi novate s do la France of Cap** Troude (1867),
is a carefully written account of naval actions. The Hisioireds la
moritte frattfoiset pendant la guerre de I'indipei^nxe amiricaime
{1877}; Sous ia premiire rfpublit^ (t^Sit); Sous U tonxutai sf
1' empire (tS(t6); De tSiS ^ ^^T<> (tqjoo); and La Marine fr^ngaise et
ia marine aHemartde^ /STO^-tS^t {t&f%) of Cap^ Chevalier, are
thorough and crirical. M. G. Lacour Gayet^ Profrasor at L'Ecole
£UpiTieure de la Marine, has published two books of serious research,
but marked by lome national prEJudice, La Ifarine miiitwt da la
France sous ie r^fnede Louis XV. (tqos), and La Af arini militttirt de
la France sous Is r^fuc de Louis XVl. (1905). The Rech^vches smr
raniien cios des galees de Rjsuen (1S64) of M. C. de Robillard de
Beaunepaire, and the life of Jean de Ticnnc by the Marquis Terrier de
Loray (tB7S)t are valuable monographs on passages of early French
naval history. The Frojfts et teniativcs de A^rquemeni a$ae lies
britanniques by Cap» Desbri^iie (t^CK) seq.) 11 s mobt valuable
authority. A^ very schoLirly Histoire de la marine frcnfaiag was
begun in t&W by ftl. C. du la Ronci^re.
Miscenamous : — The standard authorities for Spanish naval histoiy
are, La Afarina de Cojiitta (iB^), and La Armada EspaUoi't desde Cx
anion dc Castilla y A ragon ( t S^^- 1 ooi } , of Captain Cesareo Femaadea
Dxitn, The Geickiemei van ket Nederiandjcke Zeevcztn of ^Tr J. C. de
Jens; he (t^sS), Ls an admirable and exhaustive histoiy of the Dutch
n.iv^'. The History of the Afaritime Wars of the Turks, by Haji
Khalfa (or Hitsji Chalifa), transited by Mr j. Miich^tt for tbe
Oriental Translation Fund CiSji)* may be read with curiosity and
some profit. There are two general histories ol the navy of the
United SiatM by Fenimore Cooper (tB^gJ^ and by Mr E. S. Maclay
(18Q4); the second is the fuller, and the mc^e critical. Captain
Mahan* infiuenee of Sea Power on History fddo-i^Sj US^),aad his
In^ueHce of 5ta Falser upon the French Rejoiutton and Empire I7QS~
iii3 (tSoz), must be cLaised apart as studies of the eflnenil into*-
action of navies on one another and on international relations.
The lonff series of readable monocraphs by Admiral Jurien de la
Gravicre^ covering the whole 5eld of naval waKare from the
F^eloponne^ian War to his own time, contain much iniormation and
uuEul mtkisiD* CD. H.)
Naval SfftATtdf mto Tactics
Hisloruat Etw/H/wn,— Thai the methods of conducting war
at tea have been conditioned by the capacity of the ships and
tbeirarmamctil, and that capacity and armament hive interacted
upon one another, may appear to be pbiitudcs. But they are
none the less tnilbs which must always be borne in mind when
we arc considering tbe history of naval strategy » that is, of the
lai;gc movements by which a commander secures the advantage
of fighting at a place convenient lo himself, at of tact jcbf— which
are the movements he makes in battle. Throughout antiquity
and the middle ages till the i6tb century, the weapons reiied
on «CTe — (i) the ship itsell, used as a ram, (i) the swords of the
crew, (3) sucb miuik weapoiu «s boLti fnun heavy crossbows
STRATEGY AMD TACnC9|
NAVY^ AND NAVIES
313
fixed on the bulwarks, bows and anows, weights dropped from
a yard or pde rigged out, and the various means of setting an
enemy ali^t; by shooting arrows with burning tow or by
Gieek fire or wild fire, blown through tubes {cannae, whence
"cannon"). Thenatureof the" Greek fire "is still an unsettled
question, and it is bdieved by some authorities that the Byzan-
tines of the middle ages were acquainted with the use of gun-
powder. However that may be, it is certain that even aifter
the introduction of artiUeiy in the 14th century, the
means of injuring an enemy at a distance were nil, or
were veiy feeble. 'All actions, therefore, were fought
at dose quarters, where ramming and boarding were possible.
Bat the use of the ram was only available for a vessel driven by
oatL A sailing vessel could not ram unless she were running
before a good breeze. In a light wind her charge would be
ineffective, and it could not be oiade at all from leeward. There-
fore, while tietts depended on the methods of battle at close
qoarteis, two conditions were imposed on the warship. She
must be small and light, so that her crew could row her with
effect, and she must carry a numerous crew to work her oars
lad board or repel boarders. Ssils were used by the triremes
and other dasses of warship, andent and medieval, when going
from point to point — ^to relieve the rowers from absolutdy
ezfasttsting toiL They were lowered in action, and when the
combatant had a secure port at hand, they were left ashore
brfore battle. These conditions applied alike to Phormio, the
Athenian admiral of the 5th century B.C, to the Norse king Olaf
Tryggvcson of the loth century aj>., and to U>e chiefs ofnhc
Christian and Turkish fleets which fought the battle of Lepanto
b AJ>. 1 57 1. There might be, and were, differences of degree
in the use made of oar and sail respectivdy. Outside the
Mediterranean, the sea was unfavourable to the long, narrow
sad li^t galley of x ao ft. long and 30 ft. of beam. But the Norse
ship found at Gokstad, though her beam is a third of her length,
and she is wdl adapted for rou^ seas, is also a light and shallow
craft, to be easily rowed or haiiled up on a beach. Some medieval
vcKds were ot oonatderable size, but these were the exception;
tbcy were awkward, and were rather transports than warships.
Given a warship which is of moderate size and crowded with
men, it follows that prolonged cruises, and blockade in the full
sense of the word, were beyond the power of the sea commanders
of antiquity and the middle ages. There were ships used for
trade wliicfa with a favourable wind could rdy on making six
knots an Iwur— that is to say, twice the average speed attained
by Captain Cook in his voyages of exploration. But a war fleet
could not provide the cover, or carry the water and food, needed
to keep the crews effident during a long cruise. So long as galleys
were used, that is to say, till the middle of the x8th century, they
were kept in port as much as possible, anda tent was rigged over
the deck to boose the rower^. The fleet was compelled to hug
the shore in order to find supplies. It always endeavoured to
secure a basis on shore to store provisions and rest the crews.
Therefore the wider operations were slowly made. Therefore
too, when the enemy was to be waited for, or a port watched,
some point on shore wss secured and the ships were drawn up.
It was by holding such a point that the Corinthian allies of the
Syracnsans were able to pin in the Athenians. The Romans
watched LQybeum in the same way, and Hannibal the Rhodian
could ran the blockade before they were launched and ready to
stop him. Ihe Norsemen hauled thdr ships on shore, stockaded
than and marched inland. The Greeks of Homer had done the
same and could do nothing else. Roger di Lauria, in A.O. 1285,
waited at the Hormigas with his galleys on the beach till the
French were aeen to be coming past him. Edward HI. in
AJ). 1350^ stoyed at Wmchdsea tUl the Spaniards were sighted.
The affiea at Lqpanto renudned at anchor near Dragonera till
the last moment.
Given again that the fighting was at dose quarters with ram,
stroke of sword, crossbow bolt, arrow, pigs of iron or lead and
wild fire blown thxou^ tubes, it follows that the formations
and tactics were equally imposed on the combatants. The
fematiosi was inevitably the hme abreash^ihe ships going side
by side— for the object was to bring all the rams, or all the
boarders hito action &t once. It was quite as necessary to strike
with the prow when boarding as when rammmg. If the vessels
were laid side by side the oars would have prevented them
from touching. It may be added that this rule prevailed equally
with the sailhig ship of later times, since th^ were built with
what is technically called *' a tumble home^;" that is to say, their
sides sloped inwuds from the water line, and the space from
the top of the bulwarks of one to the other was too great to be
jumped. The extent to which ramming or boarding would be
used respectively would depend on the skill of the rowers. The
highly trained Athenian crews of the early Pdopon-
nesian War relied mainly on the ram. They aimed at
dashing throu^ an enemy's line, and shaving off the
oars from one side of an opponent. When successfully
practised, this manoeuvre would be equivalent to the dismasting
of a sailing line of battle ship. It wss the ^inrXow, and it
enabled the assailant to turn, and ram his crippled enemy in
the stem {nplrXoiot) But an attack with the ram might be
exceedingly dangerous to the assailant, if he were not very
solidly buflt. His ram might be broken off in the shock. The
Athenians found this a very real peril, and were compelled to
construa their triremes with stronger bows, to contend with the
more heavily built Pdoponnesian vessels— whereby they lost
much of their mobility. In fact success b ramming depended
so much on a combination of skill and good f<ntune that it
played a somewhat subordinate part in most andent sea fights.
The Romans baffled the ramming tactics of the Carthaginians
by the invention of the ccroa or crow, whicA grappled the prow
of the rammer, and provided a gangway for boarders. After
the introduction of artillery in the X4th century, when guns
were carried in the bows <k the galley, it was considered bad
management to fire them until the prow was actually touching
the enemy. If they were dischar^ bdore the Shock there
was always a risk that they would be fired too soon, and the guns
of the time could not be rapidly reloaded. The officer-like course
was to keep the fire for the last moment, and use it to dear the
way for the boarders. As a ddence against boarding, the ships
of a weaker fleet were sometimes tied side to one another, in the
middle ages, and a barrier made with oars and spars. But this
defensive arrangement, which was adopted by Olaf Tryggveson of
Norway at Swolder (a.d. xooo), and by the Frendi at Sluys
(a.d. X340), could be turned by an enemy who attacked on the
flank. To meet the shock of ramming and to ram, medieval
ships were sometimes " bearded," i.e. fortified with uon bands
across the bows.
The prindples of naval warfare known to the andent world
descended through Byzantium to the Italian Republics and from
them to the West. With the growth of ships, the
devdopment of artillery, and the beginning of the great
sailing .fleets capable of keeping the sea for long
period together, came the need for a new adaptation of old
prindples. A ship which depended on the wind for its motive
power could not hope to ram. It could still board, and the
Spaniards did for long make it thdr main object to run their
bow over an enemy's sides, and invade his deck. In order to
carry out this kind of attack they would naturally try to get
to windward and then bear down before the wind in line abreast
ship upon ship. But an opponent to leeward could always baffle
this attack by edging away, and hx the meantime fire with liis
broadside to cripple his opponent's spars. Experience soon
showed the more intelligent sea officers of all nations, that a
ship which relied on broadside fire, must present her broadside
to the enemy; it was also soon seen that in order to give full
play to the guns of the fleet, the ships must follow one another.
Thus there arose the practice of arrangbg ships in the lint
ahead, one beUnd the other. For a time sea-officers were
hxdined to doubt whether order could be maintained among
vessels subject to the forces of wind and tide. But in the very
first years of the x6th century, a Spanish writer of the name of
Alonso de Chaves argued with force that even an approach to
order is superior to none— and that, given the accidents of
314
NAVY AND NAVIES
ISTRATEGY AND TACIICS
•*Umfi
wind and tide, the advantage would rest with him who took
his precautions. The truth was so obvious that it could not but
be universally accepted. The line ahead then became
' the line of battle." This term has a double mean-
ing. It may mean the formation, but it may also
mean the ships which are fit to form parts of the line in action.
The practice of sorting out ships, so as to class those fit to be
in a line of battle apart from others, dates from the second
half of the xyth century. Its advantages had been seen before,
but the dassification was not made universal till then. The
excessive number of ships collected in those naval wars, their
variety in size, and the presence in the fleets of a large proportion
of prised or hired merchant ships had led to mudh bad execu-
tion. But in the final battles of the first war between England
and the Dutch Republic (1652-53), the Parliamentary admirals
enforced the formation of the line by strong measures. On the
conclusion of the war, they drew up the first published code of
fighting instructions. These give the basis of the whole tactical
system of the X7th and i8th centuries in naval warfare. The
treatises of Paul Hoste, Bigot de Morogues and Bourd£ de
Villehuet, which were the text-books of the time, all French in
origin but all translated into other languages, are commentaries
upon and developments of this traditional code of practice.
The governing principles were simple and were essentially
' sound. The ships were arranged in a line, in order that each
should have her broadside free to fire into the enemy
without running the risk of firing into her own friends.
In order to remove the danger that they would
touch each other, a competent space, to allow for a
change of course in case of need, was left between them. It
was fixed at two cables— that is, aoo fathoms, or 400 yds.
— though less room was occasionally taken. To reduce the
number of men required to handle the sails, and leave them
free to fight the guns, the ships fought under reduced canvas.
But it was necessary to retain the power to increase the speed of
a ship rapidly. This was secured by not sheeting home one of the
sails— that is to say, it was left loose, and the wind was "spilt
out of it." When the vessel was required to shoot ahead it was
easy to sheet the sail home, and " let all draw." The fleets would
fight " on the wind " — that is to say, with the wind on the side,
because they were then under better controL With the wind
blowing from behind they would take the wind out of one
another's sails. When the course had to be altered, the ships
turned by tacking— that is, head to wind— or by wearing—
thkt is, stem to wind, cither together or in succession. To tack
or wear a large fleet in succession was a very lengthy operation.
The second ship did not tack, or wear, till she had reached the
place where the first had turned, and so on, down the whole line.
By tacking or wearing together the order of a fleet was reversed,
the van becoming the rear, and the rear the van. It must be
remembered that a fleet was divided into van, centre and rear,
which kept their names even when the order was reversed.
Orders were given by signals from the flag-ship, but as they
could not be seen by the ships in a line with her, frigates were
stationed on the side of the line opposite to that facing the
enemy " to repeat signals."
A main object which the admirals who .drafted the orders
had before them was to obviate the risk that the enemy would
double on one end o( the line and put it between two fires.
It is obvious that if two fleets, A and B, are sailing, both with
the wind on the right side, and the leading ship of A comes
into action with the seventh or eighth of B, then six or seven
leading ships of B's line will be free to turn and surround the
head of A's line. This did actually happen at the battle of
Beachy Head. Therefore, the orders enjoin on the admiral the
strict obligation to come into action in such a way that his leading
ship shall steer with the leading ship of the enemy, and his rear
with the rear. Tlie familiar expression of the British navy was
" to take every man his bird."
' The regular method of fighting battles was thus set up. In
itself it was founded on sound principles. As it was framed when
^.enemies kept in view .were the Dutch, who in seamanship
and gunnery were fully equal to the British, its authors were
justified in prescribing the safe course. Unhappily they added
the direction that a British admkal was to keep his fleet, through-
out the battle, in the order in which it was begun. Therefore
he could take no advantage of any disorder which might occur
in the enem/s lines. When therefore the conflict came to be
between the British and the French in the i8th century, battles
between equal or approximately equal forces were for long
inconclusive. The French, who had fewer ships than the British,
were anxious to fight at the least possible cost, lest their fleet
should be worn out by severe action, leaving Great Britain
with an untouched balance. Therefore, they preferred to engage
to leeward, a position which left them free to retreat before the
wind. They allowed the British fleet to get to windward, and,
when it was parallel with them and bore up before the wind to
attack, they moved onwards. The attacking fleet had then to
advance, not directly before the wind with its ships moving
along lines perpendicular to the line attacked, but in slanting
or curving lines. The assailants would be thrown into " a bow
and quarter line " — that is to say, with the bow of the second
level with the after part of the first and so on from end to end.
In the case of a number of ships of various powers of sailing, it
was a difficult formation to maintain. The result was that the
ships of the assailing line which were steering to attack the
enemy's van came into action first and were liable to be crippled
in the rigging. If the same formation was to be maintained,
the others were now limited to the speed of the injured vckcIs,
and the enemy to leeward slipped away. At all times a fleet
advancing from windward was liable to injury in spais, even if
the leeward fleet did not deliberately aim at them. The leeward
ships would be leaning away from the wind, and their shot woiiid
always have a tendency to fly high. So long as the assailant
remidned to windward, the ships to leeward could always slip
off.
The inconclusive results of so many battles at sea cxdted
the attentions of a Scottish gentleman, Mr Clerk of Eldin (1718-
2812), in the middle of the i8th century. He began a
series of speculations and calculations, which he em- g^^l,
bodied in pamphlets and distributed among naval
officers. They were finally published in book form in 1790 and
1797. The hypothesis which governs all Clerk's demonstrations
is that as the British navy was superior in gunnery aixl seaman-
ship to their enemy, it was their interest to produce a m£l£e.
He advanced various ingenious suggestions for concentrating
superior forces on parts of the enemy's line — by preference on
the rear, since the van must lose time in turning to its support.
They are all open to thecritidsm that an expert opponent could
find an answer to each of them. But that must be always the
case, and victory is never the fruit of a skilful movement alone,
but of that superiority of skill or of moral strength which enables
one combatant to forestall or to crush another by more rapid
movement or greater force of blow. Clerk's theories had at
least this merit that they must infallibly tend to make battles
decisive by throwing the combatants into a furious mingled
strife.
The unsatisfactory character of the accepted method of
fighting battles at sea had begun to be obvious to naval ofl^ccta,
both French and English, who were Clerk's contemporaries.
The great French admiral SufTren condemned naval tactics as
being little better than so many excuses for avoiding & real
fight. He endeavoured to find a better method, by concentrating
superior forces on parts of his opponent's line in some of his
actions with the British fleet in the East Indies in 1781 and 1785.
But his orders were ill obeyed, and the quality of hb fleet was
not superior to the British. Rodney, in his first battle in the
West Indies in 2780, endeavoured to concentrate a superior
force on part of his enemy's line by throwing a greater number
of British ships on the rear of the French line. But his directions
were misunderstood and not properly executed. Moreover be
did not then go beyond trying to place a larger number of ships
in action to windward against a smaller number to leewmrd by
arranging them at a less distance than two-cables length. But
SntATEGY AND TACTICSl
NAVY AND NAVIES
315
«A coemy who took the simple and obvious course of closing his
lioe oonid baffle the attack, and while the retreat to leeward
remaioed open could still slip away. On the lath of April 178a
(battle of Dominica) Rodney was induced, by the disorder in the
French Hne, to break his own formadon and pass through the
coemy. He took the French flag-ship and five other vessels.
The {avonmble result of this departure from the old practice of
keeping the formation intact throughout the battle ruined the
moral authority of the orthodox ^tem of tactica. In the Fiench
war which began in 1793 Lord Howe (battle of xst of June)
oideccd his fleet to steer through the enemy, and to put them-
selves on his line only aa a means of bringing his fleet into action,
and then played to produce a mtiee in which the individual
superiority of his vessels would have free play. Throughout the
war, which lasted, with a brief interval of peace, from 1793
to 1815, British admiTTih grew constantly bolder in the method
they adopted for producing the de^red m£16e (battles of St
Vincent, Camperdown, Trafalgar). It has sometimes been argued
that their line of attack was rash and would have proved
disastrous if tried against more skilful opponents. But this
is one of those criticisms which are of value only against those
who think that there can be a magic efficacy in any particular
attack, which makes its success infallible. That the tactics of
British admirals of the great wars of 1 793-181 5 had in themselves
no sttdi virtue was amply demonstrated at the engagement
off Lbsa in 181 x. They were justified because the reliance of
admirab on the quality of their fleets was well founded. It
should be borne in mind that a vessel while bearing down on an
enemy's line could not be exposed to the fire of three enemies
at once when at a less distance than 750 yds., because the guns
could not be trained to converge on a nearer point. The whole
range of effective fire was only a thousand yards or a very little
over. The chance that a ship would be dismasted and stopped
before Teaching the enemy's line was small.
The improvements in Uie construction of ships, which had so
modi influence on the devek>pment of tactics, had its effect also
i^^gggg on strategy. The great aims of a fleet in war must be
to keq> the coast of its own country free from attack,
to secure the freedom of its trade, and to destroy
_^^^ the enemy's fleet or confine it to port. The first and
" second of these purposes can be attained by the
saccesrful achievement of the third — the destruction or paralysis
of the. hostile fleet. But till after the end of the 17th century
it was thought unposable, or at least very rash, to keep the great
shii» out of port between Sq>tember and May or June. Therefore
coadnuous watch on an enemy by blockading his ports was
beyond the power of any navy. Therefore too, as the opponent
mi^t be at sea before he could be stopped, the movements of
fleets were much subordinated to the need for providing convoy
to the trade. It was not till the middle of the x8th century that
the continuous blockade first carried out by Lord Hawke in
1758-59, and then brought to perfeaion by Earl St Vincent
and other British adminJs between 1793 and 18x5, became
possible.
Modem rimes.— The interval of ninety 3rears between 1815
and X904 (the opening of the Russo-Japanese conflict) was
marked by no xuival war. There was fighting at sea, and there
were prolonged blockades, but there were no encounters between
laige and well a^tpointed luivies. During this period an entire
mrohition took place in the means of propulsion, armament and
material of construction of ships. Steam was applied to war-
ships, at first as an auxiliary force, in the second quarter of the
19th ceniuiy. The Crimean War gave a great stimulus to the
development of the guns. It also brought about the application
of iron to ships as a cuirass. Very soon metal was adopted as the
material out of which ships were made. The extended use of
shells, by immensely increasing the danger of fire, rendered so
inflammable a substance as wood too dangerous for employment
in a war-ship. France has the honour of having set the example
of anpbsrxng iron as a cuirass, while England was the first to
take it as the sole material. Changes so sweeping as these could
not take place without affecting all the established ideas as to
the conduct of war at sea. The time of revolution in means of
propulsion, armament and construction was also a time of much
qwcuiation. Doubts and obscurities remained unsolved because
they had never been brought to the test of actual fighting on
an adequate scale. As the X9th century drew to a close, another
element of uncertainty was introduced by the development of
the torpedo. A weapon which is a floating and moving mine,
capable up to a certain point of being directed on its coxirse,
invisible or very hard to trace, and able to deliver its blow
beneath the water-line, was so complete a novelty that its action
was hard indeed to foresee and therefore particularly liable to
be exaggerated. From the torpedo sprang too the submarine
vessel, which aims at striking below the surface, where it itself
is, like its weapon, invisible, or nearly so.
How to solve the problems which science has set has been tne
task of thoughtful naval officers— and of the governments which
the military seaman serves. The questions to be solved may be
stated in the following order. What would be the effect; xst,
of the employment of steam, or of any substitute for steam other
than the wind or the oar; 2nd, of the development of the gun;
3rd, of the use of metal as a material of construction; 4th, of
the use of a weapon and a vessel actmg below the surface of the
water, and if not wholly invisible at least very much hidden?
The belief that steam had ^ven the lesser fleet an advantage
over the greater — that it had, in a phrase once popular among
Englishmen, "bridged the Channel,"^need only be touched
on for its historical interest. It was an intelligible, perhaps
pardonable, example of the confusion produced by a novelty of
improved capacity on the minds of those who were not prepared
to consider it in all its bearings. A moment's thought ought to
have shown that where both sides had the command of steam,
the proportion between them would remain what it was before.
The only exception would be that the fleet which was steering in
a direction already laid down would have a somewhat greater
advantage than of old, over another which was endeavouring to
detect its presence and course. Its movements would be more
rapid, and it could steam through a fog by which it would be
hidden in a way impossible for a sailing ship. On the other
hand, such a fleet could be much more rapidly pursued and
internq)ted when once its course was known. The influence
which the freedom and certainty of movement conferred by
steam would have on the powers of fleets and ships presented
a problem less easy to dispose of. Against the advantage they
confexted was to be set the linutation they imposed. The
necessity for replacing indispensable fuel was a restriction
unknown to the sailing ship, which needed only to renew its
provisions and water— stores more easily obtained all the world
over than coal. Hence doubts naturaUy arose as to how far a
state which did not possess coaling stations in all parts of the
world could conduct extensive operations Gvtx great distances.
The events of the recent Russo-Japanese War lead to the con-
clusion that the obligation to obtain coal has not materially
limited the freedom of movement of fleets. By carrying store
vessels with him, by coaling at sea, and taking advantage of the
friendly neutrality of certain ports on his route, the Russian
admiral, Rojdesvensky, reached the Far East in X905 in less time
and with less difficulty than he could have done in days when
he would have been liable to delay by calms, contrary winds and
loss of spars in gales. The amount of skill on the part of. the
crews required to carry a fleet a long distance would even appear
to be less than it was of old. From this it would seem to follow
that modem fleets possess no less capacity than the old sailing
fleets for the great operations of war at a distance, or for main-
taining blockades. Advantage and disadvantage counterbalance
one another, and the proportion remains the same. Blockade
is only another name for the maintenance of a watch on an
enemy's squadron in port by a force capable of fighting him if
he comes out. Admiral Togo blockaded the Russian sqtudron at
Port Arthur in 1904 as effectually as any admiral has done the
work in the past. The mobility given to the blockaded fleet by
steam has been exactly counterbalanced by the increased
mobility of the watch. The proportions remain the same.
3i6
NAVY AND NAVIES
ISTRATECY AND TACTICS
But if the power to undertake far-ranging operations, and to
confine an enemy to port by keeping him under observation,
and driving him back when he comes out remains the same, the
strategy of war at sea cannot have undergone any material altera-
tion. The possession of ports where stores can be accumulated
and repairs effected is an advantage as it always was. But a
powerful fleet when operating far from its own country can supply
itself with a store-bouse (a base) on the enemy's coast, or can be
served at sea by store-ships, as of old. If beaten, it will suffer
from the want of places of refuge as it always did.
Among the speculations of recent years, a good deal has been
beard of the " fleet in being." If this phrase is only used to
.. — . . mean that, so long as any part of an enemy's navy
is capable of acting with effect, its existence cannot be
ignored with the certainty of safety, then the words
convey a truth which applies to all war whether by land or
sea. If it means, as it was at least sometimes clearly intended
to mean, that no such operation as the transport of troops
oversea can be undertaken with success, so long as the naval
forces of an opponent are not wholly destroyed, it is con-
trary to ancient experience. The Japanese in the beginning of
1904 bqgan transporting troops to Korea before they had beaten
the Russians, and they continued to send them in spite of the
risk of interruption by the Vladivostok squadron. There was a
risk, but risk is inseparable from war. The degree which can be
incurred with sanity depends on the stake at issue, the nature of
the circumstance and the capacity of the persons, which vary
infiniuly and must be separately judged.
The war of 1904-05 may also be said to have shown that the
vast change in the construction of ships, together with the develop-
^ . ment of old and the invention of new weapons, has
«tsa J. ^^^ j^ j^^ ^ ^^^ ^^^ course of battles at sea than
had been thought likely. Two calculations have been successively
mode and have been supported with plausibility. The first was
that steam would enable the ship herself to be used as a projectile
and that the use of the ram would again become common.
The sinking of the " Re d'ltalia " by the Austrian ironclad
Ferdinand Max at the battle of Lissa in 1866 seemed to give
force to this suppositioiL Accidental collisions such as those
between the British war-ships " Vanguard " and " Iron Duke,"
" Victoria " and " Camperdown " have also. shown how fatal a
wound may be given by the ram of a modem ship. But the
sinking of the " Re d'ltalia " was largely an accident As
between vessels both under full control, a collision is easily
avoided where there is space to move. In a mfi£e, or pell-mdl
bsttle, to employ Nelson's phrase, opportunities would occur for
the use of the ram. But the activity of science has developed
one weapon to counterbalance another. The torpedo has made
it very dangerous for one fleet to rush at another. A vessel
J. - cannot fire torpedoes ahead, and when charging home
Torw9am ^^ ^^ opponent presenting his broadside would be liable
to be struck by one. The torpedo may be said therefore to have
excluded the pell-mell battle and the use of tbe ram except
on rare occasions. But then arose the question whether the
torpedo itself would not become the decisive weapon in naval
warfare. It is undoubtedly capable of producing a great effect
when its power can be fully exerted. A school arose, having
its most convinced partisans in France, which argued that, as a
small vessel could with a torpedo destroy a great battle-ship, the
first would drive the second off the sea. The battle-ship was to
give place to the torpedo-boat or torpedo-boat-destroyer which
was itself only a torpedo-boat of a larger growth. But the
torpedo is subject to dose restrictions: It cannot be used with
effect at more than two thousand yards. It passes through
a resisting medium, which renders its course uncertain and
comparatively slow, so that a moving opponent can avoid it.
The vessel built to use it can be easily sunk by gun-fire. By
night the risk from gun-fire is less, but science has nullified
what she had done. The invention of the search-light has made
it possible to keep the waters round a ship under observation
all night. In the war between Russia and Japan the torpedo
was at first used with success, but the injury it produced fell
below expectations, even when allowance is made for the fact that
the Russian squadron at Port Arthur had the means of repair clow
St hand. In the sea fights of the war it was of subordinate use,
and indeed was not employed except to give the final stroke to,
or force the surrender of, an already cripple<d ship. This war
(and as much may be said for the war between the United Sutcs
and Spain) confirmed an old experience. A resdute attempt
was misde by the Americans to block or blind (in the modern
phrase to "bottle-up ") the entrance to Santiago de Cuba by
sinking a ship in it. The Japanese renewed the attempt on a
great scale, and with the utmost intrepidity, at Fort Arthur;
but though a steamer can move with a speed and precision im-
possible to a sailing ship, and can therefore be sunk more surely
at a chosen spot, the experiment failed. Neither Americans
nor Japanese succeeded in preventing their enemy from coming
out when he wished to c(Hne.
Since neither ram nor torpedo has established the daim made
for it, the cannon remains " the queen of battles at sea." It
can still deliver its blows at the greatest distance, and ^^^ ^
in the greatest variety of circumstances. The change
has been in the method in which its power b applied. Now,
as in former times, the aim of a skilful officer is to concentrate
a superior force on a part of his opponent's formation. When
the range of effective fire was a thousand or twdve hundred
yards, snd when guns could only be trained over a small segment
of a drde because they were fired out <rf ports, concentration
could only be effected by bringing a iarger ntmiber of ships into
dose action with a smaller. To-day when gun-fire is effective even
at seven thousand yards, and when guns fired from turrets and
barbettes have a far wider sweep, concentration can be effected
from a distance. The power to effect it must be sought by a
judidous choice of position. It is true that greater rapidity aiKl
precision of fire produce concentration in one way. If cif two
forces ^engaged one can bring forty guns to bear on & chMen
point of its opponent's formations, while that opponent can
bring fifty guns to bear on a part of it, the superiority would
seem to be with the larger number. But this is by no means
necessarily the case. The smaller number of guns may gi\*e
the greater number of blows if fired with greater speed and
accuracy. Yet no commander has a right to rely on such a
superiority as this till it has been demonstrated, as it had been
in the case of the British fleet by the time that Trafalgar was
fought. Therefore an able chief will always play for position.
He will do saall the more because an advantage of position adds
to any other which he may possess. He may dispense with it
for a particular reason at a given moment and in reliance 00
other sources of strength, but he will not throw it away.
When position is to be secured the first condition to be thoai^t
of is the order in which it'is to be sought for. The " line ahead **
was imposed on the sailing fleets by the peremptory -. ^^^
need for bringing, or at least retaining the power to
bring, all their broadsides into action. Experiments made during
manoeuvres by modem navies, together wiih the experience
gained in the war of 1904-05 in the Far East, have combined to
show that no material change has taken place in this respect.
It is still as necessary as ever that all the guns should be so placed
as to be capable of being brought to bear, and it is still s condition
imposed by the physical necessities of the case that this freedom
can only be obtained when ships follow one another in a line.
When in pursuit or flight, or when steaming on the look-out for
a still unseen enemy, a fleet may be arranged in the " line
abreast." A pursuing fleet would have to run the risk of being
struck by torpedoes dropped by a retreating enemy. But it
would have the advantage of being able to bring idl its guns
which can fire ahead to bear on the rear-ship of the enemy.
When an opponent is prepared to give battle, and turns his broad-
side so as to bring the maximum of his gun-fire to bear, he must
be answered by a similar display of force—in other words,
the line ahead must be formed to meet the line ahead.
Both fleets being in this formation, how is the ocmcentratMm
of a superior force to be effected? If tbe opponents are equal
in number, speed, armament, gunnery and the leadership of the
NAWAB— NAWANAGAR
317
chieCs, accident alone can confer an advantage on either of them.
Where equal weights are tried on accurate scales one cannot
force up the other, but this evenness of power is rarely met
in war by land or sea. The knowledge that it existed would
probably prevent an appeal to arms between nations, since
DO decisive result could be hoped for. It is needless to insist
that superior numbers make the task of concentrating com-
paratively easy, unless counterbalanced by a great inferiority
io speed. Speed is the quality which an admiral will wish his
fleet to possess, in order that be may have the power to choose
his point of attack. The swifter of two forces, otherwise equal,
-^ ^^j can always get ahead of its opponent, and then by
turning inwards bring the leading ship of the force
it is attacking into a curve of fire. The leader of the slower
fleet can avoid the danger by also turning inwards. By so doing
he wUl keep the assailant on his beam, opposite his side. Then
the two fleets will tend to swing round in two circles having
a common centre, the swifter going round the outer circumference
and the slower round the inner. As the difference in length
of these two lines would be always great and perhaps immense,
the less speedy fleet could easily avoid the risk of being headed.
Oa the other hand the outer fleet will be in a concave formation,
and therefore able to bring all its guns to bear on the same point,
vhUe the inner fleet will be in a convex line, so that it will be
anable to bring the guns of both van and rear to bear on the
same mark. The advantage is obvious, but it may perhaps
be easily exaggerated. The swifter fleet on the larger circle can
in theory concentrate all its fire on one point, but all its ships
will still be under fire, and in practice it is found very difficult
to nuke men ne^ect the enemy who is actually hitting them,
and apply their attention entirely to another. Moreover the
ships on the outer drde, having the larger line to cover, cannot
aUow themselves the same margin of steam-power to make
good loss of speed by injury from shot. A fleet would not go
at its maximum rate of common speed in action. A blow on
the water-line might fill part of the ship's watertight compart-
ments and reduce her speed. She must be able to make good
the loss by putting on a greater pressure of steam, which she
vould not be able to do if already going at her maximum rate.
In actual battle very much will depend on the respective skill
of the gunnery. The swifter fleet might well find its superiority
neutralised by the crippling of two or three of its leading ships.
In such an action as this it will be, if not impossible, at least
exceedingly difficult to give orders by signal. An admiral will
therefore have to direct by example, which he cannot do except
by placing his flag-ship at the head of the line. In that place
be will be marked out as a target for the enemy's concentrated
fire. He may indeed decide to direct the battle by signal from
outside the line. Yet the difficulty he will find in seeing what
is happening, as well as the difficulty the captains wQl find
in xeeiog the signals, will always be so great, that in all probability
the admirals of the future, will, like Nelson, be content to lay
down the general principles on which the battle is to be fought,
and trust the captains to apply them as circumstances arise.
A large measure of independence must needs be allowed to the
captains in the actual stress of battle. Ships must be placed
at such a distance apart as will allow them room to manoeuvre
so as to avoid collision with their own friends. The interval
cannot be less than 800 yds. When the length of the vessels
themselves is added, it will be seen that a line of twelve vessels
win stretch six miles. Modern powder is nominally smokeless,
and it certainly does not create the dense bank of smoke produced
by the old explosives. Yet it does create a suffident haze to
obscure the view from the van to the rear of an extended line.
The movements must be rapid, and there will be little time
indeed in which to take decisions. The torpedo may not be
used during the actual battle. Its part will be to complete the
destruction or enforce the surrender of a beaten enemy, and to
cover retreats.
The submarine and submergible vessel were brought into
prominence by France in the hope that by diminishing the
value of battleships they would reduce the superiority of the
British navy. The example of France was followed by other
powers, and particularly by Great Britain; but their value
as weapons of It j^j: Is ,K«:ii^iu\y 4 ijj4iivt i^r>i.rLLui,»LiuiJi.
BlBLlOGRAPHV.^Niival firatccy can hardly be siid to have been
dealt with at aU till Captain Marun publifhtd hia InfiMtna 0f Sm
Power OH History. The uctki of tht ancient wartd aic Duly wry
briefl)r dealt with \n thr Dt re MUitari of Vc£eLiuft. in book iv.
Vegetiut was m-::' n copied jtnd nr^d in the mludle agei, and w^«
translated in 128-1 ' ' y Jean dc Nteung, anc of the autbora of the Roman.
dt la Rose. Hh-^ trjintbiion i* printed, to|;cther with the v^rM
paraphraae of I'Hnrats^ in the ATicwni Texies franinis, N^val
tactics are dealt wuh in thr tixatiMr of Leo VL the Taciiciat^, And
his ton Constaotinc VIL. or perhajpa Constantino VfJi., pnotcd in
Meursius' Opera Omttia, vol. vi. They wctv empemrs of the Mace-
donian dynasty. The tactics of the medicv^al galleys are described,
with refefences to auihoriciciv b&th by A. Gu^lielnrotti m Manni
Portificiat and by Admtrall jurien dc la CravLtre in Lft Dernierj
jours do la marine d ramft {lUs). The chief wntrrt on tht tsctkt
of the tailing flo^ti v-mc French. At the head o\ them, in time and
in merit, must be nut Paul Ho-m. whow foltD on Naval EimliiUimi
appeared in 1697. 1 1 oi te vm a Jcsu it v ho wa 1 lecreta ry to t he Cou n t
01 Tourville. iCt.^U'V trraUK wai trans^lated into Englith and
IMiblished in Edir' iri^h in 1^14 with numerous and excellent iUuti ra-
tions by Captain f H. B^^all A TrfuHu on Navai Tactics. Captain
Boswail also roa< ' ,ign nrliting to naval tactics in the
History of the At Hoycr. an officer in the Pnnaian
*nny (i797-l8< .ccSkni French treatise ii le
Manmtmer c( I jim. ,. ^,n,uu^-i 0765), irtnibied into English
in 1788 under tie utlf;- of 7 he Mi^ntrutrfr, or Skilfui Seaman,
Particular attenti MIL ii due to the Essay ^n ffovct Toaui by Mr Clrfk
of Eldin, first P' ^ ■ ^I'^l i^ a collei.-ttd form in 1804, but known Sn
parts since 1760 1 -A. ^vni original in spctubtlon and \ui\d in
exposition. A Fhiilh ucause, LAtl de ta tuerre sttr mer, by tlie
Vicorote de Grenier (1787). was less famous or influential, but was
able and original. An exhaustive collection of " Fighting Instruc-;
tions " and other material necessary to an intelligent understanding
of the naval tactics of sailine fleets is the Fitkting InstmUions 1530-
1816, edited by Mr Julian S. Corbett for the Navy Record Society'
(looj). Admiral Ekin's Naoal Battles (1824) has some passages of
value. It is comparatively easy to give authorities for the warfare
of salleys and sailing ships, liie case u altered when we have to
deal with the tactics of steam fleets. Vast quantities of speculation
have been written in every countr)r which pos se s s e s a fleet, but, no
test having been applied on a suffiaent scale till the Russo-Japanese
War of 1904. little of it can be said to possess approved authority.
collected in Captain
The facts 01 such wars as there have been are
Mahan's I^fe of FarrapU (1893) and Lessons of the War with Spain
(1899). and in Mr H. W. Wilson^s Ironclads in Action, iSsS'XSgK. A
sundard work on evolutions and formations is Elementary Naoal
Tactics, by Captain Wm. Bainbridge Hoff of the United Sutea navy/
first pubfisbed in 1894, but reprinted since with enlargements.
The Naoal Warfare of 'Admiral P. H. Colomb is a collection of
historical examples meant to illustrate the principles of naval
strategy for application in modem conditions. The third edition,
revised and corrected, with additions, appeared in 1899. (D. H.)
NAWABt a Mahommedan title for a native ruler in IncUa,
answering to the Hindu raja. Nawab originally means a deputy,
being the honorific plural of the Arabic naih, and it was applied
to a delegate of a supreme chief, the viceroy or governor under
the Great Mogul, €.g. the nawab of Oudh. From this use it
became a title of rank, without office, and is now sometimes
conferred by the British government on Mahommedan gentlemen
for distinguished service.
NAWABOANJ, the name of three towns of British India,
(i) The most important is the headquarters of Bara Banki
district in the United Provinces, on the Oudh and Rohilkhand
railway, 17 m. E. of Lucknow; pop. (1901) 14,478. It has
a considerable trade in sugar and cotton goods. It was the
scene of a victory by Sir Hope Grant during the Mutiny, (a) A
town in Malda district, Eastern Bengal and Assam, on the
Mahananda near its junction with the Ganges, a centre of river
trade; pop. (1901) 17,0x6. (3) A town in Gonda district,
United Provinces, on the Bengal and North-Westem railway;
pop. fi9ox) 7047.
NAWANAOAR, or Jaunaoax, a native state of India, in
Kathiawar, within the Gujarat division of Bombay, situated
on the south of the Gulf of Cutch. Area, 379Z sq. m. Pop.
(1901) 336,779, showing a decrease of xx% in the decade due to
famine, ^timated revenue, £170,000; tribute, £8000. The
chief, whose title is Jam, is a Jareja Rajput of the same clan-
as the rao of Cutch. Prince Ranjitsinjhi (b. 1872), well known'
in England as a cricketer, was educated at the Rajkumar College,
3i8
NAWAWl— NAYLER
Rajkot, and Trinity College, Cambridge. He had been adopted
by his uncle, the Jam Shri Vibhaji, but the adoption was set
aside, with British sanction, in favour of a son by a Mahommedan
mother. This son succeeded, but died in 1906 aged twenty-four,
and Ranjitsinjhi obtained the throne in March 1907. A branch
railway, constructed at the expense of the state, was opened
in 1898 from Rajkot to Nawanagar town.
The town of Nawanagar is about 5 m. from the seaport of
BedL Pop. (1901) 53,844. Founded by Jam Rawal in 1540,
it is built of stone, and has manufactures of silk and gold
embroidery, and perfumed oils and red powder for ceremonial
purposes. Its water is supplied from a reservoir covering 600
acres and an aqueduct 8 m. long.
NAWAWl [AbO ZakakXyya ibn Shasaf un-NawAwX] (1233-
1278), Arabian writer, was bom at Naw& near Damascus. In
the latter city he studied from his eighteenth year, and there,
after making the pilgrimage in 1253, he settled as a private
sdiolar until 1267, when he succeeded Abu Shima as professor
of tradition at the Ashraflyya school. He died at Nawi from
overwork.
His manual of Mo-^lctn law aiccDrdin^ to the ^h^Lfi'ltc (ichool has ^ji.'en
edited with French iraniJatiaii by van dtn Bct^tin 3 vo\i.^ Bjiiavia
(1882-1884). and puMi^hed at Cairo { 1 m^}. The TahdhH) uU.A smd'i
has been edited as iht Biairaphvai Dictionary of lilasiriaus Men
chiefly at the Bejnnmni of Istam by F. Wustcnfeld (Gijttin^cn, 1842-
1847). The latnilt w^ Totsirt an inLroduction ta the itudy of
tradition, was puDlihhcd at Csim. tftop. n'ith Suydti's commentary.
It has been in part truulatcd tnto French by m. Marcaii in the
Journal asiatique, bcn^ ik., vo\\. t6't8 U^ioo-i^ih NavJtwi's
collection of the foriy (actually Torty-twD)' chisel tradUions has been
frequently published mth cDmmcntaries in Cairo. For •other works
seeC. BT<KM\miinn*3GeKk,der t^raliahcn Liii^rnJur, vol. i. (Weimar,
1898), pp. 395-397. (G. W. r.)
NAX08, the largest of the Cyclades (about 2 a m. by 16 m.),
a fertile isJand in the Aegean Sea, east of Paros, with which, and
adjacent smaller islands, it forms an eparchia. In ancient times
it was also called Dia or Strongyle. It was rich in vines and
famous for its wine, and a centre of the worship of Bacchus.
The god found Ariadne asleep on its shore, when she was deserted
by Theseus. The sculptors of Naxos formed an important
school of early Greek art; several unfinished colossal statues
are still to be seen in the quarries, noUbly one in Apollona Bay,
to the N.E. of the island. A tyrant Lygdamis Tided Naxos in
alliance with Peisistratus of Athens during the 6th century B.C.
In 501 a Persian fleet tmsuccessfully attacked it, but in 490 it
was captured and treated with great severity. Four Naxian
ships took part in the expedition of Xerxes, but deserted and
fought QD the Greek side at Salamis in 480. Naxos was a member
of the Delian League iq.v.); it revolted in 471, was captured
by Athens, and remained in her possession till her empire was
destroyed. In later times the most remarkable event was its
capture, in a.d. 1207, by the Venetian Marco Sanudo, who
founded the duchy of Naxos, which flourished till the Turks took
the island in 1566. Since the War of Independence it has
belonged to the Greek kingdom. The only ancient remains of
any importance are those of a temple (Palati), supposed to be
that of Dionysus, on an island just off the town. Naxos is still
rich in fruit trees, and also exports com, wine and oil, as well
as emery, its richest and most important mineral product. Pop.
(1907) 25,185 (province), 2064 (commune).
NAX08, the earliest Greek colony in Sicily, was foimdcd by
Theodes from Chalds in 735 B.C., on the E. coast, S. of Tauro-
menium (mod. Taormina), in a low-lying situation just N. of the
mouth of the river Alcantara, where the castle of Schiso now
stands. The adoption of the name of Naxos, the island in the
Aegean Sea, seems to indicate that there were Naxians among
its founders. Within a few years it became strong enough to
found Leontini and Catana. Naxos was the warmest ally of
Athens in the Sicilian expedition. In 403 B.C. it was destroyed
by Dionysius and handed over to the Sicels, but was never
rebuilt. Its pUce was supplied in 358 by Tauromenium. Scanty
traces of its walls are to be seen, of irregular blocks of lava,
especially on the south, parallel to the river (E. A. Freeman,
Hist, of Sic. L 323). Without the city stood the altar of ApoUo
Archegetes, at which all sacred embassies that left Sicily sacrificed
before their departure (Thuc. vi. 3).
NAT, or Ney, the long flute of the ancient Egyptians, held
obliquely and played by directing the breath, as in the pipes
of the syrinx, across the open end, which had no embouchure
of any kind. Performers on the nay are represented on many
of the frescoes which decorated the tombs at Thebes, their
tiutes reaching nearly to the ground while they are in the familiar
half-kneeling posture. The acoustic principles involved in the
production of soimd are the same as for the flute. The narrow-
ness of the bore in proportion to the length would facilitate the
production of harmonics and so give the nay an extended
compass. Victor Loret^ has compiled a list of all the real pipes
of ancient Egypt which have survived, having for the most
part been preserved in mummy cases. The nay was not restricted
to ancient Egypt, but has remained in general use in various
parts of the East imtil the present day. (K. S.)
NATAGARH, a native state in India, in the Orissa division
of BengaL Area, 588 sq. m.; pop. (1901) 140,779; revenue,
£8000. It contains hills rising to 5000 ft.; and exports much
agricultural produce. In 1894 a revolt of the hill tribe of Khonds
against the raja required Uie intervention of British military
police. Nayagarh village (pop. 3340) is connected by road with
Khurda in Puri district.
NATAR, or Nair, a caste or tribe on the W. coast of S. India,
who form the dominant race in Malabar. Traditionally they are
soldiers, but many have taken to professions, and one was in
19 10 a judge of the high court at Madras. Their total number in
all India in 1901 was just over one million. Their most peculiar
customs are: (i) marumahkattayam^** descent through sister's
children," or inheritance in the female line; and (2) samhandkam^
a loose form of union, taking the place of marriage, without any
responsibility of the husband towards either wife or children.
In 1896 an act of the Madras legislature enabled a sambandkam
to be registered, and have the force of a legal marriage. Little
advantage has been taken of this act, while it is alleged that
the sambandham now usually lasts for a lifetime.
See Malabar District CautUer (Madras. 1908).
NATLBR (or Naylor), JAMES (i6i8-i66o),En^sh Puritan,
was bom at Andersloe or Ardsley, in 'Yorkshire, in 1618. In
1642 he joined the parliamentary army, and served as qiurter-
master in John Lambert's horse. In 165 1 he adopted (Quakerism,
and gradually arrived at the conviction that he was a new
incarnation of Christ. He gathered round him a small band of
disciples, who followed him from place to pUce. At Appleby
in 1653 and again at Exeter in 1655 he suffered terms of imprison-
ment. In October 1655, in imitation of Christ's procession into
Jerusalem, he entered Bristol on horseback riding single — *' a
rawboned nude figure, with lank hair reaching below his cheeks "
— attended by seven followers, some on horseback, some on foot,
he in silence and they singing " Hosanna! Holy, holyl Lord
God of Sabaoth!" At the Hi^ Cross he and his followers
were arrested. His trial occupied the second parliament of
Cromwell for several days, and on the x6th of December 1656
he was convicted of blasphemy and sentenced to be whipped
from the Palace Yard to the Old Exchange, to be branded in
the forehead with " B" (for blasphemer), to have his tongue
bored with a red-hot iron, to be whipped through the streets
of Bristol, and to suffer imprisonment with hard labour for two
years. On his release he was readmitted into the commurion
of the Quakers, and spent some time in Westmorland with
George Whitehead (i636?-i723). In October 1660 Nayler
set out to visit his long-forsaken family in Yorkshire, but died
on the journey in Huntingdonshire.
A. collected edition of the Tracts of Nayler appeared in 1716.
See A Relation of the Life, Conversion, Examination, Confession, and
Sentence of James Nayler (1657): a Memoir of the Life. Ministry,
Trial, and Sufferings of James Nayler (1719); and a ReftUation ^
some of the more Modem Misrepresentations of the Society of Friends
commonly called Quakers, with a Life of James Nayler, by Joseph
Gumey Bevan (1800).
*"Lcs FlQtcs ^eypticnnes antiques," in Journal asiatique, 86me
s6rie, tome xiv. (F^ns. 1889).
NAZARENES— NEAGH
319
lAZAREm (NojioDpatbi), an obscure Jewish-Chmtian sect,
cssUng at the time of Epiphanlus (fl. a.o. 370) in Code-Syria,
Dccapolis (Pella) and Basanitis (Cocabe). According to that
authority {FanarioHf jodx. 7) they dated their settlement in
Pella from the time of the flight of the Jewish Christians
from Jerusalem, immediately before the siege in aj>. 70; he
characterizes them as neither more nor less than Jews pure and
simple, but adds that they recognised the new covenant as well as
the old, and believed in the resurrection, and in the one God and
His Son Jesus Christ. He cannot say whether their christological
vittvs were identical with those of Cerinthus and his school, or
vbether they differed at all from his own. But Jerome {Ep. 79,
to Augustine) says that they believed in Christ the Son of God,
bom of the Virgin Mar>', who suffered under Pontius Pilate, and
rose again, but adds that, "desiring to be both Jews and
Christians, they are neither the one nor the other." They used
the Aramaic recension of the tiospd according to Matthew,
which they called the Gospel to the Hebrews, but, while adhering
as far as possible to the Mosaic economy as regarded circumcision,
sabbaths, foods and the like, they did not refuse to recognize the
apostolidty of Paul or the rights of heathen Christians (Jer.,
Comm. ffi Isa.f ix. z). These facts, taken along with the name
(d. Acts xxiv. 5) and geographical position of the sect, lead
to the conclusion that the Nazarenes of the 4th century are, in
spile of Epiphanius's distinction, to be identified with the
Ebionites (g.v.).
HAZARBTH (mod. tn-Na^ira), a town in Galilee, in a hollow
of the hills on the southern border of the plain of Esdraelon.
It first appears as a village (John i. 46) in which Joseph and Mary
fived (Luke i. 26) and to which they returned from Egypt
(Matt, it 23). Here the unrecorded years of Christ's boyhood
vcre spent. From the name of the town comes na^&ra (t.e^
'* Nazarenes ")f the ordinary oriental word for " Christians."
There was here a synagogue (Matt. ziil. 54) in which Christ
preached the sermon that led to his rejection by his fellow towns-
men. The growth of legends and traditional identifications can
be traced in the writings of the pilgrims who have visited the
town from Jerome's time till our own. For none of these can
anything be said, save that it is possible that the village spring
fcaUed " St Mary's Well ") is the same as that used in the time of
Christ. A large basilica stood here about ks>. 600: the crusaders
transferred here the bishopric of Scythopolis. It was taken by
Sahdin in 1187. In 15 17 it was captund by the Turks. The
population is now estimated at about 3500 Moslems and 6500
Christiaos; there are numerous schools, hospitals, &c., conducted
by Greeks, Latins and Protestants. Visitors are shown the
" Church of the Annunciation " with caves (including a fragment
of a pillar hanging from the ceiling, and said to be miraculously
supported) which are described as the scene of the annunciation,
the ** workshop of Joseph," the " synagogue," and a stone table,
said to have been used by Christ. »
RAZARITB, or rather Nazuute, the name given by the
Hebrews to a peculiar kind of devotee. The characteristic
marks of a Nazarite were unshorn locks and abstinence from
wine (Judges ziii. 5; i Sam. i. xi; Amos ii. ix seq.); but full
reguiations for the legal observance of the Nazarite vow are
given in Num. vi., where every product of the grape-vine is
forbidden, and the Nazarite is enjoined not to approach a dead
body, even that of his nearest relative. The law in question is
in its present form post-exilic, and is plainly directed to the
regulation of a known usage. It contemplates the assumption
of the vow for a limited period only, and gives particular details
as to the atoning ceremonies at the sanctuary by which the vow
must be recommenced if broken by accidental defilement, and the
closing sacrifice, at which the Nazarite on the expiry of his vow
cuts off his hair and bums it on the altar, thus returning to
ordinary life. Among the later Jews the Nazarite vow, of course,
corresponded with the legal ordinance, which was further
devetopcd by the scribes in their usual manner (Mishna, tractate
^dslr; cf. X Mace. iii. 49; Acts zxi. 33 seq.; Joseph. Anl. xix.
6. 1, Wars ii. 15. i). On the other hand, in the earliest historical
case, that of Samson, and in the similar case of Samuel (who.
however, is not called a Nazarite), the head remains unshorn
throughout life, and in these times the ceremonial observances
as to undeanness must have been less precise. Samson's mother
is forbidden to eat unclean things during pregnancy, but Samson
himself touches the carcass of a lion and is often in contact with
the slain, nor does he abstain from giving feasts.'
In the cases of SamUel and Samson the unshorn locks Bxt a
mark of consecration to God (Judges ziii. 5) for a partioilar
service— in the one case the service of the sanctuary, in the other
the deliverance of Israel from the Philistines. Since, moreover,
the Hebrew root n-t-r is only dialectically different from n-d-tf
" to vow," both corresponding to the same original Semitic root
(Arab, n-dh-r)^ it would seem that the pectiliar marlu of the
Nazarite are primarily no more than the usual sign that a man b
under a vow of some kind. To leave the locks unshorn during an
arduous undertaking in which the divine aid was specially
implored, and to consecrate the hair after success, was a practice
among various ancient nations, but the closest parallel to the
Hebrew custom is found in Arabia.* There the vow was generally
one of war or revenge, and, till it was accomplished, the man who.
vowed left his hair unshorn and unkempt, and abstained from
wine, women, ointment and periume. Such is the figure of
Shanfara as described in his lAmlya. The observances of the
ihrdm (period of consecration) belong to the same usage (see
Mecca), and we find that at T&if it was customary to shear the
hair at the sanctuary after a journey. The consecration of Samuel
has also its Arabic parallel in the dedication of an unborn child
by its mother to the service of the Ka*ba (Ibn Hish&m, p. 76;
Azral^I, p. 128). The spirit of warlike patriotism that chaxacter-
ized the old religion of Israel could scarcely fail to encourage such
vows (cf. 2 Sam. xi. x x, and perhaps x Sam. xxi. 4 seq.), and from
the allusion in Amos we are led to suppose that at one time the
Nazarites had an importance — perhaps even an organization-^
parallel to that of the prophets, but of a very different religious
type from the Canaanite nature-worship.
See Rechabitbs; Encye. Bibl. col. 336a seq.; G. B. Gray,
Numbers, pp. 56-61: E. Kautzsch {U. n. I below); W. R. Harper,
i4mo; onj Hofea. p. IL sq., with references. (W. R. S.;S. A.C.)
NAZARIUS (4th century A.o.), Latin rhetorician and pane-
gyrist, was, according to Ausonius, a professor of rhetoric at
BurdigaU (Bordeaux). The extant speech of which he is un-
doubtedly the author (in £. BUhrens, Panegyrici Laiini, No. xo)
was delivered in 321 to celebrate the fifteenth anniversary of the
accession of Constantino the Great, and the fifth of his son
Constantine's admission to the rank of Caesar. The preceding
speech (No. 9), celebrating the victory of Constantine over:
Maxentius, delivered in 313 at Augusta Trevirorum (Trier),
has often been attributed to Nazarius, but the difference in style
and vocabulary, and the more distinctly Christian colouring of
Nazarius's speech, are against this.
See M. Schanz. GesckkkUt der rOmischen LiUeratur, iii. (1896);
Tcuffel-Schwabc, Hist, of Roman Literaturt (Eng. trans., 1900).
401. 6.
NEAGH, LOUGH, the largest lake (Irish, " lough ") in the
British Isles, situated m the north-east of Ireland, in the province
of Ulster, its waters being divided between counties Antrim
(N. and E.), Down (S.E.), Ammgh (S.), Tyrone and Londonderry
(W.). Its shape is an irregular oblong, its extreme measurements
being x8 m. from N.E. to S.W. x6 from N. to S., and ix from E.
to W. Its circumference, without including minor indentations,
is about 64 m., and its area 98,255 acres or about 1 53 sq. m. The
shores are generally flat and marshy, or very gently sloping, but
flat-topped hills rise near the northern shore, where the lake
reaches its extreme depth of X02 ft. The mean height above sea-
level is 48 ft. Though the lough receives a large number of
* The prohibition to Samson's mother to abstain from wine does
not appear to belong to the original narrative (see E. Kautzsch,
Hastings's D.B. v. 657 col. 6, following BOhme). John the Baptist is
a later example of hfclonff consecration (Luke 1. 15): cf. also the
tradition as to James the Just (Euseb. H.E. ii. 23).
« On consecration of the hair, see Spencer. De Leftbus Hebr. iii.
I. 6; I. Goldziher, Rev. Hist. Ret. xiv. 49 sqq- (1886); J. G. Frazcr,
Golden Bough*, L 368 sqq.; and W. R. South, EH. Sen*, Index,
sjf, " hair."
NEAL, D.— NEANDER, JOACHIM
320
Streams, the river Bann akme carries off its waters, flowing
northward. The principal feeders ans the Main on the north,
the CrumUn (whose waters have petrifying poweis) on the east,
the Bann and Blackwater on the south, and the Ballindeiry and
Moyola on the west. Antrim and Toome, at the N.£. and N.W.
respectively, are the only towns immediately on the shores.
The islands are few and near the shores; namely, Skady Tower
on the north, Ram's Island (with a ruined roimd tower) on the
east. Ready and Coney Islands on the southwest. The lough
abounds in fish, including giUaroo trout, char and pullen or
fresh-water herring. A tradition that the lough rose suddenly
from a fountain, inimdating a populous district, and that remains
of buildings may be seen below the waters, finds place in Thomas
Moore's ballad Let Erin remember.
NBAU DANIEL (1678-1743), English historian, bom in
London on the X4th of December 1678, was educated at the
Merchant Taylors' School, and at the universities of Utrecht
and Leiden. In 1704 he became assistant minister, and in 1706
sole minister, of an independent congregation worshipping in
Aldersgate Street, and afterwards in Jewin Street, London,
where he remained almost until his death on the 4th of April
X743. He married Elizabeth Lardner (d. 1748), by whom he had
one son, Nathanael, and two daughters. In 1720 Neal published
his History of New Engfandf which obtained for its author the
honorary degree of M.A. from Harvard college. He
also undertook to assist Dr John Evans in writing a history of
Nonconformity. Evans, however, died in 1730, and, making
use of his papers for the period before 1640, Neal wrote the
whole of the work himself. This History of the Puritans deals
with the time between the Reformation and 1689; the first
volume appearing in 2732, and the fourth and last in 1738.
The first volume was attacked in 1733 ^o' unfairness and in-
accuracy by Isaac Maddoz, afterwards bishop of St Asaph and
of Worcester, to whom Neal replied in a pamphlet, A Review of
the principal facts objected tain the first volume of the History of
the Puritans; and the remaining volumes by Zachsiry Grey
(1688-X766), to whom the author made no reply.
The History of the PurUans was edited, in five volumes, by Dr
Joshua Toulmin (1740-1815), who added a life of Neal in 1797.
Thw was reprinted in 1833, and an edition in two volumes was
published in New York in 1844.
NBAU DAVID DALHOFF (1838- ), American artist, was
born at Lowell, Massachusetts, on the aoth of October 1838.
He was a pupil of the Royal Academy, Munich, under Max.
E. Ainmiller, whose daughter he subsequently married. Later
he entered the studio of Piloty, with whom he remained from
1869 to Z876. His picture, " The First Meeting of Mary Stuart
and Rizrio," won for him the great medal of the Royal Bavarian
Academy of Art. Besides portraits his canvases include " James
Watt," a large historical composition shown at the Royal
Academy, 1874, " Chapel of the Kings at Westminster " (coUec-
tidn of F. Cutting, Boston) and " Cromwell visiting Milton "
(Hurlbut collection, Cleveland, Ohio).
NBAtB, EDWARD VANSnTART (18x0-1892), English
co-operator and Christian Socialist, was bom at Bath on the
2nd of April x8io, the son of a Buckinghamshire clergyman.
After receiving his earlier education at home he went to Oriel
College, Oxford. In X837 he was called to the bar at Lincoln's
Inn. He became a member of the Christian Socialists in 1850
and also joined the council of the Sodety for Promoting Working
Men's Associations. His wealth enabled him to carry out
experiments in co-operation on a larger scale than had been
previously attempted. He founded the first co-operative store
in Londota, and advanced the capital for two builders' associations,
both of which failed. In X85X, though strongly opposed by other
members of the promoting ** Council," he started on his own
initiative the Central Co-operative Agency, similar in many
respects to the Co-operative Wholesale Society of a later day.
The failure of this scheme, together with that of the operatives'
cause in the engineering lock-out of 1852 is said to have cost him
£40,000. It is certain that until in hiter life he inherited the
estate of Bisham Abbey in Berkshire he was, comparatively
speakizig, a poor man. He was closely associated with the
movement which resulted in the Industrial and Provident
Societies Act of 1876, and the passing of the Consolidation Act of
X862 was almost entirely due to his efforts. Besides publishing
pamphlets on co-operation he served on the executive com-
mittee which afterwards developed into the Central Co-operative
Board, and took an active part in the formation of the North of
England Co-operative Wholesale Society in 1863. One of the
founders of the Cobden mills in z866, and the Agricultural and
Horticultural Association in 1867, he also promoted the annual
co-operative congress, afterwards becoming general secretary
of the Central Board. He was also a director of the Co-operative
Insurance Company and a member of the Co-operative News-
paper Society for many years. He visited America in 1875 with
a deputation whose object was to open up a direct trade between
the farmers of the western states and the English co-opermtive
stores. After resigning the post of secretary to the congress
board in X89Z, he became a member of the Oxford University
branch of the Christian Social Union. He died on the x6th of
September X892.
NBALB, JOHN MASON (z8x8-i866), English divine and
scholar, was bom in London on the 24th of January x8i8, and
was educated at Trinity College, Cambridge. Here he was
affected by the Oxford movement, and helped to found the
Camden (afterwards the Ecdesiological) Society. Though he
took orders in X84X, ill-health prevented his settling in England
till 1846, when he became warden of Sa(:kville College, an alms-
house at East Grinstead, an appointment which he held till his
death on the 6th of August x866.
Neale was strongly h^-church in his sympathies, and bad to
endure a good deal of opposition, including a fourteen years'
inhibition by his bishop. In 1855 he founded a nursing sisterhood
named St Margaret's. He occupies a high place as a hjrmn-
ologist, but principally as a transUtor of ancient and medieval
hymns, the best known being probably " Brief life is here our
portion," "To thee, O dear, dear country," and "Jerusalem,
the golden," which are included in the poem of Bernard of
Quny, De Contemptu Mundi, translated by him in fuIL He also
published An Introduction to the History of the Holy Eastern
Church (X850, 3 vols.); History of the so-called JansemU Church
of Holland (1858); Essays on LUur^ogy and Church History
(X863); and numy other works. •
See Life bv Jiis daughter. Mrs Charles Towie (1907); the l/imew'
by hi« fnend, R. F. Ltttlcdale; and the Leliers of John Mason Neale
(1910), selected and edited by his daughter. For a complete list of
Neale's works see article in DicL of Nat, Biog. xl. 145.
NEAMTZU {Neamtu), a town in Rumania, situated annoog
the lower slopes of the Carpathian Mountains, and on the left
bank of the river Neamtsu, an affluent of the Moldova. Pop.
(1900) 8578, about half being Jews. Neamtzu gives its name
to the Department of which Piatra is the capital. Lying xs m.
S. by E. of Falticheni, the nearest railway station, it has little
trade. Near it is the ruined fortress of Neamtxu, constructed
eariy in the X3th century by the Teutonic knights of Andrew II.,
king of Hungary, in order to repel the incursions of the
Cumanians. An hour's drive to the west of the town is the
monastery of Neamtzu, founded in the X4th century, aiul coor
taining two churches and many ancient and interesting relics.
Before the scnilariration of the monastic lands in 1864, it was one
of the richest and most important of the Rumaiyan monasteries.
Baltzatesti, xo m. W. by S. of Neamtzu, is locally fanoous for its
mineral springs and baths.
NEANDER, JOACHIM (X650-X680), German hymnwriter, was
bom at Bremen. The family name, originally Neumann, had,
accordmg to the prevailing fashion a century earh'er, been
Graedzed as Neander. After studying at Heidelberg and
Frankfort, where he formed friendships with Friedrich Spardieim
(X632-X70X) and Philipp Jakob Spcner (X63S-170S), he settled
at DOssddorf as rector of the Latin school in connexion with
the Reformed Church. In X676 he incurred church censare
for abstaining and inducing others to abstain from joining
in the celebration of the communion. It was during the term of
NEANDER, JOHANN A. W.— NEAP
his suspension from his teaching office that many of his hymns
vere written. He ultimately renounced his connexion with the
separatists, and in 1679 returned to Bremen as one of the
preachers of St Martin's church. In the same year he published
the Bundeslieder and Dankpsalment a collection of 71 hymns,
of which many are still in use. He died on the 31st of May
16S0. The Neanderthal, near DOsseldorf, takes its name from
him. For his place in hymnology see Hymks.
See J. F. Iken, Joachim Neander, sein Lebtn und srint LUder
(1880).
HEAHDER, JOHANN AUGUST WILHSLM (1789-1850),
German theologian and church historian, was bom at Gdttingen
on the 17th of January 1789. His father, Emmanuel Mendel,
is said to have been a Jewish pedlar, but August adopted the
Dame of Neander on his baptism as a Christian. While still
very young, he removed with his mother to Hamburg. There,
as throughout life, the simplicity of his personal appearance
aod the oddity of his manners attracted notice, but still more,
his great industry and mental power. From the grammar-school
(Johanneum) he passed to the gymnasium, where the study of
Plato appears especially to have engrossed him. Considerable
interest attaches to his early companionship with Wilhclm
Neumann and certain others, among whom were the writer
Karl August Vamhagen von Ense and the poet Adelbert von
Chamisso.
Baptised on the 25th of February z8o6, in the same year
Neander went to Halle to study divinity. Here Schleiermacher
was then lecturing. Neander found in him the very impulse which
he needed, while Schleiermacher foimd a pupil of thoroughly
congenial feeling, and one destined to carry out his views in a
higher and more effective Christian form than he himself was
capable of imparting to them. But before the year had closed
the events of the Franco- Prussian War compelled his removal
to Gdttingen. There he continued his studies with ardour,
made himself yet more master of Plato and Plutarch, and
became especially advanced in theology under the venerable
G. J. Planck (1751-1833). The impulse communicated by
Schleiermacher was confirmed by Planck, and he seems now
to have realized that the original investigation of Christian
history was to form the great work of his life.
Having finished his university course, he returned to Hamburg,
and passed his examination for the Christian ministry. After
an interval of about eighteen months, however, he definitively
betook hinself to an academic career, " habilitating " in
Heidelberg, where two vacancies had occurred in the theological
faculty of the university. He entered upon his work here as a
theological teacher in 1811; and in x8ia he became a professor.
In the same year (1813) he first appeared as an author by the
publication of his monograph Vber den Kaiser Julianus und sein
ZeilaUer. The fresh insight into the history of the church
evinced by this work at once drew attention to its author, and
even before he had terminated the first year of his academical
labours at Heidelberg, he was called to Berlin, where he was
appointed professor of theology.
In the year following his appointment he published a second
TaonogaphDerHetiige Bemkard und sein ZeitaUer (Berlin, 1813),
and then in x8i8 bis work on Gnosticism {Geneiische Eniwickdung
der vcmekmsUm gnostischen Systeme). A still more extended
an elaborate mono^r^h than either of the preceding followed
in 1822, Der HeUige Johannes Chrysostomus und die Kirche^
besonders des Orienls in dessen ZeitaUer, and again, in 1824,
another on Tertullian (Antigncstikus). He had in the meantime,
however, begun his great work, to which these several efforts
were only preparatory studies. The first volume of his
AUgewuine Geukickte der ckrisUicken Religion und Kirche
embracing the history of the first three centuries, made its
appearance in 1825. The others followed at intervals— the
fifth, which appeared in 1842, bringing down the narrative
to the pontificate of Boniface VIII. A posthumous volume,
edited by C. F. T. Schneider in 1852, carried it on to the period
of the council of Basel. Besides this great* work he published
in 1832 his Gtschichte der PJhnzung und Leiiung der ckrisUichen
321
Kirck€, and in 1837 hh Das Lehen Jesu Ckrisii^ in seimm
geichkhilicken Zusammenhani umi seiner gtsikkhiikhen Enl*
wkkdung^ called furth by the famous Lijc of David Strauss.
In addiLioa to all thtrse he publislicd Denhaiirdigkciten atts der
Ctsckkkle des Ckrhitniums (1823-1834, 7 vols., il^St 3 vols.,
iB46)^ Das Eitu und liannkhjatligc des chrisUkkeff Lehtns
([840); papers on PloLinus, Thomas Aq tunas, Theobald HiatnerT
Blaise Pascal, J. H, Newman, Blanco White and T. Arnold,
and other occasional pieces {Kltine Gtkgenkettssihriflctt^t&^f)),
mainly of a practical, cxegctioU and historical character. He
died on the 14th of July iS50( worn out and nearly blind with
iittirs&ant &tudy. After hi& death a suctc^jkion of volumes,
rc'presenting his various cour^ca of ]eclurc&, appeared (TB5)fr'
tfl64l, in addition to the Lectures on the Hisiaryoj Dogma (Thea-
Uiiiche VoTlisun^tn), admirable in spirit and executioa, which
were edited by J. L. Jacobi in 1857-
Neindcf^s thisolofijcal position can onjy tw eKptalned in connexion
with Schtcicrmachyr, and ihc manner in T*'hic1i while adopting he
rnf>tj:firf! nnd_ Carried out the principles of his master. Character^
i ' "', incditative, he re*icu with a secure toot ins on iJit great
< II [>i4 of Christian jty, and recogniAcd strongly their 1^ssenlEal
1 1. flijM and harmony. Alive lo the cbims ot criticism, he no
]rj>'^ :^Lri>ci|^Jy avbcrted the rights of Christian feeline, " Without it,"
he emphatically laya, ** there can be no thec^lDgy; it can only thri've
in the calmness of a loul conjccrated ta God." This explains his
favourite motto: " Pectua est quod thcologum facit."
Ui-5 Church Iliitcry {Ail^fmetne Geichkhte der fktisUkhm FdigUftt
und Kirthr) remains- the greatest monument of hia genius. In this
*' Neander '5 chief aim was evcryi^here to understand what was
imllvidual in histOTy>_ In the principal hgurea of ccclLsiantic^l
hii^torv' he tried to depict the repfrscntalii'e tendencies of each age,
and also the types of the csMrntial i cadencies of human nature
generally. His guiding principle in treating both erf the hifitory and
of the present condition of int church was — that Christianity has
room for the ^-ariciu* tendencies of hutnan nature, and aims at per-
meatinf and glorifying them all; that according to the divine plan
these various tendencies are to occur successive Ey and simullaneou^ty
and to counterbalance each other^ so that the fn^^idom and variety
oi the development of the spiritual life ou^ht not to be fonoed into
u single dogmatic form " (Otto PHeidcrer^ Development cf THee^ffsyw
p. jbo)» bc^'cTal of his boolu have pasied into new and ncvLwd
CfJitions and have been translated into Enj^lish. Among these
Enjjliph Vcniion^ may be mentiontid Gtneroi Uuiory of the Chriiiian
Kyland m$2l
See O. C. Krabbe, vlttgtiJf Neandiv (1852), and a paper by C. F,
Kling (iSoo-tSbi) in the Siud. u. KHl ivr 1851; J. L, Tacobi,
Erinn^itnint an Autust Neatider (iMi): PhiFipp ScTiaff. EriHne*
rytgfn an Ntand^r (iiS6): Adolph Karnack, R^de Quf A uihsI ^^eander
(taaq); A. F. J. Wiegjnd, Neander t Ubcn (1BS9): L- T, SchuUe>
Ati'£U5i Nfander (iJil^o)! and K. T. Schneider^ Au^ttst Neander
(tS^i). Cf, Herzofj-Hauck^ /Jfoiffic^'Jtro^tidsf, and P. SclufF, G^fittany:
ils Univeriitks M ThiQloiy (1857].
H EA KD ERTH A U a ravine near t h e^ v illage of Hochdal bet ween
DUs5cldorf and Etbcrfcid, Rhctii^h Pru^ia. Here In 1S56 were
discovered in a Qualernafy bed in the Fcldhofcn Cave human
remains which have been referred to a type commonly called
Neanderthal ftfan. The bone^ found were a bra in- cap, two
femora, two humed and other fraBments, now in the Fuhlrott
Col [eel ion, Elberfcld. The cranium, pronounced by Huxky to
be the most ape- like yet discovered, wel5 remarkable for its
enormous superciliary ridges. Professor Virchow and others
contended thai the remarkable shape was pathological or causi d
by disease during the lifetime of the individuaL The subsequent
discovery of two other %kulls» almost identical in ititm, a I Spy
in Belgium, have helped to prove its typical character. The now
generally accepted view is that the Neanderthal stiiU represents
the oldesL known dolichocephalic race of Europe*
HEAP, a word only used of tides in which the high -water mark
is at its lowesE^ there being the least difference In level between
high and low water, opposed to " spring tides ^' (see Tide),
The word is obscure in origin. It appears in O. EngJn n^pjiM.
and only once alone in the eiL^\c3^\oTi Jorfhgsnges nip, " wlthot^t
power of advancing. ' ' It may possibly be connected iHlh " riip,"
in the sense cf ** pitched/' -' tcanty/^
322
NEARCHUS— NEBO
NEARCHUS, one of the officers in the army of Alexander the
Great. A native of Crete, he settled at AmphipoUs.in Macedonia.
In 325, when Alexander descended the Indus to the sea, he
ordered Nearchus to conduct the fleet to the head of the Persian
Gulf. The success with which Nearchus accomplished this
arduous enterprise led to his selection by Alexander for the more
difficult task of circumnavigating Arabia from the mouth of the
Euphrates to the Isthmus of Suez. But this project was cut
short by the illness and death of the king (323). In the troubles
that followed Nearchus attached himself to Antigonus, under
whom he held the government of his old provinces of Lycia and
Pamphylia, and probably therefore shared in the downfall (301)
of that monarch.
He wrote a detailed narrative of his expedition, of which a full
abstract was embodied by Arrian in his Indica—^nc of the most
interesting geographical treatises of antiquity.
The text, with copious' seographical notes, is (Mibliahed in C.
Mailer's Ceograpki Grout Minores, L (1856) : on the , _^ .
W. Tpmaichek, " Topograghiache ErjAuterung der Kasteniahrt
Nearchs vom Indus bis sum buphrat*' in SUzungsberickte der K. K.
Acad, der Wissenschaflen, cxxi. (Vienna. 1890). See also E. H.
xviL 104; Justin xiiL 4.
NEATH (Welsh, CasteB-Nidd), a municipal and contributory
parliamentary borough, seaport and market-town of Ghunorgan-
shire, south Wales, prettily situated near the mouth of the
Neath or N£dd, on the Great Western and the Rhondda and
Swansea Bay railways, 7} m..£.N.E. of Swansea and 183} m.
by rail from London, via Badminton. The Neath and Brecon
railway has a terminus in the town. Pop. (1901) 13,720. The
principal buildings are the parish church of St Thomas (restored
Z874), the church of St David (1866), a koman Catholic
church, and Baptist, Calvinistic, Methodist, O>ngregational
and Wcsleyan chapels; the intermediate and technical schoob
(1895), Davies's endowed (elementary) school (1789), the Gwyn
Hall (i888>, the town hall, with corn exchange in the basement
storey, and the market-house. According to tradition Icstyn-
ap-Gwrgan, the last prince of Glamorgan, had a residence
somewhere near the present town, but Fitzhamon, on his con-
quest of Glamorgan, gave the district between the Neath and
the Taw2 to Richard de Granaville (ancestor of the Granvilles,
marquesses of Bath), who built on the west banks of the Neath
first a castle and then in 1 1 29 a Cistercian abbey, to whose monks
he later gave all his possessions in the district. All traces of
this castle have disappeared. Another castle, built in the same
century, on the east bank, was held direct by the lords of
Glamorgan, as the westernmost outpost of their lordship. It was
frequently attacked by the Welsh, notably in 1231 when it was
taken, and the town demolished by Llewelyn ab lorwerth. The
portcullis gate and a tower are all that remain of it; of the abbey
which was at one time the finest in Wales, there still exist the
external walls, with parts of the chapel, vaulted chapter-house,
refectory and abbot's house. This abbey was the ^)ot where
Edward II. found shelter after his escape from Caerphilly. At
the dissolution the abbey and the manor of Cadoxton (part of
its possessions) were sold to Sir Richard Williams or Cromwell
Its cartulary has been lost. Copper smelting has been carried on
in or near the town since 1584 when the Mines Royal Society set
up works at Neath Abbey; the industry attained huge propor-
tions a century later under Sir Humphrey Mackworth, who from
1695 carried on copper and lead smelting at MeUncrythan.
Besides its copper woriu the town at present possesses extensive
tinplate, steel and galvanized sheet works as well as iron and
brass foundries, steam-engine factories, brick and tile works,
engineering works, flannel factories and chemical works. In
the neighbourhood there are numerous large collieries, and coal
Is shipped from wharves on the riverside, vessels of 300 or 400
tons being able to reach the quays at high tide. The Neath
Canal, from the upper part of the Vale of Neath to Briton Ferry
(13 m.) passes through the town, which is also connected with
Swansea by another canal. There is a large export trade in coal.
copper, iron and tin, mostly shipped from nieghbouring ports,
while the principal imports are timber and general merchandise.
Neath is included in the Swansea parliamentary district of
boroughs.
The town perhaps occupies the site of the ancient Nidus or
Nidum of the Romans on the Julia Marilima from which a vidnal
road branched off here for Brecon. No traces of Roman anti-
quities, however, have been found. Neath b a borough by
prescription and received its first charter about the middle of
the 1 2th century from William, earl of Gbucestcr, who granted
its burgesses the same customs as those of Cardiff. Other charters
were granted to it by successive lords of Glamorgan in x 290, 1346,
>359> X397> X421 and 1423. By the first of these (1290) the town
was granted a fair on St Margaret's Day (July 20) and as the
abbey had extensive sheep walks the trade in wool was consider-
able. In 1685 James IL granted a charter, which, however,
was not acted upon except for a short time.
NBBO. or Nabu (" the prodaimer ")t the name of one of the
chief gods of the Babylonian pantheon, the main teat of whose
worship was at Boisippa— opposite the city of Babyk)n. It is
due to the cbse assodatwn of Borsippa with Babyk>n after
the period when Babylon became the centre of the Babylonian
empire that the cult of Nebo retained a prominence only some
degrees less than that of Marduk. The amicable relationship
between the two was expressed by making Nebo the son of
Marduk. In this case the expression of the relationship in this
form was intended to symbolize the superiority of Marduk,
different, therefore, from the view involved in making Marduk
the son of Ea (f.v.), which meant that the prerogatives of Ea
were transferred to Marduk by the priests of Babylon.
Borsippa became in the course of time so completely a mere
adjunct to Babylon that one might fairiy have expected the
Nebo cult to have been entirely absorbed by that of Maiduk.
Since that did not happen, the legitimate inference is that
other deterrent factors were at play. One of these factors was
the position that Nebo had acquired as the " god of wisdom "
to whom more particularly the introduction of writing was
ascribed. He takes his pUce, therefore, by the side of Ea as
a cultural deity. The wisdom associated with him bad largely
to do with the interpretation of the movements in the heavens,
and the priesu of Nebo at an early age must have acquired
widespread fame as astrologers. Assuming now, for which
there is a reasonable amount of confirmatory evidence, that the
priestly school of Nebo had acquired a commanding position
before Babylon raise to political imporunce we can understand
why the worshippers of Marduk persisted in paying homage to
Nebo, and found a means of doing so without ^wering the
dignity and sunding of their own god. If Assur-bani-pal, the
king of Assyria (668-626 B.C.), in the subscripts to the copies
of Babylonian literary tablets invokes as he invariably docs
Nebo and his consort Tashmit as the gods of writing to whom
all wisdom is traced, it is fair to assume that in so doing he was
following andent tradition and that the priests of Marduk
likewise were dependent upon the school at Borsippa for their
knowledge and wisdom.
Nebo is therefore an older god than Marduk in the sense
that his specific prerogative as the god of wisdom was too firmly
recognized when Marduk became the head of the Babylonian
pantheon to be set aside. « '
The temple school at Borsippa continued to flourish until
the end of the neo-Babylonian empire, and school texts of
various contents, dated in the rdgns of Artaxerxes, Cambyses
and Darius, furodsh the evidence that the school survived even
the conquest of Babylonia by Cyprus (538 B.C.). The original
character of Nebo can no longer be determined with any degree
of definiteness. He may have been a solar ddty, but there are
also decided indications which point to his bdng a waler-ddty"
like Ea. It may be, therefore, that if he shows the traiu of a
folar deity, this may be due to the influence of the ndghbouring
Marduk cult, just as in return Marduk takes on attributes that
belong of right to Nebo. Thus, as the god of writing, Nebo
has charge of the ubles of fate on which he inxribes the uidcs
NEBRASKA
3*3
ofmenuiddecidcfwliattheirlotistobci. If in the systematized
religiotts system, Marduk appears as the arbiter of human
fates, the conclusion is warranted that Marduk is here imbued
with the authority which originally was in the hands of his son.
A reconciliation between the rival daims was effected by con-
tinuing Nebo in the r61e of scribe, but as writing at thedicution
of the gods, thus recording what the divine assembly, gathered
in the " chamber of fates " (known as Ubshu Kinakku) within
the predncts of £-SaggiLi — Marduk's temple at Babylon— under
the presidency of Marduk, had decided.
Nebo also does homage to his father by paying him an annual
visit during the New Year celebration, when the god was solenmly
carried across to Babylon, and in return Marduk accompanied
his son part way back to his shrine at Borsippa. Within E-
Saggila, Nebo had a sanctuary known, as was his chief temple
at Borsippa, as £-Zida, " the legitimate (or * firm *) house," and
the dose bond existing between father and son was emphasized
by providing for Marduk within theprednct of E-2Sda, a sanctuary
which bore the same name, E-Saggila, " the lofty house," as
Manluk's temple at Babylon. The kings, and more particiilarly
those of the neo-Babyk>nian dynasty, devote themselves assidu-
ously to the worship and embellishment of both £-Saggila and
E-Zida. In their inscriptions Marduk and Nebo are invoked
together and the names of the two temples constantly placed
side by side. The symbols of the t^ro gods are similarly combined.
On boundary stones and cylinders, when Marduk's symbol— ~
the hmce— is depicted, Ncbo's sjrmbol— the stylus— is generally
found adjacent. The dragon, though of right bdonging to
Marduk (q.v.), as the conqueror of Tlamat, also becomes the
symbol of Nebo, and similarly in other respects the two form
a dose partner^p. Such is the relation between the two
that occasionally, as in the official reports of astrologers and
in official letters, Nebo is even mentioned before Marduk without
fear of thereby offending the pride of the pricstiTof Marduk.
Id Assyria the Nebo cult likewise enjoyed great popularity,
and there is a record of one Assyrian ruler who made Nebo his
spedfic ddty and called upon his subjects to put their whole trust
in him. One may discern, indeed, a tendency in Assyria to take
advantage of the almost equal plane on which Nebo stands
with Marduk in Babylonia, to play off Nebo as it were against
Marduk. The Assyrian kings in this way, by glorifying at
times Nebo at the expense of Marduk, paid thdr debt of homage
to the south without any risk of lowering the grade of their
own chief ddty Assur. Marduk was in a measure Assur's rival.
This was not the case, however, with Nebo, and they accordingly
showed a desire to regard Nebo rather than Marduk as the
characteristic representative of the southern pantheon. In the
astral-theological system Nebo was identified with the planet
Mercury. His consort, known as Tashmit, plays no independent
part, and is rardy invoked except in connexion with Nebo.
Sec also Babylon, Boisippa. Babylonian and Assyrian.
RfLIGION. (M. J A.)
NEBRASKA, a sUte just N. of the centre of the U.S.A., lying
approximatdy between 40" and 43* N. and between 18° 18' W.,
and 27** W. from Washington. It is bounded on the N. by South
Dakou, on the E. by Iowa and a comer of Missouri, on the
S. by Kansas, on the S. and W. by a corner of Colorado, and
00 the W. by Wyoming. The Missouri river extends along the
eastern and norUr-eastem border. The extreme length of the
state is about 430 m., and extreme breadth about 310 m. The
area is 77,520 sq. m., of which 712 are water surface.
Physical Featmret.—'Tht state lies partly in the physiographic
province of the Great Plains (coverioff more than four-fifths of its
area) and partly in that of the Prairie Plains, and slopes gently from
the N.W. to the S.E. The altitudes of extreme geographical points
are as follows: Rub, in the S.E. comer of the state. 842 ft.; Dakota
city, ia the N.E., 1102; Benkdman, in the S.W. in Dundy county,
2968; Kimball, in the S.W. in Kimball County, 4697: Harrison, m
the N.W. comer. 4849 ft. There are three physiographic sub-
divistons: the foot-hills (and Bad Lands), the sand-hills and the
prairie— an three being portions of three great corresponding regions
^ the Great Plains and Prairie Plains provinces.
The western portion of the state lies in the foot-hiUs of the Rocky
Mountain system, and b much rougher than western Kansas. The
surface of wcatera Nebraska b chanctcrixed by high, barren Uble-
lands, broken by canyons, dottecf with buMes, and dominated by
of the Great Plains, cuts across the N!w. comer of Nebrasia from
Wyoming into South Dakota. A ridge of low hills and bluffs, often
precipitous, marked by buttes and deeply cut in places by caflons, it is
the most striking surface feature of the state. The altitude in thb
region varies from 3500 to 5000 ft. In the fork of the North and
South Platte are the Wild Cat Mountains with contours rbing to
5300 ft., in which Wild Cat Mountain, long reported as the highest
point in the state, attains 5038 ft., Hogback Mountain 5082 ft., and
various other hills—Gabe Rock (v)o6), Big Horn Mountain (4718),
Coliseum Rock (5050), ScotU Bluff (466a) &c.— rise to heights of
4500 to 5000 ft. In the extreme N.W. the White river and Hat
Creek have carved canyons in deep lacustrine depoats, creating
fantastic cliffs and buttes, bare of vegetation, gashed with drainage
channeb, and baked by the sun. The buttesr-bare, pyramidal or
conical, flat*toppcd. precipitous hills, and often fantastic, towering
pinnacles — are ratner widely dbtributed through the foot-hifl
region. They are never more than 600 to looo ft. above the sur-
rounding country. Nature b not grand in any part of Nebraska,
but the Bad Lands are imposing, and in the wooded foot-hills there
b an abundance of bold and attractive scenery, particuUrly in Sioux
county, and in Cherry county around Valentine and on the canyon oi
the Snake river. East of the Bad Lands b the sand-hill region, which
includes an area of possibly 2O/)0O sq. m. The sand-hilts proper arc
one above another, like minbture mountains, and are 200 to 300 ft.
high; but in general they are very low C^S-'SO ft. high) and are
scattered over a plain. Their present contours are wholly the result
of wind action. Save in rare instances, however, they have long
ceased to be shifting dunes; for, with the cessation of prairie fires
and the increase of settlement, they have become well grassed < ver
and stable; although sand-draws, and even ooiasional '^blow-outs"
scooped by the winds in the summits or sides of the hills are still
characteristic bndmarks. All about and inter-penetrating the foot-
hill and sand-hill regions are the prairies, which mdude three-fourths
of the state. They are sometimes characteristically flat over wide
areas,. but are usually gently rolling. Stream valleys and bottom
lands are the conspicuous modifying feature of the prairie region;
but in general, owing to the gentle slope of the streams and the great
breadth of the plams, erosion has oeen slight; and indeeo the
streams; overloaded in seasonal freshets, are building up their
valley floors. The water-partings are characteristically level
uplands, often with shallow depressions, once lakes, and some of them
still so. The valleys of the greatest streams are huge shallow troughs.
The valley floor of the North Platte in the foot-hills, the flood-plain
of an older river, is in places 700 ft. or more below the bounding
tableland, and zo to is m. wide; the present flood-pbin being from
I to 4 m. in width. Hundreds of small tributaries to the greater
streams (especblly along the Republican and the Logan) complicate
and beautiw the landscape. No farming country is richer in quiet
and diversified scenic charm than the prairies of the eastern half of
the state. The Missouri is noteworthy for high bluffs cut by ravines,
which border it almost continuously on at least one side. In the foot-
hilb there are typical canyons, as along the Platte forks, and in the
northern edge of the sand-hills. Those of the upper Republican are
the brgcst, those of the Bad Lands are the most peculiar; and the
Niobrara tributary system is the most developed.
Rivers. — The Missouri skirts the eastern border for perhaps 500 m.
It b not navigated, and save at Sioux City and Omaha serves
practically no economic purposes, irrigatbn being unnecessary in the
counties on which it borders. Its bluffs, cut for the most part in the
loess but at pbces in the rock, are frequently from 100 to 300 ft.
high. At Vermilion, South Dakota, its alluvial plain, 1131 ft. above
the sea, b 330 ft above the mouth of the Nemaha. The current b
always rapid and heavily loaded with sediment,* and its axb is
forever shifting. Large areas of soil are thus shifted back and forth
between Nebraska and the bordering states, to the encouragement
of border Uwlessness and uncertainty of titles; some portions £. of
the thread and apparently well within Iowa remain under the
jurisdiction of Nebraska, or vice versa; and Yankton has been
seriously threatened with a sudden transfer from the South Dakota
to the Nebraska side. The PUtte system is also heavily loaded with
sediment in Nebraska. The North and South forks both rise in
Colorado; each, especblly the btter. has a rapid primary descent,
and a very gradual fall down the foot-hilb of the Great Pbins.«
Across Nebraska it maintains a remarkably straight course and an
extraordinarily even gradient (about 6 ft. per mile). In the spnng
freshets it b a magnificent stream, but in summer its volume greatly
shrinks, and it is normally a broad, shallow, sluggish, stream, flowing
through inteHacing channels among the sand-bars it heaps athwart
its course. The underflow is probably much greater than the summer
* About 52 grains per gallon at low water, 404 at high. ^
* The North PUtte falls 3700 ft. in 510 ro.^ the South, 7200 ft. m
427 m.. atwve their junction; the btter falling 2692 ft. m 308 m.
after leaving iu canyon in the Rockies.
324
NEBRASKA
surface Bow tn volume. The Loup system is remarkable for the even
dip of its parallel feeders, which once joined the Platte aeparately,
until the latter banked up its deposits across the mouths of their
more sluggish currents. The Republican and South Platte — the
former an intermittent stream — suffer in their flow from the drain
made upon their waters in Colorado for irrigation. The upper course
of the Nu>brara above the Kcya Paha u in a narrow gorge. Its
immediate bluffs and the shores of some of its tributaries, notably
the Snake, are modified by caflons. This system u also notable
among Nebraska streams for a number of pretty water-falls. The
White river, heading on Pine Ridge, falls iioo ft. in 20 m. Some
streams wholly dry up in the dry seasons, and in the foot-hills and
sand-hills there are a few that disappear by sinking or evaporatk>n.
Swfau Water. — Swamps and bogs, apart from purely temporary
weatlier ponds, are confined to a few restricted regk>ns of the
Missouri river bottoms and the prairies of the S.E. There are some
cut-offs or oxbow lakes along the Missouri, and many lakelets origin-
ally such are scattered along the Platte, Elkhom, Big Blue and other
rivers. Scores of lakes are scattered about the heads of streams
rising in the sand-hills, especially in Cherry county. Some of them
are fresh and some alkaline. Springs also are numerous in the sand-
hills, where they form considerable streams. They often flow with
force and are lonown locally from this peculiarity as " artesian "
springs, or sometimes, from this and theu- laige size, as " mound "
springs. The state fish-hatchery is on springs at South Bend; at
Long Pine springs of large flow supply the town and railway shops
with water, and led to the establishment here of Chautauqua grounds.
Underground Water. — ^The so-called blowing-wdls are peculiar.
They occur over much of the state, but most frequently S. of the
Platte, and are evidently sensitive to barometric conditions^ alter-
nately " blowing " or sucking " as these vary; so that, m cold
weather water-pipes may be frozen 100 or more feet below the surface
of the i^round. Atmospheric pressure is probably the principal cause
of their actbn; they are therefore termed ''^ weather wells" in
some kKalities. Nearly all counties have a practically inexhaustible
supply of ground water. Well-depths vary from i^ to 30 ft. in the
stream valleys and from 30 to 35 ft. on the loess praines to 100-400 ft.
in the western foot-hill region and isolated prairie areas. Artesian
water is also available in many parts of the state. At Nbbrara, in
Knox county, a well 656 ft. deep, drilled in 1896, yielded for a time
3500 galk>ns per minute at 95-ra pressure (in 1903 1900 gallons at
6s-lb pressure), and furnishes power for a flour-mill and municipal
water and electric lighting works; the pressure forces the water
about 210 ft. above the mouth of the well, f.«. to a height of 1450 ft.
j^nother (1430 ft. deep), in the environs of Omaha, supplies a daily
flow of 1,100,000 gallons under a pressure of 15 lb. In some small
and exceptional re^ons the water is very alkaline, and in the counties
of the south-east it is so generally saline that it is difficult, below
150 ft., to avoid an inflow of salt water. Saline wells at Lincoln
(3463. 1050 and 570 ft. deep) and at Beatrice (1260 ft.) are noUble
in this regard.
Cet^ty.—lh.e eastern part of the state is covered With a thick
mantle of Quaternary (Pleistocene), and the (greatest part of the
western pohion with very thick deposits of Miocene and Pliocene
(Tertiary). To the Pleistocene belong the alluvium, loesS and glacial
drift, and in part the sand-hills. The drift covers the eastern fifth
of the state. In striking contrast to Iowa, the Nebraska deposit is
very thin, seldom thicker than i or 2 ft. Above the drift there is
usually a h^vy covering of loess or " bluff depont " (particularly
typical in the neighbourhood of Omaha and Council Bluffs). Though
thin and worn out in places, it averages probably 100 ft., and is often
as much as 200 ft. in thickness, ana runs diagonally across the state
from the N.E. to the Colorado inset. The opinion that it is of
aqueous origin (and probably dates from the dose of the glacial time)
has the weight of authority. It was spread by the nvers: some
evidences of wind action may be attributed to a later period. The
sand-hills, which overlap the loess N. of the Platte, are probably
mainly derived from the Arikarcc, but probably also in part from the
cariy Pleistocene. West of 102* long, tnere are beds several hundred
feet thick of late Tertiary sands and days. The Arikaree (Miocene)
and Ogallala (Pliocene) formations of the North Loup beds are super-
ficial over much of the western half of the state, the former to the N.,
the latter to the S. The buttes are characteristically Arikaree or
Gering formatbns topping Brule clay. The same is true of at least
considerable parts 01 Pine Ridge. In the Bad Lands there are
scanty outcrops of the Chadron formation (known also as " Titano-
therium beds ), the oldest of the Tertianr beds. The thick super-
ficial coverings over the state make difficult the determination of the
underlying strata. There are only very scanty outcrops except
along the rivers. No Archean rocks are exposca in Nebraska, and
the sedimentary formations are undisturbed ra iitu. The Palaeozoic
era is represented only by the Pennsylvanian series of the Upper
Carboniferous and a scanty strip of Kansas-Nebraska Permian, and
is confined to the S.E. counties. But, though small in area, the
Carboniferous is by far the most important formation as regards
mineral resources within the state, it is buried probably 2000 or
iooo ft. in central Nebraska, outcropping agaun only in tne Rocky
fountains. Upon it, in the trough thus formed, rest conformably
the basal strata of the Cretaceous; the Jurassic and Triassic being
whoOy absent (unless in the extreme north-west). The E. limit of
the Cretaceous extends across the state from N. to S. between 1
and 99* W. long. Its groups include the Dakota formation, cl
acterued by a very peculiar rusty sandstone, and the Benton, b
of which are rather widely accessible and heavy; the Niobrara:
Pierre shales, which apparently underlie about three-quarters of
state in a deep and heavy bed; and, in the extreme west. J
Laramie. There are almost no Cretaceous outcrops except onl
streams, especially the Niobrara, Republican and Platte riyef
and in the Bad Lands. The superficial Miocene and Pliol
deposits in the west, above referred to, are underlaid by the \^
river groups of the Oligocene, whose outcrops of Brule clay
Chadron formation also nave been mentioned. The Bad Land)
essentially nothing but fresh- water mud excessively weathered
eroded. They are often intersected by dikes of chakedony, fom
mistaken for lava. The Bad Lands and the Arikaree are fai
fossil fields, the latter being the source of the Daemonelix, or " Di
cork-screw," a large spiriil fossil, apparently a lacustrine alea
^1^- — n r^^-- ,»V' ^"'-'insed that the Pliocene epoch in Nebi
wjis, dj^urL-viiiiii^'j by me activity of geysers; but the so-c
"gej'icriiie " now known commonly and correctly as " nai
Eumicc " and *' vokanic ash," whicli is found in the Oligocene
iCiiT fcirm..iiiang,^ has no connexion whatever with geysers, b
Rroduced by ih<? gha taring of volcanic rock. It occurs wide
[ebraska and adjoLnini; states.
Aftnfrdj.^Mtncnil rctources are deddedly limited; the
value of the mineral output (excluding coal) in 1907 was $1,383
of which 5953.43^ «^^ ^1i'^ value of clay products, $324,239 of s
and 5'54,237 of sand and t^vel. The state, however, is particu
rich in eood clays, whkh are probably its greatest mineral reso
Catcitc of tx^cllcnt quality is the commonest mineral. Grai
widely obuinablc, and ^nd of the finest quality is availab
inc)ibau5tible i^uaiititi^^i and u an important article of ex
FliJit (valuable for railway ballast) occurs in immense quan
about ^Vmore and Bkt Springs. The underground salt water
prom bed omce to be a resource of value, especially in the vie
of Llnooln> but bai provi-d of little or no value in comparison
the gTT^t Ealt'bed'; nf tLinsas. A native plaster is yielded h\
Ai ' . ! ' " < locks, but though otherwise kA exa
qt , jht exposure to the water. Adiatoma<
earth in central Nebraska, occurring especially in the region of L
is a good polishing powder, and is used for packing steam (
Limonite in the form of ochre occurs in consiacrable quantity
building stones limestones are the most abundant and impor
the best comes from the Benton beds and when " green ca
sawed into blocks. The Dakota formation, though its aand-si
are in general coarse or otherwise inferior, yields some of splq
quality. Its days, which are of all colours, are the most valuafal
the state. The finest building stone is a beautiful green quar
rock of dense, fine texture and lasting quality. It b relatra tq
Ogallala beds and occurs only in small areas. The quarries and
pits of the state are mainly u the Carboniferous region of the
Cretaceous lignite occurs in small quantities in the N.E., and |
more widely. The Carboniferous formations carry only thin stj
of coal, never thicker than about 2 ft., and rarely rcadUy access
and they can never be of more than small and merely local im{
ance.
Flora. — Nebraska lies partly in the arid, or Upper Sonoran,;
partly in the humid, or Carolinian, area of the upper Austral
zone; the divisional line being placed by the United States BiokM
Survey at about 100* W. long. The most marked chauracteristi
Nebraskan vegetation is its immigrant character, and the state
been called " one of the finest illustrations of the commindin)
contiguous species to be found anywhere in America " (C. E. Bess
Immigrant species have even come from Texas and New Mcx
from the Dalcotas and the Rockies. From the last-named var
species have crept two-thirds of the way across the state, one •
buffalo berry) wnolly covers it, and some have barely crosed ■■
the border foot-hills from Wyoming^. A very few trees and shn
and some grasses, arc strictly endemic to the plains and to Nebra-
Four floral regions lying in north to south belts across the state,
closely corresponding to — though in boundaries by no means coin
ing with — its great topographic divisions are distinguished in
regions of the Missouri border, the prairies, sand-hills and foot-h
In 1896 some 3196, and by 190^ fully 3300 species had been list
" representing evc^ branch and nearly every class of the vcgeta
kingdom " (C. E. Besscy). There are at least 64 trees and at k
77 shrubs growing native in the state; but of their joint numbc
mere half-dozen or so can be classed as strictly endemic. Sn
woods of broad-leaf trees (and red cedars) grow very generally ab
all the water-courses of the state: and coniferous species grow ak
Pine Ridge and the Wild Cat Mountains. In the East, various tr
are readily grown on the uplands; in the West the honey -locust.
Oiage orange and Russian mulberry for windbreaks: the green a
and red c«lar are perhaps the most valuable drought reast
species. The conifers are spreading naturally. In the sand-hills 1
sand-bar willow of the rivers and the Cottonwood growing natural
evidence the good conditions of moisture: and the fofestation
much of the recion b undoubtedly possible. Forest reserves w>
established on tne Dbmal river in i^ and millions of seedlings h
been grown by 1906 for transplanUtk>n in Nebraska and other sta
NEBRASKA
325
o( the Great Plaliis. Arbor Dav (the lOth of Aprfl) «u Instituted
by the Nebfaska Sute Board of Agriculture in 1872 at the instance of
L Sterling Morton, later secretary of agriculture of the United
tes (ace Arbor Day). It has been yearly observed bv the pubUc
srhools o( the state, and no state has done more than Nebraska for
the forestation of its waste and prairie lands. In such a purely
agriculcuni sute a laree wooded area u not desired. Plitm^. sr""^
snd the dwarf " sand-cherry " (Prunus demissa) of tfa ii
are prominent among many wild fruits. The flora is de h
in species as compared with other states, but less so in 1 !.' n ,1 :i 1 .^t
of iodividuala. Onuses are perhaps the most noteworth y v<-v < iJ- it
forms. Nebraska claims a greater variety of native hay ^mrj [. .m ^e
species than grow in any other state of the Union. No k^ t h-, ti
300 grasses, at least 154 being wild or commonly cultivatctl, ha<l Wf n
listed in 1904. Of the total 200 species 150 (130 indigenous) &re \:,l\j-
able for fora^, 34 (20 indigenous) are classed economkally a* w(crj>i,
10 are non-mdigenous cereab ajid 6 are ornamental. The &h<;»ft
buffaJo-grass was originally everywhere abundant, but it TiJ^d [■tf^f-Ai'
cally disappeared by 1890 from the eastern half of the state, and :.[r,ce
then has steadily become more restricted in habitat. The juitive
prairie grasses have been in considerable part displaced by grasses
introduced from more humid regions. Weeds are very numerous
(about 125) : and some, notably the sand-bur (Solanum rostnUum)
cockle-bur. and tumble-weeds among indigenous, and the Russian
thistle (Salsola tragus) and purslane among non-indigenous species,
are agricultural pests. Nothing can surpass in beauty the rank
passes and brignt flowers that grow on the lowUnds and rolling
uplands of a virgin prairie — now hardly to be found in the state.
The common sunflower (the most conspicuous weed of the sute)
and allied flowers, which spring; up in myriads even in the midst of
onbroken prairie wherever this is disturbed, line the roads with
ytOow bands from horizon to hori«>n, enclose the broken fields
asd choke waste places.
foiPM.— The fauna of the sute is not known with the same
tboroagfaness and detail as the flora, but it too is varied. This is
notably true of birds and of insects. Of the latter there are
probably 12.000 to 15.000 spedes, including l^butterflies, at least
180 grasshoppers, several hundred bees, &c. The so-called " grass
hoppers," true kxusts, have done great damase at times in Nebraska.
About a third of all the specws known in the United Sutes are found
within the sUte or ckiee to its borders, and of these, 9 or 10 are so
common that their increase under coiiditions favourable to their
devek)pment may be a danger Such conditions are found in dry
ytan, unfavourable to their chief parasitic enemies, favourable to
their own breeding, and the cause of their migrations. There were
locust plagues in 1874, 1876 and 1877. Fungus parasites have been
B«ed with some, but on the whole rather slight, success, and
nxrfaanical anpKances with perhaps greater success, in combating
these pests. Birds are more effective. As in the case of planu,
vestem. eastern, northern and southern avian species meet in
Nebraska. In 1905 some 415 to 420 species had been found within
its bordos, and more than half of these were known to nest in the
state; 120 had been counted in the winter. The lakes of the sand-
hills are the breediiw-place — less so as settlement increases— of
myriads of water-fowK Before the advent of the white nun Neb-
ra4a was full of wild mammals, the buffak>, elk, bhu:k and white
tailed deer, antelope, boirs, timber wolves, panthers (pumas), lynx,
otter am) mink bong common. Almost all that remain are black
bears, fosces, coyotes (prairie wolves), mink, musk-rats, raccoons and
prairie <hgi (or gophers). Antelope were not uncommon in the west
and northwest unul after 1890. The coyote is still so common even
in the eaft as to be a nuisance to the farmer; in 1907 a bounty law
vas in force whkh provided for the payment of a sute bounty of $5,
OQ every grey woli, $1*25 on every coyote and $1 on every lyiix
(viJd cat). A few rodents have increased in numbers; the prairie
4of especially is a pest in the alfalfa fields of the arid lands (as are
podcet-fophers at places in the east).
OMMte.— The cumate of Nebraska is typically iiUand or contin-
eatal; s^e. it b characterixed by " winters of considerable severity.
Rimmers of unusual warmth, rainfall in limited quantities, marked
and sudden changes of temperature, large seasonal and daily tempera-
ture raiwes, and dry, salubrious atmosphere, with a smallpercenuge
of cbodiness, and a lar]ge percentage of sunshine."^ The average
vind vek)city for the High Plains of Nebraska and adjotoing sUtes
is about 10 to 12 m. ; 25 m. is not uncommon; and a velocity of 40 m.
and over is recorded a half-dosen or more times every year. In
spring vekicities of 15 to 20 m. are common. The average velocity
of vinds for the entire sUte for li years preceding 1906 was 9-8 ro.
per hoar. The prevailing directions are those common to a large part
of the western Mississippi valley. The prevailing wind of the year is
N-W. ; but in the spring, the summer and much of the autumn its
predominance » greatly reduced or overcome by S. and S.W. winds
bloving from the Gulf of Mexico (but deflected by the roUtion of the
earth). Sometimes these winds blow in the wintei^-causine the
carious phenomenon of melting snows on the coldest days of the
year; in the summer in seasons of drouffht, especially in the western
part of the sUte. this wind from the Gultsomeumes reaches Nebraska
'Senate Executive Document 115 (vol. 10), 51 G>ngress, i
Sesuon (1890). QimaU tf Nebraska.
wrung dry of its m o is t ure and so hot that in a day or two it shrivels
and ruins the crops in its path. Such calamities are. however,
uncommon, and the belief that Nebraska is often visited by tornadoes
is erroneous.
The normal mean-annual temperature of the sute u about 48'7* F,
and the normals for the sw approximately equal weather sections into
which the sUU to divided by the National Weather Service are
respectively about 48*, so-s*, a8-6*, 50-4», 47-o* and 46-6* F. This
illustrates the extraordinary homogeneity of climatic conditions.
But diere to a considerable difference in the averages for different
i July through 30 ycark
» vpt spring, summer, autumn
53* and 2yi* F. Thus there
months— the normal means of January and July through 30 ycark
being 20-9* and 7a*6* F., and the means of
and winter respectively about 48^72*. 53*1 „ » .,
to for any particular locality a wide range in absolute temperature
through the yeiur, which averages for the sute probably about 120*
( 1 897-1 ^5) • Similarly, the ranse to large through the day, espectolly
in the higiier altitudes, where the nighu are almost invariably cool
and refreshing after even the hottest day. The number of continu-
ous days with a mean temperature above y>* F., averages probably
about 175 for the sute. The actual growing-season between frosts
is, however, not so ercat. Temperature to of course lower as one
moves to the N. and N.W., the imtial planting and harvesting of each
crop procressing wave-like across the sute in from one to two weeks.
£si»ectaliy in the W. and N.W. there are in some winters occasbnal
anti-cyclonic or high-area storms known as blizzard»— wind-storms
preceded or accompanied by snow-fall — which are very severe.
They continue from one to three days, and are habitually followed
by very kyw temperature. They are the cause of great loss to
the cattle owners. Such storms are, however, rare. In the S.E.
portion of the sute the winten are characteristically mild and open.
Temperatures below aero are rare for any locality; and the same
may be said of temperatures above 95* in summer.
The normal mean-annual prccipiutbn for the whole sute to about
23*84 in. in rain and melted snow, the actual vearly fall varying
through 30 yean between 13*30 and 31*65 in. Such rainfall might
seem inadequate for an agricultural country: moreover, the eastern
half of the state to more favoured than the western, which belorigs,
indeed, to the semi-arid Great Plains on which the Reclamation
Service of the United Sutes Government to active. But aridity to a
matter of the efficieiicy rather than of the mere quantity of rainfall.
and in thto regard Nebraska to very fortunately situated. Rain to
most plenteous in the critical months of the year. Seven-tenths of
all precipiutbn falto in the growing season, giving the sUte, especi-
ally in the east, a greater amount at thto time than many other sutes
whose aggregate yearly rainfall to greater; so that Nebraska has an
abundance for the safest cultivation. Moreover, nine-tenths of the
rainfall to absorbed by the loess and sandy soito, only one-tenth being
" run-off." It to a widely spread but uiuounded belief in Nebraska
that the rainfall has bnn increasing since the settlement of the
sute. That iu storage has very greatly increased as cultivation has
been extended (the prairie sod sheds water liloe a rooO to true:
moreover, the spread of scientific principles of fanning has increased
the advantage derived from the ground-water stored. Efficient
rainfall has thus been greatly increased. Intermittent streamleU
may well become perennial, and manv are probably, as reported,
becoming so. It to even conceivable that the settlement of the suU
may affect the seasonal dtotribution of prccipiution; and that an
advantaseous alterauon has in fact resulted to believed by many.
The cfinute of Nebraska to exceptionally healthy. Iu benebcial
qualities must be attributed to the sute's inland situation, its dry
and pure air, consunt winds and splendid drainage, to which iu
even slope and peculiar soil alike contribute. In some people,
however, nervousness to induced ; and the winds, in particular, oiten
have thto effect. Autumn to perhaps the finest season ; the fields are
green into the winter, the air to pure and fresh, though dry and
warm, and the long season to delightfully mild and b«iutiful. The
arid portbn, as compared with the eastern portion, of the sute has
alike the advantages ind disadvantages of a climate more sharply
characteriaed.
Soil. — Geologically Nebraska to one of the most typkral agricultural
sutes of the Union ; although in the present dtotribution ofindustrial
interesU agriculture to by no means so predominant as in some
southern sUtes. The basis of the soils to sands (coarse, fine or silt) ;
clay beds, though economically imporunt, are in quantity relatively
scant. In the eastern half silt, and in the western nne sand, form the
bulk of the soil. There are five well-defined soil regions correraond-
ing to the geologic-topographic divisions already indicated 01^ drift
loess, sand-hilto, foot-hilb and Bad Lands. The loess to a " salt, fine
sandy loam with a large percenUge of sand or silt, and considerable
calcareous matter, and usually a small amount of cJay." It contains
considerable humic matter, discolouring rapidly in the air (when
exposed it to characteristically a bright buff). It to of extraordinary
fertility, and iu great depth (in Lincoln and Dawson counties bluffs
200 ft. thick are found) to a guarantee of almost inexhaustible re-
sources. The glacial drift to also a useful deposit, coarse ingredienu
I to ^ ft. thick on the uplands. The sand-hilto are not inherently
infertile; the soil never bakes, to always receptive of m<Hsture^
326
NEBRASKA
abaorbing water like a sponge and holding it welL There is a great
amount cSl fertile valley land, adequately watered. Alfalfa and other
cultivated graaaes are encroaching on the whole region, and even the
natural and-land bunch grasses make excellent grazing. The
" butte " soil of the W. is a fine sandy soil, characteristically calr
careous, derived from the Arikaree. With it also moisture is a great
factor in its productivity. The Bad Lands are by no means infertile
I (their name, it shoukl be noted, was originally Mauvaues terres d
truoerser) ; but they are almost destitute of ground water, thouah
containing many green " pockets " where surface water can be
stored. They contain much clay and maris, non-absorbent and
subject to such excessive wash that vegetation cannot gain a foot-
hold. In various parts of the west are small tracts of so-called
" gumbo " soil ; thcV are due to the Pierre shale, ^n poorly drained
and characteristicalfv alkaline. Small alkaline areas afso occur about
lakes in the sand-hills. Where surface water is adequate the regions
of the Pierre shale make splendid grazine lands; but in genesal thev
are not very useful for agnculture. Salt lands occur about Salt Creek
notably around Lincoln. The stream bottoms of alluvium arc modi-
fied by loess and humic deposits, and are of couiae very fertile;
but hardly more so than the loess of the uplands.
ApicvUurt. — ^Agriculture is not only the chief industry but u
also the foundation of the commerce and manufactures of the state.
In 1900, of the total area 60'8% was reported as included in farms,
and 37-5% as actually improved. The rank of the state in the
Union was 13th in value of farm property, and loth in value of farm
products. The farm value was 1747 1950.057, an increase since 1890
,of 46*1%; while the total product-value was $i62',6sf6,386— an
ease (partly factitious) of 143*4 % in the same period. A greater
t of the state was reported improved in 1890 than in 1900; the
. ._iige was due to the increase of stock-raising in the West, ^mi-
.arly, the nze of the average farm increased from 156-9 acres in 1880
to 190*1 in 1890. and 246*1 in 1900. although in eastern Nebraska
there was a contrary tendency. Under the Kincaid law, which
permits entire sections instead of quarter sections (160 acres) to be
homesteaded, this movement has been fostered. In the years i88<y-
1900 the number of farms operated by cash tenants rose from 3*1 to
9-6%; of share tenants from 14*9 to 27*3% of the total. There is
no appreciable tendency toward management for absentee owners.
The census of 1900 diowed that not less than two-fifths of the total
net income came from live stock or from hay, grain and forage on
farms representing toother 96% of the farm-value of the state —
.live stocK being a tnfle more important; dairying was rimilarly
predominant for 1*6%, and beet-sugar for o*i %. Other crops were
unimporunt sources of revenue. Sugar-beet culture has developed
since about 1889; it is localized largely in Lincoln county, near
North Platte, though beets are raised over a large part (especially the
western part) of the state. In 1907 about 1 1 .000 acres were planted
to sugar beets. The principal factory for the slicing of the beets
is one built at Grand Island, Hall county, in 1890. The dairy
interest is rapidly growing, but is still exceeded in other states.
Omaha is a great dairy market. Nebraska ranks very hieh in the
production of cattle and hogs. A fourth of all animal products are
represented by milk, butter and cheese, eggs and poultry; the rest
by animals killed on the farm or sold for slaughter, most of them
going to supply the meat-packing industry of South Omaha. Wild,
salt and praine grasses make up the bulk of the forage acreage, but
the cultivated crops— especially millet and Hungarian grasses and
alfalfa— «re more imporunt. Holt county in the Elkhom valley,
and Sheridan county in the foot-hills, produce more than half the
hay-crop of the state. Alfalfa can be grown with more or less success
in every county of the state, not excepting areas where clay or sand
form the sub-soil; but on the uplands of the central part of the state
it is produced with the greatest success and in the greatest quantities.
In 1908, according to Uie reports of the state Board of Agriculture,
the crop of Custer, Dawson and Buffalo counties was about 15 % of
the total crop (1.846.703 tons) of the state. The product was
quintupled between 1899 and 1005, and between X905 and 1908 the
increase was about 40 %. It has been a great aid to western Nebraska
as to other portions of the Great Plains. Sorehum and kafir com are
also excellent, and broom-corn fairiy good, as drought-resistant
crops; the last, which is of lessening importance, is locahzcd in Cass,
Saunders and Polk counties. Cereals are by far the most important
crops, representing in 1899 four-fifths of farmed land and crop
values. AUowing lor variations in " off years," but speaking with
as much exactness as is posable. Nebraska has established her
position since about 1900 in the third, fourth and fifth rank respec-
tively among the states of the Union, in the production of Indian
com, wheat and oats. Of these, Indian com is by far the most im-
portant, representing normally about two-thirds of the total crop
value; while wheat and oats each represented in 1906 about one-
seventh of the total crop, and rye, barley, kafir-cora and buck^-heat
make up the small remainder. Indian com is grown to some extent
all over the state, except in the north-west, but the great bulk of the
crop is produced east of the 99th meridian. It is rarely cut. but is
left to mature and dry on the sUlk in the field. The yeariy yield in
the decade 189^-1904, according to the most conservative ^state
statistks, varied from
average was 178,041,084
of 1901 ; the yield
1.638 to 72445.227 bushels, and the
Is, or 190.773.957. omitting the failure
per acre being nmilaHy 26*35 or 27*9 bushda
(12*4 in 1901);* in 1906 the crop was 240.782.500 bushels, and
the average yield 4>er acre 34*1 bushels; in 1907 the crop was
179.328,000 bushels, and the average yield only 24 bushels per acre.
According to the report of the state Board of Agriculture, Custer.
Lancaster and Saunders counties produced the largest amounts
(each more than 5,000.000 bushels) of Indian com m IQ08. Since
1900 Nebraska has become one of the foremost winter wbeat states,
second only to Kansas. Little spring wheat is now sown except in
the northem counties, the state being on the northern edge of t^
winter wheat belt. From 1880 to 1890 the acreage devoted to wheat
greatly diminished, because the spring variety was not relatively
remunerative, but the acrea^ trebled in the next decade as autumn
planting[ increased. The winter varieties have the advantages of
larger jrield, earlier ripening and lesser loss from insects, and affmxl
protection to the soil. The growth of duram (macaroni) wheat is
also increasing, but is hampered by the uncertainty of market, which
is for the most part foreign. The wheat crops of the decade 1895-
IQ04 averaged 3^.208.805 oushels a year ; or ranged from a minimum
of 9*8 to a maximum of 20*9, averaging 15-8 bushels to the acre;
in 1906 the crop was 52.288.692 bushels, and the average yield
22 bushels per acre; and in 1907 the crop was 45.911,000 oushels,
and the average yield t8*i bushels per acre. In 1908 Clay. Adams
and Hamilton were the principal wheat-growing counties in the
state. The corresponding figures for oats were: average yidd for
the decade, 48,i45.i8« (range. 28.287,707 in 1901 to 66.810.065 in
1904): range of yield per acre, 17*9 to 34*0. and average 27*6
bushels per acre; m 1906 the crop was 72,275,000 bushels and the
averase yield per acre 29.5 bushels; in 1907 the crop was 51400.000
bushels, and the average yield 20*^ bushels per acre. In the decade
1 890-1900 the state did not rise above the 10th rank in the Union;
after 1900 her rise was rapid. The same is even more markedly true
of rye; in IQ07 the crop was 1,502.000 bushels (from 88400 acres), a
yield exceeded in only five states in the country. Apples are raised in
the N.E. and S.E. sections of the state, and are much the most im-
portant fruit ^wn. Peaches are next in importance, and horti-
cultural enthusiasts believe that the possibilities of this crop are very
great. Other fruits are raised with much success, and in IQ04 at
St Louis the horticultural exhibit of the state led those of all other
states in the medals received for excellence; but nevertheless its
relative rank in the Union as a fmit-producing state is still k»w.
In a period of 30 years (i 869-1 898) there were, according to the
state Board of Agriculture, four seasons whose crops couM reasonably
be classed as failures, three more as " short," one as fair, eighteen as
good, and four as great. Compared with adjoining states — Iowa,
Minnesota. South DakoU, Kansas, Missouri— none snows a greater,
if indeed any shows so great an average value per acre in the yield
of Indian com. wheat, oau, barley and rye; and this desoite the
assumed handicap of the westem half of the state. In fact the yield
of this section rebtivcly to cultivated acreage is normally fully equal
to that of the eastern section; a result quite consistent with the
scientifically proven fertility of semi-arid lands. The real handicap
of the westem counties would be shown in comparing aggregate yields
per given area; for much land is normally inarable. ^Ufalfa. stock
raiangand dairying, ailorestation, " dry-farming " and irrigation are.
however, proving that the West can maintam prosperity by not
relying upon ordinary agriculture. Alfalfa is not easily started,
however, on the uplands of the extreme western part of the state;
and dry-farming (the Campbell dust-mulch system) has the expensive-
ness in labour of intensive cultivation. The above-mentioned
delusion that climate is changing and adapting itself to agriculture,
thus relieving the farmer of accommodating his methods to the
climate, has conaderably handicapped him in progress. Systematk:
experiments in dry-farming throughout the Great Plains were pro-
vided for on a great scale by Con^jress in 1006. By attention to crop
rotation, soil physics and world-wide search for plants adapted to tlK
Great PUiins (such as the U.S. Department of Agriculture has long
been conducting), a very great deal can be accomplished — no one
can say how much; but certainly the Western must tong remain at
a great disadvantage in comparison with the Eastern portion of the
state as regards the growth of cereals.
/rr«20i»pfi.— Water for the westem part of the state is a resource
of primary importance, and irrigation therewith a fundamental
proolem. Very generally, especially in the butte regions, the country
lends itself to the impounding of surface water. The lakes are 01
great importance for the stock ranges of the sand-hills. It is
commonly believed that of underground water, and generally of
artenan water, even the driest counties have an abundance. This is
great exaggeration. Though both In central and w estem Ndmaka
there are strati, that generally yield a considerable flow, the supply is
usually limited and the expense is great. Up to IQ06 dependence
was mainly upon the streams, which it is estimated mi^t fandsli
3 or 4 millbn acre-feet— enough to irrigate between 10 and 15%
of the arid section— were all the water available, and the land
< Dau of the State Bureau of Labor and Industrial Sutistica.
which are lower than_thoae of^the state^Board of Agriculture, and
On o -----
the
The statistics for l9|06 and 1907 a
Department of Agnculture.
NEBRASKA
327
irripfale. Aa compuvd with the •treams of Colorado, where trrisa-
tioo is much more advanced, the •treams of Nebiaska have a very
oomtaat flow: the relative supply<apadties of the Arkansas and
Pbodre in Colorado, and the Loup and North Platte in Nebraska
beuig about as i*ooo, 1*193. 3*347 and 4*632 respectivdy, according
to the estimates of the state engineer (Nebraska Public Documents
IQ0I-IOO3. v6L ill. D. 144). An irrigation law was first passed by
Nebraska in 1895. One of the greatest improvement projects under-
taken by the natiooal Reclamation Service is one 00 the North
Platte, begun in 1903. which cootemfrfates a reservoir in Wyoming of
mfficient capacity to store all the surplus waters of that stream,
about 600 m. of canals, and the reclamation of ivjfoo acres in
Nebraska; it was 74 % completed in 1909. The work of the national
tKvnoe bcean in Nebraska in 1902. Some farmers on the uplands
between & valleys in western Nebraska irrigate by means of
wiod-mills. and although the underground water is 175 ft. or more
bdov the surface one wind-mill often supplies sufficient water to
innate ten acres. The extent of irrigated acreage increased about
thtrtecn-foid from 1889 to 1899. Inthehitteryeartherewcrei70i m.
of ditch costing about $75 ■•oo per m.. imgating 148,538 acres,
which Yielded crops averaging I6.61 per acre in value. The greatest
port ot the irrigated acreage is in the valley of the North Platte and
the Upper Platte — probably nine-tenths in IQ06 — in Scotu Bluff.
Lincoln, Cheyenne, Dawson, Knth and Deuel counties. There is,
however, a large ditch in Platte county — the farthest E. of any \»xf;t
ditch in the country; and thou^ agriculture is normally quite
" successful " here without irrigation, nevertheless it is more profit-
able with it. In fact, in 1890 about a quarter of the irr^ted acreage
by E. of the section dasscd as arid.
Jfoju^iKtarei.— The rank of Nebraska aaKmg the states of the
Unkn in 1900 in population, in value of agricultural products, and in
▼aloe of manufactured products, was respectively twenty-seventh,
tenth and nineteenth. In the decade 189&-1900 the sute increased
the value of its manufactures somewhat more than half. The per
apita product-values for agriculture and manufactures in 1000 were
$153 and $135 (^ compared with I63 and $SS in 1890}. Only
1900 and 3*4 in 1905 for Lincoln; Nebraska City. Fremont. Grand
Islaod, Beatrice. Hastings. Plattsmouth and Keturney were the only
other manufacturing centres of any importance. In 1907 there was
a beet-suKar factory at Grand Island; at Nebraska City there are
several d»tinctive industries; at South Omaha very important
meat-packing houses; and the other cities have interests rather
extensive or varied than distinctive. As yet manufactures are
imignificant except in lines immediately dependent upon agriculture,
the conUxned output of the packing, flour and grist mill, dairy and
foak4iqoar establishments constituting in 1900 nine-tenths of the
total state ootpot. Meat-packing u bjr far the most important
atode interest, South Omaha being the third greatest packins centre
of the country, employing in 1900 and in 1905 a quarter of aiU wage-
earners and yielding neariy one-half the total pixxluct-value of the
state ($7itOiM^ in 1900; $60,143468 in 190^). The malt-
Eqnor industry h favoured by the great production of barley in
lova; the valo» of malt hquora manufactured in 1900 was
Si 433.501, and in 1905 $1.66^,788. Nebraska wheat, like that of
I^osas, combines for milling the splendid qualities of winter wheat
with thoae characteristic of grain grown on the edge of the semi-arid
West; floor and grist-mill products were valued at $7,794,130 in
1900 and at $I3;I90.303 in 1905. The first creamery m Nebraska
was established m 1881. A creamery at Lincoln is said to be the
largest in the United States. Many co-operative dairies have per-
nsted since the earhr days of farmen' grangea. The value of
cheese, batter and other dairy products was $2,153,893 in 1900 and
$3,326,110 in 1905. Of manufactures not dependent upon agri-
culture perhaps the most pro&iising b that of bnck and tile products
(vahied at $839315 in 1900 and at $1,131,913 in 1905), and the
IvKst in 190S was the manufacture and repair oS steam railway can
(valiKd at $2,624461 in 1900 and at $4,394,685 in 1905).
Com m umeations. — ^There is no longer any river navigation. There
were 6,ioX'S ra. of railway in the state at the end of 1907; the great
period of raUway building was 1 870-1 890, the mileage in 1870 being
70s. in 1880, 1953, and in 1890. 5407. The eastern half of the state
a much better covered by raflways than the western. Six great east,
and west trunk-tines connecting the Rocky Mountain region and
Chicam enter the sute at Omaha {qx.\ and two others, giving rather
an outlet southward, enter the same dty and serve the eastern part
of the state. I n 1908 all but 5 counties out of 90 had railway outlets.
A marfced tendency toward north and south railway lines is of great
prcmiise to the state, as outleta towards the Gulf 01 Mexico are im-
portant, especially for local freight. Omaha and Lincoln are Federal
ports of emry for costonis.
Pe^tdaiun.—Jn 1900 the population of the sUte was 1,066.300
aad in 1910^ 1,192,214. In 1900 166% were foreign-boni,
nnd 43 '3% natives of other states than Nebraska. The latter
came mainly from the north-central states. Of the foreigners,
Germans, Samdinavians and BritishOnduding English Canadians)
made up four-fifths of the total. The most numerous individual
races were Germans (65,506), Swedes (24,693), Bohemians
(16,138), Danes (12,531), Irish (11,127), English (9757)» Russians
(8083) and English Canadians (8010). In 1900 three dties
had a population above 25,00a— Omaha, 102,555; Lincoln,
40,169; South Omaha, 26,001 — and seven others had a popula-
tion between 5000 and 8000— Beatrice, Grand Island. Nebraska
City, Fremont, Hastings, Kearney and York. The population
of Nebraska was 28,841 in i860, 122,993 in 1870, 452402 in
1880 and 1,062,656 in 1890. The increases of population
by decades following i860 were 326*5, 267*8, 134*1, 0*3, and
11*8%. From 1880-1890 the alMolute increase was exceeded
in only four states, and was greater than in any sUte W. of
the Mississippi except the enormous state of Texas; from
1 890-1 900 it was less than in any sute of the Union except
Nevada (whose population decreased). In this decade 35
counties out of 90 in the state showed a decrease: the shrinkage
was mainly in the first half of the decade, and was due to the
aunulative effects of national hard times, a reaction from
an extraordinarily inflated land " boom " of the late 'dghties.
and a remarkable succession of drought years, and consequent
crop failure in the West. Between 1885 and 1895 Kansas and
Colorado went through much the same experience, due to a too
rapid settlement of their arid areas before the conditions of
successful agriculture were properly luderstood. Many homes,
and even small settlements in Nebraska^though not to the
same extent as in Colorado and Kansas— were abandoned.
Urban population (the population in places having 4000 or
more inhabitants) also fell, constituting 25*8% in 1890, and in
1900 only 2o*8% of the total population of the state. In the
case of some dties that showed a great decrease (e.g. Lincoln
27*2%, and Omaha 27%) notoriously "padded" censuses
in 1890 were In part responsible for the bad showing ten years
later.
In 1906 there were in~ the state 345,803 communicants of
various religious denominations; of these 100,763 were Roman
Catholics, 64,352 Methodists, 594^5 Lutherans, 23,862 Presby-
terians, 19,121 Disdples of Christ, 17,939 Baptists and 15,247
Congregationalists.
In 1890 there were in the state 2893 untaxed and 3538
taxed Indians, the latter bdng dtizens;. in 1900 there were
3,322 altogether, all of them taxed; and in 1908 there were
3720, of whom 1270 were Omaha, 11 16 Santee Siotix, 1060
Winnebago and 274 Ponca.
Among the Indians who CK^<ru[>i<x! N^^bra^^yi imRiKJLj^tdy twfof? the
advent m the whites and ciivrraftcr, the only f^milit^ of much im-
portance in the state's hiftory tvcr? the Caddoan and the- Siauaii.
The Caddoan family was rriTtf'ieiitcd by tlic Middle or PawiwQ
Confcdcracv; the Siouan family by iit [Xikota, Thc^iha, Chiwctie
and Winnetaj{o branches. IncLudcd in tht Dakota branch vert the
Santee and leton tribes, tht latter comprUmg th« BruUi, Blackfat
and OglaU Indians; in thi^ The^lha branch wtm the Omaha and
Ponca tribes; and in the Chi were brvncti, the Iowa, Oto and the
Missouri tribes. Other trin -a wcfie of k** imporuncc ; and tribet of
other familie»— with the cm i ption of the ChcytnncM, ond Arapahocs
of the Algonquian family, vhow permanent Ihuntrng gFound;; om-
braced the foot*hill country cf tNtr West — were oT nciiliiy^ibk im-
portance, bdng only roamcrs wiUun the Lctnicra of the bUlc. The
Pawnees contested the plains against the Sioux with undying
enmity. Before the Civil War thoe were no very general trouble
between Indians and whites, despite constant frontier difficulties,
except the bloodless " Pawnee War *' of 1859-60: but in 1863-
64 the Indians rose rather generally along the frontier, and many
settlers were lolled. la 1800-01 there was another war^-^th the
Sioux — marked by the battle of Wounded Knee, just across the line
in South Dakota. In dealings with the Indians there have been in
Nebraska the usual discreditable features of administration. The
maltreatment of the Poncas, a fine and peaceable tribe, was peculiariy
and inexcusably harsh. Segresation on reservadons was generally
accomplished in 1870-1880. There were in 1900 small reservations
for Omahas and Winnebagoes in Thurston county and for the Sioux
in Sheridan county, and an agency for the Santees and Poncas near
the mouth of the Niobrara; and at Genoa, where the Pawnee agency
and reservation had been located, there was in 1908 an Indian school
mainuioed by the United Sutes government with 350 boarding
328
NEBRASKA
pupils. In 1908, however, almost all the tribal lands had been distri-
buted in severalty: the Niobrara Reservation (under the Santee
government boardmg school for the Santee ^oux and the Ponca) had
only iiy>-7 acres icservcd for asency, school and misnoa purposes;
the Ponca Reservation (under the same school) had only 160 acres
reserved for agency and school buildings; the Omaha Reservation
(under the Omaha School) had 12421 acres unaUotted; the Sioux
Reservation (under the Pine Ridge Agency) for Oglala Sioux had
640 acres; and the Winnebago Reservation (under the Winnebago
School) had 1710-8 acres unallotted and 480 reserved for agency, Ac.
Covernmeni,— The present constitution, adopted in 1875,
replaced one adopted in 1866. In 1871 a convention fxamed
a constitution that was rejected by the people. It provided
for compulsory education, and for the taxation of church
property; prohibited the grant by counties or dties of fi na n cial
aid to railway or other corporations, and enjoined that railways
should have an easement only in their right of way. The last
two provisions were mainly responsible for the defeat of the
constitution. The instrument of 1875 presents a few variations
from the normal type, and under it a few interesting problems
have arisen. The constitution provides two methods for amend-
ment. A convention for revising or amending the constitution
is to be held in case a recommendation to that effect made by the
legislature (a three-fifths vote of all the memben of each house
being required) is accepted by a majority of the electors voting
at the next election for members of the legislature, but no
amendment agreed upon by the convention b to take effect until
approved by a majority of electors voting on it. Without
calling a convention, however, the legislature may, by a thre^
fifths vote of all the members of each house, adopt an amendment,
which is to come into effect only if approved by a majority
of electors voting at the next election of senators and repre-
sentatives—the publication of the proposed amendment in some
newspaper in each county once a week for three months before
the election being required. This has been interpreted by the
courts as requiring a majority of the votes actually cast for
senators and representatives. As there is less interest in amend-
ments than in the election of members of the legislature, only
two out of a large nimiber of amendments proposed from time
to time by three-fifths of the members elected to each house
have been adopted. The first of these, increasing the pay per
day to the members of the legislature and providing for longer
sessions,* was declared lost by the ofiBdal canvassers, but when
(z886) the ballots had been recounted by the leglsQiture it was
declared adopted. The second (1906), creating a railway com-
mission, was endorsed by a political party in sUte convention,
was printed on the same ballot-paper with the names of the
party candidates for ofiBce in order to secure for it all " straight "
party votes, and by this procedure, which was upheld by the
state supreme court in 1907, it was adopted. All male persons
who are dtizens of the United States or have declared their
intention to become such at least thirty days before an election
have the right of suffrage provided they have attained the age
of twenty-one years, have resided in the state six months, are
not of unsound mind, and have not been convicted of treason
or felony. Women who have either children or taxable property
may vote on questions relating to schools. The general election
of sUte and local officers is held annually on the first Tuesday
succeeding the first Monday in November, but mimidpal and
school distria dections may be held at other times. The secret
ballot was adopted in 1891; the use of the voting machines
was authorized in 1899; and the nomination of candid&tes
by primaries was made mandatory in 1907. By a provision
unique in 1875, ^^ constitution authorised the legislature
to provide that the electors might express thdr prderences
for United States senators; but this was not treated as mandatory
on the legislature, and though votes were at times taken (x886,
1894), they were not officially canvassed, nor were any senatorial
* The amendment increased the nay of mem b ers from three dollars
to five dollars a day " during their utting,** and provided that sessions
should last at least sixty days, and that m erober B should not receive
pay " for more than sixty days at any one sitting "; the original
constitution had provided that they should '* not recdve pay for
more than forty days at any one session '* and had
minimum length for a sciiion.
dections materiftlly affected by them.' In 1907, under a direct
primary law, the nomination of candidates for United States
senator was transferred from the party convention directly
to the people; and in 1909 the " Oregon plan '* was adopted,
whereby each candidate for the legislature must go on record
as promising, or not, always to vote for the people's choice
for Um'ted States senator; on the ballot which bears the name
of each candidate for the legislature there appears a statement
that he "promises," or that he "will not promise," to vote
for the "people's choice." In the same year the state
enacted a law providing for the non-partisan nomination of all
judges, of all superintendents of public instruction und of
regents of the sute university; nominations are by petition,
and there is t separate " offidsl non-partisan ballot " bearing
the names and addresses of the nominees and the titles of the
office for which they are nominated. The legislature of 1909
also provided for open election primaries and for the framing
of state party platforms by convention bdore the time of the
primary.
The governor b the chief executive officer of the state, bot quite
independent of him are a lieutenant-governor, a secretary of state,
an auditor of public accounts, a treasurer, a superintendent of public
instruction, an attomey-genaral and a commissioner of public lands
and buildiiigSLwho, as well as the governor, are dected for a term of
two years. The governor's appointing power is almost entirely
limited to officers of state institutions, and for every appointment
he makes the approval of the Senate is required; but M need not
ask the consent 01 that body to remove for incompetency, neglect of
duty or malfeasance in office " any officer whom he may appoint.**
His constitutional power to pardon b rwulated by an act of the
legisUture (1907) which requires that he shall in no ustanoe gnant a
pardon untu the attomey^neral shall have investigated the case and
conducted a public hei^ng. Hb veto power extends to items in
appropriation bilb, but any bill or item may be passed over his veto
by three-fifths of the members elected to each house of the legian
bture. The most important board of which he b chairman is the
state board of equalisation. As the present constitution was ado|>tcd
in the year after a grasshopper plague, which had caused great
fiiundai loss, it limited the salary of megovemor, auditor of public
accounU and treasurer, as well as that oithe judges of the suprefrte
and district courts, to $2500 each and that of other important
officers (including the secretary of state, the attorney-general aixl
the superintendent of public instruction) to $2000. This eoonomy
has wmewhat hampered the growing state. Salaries have been too
low to attrsct the ablest men; and as the constitution forbade the
creation of new offices, and no amendment of thb dause could be
secured, resort was had to the creatbn of additional ** secretaries "
and of boards constituted of existing state offictab or thdr aecretaries.
The legislature consists of a Senate of 33 members and a Houae of
Representatives of 100 members, and meets in regular session on the
first Tuesday in January of every odd-numbered year at Lincoln, the
capitaL Both senators and re p resen tatives are appordoned acconl-
ing to population, and are elected by districts in November of each
even-numbered year for a term of two years. They are paid at the
rate of five dollars a day during 60 days of a reguUr session aod not
exceeding 100 days dunng their entire term. No bill or wint resolu-
tion may be introduced at a regular session after its fortieth day
except at the request of the governor. Special kgisUtioo of various
kinds b expressly prohibited, and hi the bill of nghts it b declared
that "all powere not herein delegated remain with the peopfee.**
Thb dause would seem to leave the state government with no powers
not expressly granted, and to make the rule for in t e r pie ung the
Nebrsska constitution similar to that for interpreting the Fednal
constitutbn; but in their practice the NdMasIa courts have been
little influenced by It, and it b chiefly of historical interest.*
The administration of justice b vested in a supreme ooart, 1$
district courts, county courts and courts of justices of the peace and
polkx magbtrates. The supreme court consists of three judges
elected for a term of six yean, one retiring every two years: each
district court conrists of one to seven judges elected for a tern of four
years, and each county court oondsts of one judge dected for a term
of two years. The county courts have exdusive original jurisdictioo
in the probate of wilb and the adminbtrati«i of estates, ooocurrent
jurisdictMHi with the district courts in dvil suits for soms not ex-
ceeding $1000, and important jurisdiction in criminal cases. Ptarliapo
the most unique provision of the Nebraska comtitutioo b that
* An almost Identical dause was inserted in the Ohio ooasdtatMm
of i8oa. and one la exactly the same language appean la the presem
(1851) constitttdon of that state; It appeare abo in the Kansas
oonstitutkms of 1855, 1858 and 1859 (present), hi the NebrmsVa
constitution of 1866, la the North Carolina and South Carolina
constitutions of 1868, and was retained in the present fftTf^tttTinn of
North Carolina as ammdfd hi 1876^
NEBRASKA
329
rdating to appeals; it appean in the bill of ri^hta and reads as
fdlovB : " The right to be heard in all civil cases in the court oi last
resort, by appeal, error or otherwise, shall not be denied." Regard-
less of this provision, however, the civil code denies the right of an
appeal from an inferior court in cases that have been tried by a jury,
&nd in which the amount claimed does not exceed $30, and the couru
have decki«l that this denial is not in conflict with the constitution;
tnit in at least one instance an appeal was allowed because of the
constitutional guaranty, and that guaranty has doubtless had much
infloenoe on judicial legislation.
County government exists under both the district-commissioner
system and the township supervisor system, the latter being rare.
Cities are governed in classes according to population.
Except in Omaha there b no great field for social economic legis-
lation; but the record of the state has been normally good in this
respect. Railways have given rise to the most notable laws. R^-
Utun has been a burmng political question since 1876, the constitu-
ti<m making it the dut)r of the legislature to " correct abuses and
prevent unjust discriminations and extortions in all charges of
emresa, tel^raph and railroad compani^ " within the state. The
influence of the railways has been very sreat, and a constant dras
on just taxation and other legislative reforms. In 1885, 1887 and
1807 the legblature created a Board of Transportation consistms of
existing state executive officers or their secretaries; but this could do
little except gather statistics, investigate allesed abuses, and advise
the tegblature, upon which the regulation of rates remained man-
datory by the constitution. The Board was eventually declared
unconstitutional by the state sisprcine CDUTt, In 1893 a majdmum
freight-rate Act ^ms passed^ but the ratci thus fixin.1 kvvc d4?cl?red
by the United SL."itc4 Supreme Court to conflict wiih ihc Foutticiiinth
Amendment, btiiig " unrci'SonzibtE?," The right ot the stuic to fix
"reasonable" rates nrma'tncij unmif^stloned, but Attic ricari ex-
perience has not found such 1[iwb cnicacioui. In 1906 aW pCiHcical
parties conducted campai-^s on promises of mdlcnil Wgi^latidn on
railway rates, pa^avni^Fr and freight; and a conititutioniil amend-
ment creating a. r^iiwuy commission w.111 adopLcd in the manner
above de scrib ed. A result of thia campaign wha a rcnutrEublc scries
of enactments in 1^7 for ihs rci^Ution of railways- The k^k^^Uture
framed a stringent anri-pa^ law, reduced piHcncer fare« inil trxuttts
and frrisht chark^e^, provided for cc|LJitjblc local totjcdiit^n mf r^iUay
termdnau, reguf^ k^.^ railway labour m the intermit of h^^ru tr>^\>ct, d^aed
apon railways tiie TT^ponfibitity for the death or injury of their
employ^ and ^avc to the ncii'ly-crtratctl railway comTtiiifion
complete JuriscJi.nicTi over all We^imrailway-i m the $tate, over the
street raifwaya of ^he tiuwt and ovcf ti:prc4» compartiw, rtltiirraph
coBpaniea, tdephonc companies and all other eommon carreers.
In 1909 provision v^ jnMC for an annual corporation licerKC tax
and for the physical valuation of raiti^art. In the same year,
fottoving the tTCmpte of Oklahoma, Ntbra^ka paired a law
gnaranteetngbcinkdcpcnjlt!) fmTnafund creat&lbyanasM-tMnerf on
the basts of total depi^jtit*. Uicfcjl chUd-Ubaur and pure food bws
were enacted in
esublished in " '
duced in 1858
enacted in 19c
booses, and on
7 A jc A hoB / :ed
sale a bcwnesteu- .jiL". i_v.'jr^i'ijii ^i.x- ki v_.„, x.„^ -.^....jh^ L.:her
ci a (arm not exceeding 160 acres or of property not exceeding two
lots in a city or village; the exemption, however, does not extend to
mechanics', labourers' or vendors liens upon said homestead or to a
mortgage upon it that has been signed b^ both husband and wife or
by an unmarried claimant. A woman's rights to her property are not
affected by marriaffe, except that it becomes liable for payment of
debts contracted tor necessaries to the family when a jud(^m^nt
gainst the husband for the payment of the same cannot be satisfied.
1^ rkbts of dower and courtesy have been abolished, and husband
and wife have instead equal nghts to inherit property from the
other; bat the portion 01 the property of a deceased spouse that
descends to the survivor varies from one-fourth to all according to
v^Hjoe and bow many are the children concerned. The grounds for a
divorce are adultery, incompetency at the time of marriage, sentence
to imprisonment for a term of three years or more, abandonment
mthoat just cause for two years, habitual drunkenness, extreme
croelty, and refusal or neglect of the husband to provide a suitable
maintenanoe for his wife. The period of residence in the state re-
quired to secure a divocce was formerly six inonths, but in 1909 it
was made two years.
PimaMe. — ^THe coostitntion limited the debt that the state might
oontiact to meet casual deficits to $100,000, unless in time of war,
and required taxes to be laid to maint^n interest on such debt
(bonds). These provisions were construed to mean that not more
than Sioo/xx> ci debt could be contracted in addition to appropria-
rions nade by the legislature. There was from the beginning a
'«—*—• *— ^ of •tate*'^ warrants " on the general fund, dependent on
Prohibition ol the liquor trifhc had been
"mry itt 1853, but liquor licerurci were intro-
he Ucetirc fee was Tuicd at Si 000. A taw
" illegal for bnrwerlta id own rcuil liquor
These warrants when issued and presented for payment
were paid by the state treasurer, were sold to the permanent school
fund, and drew 4% interest until cancelled from the ^neral fund.
The floating debt of warrants was practically cancelled m 1909, after
1 ooe^uB levy for four yean for tnb purpose. Since 1900 there has
been no bonded debt whatever. The constitution also prohibited
state aid to railways and other corporations, leaving this to cities
and counties under limitations. In 1903 the assessed valuation of
oroperty was $188458^79; in 1905, $^04470,961; in 1906,
£113.060,301: in 1907, 1328,757.578, and in 1908, $39«. 529.673-
The increase was due largely to a new revenue law of 1903 ordenng
property to be assessed at one-fifth of its actual value. The average
ux-rate in the year 1904 was 6} mills; in 1905, 1906 and 1907, 7
mills; and In 1908, 6^ mills.
Education. — ^The public schools have been endowed by the United
States, beginning in 1854, and by the state; in 1909 the permanent
school funds derived from the sale of educational lands amounted to
$84^,557. invested in state securities, county, school district and
municipal bonds. The percentage of illiterate population (t^. popu-
lation unable to write) above 10 years of an was in 1880 and 1890
smaller than that in any other state in the Union, and in 1900, when
it was 2*3% (for native whites, foreign whites and negroes re-
spectively 0-8. 6*8 and 1 1 -8), was smaller than that in any other state
except Iowa (whose percenta^ was also 2*3); the percentage for
males of voting age (3-5 %) being the least in the Union. There are
four state normal schools— one at Peru (opened 1867), one at
Kearney (190s). one at Wayne (originally private; purchased by the
sute in 1900) and one, provided for by the legislature of 1909.
situated in tne north-western part of the state. The university of
Nebraska at Lincoln was established in 1869 by an act of the state
legislature, and was opened in 1871. The university is governed by
a hoard of six regents, elected by the electors of the state at large,
each for six years, two going out of office each year. The revenue of
the university is from the income of Congressional land grants under
the Morrill Acts and from a one mill per one dollar tax on the current
assessment roll of the state.^ Connected with it and governed by
the same resents are the State College of Agriculture (including the
School of Agriculture) and the Agricultural Experiment Station,
on the university farm of 320 acres, 2| m. E. of the university,
which receive? *ijrP''Tt from the United States gwcmment^ and an
CXf>irMni:m,il ^^ub-^tition at North Plitte, The botanical and
get'l'Ji;Ev ^i iLir\'L>i 'jf the state are carried on by the universiiiv; the
roriTir.'r his been lareely under the aijr'er^'iiioJi of Charles Edwin
Ek=^^^V fb- iSnJs), profcMCf ol botany* The university a» reorganixeii
in \'i^'.^') ernbrivce^ a college of artt and Kiencei, a gttiduate college,
a college cf scritulture^ a colle^ of ein^ineeirinG, a teachers' college
(x9oe>« a college of bw (tS^i)^ a roHei^e of irtcdicinet a sehool of
pharmacy* a school of ftae art?, an affiliated school of music and a
suittmer se&siofu The f^cdii^a) «<;h«)l \a tn Omaha* The unii.-enjty
has no preparatory dcpartnient* its library m 1909 bad about
8s<3<» volumts-^ in i^^-t^og the ujilver&ity had an entolment of
3611 frtudcnti {3077 incn and 1534 women). The granting of uni-*
versity dee^ct^ i* conditioned by a " eicdit-hour " syjtem; UJ
credit hotir* are reoairtd for a bacticlor'i dcCTet- ElL*ha Benjamin
AtwJfC**' (h* 1S44) became chan<;iellQT of the univcraity in tqoo;
in T90^ he was succeeded by Samud Avery fb. 1S&5). Mo«t of the
educational ^n^tituEit^ni af the trLnte are coeducatJanal. Amonc th{i
Eriv4tc i?Jucationa! infttituiiona of tht stale are: Nebraika Wcsleyan
fniversity (i£33p Mcthodijt Epilscopai), at University Plaec, a
suburb of Ltnca^n ; Union Collocc ( i Jl<)i , Adventist), at College View,
subuitb of Lincoln T Creighio[iX%i\'er3ity (iSj'^, Roman Caiholie),
at Omaha; York College (iBijo. L'nited Bapuat), at York; Coiner
Uni'iiT,Ti-ity [15^9; legally ** The Nebraska Christian Univeraity "J,
at Bethany, a ^ubuib of Lincoln; Grand Inland College (189^^
Baptist?, at Grand Island j Doane Cotlepe US 73, Congregational}, at
Crete; Hastings College (i8tiJ, Presbyterian), at Halting*; and
Bcllevue College { 1*1^3, Presbyterian), at Bel[ev\ie, State penal and
charitible institutioni intlude wldiers' and sailor^' homes at Grand
Isbnd and Mtlford^ an tnatitute foT the Blirtd at Nebraska City
(lB7S)r an Inrtitute for the Deaf and Dumb at Omaha (ififi;), ati
Institute for Feeble Minded Youth at Beatrice (iS^sJ, an Indu^irial
School far Juvenile Delinquents (bo>^) at Kearney (1879), a CuW
Indujtnal Schooi at C*ne\-a {i&Si)* nn fndiifiiri-il Home at MMford
(l.^Ji;) (or unfortunate and home Icsa girlg ftuiliy of a fir^t oUeuce,
as^ I^Lrn> OT bospLtaU for the inbjnc iit Lincob (1S69), Norfolk UBS6)
and Hastings (1^7)' *a Orthopedic Hospital (1905) for cripblcd,
ruptured and deformed children and a state penitentiary (1867),
both at Lincoln. A Home for the Friendless, at Lincoln, incor-
porated in 1876, was taken over by the state in 1897; admission
was restricted to children, and in Z909 its name was changed to
the State Public School.
* In 1909 the state legislature refused to accept for the university
the Carnegie education pensions.
* He was bom in Hinsdale, New Hampshire, on the loth of January
1844: served in the Union army during the Civil War; graduated
at Brown University in 1870 and at Newton Theokmcal Institution
in 1874: taught homiletics at Newton in 1 879-1882, history and
economics at Brown in 1 882-1 888, and political economy and finance
at Cornell in 1888-1889; and was president of Brown University
in 1889-1808. He was an ardent bi-meullist. and in X892 was a
memt)or of the International Monetaiy Conference at Brussels.
He wrote on the currency question, and published a History of the
United States in our Own Times (1904) and other works on American
history and economics.
330
NEBRASKA
History. — Local pride has prompted some Nebraskans to
begin the history of the white race in their state with the march
of Coronado, in 1541, across the buffalo plains to " Quivira,"
N. of the Arkansas river in Kansas; but the claim is not warranted
by the evidence. Marquette mapped the Platte from hearsay
in 1673; French explorers followed it to the Forks in 1739;
and, after Nebraska passed to the United States in 1803 as part
of the Louisiana Purchase, successive American exploring
expeditions left traces in its history. Major Stephen H.Long,
in particular, followed the Platte and South Platte across the
state in 18x9, and his despairing accoimt of the semi-arid buffalo
plains — ^whence arose the myth of the Great American Desert —
finely contrasts with the later histoiy and latter-day optimism
of dcy-farming and irrigation. Meanwhile, fur traders who drew
their goods from the country of the Platte had long been active
on the Missouri. Trading posts were probably established in
Nebraska in 1795, xSoa, 1807 and 181 3; the last two near
the present towns of Ft. Calhoun (about 20 m. N. by W. from
Omaha) and Bellevue. Manuel de Lisa, a noted Cuban trader
and plainsman, was probably the first white settler (1807).
In 1823 Bellevue became an Indian agency, and in 1849 the
first United States post-office in Nebraska. Ft. Atkinson was
maintained near the present town of Ft. Calhoun in 1819-1827;
in 1825 the government acquired the first Indian 4ands, and
in the 'thirties of the X9th century missionaries began to settle
among the tribes; the first Ft. Kearney was maintained where
Nebraska City now stands in 1847-1848, and in the latter year
was re-established on the Platte, some 175 m. inland from the
Missouri. Meanwhile there had begun the passage of the Mormons
across the state (1845-1857), marked by important temporary
settlements near Omaha {q.v.) and elsewhere, the travel to Oregon,
and to California, for which dep6ts of supplies were established
at Bellevue, Plattsmouth, Nebraska City and old Ft. Kearney,
or Dobey Town.^ Thus the -country was well and favourably
known before Congress organized it as a Territory in 1854.
Movements in Congress for the creation of a new Territory
on the Platte began in 1844, several attempts at organization
failing in the succeeding decade. In 1852-1853 lowans and
Missouxians along the border of what are now Kansas and
Nebraska held elections W. of the Missouri and sent delegates
to Congress. A provisional Territorial government formed
by Wyandot Indians and licensed white residents on Indian
lands in Kansas (9.0.) forced Congress to take action. With
what followed, the rivalry of thefPlatte and Kansas river valleys
for the Pacific railway route, and the opposing interests of
pro-slavery Missouri and anti-slavery Iowa, and possibly the
personal ambitions of Stephen A. Douglas and Thonias H.
Benton, had important relations. In the outcome Nebraska
was one of the two Territories created by the Kansas-Nebraska
Bill of 1854. This creative act bore evident traces of the pro-
slavery sentiments of the Congress that passed it in the limitation
of the suffrage to whites, and the explicit application of the
national fugitive-slave laws for the last time in a federal statute.
Under the provision of " popular-sovereignty " it was thought
that Nebraska, as the more northerly Territory, would become
a "free" state, if not a free Territory. There were slaves
within its borders from the beginning, and anti-slavery ideas
were embodied in several legislative bills, until a territorial
law of x86x excluded ^vexy. But the future of slavery was
settled in Kansas, and events in Nebraska throw only a small
side-light on that struggle. John Brown and James H. Lane
spent considerable time in the south-eastern counties, and
across these an " underground raiboad " ran, by which slaves
were conducted from Kansas to Iowa and freedom.
As organized in 1854 Nebraska extended |rom 40® N. lat.
to British America, and from the Missouri and White Earth
rivers to the " summit " of the Rockies; but in x86x and 1863
it was reduced, by the creation of other Territories, to its present
boundaries. By i860 settlement had spread 150 m. W. from
> In 18 months of 1849-1850 it was officially reported that 8000
wagons, with 80,000 draught-animals and 30,000 people.
Ft. Kearney on the way to Oregon, California or Utah.
the Missouri, following the river valleys and the fretghtiag
routes. Many who had migrated to Pike's Peak in 1859, stopped
in Nebraska on their return eastward; and settlement was
stimulated by the national Homestead Act of 1862 (one of the
first patents granted thereunder, on the xst of January 1863,
was for a claim near Beatrice, Nebraska), and by the building
and land-sales of the Union Pacific and Burlington railways
following 1863. Thus in x86x there were probably 30,000
inhabitants in the Territory, and 3300 men were sent into the
field for the Union army in the Civil War. Until well into the
'sixties freighting across the plains was a great business. The
"Oregon Trail," the "Old California Trail," and the "Old Salt
Lake Trail "—-all nearly identical in Nebraska— ran along the
Platte across the entire state with various terminal branches
near the eastern border, to the Missouri river towns; while
branches from St Joseph, Missouri and Leavenworth, Kansas,
ran up the valleys of the Big Blue and Little Blue rivers and
joined the Nebraska roads near Ft. Kearney. The Oregon and
California migration was of large magnitude by X846. St Joseph,
Leavenworth and Nebraska City (f .v.) were thegrcat freighting
terminals of the West. Over these roads was run in x86o-i86x
the famous " pony express " whose service ended witb the com-
pletion of the overland telegraph in the latter year; it covered
the distance from St Joseph, Missouri, to Sacramento, California,
in eight days, and even less. Freighting ended when" the Union
Pacific was extended across Nebraska between X863 and X867.
Political interest in the Territorial period centred mainly
in a fight for the capital, waged between the towns of thie
Missouri river front, Bellevue, Brownville, Nebraska City,
Plattsmouth, Omaha and Florence, those of the North Platte
interior, and of the South Platte. This struggle engendered
extraordinary bitterness, since success might mean continued
life, and defeat prompt demise, to competing towns. As popola^
tion increased the question of the capital was complicated by
the question of statehood. Both were involved in the agitation
in 1858-1859 for the annexation of the South Platte to Kansas
(9.V.), which gained considerable strength; aimexation promising
to the former much earlier statehood than continued union
with the backward region of the North Platte, and to northem
Kansas also promising earlier statehood, and an advantage
in the sectional struggle with southern Kaiuas. As the expenses
of Territorial government were partly borne by the United
States, statehood was voted against in x86o, and again (virtually)
in 1864 after Congress had passed an Enabling Act; but in
1866 a constitution framed by the legislature was declared
carried by the people by a majority of xoo votes in 7776, and
Nebraska was admitted as a state (in spite of President Johnson's
veto) in X867, after her legislature had accepted a fundamental
condition imposed by Congress removing the limiution of the
suffrage to whites by the new constitution. Fraud was chax:gcd
in the Territorial election. At any rate the Republican party
had worked for admission because it needed seiuitors in Congress,
and it got them. During part of 1866-1867 there were two
de facto governments^ the Territorial and the state.
The capital of the Territory remained always at Omaha,
although in 1858 a majority of the legislature removed to Floreikce
leaving the govexnor and a legislative rump at Omaha. In
r867 the South Platte region, having obtained a predominance
in population capable of overcoming a geiT>'mander that had
favoured the North Platte (and incidentally the Democrats),
seciired the appointment of a legislative committee to locate
the state capital S. of the Platte. Several of the old Missouri
river contestants had as representatives of their previous
claims young towns located at strategic points in the interior.
The committee avoided these and selected the site of Lincoln.
Just ten years earlier the legislature bad considered removal
to another site on the Salt, to be called " Douglas " in hoxxmr
of Stephen A. Douj^, then still in the heyday <^ his popularity.
The decade 1870-1880 was marked by the work of the two
constitutional conventions described above. The first legislature
under the constitution of 1875 met in 1877. The foUowing
decade was marked by a tremendous growth in popuUtioii«
NEBRASKA CITY— NEBUCHADREZZAR
331
by a feverish activity in railway construction (the mileage
in the state being increased from 1953 to 5407 m. in the ten
years), and by an extraordinary rise in land values, urban and
ruraL Farm-land prices were raised to a basis of maximum
productiveness when the best interests, especially of the western
section, demanded steady growth based on average crop results
under average conditions. The early 'nineties were marked
i>y an economic collapse of false values, and succeeding years
by a painful recovery of stable conditions.
Ttue Democratic and Republican parties were first effectively
organized in om>osition, as parts of national bodies, in the
territorial campaigns of 1858. Till then there were practically
only Democratic factions; after x86x the Republicans held
the state securely until 1890. After about 1890 the national
tendencies towards a re-alignment of political parties on social-
econoook issues were sharply displayed in Nebraska. This
was in the main only an indication of the general Farmers'
Movement (f.v.),^ but this found in Nebraska special stimulus
in large losses (almost $900,000) suffered by the sUte from
the ne^igencc and defalcation of certain Republican office-
holders. Following 1890 the " Fusion " movement — the fusion,
that is, of Populists, Democrats and (after 1896) of Silver
Republicans — was of great importance. The only year in which
these elements carried the state against the Republicans for
I^esdentiai electors was in 1896, when William J. Bryan of
Lincoln was their presidential candidate; although the state
delegation of representatives and senators in Congress was
for a time divided. The Fusionists practically controlled the
state government from 1897-1899; they held the legislature from
1891-1895 and from 1897-1899, the supreme court from 1899-
1901, and the governorship and executive departAients from
i895'i90z; they elected a Democratic governor also for 1891-
1893; but he was not of the true Fusion type, and vetoed a
Baximum railway freight-rate bill, although his Republican
laccessor approved one. The year 1891 was the most feverish
poiitkal year of this period. Apart from these temporary Fusion
successes the Republicans have always controlled the sUte.
The governors of Nebraska have been as follows:— >
Territorial Period.
Francis Bart II days, Oct. 1854
TlKMnas B.Cuming (secreury, acting governor) Oct. 1854-Fcb. 1855
^^ark W.Izard Feb. 1855-Oct. 1857
Tbooias B.Cuming (secretary, acting governor) Oct. 1857- Jan. 1858
Wniara A. Richardson Jan. 1858-Dec. 1858
J. Stertiiw Morton (secretary, acting governor) Dec. 1 858-May i S59
Samod W. Bbck May 1859-May 1861
Ahrin Saunders May i86i-Mar. 1867
Algernon S Paddock (secretary, several times
acting governor, 1861-1867).
StaU.
David Butler Gmpeached and removed from
oflice i«7i) 1867-1871 Republican
W. H. James (lieut.-govcmor. succeeding) 1871-1873 „
Robert W. Furnas 1873-1875 „
^lasGartwr 1875-1879 „
Albinus Nance 1879-1883 „
ames W.Dawes 1883-1887
ohn M. Thayer 1887-1891
amcft E. Boyd * Democrat
lohn M. Thayer (acting governor) . . 1891-1893 „
arocs E. Boyd 1892-1893
xrmzoCrounse 1893-1 89S Republican
Silas A Holcombe ...... 1895-1899 Fusion
William A. Poyntcr 1899-1901 . „
Charles H. Dietrich (elected U.S. Senator) 190 1 Republican
Ezra P. Savage (lieut.-govemor. succeeding) 1901-1903 „
John H.Mickey 1903-1907
yjtorge L. Sheldon 1907-1909 „
ACShallenbergcr 1909-1911 Democrat
Chester H. Aid nch 1911- Republican
' .Nebraska was one of the states in which the collapse of the co-
operative enterprises of the Grange was particularly severe. The
Farmers' Alliance was organized for the state in 1887, became a
secret organizatmn in 188^. and, as in other states, was a power
by 189a The membership of Grange, Alliance and Knights of
Labour went over gencrallv speaking into the People's party.
. ' Removed by decision 01 state supreme court on grounds of non-
otizenship. «h of May 189 1 ; reinstated by decision of U.S. Supreme
Covrt, 1st d February 1892.
BiBUOCRAPHY.—N. H. Darton, Profeanonal Paper Na 17 (in
U.S. Geoloeical Survey) (1903). Geology and Waier Resources of
(« — ' — ^ yrbraska, and No. 32 (fgos>^ Ceolezy and Underground
H ' fi t>J ike Centrai Grexii J^j<j(ttj; Gr E, Condra, Geology
atid ir<;/r^ fii'iQUTCfi of the RfpuMican Rtttr VoUey and Adjacent
Areas (WjfihinftoTv 1907L be! nj Waicr Supply and Irrigation Paper
No. ;i5 of ihr United States Gcatoj^ijail burvey; id,. Water Supply
Pa T" r N t>. 2 1 5. Ctoloiy a nd Woier R^joutc^s of a Fortien of the Missouri
R. :r Tii/fry fi* NQrfh'EMtcm Nebraska (Wailiifigton; 1908); J. C.
Stv ris, Surfaii Waler Supply iff NebfOika Oivaihington, 1909)
V it'T Supply Paper 230; E. H. Barbour. Nthraska Geological
Si ■■'->■}• I Lincoln, 1903) : G. E. Condra, Ctcgrapby tjf Nebraska (Lincoln,
I9'' ', K. Pound and F. C Clements, Phyt^gtog^rctphy of Nebraska,
vol.. i. (Lincoln, 189*1): general scienLLAc sketches by C. E. Bessey,
L, Brunrr iind G. A. Lowland in the Vlarton hi^to^ry and agricultural
and horticultural reports; Annual Riporti of the State Board of
Ajr^iiriiluiro and State Horticuliura] Society; Publications of the
St >'■'■ Utireau bf Statistioa and L:tt>Dr; and BuiUhns 52 (1904) and
tl- ■! > 15) of the Lrnitcd Slates Bijrt.aii of Forest ry^ For government
cor.= !;U the biennial IcgisLitive Pubii£ Dacume^is, Fn]l>racing reports
of suic olliccrs and boards; alao J, A^ B-irri:tt. History and Govern-
meni p/ Ntbra^ka (Lincoln, iS^t)^ Ntifraila ajtd (he N^ion (Chicago,
xfrc^H); and C. 5. Lobinccr, " The N'i:br35ba Const it ui ion, some of its
Onginai and Peculiar ¥e2.xnven" in pmcttdint^ ami CoUectieus of the
Nebraska State lliskfricai -SAciily, St;rk'* a, vol v. {Lincoln, I902).
For early histofy *ec blblio^nphy Mmiit ankle Kansas. See
especially the publications (sinre iS8^} of the Nebraska State
Historical Society; and J. SterUng >fon(jn, Albert Watkins and
other*. tUustrated History of AVftfujca ( j vats., Lincoln, 1905 sqq.),
wliich haa superseded H. Joftoson, HiUorytsf Nehraska {Omaha, 1880).
NEBRASKA CITT, a dty and the county-seat of Otoe county,
Nebraska, U.S.A., situated on the high W. bank of the Missouri
river, about 40 m. below Omaha. Pop. (1880) 4x83; (1890)
11,494; (1900) 7380 (882 foreign-bom); (1910) 5488. It is
served by the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy, and the Missouri
Pacific railway systems. A railway and wagon bridge spans
the Missouri. Tlie city is the seat of the state Institute for
the Blind (1875), and has three public parks and a public library.
The dty is a distributing centre for a beautiful farming region,
the trade in grain being especially large. In 1900 Nebnilk& City
ranked third among the manufacturing dties of the state, the
manufactures including canned fruiu and vegetables, packed
pork, flour, oatmeal, hominy, griu, meal, starch, dder-vinegar,
agricultural implements, windmills, paving bricks, concrete,
sewer pipe, beer, over-alls and shirts. It is one of the oldest
settlemenu of the state. The first " old Fort Kearney " was
established on the site of Nebraska City in 1847, but was
abandoned in 1848, and the fort was re-established farther W. on
the Platte river (see Kearney). Otoe county was organized in
185s, and the original Nebraska City was incorporated and
made the county-seat in the same year. This dty, together
with Kearney City, incorporated in 1855— adjacent to the first
" old " Fort Kearney—and South Nebraska City, were con-
solidated by the legislature into the present Nebraska City in
1858. (Twelve other dty " additions " and so-called " towns,"
all within or closely adjacent to the present dty, were in existence
in 1857.) Nebraska City was for some years the largest city
of the state. In 1858 it became the headquarters of a great
frdghting-firm that distributed supplies for the United States
government among the army posts between the Missouri river
and the Rocky Motmtains; in seven months in 1859 this one
firm employed 602 men, used 517 wagons, 5682 oxen, and 75
mules, and shipped 2,782,258 lb. of freight. Nebraska City was
the initial point of several roads, parts at one time or another
of the " Oregon," " Old California," and " Great Salt Lake " trails.
(See Nebraska (Sute) : History.) Nebraska City became a dty
of the second class in 187 1 and a dty of the first dass in 1901.
NEBUCHADREZZAR, or Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon,
the liafiouKo8p6<ropos of the Greeks. The first and last are
nearer to the original name as it is found on the cuneiform
monuments, viz. Nabu-kudurri-ujur, " Nebo, defend the
landmark." Nebuchadrezzar seems to have been of Chaldean
origin. He married Amuhia, daughter of the Median king,
according to Abydenus, and in 605 B.C. defeated Necho at
Carchemish, driving the Egyptians out of Asia and annexing
Syria to the Babylonian empire. In the following year he
succeeded his father Nabopolassar on the Babylonian throne.
332
NEBULA
and continued the restoration of Babylon, which he made one
of the wonders of the world. His " new palace " there' was
built in fifteen days; temples were erected to the gods, the
great walls of the city were constructed with a moat surrounding
them, the Euphrates was lined. with brick and a strong fortress
erected. Canals were dug throughout the country a^d a great
reservoir excavated near the capital. Only a fragment of his
annals has been preserved, recording his campaign against
Amasis (AltMnosi) of Egypt in' his thirty-seventh ydi (567 B.C.)
when he defeated the soldiers of " Phut of the lonians." Tyre
revolted in the seventh year of his reign, and was besieged for
thirteen years; a contract-tablet dated in his fortieth year
shows that at that time it was under Babylonian officials. After
the investment of Tyre Nebuchadrezzar marched against
Jerusalem, put JehoiaJdm to death and placed Jehoiachin
on the throne. Three months later Jehoiachin was deposed
and Zedekiah made king in his place. Zedeklah's revolt in
588 B.C led to another siege of Jerusalem, which was taken
and destroyed in 586 B.C. (see Jews and Je&usalzm). To this
period probably belong an inscription of Nebuchadrezzar on
the north bank of the Nahr el-Kelb near Beirut, and another
in the Wadi Brissa in the Lebanon. From his inscriptions we
gather that Nebuchadrezzar was a man of peculiarly religious
character. A younger brother of his is called Nabo-sum-lisir.
See Joaephtts, ConL ApUmX 19; Euiebius, Pntp, EooHgd, x.
NEBULA (Lat. for " cloud," connected with the Gr. m^Xi},
mist or cloud), in astronomy, the name given to certain luminous
cloudy patches in the heavens. They resemble the stars in that
they retain the same relative positions, and thus may be dis-
tinguished from the comets which appear to wander across the
surs. When examined with sufficient telescopic power, a great
many of these luminous patches are perceived to be composed
of clusters of little stars, which in a smaller telescope are invisible
separately, but whose rays of light blend together so as to
produce a confused luminous appearance. Others, however,
cannot be resolved into individual stars even with the best
telescopes, and in many cases the spectroscope gives direct
evidence that the nebula has a constitution altogether different
from that of a star-duster. We thus distingui^ between the
nebulae proper and the star-clusters; but owing to the diffictilty of
deciding the nature in any particular case, and especially oiling
to the fact that some of the earlier observers believed it probable
that all nebulae would with sufficient telescofSic power become
resolvable into stais, the term nebula is often used to cover
both star-dusters and the true nebulae.
An enumeration of nebulae was made by Charles Messier in
Paris in 1771, who recorded X03; Sir William Herschel increased
the number known to over 2500; whilst Sir John Herschel
between 1825 and 1847 catalogued and described 3926 nebulae
(including 1700 obser\'ed at the Cape Of Good Hope). About
1848 the earl of Rosse with his famous six-foot reflector at
Parsonstown began his examination of the nebulae, which added
greatly to our knowledge of thdr forms and structure. In
more modem times the development of photography has
enabled the features of the nebtilae to be ascertained and
recorded with a certainty, which, unfortunately, the older visual
observations and drawings cannot claim to possess. In this con-
nexion the photographic work of Isaac Roberts, A. A. Common,
E. E. Barnard and J. E. Kcder in partici^r must be mentioned.
The total number of known nebulae has, too, been enormously
increased; Perrine estimates that the number within the power
of the Crossley reflector at Lick is not less than half a million.
Nebulae may be conveniently classified according to their
telescopic appearance ; we enumerate below some of the principal
forms that have been recognized, but it must be observed that
this classification is rather superfidal, and that the diflcrentia-
tion is often one of appearance only and not of real structure.
The types are: (i) Irregular lubvlae^ examples: the gr:at
nebula of Orion (M. 42),* the " key-hole " nebula near i; Argus,
> i^. No. 42 in Messier's caUlogue. Nebulae not conuined in
that catalogue arc generally known by their number in Dreyer'*.
New Ctnera Catahgut (N.G.C.).
the " Omega " pebula (M. 17); (2) Annitlcr tuhuUu^ example:
M. 37 in Lyra; (3) DoMc nebulae, example: the dumb-bell
nebula (M. 27) in Vulpecula; (4) Planetary nebulae, examples:
the " owl " nebula (M. 97) in Ursa Major, M. i in Taurus; (5)
Elliptical nebulae, example: the great nebula of Andromeda
(M..3X); (6) Spiral nebulae, example: M. 51 in Canes Venatid;
(7) Nebulous stars', (8) Diffused nebulosities. Most of these names
require little explanation. The first class have ill-defined ixregular
boundaries; their forms often suggest the appearance of curdled
liquid or wreaths of smoke. The annular nebulae have a ringed
appearance, the centre being much darker than the outer parts,
though it is filled with faintly luminous matter. Double nebulae
have two prindpal centres of condensation. The planetary
nebulae are nearly uniformly illuminated compact patches
of light generally circular or ellipUcal in shape; they were so
called because they appeared to possess disks like planets.
Elliptical nebulae are usually nebulae of some flat type (such
as annular or spiral) seen rather edgeways, so that the structure
is not readily recognizable. The typical spiral nebulae arc in
the form of a double spiral, the two branches of which proceed
from diametrically opposite points of a bright nucleus and
wind round it in the same sense; the whole is generally studded
with points of condensation. The great majority ^f the nebulae,
induding the abundant small nebulae which shine with a Vfkite
light (in contrast with the blue-green light of the planeury
and irregular nebulae— see below Spectra of nebulae), are generally
classed as spiral nebulae. The spiral structure has been shown
to exist in a few of them, but for the remainder it is only inferred.
Nebulous stars are true stars surrounded by an atmosphere
or aureole of nebulous light. Diffused nebulosities are very
faint nebulae of enormous extent, sometimes forming the back-
ground of a whole constellation. We proceed to describe some
of the more famous nebulae.
One of the most renuirkable nebulae is that which is situated
in the sword-handle of Orion and about the multiple star
Orionis; it is faintly visible to the naked eye. It seems to have
been first noticed by Huygens in 1656, who described and
figured it in his System Satumium. It has now been found that
nebulous streamers connected with the bright nudeus wind
through the whole constellation of Orion. It is well knows
that aiU the brighter stars of the constdlation except Betelgeuse
appear to oe rdated to one another by their similarity both
of spectra and of proper motion; it seems probable that they
are actually situated in the nebula and in some way connected
with it.
The only other nebula which can be seen with the naked eye
is the eUiptical nebula in Andromeda. Modem photographs
show very deariy that its stmcture is spiral. The nucleus is
large and appears circular, but the spirals proceeding from it
lie in a plane inclined at a rather sharp angle to the h'ne of sight,
and this gives to the nebula its elliptical appearance. Two
small dense nebulae accompany it, and appear to bdong to the
system.
The finest example of a ring nebula is M. 57 between fi and 7
Lyrae. The ring is slightly elliptical, iu dimensions bdng
87' by 64'. At the ends of the major axis the ring becomes
very faint, so that the form of the bright part may justly be
compared to a pair of marks of parenthesis ( ). llie centre is
marked by a star which appears to be intimatdy assodated
with the ring, for the whole space within the ring is filled with
a very faint nebulosity. According to Schaeberle, there is
evidence of a spiral stmcture in this nebula also. It must,
however, dearly be of an essentially different character from
the stmcture of an ordinary spiral nebula, and the q>ectroscope
reveals a fundamental difference between the annular and
spiral nebulae.
The " dumb-bell '* nebula in Vulpecula consists of two almost
separated fan-shaped patches of light. It exhibits a dose resem-
blance to the annular nebula; for we have only to assume a
continuation of the thinning out along the longest diameter and
a slight filling in of the centre of the Lyra nebula to obtain the
dumb-bell form.
NEBULA
Plate I.
ftn
a
o
e
s^
2^
o-i
3
O^
Plate II.
NEBULA
o_
® OH
•^3
^
^
NEBULAR THEORY
333
Of phnetaiy neBuhe one of the best known is the "owl
nebula " in the Great Bearabout nudway between *' the pointers.*'
As seen with Lord Rosse's reflector, it presented a startling appear-
ance, resembling the face of a goblin; two faint stars shone in
the centres of the two dark circles which represented the saucer-
eyes of the creature. Some change has certainly taken phice
since then, for the two stars no longer could be supposed to
represent the pupils of the eyes; the cause may, however, be
merely the proper motion of the stars or of the nebula.
The discovery of great regions having a faint nebulous back-
ground b one of the most remarkable results of modem work.
Particularly interesting is the fact that, whilst the large telescopes
are unable to render them perceptible to the eye or to photograph
tbem, they are revealed by what at first sight seems an absurdly
simple apparatus. For the study of the ordinary nebulae
large reflecting telescopes (preferably of short focal length) are
used, the great light-gathering power being all important; but
for photographing these diffused ncbtilosities portrait lenses
of very small aperture and focal length are most successful
Tbus the great extension of the Orion nebula was photographed
by W H Pickering in iSgo with a lens 2-6 in. in aperture
and of 8 6 in focal length; the exposure was rather more than
six hours. Other extensive nebulous regions of a similar character
have been found by Barnard in the constellations Ophiuchus,
Scorpio and Taurus.
Spectra cf /febuiae. — Owing to the feebleness of their light the
study of the spectra of nebulae is one of particular difficulty-
Two varieties of spectra are recognized; the one consists of a
fev narrow bright lines with sometimes a faint continuotis
spectrum for a background; the other consists of a continuous
spectrum crossed by dark lines and is indistinguishable from
that of ordinary stars. The former" variety unmistakably
shows that the light proceeds from diffuse incandescent vapour;
nebulae showing this spectrum are accordingly called " gaseous.*'
Irregular, annular and planetary nebulae are of this nature.
The visual spectrum is marked by three bright lines in the
blue and green of wave-lengths 5007, 4959 and 4861. Of
these the last is the line H /3 of the hydrogen series; the other
two are of unknown origin, and as they are always found together
and have always the same relative intensity, they have both
been attributed to the same unknown element, which has been
named *' nebulium." Usually there are no other conspicuous
lines in the vistial spectrum, but in the ultra-violet region
numerous lines can be photographed, including most of the
hydrogen series. The yellow line (Da) of helium can be detected
in many nebulae. The great majority of the nebulae, however,
show the second variety of spectrum, and are thus indistinguish-
able spectroscopically from irresolvable star-dusters. The
great nebula of Andromeda and the spiral nebulae are of this
kind. It is not necessary to conclude that they, therefore, are
star-dusters whose components are, owing to their remoteness
from us, too faint and dose together to be separately distinguish-
able. A gaseous mass only gives a bright line spectrum when
it is so rarefied as to be transparent through and through. If
the density and thickness are such that a ray of light cannot
pass through it the spectrum will, in general, be continuous
like that of a solid body.
The inquiry into the physical state and constitution of the
nebulae raises problems of great difficulty. In the case of
*' gaseous " nebulae it is very hard to understand how such
extremdy tenuous masses are maintained in a state of incan-
descence. Only one theory has been put forward which at all
accounts for this fact, and unfortunatdy, it is not altogether
satisfactory in other respects. This is Sir Norman Lockyer's
"Meteoritic Hypothesis," which attributes the light to col-
lisions between numbers of small discrete solid partidcs,
these being vaporized and made luminous owing to the heat
developed by their impacts. Formidable difficulties, however,
prevent the entire acceptance of this suggestion.
The i^iral nebulae are not distributed at random over the
dcy. nor are they condensed along the galactic plane like the
clusters which they spectroscopically resemble. There is a
well-marked centre of aggregation of the northern nebulae near
the north galactic pole. In the southern hemisphere they are
more evenly distributed, but the avoidance of the gakaic plane
is marked. The remarkable Nubeculae or MageUcnie Clouds
in the southern hemisphere, which look like detached portions
of the Milky Way, are found on tdescopic examination to consist,
not of stars alone, like the Milky Way, but of stars and nebulae
dustering together. In the greater doud Sir John Herschel
counted 286 nebulae; in the lesser doud they are rather less
numerous.
RBPCRBNCes.— The characters of nebulae receive treatment in all
text -books on dcacriptive astronomy; mention may be made of
Miss A. M Qerke. The System of the Stars (and ed., 1905). which
' " ' "" '" ' ' photo-
papers.
, ^ ,., Anew
catalogue of nebulae and dusters of stars," Memoirs RA.S.
.1888). published separately in 1890; and " Index Catalogue of
Nebulae (1888-1894). "Mem, R.A.S. (1895). Excellent photographs
of the more famous nebulae are given in Sr R. Ball's Popular Guide
to the Heavens (1905) : a more comprehensive collection is given in
Isaac Roberts, Photoeraphs of Stars, Star Ousters and Nebulae (3 vols.,
1873-1899). lA. S. E.)
NEBULAR THEORY, a theory advanced to account for the
origin of the solar system. It is emphatically a speculation;
it cannot be demonstrated by observation or established by
mathematical calculation. Yet the boldness and the splendour
of the nebular theory have always given it a dignity not usually
attached to a doctrine which from the very nature of the case
can have but little direct evidence in its favour.
There are very remarkable features in the solar system which
point unmistakably to some common origin of many of the
different bodies which it contains. We may at once put the
comets out of view. It does not appear that they bear any
testimony on either side of the question. We do not know
whether the comets are really indigenous to the solar system
or whether they may not be merely imported into the system
from the depths of space. Even if the comets be indigenous
to the system, they may, as many suppose, be merely ejections
from the sun. In any case the orbits of comets are exposed
to such tremendous perturbations from the planets that it is
unsafe from the present orbit of a comet to conjecture what
that orbit may have been in remote antiquity. On these grounds
we discuss the nebular theory without much reference to comets.
But even after the omission of all cometary objects we can still
count in the solar system upwards of five hundred bodies,
almost every one of which pronounces distinctly, though with
varying emphasis, in favour of the nebular theory.
The first great fact to be noticed is that the planets revolve
around the sun in the same direction. This is true not only
of the major planets Mercury, Venus, the Earth, Mars, Jupiter,
Saturn, Uranus and Neptune; it is also true of the host of
more than five hundred minor planets. It is also remarkable
that all the great planets and many of the small ones have
their orbits very nearly in the same plane, and nearly circular
in form. Viewed as a question in probabilities, we calculate
the chance that five hundred bodies revolving round the sun
shall all be moving in the same direction. The improbability
of such an arrangement is enormously great. It is represented
by the ratio of a number containing about a hundred and sixty
figures to unity, and so we are at once forced to the conclusion
that this remarkable feature of the planetary motions must have
some physical explanation. In a minor degree this conclusion
is strengthened by observing the satellites. Discarding those
of Uranus, in which the orbits of the satellites are highly inclined
to the ecliptic, and in which manifestly some exceptional in-
fluences have been at work, we find that the satellites revolve
around the primaries also in the same direction;^ while, to make
the argument complete, the planets, so far as they can be
observed, rotate on their axes in the same manner.
The nebular theory offers an explanation of this most remark-
able uniformity. Laplace supposed the existence of a primeval
» Exceptions are Saturn ix. (I^hoebe), Jupiter vii. (?) and viii., and
the satdlite of Neptune.
334
NEBULAR THEORY
nebula which extended so far out as to fiO all the space at present
occupied by the planets. This gigantic nebulous mass, of
which the sun was only the central and somewhat more con-
densed portion, is supposed to have a movement of rotation on
its axis. There is no difficulty in conceiving how a nebula,
quite independently of any internal motion of its parts, shall
also have had as a whole a movement of rotation. In fact a
little consideration of the theory of probabilities will show it
to be infinitely probable that such an object should really have
some movement of rotation, no matter by what causes the
nebula may have originated. As this vast mass cooled it
must by the laws of heat have contracted towards the centre,
and as it contracted it must, according to a lav/ of dynamics,
rotate more rapidly. The time would then come when the
centrifugal force on the outer parts of the mass would more
than counterbalance the attraction of the centre, and thus
we would have the outer parts left as a ring. The inner portion
will still continue to contract, the same process will be repeated,
and thus a second ring will be formed. We have thus grounds
for believing that the original nebula will separate into a series
of rings all revolving in the same direction with a central nebulous
mass in the interior. The materials of each ring would continue
to cool and to contract until they passed f^m the gaseous to
the liquid condition. If the consolidation took place with
comparative uniformity we might then anticipate the formation
of a vast multitude of small planets such as those we actually
do find in the region between the orbit of Mars and that of
Jupiter. More usually, however, the ring might be expected
not to be uniform, and, therefore, to condense in some parts
more rapidly than in others. The effect of such contraction
would be to draw the materials of the ring into a single mass,
and thus we wotild have a planet formed, while the satellites
of that planet would be developed from the still nascent planet
in the same way as the planet itself originated from the sun.
In this way we account most simply for the uniformity in t))c
direction in which the planets revolve, and for the mutual
proximity of the planes in which their orbits are contained.
Such was the nebular theory as it was originally sketched.
At the present day when the nebulae that are spiral in form
have been shown t^ be so numerous, next to the fixed stars
themselves, our view of the nebular theory has been somewhat
modified. It now seems probable that the spiral nebula is
the fittest illustration of the transformation of a diffused nebula
into a system of sun and planets.
The rotation of the planets on their axes is also explained
as a consequence of the nebular theory, for at the time of the
first formation of the planet it must have participated in the
rotation of the whole nebula, and by the subsequent contraction
of the planet the speed with which the rotation was performed
must have been accelerated.
There is quite a different method of oonadering the nebular
origin of our system, which leads in a very striking manner
to conclusions practically identical with those we have just
sketched. We may commence by dealing with the sun as we
find it at the present moment, and thence inferring what must
have been the progress of events in the earlier epochs of the
history of our system.
The daily outpour of heat from the sun at the present time
suggests a profound argument in support of the nebular theory.
The amount of the sun's heat has been estimated, but we
receive on the earth less than one two-thousand-millionth
part of the whole radiation. It would seem that the greater
part of the rest flows away to be lost in space. Now what
suppb'cs this heat? We might at first suppose that the sun
was really an intensely heated body radiating out its heat as
does white-hot iron, but this explanation cannot be admitted,
for there is no historical evidence that the sun is growing
colder. We have not the slightest reason to think that the
radiation from the sun is measurably weaker now than it was
a couple of thousand years ago, yet it can be shown that, if the
sun were merely radiating heat as simply a hot body, then
it would cool some degrees every year, and must have cooled
many thousands of degrees within the time covered by historical
records. We, therefore, conclude that the sun has some other
source of heat than that due simply to incandescence. It might,
for example, be suggested that the heat of the sun was supplied
by chemical combination analogous to combustion. It would
take 20 tons of coal a day burned on each square foot of the
sun's surface to supply the daily radiation. Even if the sun
were made of one mass of fuel as efficient as coal, that mass
must be entirely expended in a few thousand years if the present
rate of radiation was to be sustained. We cannot, therefore,
admit that the source of the heat in the sun is to be found in any
chemical combination taking place in its mass. Where then can
we find an adequate supply of heat ? Only one external source
can be named: the falling of meteors into the sun must yield
some heat just as a shooting star yields some heat to our atmo-
sphere, but the question is whether the quantity of heat obtainable
from the shooting stars is at all adequate for the purpose. It
can be shown that unless a quantity of meteors in collective
mass equal to our moon were to plunge into the sun every year
the supply of heat could not be sustained from this source.
Now there is no reason to believe that meteors in anything
like this quantity can be supplied to the sun, and, therefore,
we must reject this source as aiso inadequate.
The truth about the sun's heat appears to be that the sun b
really an incandescent body losing heat, but that the operation
of cooling is immensely retarded owing to a curious circumstance
due jointly to the enormous mass of the sun and to a remarkable
law of heat. It b well known that if energy disappears in one
form it reappears in another, and this principle applied to
the sun will explain the famous difficulty.
As the sun loses heat it contracts, and every pair of partides
in the sun are nearer to each other after the contraction than
they were before. The energy due to their separation is thus
less in the contracted state than in the original state, and as that
energy cannot be lost it must reappear in heat. The sun is thus
slowly contracting; but as it contracts it gains heat by the
operation of the law just referred to, and thus the further cooling
and further contraction of the sun is protracted until the additional
heat obtained is radiated away. In this way we can reconcile
the fact that the sun is certainly losing heat with the faa that
the change in temperature has not been large enough to be
perceived within hbtoric times.
It has been estimated that the sun b at present contracting
so that its diameter diminishes xo m. every century; there
is, however, now reason to think that the rate of contraction
b by no means so rapid as thb wotild indicate.' Thb b an
inappreciable dbtance when compared with the diameter of the
sun, which b ncariy a million of miles, but the significance for
our present purpose depends upon the fact that thb contraction
is always taking place. Assuming the accuracy of the estimate
just made, we see that a thousand years ago the sun must have
had a diameter 100 m. greater than at present, ten thousand
yeara ago that diameter must have been 1000 m. more than it b
now, and so on. We cannot perhaps assert that the same rate
is to be continued for very many centuries, but it b plain that
the further we look back into the past time the greater must
the sun have been.
Dealing then simply with the laws of nature ls we know them,
we can see no limit to the increasing size of the sun as we look
back. We must conceive a time when the sun was swollen to
such an extent that it filled up the entire space girdled by the
orbit of Mercury. Earlier still the sun must have reached to
the earth. Earlier still the sun must have reached to where
Neptune now revolves on the confines of our system, but the
mass of the sun could not undergo an expansion so prodigious
without being made vastly more rarefied than at present.
and hence we are led by thb mode of reasoning to the
conception of the primaeval nebula from which our system has
originated.
Considering that our sun is but a star, or but one of the millions
of stars, it is of interest to see whether any other systems present
indication of a nebulous origin analogous to that irhtcb Laplace
NECESSITAS— NECK
335
I proposed for the solar system. In one of his papers, Sir W.
' iienchd marshals the evidence which can be collected on this
point. He arranges a selection from his observations on the
nebulae in such a way as to give great plausibih'ty to his view
of the gradual transmutation of nebulae into stars. Herschcl
begins by showing us that there are regions in the heavens where
a faint diffused nebulosity is all that can be detected by the
telescope. There are other nebulae in which a nudetis can be
just discerned, others again in which the nucleus is easily seen,
and siill others where the nudeus is a brilliant star-like point.
The transition from an object of this kind to a nsbulous star
is very natural, while the nebulous stars pass into the ordinary
stars by a few graduated stages. It is thus possible to exhibit
a series of objects beginning at one end with the most diffused
nebulosity and ending at the other with an ordinary fixed star
or group of stars. Each object in the series differs but slightly
from the object just before it and the object just after it. It
seemed to Herscfael that he was thus able to view the actual
changes by which masses of phosphorescent or glowing vapour
became actually condensed down into stars. The condensation
of a nebula could be followed in the same manner as we can
study the growth of the trees in the forest, by comparing the
trees of various ages which the forest contains at the same time.
In attempting to pronounce on the evidence with regard to
Herscbers theory, we must at once admit that the transmutation
of a nebula into a star has never been seen. It is indeed very
doubtful whether any changes of a nebula have ever been seen
«bich are of the same character as the changes Hcrschd's theory
would require. It seems, however, most likely that the periods
of time required for sudi changes are immense and that the
changes accomplished in only a century or two are absolutely
inappreciable.
The nebular theory is a noble speculation supported by plausible
argument, and the verdict of science on the Vholc subject cannot
be better expressed than in the words of S. Newcomb: " At
the present time we can only say that the nebular hypothesis
is indicated by the general tendencies of the bws of nature,
that it has not been proved to be inconsistent with any fact,
that it is almost a necessary consequence of the only theory
by which we can account for the origin and conservation of the
sun's heat, but that it rests on the assumption that this conserva-
tion is to be explained by the laws of nature as we now sec them
in operation. Should any one be sceptical as to the sufficiency
of these laws to account for the present state of things, science
can furnish no evidence strong enough to overthrow his doubts
until the sun shall be found growing smaller by actual measure-
ment, or the nebulae be actually seen to condense into stars
and systems."
BiBLioCBAPBT. — ^Laplace. Sysiime du monde; Sir William
Herscbel, PkiL Trans. (1814), pp. 2^8-284: Kant's Cosmogony,
trandatcd by Professor Hastte; Sir John Herschel, Outlines of
Astranomyi jProfcsaor Sw Newcomb, Popular Agronomy; Lick
Obscrvatoiy publications, photographs of Nebulae; Sir Robert
Ball, The Eartk's Bepnning. (R. S. B.)
HSCESSITAS (Gr. *ApAyai), in Orphic theology, the personifica-
tion of absolute necessity. She appears as the mother of the
Moerae (Fates), as the wife of Demiurgus (Fashioner of the
World) and mother of HeimarmenC (Destiny) Her power
is irresistible, even greater than that of the gods; to her was
due the strife (battles with Titans, Giants) that raged amongst
them of old, before the rule of love began; the world revolves
round the spindle, which she holds in her lap. According to the
Egyptian theory, she is one of the four deities present at the
birth of every human bdng, her companions being the Daemon
(guardian spirit), Tyche (Fortune) and Eros. On the citadel
of Corinth there was a temple sacred to her and Bia (Violence^,
which none were permitted to enter The Roman Necessitas is
represented in the well-known ode of Horace (i 35) as the fore-
runner and companion of Fortuna, holding in her brazen hand
huge nails, a damp and molten lead, symbolical of fixedness
and tenadty
See Plato. lUp. 616 c. Symp 195 c. 197 b; Macrobius. Satumdia,
i- 19: Painanias ii. 4- 6.
NECESSITY (Lat. necessitas), a term used technically in
philosophy for the quality of inevitable happening; for example,
hot air necessarily tends to rise. Thus it corresponds in. the
sphere of action to icertainty in the sphere of knowledge. That
the sun will rise to-morrow is a necessary event ; and men anticipate
the rising with certainty. In ordinary language the conception
of necessity is rendered meaningless by being referred to the
present or even to the past. A current definition of necessity
is " the state which cannot be otherwise than it is." Such a
definition tells us nothing. How can any state be otherwise
than it is? Necessity can have meaning only in reference to
the future: it means absence of spontaneous power in that
which acts necessarily. For the origin of the conception we must
look to our inward personal experience of constraint. When wc
are acting under physical or mathematical or logical or moral
necessity we are so far precluded from spontaneous action-~in
common phrase, we can do no otherwise — though the causes of
constraint may be of very different kinds. In ethics the term
necessitarianism is applied to that view of human action which
regards all action as dictated by external causes (cf. Determinism).
The sense in which, if at all, the human mind can cognize
necessity, i.e. causal connexion between events or states, has
been the subject of vigorous discussion among philosophers.
By sceptics and empiricists it is held that a law is merely a
crystallized summary of observed phenomena. Thus J. S.
Mill denies that a general proposition is more than an enumeration
of particulars, and hence that syllogistic reasoning cannot
amplify knowledge (see Syllogism). It is clear that the senses
cannot apprehend causal connexion, and this impossibility gives
rise to a prior conception according to which the conception
of necessity is purely intellectual (see Metaphysics).
NECK (O. Eng. hnecca\ the word appears in many Teutonic
languages; cf. Dutch nek, Ger. Nacken; in O. E. the common word
was kcal5\ cf. Ger. Hals), that part of the body which connects
the head with the trunk (sec Anatomy: Superficial and Artistic).
The word is transferred to many objects resembling this part
of the body in shape or function; it is thus applied to an isthmus,
or to the narrowest portion of a promontory, to the narrow part
of a musical stringed instrument connecting the head and body,
as in the violin, or to a narrow pass between mountains, which
in the Dutch form nek, appears in place-names in South Africa.
In architecture, the '* neck " is that part of the capital just
above the " astragal," and the term " necking " is applied to
the annulet or round, or series of horizontal mouldings, which
separates the capital of a column from the plain part or a shaft.
In Romanesque work this is sometimes corded.
In (Geology, the term " neck " is given to the denuded stump of an
extinct volcana Beneath every volcano there are passages of con-
duits up which the volcanic materials were forced, and after the mass
has been levelled by denudation there is always a more or less circular
pipe which marks the site of the crater. This pipe, which is filled
with consolidated ashes or with crystalline lava, is the characteristic
of a volcanic neck. Active volcanoes often stand on the sea-bottom
and when the eruption comes to an end the volcano is slowly buried
under layers of sediment. In tropical seas the coral animals cover
over the submarine volcanoes which rise nearly to the surface and
form great reefs of limestone around them. Should elevation take
place after long ages the removal of the overlying strata will bring the
volcanic mass to light, and in the normal course of things this will
suffer denudation exactly like a recent volcano. Many^ instances of
this are furnished by the geological history of the British Isles. In
Carboniferous times, for example, before the Coal-measures were
deposited, a shallow sea occupied the southern part of Scotland and
the north of England. Volcanic activity broke out on the sea*
bottom, and many volcanic cones, both small and large, were pro-
duced. These have long since been uplifted and the superjacent
strata denuded away over a large part of the area which they occu-
pied. In Derbyshire, Fife, the Lothians and the Glasgow district
the remains of Carboniferous volcanoes occur in every state of
preservation. ^Some have the conical hills of lavas and ashes well
preserved (e.f.' Largo Law in Fifeshire); others retain only a small
girt of the original volcanic pile {e.g. Arthur's Seat. Edinburgh; the
inn of Burntisland) and of the larger number nothing remains but
the " neck " which shows where once the crater was situated.
In regions of former volcanic activity necks are the most persistent
of all volcanic structures, because tne active volcanic magma is
located deep within the earth's crust, and the pipe by which it rises
to the surface is of great length and traverses a great thickness of
336
NECKAM
strata. Many volcanic necks stand on lines of fault. In other cases
there are groups of necks lying in a straight or sinuous line, which
may indicate the position of a fracture or at least of a line of least
resistance. But in Scotland it is often impossible to adduce any
evidence of the connexion between faults or nssurcs and the position
of volcanic necks; and it seems likely that the pressure of the gases
in the igneous magma increased till an explosion took place which
perforated the rocks above with a clean tubular passage often nearly
circular in cross section. This pipe was usually vertical, and nearly
uniform in diameter for great depths; the material occupying it,
when exposed by denudation, has a circular ground idan, or if
shown in vertical section (or elevation) in a din is a pillar-shaped
•mass crossing the bedding planes of the strata nearly at right angles.
It terminates upwards in the remains of the vdcamc cone and com-
municates below with the reservoir from which the lavas were
emitted, represented in most cases, where It has been exposed, by a
large irregular mass (a batholith or boss) of coarsely crystalline
igneous rock. The site of such a neck is generally indicated by a
low conical hill consisting of volcanic rock, surrounded by sedi-
mentary or igneous strata of a different kind. The tow cone is due
to the greater hardness and strength of the volcanic materials and
is not connected with the original shape of the volcana Such hills
are common in some parts of Scotland and well-known ex^TnpIc^ arc
Arthur's Seat and the Castle Rock (Edinburgh), North Bcr^ l. k Uw.
the Bass Rock; they occur also in the Peak district of l>< Tl.>vhirr,
and the Wolf Rock off the coast of Cornwall is probably a r 'V »
splendid sugar-loaf cones known as the Pitons of St Luda i
Indies, rising from the sea with almost vertical sides to . f
nearly 3000 ft., are old volcanic necks. In Texas, New S\' i •,
Arizona, California and many of the western states 'tl ?^i<ri:i
America geol<^ists have observed conical volcanic hills Living all
the features which belong to necks.
Where the volcanic rocks arc soft and easily disintegrated they may
be reduced more rapidly than the strata around them and the
position of a neck may be indicated by a cup-shaped hollow; this
IS the case ni'ith some of the diamond-bearing basic pipes of South
Africa. Sometimes necks are encountered in underground mining
operations; in the coal-field of Fife, for instance, the coab are
sometimes replaced by a circular mass of vokranic rock, a quarter of
a mile or more in diameter, which rise vertically to the surface.
Better examples are the Kimberley diamond mines. The blue-ground
(or serpentine breccia) occupies great pipes or funnels, circular in
outline with nearly vertical sides, extending downwards to un-
known depths; these are undoubtedly the necks of old volcanoes.
If any lavas were poured out from these pipes at the surface they
have since been carried away by denudation.
The size of necks varies considerably; the smallest may be only
30 or 30 yds. in diameter, the largest are several miles. In
this respect they resemble active craters, but no necks have been
met with on the earth's surface with dimensions approaching those of
the so<alled " craters " of the moon. Small necks are usually simple,
i.tf. they contain only one or two kinds of igneous rock (ashes and
dikes) and have been produced, so far as we can judge, by a single
eruption. Not infrequently they contain no volcanic rock but are
fillra with pieces of slate, sandstone or whatever strata the pipe
traverses, ^uch necks must have been produced by a single eruption
with an outburst of steam* not followed by lava; the disrupted
fragments of the surroundinjg rocks and the materials tumbling down
from the crater's walls ultimately filled up the cavity. Insunces
occur in Fifeshire and in Shetland, and among the recent vok:anoes
of the Eiffel there are some which have thrown out more slate and
sandstone than lava.
Lai]se necks, on the other hand, are often of complex structure,
contain many kinds of rock and seem to have been produced by
repeated eruptions, each of which more or less conlpletdy cleared
out the material obstructing the orifice, and introduced a series of
fresh accunrulations. The beds of ashes which line the interior of an
active crater have in nearly all cases a slope or dip towards a central
p<Mnt where the base of the depression is situated, and in volcanic
necks which have been filled with ash (tuffs and agglomerates) this
funnel-like inward dip is very constant. If there has been only a
single eruption the beds of ashes have a very conformable'or uniform
arrangement, but if activity has been resumed after a period of
quiescence a large part of the old material may have been projected
and a new series of beds laid down, transgressing unconformably
the edges of the earlier ones. By these structures we can sometimes
trace a neck within a neck, or 01 a lateral crater on the margin of a
prindpal one.
Where the crater has filled up with very coarse ashes, or agglomer-
ate, the bedding is rarely visible. Sometimes large empty craters
were occupied temporarily by lakes, and level sheets of mud and silt
have gathered on their floors: hence bedded sediments are not
infrequently found in volcanic necks. Mixed with the volcanic ashes
and bombs there are often large broken pieces of sedimentary rocks
which may have been crystallized and hardened by the heat and
vapours emitted by the volcano. Sometimes great fragments of the
walls have foundered or colUfMed into the crater, and masses of non-
volcanic rock, an acre or more in extent, nuy occur in a volcanic neck.
In Arran, for example, there is a large neck which contains lumps of
Cretaceous rocks nowhere else known to occur on the island; they
have fallen down from strata once occupying part of the walls of the
crater but now removed by denudation.
The lava which rises and flows out from the crater leaves its trace
also in the necks. Sometimes it forms thin beds or flows alternating
with the tuffsand having the same basin-shaped dip. Morecommonly
it appears as the material filling fissures and pipes, traversing the
ashes irregularly or rising as a central plug in the interior 01 the
neck, and sending out branching vdns. Occasionally a whole neck is
composed of solid crystalline rock reprcsenUng the last part of the
magma which ascended from the underground focus and con-
gealed within the crater. In Mont Pel6e, for instance, the last stage
of the eruptions of 1902 to 1905 was the protnision of a great column
of solidified lava which rose at one time to a height of 900 ft. abo\-e
the lip of the crater, but has since crumbled down. The Castle Rock
of Edinburgh is a neck occupied by a plug of crystalline basalt.
Necks of tnis kind weather down very slowly and tend^to form
promineni hills.
After the eruptions terminate gases or hot solutions given out by
deep-lyin(( masses of molten rock may find a passaee upward througn
the materials occupying the cratcrj greatly modilying their mineral
na* ---^ and laying down fresh deposits. A good example of secondary
dej s within a volcanic neck is provided by the Cripple Creek
miii!.n^ district of Colorado. The ore-bearing veins are connected
wit h volcanic rocks and part of these occupy a vertical circular pipe
whcrh is a typical 'volcanic nock. A phonolitic breccia, greatly
alt : ', is the prindpal rock, and is cut by dikes of phonolite,
do >, &c The country rock is mostly granite and gneiss, and
bl( of these are common in the breccia. A large vdcano was built
up ertiary times on the granite plateau, and has since been almost
em r removed by denudation. The gold ores were carried upwards
by vnts of hot water derived from the volcanic magma and were
dei^pi .ifed along cracks and fissures in the nuterials which occupied
the crater, and also in the surrounding rocks (see Volcano).
a. Sw F.)
NECKAM, ALEXANDER (: 157-12x7), English schoolnnan
and man of sdence, was bom at St Albans in September X157,
on the same night as King Richard I. Neckam*s mother nursed
the prince with her own son, who thus became Richard's foster-
brother. He was educated at St Albans Abbey school, and began
to teach as schoolmaster of Dunsuble, dependent on St Albans
Abbey. Later he resided several years in Paris, where by 1 180
he had become a distinguished lecturer of the university. By
1 1 86 he was back in England, where he again hdd the place
of schoolmaster at Dunstable. He is said to have visited Italy
with the bishop of Worcester, but this statement has been
doubted; the assertion that he was ever prior of St Nicolas,
Exeter, seems a mistake: on the other hand, he was certainly
much at court during some part of his life. Having become
an Augustinian canon, he was appointed abbot of Cirencester
in X213. He died at Kempsey in Worcestershire in 121 7, and
was buried at Worcester. Besides theology he was interested
in the study of grammar and natural history, but his name is
chiefly associated with nautical science. For in his De fuUuris
rerum and De uteusilibus (the former of which, at any
rate, had become well known at the end of the 12th century, and
was probably written about xi8o) Ncckam has preserved to
us the earliest European notices of the magnet as a guide to
seamen— outside China, indeed, these seem to be the earliest
notices of this mystery of nature that have survived in any
country or dvilizalion. It was probably in Paris, the chief
intellectual centre of his time, that Neckam heard how a ship,
among its other stores, must have a needle placed above a magnet
(the De uitnsUibus assumes a needle mounted on a pivot),
which needle would revolve until its point looked north, and
thus guide sailors in murky weather or on starless nights. It
is noteworthy that Neckam has no air of imparting a startling
novelty: he merely records what had apparently become the
regular practice of at least many seamen of the Catholic world.
See Thomas Wright's edition of Neckam's De no/tim rtrvm and
De laudibus ditinae sapitntiae in the Rolls Series (1863), and of
the De uUnsilibus in his Votume of Vocabularies. Neckam also wrote
Corrogatiorus Promethei, a scriptural commcnury prefaced by a
treatise on grammatk:al criticism; a translation of Aesop into Latin
elegiacs (six fables from this version, as given in a Paris MS., are
printed in Robert's FabUs inidUes); commenuries, still unprinted,
on portions of Aristotle, Martianus Capella and Ovid's i/ete-
morphosei, and other works. Of all these the De noL rer., a sort of
manual of the sdentific knowledge of the 12th century ,tfs much the
most important: the magnet passage herdn is in book ii. chap^
xcviii. (De vi aUractiva), p. iSt of Wright's edition. The correspond-
ing section in the De uUnsU, is on p. 114 of the VcL ei YocAbu
NECKAR— NECKER
337
Bacon's reference to Neckam as a grammatical writer (m
mmis vtn d uHUa scriptU: sed . . , inter auetores mm potest . . .
ummerari) may be found in Brewer'v (Rolls Series) edition of
Bacon's Ofera imedUa, p. 457. See also Thomas Wright. Biogra^kia
Britanmica Uteraria, Antfo^ Norman' Period, pp. 449-459 (1846:
some points in this are modified in the 1863 edition of De not. rer.) ;
C Raymond Beatley, Dawn of Modem Geography, tii. 5o8-^oo.
HBCKAII, a river of Gennany, and a right-banlc tributary
of tbe Rhine, rises between the Black Forest and the Swabian
Alb, near Schwenningen, in WttrttcmbeTgy at an altitude of
2287 ft. As far as Rottweil only a mountain stream, it here
attains the volume of a river, flows N. as far as Horb, thence
in a north-easterly direction, and with rapid current it passes
Rottenbuig and the university town of Tubingen, taking then
a generally northerly course. From Esslingen the Ncckar
becomes broader and deeper and its valley veiy picturesque,,
and after passing Cannstatt, from which point it is navigable
for small craft, it flows through vine-clad hills by the pleasant
village of Marbach, Schiller's birthplace, receives at Besigheim
the waters of its most considerable tributary, the Enz, swirls
down by Lauflen, and enters the beautiful vale of Hcilbronn.
Hence, between hills crowned by frequent feudal castles, it
runs by Wtmpfen and by Homberg, where G5U von Berlichingen
Gvcd, to Ebcrbach, where it enters the sandstone formation
of the Odenwald. It now takes a tortuous westerly course,
and the scenery on its banks becomes more romantic Winding
down by Neckarsteinach and Neckargemttnd between lofty
wooded heights, it sweeps beneath the Kdnigsstuhl (1900 ft.),
washes the walls of Heidelberg, and now quitting the valley
enters the plain of the Rhine and falls into that river from the
ri^t at Mannheim. Its length is 347 m., and its drainage area
4790 sq. m. Its more important tributaries are the Ena, Eschach
and Glatt Oeft), and the Fils, Rems, Kocher and Jagst (right).
It is navigable for small steamboats up to Heilbronn, for boats
op to Cannstatt, and for rafts from Rottweil. It is the principal
waterway oC WQrttemberg, and is greatly used for floating
down timber. From Rottenburg downwards its banks are almost
everywhere planted with vineyards. Up to Frankfort it has
been deepeatd and the channel otherwise improved. A com-
mittee, chiefly promoted by the WUrttemberg government
and the Stuttgart chamber of commerce, reported in 190X that
it was both desirable and practicable to dredge the river and
to rtn»\i9^ it, from Esslingen down to Mannheim, and that the
cost, would probably be between 2 and a) millions sterling.
See T. Eckart. BOder aus dem Neckartal (1893).
XBCKAROBIlOlfD, a town and climatic health resort of
Germany, in the grand duchy of Baden, situated amid densely
wooded bins, on the left bank of the Neckar, 6 m. E. from
Heideibetg by the railway to WOrzburg and at the junction of
a line to Ja^tfeld. Pop. (1905) 2200. It has an important
trade in wine. The other industries are quarrying, tanning
and shipbuilding, and there are electrical works. NcckargemOnd,
one of the favourite tourist resorts in the Neckar valley, was
founded in the xoth century and became a free town in 1286.
In X395 it passed to the elector palatine and, together with the
sonoondang distri ct, w as ^>portioned to Baden in 18x4.
MECKEB* JACQUES (1732-1804), French statesman, finance
minister of Louis XVI., was bom at Geneva in Switzerland.
His father was a native of Ciistrin in Pomerania, and had, after
the publication of some works on international law, been dected
as professor of public law at Geneva, of which he became a citizen.
Jacques Necker had been sent to Paris in 1747 to become a
derk in the bank of a friend of his father, M. Vemet. He soon
afterwards established, with another Gcnevcse, the famous
bank of TheQusson & Necker. Thellusson superintended the
bank in London (his grandson was made a peer as Lord Rendles-
ham), while Necker was managing partner in Paris. Both
partner! became very rich by loans to the treasury and specula-
tions in grain. In 1763 Necker fell in love with Madame de
Verm£nou, the widow of a French officer. But while on a visit
to Geneva, Madame de Verm^nou met Suzanne Curchod, the
daughter o< a pastor near Lausanne, to whom Gibbon had been
XTX. 6*
engaged, and brought her back as her companion to Paris in
1764. There Necker, transferring his love from the widow to
the poor Swiss girl, married Suzanne before the end of the year.
She encouraged her husband to try and make himself a public
position. He accordingly became a syndic or director of the
French East India Company, and, after showing his financial
ability in its management, defended it in an able memoir against
the attacks of A. Morellet in 1769. Meanwhile he had made
interest with the French government by lending it money, and
was appointed resident at Paris by the republic of Geneva.
Madame Necker enUrtained the ddef leaders of the political,
financial and literary worlds of Paris, and her Fridays became
as greatly frequented as the Mondays of Madame Geoffrin, or
the Tuesdays of Madame Hdvetius. In X773 Necker won the
prize of the Academic Francaise for an ihge on Colbert, and in
X775 published his Essai sur la Ugjuiatwn et le ccmmeru des
grains, in which he attacked the fxee-trade policy of Turgot.
His wife now believed he cotdd get into ofiice as a great finander,
and made him give up his share in the bank, which he transferred
to his brother Louis. In October 1776 Necker was made finance
minister of France, though with the title only of director of
the treasury, which, however, he changed in 1777 for that of
director-general of the finances. He did great good in regulating
the finances by attempting to divide the taille or poll tax more
equally, by abolishing the " vingtiime d'industrie," and establish-
ing monts de piiU (establishments for loaning money on security).
But his greatest financial measures were his attempt to fund
the French debt and his establishment of annuities under the
guarantee of the state. The operation of funding was too
diflicult to be suddenly accomplished, and Necker rather pointed
out the right line to be followed than completed the operation.
In all this he treated French finance rather as a banker than as •
a profound political economist, and thus fell far short of Turgot,
who was the very greatest economist of his day. Politiodly
he did not do much to stave off the coming Revolution, and his
establishment of provindal assemblies was only a timid applica-
tion of Turgot's great scheme for the administrative reorganiza-
tion of France. In x 781 he published his famous Compte rendu,
in which he drew the balance sheet of France, and was dismissed
from his office. Yet his di^miiwal was not really due to his book,
but to the influence of Marie Antoinette, whose schemes for
benefiting the due de Guines he had thwarted. In retirement
he occupied himself with Uterature, and with his only child,
his daughter, who in x 786 married the ambassador of Sweden
and became Madame de Stad {q.v.). But neither Necker nor
his wife cared to remain out of office, and in 1787 Necker was
banished by "lettre de cachet" 40 leagues from Paris for
attacking Calonne. In 1 788 the country, which had at the bidding
of the ITterary guests of Madame Necker come to bdieve that
Necker was the only minister who could "stop the defidt,"
as they said, demanded Necker's recall, and in September 1788
he beome once more director-general of the finances. Through-
out the momentous months which followed the biography of
Necker is part of the history of the French Revolution {q.v.).
Necker put a stop to the rebellion in Dauphin6 by legalizing its
assembly, and then set to work to arrange for the summons
of the states general. Throughout the early months of 1789
he was regarded as the saviour of France, but his conduct at
the meeting of the states general showed that he regarded it
merely as an assembly whidi should grant money, not organize
reforms. But as he had advised the calling of the states general,
and the double representation of the third estate, and then
permitted the orders to deliberate and vote in common, he was
regarded as the cause of the Revolution by the court, and on
July II was ordered to leave France at once. Necker's dismissal
brought about the taking of the Bastille, which induced the
king to recall him. He was rccdved with joy in every city he
traversed, but at Paris he again proved to be no statesman.
Believing that he could save France alone, he refused to act with
Mirabeau or La Fayette. He caused the king's acceptance of
the suspensive veto, by which he sacrificed his chief prerogative
in September, and destroyed all chance of a strong executive
338
NECROLOGY— NEEDLE
by contriving the decree of November 7, by which the ministry
might not be chosen from the assembly. Financially he proved
equally incapable for a time of crisis, and could not understand
the need of such extreme measures as the establishment of
assignats in order to keep the country quiet. His popularity
vanished when his only idea was to ask the assembly for new
loans, and in September 1790 he resigned his office, unregrettcd
by a single Frenchman. Not without difficulty he reached
Coppet, near Geneva, an estate he had bought in 1784. Here
he occupied himself with literature, but Madame Necker pined
for her Paris salon and died in 1794. He continued to live on
at Coppet, under the care of his daughter, Madame de StaCl,
and his niece, Madame Necker de Saussure, but his time was
past, and his books had no political influence. A momentary
excitement was caused by the advance of the French armies
in 1798, when he burnt most of his political papers. He died
at Coppet in April 1804.
'Authorities. — Mimoires surlavie prnte ie M. Necker (Paris and
London, 1818), by his daughter, Madame de Statl-Holstein, and the
Notice sw lavie de M. Necker (Paris, 1820), by Au^uste de SuSt-
Holstein, his srandson, published in the collection of his works edited
by the latter m 1820-1821 (Paris, 15 vols.]). The bibliocraphv of his
works is as follows: — RSponse au mhnoire de M. I'Abbi Uorellet
(1769); £iote de J. B. Colbert (1773); Essai sur la Ugulalion et le
commerce aes grains (1775): ComUe rendu au rot (1781): De
VadministrtUion des finances de la France (x vols., 1784): Mimoire
en riponse au discours prononci par M. de Calonne (1787)-; De t'im-
portance des opinions rdigieuses (1768); Sur F administration de M.
Necker, par luirnnhne (1791); Du pouvoir exicutif dans les grands
Hats (a vob., 1702); Riflmons sur le prods de Louis XVI. (1792):
De la rhUution franiaise, several editions, the last in 4 vols. (1797) :
Cours de la morale rdigieuse (1800); DernUres vues de polilioue et de
finance (1802); ManuscrUs de M. Necker, published by his daughter
(1804); Suites funestes d'une seule faute, published after his death.
See also Le Salon de Madame Necker, by tne Vicomte d'Haussonville
(2 vols., 1882), compiled from the papers at Coppet; Ch. Gomel,
Les Causes financiires de la rholution francaise (Pans, 1892) ; and for
contemporary tracts and pamphlets M. Tourncux, Bibl. de I'kistoire
de Paru pendant la rholution (vol. iv., 1906) ; also (for the earlier
ones) CoUection compile de tons les ouorages pour et contre M. Necker,
OKC des notes critiques ... (3 vols., Utrecht, 1781).
(H.M.S.; J.T.S.*)
NECROLOGY (from Med. Lat. necrologium, Gr. wticpis,
corpse, the termination being formed from \bytos, Xh^ev to
read, in the sense of list, register; cf. " martyrology ")i a register
in a monastery or other ecclesiastical establishment of the names
of the deceased members of the society, or of those for whom
the prayers of the foundation . were offered as benefactors;
hence any roll or list of deceased persons or collection of
obituaries.
NECROMANCY (Gr. Pticpofuunda, or MKuoitufrda, from
ptKptn or i4kvs, corpse, and luanda, divination), properly
divination by communicating with the dead. The latinized
form of the Greek word was corrupted into nii^omantia, con-
necting the word with niger, black, and so was applied to the
" black art," " black magic,," in the sense of witchcraft, sorcery.
This corrupted form is common in English to the 17th century
(see Magic and WircHOLArr).
NECROPOLIS, a cemetery (q.v.) or burying-place, literacy
a " dty of the dead " (Gr. mp6r, corpse, and «6Xis, city).
Apart from the occasional application of the word to modem
cemeteries outside large towns, the term is chiefly used of burial-
grounds near the sites of the centres of ancient civilizations.
NECROSIS (Gr. yf«p6r, corpse), a term restricted in surgery
to death of bone. A severe inflalnmation, caused by a violent
blow, by cold, or by the absorption of various poisons, as mercury
and phosphorus, is the general precursor of necrosis. The dead
part, analogous to the slough in the soft tissues, is called a
sequestrum or exfoliation. At first it is firmly attached to the
living bone around; gradually, however, the dead portion is
separated from the living tissue. The process of separation is
a slow one. New bone is formed around the sequestrum, which
often renders its removal difficult. As a rule the surgeon waits
until the dead part is loose, and then cuts down through the
new case ahd removes the sequestrum. The cavity in which
it lay gradually closes, and a useful limb is the result.
NECTAR, in ancient mythology generally coupled with am-
brosia, the nourishment of the gods in Homer and in Greek
literature generally. Probably the two terms were not originally
distinguished; but usually both in Homer and in later writers
nectar is the drink and ambrosia the food. On the other band,
in Alcman nectar is the food, and in Sappho and Anaxandrides
ambrosia the drink. Each is used in Homer as an unguent
(Iliad, xiv. 170; xix. 38). Both are fragrant, and may be used
as perfume. According to W. H. Roschcr {Nektar und Am-
brosia, 1883; see also his article in Roscher's Lexikon der Mytko-
logic) nectar and ambrosia were originally only different forms
of the same substance — honey, regarded as a dew, like manna,
fallen from heaven, which was used both as food and drink.
(See also Ahbsosia.)
NEED-FIRE, or Wxld-Fise (Ger. Notjcucr, O. Ger. nodfyr),
a term used in folklore to denote a curious superstition whidi
survived in the Highlands of Scotland until a recent date. Like
the fire-churning still customary in India for kindling the sacri-
ficial fire, the need- or wild-fire is made by the friction of one
piece of wood on another, or of a rope upon a stake. Need-fire
is a practice of shepherd peoples to ward off disease from their
herds and flocks. It is kindled on occasions of special distress,
particularly at the outbreak of a murrain, and the cattle are
driven through it. Its efficacy is believed to depend on all
other fires being extinguished. The kindling of the need-fire
in a village near Quedlinburg was impeded by a night light
burning in the parsonage (Prohle, Uan-Bilder, Leipzig, 1855).
According to one account, in the Highlands of Scotland the rule
that all common fires must be previously extinguished applied
only to the houses situated between the two nearest running
streams (Kelly, CuriosUies of Indo-European Tradition and
Folklore, p. 53 seq.). In Bulgaria even smoking during
need-fire is forbidden. Two naked men produce the fire by
rubbing dry branches together in the forest, and with the flame
they light two fires, one on each side of a cross-road haunted
by wolves. The cattle are then driven between the two fires,
from which glowing embers are taken to rekindle the cold hearths
in the houses (A. Strausz, Die Bulgaren, p. 198). In Caithness
the men who kindled the need-fire had previously to divest
themselves of all metaL In some of the Hebrides the men who
made the fire had to be eighty-one in number and all married.
In the Halbcrstadt district in Germany, the rope which was
wound round the stake, must be ptillcd by two chaste boys;
while at WolfenbUttel, contrary to usual custom, it is said that
the need-fire had to be struck out of the cold anvil by the smith.
In England the need-fire is said to have been lit at Birtley
within the last half-century. The superstition had its origin in
the tfarly ideas of the purifying nature of flame.
See also Grimm, Deutsche Hiythohgie, i. xox sqq.; Kelly. Curio-
, lies of Indo-European Tradition and FolUore, p. 48 sqq.; Elton,
Origins of Englisk History, p. 293 sqq.; J. G. Fraaer, The Coidem
sities of Indo-European Tradition and Folki
Origins of Engl
Bougk, m. 301.
NEEDLE (0. Eng. nadl; the word appears in various forms
in Teutonic languages, Gar. Nadel, Dutch naal, the root being
fie-, to sew, cf. Ger. ndken, and probably Lat nere, to spin, Gr.
r^cs, spinning), an instrument adapted for passing a thread
through fabrics in sewing, consisting of a thin rod of steel, having
a pointed end and pierced with a hole or " eye " to cany the
thread. The term is also applied to various other objects that
more or less resemble a sewing needle in form, though differing
in function, such as the magnetized piece of steel that points
north and south in the mariner's compass, the pointer or indicator
of certain forms of electric telegraph instruments, the slender
tube by which the contents of a hypodermic syringe are injected
beneath the skin, a sharp-pointed mountain peak or isolated
mass of rock, &c.
Sewing needles have been in use from prehistoric times.
Originally they were made of fishbone, bone or ivory, and their
first form was probably a rude bodkin having a book instead
of an eye, though bone needles with an eye, sometimes at the
end and sometimes in the middle, have been found in cave de-
posits in Great Britain and France and in the Swiss lakes. Bone
NEEDLE-GUN— NEEDLEWORK
339
needles continue to be used by uncivilized tribes, but since tb^
discovery of bronze metal needles bave been employed in civilized
communities. Steel needles were introduced into Europe by
tbe Moors, and it is on record that tbey were being made at
Nuremberg in 1370. In England their manufaaure was estab-
lished about 1650. The centre of the trade in Enghind is
Redditch, in Worcestershire, with several other small towns
in Warwickshire. Originally the industry was domestic in its
character, but it is now carried on in factories where mechanical
appliances have to a great extent supplanted handwork. Large
quantities of needles are also manufactured on the continent of
Europe, Aiz-la-Chapclle . being an important centre of their
production. In the United Sutes ordinary sewing needles
are not made, though there is a large output of the special forms
used in sewing machines.
The raw material of needle-manufacture constits of Sheffidd
crudbfe steel drawn down into wire of suitable gauge. The wire is
supplied in coils of definite weight and diameter, and the first
operation is to cut the coils into lengths, each sufficient for two
needles. These lengths are next straightened. For this purpose a
bundle containing several thousand lengths is packed within two
strong iron rings, is heated to red heat, and is then pressed on an iron
plate naving two parallel grooves in which the iron rings run. Over
this plate tht bundle is worked backward and forward by the pressure
of an obloag slightly curved iron tool having two lonntudinal slits
through which the edges of the rinn project. Thus, by combined
presNire and rolling the whole of the lengths quickly become perfectly
straight and even. The next operation consists in pointing both ends
of the wires. This was formerly done by hand by a grinder who,
holding several dozen wires a^inst a grindstone with his left hand
and slightly revolving them with his right, was able to point about
100,000 nwdlca a day, the number depending, however, to some
extent 00 the size treated. Thu method, however, b now largely
superseded by machinery, which a still more expeditious. The wires
are fed out frt>m a hopper to a revolving wheel, on the periphery of
«-bich they are held by an india-rubber tond. This wheel revolves at
right angles to a revolving hollow grindstone, and so each wire b
brought up to the stone in rapid succession and pointed at one end,
the {Mocess being repeated for the other end. The next operations
aic to stamp the grooves which arc to be found at the head of a needle
and to punch the oval eyes, both being done by automatic machinery.
Each wire now forms two needles attached head to head by a broad
thin scarf of steel. The operation of separating them is larcely per-
formed by machines which pass the double blanlcs over the face of an
emery wneel, but an older method b to spit them on two flattened
wires, clamp them tightly in a frame, file away the scarf and break
tbe blanks in halves, so that two lots of single needles are obtained,
each spitted on a wire. The next step, after the heads have been filed
smooth, is to harden and temper tne needles, which are heated to
rcdoesa, plunged into cold oil, and then gently heated by being placed
on a continuous band passing over a series <A gas flames. After the
tempering oomeS the process of scouring, and then the eyes are
■moocheo and polished so that they will not cut the thread. For this
purpose the beads used to be softened by blueing, and the needles
strung kxwdy on wires covered with a paste of emery and oil. These
wires were then suspended between uprights on a frame platform
to which a jerking motion was communicated; in this way the
needles were made to swing on the wires and the gentle fnction
effected the desired end. Generally, however, the eyes are cleared by
tbe action of a concave wire brush, before the scouring process, and
then subsequent burnishing becomes unnecessary. The bodies are
next pc^shed by being passed between revolving leather rollen which
have also a lateral motion in the direction of their axes. The heads
of the finished needles have now to be brought all in one direction.
Formerly this was done by a " header," weanng a cloth cap on one of
her fingers; this being pressed against a batch of the nerales which
had prevlotnly been arranged parallel to each other, those whose
heads were presented to the cloth stuck in it and thus were with-
drawn. A more modem device b to roll them down a smooth in-
clined plane, when the pointed ends, owing to their conical form,
travel more slowly than the thicker ends, and thus the needles are
all t»-oiigbt round so that they point the same way. They are then
sevted according to their lengths, and are done up into packets for
the market.
Besides ordinary needles for hand sewing, nuny varieties are made
for use in sewing machines, and in their production automatic
machinery is largely utiliacd. Those used for sewing leather have
points of various special forms ftwbt, chisel, wedge, diamond, &c.)
instead of the round point of the ordinary needle, and sometimes
have a book in place of an eye. Knitting needles are long slender
rods, usually of steel but sometimes of bone or other material, having
neither books nor eyes. Crochet needles are provided with a hook.
Hooked needles again are employed in knitting and stockinet
machines; having to be periodically closed by the operation of the
mrrhanism the books in one type are made flexible so that theyam
be pushed down on the shank, while in another the same end b
served by providing them with a minute latch. Another special
class is constituted by the numerous varieties of needles used by
•urgeons for suturing wounds, &c (see Surgical Ikstrumbnts).
NBEDLB-OUM (ZCnonadelgewebi), a military breech-
loading rifle, famotis as the arm of the Prussians in 1866 and of
the Germans in 1870-1871. It was the invention of the gunsmith
Johann Nicholas von Dreyse (1787-1867), who, beginning in
1824, had made many experiments, and in 1836 produced the
complete needle-gun. From 1841 onwards the new arm was
gradually introduced into the Prussian service, and later into
the military forces of many other German states. Dreyse was
ennobled in 1864. The principal details of the arm (pattern
1841) are as follows: —
Breech ..... Bolt system
Calibre 'fiorin.
Weight without bayonet • 10 lb 4 oz.
Charge (black powder) • 74* 15 grains
Bullet (lead) . • .478 grains
Muzzle velocity . ^ 1000 f.s.
Sighted to 800 paces (636 yds.)
In practice the needle-gun proved to have numerous defects;
its effective range was very short compared to that of the muzzle-
loading rifles of the day, and conspicuously so as against the
chassepot: the escape of gas at the breech was, moreover, very
great. A paper cartridge was used. An improved model,
giving greater muzzle velocity and increased speed in loading,
was introduced kter, but thb was soon replaced by the Mauser
rifle.
MEBDU^ORK. Thb subject may be considered under
the two headings of (i) Plain Needlework, used for purely
utilitarian purposes, and (2) Art Needlework for decorative
purposes. Plain needlework requires no such further explanation
as may be given in the case of art needlework, under which title
are included (a) embroidery, and (b) other methods of decorative
needlework, such as applied or appliqu6 work, ornamental
quilting, patchwork and couching. In these last-mentioned
methodi the needlework b subservient to the decorative effect,
which depends almost wholly upon the materials selected for
the purpose; whereas in embroidery the needlework itself
constitutes and b the vbible decoration. The aim of thb article
b to indicate briefly different stitches of plain needlework and
then to show that these stitches are also used in the domain of
art needlework.
The more necessary stitches in plain needlework for making
clothes are tacking, running, hemming, feather-stitching or
herring-boning (all of which are practically of the same type),'
and button-holing in which the thread b looped as each stitch
b made. Button-holing b allied to another looped stitch,
namely chain-stitching, which though frequently used in em-
broideiy b rarely if ever used in plain needlework. For repairs of
clothes and household linen, &c., the principal stitch b darning;
grafting, however, b a substitute for it, and varies with the
character of the stuff to be repaired, e.g. knitted stockings,
damask linen, cloth, &c. Darning is allied to running, and graft-
ing to patchwork. Patchwork as a form of decorative needle-
work b exemplified in sumptuous canopies and seat covets
made several centuries B.C. by Egyptians, and rich hangings
made by Italian and French workers in the i6th century.
Long and short stitches, kindred in principle to the running
stitch in plain needlework, are perhaps the more frequent of
any stitches used in embroidery, and are especially appropriate
when the blending of tints with a flat even surface b the effect
to be aimed at. Much medieval work of thb character, as wcU
as that done with chain stitch and its allied split stitch, b re-
garded as typical of opus anglicanum. Chain stitch produces
a comparatively broken surface in decided contrast with the
smooth one of long and short stitch, split stitch and satin stitch
embroidery. Satin stitch b well adapted to express, with even
flat surface in designs for colour effects, each mass which b
to be of one tint. In thb respect, therefore, satin stitch serves
a purpose in contrast to that of long and short stitch. A charac-
teristic of satin-stitching b the sheeny effect produced, on both.
340
sides of the mtterial embroidered, by parallel stitches taken
dosdy together. Buttonhole stitch in relation to art needle-
work prevails to a great extent in cut linen and drawn-thread
work (often called Greek lace), and predominates in the making of
needlepoint lace (see Lace). In much of the Persian drawn-thread
woric, however, it is superseded by whipping or tightly and closely
twisting a threiiui round the undrawn threads of thelhien. Whip-
ping has been put to another use in certain x6th-century art
needlework for ecclesiastical purposes, where round the gold
threads employed as the ground of a design coloured silks are
dexterously whipped, closely and openly, producing gradations
of tint sufifused with a corresponding variation of golden shimmer.
Another important branch of art needlework with gold and silver
threads is couching. When the metallic threads, arranged
so as to lie closely together, are simply stitched flatly to the found-
ation material, the work is called flat couching or laying, a kind
of treatment more frequent in Chinese and Japanese than in
European art needlework. Flat couching is also carried out
with floss silks. When a design for couching includes effects
in relief, stout strings or cords as required by the design are
first fastened to the foundation materials, and over them the
metallic threads or in some cases coloured gimps are laid, and
so stitched as to have an appearance in miniature of varieties
of willow-twisting or basket work.
The principle of relief couching is carried much further in
certain English art needlework, having cumbersome and gro-
tesque peculiarities, which was done during the reigns of the
Stuarts. Crude compositions were wrought in partial relief
with padded work, of costumed figures of kings and queens
and scriptural persons with a medley of disproportionate animaht,
insects and trees, &c., in which foliage, wings, &c., wereof coloured
silk needlepoint lace — the whole being set as often as not in a
background of tent or cross-stitch work on canvas. But tent
and cross-stitch work (in French ^ni compU) was also used
by itself for cushion covers and later for upholstery. In its
earlier phases it seems to come under the medieval classification
of opus pulvinarum. The reticulations of the canvas or those
apparent in finer material governed the stitching and imparted
a stiff formal effect to the designs so carried out, a characteristic
equally strong in the lads work, or darning on square mesh net
(see Lace).
Appliqu£ or applied work belongs as much as patchwork
to the medieval category of opus consutum, or stitching stuffs
together according to a decorative design, the greater part of
which was cut out of material different in colour, and generally
in texture, from that of the ground to which it was applied and
stitched. Irish art needlework, called Carrickmacross lace, is for
the most part of cambric api^ed or appliqu6 to net.
Quilting is also a branch of art needlework rather than em-
broidery. Indians and Persians using a short running stitch
have excelled in it in past times. Some good quilting was done
in England in the x8th century with chain-stitching which lay
on the inner side of the stuff, the outer displa>'ing the design
in short stitches. In the account of his voyage to the East
Indies, published in 1655, Edward Terry (1590-1665) writes
of the Indians " making excellent quilts of satin lined with taffeta
betwixt which they put cotton wool and worked them together
with silk." For less bulky quilting, cords have been used;
and elaborate designs for quilted linen waistcoats were well
done in the x8th century, with fine short stitches that held the
cords between the inner and outer materials.
A laree number of names have been given to the many modifica-
tions (H the limited number of essentially different stitches used in
plain and art needlework, and on the whole are fanciful rather than
really valuable from a technical point of view. Much dcbcriptivc
information about them, with an abundance of capita! illustrations,
a given in the Dictionary of NeedUuwrk, by J. F. Caulfield and
Blanche Saward (London. 1903).
NBBMUCH, or NqiJLch, a town of Central India, with a
British military cantonment, within the state of Gwalior, on
the border of Rajputana, with a station on the Rajputana
railway, 170 m. N. of Mhow. Pop. (1901) 21,588. In 1857 it was
ihe most southeriy place to which the Mutiny extended. .The
NEEMUCH— NEER, VAN DER
brigade of native troops of the Bengal army, which was stationed
there, mutinied and marched to Delhi, the European oflkers
taking refuge in the fort, where they were besieged by a rebel
force from Mandasor, and defended themselves gallantly until
relieved by the Malwa field force. Since 1895 it has been the
headquarters of the political agent in Malwa.
MBBNAH, a dty of Winnebago county, Wisconsin, U.S.A.,
on the N.W. shore of Lake Winnebago, 8a m. N. by E. of Mil-
waukee. Pop. (1890) 5083; (1900) 5954, of whom -1559 were
foreign-bom; (1905) 6o47; (1910) 5734- It is served by the
Chicago & North-Westem, the Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul,
and the Milwaukee, St Patil & Sault Ste Marie railways, by two
interurban electric railways, and by steamboat lines on the lake
and on the Fox river, which flows out of Lake Winnebago at
this point. Several bridges connect it with Menasha, on the
opposite side of the river, and the two cities form one industrial
community. Doty Island, at the mouth of the river, belongs
partly to Neenah and partly to Menasha. Neenah is a trade
centre of the surrounding agricultural region, in which dairying,
especially cheese-making, is carried on extensively. The Fox
river (with a fall of la ft.) furnishes good water-power for the
manufactories. There was a trading post at or near the site of
Neenah during the French regime in Wisconsin, but there was
no actual settlement until well into the 19th century. Neenah
was chartered as a city in 1873; its name is derived from an
Indian word meaning " running water " or '* rapids."
NEER, VAN DBR. Aemout and Eglon van der Neer, father
and son, were Dutch painters whose lives filled almost the whole
of the 17th century.
1. Aehnout van dek Neer (1603-1677)1 commonly called
Aert or Artus, was the contemporary of Albert Cuyp and
Hobbema, and so far like the latter that he lived and died in
comparative obscurity. Aemout was bom at Goikum and
died at Amsterdam. Houbraken's statement that Aemout
had been a steward to a Dutch nobleman, and an amateur
painter, before he settled in Amsterdam and acquired skill
with his brush, would account for the absence of any pictures
dating from his early years. He died in abject poverty, and his
art was so little esteemed that the pictures left by him were
valued at about five shillings apiece. Even as early as 1659
he found it necessary to supplement his income by keeping a
wine tavern. The earliest picttires in which Aernout couf^ed
his monogram of A. V. and D. N. interfaced with a date are a
winter landscape in the Rijks Museum at Amsterdam (d^ted
1639), and another in the Martins collection at Kiel (1643)—
immature works both, of poor quality. Far better is the " Winter
Landscape" (1643) in Lady Wantage's collection, and the
" Moonlight Scene " (1644) in the d'Arenberg collection in
Brussels. In 1 65 a Aemout witnessed the fire which consumed the
old town-hall of Amsterdam. He made this accident the subject
for two or three pictures, now in the galleries of Berlin and Copen-
hagen. Though Amsterdam appears to have been constantly van
der Neer's domicile, his pictures tell that he was well acquainted
with the canals and woods aboui Haariem and Leiden, and
with the reaches of the Maes and Rhine. Dort, the home of
Albert Cuyp, is sometimes found in his pictures, and substantial
evidence exists that there was friendship between the two
men. At some period of thehr lives they laid their hands to the
same canvases, on each of which they left their joint mark.
On some it was the sigi\attire of the name, on others the nnore
convincing signature of style. There are landscapes in the collec*
tions of the dukes of Bedford and Westminster, in which Cuyp
has represented either the frozen Maes with fishermen packing
herrings, or the moon reflecting its light on the river's placid
waters. These are models after which van der Neer a^^wars
to have worked. The same feeling and similar subjects are found
in Cuyp and van der Neer, before and after their partixrrship.
But Cuyp was the leading genius. Van der Neer got assistaiKse
from him; Cuyp expected none from van der Neer. He care-
fully enlivened his friend's pictures, when asked to do so, with
figures and cattle. It is in pictures jointly produced by them
that we discover van der Neer's presence at Dort. We are near
NEERWINDEN
34*
Don in the landscape sunset of the Louvre, in which Cuyp
evklenUy painted the foreground and cows. In the National
Gallery picture Cuyp signs his name on the pail of a milkmaid,
whose figure and red skirt he has painted with light effectiveness
near the edge of van der Neer's landscape. Again, a couple of
fishermen with a dog, and a sporUman creeping up to surprise
some ducks, are Cuyp's in a capital van der Neer at the Staedel
Institute in Frankfort.
Van der Neer's favourite subjects were the rivers and water-
courses of his native country either at sunset or after dark.
His pecub'ar skill is shown in realizing transparence which allows
objects — even distant — to appear in the darkness with varieties
of warm brown and steel greys. Another of his fancies is to paint
frozen waur, and his dayUght icescapes with golfers, sleighers,
and fishermen are as numerous as his moonlights. But he always
avoids the impression of frostiness, which is one of his great
gifts. His pictures are not scarce. They are less valuable in
the market than those of Cuyp or Hobbema; but, possessing
a charm peoiliarly their own, they are much sought after by
collectors. Out of about one hundred and fifty pictures accessible
to the public, the choicest selection is in the Hermitage at St
Petersburg, In England paintings from his brush are to be
found at the National Gallery and WaUace Collection, and,
amongst others, in the collections of the marquess of Bute
and CokMiel Holford.
2. EcLON VAN DER Ne£s (1643-1703) was bom at Amsterdam,
and died at DOsseldorf on the 3rd of May 1703. He was first
taught by his father, and then took lessons from Jacob van Loo,
whose chief business then consisted in painting figures in the
landscapes of Wynants and Hobbema. When van Loo went
to Paris in 1663 to join the school from which Boucher afterwards
emerged, he was accompanied or followed by Eglon. But,
leaving Paris about z666, he settled at Rotterdam, where he
dwelt for many years. Later on he took up his residence at
Brusseb, and finally went to Ddsseldorf, where he entered the
service of the elector-palatine Johaim Wilhelm von der Pfalz.
In each of the places where he stopped Eglon married, and having
had three wives became the father of twenty-five children.
A portrait of the princess of Neuberg led to his appointment
as painter to the king of Spain.
Egkm van der Neer has painted landscapes imitating those
of ha father, of Berchem, and of Adam Elsheimer. He frequently
pat the figtires into the town views of Jan van der Heyden in
competition with Berchem and Adrian van der Velde. His
best works are portraits, in which he occasionally came near
Ter Borchor Metsu in delicacy of touch, de Hooch in effective-
ness of lightii^, or Miens in polish of surface. One of his earliest
pieces in which the influence of Ter Borch is apparent is the
" Lady with the Book," of 1665, which was sold with the Bredel
collection in 1875. A young woman in white and red satin at
Rotterdam, of 1669, recalls Micris, whose style also reappears
in Egbn's " Cleopatra " at Buckingham Palace. Two land-
scapes with "Tobit and the Angel," dated 1685 and 1694,
in the museums of Berlin and Amsterdam, illustrate his fashion
of setting Scripture scenes in Dutch backgrounds. The most
important of his sacred compositions is the "Esther and
Ahasuerus," of 1696, in the Uffizi at Florence. But Eglon
varied his practice also with arrangements of hunting and
hawking parties, pastures and fords, and cavalry skirmishes.
The latest of his panels is a mountain landscape of 1703 in
the gallery of Augsburg. 0- A. C; P. G. K.)
NEERWINDEN, a village of Belgium in the province of Li^ge,
a few miles £. by S. of Tirlcmont, which gives its luune to two
great battles, the first fought in 1693 between the Anglo-Allied
army under William III. of England and the French under the
duke of Luxemburg, and the second in 1793 between the Austrians
under Prince Josias of Coburg and the French under General
Dumouries.
BaltU of Neerwinden or Landen, i6qj (see Grand Aluance,
War of the). — ^Luxemburg, having by feints induced William
to detach portions of his army, rapidly drew together superior
numben in face of the Allied camps, which lay in a rough
semicircle from Elisem on the right to Neerlanden, and thence
along the Landen brook on the left (July i8-a8, 1693).
William had no mind to retire over the Geete river, and en-
trenched a strong line from Laer through Neerwinden to Neer-
landen. On the right section of this line (Laer to -Neerwinden)
the ground. was much intersected and gave plenty of cover
for both sides, and this section, being r^;arded as the key of
the position, was strongly garrisoned; in the centre the open
ground between Neerwinden and Neerlanden was solidly en-
trenched, and in front of it Rumsdorp was held as an advanced
post. The left at Neerlanden rested upon the Landen brook
and was difficult of access. William's ri^t, as his line of retreat
lay over the Geete, was his dangerous flank, and Luxemburg
was aware that, the front of the Allies being somewhat long for
the ntmibers defending it, the intervention of troops drawn from
one wing to reinforce the other would almost certainly be too
late. Under these conditions Luxemburg's general fdan was
to throw the weight of his attack on the Laer-Neerwinden
section, and specially on Neerwinden itself, and to economize
his forces— as "economy of force" was understood before
Napoleon's time— elsewhere, delivering holding attacks or
demonstrations as might be necessary, and thus preventing
NEERWINDEN
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the Allied centre and left from assisting the right. Luxemburg
had about 80,000 men to William's 50,000. Opposite the
entrenchments of the centre he drew up nearly the whole of his
cavalry in six lines, with two lines of infantry intercalated.
A corps of infantry and dragoons was told off for the attack of
Neerlanden and Rumsdorp, and 'the troops destined for the
main attack, a8,ooo of all arms, formed up in heavy masses
opposite Neerwinden. Thb proportion of about one-third of
the whole force to be employed in the decisive attack in the
event proved insufficient. The troops opposite the Allied centre
and \<dt had to act with the greatest energy to fulfil their con-
taining mission, and at Laer-Neerwinden the eventual success
of the attack was bought only at the price of the utter exhaustion
of the troops.
After a long caimonade the French columns moved to the
attack, converging on Neerwinden; a smaller force assaulted
Laer. The edge of the villages was carried, but in the interior
a murderous struggle began, every foot of ground being contested,
and after a time William himself, leading a heavy counter-attack,
expelled the assailants from both villages. A second attack,
pushed with the same energy, was met with the same determina-
tion, and meanwhile the French in other parts of the field Had
pressed their demonstrations home. Even the six lines of cavalry
in the centre, after enduring the fire of the Allies for many hours,
trotted over the open and up to the entrenchments to meet with
certain defeat, and at Neerlanden and Rumsdorp there was
3+2
NEES VON ESENBECK— NEGLIGENCE
severe band to hand fighting. But, meantime, the two intact
lines of infantry in the French centre had been moved to their
kft and formed the nucleus for the Ust great assault on Neer-
winden, which proved too much for the exhausted defenders.
They fell back slowly and steadily, defying pursuit, and the British
Coldstream Guards even captured a colour. But at this crisis
the initiative of a subordinate goieral, the famous military
writer Feuquidres (q.v.)t converted the hard-won local success
into a brilliant victory. William had begun to move troops
from his centre and left to the right in order to meet the great
assault on Neerwinden, and Feuquidres, observing this, led the
cavalry of the French centre once again straight at the en-
trcnchments. This time the French squadrons, surprising the
Allies in the act of manoeuvring, rode over every body of troops
they met, and nothing remained for the Allies but a hurried
retreat over the Geete. A stubborn rearguard of British troops
led by William himself alone saved the Allied army, of which
all but the left wing was fought out and in disorder. Luxemburg
had won his greatest victory, thanks in a measure to Feuquiires'
exploit; but had the assaults on Neerwinden been made —
as Napoleon would have made them— with one-half or two-
thirds of his forces instead of one-third, the victory would have
been decisive, and Feuquidres would have won his laurels,*
not in forcing the dedson at the cost of using up his cavalry,
but in unnihnating the remnants of the Allied army in the
pursuit. The material results of the battle were twelve thousand
Allies (as against ei^t thousand French) killed, wounded and
prisoners, and eighty guns and a great number of standards
and colours taken by the French.
The battle of the i8th March 1793 marked the end of Dumouries's
attempt to overrun the Low Countries and the beginning of the
Allies invariori of France. The Austrians under Coburg, advandng
from Maestricht in the direction of BruMeb, encountered the heads
of the hurriedly assembling French army at Tirlemont on the 15th
of March, and took up a position between Neerwinden and Neer-
landen. On the i8th, however, after a little preliminary fighting
Coburg drew back a short distance and rearranged his army on a
more extended front between Racour and Dormael, thus parrying
the enveloping movement begun by the French from Tirlemont.
Dumouries was consequently compeUed to fight after all on parallel
fronts, and though in the villages themselves the individuahty and
enthusiasm of the French soldier compensated for his inadequate
training and indiscipline, the greater part of the front of contact was
open ground, where the superiority ol the veteran Austrian regulan
was unchallengeable. In these conditions an attempt to win a second
Jenuppes with numerical odds of ix to 10 instead of 3 to i in favour
of the attack was foredoomed to disaster, and the repulse of the
Revolutionary Army was the signal for its almost complete dis-
solution. Neerwinden was a jjreat disaster, but not a great battle.
Its details merelj^ show the impossibility of fighdng on the 18th-
century system with ill-trained troops. The methods by which such
troops could compass victoiy, the way to fight a *' sans culotte "
battle, were not evolved until later.
NEES VOif B8BNBBCK, CHRISTIAN G01TFRIED (1776-
X858), German botanist and entomologist, was bom at Erbach
on the X4th of February 1776, and was educated at Darmstadt
and at Jena, where he took the degree of M.D. After spending
some time in medical practice he was appointed professor of
botany in Erlangen in x8i6. Three years later he became
professor of natural history in Bonn, and in 1831 he was appointed
to the chair of botany in the university ci Breslau. In 1848
he entered political life and made himself so obnoxious to the
government that in 1851 he was deprived of his professorship,
and in consequence the latter years of his life were spent in
great poverty. He died in Breslau on the x6th of March
1858.
For about fortv yean he edited the Nota acta of the " Acad.
Leopold-Carolina, in which several of his own papen were published.
His earliest merooira dealt with the ichneumons, and be published
a Monognt>kie der Ickneumone in 2 vds. in i8a8, and HymeuopUrorum
IckH€umonUms osmium numograpkiae, in a vols, in 1834. His other
separate works include: Die Algen des silsun Wassers tiack ikren
Enhoickdungsaufen dargesUUt (181 a); Das System der Pihe und
Sckadmme (1816); NaiwusckickU der eurepitscken Lebermoese, in
4 vols. (1833-1838); "Agrostologia Brasiliensis," in the Flora
BrasilUnsts; and a Systema Launneatum (1836). He also wrote
numerous monographs in FUra, in Limtaea and in other scientific
German magaanes,' either alone or along with other well-known
botanbts. His best-known works are those that deal with the
FuHgi, the Uepatieae and the Clumi/erae, in all which groups he made
valuable additions to knowledge.
His brother TuEOOoa FRiBoatCH LuDWic (1787-1837), inspector
of the botanic gardens at Leiden, and afterwards . p ro fe s s or of
pharmacy at Bonn, also wrote numerous papen on bocai^cal sub-
jecu. dealing more particularly with medicinal plants and their
products.
MBFF, FBUX (X798-X839), Swiss Protestant divine and
philanthropist, was bom at Geneva on the 8th of October
X798. Originally a sergeant of artillery, he decided in 18x9 to
devote himself entirely to evangelistic work. He was ordained
to the ministry in 182a, and soon afterwards settled in the valley
of Freissinidres, where he laboured in the manner of J. F.
Oberlin, being at one and the same time pastor, schoolmaster,
engineer and agriculturist. He was so succosf ul that he changed
the character of the district and its inhabiunts. In 1827,
worn out by his labours, he was obliged to return to his native
place, where he died two years later.
NBOAPATAM, a seaport of British India, in the Tanjore
district of Madras, forming one municipality with Nagore,
a port 3 in. N. at the mouth of the Vettar river. Pop. (xgoi)
S7,X9o. It carries on a brisk trade with the Straits Settlemenu
and Ceylon, steamers running once a week to Colombo. The
chief export is rice. Negapatam is the terminus of a branch of
the South Indian railway, and conUins large railway workshops.
It is also a depot for coolie emigration. Negapatam was one
of the earliest settlements of the Protuguese on the Coromandel
coast. It was taken by the Dutch in 1660, becoming tbetr
chief possession in India, and by the English in X78X. From
X 799 to X845 it was the headquarters of Tanjore districL Ther«
u a large population of Labbais, Mahommedans of mixed Arab
descent, who are keen traders. Jesuit and Wesleyan missions
are carried on.
NBGAUNEB, a dty of Marquette county, Michigan, U.S J^.,
about X2 m. W. by S. of Marquette and 3 m. E. of Ishpeming.
in the N. part of the upper peninsula. Pop. (1904) 6797; (19x0)
846a It is served by the Chicago & North- Western, the Duhuh,
South Shore & Atlantic, and the Lake Superior & Ishpeming
railways. It is built on a ridge called Iron Mountain, 1564 ft.
above sea-levd, and under and near it are some oC the most
productive iron-ore deposits in the state, the mining of which is
the principal industry of the city. The settlement of Negaunee
began about X870, and the dty was chartered in X873. The
name b a Chippewa word meaning " first " or " he goes before,**
and is said to have been chosen at the request of the Pioneer
Iron Company as an equivalent for " Pioneer."
MEOUGBNCB (Lat. neg^igentia, from negfigfrt, to ne^ect,
literally " not to pick up "), a ground of dvil law liability, and
in criminal law an element in several offences, the most conspicu-
ous of which u manslaughter by negligence. In order to establish
civil liability on the ground of negligence, three things must be
proved— a duty to take care, the absence of due care, and actual
damage caused directly by the absence of due care. Mere care-
lessness gives no right of action unless the person injured can
show that there was a legal duty to take care. The duty may
be to the public in general, on the ground thit any person who
does anything which may involve tbk to the public is bound to
take due care to avoid the risk. For instance, in the words of Lord
Blackburn, " those who go personally or bring property where
they know that they or it may come into collision with the
persons or property of others have by law a duty cast upon
them to use reasonable care and skill to avoid such a collision.'*
Where a spedal duty to an individual is alleged, the duty must
rest on a contract or undertaking or some similar spedfic ground.
Thus, where a surveyor has cardessly given incorrect progress
certificates, and a mortgagee who has had no contractual relation
with the surveyor has advanced money on the faith off the
certificate, the surveyor Is not liable to the mortgagee in an action
of negligence; because he owed no duty to the mortgagee to be
careful. When a duty to take care is established, the decree of
care required is now determined by a well-ascertained standard.
This standard is the amount of care which would be c a e i U a ed
NEGOTIABLE INSTRUMENT— NEGRITOS
343
in the dicumstances by an " average reasonable man." This
objective standard exdudes consideration of the capacity or
sute of mind of the particular individual. It also gets rid of the
old distinaions between *' gross," " ordinary " and " slight "
negligence, though no doubt the degree of care required varies
vith the circumstances of the case. The application of such a
standard is a task for which a jury is a very appropriate tribunal.
In fact the decision of the question whether there has been a
want of due care is left almost unreservedly to the jury. There
is this amount of control, that if the judge is of opinion that the
evidence, if believed, cannot possibly be regarded as showing
want of due care, or in technical language that there is " no
evidence of negligence," it is his duty to withdraw the case from
the Jury and give jud^ent for the defendant. Unless the judge
decides that there is no duty to take care, or that there is no
evidence of want of care, the question of negligence or no negli-
gence is whoUy for the jury.
Ordinarily a man is responsible only for his own negligence
and for that of his servants and agents acting within the scope
of their authority. For the acts or defaults of the servants of
an independent contractor he is not liable. But in certain cases
a stricter obligation b imposed on him by law. The occupier of
premises is under a duty to all persons who go there on business
which concerns him to see that the premises are in a reasonably
safe condition so far as reasonable care and skill can make
them so. Thus he cannot release himself by employing an in-
dependent contractor to maintain or repair the premises. The
effect of this doctrine is that the occupier may be liable if it can
be shown that the independent contractor or his servant has been
guOty of a want of due care. A similar obligation has been
enforced in the case of a wreck stranded in a navigable river,
and the owner was held liable for damage caused by the careless*
aess of the servant of an independent contractor who had under-
taken to light the wreck. So too any person who undertakes a
work likely to cause danger if due care is not taken is liable for
damage caused by the carelessness of the servant of an inde-
pendent contractor, so bng as the carelessness is not casual or
cdlateral to the servant's employment.
In an action of negligence a familiar defence is ** contributory
negligence." This is a rather misleading expression. It is not
a sufficient defence to show that the plaintiff was negligent,
and that his negiligence contributed to the harm complained of.
The plaintiff's negligence will not disentitle him to recover unless
it b such that without it the misfortune would not have happened,
nor if the defendant might by the exercise of reasonable care on
his part have avoided the consequences of the plaintiff's
negligence. The shortest ahd' plainest way of expressing thb
rule is, that the plaintiff's negligence b no defence unless It was
the proximate or decisive cause of the injury. There was an
attempt in recent times to extend thb doctrine so as to make
the contributory negligence of a third person a defence, in cases
where the phuntiff, though not negligent himself, was travelling
in a vehicle or vcssd managed by the negligent third person, or
was otherwise under hb controL In such circumstances it was
said that the plaintiff was ** identified " with the third person.
(Waiie V. North- Eastern Ry. Co., 1858, E. B. & £., 7x9)- Thb
case, m the Exchequer Chamber, was an action on behalf of
an infant by hb next friend. The infant, which was five years
of age, was with its grandmother, who took a half-ticket for
the cfabd and a ticket for herself to travel by the defendants'
line; as they were crossing the railway to be ready for the
train the child was injured by a passing train. The jury found
that the defendants were guilty of ne^gence, and that the
grandmother was guilty of negligence which contributed to the
accident, while there was no n^gence of the infant plaintiff.
A verdict .was entered for the plaintiff, but in the Queen's
Bench the verdict was entered for the defendants, without
calling on them to argue, on the ground that the infant was
identified with its grandmother. But the case of the
"Bemina," decided in 1888, where a passenger and an engineer
on board the " Busbire " were killed in a collision between the
** BcrBsiia " and the " Bushire " caused by fault in both ships.
but without fault on the part of the deceased, expkxied this
supposed doctrine, and made it dear that the defence of
contributory ne^igence holds good only when the defendant
contends and proves that the plaintiff was injured by hb own
carelessness.
The American law of negligence b founded on the English
common law; but the decisions in different states have occasion-
ally contradicted English decisions, and abo one another.
See T. Reven. Ne^igenu in Law, 3rd ed., 1008; Shearman and
Redfield, The Law tf Ne^igenu (New York), Thompson, Ommen-
taries on Negligence (Indbnapolb). (A. Ll. D.)
NBOOTIABLB INSTRUMENT, hi law, a document or other
instrument purporting to represent so much money, and the
property in which passes, like money, by mere delivery. Negoti-
able instruments arise in either of two ways: (x) by sutute,
(2) by custom of merchants. The most commonly recognixed
negotiable instruments are biUs of exchange, (»omissory notes,
bilb of lading, foreign bonds and debentures payable to bearer.
Negotiable instruments constitute an exception to the general
rule that a man cannot give a better title than he has himself
(see Bill or Exchange).
NEGRI, ADA (1870- ), Italian poet, was bom at Lodi, of an
artisan family, and became a village school-teacher. Her first
book of poems, Tempeste (1891), telb the hdpless tragedy of the
forsaken poor, in words of vehement beauty. Her second volume
of lyrics, Paialitd (1893), confirmed her reputation as a poet, and
led to her appointment to the normal school at Milan; but her
later verse, while striking in its sincerity, suffered by a tendency
to repetition and consequent mannerism.
NB0RIT08 (Span, for " little negroes "), the name originally
given by the Spamards to the aborigines of the Philippine Islands.
They are physical weaklings, of low, almost dwarf, stature, with
very dark skin, dosdy curling hair, flat noses, thick lips and
large dumsy feet. The term has, however, been more generally
applied to one of the great ethnic groups into which the popula-
tion of the East Indies b divided, and to an apparently kindred
race in Africa (see Negko). A. de Quatrefages suggests that
from the parent negroid stem were thrown off two negrito
branches to the west and east, the Indo-Oceanic and African,
and that the Akkas, Wochuas, Batwas and Bushmen of the
Dark Continent are kinsmen of the Andaman Islanders, the
Sakab of the Malay Peninsula and the Aetas of the PhiUppines.
Thb view has found much acceptance among ethnologbts. The
result of Quatrefages's theory would be to place the negrito
races dosest to the primitive human type, a conclusion apparently
justified by their physical characteristics. The true negritos
are always of little stature (the majority under $ ft.), have
rounded forms and their skull b brachycephalic or subbrachy-
cephallc, that b to say, it b relatively short and broad and of
little hdght. Their skin b dark brown or black, sometimes
somewhat yellowish, thdr hair woolly (scanty on face and body),
and they have the flat nose and thick lips and other physical
features of the negro. Among peoples undoubtedly negrito
are those of the Andaman Islands (9.0.) , the Malay Peninsula
(g.v.) and some of the Philippines {q.v.), the best types being
the Sakab (q.v.)^ Mincopies and Aetas. The question of the so-
called negrito races of India, the Oraons, Gonds, &c., b in much
dbpute, (^trefages believing the Indian aborigines to have
been negritos, while other ethnologbts find the primitive people
of Hindustan in the Dravidian races. Some authorities have
placed the Veddahs of Oylon among the negritos, but their
straight hair and dolichocephalic skuUs are suflBdent arguments
against their inclusion. The negrito b often confounded with
the Papuan; but the latter, though possessing the same woolly
hair and bdng of the same colour, b a large, often muscular man,
with a long, high skull.
See A. de Quatrefages, Les Pygmies (Paris, 1887; Eng. trans.
1895); E. H. Man. The Aborigines of the Andaman Islands (London,
1885): Giglidi. NM4f9e nelizie sni populi negroidi deW Asia e special-
mente sui Negriti (Florence* 1879); Mcj-er, Album von Philippinen-
Typen (Dresden. 1885); Blumentritt. Etknographie der PkUtpPinen
((Jotha, 1892); A. B. Meyer, Die Negritos (Dresden, 1899); A. H.
Keane, Elknoiogyi A. C Haddon in Nature for September 1899.
344
NEGRO
HBORO (from Lat. niger^ black), in anthropology, the designa-
tion of the distinctly dark-skinned, as opposed to the fair,.yeIlow,
and brown variations of mankind. In its widest sense it embraces
all the dark races, whose original home is the intertropical and
sub-tropical regions of the eastern hemisphere, stretching
roughly from Senegambia, West Africa, to the Fijian Islands in
the Pacific, between the extreme parallels of the Philippines
and Tasmania. It is most convenient, however, to refer to the
dark-skinned inhabitants of this zone by the collective term of
Negroids, and to reserve the word Negro for the tribes which
are considered to exhibit in the highest degree the characteristics
taken as typical of the variety.
These tribes are found in Africa; their home being south of
the Sahara and north of a not very well-defined line running
roughly from the Gulf of Biafra with a south-easterly trend
across the equator to the mouth of the Tana. In this tract
are found the true negroes; and their nearest relatives, the
Bantu-negroids, are found to the south of the last-mentioned
line. The relation of the yellowish-brown Bushman and Hotten-
tot peoples of the southern extremity of Africa to the negro is
uncertain; they possess certain negroid characters, the tightly
curled hair, the broad nose, the tendency towards prognathism;
but their colour and a number of psychological and cultural
differences would seem to show that the reUtion u not dose.
Between the two a certain affinity seems to exist, and the
Hottentot is probably the product of an early intermixture of
the first Hamito-Bantu immigrants with the Bushman aborigines
(see Africa: Ethnology). The relation of the negroids of Africa
to those of Asia (southern India and Malaysia) and Australasia
cannot be discussed with profit owing to lack of evidence; still
less the theories which have been put forward to account for
the wide dispersal from what seems to be a single stock. It will
be sufficient to say that the two groups have in common a
number of well-defined characteristics of which the following
are the chief: A dark skin, varying from dark brown, reddish-
brown, or chocolate to neariy black; dark tightly curled hair,
flat in transverse section,* of the " woolly " or the " frizzly "
type; a greater or less tendency to prognathism; eyes dark
brown with yellowish cornea; nose more or less broad and flat;
and large teeth.
Sharing these characteristics, but distinguished by short
stature and brachycephaly, is4i group to which the name Negrito
{q,v.) has been given; with this exception the tendency among
the negroids appears to be towards tall stature and doUchoce-
phaly in proportion as they approach the pure negro type. As
the most typical representatives of the variety are found in
Africa, the Asiatic and Australasian negroids may be dismissed
with this introduction. The negro and negroid population of
America, the descendants of the slaves imported from West
Africa, and in a less degree, from the Mozambique coast, before
the abolition of the slave-trade, are treated separately below.
In Africa three races have intermingled to a certain extent
with the negro; the Libyans (Berbers: q.v,) in the Western
Sudan; and the Hamitic races (q.v.) and Arabs (q.v.) in the east.
The identity of the people who have amalgamated with the
negro to form the Bantu-speaking peoples in the southern portion
of the continent b not certain, but as the latter appear to ap-
proach the Hamites in those characteristics in which they differ
from the true negroes, it seems probable that they are infused
with a proportion of Hamitic bloods The true negroes show great
similarity of physical characteristics; besides those already
mentioned they are distinguished by length of arm, especially
of fore arm, length of leg, smaUness of calf and projection of heel;
characteristics which frequently fail to appear to the same degree
* This point has been fully determined by P. A. Brown '^CtassificO'
lion of Mankind by the Hair^ &c.)t who shows conclusively that,
unlike true hair and like true wool, the negro hair is flat, issues from
the epidermis at a right angle, is spirally twisted or crisped, has no
central duct, the colouring matter being disseminatied through the
cortex and intermediate fibres, while the cortex itadf is covered with
numerous rough, pointed filaments adhering loosely to the shaft;
lastly, the negro pile will fdt, like wool, whereas true hair cannot be
felted.
among the Bantu, who are also as a rule less tall, less prognathous,
less platyrrhine and less dark. A few tribes in the heart of the
negro domain (the Welle district of Belgian Congo) show a
tendency to round head, shorter stature and fairer complexion;
but there seems reason to suppoise that they have recdved an
infusion of Libyan (or leas probably Hamitic) or Negrito blood.
The colour of the skin, which is also distinguished by a vdvety
surface and a characteristic odour, is due not to the presence of
any spedal pigment, but to the greater abundance of the colour-
ing matter in the Malpighian mucous membrane between the
inner or true skin and the epidermis or scarf skin.* This colouring
matter is not distributed equally over the body, and does not
reach its fullest devdopment until some weeks after birth;
so that new-bom babies are a reddish chocolate or copper colour.
But excess of pigmentation is not confined to the skin; spots
of pigment are often found in some of the internal organs, such
as the liver, spleen, &c. Other characteristics appear to be a
hypertrophy of the organs of excretion, a more developed venous
system, and a less voluminous brain, as compared with the
white races.
In certain of the characteristics mentioned above the negro
would appear to stand on a lower evolutionary plane than the
white man, and to be more dosdy rdated to the highest anthro-
poids. The characteristics are length of arm, prognathism,
a heavy massive cranium with large zygomatic arches, flat nose
depressed at base, &c. But in one important respect, the
character of the hair, the white man stands in doser relation
to the higher apes than does the Negro.
Mentally the negro is inferior to the white. The remark of
F. Manetta, made after a long study of the negro in America,
may be taken as generally true of the whole race: " the negro
children were sharp, intelligent and full of vivadty, but on
approaching the adult period a gradual change set in. The
intellect seemed to beoomc douded, animation giving place
to a sort of lethargy, briskness yielding to indolence. We must
necessarily suppose that the devdopmept of the negro and white
proceeds on different lines. While with the latter the volume of
the brain grows with the expansion of the brainpan, in the
former the growth of the brain is on the contrary arrested by
the premature dosing of the cranial sutures and lateral pressure
of the frontal bone.* This explanation u reasonable and even
probable as a contributing cause; but evidence is lacking on the
subject and the arrest or even deterioration in mental develop-
ment is no doubt very largdy due to the fact that after puberty
sexual matters take the first place in the negro's life and thoughts.
At the same time his environment has not been such as would tend
to produce in him the restless energy which has led to the progress
of the white race; and the easy conditions of tropica] life and
the fertility of the soil have rnluced the struggle for existence
to a minimum. But though the mental inferiority of the Dcgro
to the white or yellow races is a fact, it has often been ex-
aggerated; the negro is largdy the creature of his environmeat,
* It is also noteworthy that the dark colour seems to depend neither
on geographical position, the tsothermals of greatest heat, nor e\'«a
altogether on raaal purity. The extremes of the chromatic scale are
found in juxtaposition throuahout the whole nepo domain, in Sene^
Embia, the Cabun, upper Nile basin, lower C0190, Slum valley,
ocambique. In the last region M de Froberville determined the
presence of thirty-one different shades from dusky ta yeflow-brown
to sootv black. Some of the sub-negroid and mixed races, such as
many Abyastnians, Galla, Jolof and Mandingo, are quite as black as
the darkcBt full-blood negro. A general similarity in the outward
conditi(»is <^ soil, atmosphere, climate, food charged with an excess
of carbon, such as the fruit of the butter-tree, and other undetermined
causes have tended to develop a tendency towards dark shades every^
where in the negro domain apart from the bias mainly dne to an
original stain of black blood. Perhaps the most sarisfactory theory
explains the excessive development of pigment in the dark-skinned
races as a natural protection against the ultra-videt rays in wlucb
tropical liffht is so rich and which are destructive of protoplasm
(see C. E. Woodruff. Tropical Light, London. 1905). The expivasioQ
" jet black " is applied by Schwemfurth to the upper-Nilotic Shillak,
Nuer and Dinka, while the nrighbouring Bongo and Mitto are de^
scribed as of a " red-brown " colour " like the soil upon which they
reside " (Heart of Africa, vol. i. ch. iv.).
* La Raua Negra nd $no siato sehaggio, ft& (Turin. 1864). P- aa>
NEGRO
345
and it is not fair to judge of his mental capacity by tcsU taken
dirtaly from the environment of the white man, as for instance
tests in mental arithmetic; skill in reckoning is necessary to the
vhite rue, and it has cultivated this faculty; but it is not
necessary to the negro.
On the other hand negroes far surpass white men in acuteness
of vision, hearing, sense of direction and topography. A native
vho has once visited a particular locality will rarely fail to
recognize it again. For the rest, the mental constitution of the
nesro is very similar to that of a child, normally good-natured
and cheerful but subject to sudden fits of emotion and passion
during which he is capable of performing acts of singular atrocity,
impressionable, vain, but often exhibiting in the capacity of
servant a dog-like fidelity which has stood the supreme test.
Given suitable training, the negro is capable of becoming a
craftsman of considerable skill, particularly in metal work,
c&rpentry and carving. The bronze castings by the cire perdue
process, and the cups and horns of ivory elaborately carved,
which were produced by the natives of Guinea after their
intercourse with the Portuguese of the x6th century, bear ample
witness to this. But the rapid decline and practical evanescence
of both industries, when that intercourse was interrupted, shows
that the native craftsman was raised for the moment above his
normal level by direct foreign inspiration, and was unable to
sustain the high quality of his work when that inspiration failed.
In speaking of the form or forms of culture found among negro
and negroid tribes, the dependence of the native upon his
environment must be kept in mind, particularly in Africa, where
interchange of customs is continually taking place among
neighbours.
Thus the forest regions are distinguished by a particular form
of culture which di£Fers from that prevailing in the more open
country (see Africa: Ethnology). But it may be said generally
that the negro is first and foremost an agriculturist. The ncgritos
are on a lower ctiltural plane; they are nomadic hunters who
do no cultivation whatever. Next in importance to agriculture
come hunting and fishing and, locally, cattle-kccping. The
last is not strictly typical of negro culture at all; nearly all the
tnbes by whom it is practised are of mixed origin, and their
devotion to cattle seems to vary inversely with the purity of race.
The most striking exception to this statement is the Dinka of
the upper Nile, the whole of whose existence centres round the
cattle pen. Of the other tribes where pastoral habits obtain to
a greater or less extent, the Masai have a large percentage of
Hamitk blood, the eastern and southern Bantu-speaJdng negroids
are also of mixed descent, &c.
The social conditions are usually primitive, especially among
the negroes proper, being based on the village community ruled
by a chief. Where the country is open, or where the forest
is not 80 thick as to present any great obstacle to communication,
it has often happened that a chief has extended his rule over
se%'eia2 villages and has ultimately built up a kingdom adminis-
tered by sub-chiefs of various grades, and has even established
a coirt with a regukir hierarchy of officials. Benin and Dahomey
are instances of this. But the region where this "empire-
building '* has reached its greatest proportions lies to the south
of the forest bdt in the territory of the Bantu negroids, where
arose the states of Lunda, Cazembe, &c
The domestic life of the negro is based upon polygyny, and
marriage is almoft always by purchase. So vital is polygyny to
the native social system that the attempts made by missionaries
to abolish plurality of wives would, if successful (a contingency
unthinkable under present conditions), result in the most serious
lodal disorder. Not only would an enormous section of the
population be deprived of all means of support, but the native
wife would be infinitely harder worked; agriculture, the task of
the women, would be at a standstill; and infanticide would
probably aasunm dangerous proportions.
Doccnt in the negro world is on the whole more often reckoned
through the fenwle, though many tribes with a patriarchal
system are found. Traces of totemism are found sporadically,
tntarenie.
Of the highest importance sodaQy are the secret societies,
which are found in their highest development among the negroes
of the west coast, and in a far less significant form among some
of the Bantu negroids of the western forest district. In their
highest form these societies transcend the tribal divisions, and the
tie which binds the individual to the society takes precedence of
all others. But the secret society cannot be called a definitely
negro institution, since it is found in the west only.
As an agriculturist the negro is principally a vegetarian,
but this form of diet is not the result of direct choice; meat is
everywhere regarded as a great delicacy, and no opportunity
of obuining it is ever neglected, with one exception— that the
cattlc-kecping tribes rarely slaughter for food, because cattle
are a form of currency. Fish is also an important article of diet
in the neighbourhood of large rivers, especially the Nile and
Congo. It is worthy of note that the two cultivat«l plants
which form the mainstay of native life, manioc in the west and
centre and mealies in the jouth and east, are neither of African
origin.
Cannibalism is found in iu simplest form in Africa. In that
continent the majority of cannibal tribes cat hunuin flesh because
they like it, and not from any magical motive or from lack of
other animal food. In fact it is noticeable that the tribes most
addicted to this practice inhabit just those districts where game
is most plentiful. Among the true negroes it is confined mainly
to the Welle and Ubangi districts, though found sporadically (and
due to magical motives) on the west coast, and among the Bantu
negroids in the south-western part of Belgian Congo and the
Gabun.
With regard to crafts the roost important and typical is that
of iron smelling and working. No negro tribe has been found
of which the culture is typical of the Stone age; or, indeed,
which nuikes any use of stone implements except to crush ore
and hammer metaL Even these are rough pieces of stone of
convenient size, not shaped in any way by chipping or grinding.
Doubtless the richness of the African soil in metal ores rendered
the Stone age in Africa a period of very short duration (see
Africa: Ethnology). A good deal of aptitude is shown in the
forging of iron, considering the primitive nature of the tools.
Considerable skiU in carving is also found in the west and among
the Bantu negroids, especially of Belgian Congo south of the
Congo. Weaving is practised to a large extent in the west;
the true native material being palm-leaf fibre. The cultivation
of cotton, which has become important in West Africa, deals
with an exotic material and has been subjected to foreign
influences. Among the Bantu of the Kasai district the art of
weaving palm-doth reaches its highest level, and in the east
cotton-weaving is again found. Pottery-nuiking is almost uni-
versal, though nowhere has it reached a very advanced stage; the
wheel is unknown, though an appliance used on the lower (>>ngo
displays the principle in very rudimentary form. The produc-
tion of fire by means of friction was universal, the method known
as " twirling " being in vogue, i.e. the rapid rotation between
the palms of a piece of hard wood upon a piece of soft wood.
Trading is practised eiiber by direct barter or through the
medium of rude forms of currency which vary according to
locality. Value is reckoned among the tribes with pastoral
tendencies in cattle and goats; among the eastern negroes
by hoe-and spear-blades and salt blocks; in the west by cowries,
brass rods, and bronze armlets (manilas); in Belgian (^ngo
variously by dtvella shells, brass rods, sailt, goats and fowls,
copper ingots and iron spear-blades, &c.
As regards religion, the question of environment is again
important; in the western forests where communities are small
the negro is a fetishist, though his fetishism is often combined
more or less with nature worship. Where communication is
easier the nature worship becomes more systematic, and definite
supernatural agencies are recognized, presiding over definite
spheres of human life.^ Where feudal kingdoms have been formed,
ancestor-worship begins to appear and often assumes paramount
*The three volumes by Colonel Ellis mentioned in the biblio-
graphy form an excellent study of the devdopmeot of negro religion.
3+6
NEGRO
impOTtattoe. In fact this form of religion is typical of all the
eastern and southern portion of the continent (see Afuca:
Ethnology). With the negro, as with most primitive peoples,
it is the malignant powers which receive attention from man,
with a view to propitiation or coercion. Beneficent agencies
require no attention, since,, from their very nature, they must
continue to do good. The negro attitude towards the super-
natural is based frankly on fear; gratitude plays no part in it.
A characteristic feature of the western culture area, among both
negro and Bantu negroid tribes, is the belief that any form of
death except by violence must be due to evil magic exercised
by, or through the agency of, some human individual; to dis-
cover the guilty party the poison ordeal is freely used. A
similar form of ordeal is found in British Central Africa to dis-
cover magicians, and the wholesale " smelling-out " of " witches,"
often practised for political reasons, is a well-known feature
of the culture of the Zulu-Xosa tribes. Ever>'where magic,
both S3rmpathetic and imitative, is practised, both by the ordinary
individual and by professional magicians, and most medical
treatment is based on this, although the magician is usually a
herbalist of some skilL Where the rainfall is uncertain, the
production of rain by magical means is one of the chief duties
of the magidan, a duty which becomes paramotmt in the eastern
plains among negroes and Bantu negroids alike. But the negroes
and negroids have been considerably influenced by exotic
religions, chiefly by Mahommedanism along the whole extent
of coimtry bordering the Sahara and in the east. Christianity
has made less progress, and the reason is not far to seek. Islam
is simple, categorical and easily comprehended; it tends far
less to upset the native social system, especially in the matter
of polygyny, and at the same time discourages indulgence in
strong drink. Moreover the number of native missionaries is
considerable. Christianity has none of these advantages, but
possesses two great drawbacks as far as the negro is concerned.
It is not sxiflidently categorical, but leaves too much to the
individual, and it discountenances polygyny. The fact that it
is divided into sects, more or less competitive among them-
selves, is another disadvantage which can hardly be overrated.
This division has not, it is true, as yet had much influence upon
the evangelization of Africa, since the various missions have
mostly restricted themselves each to a particular sphere; still,
it is a defect in Christianity, as compared with Islam, which will
probaUy make itself felt in Africa as it has in China.
As regards language, the Bantu negroids all speak dialects of
one tongue (sec Bantu Languages). Among the negroes the
most extraordinary linguistic confusion prevails, half a dozen
neighbouring villages in a small area often speaking each a
separate language. All are of the agglutinating order. No
absolutely indigenous form of script exists; thou^ the Hausa
tongue has been reduced to writing without European assistance.*
AuTROUTXBS.— J. Denlker, Ruts cf Man (London, 1900); A. H.
Keane, Ethnology (London, 1896); Man Past and Present (London,
1900); A. B. Ellift. The Tski-spmkint Peoples (1887); The Ewe-
speaking Peoples (1890); The Yornba^speaking Peoples (1894);
B. Ankermann. " Kukurkreise in Afrika," Zeit. f. Eth. (1905), p. 54.
See also Africa, § 3, Ethnology. (T. A. J.)
Negjroes in tie Umkd States,
After the migration of the European fair-skinned races in
large numbers to other parts of the earth occupied by peoj^e
oi darker colour, the adjustment of relations between the diverse
races developed a whole series of problems almost unknown
to the ancient world or to the life of modem Europe. The wider
the diversity of physique and especially of skin colour, the greater
the danger of friction. The more serious the effort to secure
industrial and social co-opexation under representative institu-
tions, the graver have become the difficultiak They have been
and are perhaps more acute in the United States than elsewhere,
> The Val alphabet. " invented ** by a native. Doahi Bukere, in
the first half of the 19th century, owed its inspiration to European
influence, and of the characters " nuny ... are dumsy adaptations
of Roman letters or of conventional signs used by Europeans"
(Sir H. H. Johnston, Liberia, p. 1107 foil., London, 1906).
because tfcere the lightest and the darkest races have com^
mingled, because of the theory on which the government of the
country nominally rests, that each freeman should be given
an equal chance to improve his industrial position and an equal
voice in dedding political questions, and because of the almost
irreconcilable differences in the public opinion of the two great
sections to only one of which do the problems come home as
everyday matters. They were not solved by the Civil War
and emancipation, but thdr nature was radically altered. Neither
the earlier system of slavery nor the governmental theory during
the radical reconstruction period that race differences should
be ignored has proved workable, and the trend is now towards
some modus vivendi between these extremes.
The only definition of negro having any statutory basis in
the United States is that given in the legislation of many Southern
states prohibiting intermarriage between a white person and
"a person who has one-eighth or more of African blood."
Census enumerators in thdr counts of the American people
since 1790 have distinguished the two main races of whites and
negroes, but in so doing they have never been given a definition
or criterion of race. 0>nsequently they followed the judgment
of the community enumerated, which usually classes as n^ro
all persons known or believed to have in thdr vdns any ad-
mixture of negro blood. It is probable that this line, the so-
called "colour line," which is emphasized in regions where
negroes are numerous by many legal, economic and social dis-
criminations between Uie races, is drawn with substantial
accuracy. Far different has been the result of governmental
efforts to draw another line within the group of negroes as thus
defined, that between the negroes of pure African blood and those
of mixed negro and white blood. This distinction has no legal
significance, for negroes of pure blood and negroes of mixed blood
are subject to the same provisions of law, and at least for the
whites it has little social or economic significance. An attempt
to draw it was made at each census betweeen 1850 and 1890
indusive, and the results, so far as they were published, indicate
that between one-sixth and one-ninth of the negroes in the United
Sutes have some admixture of white blood. The figures were
reached through thousands of census enumerators, nearly all
of whom were white. Of recent years an effort has been made
on the part of negro investigators to get an answer to the same
question by the careful study of communities selccted*as typical.
The classification of about 39iO0o coloured people, most of them
in different parts of Georgia, with a study of the other available
data and inferences from a somewhat wide observation, led Dr
Dubois to the conclusion that " at least one-third of the n^rocs
of the United States have recognizable traces of white blood.'*
Perhaps we may believe with some confidence that the in-
formation from white sources understates, and that from negro
sources overstates, the proportion, and that the true proportion
of mulattoes in the United States is between one-sixth and one-
third of aU negroes. To infer that the true proportion in 1850.
i860, 1870 and 1890, the dates to which the census figures relate,
was much less than the true proportion in 1895 to 1900, to whidi
the unofiidal figures relate, is contrary to the general trend of
the evidence. As the law and the social opinion of the Southern
whites make little or nothing of this distinction between negroes
of pure blood and mulattoes, it is often regarded as less important
than it really is. The recognized leaders of the race are almost
invariably persons of mixed blood, and the qualities which have
made them leaders are derived certainly in part and perhaps
mainly from their white ancestry. Wherever luge numbers
of full-blooded negroes and of persons of mixed central or north
European and negro blood have lived in the same community
for some generations, there is a strong and growing tendcoi^
to establi^ a social line between them.
The difficulty of ascertaining the number of mulattoes in
the United States and the tendency of the testimony to be
modified by the opinion or desire of the race from which it comes
are typical. Th^ is hardly any important aspect of the subject
upon which the testimony of seemingly comp^ent and impartial
witnesses is not materially affected by the influence of the race
NEGRO
347
to which the witnesses belong. Underthcse circumstances It
seems necessary to assume that the testimony of the official
docmncnts of the federal government is correct, unless dear
evidence, internal or external, refutes it. The following state-
ments of fact rest mainly on those sources.
The number of negroes living in the (continental) United
States in 1908 was about nine and three-quarter millions, and
if those in Porto Rico and Cuba be indudcil it reached ten and
two-thirds millions. This number is greater than the total
population of the United States was in 1820, and nearly as great
as the population of Norway, Sweden and Denmark.
During the colonial period, and down to the changes initiated
by the invention of the cotton gin, negroes were distributed
with some evenness along the Atlantic coast. Between the date
of that invention and the Civil War, and largely as a result of
the changes the cotton gin set in motion, the tendency was to-
wards a concentration of the negroes in the great cotton-growing
area of the country. In 1700, for example, one-ninth of the
population of the colony of New York was negro; in xgoo only
ooe^seventieth of the population of the empire state belonged
to that race. The division line between the Northern and
Southern states adopted by the Census Office in 1880, and em-
pfeyed since that date in its publications, is Mason and Dixon's
line, or thA southern boundary of Pennsylvania, the Ohio river
from Pennsylvania to its mouth and the southern boundary of
Missouri and Kansas. In the states north of that line, the
Northern states, in all of which but Missouri negro slavery other
never existed or else was abolished before the Civil War, the
white population increased tenfold and the negro population
only fourfold between 1790 and i860. In the states south of
that line, on the contrary, the Southern states, the negro popula-
tion in the same period increased sixfold and the white population
not so fast. It was a widespread opinion shortly after the Civil
War that the emandpated slaves would speedily disperse through
the country, and that this process woxild greatly simplify the
problems arising from the contact of the two races. This expec-
tation has not been entirely falsified by the result. Between
i860 and 1900 the negroes in the Northern states increased
somewhat more rapidly than the northern whites, and those
in the Southern states much less rapidly than the Southern
whites. As a result, one-tenth of the American negroes lived
in 190S in the Northern states, a larger proportion than at any
time during the 19th century. But this process of dispersion
B so slow as not materially to affect the prospects for the im-
mediate future, and it is still almost as true as at any earlier
date that the region in which cotton is a staple crop coinddcs
in the main with the r^'on in which negroes are more than one-
half of the total population.
This appears U a comparison is made between the northern
boundary of the so-called Austroriparian zone of plant and animal
life m the Uu'ted Sutes, that is ** the zone of the cotton plant,
sugar cane, rice, pecan and peanut," and the northern boundary
of the " black belt ** or region in which the negroes are a majority
of the population. The coinddence of the two is veiy dose,
and was much closer in 1900 than in i86a It appears yet more
clearly by a comparison between a map showing the counties
in which at least 5% of the area was planted to cotton in 1899
and another map showing the " bhick bdt " counties in 190a
The black belt stretches north through eastern Virginia beyond
the cotton belt, and the cotton belt stretches south-west through
eastern central Texas beyond the black belt, but between these
two extremes there is a close agreement in the boundaries of the
two areas.
The question " Have the American negroes progressed, materi-
ally and morally, since emandpation?*' is generally answered
in the affirmative. But even on this question entire unanimity
is lacking. A considerable body of men could still be found
in 1910, mainly among Southern whites, who held that the con-
dition of the race was worx than it was in the days of slavery.
ProbaUy all competent students would admit, however, that
the race has differentiated since 1865, that the distance separating
the highest tenth from the lowest tenth has become wider, that
the highest tenth is far better and far better off than formerly,
and the lowest tenth is worse and perhaps also worse off than
in slavery. Under such circumstances there are no adequate
objective tests of progress. The pessimist p<»nts to the alleged
increase of Idleness and crime, the meliorist to a demdnstrated
decrease of illiteracy and to considerable accumulations of
property. The laxge majority of competent students believe
that the American negroes have progressed, materially and
morally, since emandpation, that the central or average
point is higher than in 1865, although such persons differ
widely among themsdves regarding the amount of that
progress.
It would be generally but not universally hdd, also, that
the negroes in the United States progressed under slavery,
that they were far better qualified for incorporation as a vital
and contributing dement of the country's dvilization at the
time of their emandpation than they were on arrival or than
an equal number of their African kindred would have been.
But probably the rate of progress has been more rapid imder
freedom than it was under slavery.
The evidence regarding the progress of the American
negro may be grouped under the following heads: numbers,
birth-rate, health, wealth, education, occupations, morals,
dtizenship.
i^^Km&erx.— The dictum of Adam Smith, "The most dedsive mark
of the prosperity of any country is the increase of the number of its
inhabitants," may be applied, perhaps after changing the word
" decisive " to " obvious, to tbe negro population of the United
Sutea. The negro population of Africa is prt^bly not increasing
at all. But during the 19th century the negroes in the United States
increased nearly ninddd. They are now much the moat thriving
offshoot of the race and the most dvilixcd and progrcaaive group of
negroes in the worid. Under a slavery system not permitting the
importation of new supplies a high rate of increase by excess of
births over deaths u an advantage to the master dasa. During the
slavery period and until about 1880 the increase of southern whites
and 01 southern negroes proceeded at about the same rate. But'
during the last score of years in the century the increase of negroes
was much less rapid, the rate bdng only about three-fifths of that
prevailing among southern whites.
Birth-rate.— A9 the increase of negro population is slackening, as
the immigration and emigration of negroes are insignificant in
amount, and as the death-rate is about stationary, it is reasonable to
infer that the birth-rate is dwindling. This cannot be stated with
certainty, for there are no registration records giving the number of
births for any large and representative group of American negroes.
A good index to the birth-rate, however, may be derived from the
proportion of children under 5 years of age to women 1^ to 49 years
of an. In the returns negroes are not distinguished from Indians
and Mongolians. To minimize this slight source of error and at the
same time to secure a more representative and homogeneous popu-
lation group, the following figures are confined to the Southern or
formes slave states : —
Date.
Children under 5 Years of Age to
1000 Women 15 to 49 Years ol Age
in the Southern States
Negroes.
Whites
i860
1870
1880
1890
1900
661
577
601
581
These figures indicate that the proportion of children to child-
bearing women, and hence probably the birth-rate, changed in the
same direction during each oiecade between 1850 and 1890. Between
1850 and 1870 the proportion of negro children decreased about 6%
and that of white children about 14%; between 1870 and 1880 the
proportion of negro children increased about 12 % and that of white
children about 9%: between 1880 and 1890 the proportion of nccro
children decreased about 18 % and that of white cnilaren about 12 % ;
between 1890 and 1900 the proportion of negro children decreased
about 4% and that ol white children remained practically the same.
Bdore the war the proportion of living children to potential mothers
was about the same for the two races at the South, for the first three
censuses after the war the proportion of negro children was much
greater than of white children, but by 1900 that proportion was leas,
and the movement during the decade suggests that the proportions
may have begun to change*in opposite directions.
348
NEGRO
Some light upon the influences at work may be derived from the
comparison between dty and country at the soutli.
Date.
Children under 5 Years of Age to 1000 Women
15 to 44 Years ol Age in the Southern Sutes.
Cities having at least
25,000 Inhabitants.
Smaller Cities and
Country Districts.
Negroes.
Whites.
Negroes.
Whites.
1890
1900
319
271
391
374
688
668
665
671
The noteworthy infetence from these figures b that the proportion
of negro children in southern cities was verv bw and aecieasing.
In 1890 it was about five-sixths, and in 19JOO less than three-fourths
of the proportion of children among whites in these cities. Tlie
differences in northern cities are equally marked. City life appears to
exercise a powerful and increasing influence in ledudng tne birth-
rate among the negroes.
indicated,
<^ its members. This vitality is roughly ,
Other things being equal, a low and sinking death-rate is evidence
of a high and increasing average duration of life. In the United
Sutes vital statistics are in charge of the several states and cities,
and are often defective or entirely lacking. In 1890 and 1900 the
Federal government compiled such as were of importance, and in
-1864 an ofiicial compilation was made of death-rates of negroes
before the war. The results are worth consideration.
Date.
Negro
Deaths.
Negro
Death-rate.
White Death-rate
at same Time and
Places.
Mainly between
1818-X86J
1890
1900
106,217
a8.579
37.029
350
270
191
X7-3
These figures indkaite that the death-rate of each race decreased
during a half century, but that the decrease among negroes was
much less rapid than among whites. The negro death-rate at the
earliest period exceeded that of the whites by 8-o per thousand, or
three-tenths of the smaller rate. At the latest period the difference
was 12*3 per thousand, or seven-tenths of the smaller rate. But
these fibres speak for nesroes living mainly in cities where the
proportion of children and elderiy persons is small and that of negroes
at the healthy a^ is large. After making a proper allowance for
these differences in sex and age composition, it is found that the true
death-rate of negroes in the registration area is about twice as high
as that of a white population of like sex and age structure. Whether
the difference between negro and white residents of the country
districts in the south is equally great, we have no means for
adine causes of death among negroes in the registration area
arranged in the order of importance are stated below. The ratio to
the corresponding death-rate among whites is added, but the 'diflFcr-
ences are affected partly by the greater proportion of negroes in the
southern cities and the different incidence of diseases in the two
regions.^ and partly by probable differences in the accuracy of
diagnosis of disease in the two sections and by physicians attending
the two races.
Causes of Death.
Negro Death-rate
per 1000.
Ratio to White
Death-rate -100.
Consumption « .. . .
Pneumonia
Diseases of the nervous
system ......
Heart disease and dropsy .
Diarrheal diseases . . .
Diseases of the urinary
Tjgffev^ : t : ;
Malanal fever ....
Cancer and tumour . .
Diphtheria and croup .
Innuenxa
Whooping cough . . .
Measles . » , i \
Scartctfevet -. . .
4-85
3-55
308
2-21
214
■:ii
67
■■%
•32
•32
•29
•21
•15
•03
280
192
144
161
165
157
204
125
969
72
339
92
115
25
These figures bring out in a striking way the very high morulity.
absolute and relative., of the American _negro_ from consumptkm.
When one considere both the great number of deaths caused by
consumption and pneumonia, 28-4 % of the deaths from all causes
in 1900 and the very high death-rate of negroes from these diseases,
it is no exags;eration to say that the main cause that the death-rate
of that race is double that of the white race lies in the ravages of
these two scourges of mankind. The difference between the two
races in this respect has apparently increased since 1890. for at that
date the death-rate of negroes in the registration area from con-
sumption was only 2*37 times that of the whites, and its death-rate
from pneumonia only 1*5^ tiroes that of the whites. Here as else-
where there has been an improvement as measured by an absolute
standard, and at the same time an increased divergence from the
conditions prevailing among the more numerous race.
Wealth. — ^An estimate cA the property now held by American
negroes made in 1904 by a committee oS the American Economic
Auociatk>n indicated about $300,000,000, with a probable error of
perhaps $50,000,000. This figure indicates a per capita wealth of
about $34. We have no means for judging what the p o ssessi ons of
the race were at the time of its emancipation, but in i860 there were
nearly half a million free negroes in the country, many of them
holding property and some of them wealthy. The per capita wealth
of the white population of the United States in 1900 was about
$1320 and that of southern whites about $88$, indicating that
the property of the average negro person or family was about
one twenty-fifth that of tne average southern white person or
family.
Education. — It is often supposed that the American negroes in
1865 were without any accumulated property and without any start
in education. Neither assumption is warranted. On the contrary,
about two-fifths of the adult free negroes in the country wtfre reportra
in i8y> and i860 as able to read and write, and there is some reason
to believe that not far from one-twelfth of the adult slaves also bad
learned to write. In 1900 more than half of the negroes at kast ten
years of age could wntc, and the proportion was rising at a rate
whkh. if continued, would almost efinunate illiteracy by the middle
of the present century.
The problem of providing adequate educational fadlitiea for negro
chikiren is made more difficult by the maintenance in all the former
slave states of two sets of schools, one for each race. At the present
time those states with one-third of their population negro assign
about one-fifth of their public school funds to the support of negro
schools. About $155,000,000 or one-sixth of the entire amount
spent by southern communities for public schools be tw een 1870 and
1906, has ^one to support schools for the negroes. The same cause
has been aided by many private gifts from individuals and oreani-
zations interested in negro education, among whkh the PeaEody
Education Fund of about $2,000,000, now in course of dissolution,
and the John F. Slater Fund, now of about $1,500,000, may be
mentioned. Wide differences of opinion exist regarding the char-
acter of education needed for the race, and the {Hcsent trend is
towards a greater emphasis upon manual and industrial training as
of prime importance lor the great majority.
Occu^ions. — ^The slavery system furnished industrial training to
many slaves who seemed likely to turn it to their master's advantage.
When this system was aboli.shcd the opportunities for such training
open to the race were decreased, and it ts doubtful whether even yet
as large a proportion of skilled negro artisans arc being trained in the
south as were produced there before the Civil War. The demand for
skilled labour in the south is being met more and more by white
labour. This derives an advantage from a prejudice in its favour on
the part of white employers even when other things are equal, from
its greater skill and efficiency in most cases, its better opportanity
to accumulate or to borrow the requisite capital, its superior in-
dustry, persistence and thrift. In consequence negroes are being
more and more excluded from the field of skilled labour in the
south.
Morals.-^AM the death-rate is believed to vary inversely as health
and k>ng;evity and thus to afford a measure of those characteristics,
so the crime-rate is often thought to vary inversely as moraUty. and
thus to measure the self<ontrol, good order and moral health of the
community. But the analogy cannot be pushed. The crime-rate
is everywhere far more difficuft. and in the United States impossible
to ascertain. And even if known the connexion be t we e n the in-
frequency of crime or of specific sorts of crime and the prevaleiKe of
good order, obedience to law and moralitv is far more indirect and
subject to far more qualifications than the connexion between the
death-rate and health. Still the data regarding crime with all their
defects are the best available index of moral proeress or retrogrcaston.
It must be remembered that the comparative infrequcncy of crime
among slaves, even if it existed, is no proof of the absence of criminal
tendencies and actions. Offences on the part of slaves, or at least
minor offences which are always far more numerous than aefkias
offences, were dealt with in most cases privately and without in-
voking the machinery of the law. An apparent increase of ciiaie
since emancipatk>n might be due merely to the becoming patent of
what was before latent. The only statistical measofe of crime
now possible in the United States is the number of pr i soner s in
confinement at a given date, and these figures are an tnadeauate
and misleading substitute for true judicial statistics. The evioence
they afford, however, is far better than any other in rxiftcace and
NEGUS— NEHAVEND
349
denrves careful attentloii. Enumentjons oC pri a oaeri affovding
comparable results were made in l88o, 1890 and 1904.
Date.
Negro
Prisoners.
Numberper
100.000 Pop.
i88o.
1890
1904
16.089
244
278
Hiese l^res show a rapid increase between 1880 and 1890 in the
number and proportion oif negro prisoners, and between 1890 and
1904 a slow increase in the numbier and a notable decrease in the
proportioo.
But in order to make the figures for 1890 and 1904 comparable, it is
necessary to exclude from those for the earlier date 4473 negro
prisoners mainly belonging to two classes, persons in confinement
prior to sentence and persons in prison because of their inability to
pay a fine, but all belonging to classes which were excluded from the
1 for 1904. This gives the following result: —
Date.
Negro
Prisoners.
Numberper
100.000 Pop.
Whites.
1880
1890
1904
16.089
1.9.804
26.087
IS
77
The proportion of negro prisoners to population increased rapidly
between 1880 and 1890 and slijghtly between 1800 and 1904. the
increase for the first period being most accurately shown by the
first set of fijsures and that for the second period by the second set of
figures. It IS noteworthy also that the proportion of white prisoners
to pMMibtion decreased during the same period. Perhaps a more
significant comparison is that oetween the proportion 01 prisoners
oiesch race to the population of that race in the northern states and
the southern states respectively, the distribution of population and
the systems of penal legislation and administration oeing widely
different in the two sections. It is impossible to make th^ correction,
iuet ref e r red to except for the United States as a whole, but it must
be remembered that the figures for 1890 are not comparable with
those for 1904, and that the true figurea for that year woukl be
decidedly leas.
Nttmber of Prisoners to each 100.000 People.
Date.
Southern States.
Northern States. |
Negroes.
Whites.
Negroes.
Whites.
1880
1890
1904
ill
22 1
40
743
99
III
83
These figures indicate that in the southern states in 1890 there
were about four and a half times as many negro prisoners to popu-
htioo as white prisoners, and in 1904 about five ^nd a half times as
many; that in the northern states in 1890 there were about six
times as many negro prisoners to population as white prisoners, and
in 1904 about nine times as many. They throw no light whatever
upon a point they are often quoted as establishing, the comparative
criminalaty of the northern and southern negroes. Those residing in
the north include an abnormal number of males, of adults, and of city
popalatioo, influences all tending to increase the proportion of
pnsonera. It seems likely that if the figures for the south in 18^
could be made strictly comparable with those for the same region in
1904 the apparent decrease of 22% in the proportion of negro
prison ers to population would almost but not ouite disappear The
evidence regarding crime indicates a dontinucd but slow and slacken-
ing increase in the proportion of negro prisoners to negro population
in therountry as a wnole and in its two main sections, an increase
in the proportion of white prisoners to white population during the
first interval and a decrease during the second, and a growing olfler-
ettce between the two races in the proportion of prisoners.
CHiaenskip. — When the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments
to the Federal Constitution were adopted, the former conferring
United States citizen^ip on all native negroes and the latter pro-
viding that the right of such citizens to vote should not be abridged
by any state on account of race, colour or previous condition of
servitude, it was not the practice in northern states to allow nc-groes
to vote. Proposals to grant them the suffrage were submitted to
the voters in 1865 in Connecticut, Wisconsin, Minnesota and Colo*
cado, and in each state they were rejected. In all states containing
a large proportion of negroes the results of the Federal policy of
reconstruction were disastrous, and those bitter years probably
oontriboted more than the Civil War itself to estrange the two sec>
tioos. S^ace the withdrawal of Federal troops in 1877 the prevailing
and perwstent judgment of southern whites regardmg the laws and
the pdicy to be adopted upon this subject has been accorded more
aad more weight in determining the action of the states and the
Federal government. The number of negroes voting or entitled to
tpoce haft been reduced at firrt by intimidation or Traud. later by
legislatioD or provisions of the state constitutions. If such enact-
menu are nominally directed not against any race but against certain
characteristics which may appear mainly in the race, such as illiteracy,
inability or unwillingness to pay an annual poll tax or to register
each year, they have been and are likely to be held within the
constitutional authority of the sute. On the lart of the over-
whelming majotity of negroes this practical disfranchisement has
aroused no protest, while it has tended to improve the eovemment
and to open the way for the gradual development and expression
in word and vote 01 differences within the ranks of white votere
regarding questions of public policy.
Along with this decrease of pressure from without the southern
states and the development of economic competition between the
races within them, there has gone an increased demand on the part
of the whites for a complete social separation between the races in
school, in church, in publk conveyances and hotels, all founded upon
a fear that any disregard of such separateness will make intermarriage
or fruitful illegal umons between the races more frequent. In short,
these developments are towards a more and more rigid caste system.
The negroes in the United States have played and are playing an
important and necessary part in the industrial and economic life of
the southern states, in which in 1908 they formed about one-third
of the population. But that life was changing with marvellous
rapidity, becoming less ample, less agricultural and patriarchal,
more manufacturing and commercial, more strenuous and complex.
It was too early to say whether the negroes would be given an equal
or a fair opportunity to show that they could be as serviceable or
more serviceable in such a civilization as they had been in that which
was passing^ away, and whether the race would show itself able to
accept and improve such chances as were afforded, and to remain in
the future under these changing circumstances, as they had been in
the past, a vital and essential part of the life of the nation.
Bibliography. — ^Writings about the American neg^ fall naturally
into classes. The official governmental publications include those A
the Census Bureau, notably Bulletin e, " Negroes in the United
Sutes." reprinted in 1906 in the volume called Supplementary
Analysis, those of the Bureau of Labor, especially important artkks
in the Bulletin of the Bureau, and those of the commissioner of
education. The information in these b largely statistical, but in the
later Dublications not a little interpretative matter has been intro*
duceo. The point of view is usually that of a dispassionate northern
man.
Among v-iuthcm white mco who have written wisely on th* subject
may be m.ntacirKMjt Df J. L. M, Curry, for many years ffcneraliafene
of the PfjlKxiy and SLitcr funds; H. A. Hcflicrt. Why t^ Solid
South? CT Rrffmiirvftian and Ui EmiJti (Bakjtnortr, iS^); T. N
Page, rfcr ycj;ro — the Sotdkfntft'i pratlem fNcw ^'odc, 1904)
E. G. Murphy. FmUcms &f ike PrrinU South (New York, 1904)
E. R. Cor on. Vital Equaiicit of the C^hrM Rate* aiid A, H. Stom?
Studies in ih^ Amehtan J?flf^ Pri>rJrm (New York, 190B). F. L
Hoffman'^ Riuf, Traits oerf TtKdfntits af tta A*rtrrUJiH Negro (Ncn
York, iBijb} cont^iins the mewt imporUjnt ci5U«:tion of s^tAtUtica
daU in any fifSvutc puLUuiion and inttr^wtaiion* thorDushh
congenial to most southern whites.
Among the southern negroes doubtless the most important
writera are the two representatives of somewhat antagonistic views.
Booker T. Washington. Up from Slavery (New York, 1901). Future
of the American Negro (Boston. 1899). tushegee and its People (New
York. 1905). Ac, and W. E. B. Dubois. The Souls of Blach Fdh
(Chicago, 1903), The Philadelphia Negro (Boston. 1899). Health and
Physique of the Negro American (1907). &c. With these should be
mentioned Atlanta University annual publications, the Proceedings
of the Hampton Negro Conference and the file of the Southern
Worhman. No northern man since the war has. written on the subject
with the thoughtfulness and weight of Frederick Law Olmsted,
Journey in the Seaboard Slave States (New York, 1856). See also
Sir H. H. Johnston. The Negro in the New World (1910). (W. F. W.)
NEOUS. (i) The title of a king or ruler (Amharic ncgOs or
n^gOs), in Abyssinia (q.v.); the full title of the emperor is ncgOs
nagasti, " king of kings." (2) The name of a drink made of
wine, most commonly port, mixed with hot water, spiced and
sugared. According to Malone {Life of Dryden, Prose Worhs,
i. 484) this drink was invented by a Colonel Francis Negus
(d. 1733), who was commissioner for executing the office of
master of the horse from 1717 to 1727, when he became master
of the buckhounds.
NEHAVEND. a small but very fertile and productive province
of Persia, situated south-west of Hamadan, west of Malflyir, and
north-west of Bunijird. Pop. about 15,000. The capital is
the andent dty of Nchavend, where Yazdegird, the last monarch
of the Sassanian dynasty, was finally defeated by the Arabs.
(aj). 641). It has a population of about 5000, including 700 to
800 Jews; there are fine gardens, and an old dtadd on a hill.
It is situated at an devation of 5540 ft., 27 m. from Dolet&bad
(Malftyir), and 25 m. from Bunijird.
35°
NEHEMIAH— NEISSE
(Heb. for "Yahfweh] comforts"), governor
of Judaea under Artaxerxes (apparently A. Longimanus, 465-
424 B.C.)* The book of Nehemiah is really part of the same work
with the book of Ezra, though it embodies certain memoirs of
Nehemiah in which he writes in the first person. Apart from
what is rdated in this book we possess little information about
Nehemiah. The hymn of praise by Ben Sira (Ecdesiasticus
zlix. 13) extols his fame for rebuilding the desolate city of
Jerusalem and for raising up fresh homes for the downtrodden
people. According to other traditions he restored the temple-
service and founded a collection of historical documents (2 Mace
i. 18-36, ii. 13). See further Ezra and Nehemiah (Books),
Jews. History {{ 31 seq.
NQOHBOUR (O. Eng. tiiakgebAr, from niah, " nigh," " near ")
and gebOr, "boor." literally "dweUcr," "husbandman";
cf . Dan. and Swed. nabot Ger. Nackbar), property one who lives in
a bouse dose to one, hence any one of a number of persons living
in the same locality. From Biblical aasodations (Luke z. 37)
the word is used widely of one's fellow-men.
NBILB, RICHARD (1563-1640), English divine, was educated
at Westminster school and at St John's College, Cambridge.
His first important preferment was as dean of Westminster
(1605), afterwards he held successivdy the bishoprics of
Rochester (x6o8), Lichfidd (x6xo), Lincoln (i6x4)> Durham
(1617) and Winchester (1628), and the archbishopric of York
(163X). When at Rochester he appointed William Laud as his
chaplain and gave him several valuable prdermcnts. Hb
political activity while bishop of Durham was rewarded with a
privy coundllorship in 1627. Neile sat regulariy in the courts
of star-d>amber and high commissioiL His correspondence
with Laud and with Sir Dudley Carleton and Sir Francis Winde-
bank (Charies I.'s secretaries of state) axe valuable sources for
the history of the time.
NBim JAMES GE0R6B SMITH (X8X&-1857), British
soldier, was bom near Ayr, Scotland, on the 26th of May x8xo,
and educated at Glasgow University. Entering the service of
the East India Company in 1827, he received his lieutenant's
commission a year later. From 1828 to 1852 be was mainly
employed in duty with his regiment, the ist Madras Europeans (of
which he wrote a Historical Record), but gained some experience
on the general and the personal staffs as D.AAG. and as aide-de-
camp. In 1850 he recdved his majority, and two years Uter
set out for the Burmese War with the regiment. He served
throughout the war with distinction, became second-in-command
to Cheape, and took part in the minor operations which followed,
recdving the brevet of lieutenant-colonel. In June 1854 he was
appointed second-in-command to Sir Robert Vivian to organize
the Turkish contingent for the Crimean War. Early in 1857 he
returned to India. Six weeks after his arrival came the news that
all northern India was aflame with revolt. Ncill acted promptly;
be left Madras with his regiment at a moment's notice, and pro-
ceeded to Benares. The day after his arrival he completely and
ruthlessly crushed the mutineers (4th June 1857). He next
turned his attention to Allahabad, where a handful of Europeans
still hdd out in the fort against the rebels. From the 6th to
the X 5th of June his men forced their way under conditions of heat
and of opposition, that would have appalled any but a real
leader of men, and the place, " the most precious in India at
that moment," as Lord Canning wrote, was saved. Neill re-
ceived his reward in an army colonelcy and appointment of
aide-de-camp to the queen. Allahabad was soon made the con-
centration of Havclock's column. The two officeis, through
a misunderstanding in their respective instructions, dis-
agreed, and when Havdock went on from Cawnpore (which
Ncill had reoccupied shortly before) he left his subordinate
there to command the lines of communicatioiL At Cawnpore,
while the traces of the massacre were yet fresh, Ndll inflicted
the death penalty on all his prisoners with the most merciless
rigour. Meanwhile, Havdock, in spite of a succession of victories,
had been compelled to fall back for kck of men; and Neill
criticized his superior's action with a total want of restraint.
A secoiui expedition had the same fate, and Neill himself was now
attacked, though by his own exertions and Havdock's victory
at.Bithor (i6lh August) the tension on the communications
was ended. Havdock's men returned to Cawnpore, and cholera
broke out there, whereupon Neill again committed himself to
criticisms, this time addressed to the commander-in-chief and
to Outram, who was on the way with rdnforcements. In spite of
these very grave acts of insubordination, Havdock gave his
rival a brigade command in the final advance. The famous
march from Cawnpore to Lucknow began on September 19th; on
the aist there was a sharp fight, on the 22nd incessant rain, on
the 33rd intense heat. On the 23rd the fighting opened with the
assault on the Alum Bagh, Neill at the head of the leading
brigade recklessly exposing himsdf. Next day he was again
heavily engaged, and on the 2sth he led the great attack on
Lucknow itself. The fury of his assault carried everjrthing
before it, and his men were entering the dty when a bullet killed
their commander. Strict as he was, he was loved not. less than
feared, and throughout the British dominions he had established
a name as a skilful and extraordinarily energetic commander.
The rank and precedence of the wife of a K.C.B. was given to
his widow, and memorials have been erected in India and at Ayr.
See J. W. Kaye. Lives of Indian Officers (1889) . and J. C Marrii.
man, Life ofUmtelock (1867).
NBILSON. AOBLAIDB '(X846-1880), English actress, whose
real name was Elizabeth Ann Brown, was bom in Leeds, the
daughter of an actress, and her childhood and early youth were
passed in poverty and menial work In 1865 she appeared in
Margate as Julia in The Hunchback, a character with which her
name was. long to be associated. For the next few years she
played at several London and provincial theatres in various
parts, induding Rosalind, Amy Robsart and Rebecca (in Ivanhoe),
Beatrice, Viola and Isabella (in Measure for Measure) In 1872
she visited America, where her beauty and talent made her a
great favourite, and she returned year after year She died on
the isth of August x88o. Miss Neilson was married to Philip
Henry Lee, but was divorced in 1877.
NBISSB, three rivers of Germany, (i) The GUtxer Neisse
rises on the Schneegebirgc, at an altitude of X400 ft., flows
north past Glatz, turns east and pierces the Etdengebirgc in
the Wartha pass, then continues east as far as the town of Neisse,
and after that flows north-east until at an altitude of 453 ft
it joins the Oder between Oppeln and Brieg. Owing to its
torrential character the greater part of its course is only used
for floating down timber. It abounds in fish, and its total length
is X2X m. (2) The Lausitzer or Gdrlitzer Neisse rises near
Rdchenberg in Bohemia, on the south side of the Riesengebirge,
at an altitude of 1130 ft., flows north past Rdchenberg, Gdrlitz,
Forst and Guben, and enters the Oder above FUrstenberg
at an altitude of 105 ft. Its length is 140 m., of which less than
40 m. are navigable. (3) The WQtende Neisse is a tributary of
the Katzbach.
NEISSE, a town and fortress of Germany, in the province of
Prussian Silesia, at the junction of the Neisse ai<d the Biela,
32 m. by rail S.W. of Oppeln. Pop. (1905) 25,394 (mostly
Roman Catholics) induding a garrison of about 5000. It consisU
of the town proper, on the right bank of the Neisse, and the
Friedrichstadt on the left. The Roman Catholic parish church
of St James (Jakobikirche) dates mainly from the X3th century,
but was finished in 1430. The chief secular buildings are the
old episcopal residence, the new town hall, the old Rathaus,
with a tower 205 ft. in height (1499), the beautiful Renaissance
KOmmerei (exchequer) with a high gabled roof ornamented with
frescoes, and the theatre. A considerable trade is carried on
in agricultural products.
Neisse, one of the oldest towns in Silesia, is said to have been
founded in the xoth century, and afterwards became the capital
cf a prindpality of its own name, which was incorporated with
the bishopric of Breslau about X200. Its fint walls were erected
in 1350, and enabled it to rcpd an attack of the Hussites in 1424.
It was thrice besieged during the Thirty Years' War. The end
of the first Silesian War left Neisse in the hands of Frederick
the Great, who laid the foundations of its modem fortificationii
NEJD
The town was uk«i by the French In 1807. Neisae can, at the
will of the garrison, be protected by a system of inundation.
See Kastner. Vrkundliche Ceuktckte dtr SUtdt Neisse (Neisae and
Breslao, 1854-1867, 3 vols.). Schutte. BeUrdu n$r Gesekickie van
Neisse (Neisae. 1881) . and Ruffert. Aus Neisst^s VergqMgailieU (1903).
HBJD, a central province of Arabia, bounded N. by the Nafud
desert, E. by £1 Hoaa, S. by the Dahna desert and W. by Asir
and Ht^z. It lies between 30* and 28" N. and 41*^ and 48** £.,
extends nearly 550 m from north to south, 450 from cast
to west, and covers approximately x8o,ooo sq. m. The name
Nejd implies an upland, and this is the distinctive character
of the province as compared with the adjoining coastal districts
of Hej^ and £1 Hasa. Its general elevation varies from 5000 ft.
on its western border to 2500 in Kasim in the north-east,
and somewhat less in YemSma in the south-east. In the north
the double range of Jebd Sliammar, and in the east the ranges
of J Tuwik and J 'Arid rise about 1500 ft. above the general
level, but on the whole it may be described as an open steppe,
sloping very gradually from S W to N.E. of which the western
and wttthern portion is desert, or at best pasture land only
capable of supporting a nomad population; while in the north
and east, owing to greater abundance of water, numerous fertile
osoes are found with a large settled population. The principal
p^sical features arc described in the article Arabia.
The main divisions of Nejd are the following: Jebcl Shammar,
Kasim. SodSr, Wusbm, 'Arid. Afl&j, Harfl, YemSma and Wadi
DawSsir J. Shammar is the most northerly: its principal
settlements are situated in the valley some 70 ra. long, between
the two ranges of J. Aja and J. Sclma, though a few Ue on their
outer flanks. Jauf. TSma and Khaibar, though dependencies
of the Shammar principality, lie beyond the limits of Nejd.
The capital. Hail, has been visited by several Europeans, by
W. G. Palgrave in 1862, when TalAl was emir, and by Mr Wilfrid
and Lady Anne Blunt, Charles Doughty, C. Huber, T. Euting
and Baron E Nolde during the reign of Mahommcd b. Rashid,
who from 1892 till his death in 1897 was emir of all Nejd. Its
well ordered and thriving appearance is commented on by all
these travellers. The town is surrounded by a wall aiyl dominated
by the emir's palace, a stately, if somewhat gloomy building,
the walls of which are quite 75 ft. high, with six towers, the whole
giving the idea of an old French or Spanish donjon.
Hafl lies at the northern end of the valley, 2 m*. S.E. of J.
Aja, at an altitude of about 3000 ft. The highest point of J
Aja, the western and higher of the twin ranges, is according to
Buber 4600 ft. above sea-leveL The valley is about 20 m. in
width and is intersected with dry ravines and dotted with low
jidges 9Qncrally of volcanic origin. Wdls and springs are the
only source of water supply, both for drinking and for irrigation.
The principal crops are dates, wheat and barley and garden
produce; forage and firewood are very scarce The population
was estimated by Nolde in 1893 at xo,ooo to X2,ooOb
Among the other settlements of J Shammar are JafSfa
and MukAk at the northern foo^ of J. Aja, Kasr and Kaf&r
at iu southern foot, Rauda, Mustajidda and Fed at the foot
of J. Selma, all large villages of 3000 to 5000 inhabitants.
'Akda is a small valley in the heart of J Aja, an hour's ride
from Hafl; it was the oldest possession o( the Ibn Rashid,
since 2835 the ruling family of J. Shammar, and is a place of
great natural strength. Kasim lips £. of J. Shammar in the
valley of the W. Rumma the great wadi of northern i^ejd;
the chief towns Burtda and *Ane2a are situated about xo m.
apart, on the north and south sides of the wadi respectively.
Dou^ty described *Aneza in X879 as clean and well built with
walls of sun-dried brick, with well supplied shops. Many
inhabitants live in distant houses in gardens outside the town
walls. 'AnSza and BurCda each contain some 10,000 inhabitants.
The diy bed of the Wadi Rumma in lower Kasim is about 3 m.
acRM, fringed in places with palm plantations; water is found
at 6 or 8 ft. in the dry season and in winter the wells overflow.
The staple of cultivation is the date-palm, the fruit ripening in
August or September Fruit trees and fields of wheat, maise
or millet' surround the villages, but the extent of cultivation
351
is Hxnited by the necessity of artificial irrigation. Kah&fa,
Kuseba and KuwAra are the principal villages of upper Kasim,
and 'Anfoa and BurCda, Madnab, Ayun and Ras of lower
TtfliUTn-
Doughty's and Ruber's explorations did not extend east of
Kasim, and for all details repixdmg eastern and southern Nejd
Palgrave is the only authority. According to him, a long
desert march leads from Madnab to Zulfa the first settlement
in Suder, where the land rises steadily to the high calcareous
tableland of J. TuwCk. The entire plateau is intersected by a
maze of valle>-s, generally with steep banks, as if artificially cut
out of the limestone. In these countless hollows is concentrated
the fertility and population of Nejd; gardens and houses,
cultivation and villages lie hidden from view among the depths
while one journeys over the dry flats, tUl one comes suddenly
on a mass of emerald green beneath.
Suder forms the nor^em end of the plateau, *Arid the southern,
while Wushm appears to lie on its west, and Afl&j and el Harik
below it and to the south and south-west respectively. The
principal jtown is Majma the former capital of Suder, a walled
town situated on an eminence in a broad shallow valley sur-
rounded by luxuriant gardens and trees. Tuwem, Jalljil and
Hula arc also described by Palgrave as considerable towns.
*Arid is entered at SedOs, on the W. Hanifa, a broad valley
bottom with precipitous sides, here 2 or 3 m. wide, full of trees
and brushwood. Along its course lie the villages of Ayftna, and
Deraiya the former Wahh&bi capital, destroyed by Ibrahim
Pasha in 18x7; and a few miles farther E. the new capital
Ri&d, built by the emir Ffisal after his restoration and visited
by Palgrave in 1863, and by Pelly two years kter. It was then,
and still is, a large town of perhaps 20,000 inhabitants with
thirty or more mosques, well-stocked bazSrs, and like the towns
of Kasim, surroimded by wcU-watered gardens and palm groves.
To the south the valley opens out into-the great plains of Ycmftma,
dotted with groves and villages, among which Manfuha is
scarcely inferior in size to Riid itself. Still farther to the south-
east lies the district of Haifk, with its capital Hauta, the last
in that direction of the settled districts of Nejd, and on the
borders of the southern desert.
Palgrave visited £1 Kharfa the chief place of the Aflaj district
some 80 m. S.W. of Rlld. This district seems to be scantily
pebpled as compared with Suder or Ycmftma, and a large propor-
tion of the inhabitants are of mixed negro origin. While there,
he made inquiries about the adjoining district of W. DawSsir.
Its length was stated to be ten days' journey or 200 m.; scattered
villages consisting of palm-lcaf huts lie along the way, which
leads in a south or south-westerly direction to the highlands of
Asir and Yemen.
The Bedouin who occupy the remainder of Nejd consist in
the main of the four great tribes of the Shammar, Harb, 'Ateba
and Muter. The first-named represent that part of the great
Shammar tribe which has remained in its ancestral home on
the southern edge of the Nafud (the northern branch long ago
emigrated to Mesopotamia); many of its members have settled
down to town life, but the tribe still retains its Bedouin character,
and its late chief, the emir Mahommed Ibn Rashid, the mosi
powerful prince in Nejd, used to live a great part of the year in the
desert with his tribesmen. The Harb are probably the largest of
the Bedouin tribes in the peninsula; they are divided into a
number of sections, several of which have settled In the oases
of HejSz, while others remain nomadic. Their territory is the
steppe between Kasim and Medina, and across the pilgrim road
between Medina and Mv.'cca, for the protection of which they
receive considerable subsidies from the Turks. The *Atcba
circuits extend from the Hcjaz border near Mecca along the road
leading thence to Kasim. The Muter occupy the desert from
Kasim northwards towards Kuwet.
Nejd became nominally a dependency of the Turkish empire
in 187X when Midhat Pasha established a small garrison in £1
Hasa, and created a new dvil district under the government
of Basra, under the title of Nejd, with headquarters at Hofuf
Its real Independence was not, however, affected, and the cmin.
352
Mahommed Ibn Rashid at Hail, and Abdallah Ibn Sa*ud at
Riid, ruled in western and eastern Nejd respectively, until 1S92,
when the former by his victory at *Aniza became emir of all
Nejd. His successor, Abdul Aziz Ibn Rashid, was, however,
unable to maintain his position, and in spite of Turkish support,
sustained a severe defeat in 1905 at the hands of Ibn Sa'ud
which for the time, at any rate, restored the supremacy to Riild.
No data exist for an accurate estimate of the population;
it probably exceeds x, 000,000, of which two-thirds may be
settled, and one-third nomad or Bedouin. Palgrave in 1863,
perhaps unduly exaggerating the importance of the town
population, placed it at nearly double this figure.
The revenue of the emir Mahommed Ibn Rashid of Hail, who
died in I897, was estimated by Blunt in 1879 at £80,000, and his
expenditure at little more than half that amount. Nolde who
visited Hail in 1893 after the emir's conquest of the Wahhabi
state, believed that his surplus income then amounted to £60,000
a year, and his accumulated treasure to £1,500.000.
Authorities.— W. G. Palgrave. Ctntral and Eastern Arabia
(London, 1865); Lady Anne Blunt. Pitf(rimaee to Nejd (London,
1881): C. M . Doaghty, Arabia Deserta (Cambridge, 188^}: C. Hubcr,
Journal d'un vcyait en Arabia (Paris, 1891): j. Eutmg. Reise in
inner Arabien (Leyden, 1896); E. Nolde. Retse nack inner Arahien
(Brunswick. 1895). (R- A. W.)
NBJEP. or Meshed *Au, a town of Asiatic Turkey, in the
pashalik of Bagdad, 50 m. S. of Rerbcla and 5 or 6 m. W. of
the ruins of andent Kufa, out of the bricks of which it is chiefly
built. It stands on the eastern edge of the Syrian desert, on
the north-eastern shore of a deep depression, formerly a sea,
the AssyriuM Stagnum of the old geographers, but in ktter years
drained and turned into gardens for the town. It is a fairly
prosperous dty, supplied with admirable water by an under-
ground aqueduct from the Hindieh canal, a few miles to the
north, which also serves to water the gardens in the deep dry
bed of the former lake. The town is endosed by nearly square
brick walls, flanked by massive round towers, dating from the
time of the caliphs, but now falling into decay. Outside the
walls, over the sterile sand plateau, stretch great fields of tombs
and graves; for Nejef is so holy that he who is buried here will
surely enter paradise. In the centre of the town stands Meshed
(strictly Meshhed) *Ali, the shrine of *Ali, containing the reputed
tomb of that caliph, which is regarded by the Shi'ite Moslems
as being no less holy than the Ka'ba itself, although it should
be said that it is at least very doubtful whether *Ali was actually
buried there. 'The dome of the shrine is plated with gold, and
within the walls and roof are covered with polished silver,
glass and coloured tiles. The resting-pbce of *AU is represented
by a silver tomb with wmdows grated with silver bars and a
door with a great silver lock. Inside this is a smaller tomb of
damascened ironwork. In the court before the dome rise two
minarets, plated, like (he dome, with finely beaten gold from
the hdght of a man and upward. While the population of
Nejef is estimated at from 30,000 to 30,000, there is in addition
a very large floating population of pilgrims, who are constantly
arriving, bringing corpses in all stages of decomposition and
accompanied at tLnes by sick and aged persons, who have come
to Nejef to die. At special seasons the number of pilgrims exceeds
many times the population of the town. Nejef is also the point
of departure from which Persian pilgrims surt on the journey
to Mecca. No Jews or Christians are allowed to reside
there. The accumulated treasures of Meshed *Ali were
carried off by the Wfthhftbites early in the X9th century, and in
1843 the town was deprived of many of its former liberties and
compelled to submit to Turkish law; but It is again enormously
wealthy, for what is given to the shrine may never be told or used
for any outside puxpose, but constantly accumulates. Moreover,
the hierarchy derives a vast revenue from the fees for burials
in the sacred limits.
See W. K. Loftus, Chaidaea and Susiana (1857): J. P. Peters.
JVf^>ifr (1897); B. Meiasttcr. Hirau Hmmaq (1901). (J. P. Pb.)
NELBUS. in Greek legend, son of Pbsddon and Tyro, brother of
PeUas. The two children were exposed by thdr mother, who
tfterwards married Cretheus, king of lolcui in Thessaly. After
NEJEF— NELSON
the death of Cretheus, the boys, who had been brought up
by herdsmen, quarrelled for the possession of lolcus. Pdias
expelled Ndeus, who migrated to Messenia, where he became
king of Pylos (ApoUodorus i. 9; Diod. Sic iv. 68) and the
ancestor of a royal family called the Ndddae, who are historically
traceable as the old ruling family in some of the Ionic states
in Asia Minor. Their presence is explained by the legend that,
when the Dorians conquered Pdoponnesus, the Ndddae were
driven out and took refuge in Attica, whence they led colonies
to the eastern shores of the Aegean. By Chloris, daughter of
Amphion, Ndeus was the father of twdve sons (of whom Nestor
was the most famous) and a daughter Pero. Through the contest
for hu daughter's hand (see Melampus) he is connected with the
legends of tJie prophetic race of the Melampodidae, who fotmded
the mysteries and expfatoiy rites and the orgies of Dionysus in
Argolis. According to Pausanias (ii. 3. 3, v. 8. 2) Ndeus restored
the Olympian games and died at Corinth, where he was buried
on the isthmus.
NELLORB, a town and distria of India, in the Madras pre>
sidency. The town is or the right bank of the Pennar river, and
has a station on the East Coast railway, 109 m. N. of Madras
city. Pop. (1901) 33,040. There are United Free Church,
American Baptist and Catholic missions.
The District or Nellore has an area of 8761 sq. m. It
comprises a tract of low-lying land extending from the base of
the Eastern GhftU to the sea. Its general aspect is forbidding:
the coast-line b a fringe of blown sand through which the waves
occasionally break, spreading a salt sterility over the fidds.
Farther inland the countiy begins to rise, but the soil is not
naturally fertile, nor are means of irrigation readily at hand.
About one-half of the total area is cultivated; the rest is dtber
rocky waste or is covered with low scrub jungle. The chief
rivers are the Pennar, Suvamamukhi and Gundlakamma.
They are not navigable, but are utilized for irrigation purposes,
the chief irrigation work being the anient across the Pennar.
Nellore, however, is subject both to droughts and to floods.
Copper was discovered in the western hills in i8or, but several
attempts by European capitalists to work the ore proved unre-
munetative, and the enterprise has been abandoned since 1840.
Iron ore is smdtcd by indigenous methods in many places,
but the most important mining industry is that of mica. Salt
is largely manufactured along the sea-coast. Nellore, with the
other districts of the Camatic, passed under direct British
administration in 1 801. The population in r90i was 1.496,987
showing an increase of 3*3% in the decade. In 1904 a portion
of the district was transferred to the newly formed district of
Guntur, reducing the remaining area to 7965 sq. m., with a
population of 1,273,815. The prindpal crops are millets, rice,
other foqd grains, indigo and oil-seeds. The breed of cattle is
celebrated. The East Coast railway, running through the
length of the district, was opened throu^out for traffic in 1899.
The section from Nellore town to Gudur, formerly on the metre
gauge, has been converted to the standard gauge. Previously
the chief means of communication with Madras was by the
Buckingham canaL The sea-borne trade is insignificant.
NELSON. HORATIO NELSON. Viscount (1758-1805), duke
of Bronte in Sicily, British naval hero, was bom at the panooage
house of Bumham Thorpe, in Norfolk, on the 39th of September
1758. His father, Edmund Nelson (1733-1802), ^rho came ol a
derical family, was rector of the parish. His mother, whose
maiden name was Catherine Suckling (1735-1767), wasa grand-
niece of Sir Robert Walpole ( i st earl of Orf ord). This oonnezioB
proved of little or no value to the future admiral, iHk>, in a
letter to his brother, the Rev. William Nelson, written in 1784,
speaks of the Walpoles as "the merest set of cyphers that ever
existed— in public affairs I mean." His introduction to the
navy came from his maternal unde, Captain Maurice Suckling
(1735-1778), an officer of some reputation who at his death held
the important post of comptroller of the navy. Horatio, vho
had recdved a summary, and broken, education at Norwich,
Downham and North Walsham, was entered on the " Raisonable '*
when Captain Suckling was appointed to her in 1 770 on an alarm
NELSON
353
of mr with Spain. The dispute was settled, and Captain Suckling
was transferred to the " Triumph," the guardship at Chatham,
whither he took his nephew. In order that the lad might have
more practice than could be obtained on a harbour ship, his
unde sent him to the West Indies in a merchant vessel, and on
his return gave him constant employment in boat work on the
river. In a brief sketch of his life, which he drew up in 1799,
Ndson says that in this way he became a good pilot for small
vessels ** from Chatham to the Tower of London, down the Swin,
and the North Foreland; and confident of myself among rocks
and sands, which has many times since been of great comfort
to me.'* Between April and October of 1772 he served with
Captain Lutwidge in the " Carcass," one of the vessels which
vent on a not otherwise notable voyage to the Arctic seas
vfith Captain Phipps, better known by his Irish title of Baron
Mttlgrave. On his return from the north he was sent to the
East Indies in the " Seahorse," in which vessel he made the
acquaintance of his lifelong friend Thomas Troubridge. At
the end of two years he was invalided home. In after times
he spoke of the depression under which he kboured during the
return voyage, till " after a long and gloomy reverie, in which
I almost wished myself overboard, a sudden g^ow of patrotism
was kindled within me, and presented my king and my coimtry
as my patron. My mind exulted in the idea. 'Well then,'
I exdaimed, *I will be a hero, and, confiding in Providence, I
win brave every danger.' " He spoke to friends of the " radiant
orb" whkh from that hour hung ever before him, and "urged
him onward to renown." On his return home he served during
a short cruise in the " Worcester " frigate, passed his examination
as lieutenant on the 9th April 1777, and was confirmed in the
rank next day. He went to the West Indies with Captain Locker
in the " Lowestoft " frigate, was transferred to the flagship by
the admiral commanding on the station. Sir Peter Parker (1721-
181 1), and was then by him promoted in rapid succession to the
command of the "Badger" brig, and the " Hinchinbrook "
frigate. By this appointment, which he received in 1779, he
«as placed in the rank of post captain (from which promotion
to flag rank was by seniority), at the very early age of twenty.
His connexion with Captain Suckling may, no doubt, have been
of use to him, but in the main he owed his rapid rise to his power
of winning the affection of all those he met, whether as comrades
or superiors. Sir Peter Parker and Lady Parker remained
his friends all through his life. In 1780 he saw his first active
service in an expedition to San Juan de Nicaragua, which was
readered deadly by the climate. He was brought to death's
door by fever, and invalided home once more. In 1781 he was
appointed to the '*Albemarle" frigate, and after some convoy
service in the North Sea and the Sound was sent to Newfoundland
and tbenoe to the North American station. " Fair Canada,"
as he has recorded in one of his letters, gave him the good health
he had so far never enjoyed. At Quebec he formed one of those
passionate attachments to women which marked his career.
He now made the personal acquaintance of Sir Samuel Hood,
Lord Hood. In the autobiographical sketch already quoted he
mentions the high opinion formed of him by the admiral who
presented him to Prioce William, Hluke of Carence, afterwards
King Wmiam IV., as an officer well qualified to instruct him
in "naval tactics," by which we must perhaps understand
seamanship. Prince William has left a brief but singularly vivid
account of their first meeting. He appeared, says the Prince,
"to be the merest boy of a captain I ever beheld; and his dress
was worthy of attention. He had on a full-Iaccd uniform; his
lank unpowdered hair was tied in a stiff Hessian tail of an extra-
ordinaiy length; the old-fashioned flaps of his waistcoat added
to the general quaintness of his figure, and produced an appear-
ance wlric^ particulariy attracted my notice; for I had never
seen anything like it before, nor could I imagine who he was or
what he came about. My doubts were, however, removed when
Lord Hood introduced me to him. There was something
^ntaaiStify pleasing in his address and conversation; and an
enthusiasm, when speaking on professional subjects, that showed
be was DO common being." The slight oddity of appearance,
the power to arouse affection, and the glow indicating the
fire within, are noted by all who ever looked Nelson in the
face.
In March 1783, at the very end of the American War, he saw
his second piece of active service. He was repulsed in an attempt
to retake Turk's Island from the French. The peace gave him
leisure to pay a visit to France, for which country and all its
ways he entertained a dislike and contempt characteristic of
his time. In France he formed another attachment, and went
so far as to apply to a maternal unde for an allowance to eke
out his half-pay. It came to nothing, presumably by refusal
on the lady's part And now when the navy was cut down to
the guick on the peace establishment, and the vast majority of
naval officers were condenmed to idleness on shore, he had the
extraordinary good fortune to be appointed to the command
of the "Boreas" frigate, for service in the West Indies. Nelson
found in this commission an opportimity for the display of his
readiness to assume responsibih'ty. He signalized his arrival
in the West Indies by refusing to obey an order of the admiral
which required him to acknowledge a half-pay officer acting as
commissioner of the dockyard at Antigua as his superior. He
insisted on enforcing the Navigation Laws against the Americans,
vho by becoming independent had become foreigners. He called
the attentiofi of the government to the corruption prevailing in
the dockyard of Antigua. His line was in all cases correct, but
it impressed the admiralty as somewhat assuming, and his strong
measures against the interloping trade brought on him many
lawsuits, which, though he was defended at the expense of the
government, caused him much trouble for years. In the West
Indies on the lath of March 2787 he married Frances Nisbet
(i76r-x83z),the widow of a doctor in Nevis, whose favour he first
gained by being fotmd romping on all fours with her little boy
under the drawing-room table. The marriage was one of affection
and prudence, rather than of love.
Though Kdson had as yet seen little active service, and that
little had not been specially distinguished, he had already gained
that reputation within his own service which commonly precedes
public recognition. His character had been fully developed,
and his capacity proved. His horizon was narrow, being strictly
confined to his profession. He had all the convictions of the
typical John Bull of his generation. The loyalty of a devoted
subject* was strong in him. He burned to win affection, admira-
tion, distinction. He was a man to do whatever there was to be
done to the utmost. A more magnificent instrument for use in
the great Revolutionary struggle now dose at hand could not
have been forged.
War having broken out, he was appointed captain of the
"Agamemnon" (64) on the 30th of November 1793, and joined
his a^ip on the 7th of February. From this date till June 1800,
rather more than seven years, he was engaged on continual
active service, with the exception of a few months when he was
invalided home. This period is the most varied, the busiest,
the most glorious and the most debated of a very full career.
It subdivides naturally into three sections; (i) From the date of
his appointment as captain of the "Agamemnon" till he was
disabled by the loss of his arm in the unsuccessful attack on
Santa Cruz de Tenerife on the 24th of July 1797 he served as
captain, or commodore, under Hood, Hotham and Jervis,
successive commanders-in-chief in the Mediterranean. (2) After
an interval of nine months spent at home in recovering from his
wound, and from the effects of a badly performed operation,
he returned to the Mediterranean, and was at once sent in pursuit
of the great French armament which sailed from Toulon under
t he command of Napoleon for the conquest of Egypt. His victory
of the Nile on the xst of August 2798 placed him at once in the
foremost rank among the warriors of a warlike time, and mads
him a national hero. With his return to Naples on the 22nd of
September the second period ends. (3) From now till he landed
at Leghorn on the 26th of July 2800, on his return home aaoss
Europe, he was entangled at Naples in political transactions
and intrigues, which he was ill prepared to deal with dther by
nature or training, and was plunged into the absorbing ]
354
NELSON
which did increase his poptilarity with the mob, but cost him
many friends.
The first of these three passages in his life is full of events
which must, however, be told briefly. In May he sailed for the
Mediterranean with Hood, and was engaged under his orders
in the occupation of Toulon by the allied British and Spanish
forces. In August 1793 he was despatched to Naples to convoy
the troops which the Neapolitan government had undertaken
to contribute towards the garrison of Toulon. It was on this
occasion that he made the acquaintance of Emma Hamilton
(9.0.), the wife of Sir William Hamilton, minister at the Court of
Naples. References to Lady Hamilton begin to appear in his
letters to his wife, but, as might be expected, they indicate
little beyond respectful admiration, and he makes a good deal
of her kindness to his stepson, Josiah Nisbet, whom he had taken
to sea. Young Nisbet was afterwards promoted to post captain,
and was put in command of a frigate at an improperly early
age by Nelson's interest. He proved quite unworthy, and in the
end died mad. After the allies had been driven from Toulon
by Napoleon, Nelson was employed throughout 1794 in the
operations connected with the occupation of Corsica. In April
and May he was engaged in the capture of Bastia, and June and
July in the taking of Calvi. Both towns really surrendered from
want of stores, but the naval brigades under Nelson's personal
direction were conspicuously active, and their energy was
favourably contrasted with the alleged formality of the troops.
During the operations at Calvi, Nelson's right eye was
destroyed by gravel driven into it by a cannon shot which
struck the ground close to him. From the date of the occupation
of Corsica till the island was evacuated, that is to say, from the
end of 1794 till the middle of 1796, he was incessantly active.
He served under Hotham, who undertook the command when
Hood returned to England, and was engaged in the indecisive
actions fought by him in the Gulf of Lyons in March and July
1795. The easy-going ways of the new admiral fretted the eager
spirit of Nelson, and Hotham's placid satisfaction with the
trifling result of his encounters with the French provoked his
subordinate into declaring that, for his part, he would never
think that the British fleet had done very well if a single ship
of the enemy got off while there was a possibility of taking her.
His zeal found more satisfaction when he was detached to the
Riviera of Genoa, where, first as captain, and then as commodore,
he had an opportunity to prove his qualities for independent
command by harassing the communications of the French,
and co-operating with the Austrians. In Sir John Jervis, who
superseded Hotham, he found a leader after his own heart.
When Spain, after first making peace with France at Basel,
declared war on England, and the fleet under Jervis withdrew
from the Mediterranean, Nelson was despatched to Elba on a
hazardous mission to bring off the small garrison and the naval
stores. He sailed in the "Minerve" frigate, having another
with him. After a smart action with two Spanish frigates which
he took off Carthagena on the 20th of December, and a narrow
escape from a squadron of Spanish line of battle ships, he ful-
filled his mission, and rejoined the flag of Jervis on the eve of the
great battle off Cape St Vincent on the 14th of February 1797
(see St Vincent, Battle of). The judgment, independence
and promptitude he showed in this famous engagement, were
rewarded by the conspicuous part he had in the victory, and
revealed him to the nation as one of the heroes of the navy.
Nelson receiving the swords of the Spanish ofiicers on the deck
of the " San Josef " became at once a popular figure.
A few days after the victory he became rear-admiral by
seniority, but continued with Jervis, who was made a peer under
the title of Earl St Vincent. Nelson's own services were recog-
nized by the grant of the knighthood of the Bath. During the
trying months in which the fleet was menaced by the sedition
then rife in the navy, which came to a head in the mutinies at
Spithead and the Nore, he remained with the flag, and in the
blockade of Cadiz. In July 1797 he was sent on a desperate
mission to Santa Cruz de Tenerife. It was believed that a
Spanish Manilla ship carrying treasure had anchored at that
place, and Lord St Vincent was desirous of depriving the enemy
of this resource. The enterprise was, in fact, rash in the last
degree, for the soldiers from the garrisons of Elba and Corsica
having gone home, no troops were available for the service, and
a fortified town was to be taken by man-of-war boats done.
Nelson's well-established character for daring marked him out
for a duty which could only succeed by dash and surprise, if it
was to succeed at all. But the Spaniards were on the alert,
and the attack, made with the utmost daring on the night of the
24th of July, was repulsed with heavy loss. Some of the boats
missed the mole in the dark and were stove in by the suri, others
which found the mole were shattered by the fire of the Spaniards.
Nelson's right elbow was shot through, and he fell back into the
boat from which he was directing the attack. The amputation
of his arm was badly performed in the hurry and the dark.
He was invalided home, and spent months of extreme pain in
London and at Bath. On the xoth of April 1798 he came back
to the fleet off Cadiz as rear-admiral, with his flag in the " Van-
guard •• (74).
He was now one of the most distinguished officers in the navy.
Within the next six months he was to raise himself far above
the heads of all his contemporaries. It was notorious that a great
armament was preparing at Toulon for some unknown destina-
tion. To discover its purpose, and to defeat it, the British
government resolved to send their naval forces again into the
Mediterranean, and Nelson was chosen for the command by
Jervis, with whom the immediate decision lay, but also by
ministers.
Having joined the flag of Lord St Vincent outside of the
straits of Gibraltar on the 30th of April, Nelson was detached
on the 2nd of May into the Mediterranean, with three line-of-
battle ships and five frigates, to discover the aim of the Toulon
armament. Napoleon had, however, enforced rigid secrecy, and
the British admiral had to confess that the French were better
than the British at concealing their plans. Beyond the fact that
a powerful combined force was collected in the French port he
could learn nothing. On the 20th of May the " Vanguard *' was
dismasted in a gale. Nelson bore the chedc in a highly cfaaraaer-
istic manner. "I ought not," he wrote, "to call what has
happened by the cold name of accident; but I believe firmly
that it was the Almighty's goodness to check my consummate
vanity." The " Vanguard " was saved from going on shore by
the seaman-like skill of Captain Ball of the "Alexander," against
whom Nelson had hitherto had a prejudice, but for whom
he had henceforth a peculiar regard. The *' Vanguard *' was
refitted by the exertions of her own crew under cover of the little
island of San Pietri on the southern coast of Sardinia. In the
meantime the frigates attached to his command had returned
to Gibraltar, in the erroneous belief that the liners would be
taken there to make good the damage suffered in the gale. " I
thought Hope would have known me better," said Nelson.
On the 30th of April he was off Toulon again, only to find that
the French were gone, and that he could not learn whither tbcy
were steering. Racked by anxiety and deprived of his best
means of obuining information by the disappearance of bis
frigates, he remain^ cruising till he was joined, on the 7th of
June, by Troubridge with ten sail of the line. And now be started
on his fierce pursuit of the enemy, seeking him in the dark, for
there were no scouts at hand; exasperated at being left without
the eyes of his fleet; half maddened at the thou^t he might,
by no fault of his own, miss the renown towards which his pro-
phetic imagination had seemed to guide him; knowing that St
Vincent would be blamed for choosing so young an admiral;
but resolved to follow the enemy to the antipodes if necessary.
From the coast of Sardinia to Naples, from Naples to Messina,
from Messina to Alexandria, from Alexandria, where be found
the roadstead empty, back to Sicily, and then when at last a
ray of light came to him, back to Alexandria— he swept the central
and eastern Mediterranean. At no time in his life were
the noble qualities of his nature displayed more entirely free
from all alloy. He was an embodied flame of resolution, and as
yet he showed no sign of the vulgar bluster which was to appear
NELSON
355
later. In the midst of bit tiudetics hit kindness of heart shone
forth withoat a trace of the tendency of sentimental gush so
irritatinsly obvious in after days. Unlike most admirals of his
time, be did not live apart from his captains, but saw much of
them, and freely discuiBed his plans with them. He had his
reward in their devotion and perfect comprehension of what
he wished them to do. At the same time he acquired an absolute
confidence in the efficiency of his squadron, the magnificent
force vhich had been formed by years of successful war, and by
the careful training of his predecessors. The captains were the
band of brothers he himself had made them.
The great victory of the xst of August -1798 (see Nile, Battle
of) brought Nelson yet another wound. He was struck on the
forehead by a langridge shot, and had for a time to go below.
It is perhaps to be lamented in the interest of his fame that the
wound was not severe enough to compel him to return home.
After providing for the blockade of what remained of the French
fieet in Alexandria, he sailed for Naples, and arrived there on the
22nd of September. There was no rear-admiral of any standing
in the navy who could not have done what remained to be done
in the Mediterranean, under the supervision of St Vincent, as
well as he. For him Naples was a pitfall. There awaited him
there precisely the influences to folly which he was least able to
resist. He loved being loved, and was the man to think the gift
a debt. He had an insatiable appetite for praise. With those
weakneases of character which caused Lord Minto, who yet
never ceased to regard him with sincere friendship, to say that
he was In some respects a *' baby," he was disarmed in the
presence of the two women who now made a determined attempt
to capture him. Emma HamOton, who could not help endeavour-
ing to conquer every man she met, was naturally eager to
dominate one who had filled Europe with his fame. Behind
Eouna was the queen of Naples, Maria Carolina, a woman who
bad a share of the ability of her mother Maria Theresa without
any of her fine moral qualities. Maria Carolina was all her life
trying to fight the power of revolutionary France, with no better
resources than were afforded her by the insignificant kingdom
of Naples, and a husband who was the embodiment of all the
faults of the Italian Bourbons. She had made use of the English
minister's wife as an instrument of political intrigue, and now
she employed her to manage Nelson. We have the repeated
aaMrtkns of Nelson himsetf in all his ample correspondence
from September 1798 to July of 1800, and indeed later, to prove
that be was, in his own tell-tale phrase, persuaded to "Sicilyfy"
his CDOtdcnce — In other words to turn his squadron into an
instrument for the ambition, the revenge and the fears of Maria
Carolina, the " Dear Queen " of his letters to Emma Hamilton.
It is highly probable that he was secretly influenced by annoyance
at the pedantry of the British government, which only gave him
a banmy for the splendid victory of the Nile, on the ridioilous
ground that no higher title could be given to an officer who was
not a commander-in-chief. All doubt as to the character of
his fdations with Lady Hamilton has been laid at rest by the
Morrison papers. None ought ever to have existed, for, if Nelson
did not love this woman in the fullest possible sense of the word,
his conduct would be inexplicable on any other hypothesis than
that be was an imbecile. He allowed her to waste his money,
to lead him about " like a bear," and to drag him into gambling,
which he naturally hated. For her sake he offended old friends,
and quarrelled with his wife in circumstances of vulgar brutality.
That he believed she had borne him a child can no longer be
dopoted, and he carried on with her a correspondence under the
name of Thompson which was apparently meant to deceive
her husband, but is varied by grotesque explosions which destroy
the masion, such as it was.
In the hands of these two women, and in the intoxication
produced on him by flattery, which could not be too copious
or gross for bis taste. Nelson speedily became a Neapolitan
royalist of far greater sincerity than was to be found among the
k^g's subjects except in the ranks of the Lazzaroni. He
gratified the headlong queen by egging her torpid husband into
on exceedingly foolish attack on the French garrisons then
occupying the ao-caDcd Roman republic. The collapse of the
Neapolitan forces was instant and ignominious. The* court
fled to Palermo m December, under the protection of the British
squadron. At Palermo Nelson remained directing the operations
of the ships engaged in btockading Malta, then held by the
garrison placed in it by Napoleon when he took it on his way
to Egypt, and sinking continually deeper into his slavery to
Lady Hamilton, till the spring of the following year. He was
then aroused by a double call. A royalist army led by the
king's vicar-general, Fabrizio Ruffo (7.V.), had succeeded in
recovering the greater part of the kingdom of Naples from the
government set up by the French, and called, in the pedantic
style of the revolutionary epoch, the Parthcnopean republic.
A French fleet commanded by Admiral Bruix entered the
Mediterranean. News of the appearance of Bruix reached
Nelson just as he was about to sail for Naples with the heir
apparent to co-operate with Ruffo and his ** Christian Army."
He immediately took steps to concentrate his ships, which had
been reinforced by a small Portuguese squadron, at Maritlimo
on the western coast of Sicily, where he would be conveniently
placed to meet the French, if they came, or to unite with the
ships of Lord St Vincent. He was, however, half distraught
between his sense of what was required 'by bis duty to his own
service and the obligations he had assumed towards the sove-
reigns of Naples. In the end he resolved to sail for Naples, this
time without the crown prince, in order to cany out a mission
entrusted to him by the king.
The story of Nelison's visit to Naples In the June of 1799 will
probably remain a subject for perpetual discussion. His reputa-
tion for humanity and probity is considered to depend on the
view we take of his actions there and at this period. It is true
that the relative importance of these episodes has been much
diminished by the publication of the Morrison Papers, and
that it has at all times been exaggerated. From the Morrison
Papers we know that, when his passions were concerned, he
was not incapable of stratagems to deceive his old friend Sir
William Hamilton. It is the less incredible that he should have
been willing to use deceit against persons whom he hated so
fiercely as he did the Neapolitan Jacobins, In his double quality
of English Tory and Neapolitan Royalist. But apart from his
laxijy in the course of a double adultery, his letters, written to
many different people during his stay on the coasts of Naples,
contain more than sufficient evidence to show that he was utterly
unhinged by excitement, and was unable to estimate the ml
character of many of his own words and deeds. He considered
himself as owing an equal allegiance to Ferdinand of Naples
and to his own sovereign. His feelings towards the Jacobin
subjects of his Italian king are expressed in terms which bear
a remarkable likeness to the rhetoric of the Jacobins of France
when they were most vigorously engaged in ridding their country
of aristocrats. To Troubridge he writes: "Send me word
some proper heads are taken off, this alone will comfort me."
To St Vincent he reports that ** Our friend Troubridge had a
present made him the other day of the head of a Jacobin, and
makes an apology to me, the weather being very hot, for not
sending it here." Some allowance may be made for a rude taste
in jocularity, but It is impossible to mistake the scream of fury
in Nelson's letters, imitated from the style of Lady Hamilton,
who in these things was the sycophant of the queen. A man
who allowed his thoughts to dwell in an atmosphere of hysterical
ferocity, and was above all a man of action, was well on the way
to interpret his words into deeds. It was while he was in this
heated state that he was sent to preside over the fall of the
Parthenopean republic at the end of June 1799.
King Ferdinand bad not been unwilling to offer terms to
those of his subjects who had joined with the French to establish
the republic, so long as he was under the influence of fear.
But when the French had been defeated in northern Italy
and had left the Republicans to their own resources, he became
more anxious to make an example. In the early parts of June
he heard that Ruffo was inclined to clemency, and grew very
eager to prevent any such mistake No more effectual way of
356
NELSON
enforcing rigour could be imagined than to put the control
of events entirely in the bands of Nelson, whose sentiments were
well known, who was notoriously under the influence of Emma
Hamilton, that is to say, of the queen, and who, as a stranger,
would have no family or social attachments with the republicans,
no changes of fortune nor future revenges to fear. That he asked
Nelson to go to Naples, giving him large powers, may be con-
sidered certain. A commission in the fuU sense he could not
give without the consent of the king of Great Britain, and that
was not even asked for. But Nelson had general instructions
from home to support the Neapolitan government, and though
this only meant, and could only mean, as an ally and against the
common enemy, he understood it in a much wider sense, while
he considered himself as being bound to Ferdinand in the relation
of subject to sovereign by the grant of the duchy of Bronl6 in
Sicily, which he had just received. He therefore sailed to
Naples resolved to act in the double capacity of English and
Neapolitan admiral, of English opponent of the Jacobins,
and of Neapolitan royalist. The general catise of Europe and
the particular revenge of the king and queen were of equal
importance to him. When he entered the Bay of Naples on the
24th of June he found that a capitulation had been agreed upon
some thirty-six hours earlier,, between Ruffo, acting as vicar-
general, with the consent of Captain Foote (i 767-1833) of the
*' Seahorse," the senior British naval officer present, on the
one side, and the Neapolitan republicans on the other. The
republicans had been reduced to the possession of the castles of
Uovo and Nuovo, and had been glad to secure terms which
allowed them to go into exile in France. Nelson denounced an
arrangement which would have precluded all cutting off of
heads as " infamous." He ordered the white flag to be hauled
down on the '* Seahorse," and told Ruffo that he would not
allow the capitulation to be carried out. The same warning
was given to the republicans in the forts. There is a question
whether the capitulation had been in part already carried into
effect. Sir William Hamilton, who, together with his wife, had
accompanied Nelson from Palermo, asserts that it had, in an
official despatch to Lord Grenville dated on the 14th July.
But this letter, written only a fortnight after the transaction,
contains many inaccuracies, and can be held to prove only that
Hamilton would have seen nothing discreditable in violating
a capitulation, or that he was in his dotage, and did not know
what he was doing. Ruffo refused to be a party to a breach of
faith. On the afternoon of the 25th he had an interview with
Nelson on board the flagship the "Foudroyant," which was con-
ducted through the Hamiltons and was of a very heated character.
Next morning, as Ruffo showed a determination to stand aside
and throw on Nelson the responsibility of provoking a renewal
of hostilities, messages were sent to him both by the admiral
and by Hamilton that there would be no interference with the
"armistice." This assurance put a stop to the dispute between
them. The republicans came out of the forts and were trans-
ferred to feluccas under the guard of British marines, where they
were kept till the king's pleasure was known. As a matter of
course it was that they should be mostly hanged or shot. Whether
Nelson meant to deceive Ruffo into thinking that he had accepted
the capitulation when he named the armistice,— whether the
vicar-general was deceived, and then misled the garrisons in good
faith— or whether he knew perfectly well that the capitulation
was not included, and took the opportunity afforded him by
these two English gentlemen to deceive his own countrymen,
are points much discussed. The republicans in the forts did claim
that they were covered by the capitulation, and that it had been
violated. It is difficult to see in what way the service of King
George was forwarded by Nelson's zeal for King Ferdinand.
Such discredit as fell on him would have been avoided if he had
kept to his duty as British admiral, and had not thought it
incumbent on him to prove himself a good Neapolitan royalist.
On the 29th of June Francesco Caracciolo (9.7.), a Neapolitan
naval officer who had joined the republicans, was brought to
Nelson as a prisoner. Out of his desire to make an example
of a proper bead, and in the full knowledge that Caracciolo's
death would be pleasing to the queen, Nelson, in virtue, seemin^y,
of his supposed commission as Neapolitan admiral (which he
did not possess), ordered a court martial of Italian officers to sit,
on an English ship, to try the prisoner. The court could only
find him guilty, and Caracciolo was hanged. The sentence was
just, but the procedure was indecent, and Nelson's intervention
cannot be justified.
At this period of his life it is indeed difficult to represent
Nelson's actions in a favourable light. In July he disobeyed the
order of Lord Keith to send some of his ships to Minorca, on
the ground that they were needed for the defence of Naples.
The influence of the queen, exercised through Emma Hamilton
was partly responsible for his wilfulness, but a great deal must
be put down to his annoyance at finding that Keith, and iiot he
himself, was to succeed St Vincent as commander-in-chief in
the Mediterranean. After the victory of the Nile he became,
in fact, incapable of acting as a subordinate. Until he left for
home in June 1800, except during the short interval when be
acted as commander-in-chief in the absence of Keith, he was
captious, querulous and avoided leaving Palermo as much as be
could, and far more than he ought. When forced out he made
his health an excuse for going back. He began a quarrel with
Troubridge which ripened into complete estrangement. He
wearied out his friends at the Admiralty, and finally extorted
leave to return. As Keith would not allow him to take a h'ne
of battleship for his journey home with the Hamiltons, and
indeed said plainly that Lady Hamilton had commanded the
Mediterranean station long enough, he returned across Europe
with his friends. Accounts of the figure they cut, and the
sensation they created at Vienna and at Dresden, can be found
in the Minto correspondence, and in the reminiscences of Mrs
St George, afterwards Mrs Trench (1768-1827). He reached
home in November.
In England he was received with the utmost popular en-
thusiasm, but with coldness by the king, the Admiralty, and by
the great official and social world. His erratic and self-willed
conduct towards Lord Keith sufficiently explains the distrust
shown by My Lords of the Admiralty. Their uneasiness was not
diminished by their knowledge that his renown made it quite
impossible to lay him aside at a crisis. The king, a man of strict
domestic habits and strong religious convictions, was un-
doubtedly offended by the scandals of Nelson's life at Naples, and
hi- cannot but have been displeased by the admiral's openly
avowed readiness to devote himself to King Ferdinand. En^ish
society as represented by the First Lord, Lord Spencer, and his
wife, may not have shared the moral indignation of the pious
king; but their taste was offended, and so was their self-respect,
when Nelson insisted on forcing Lady Hamilton on them, and
would go nowhere where she was not received. When it was
discovered that he insisted on making his wife live in the same
house as his mistress, he was considered to have infringed the
accepted standard of good manners. After enduring insult at
once cruel and cowardly, to the verge of poorness of spirit.
Lady Nelson rebelled. A complete separation took place, and
husband and wife never met again.
On the 1st of January 1801 Nelson became vice-admiral by
seniority. The alliance of the Northern powers of which the Tsar
Paul was the inspiring spirit, made it necessary for the British
government to take vigorous measures in its own defence. A
fleet had to be sent on a very difficult and dangerous mission
to the Baltic. The Admiralty would have been unpardonable,
and would not have been excused by public opinion if, when it
had at its disposal such an admirable weapon as the conqueror
of the Nile, it had failed to employ him. Nelson was chosen to
go as a matter of course, but unfortunately, it was thought proper
to put him under the command of Sir Hyde Parker (g.v.) an
officer of no experience, and, as the Admiralty ought to bavr
known, of commonplace, not to say indolent, character. Nclsoo
bore the subordination with many bitter complaints, but on the
whole with patience and tact. Sir Hyde Parker began by
keeping his formidable second in command at arm's length,
but Nelson handled him with considerable diplomacy. Knowing
NELSON
357
his superior to be fond of good living he caused a turbot to be
caught for him on the Do^r Bank, and sent it to him with
a complimentary message. Sir Hyde was not insensible to the
attention, and thawed notably. We have the good fortune to
possess the notes taken during the campaign by Colonel Stewart
(1774-1837), a military officer who did duty with Nelson as a
marine. Colonel Stewart has put on record many stories of
Nelson which have a high biographical value. He saw the hero
when his character was d»played in all its strength and its weak-
ness. Nelson was at once burning for honour, ardently desirous
to serve his country at a great crisis, and yet longing for rest and
for the company of Emma Hamilton. His passion had, if possible,
been increased by the birth of the child Horatia, whom he
believed to be his own, and his jealousy was excited by fears that
Emma, would become an object of attention to the prince of
Wales (afterwards George IV.). His health, as Colonel Stewart
justly observed, was always affected by anxiety, and during the
Baltic cainpaign he complained incessantly of his sufferings.
Nervous irritation provoked him into odd explosions of excite-
ment, as when, for instance, he suddenly interiered with the work-
ing of his flagship while the officer of the watch was tacking
her on the south coast of England, and so threw her into disorder.
When he saw the consequences of his untimely intrusion he
sharply appealed to the officer to tell him what was to be done
next, and when the embarrassed lieutenant hesitated to reply,
burst out with, " If you do not know, I am sure I don't," and
then went into his cabin. His subordinates learnt to take these
manifestations as matters of 'course, knowing that they were
wholly without malignity. To them he was sdways kind, even
when they were at fault, taking, as his own phrase has it^ a
penknife where Lord St Vincent would have taken a hatchet.
Cotond Stewart tells how he was wont to invite the midshipmen
of the middle watch to breakfast, and romp with them as if
he had been the youngest of the {Muty. The playfiilness of his
nature came out, in combination with his heroism, when he
adorned his refusal to obey Sir Hyde'3 weak signal of recall in the
middle of the battle, wMch would have been disastrous if it had
been acted on, by putting his telescope to his blind eye and
declaring that he could not see the order to retire. At such
moments all could see his agiution; but, as the surgeon of the
** Eleph^t," which bore his dag at Copenhagen, says, they could
also see that " it was not the agitation of indecision, but of
ardent animated patriotism panting for glory." When Sir Hyde
Parker was recalled in May, Nelson assumed the command in
the Baltic; but the dissolution of the Northern Confederation
left him little to do. His health really suffered in the cold air
of high latitudes, and in June he obtained leave to come home.
His lervkes were grudgin^y recognized by the title of viscotmt.
During the brief interval before the peace he was put in command
of a flotilla to combat Napoleon's futile threat of invasion.
In the hope of quieting public anxiety rather than in any serious
expectatioa of success, an attack was made on a French flotilla
stxon^y protected by its position, at Boulogne, which was
disastrously repulsed. Nelson was not in command on the spot,
and if he bad been would in all probability have renewed his
experience at Santa Crua. He could not do the impossible more
than other men. He was only more ready to try.
WhOe the brief peace made at Amiens lasted, he remained on
shore. His home was with the Hamiltons in the strange house-
hold in which Sir William showed that his x8th-century training
had taught him to accept a domestic division with a good grace,
and had not left him too squeamish to profit by the peomiary
advantages which may attend the relation of complacent
bosbaad. His death on the 6th of April 1803 made no change
in the life of the admiraL He lived almost wholly at Merton,
where he had purchased a small house, which Emma filled with
memorials of his glory and of her now passing beauty. She fed
him profnady with the flattery which he, in Lord Minto's words,
swaBowed as a child does pap; and she was in turn adored by
him, and treated with profound deference by his family, with
the exception of his father.
When the ambition of Napoleon made it impossible to keep
up the fiction of peace, Nelson was at once called from retirement,
and th» time there could be no question of putting him under
the authority of any other admiral. He was appointed to the
Mediterranean command, and hoisted his flag in May 1803.
Between this date and his death in the hour of full triumph on
the 2ist of October 1805, he was in the centre and was one of
the controlling spirits of the vast military and naval drama
which after filling for more than two years the immense stage
bounded by Europe and the West Indies, found its dosing scene
in Trafalgar Bay (see Tratalgar). In spite of the anxieties
of an arduous command Nelson was serene and at his best in this
last period of his life. Once only did the ill-advised boasting
of Latouche Treville provoke him into a scolding mood. The
French officer spoke of him as having fled bdore his French
ships, and the vaunt, which had no better foundation than that
Nelson had retired before superior numbers when reconnoitring,
exasperated him into threatening to make the Frenchman eat
his letter if ever they met. Nelson could boast, but his loudest
words are not ridiculously out of proportion to his deeds.
The last hours at Trafalgar will never be forgotten by English-
men. There is no figure in English history at once so magnificent
in battle, and so penetrating in its appeal to the emotions, as
was Nelson on that last day when under his leadership the fleet
annihilated the last lingering fear that Napoleon would ever
carry his desohiting arms into the British Islands. It matters
little that the woman of whom he thought to the last was utterly
unworthy of him, had perhaps never rendered the services he
supposed her to have done for thdr country, and was about to dis-
honour his memoiy by mercenary inunorality. He must be worae
than censorious who can think unmoved df Nelson kneeling in
prayer by his cabin table as the " Victory " rolled slowly down
on the enemy on the aist of October, appealing to God for help,
and writing the codicil in which he Idt hb mistress and his child
to the gratitude of his country.
It is said that his famous signal was to have been worded
*' Nelson confides that every man will do his duty," and that
his own name was rq)laced by that of England on Uie suggestion
of one of his officeis. The use of his name as an inspiration and
an appeal would have been perfectly consistent with his tone
at all times, but he agreed to the dteration with the indifference
of a man to whom sdf and country were one at that hour.
" Expects " replaced " confides that " because the signal
lieutenant Pascoe pdnted out to him that the verb originally
chosen must be spelt out letter by letter in a long string of
flags. He parted with CapUin Blackwood of the " Eurydus "
with a prophecy of his approaching fate. The sight of Cdling-
wood, the friend of his youth, lei^ng the lee line into action
in the " Royd Soverdgn " drew from him a cry of admiration
at the noble example his comrade was showing. When the
" Victory " had passed astern of the French " Bucentaure,"
and was engaged with her and the " Redoubtable," he walked
up and down the quarter deck of his flagship by the side of his
flag-captdn, T. M. Hardy, with the brisk short step customary
with him. As they turned, a musket shot from the top of the
" Redoubtable " struck him on the upper breast, and, plunging
down, broke the spine. " They have done for me at last! "
were the words in which he acknowledged the fatd stroke. He
lingered for a very few hours of angiiish in the fetid cockpit of
the '* Victory," amid the horrors of darkness relieved only by the
dim light of lanterns, and surrounded by men groaning, or
raving with unbearable pdn. The shock of the broadsides made
the whde frame of the " Victory " tremble, and extorted a
moan from the dying admird. When Captdn Hardy came down
to report the progress of the battle, his inherent love for full
triumph drew from him the declaration that less than twenty
prizes would not satisfy him. He dung to his authority to the
end. The suggestion that CoUingwood would have to dedde
on the course to be taken was answered with the eager ddm,
" Not while I live. " But the last recorded words were of
affection aiul of duty. He begged Hardy for a kiss, and he
ended with the proud and yet humble ddm, " I have done my
duty, thank Cod for that."
358
NELSON
His body was brought home in his flagship and Uid to rest'
in St Paul's. He is commemorated in London by the monu-
ment in Trafalgar Square, completed in 1849 with a colossal
statue by E. H. Baily, and surrounded by Landseer's bronze
lions, added in 1867.
In estimating the character of Nelson, and his achievements,
there are some elements which must be allowed for more fully
than has always been the case. He was, to begin with, the
least English of great Englishmen. He had the excitability, the
vanity, the desire for approbation without much delicacy as
to the quarter from which it came, which the average Eng-
lishman of Nelson's time, his judgment obscured by the effects
of centuries of racial rivalry cidminating in the Napoleonic
wars, was wont to attribute to Frenchmen. Where there
is vanity there is the capacity for spite and envy. Nor was
Nelson altogether free from these unpleasant faults. But in
the main his desire to be liked combined with a natural kindness
of disposition to make him appeal frankly to the goodwill
of those about him. He won to a very great extent the affec-
tion he valued, and that from men so widely different in char-
acter as Lord Minto and the simple-hearted seamen among
whom he passed the best part of his life. He could be cruel
when his emotions were aroused by evil influences, with the
downright cruelty he displayed at Naples, or the more subtle
form of hardness in his conduct to his wife, when his duty
to her stood in the way of his love for Emma Hamilton. But
they were few to whom the evil side of his nature was shown,
while the captains and seamen for whom he did much to make
a hard duty more tolerable were to be counted by the thousand.
As a commander he belonged to the race of Pytrhus and the
prince of Cond6 — the fighters of battles. His victories were
won at the head of a force which had been brought to a high
level of rfliciency by three generations of predecessors, against
enemies who had been, as in the case of the French, disorganized
by a social revolution which had ruined their discipline, who
were inexperienced as the Danes were, or who, as in the case of
the Spaniards, were sunk in a moral and intellectual decadence.
But he estimated the vices of his opponents with full insight.
Wielding a fine instrument, and confronted by inferior enemies,
he was entitled to dare much, and it is a proof of his sagacity
that he saw how far he could dare, caring but little for the bulk
of the force in front of him, and looking to the spirit. Above
all, he had the power to inspire the enthusiasm he felt, and to
make men act above them.Helves because he was there, and because
they found a joy in pleasing him. Among all the warriors of
his generation Napoleon alone was a greater master of the souls
of men, and Blttcher alone came near him.
Nelson had no children by his wife. His daughter Horatia,
by Lady Hamilton, became the wife of the Rev. Philip Ward,
and died in x88x. In November 1805, in recognition of Nelson's
great services to his country, his brother William (x 757-1^35)
was created Earl Nelson of Trafalgar, an annuity of £5000 being
atuched to the title. When William died without sons in
February 1835 his only daughter Charlotte Mary (1787-1873),
wife of Samuel Hood, and Baron Bridport (i 788-1868), became
duchess of Bront6, while, according to the remainder, his English
titles passed to his nephew Thomas Bolton (X786-X835), who
became 2nd Earl Nelson. Bolton, who took the name of Nelson,
was succeeded as 3rd Earl Nelson in November x8is by his
son Horatio (b. X823). The duchy of Brdnt6 was in 1910 held
by Baroness Bridport's grandson, Arthur Wellington Nelson
Hood, 2nd Viscount Bridport (b. 1839).
Authorities.— Very much has been written about Nelson. A
large part of the total mass consists of hasty work done to meet an
immediate demand, or of repetition not justified by the critical
faculty or literarjr skill of the writers. The valuable portion may be
divided into original authorities, such as correspondence, and the
testimony of eyewitnesses; and the narratives or criticisms of
students who tcu with original power, and judge with knowledge and
insight. Under the headmg oforiginal authorities, the first place is
taken by Tht Dispatches and Letters of Vice-Admiral Lord Viscount
Nelson, with notes by Sir N. H. Nicolas (7 vols., 1844-1846). Nicolas
spared no pains to make his collection complete and to illustrate it
from all trustworthy sources. Thus he includes Sir Edward Berry's
Account of the Battle of the Nile, Colonel Stewart's Notes on the Copen-
hagen Campaign, Dr Beatey's Narrative of Nelson's Last Hours, and
passages from the so^alled Reminiscences of the Captain, of the
Victory, Dr Scott. This last authority is of tittle value, tor the book
consists of recollections by Dr Scott's daughter and son-in-law of
what he said years after the events he was speaktns of. The student
of Nelson's life should make it a rule to exhaust Nicolas before con-
sulting any other authority. A collection of Letters from Nelson to
Emma Hamilton was published under her direction in 1814, but it is
subject to much suspicion. A j^rcat mass of correspondence ol the
Hamiltons and much MS. rclatine to Nelson came into the hands of
Dr Pettigrew. and passed into the possession of Mr A. Morrison,
from whose collection they were transferred to the British Museum.
A catalogue, in which the text is given, was privately printed and
can be consulted in the museum. Isolated fetters have appeared
from time to time. Between February and April 1898 some valuable
extracts from his correspondence with his wife, previously un-
known, and the correct text of parts of his diary, appeared in the
extinct weekly. Literature. Among the lives of Nelson's contem-
poraries. J. S. Tucker's Earl of St Vincent (1844). Ross's Saumarex.
Lady Bourchier's Codrington and the Letters of Sir William Hoste
throw light on particular points. The Nelsontan Reminiscences of
Parsons give an interesting picture of the admiral as he appeared
to an observant boy. The observations of older and more intelligent
witnesses will be found in The Diaries and Correspondence of George
Rose, in The Life and Letters of the First Earl of Wnto and in a
Journal hept during a Visit to Germany, by Mrs St George, afterwards
Mrs Trench. Incidental mentions of Nelson are to be found in the
Paget Papers, the correspondence of the minister who succeeded
Sir W. .Hamilton at the court of Naples. Biographies of Nelson are
ni; ^ — r-t Hn— "'— '^^r'^vA — ' ^v -• ^'- ""-^son, an
odi^,^- L^,. .- ..-,;..;. v.„- i:, J !.„.... .... .._.^;.. _... ■-.,: ::^ ."aclf and
which jp|,}edred in iHkiO. Thi^ iwoquiirioa ol Cljf kc utiil McArthur
(lS09^H ncpnnlecj in three voJumea octiivo In iS^O^ worr tjoscd on
pap<?rs BuppEicd by the ramify, but the tcnrt were edited with un-
pardonable frovdom and ihc Drii^maJK have in many casei been lost.
oouLhcy'n cl2s»ic Lije waabascd on Clarke' and McAnhur. AU later
biogmphies have Lven superseded by Captain Kl^h^rCtLiJe if Nelson.
fir^t published In tw'o volumes in 1897 and igain in one volume,
with addillonf i^nd correct ions in iB^f). The much^ebared Nea-
politan eptsodc ha I pvcn riic lo a iitemture of it9 own. ^ The con-
troversy beg^n with rhe appeoranire of Captain Ffxitc^s Vi^ication
of his own p»rl in the transaction jjubli&licd in T3ia It drew an
immedkitt CvuHi^r VindtcaSiifw ef Seiiort by CommaitdtF J-eaffreson
M [1 f s, I ta ha n vcrsio n 5 wi El be found in Site hi ncl li > Fabr r sio Ruffo
and in the Ct^mp^die of Mithcfoux edited by theMarrhirH Mareaca.
The conirrjvetsy ha^ br^n rrvivtd in EnfiUnd by Mr F. P. Badham
with hb Ndi0ri m Nuplfi O900). and ha* provoki^i t"^ blication
of a cotlcciinn of ihu dwrunierU by the Navy Rh cicty. in
vol, %.%v, of their ptilihfaiiorss. undtf the title and the
Nf-apulitan Jat^m (ioqj). Mr C Jeaffne3£in'& n^-j ^.iks. Lcdy
Himiitptt and Lord Piehofi (iBSB) and the Qu^m of Naples and
Lf-d N^fffit fiS&9)^ are ba$ed on the pa per 4 coftecttd by Mr
M'lrrisiTjTi. Sec also T- Nflion, Gfveaijgikai liiitofy oj tke Nelson
Ftimiiy U^S). tO. H.)
NELSON. ROBERT (1656-17x5), English philanthropist and
religious writer, son of John Nelson, a London merchant, was
born on the 22nd of June 1656, and was educated as the private
pupil of George Bull, afterwards bishop of St David's. Having
inherited a considerable forttme from his father, he fc^lowed
no profession. About x68o he went abroad and spent much
time on the continent of Europe till 1691, when he settled at
Blackbeath. For many years he was an intimate ftiend and
correspondent of Archbishop Tillotson, though not in agreement
with his views; and he was also on terms of friend^p with
the astronomer Halley and other men of science. N^soo's
sympathies were with the Jacobites; and after his return to
England he associated himself with the nonjurors, under whose
influence he produced several of his writingson religious subjects^
He was an active supporter of the Sodety for Promoting Christian
Knowledge, the Sodety for the Propagation of the Gospel,
and similar associations, and he used his influence largely in
the establishment of charity schools and the building of churches
in London. In 1687 he had pubUshed a controversial wrork
against transubstantiation, and in 1704 appeared his Compansvm
for the Festivals and Fasts of the Church of England, which
obtained a remarkable popularity lasting till the middle of the
19th century. Within five years of its pubUcation ten thousand
copies of the Companion were printed, and thirty-six editiona
appeued in a hundred and twenty years. After the death of
Bishop Bull in 17x0 Nelson wrote his biography, which was
publiriied three years later; and he was also the author of many
other devotional and controversial works. He died in January
NELSON— NEMATODA
359
17x5, in wfiidi year was published liis Address to Psrsoiu of
QualUy and Estate^ containing suggestions for the esublishment
of spedaX hospitals, schools and theobgical colleges, many of
his proposals being afterwards carried into effect. Nelson
married a Roman Catholic, Lady Theophila Lucy, daughter of
the eari of Berkeley, and widow of Sir Kingsmill Lucy of
Broxboume.
See Charles F. Secretan, Memoirs of the Life and Times of the Pious
Robert Nelsom (i860); Thomas Birch, Life of TiUolson (and ed..
1753): Thcmias Lathbury, History of the Nonjurors (1845).
MSLSOlf* a river of Keewatin district, Canada, discharging
the waters of Lake Winnipeg in a north-easterly direction into
Hudson Bay. It drains an area of 360,000 sq. m. and, including
its tributary the Saskatchewan, is 1450 m. bug. It is navigable
for small steamers for a distance of about 80 m., after which it
b unnavigable except for canoes. It has a total fall between the
lake and sea of 7 10 ft. Here its chief tributary is the Bumtwood.
Norway House at its source and York Factory at its mouth
are important stations of the Hudson's Bay Company.
■ELSOlf, a town of British Columbia, situated on the west arm
of Kootenay lake. Pop. (1906) about 5000. It is the com-
mercial, administrative and railroad centre of the east and west
Kootenay districts. It is the northern terminus of a branch of
the Great Northern railway and is also connected by rail and
steamboat with the main line of the Canadian Pacific railway at
Revelstoke and with the Crow's Nest line of the same system at
Kootenay landing. It has direct railway communication with
Rossland, Grand Forks and Greenwood.
HEUOlf, a municipal borough in the CUiheroe parliamentary
division of Lancashire, England, 32} m. N. from Manchester by
the Lancashire & Yorkshire railway. Pop. (1S91) a3,754»
(1901) 33,8x6. It is of modem growth, possessing a town hall,
market hall, free library, technical school, pleasant park and
recreation grounds, and an extensive system of electric tramways
and fight railways, connecting with Burnley and Colne. Its
chief manufacture is cotton.. It was incorporated in 1890, and
the corporation ccmsists of a mayor, 6 aldermen and x8
coundllors. Area, 3466 acres.
HEUOlf, a seaport of New Zealand, the 9eat of a bishop and
capital of a provincial district of the same name; at the head
of Blind Bay on the northern coast of the South Island. Pop.
(1906)8x64. The woods and fields in the neighbourhood abound
with R«gli«tli s6ng-birds, and the streams are stocked with trout;
while the orchards in the town and suburbs are famous for English
kinds of fruit, and hops are extensively cultivated. The town
possesses a small museum and art gallery, literary institute,
government buildings, and boys' and girls' schools of high repute.
Tlie cathedral (Christ Church) is finely placed on a mound which
was originally intended as a place of refuge from hostile natives.
It b built of wood, the various native timbers being happily
combined. Railways connect the harbour with the town, and
the town with Motupiko, &c The harbour, with extensive
wharves, b protected by the long and remarkable Boulder Bank,
whose southern portion forms the natural breakwater to that
anchorage. The settlement was planted by the New Zealand
Company in 1843. The borough returns one member to the
house of representatives, and its local affairs are adminbtered
by a mayor and council
MELSOHVILLB, a city of Athens county, Ohio, U.S.A., on the
Hocking river, 63 m. S.E. of Columbus. Pop.(i89o) 4558,(1900)
5431, including 338 foreign-bom and 304 negroes; (1910) 6082.
NebonviUe b served by the Hocking Valley railway. The
city b in one oi the most productive coal sections of the state;
there are large quantities of clay in the vicinity; and the principal
industries are the mining and shipping of coal and the manu-
facture of fire-clay products. NdsonviUe was settled in x8i8
and was incorporated in 1838; it was named in honour of Elisha
K ebott, who built the first house here.
MSMATODA, m zoology, a group of worms. The name Nema-
toda (Or. niiui, thread, and «Z8os, form) was first introduced by
Rudolphi, but the group had been previously recognised as
distina fay Zeder under the name Ascarides. They are now by
many tyitematisU united with the Acanthocephala and the
Nematomorpha to form the group Nemathdminthes.
The Nematoda possess an elongated and thread-like form (see
fig. 1), varying in length from a few lines up to several feet. The
body b covered externally by a chitinous cuticle which b a
product of the subjacent epidermic layer in which no cell limits
can be detected though nuclei are scattered through it. The
cuticle b frequently prolonged into spines and papillae, which
are especially devebped at the anterior end of the body. The
mouth opens at one extremity of the body and the anus at or
near the other. Beneath the epidermb b
a longitudinal layer of muscle-fibres which
are separated into four dbtinct groups
by the dorsal, ventral and bteral areas;
these are occupied by a continuation of the
epidermic layer; in the lateral areas run
two thin-walled tubes with clear contents,
which unite in the anterior part of the
body and open by a pore situated on the
ventral surface usually about a quarter
or a third of the body length from the
anterior end. These vesseb are the nitrogen-
ous excretory organs. The body-cavity b
krgely occupied by processes from the brge
muscle ceUs of the skin. These processes
stretch across the body cavity to be inserted
in the dorsal and ventral middle lines.
The body-cavity also contains the so-
called phagocytic organs. These consbt
of enormous celb with nuclei so large as
to be in some cases just visible to the naked
eye. These celb are dbposed in pairs,
though the members of each pair are not
always at the same IcveL The number of
celb b not large (some 3 to 8), and as a
rub they lie abng the lateral lines. In
some species {Ascaris decipiens) the giant
cell b replaced by an irregular mass of
protoplasm contaming a number of small
nuclei Such a Plasmodium bears, on its
periphery, groups of rounded projections
of protoplasm termed end-organs. Similariy
the giant celb are produced at their peri-
phery into a number of branching pro-
cesses which bear similar end-organs on
their surface and in some cases terminate
in them. These end-organs are the active l^t. Bsv-.tf^i^
agents in taking up foreign granules, or P'o. i.—Oxyuns.
bacteria, which may have found their way *• ij^"'^'
into the fluid of the body-cavity. From £;gSS^SSt
the shape and position of the phagocytic
organs it b obvious that they form admir-
able strainers through whidi the fluid of
the body-cavity filters (figs. 3, 3).
The alimentary tract consbts of a
straight tube running from the mouth to
the anus without any convolutions} it b
separable into three divisions: (i) a mus-
cular oesophagus, which b often provided
with cuticular teeth; (3) a cellular intcs- cd. Vas deferens,
tine; and (3) a short terminal rectum 'P-^®*??'
surrounded by muscular fibres. Neither P«. Papillae,
here nor elsewhere are dlia found at any period of develop-
ment.
A nervous system has been shown to exist in many species,
and consists of a perioesophageal ring giving off usually six nerves
which run forwards and backwards along the lateral and median
lines; these are connected by numerous fine, circular threads in
the sub-cuticle. Some of the free-living forms possess eye specks.
The sexes are dbtinct (with the exception of a few forms that are
hermaphrodite), and the male b always smaller than the female.
The generative organs consist of one or two tubes, in the upper
After Cdeb. Ank. dt
of
the oesophagus,
armed with
chitinous teeth.
Intestine.
Opening of seg-
mental tubes
(placed by mis-
uke on the dor-
sal instead 01 the
ventral surface).
Testes.
360
NEMATODA
portion of which the ova or spermatozoa are developed, the lower
portion serving as an oviduct or vas deferens; the female gener-
ative organs open at the middle of the body, the male dose to
the posterior extremity into the terminal portion of the ali-
mentary canal; from this cloaca a diverticulum is given off in
which are developed one to three chitinous spicules that subserve
the function of copulation. The spermatosoa differ from those
of other animals in having the form of cells which sometimes
perform amoeboid movements. Most remarkable sexual condi-
tions are found to occur in the free-living genera RhabdUis and
Fig. 3. — ScUrostomum arma^
turn, 9, X about 3}, opened to
show the phagocytic organs.
(From Naasooov.)
I. Mouth.
3, Anterior end of alimentary
3. pSSior end of aUmentary Fw- 3.-One of the phagocytic
^ ^^ ' organs of Sc. armaium, hwhly
4. Ovary. magnified. (From Nasaonov.}
5! 6 and 7. Anterior middle and i« Nucleus of giant-cell.
posterior pair* of phago- 2, One of the processes and end-
cytic organs. organs of the same.
Diplogaster, While some of the species are bisexual, others are
protandrous, self-fertilixing hermaphrodites. In cultures of the
latter there occur very rare supplemental males which appear in
no sense degenerate but as fit for reproduction as the males of the
bisexual spedes. Though possessing a complete copulatory
apparatus and produdng large quantities of spermatozoa, they
have lost their sexual instinct and play no part in the economy
of the spedes. These "psychically decadent'* individuals
appear to represent the entire male sex of a bisexual spedes,
and become unnecessary owing to the grafting of hermaphrodit-
ism on the female sex.
Mode of Life and Metamorpkoses.^Vifhile the majority of the
Nematodes are para^tes, there are many that are never at any
period of thdr life parasitic. These free-living forms are found
everywhere — in salt and fresh water, in damp earth and moss,
and among decaying substances; they are always minute in size,
and like many other lower forms of life, are capable of retaining
their vitality for a long period even when dried, which accounts
for thdr wide distribution; this faculty is also possessed by
certain of the parasitic Nematodes, especially by those which
lead a free existence during a part of their life-cyde. The free-
living differ from the majority of the parasitic forms in under-
going no metamorphosis; they also possess certain structural
peculiarities which led Bastian {Trans, Linn. Soc., 1865) to
separate th^m into a distinct family, the AngttiUtdidae. It is
impossible, however, to draw a strict line of demarcation between
the free and parasitic spedes, since — (i) many of the so-called free
NenuUoda live in the slime of molluscs (Villot), and arc therefore
really parasitic; (2) while certain species belonging to the free-
living genus AnguUluta are normally parasitic (e.g. A, tritici,
which lives encysted in ears of wheat), other spedes occasionally
adopt the parasitic mode of existence, and become encysted in
slugs, snails, &c.; (3) it has been experimentally proved that
many normally parasitic genera are capable of leading a free
existence;* (4) transitional forms exist which are free at one
period of their life and parasitic at another. The parasitic
Nematodes indude by far the greatest number of the known
genera; they are found in nearly all the orders of the animal
kingdom, but more especially among the Verlebraia, and of
these the Mammalia are infested by a greater variety than any
of the other groups. Some two dozen distinct spedes have been
described as occurring in man. The Nematode parasites of the
Intertebrjta are usually immature forms which attain their full
development in the body of some vertebrate; but there are a
number of spedes which in the sexually adult condition are
peculiar to the InverUbrata.*
The Nematoda contain about as many parasitic spedes as all
the other groups of internal parasites taken together; they are
found in almost all the organs of the body, and by their presence,
espedally when encysted in the tissues and during their migration
from one part of the body to another, give rise to various patho-
logical conditions. Although some attain their full devdopment
in the body of a single host— in this respect differing from all
other Entotaa — the majority do not become sexually mature
until after their transference from an " intermediate " to a
" definitive " host. This migration is usually accompanied by
a more or less complete metamorphosis, which is, however, not
so conspicuous as in most other parasites, e.g. the Tremtdoda.
In some cases (many spedes of Ascaris) the metamorphosis is
reduced to a simple process of growth.
The parasitic and free-living Nematodes are connected by
transitional forms which are free at one stage of their existence
and parasitic at another; they may be divided into two classes —
those that are parasitic in the larval state but free when adult»
and those that are free in the larval state but parasitic when
adult.
(i) To the first dass belong the ao^alkd " hairworm," J/ermu.
not to be confused with the Cordian worms.* The adult forms of
seen after stonns or
plants, a fact which
The eggs are laid on
^Ercolani successfully cultivated Oxyuris cumJa, StrongylMS
armatus and other species in damp earth : the free generation was
found to differ from tne parasitic by its small size, andby the females
being ovoviviparous instead of oviparous. To this phcoomeaoo he
gave the name of dimorphobiosis.
' The genera Ascaris, Filar ia, Trickosoma are found throughout the
VerUbrata; CucuUanus (in the adult condition) only in bahes sum!
Amphibia: Ank^stoma, Trirkocephalus, Trichina and PstudaUus
live only in the Mammalia, the last-mentioned genus being confined
to the order Cetacea; Strongylus and Physahfura are prailiar to
mammals, birds and reptiles, while Dispkarag^s, Syngamtus aad
Hystrickis are confined to birds. Mermis (in the larval state) as
confined to the Jn9ertebrata and Spkaendaria to bee^ Oxyuris,
though chiefly parasitic in the Mammalia, occurs also in reptiles*
Amphibia and one or two insects. Dacnitis and Jcktk youfmm are
only found in fishes.
* See NBicATOMoarHA.
NEMATODA
361
the eround and tHe young larvae make their way into' naashoppers,
in whose bodies they pan most of their larval life. (2) To the second
class belong AnkylosUma, Strongylus and many species of Ascarisi
the embryo on leaving the egg lives free in water or damp earth, and
resembles very closely the free-living genus Rkabdilis. Alter a lon^r
or shorter period ic enters the alimentary canal of its proper host with
drinking-water, or it bores thtough the skin and reaches the bk>od-
vesseb, and is so conveyed through the body. 'in which it becomes
sexnaUy mature. RkabaUis mffrooenosa has a developmental history
wfaidi IS entirely anomalous, pasmng through two sexual genera-
lk>ns which regularly alternate. Tme worm inhabits the lung. of
the frag and toad, and is hermaphrodite (Schneider) or partheno-
genetic (Leuckart); the' embryos hatched from the eggs Bnd their
«-ay through the lungs into the alimentary canal and theno^ to the
exterior; in a few days they devckyp into a sexual larva, called a
RkabdiUform larva, in whkh the sexes are distinct ; the cm remain
within the uterus, and the voung when hatched break-through its
walls and Uve free in the penvisoeral cavity of the mother, devouring
the oreana of the body until only the outer ciitk^ is left ; this eventu-
ally breaks and sets free the Voung, which are without teeth, and
have thetefore kwt the typical Rkabditis form. They Uve for some
time in water or mud, oocanonally entering the bodies of water
snails, but undergo no change until they reach the lung of a ftpg,
when the cycle begins anew. Although several specks bebnging to
the second dass oocas»nally enter the bodies ct water snaus and
other animals before naadiing their definitive host, they undergo no
alteration ci form in thb intermediate host; the case Is different,
however, in FHaria medinetuis and other forms, in which a free
larval b fc^wed by a parasitk existence in two distinct hosts, all
the dianges being accompanied by a metamorphosis. Filcria medu
meusii — we Guinea worm — is parasitic in the subcutaneous connec-
tive tissue of man (oocaskmally also in the horse). It is chiefly
found in the tropical parts of Ana and Africa, but has also been
met with in South Carolina and several of the West Indian islands.
The adult worm in the female sometimes reaches a length of 6 ft.
The males have only rooently been disooveied. The female is vivi-
parous, and the young, whicn, unlike the parent, are provided trith
a long tail, Uve free in water; it was forroeriy believed from the
frequency with which the legs and feet were attacked by this parasite
that the embryo entered the skin directly from the water, but it
has been shown by Fedschenko, and oonbrmed by Manson, Leiper
and others, that the larva bores its way Into the body of a Cyclops
and there undergoes further development. It is probable that the
parafite is then transferred to the akmentary canal of man by means
of drinking-water, and thence makes its way to the subcutaneous
oooaective tissue.
The Nematcda which 9Xc parasitic during their whole life may
similarly be divided into two classes— those which uodergo their
devckspment in a single host, and those which undeigo their
development in the bodies of two distinct hosts.
(i) In the former class the egg;s are extruded with the faeces, and
the young beconne fully formed within the egg, and when accidentally
swalhnred by thdr host are liberated by tne solvent action of the
pstric juice and complete their development. This simple type of
^-hbtory has been experimentally proved by Leuckart to be
characteristic of Trickouphaius affinis, Oxyuris
ambieua and other spMcdes. (2) The life-history
of (Mulanui tricuspis is an example of the second
dass. Ottulanus tricuspis is found in the adult
state in the alimentary canal of the cat; the
young worms are hatched in the alimentary
canal, and often wander into the body of their
host and become encysted in the lungs, liver and
other organs; during the encystment the worm
degenerates and loses all trace of structure.
This wandering appears to be accidental, and to
have nothing to do with the further evolution
of the animal which takes place in those embryos
which are voided with the excrement. Leuclart
proved experimentally that these younj; forms
become encysted in the muscles of mice, and
the cyde ia completed after the mouse is de-
voured by a cat. The well-known TridiineUa
spiralis (fig. 4) has a life-history dosdy resembl-
ing that ot OUulanus. The adult worm, which
F1C.4.— rricib'*- fa of extremdy minute sise,
elta encysted ^th and the female f of
amoi%
fibres.
Leockait.^
Ath and the female i ot an inch in
inhabits the alimentary canal of man and many
other carnivorous mammalia: the young bore
thdr way into the tissues and become encysted
in the musdes— within the musde-bundles
aooonfing to Leuckart, but in the connective tissue between them
accordiiy to Chatin and others. The coexistence of the asexual
encysted fonn and the sexually mature adult in the same host,
eneptMMially found in OUulanus and other Nematodes, Is the
nife in Triehinfttai many of the embryos, however, are extruded
with the faeces, and complete the life cycle by reaching the alimentary
canal ol lats and swine which frequently devour human ordure
(After
Swine become infested with rrtcAindla in this way and also by eating
the dead bodies of rats, and the parasite Is conveyed to the body <a
man along with the tteah of " trichinised " swine.
Importance in Pathology, — Among recent advances having
medical import in our knowledge of the Nematodes, the chief
are those dealing with the parasites of the blood. P. baneroJU is
known to live ia the lymphatic glands, and its embxyos Miao-
filaria sangutnis hominis noctuma, passing by the thoradc duct,
reach the blood-vessels and circulate in the blood. Manson
showed in 1881 that the larvae {Microfilariae) were not at all
times present in the bk)od, but that their appearance had a
certain, periodidty, and the larvae of P. hancrojti. Microfilaria
noctntma swarmed in the blood at night-time and disappeared
from the periphenl dxtulation during the day, hiding away in
the large vessels at the base of the lungs and of the heart. Ten
years later Manson discovered a second spedes, Pikiria Persians,
whose larvae live in the blood. They, however, show no period-
idty, and are found continuously both by day and by night;
and their larval forms are termed Microfilaria Persians. The
adult stages are found in the sub-peritoneal coimective tissue.
A third form, Microfilaria diuma, is found in the larval stage in
blood, but only in the daytime. The adult stage of this form is.
the Pilaria loa found in the subcutaneous tissues of the Hmba.
The presence of these parasites seems at times to have little'
effect on the host; and men in whose system it is calculated
there are some 40-50 million larvae have shown no signs of
disease. In other cases very serious disorders of the lymphatic
system are brought about, of which the most marked is perhaps
Elephantiasis. Manson and Bancroft suggested that, the second
host of the parasite is the mosquito or gnat, and for a long time it
was thought that they were conveyed to man by the mosquito
dying after hying her eggs in water, the larval nematodes
escaping from her body and bdng swalbwed by man. It is
now hdd that the parasite enters the blood of man through the
pterdng mouth-parts at the time of biting. When first sucked
up by the insect from an infected man it passes into its stomach*'
and thence makes its way into the thoradc musdes, and there,
f(^ some time it grows. Next the larvae make their way into
the coimective tissue in the pro-thoraz, and ultimatdy bore a
channel into the base of the piercing apparatus and come to'
rest between the hypopharynz and the labium. Usually two are
found in this position lying side by side; it would be interesting
to know if these are male and female. Ftom theur position in
the proboscis the hirvae can easily enter the blood of man the
next time the mosquito bites (Low, BriL Med. Jotim., June xgoo;
James, ibid.^ Sept. xgoo). Shortly after Low had published his
results, Grassi and Nod issued a paper dealing with the larvae
of F. immilis, which is q>read by means of the mosquito Anopheles
{Cenlrbl. Bakter. I. Abth. zzviii., xgoo). The larvae of this
parasite develop in the Malpighian tubules of the insect; at a
certain stage they cast their cutide and make their way into
the space— part of the haemocoel— found in the kbium. During
the act of biting the labium is bent back, and as the pierdng
stylets enter the skin of the sufferer this bending becomes more
and more acute. Grassi and Nod think that if the cavity of the
labium be full of the krval nematodes this bending will burst the
tissue, and through the rent tbe larvae will escape and make their
way into the body of the hosL Besides Anophdes^ two spedes
of Culex, C. peniciUaris and C. pipiens, are also accused of trans-
mitting the larvae. A paper by Nod {Atti Ace. Lincri, ix., 1900)
seems to prove beyond doubt that the lar\'«e of P, immitis
are transmitted in the manner indicated. The adult worm ia
chiefly found in the heart of the dog, and usually in the right side,
which may be so packed with the worms as seriously to interfere
with the drculation (fig. 5). The females produce thousands
of larvae, which circulate in the blood, and show a certain
periodidty in thdr appearance, being much more numerous,
in the blood at night than during the day.
Importance as Pests. — Agriculturists now pay increased
attention to the nematodes that destroy their crops. A good
example of a fairly typical case is afforded by Heterodera schachtit,
which attacks beetroot and causes great loss to the Continental
sugar manufacturers. _The young larvae, nourished by the yolk
362
NEMATOMORPHA
which remains over frpm the egg and by the remains o! the
mother which they have taken into their alimentary canal,
make their way through the earth, and ultimately coming across
the root of a beet, begin to bore into it. This thiey do by means
of a spine which can be protruded from the mouth. Once within
the root, they absorb the cell sap of the parenchyma and b^in
to swdl until their body projects from the surface of the root in
Fig. 5.
A, View of the heart of a dog infested with Filaria immitis Leidy ;
the right ventricle and baw of the pulmonary artery have been
opened: a, aorta; b, pulmonary artery; c, vena cava; d, right
ventricle; e, appendix of left auricle; /. appendix of right auricle.
B, Femalie F. t'mmt/u, removed from the heart to show its length.
the form of a tubercle (fig. 6). The reproductive organs do not
begin to appear until the larva has twice cast its skin. After
this a marked sexual dimorphism sets in. The female, hitherto
indistinguishable from the male, continues to swell tmtil ^he
attains the outlines of a lemon. Doing this she bursts the
epidermis of the rootlet, and her body projects mto the surround-
ing earth. The male has a different life-history (fig. 7). After
the second larval
moult, he passes
through a passive stage
comparable to the
pupa-stadium of an
insect, and during this
stage, which occurs
inside the root, the
reproductive organs
are perfected. The
male next casts his
cutlde, and by means
of his spine bores
through the tissues of
the root and escapes
mto the earth. Here
Fig. 6.
A,a.Feniale Hderodera sehaehtii Schmidt,
breaking through the epidermis of a root; ?°'« ^l '^"»- ""
the head is stUl embedded in the paren- "• "c^ks a female,
ch
I of the root.
D, a, larvae boring their way into a root :
b, \»rvz of the immobile kind surrounded
by the old skin, living as an ectoparante
on the outside of the root. (FromScrubeU.)
pairs, and soon after-
wards dies. Theeggs
of the female give
rise to embryos with-
in the body of the
mother; her other organs undergo a retrogressive change
and serve as food for the young, until the body-wall only
of the mother remains as a brown capsule. From this the
young escape and make their way through the earth to new
roots. The whole life-history extends over a period of some
4-5 weeks (fig. 7), so that some 6-7 generations are bom during
the warmer months. If we assume that each female produces
300 embryos, and that half of these are females, the number of
descendants would be, after six generations, some 22,781 milliards
(A. Strubell, BM. Zool., 1888-1889). Other spedes which have
been recorded in the United Kingdom are Tyienckus devastatrix
(Kuhn), on oats, rye and clover roots; T, trttid, causing the
Fig. 7.
A. Male Heterodera sckacktu.
B.
greatly magnified.
c,
0, Head lappeta
b. Mouth cavity.
D,
c. Spine.
d. Muscle of spine.
e. Gland.
/. Ocsophagua
t. Bulb.
A, Nerve-ring.
i. Excretory pore
i^t^
A Intestine.
E.
m, Muscles moving spicule.
», Spicule.
First motile larva.
Second immovable parasitic
larva casting its skin.
A female witn one half of the
body-wall taken away to
show the coiliQg generative
organa
o. Boring apparatua
ft, Oesofmageal bulb.
e. Excretory pore.
<f, Alimentary canaL^
<, Anua
/, Ovary.
A male sKortly before casting
its larval skin.
ear-cockle of wheat; Cephcdobus rigidus (Schn.)» on oats;
Heterodera radicicola (GroeQiOn the roots of tomatoes, cucumbers,
potatoes, turnips, peach-trees, vines and lettuce, and many
other plants.
See N. Naasonov, Arch. Mikr. Anat. (1900); Arch, parasiL (1898):
Rabot. Lab. Warsaw (1898J; ZoU. Ant. (1898); L Jigerskiold.
CenirU. Bakier. (1898); I. Spengel. Zm^. Anz. (1897); H. Ehlers.
Arch. Naturg. (1899); O. Hamann, X>m fitmathdmintktn (1895).
(F. E.B.; A.E.S)
NEMATOHORPHA. This soological group includes Gordian
worms which aro found swimming in an undulatory manner
or coiling round water-weeds in ponds and puddles, or knotted
together m an apparently inextricable coil. They may be several
inches in length and aro no thicker than a piece of whip-cord.
The male is distinguishable from the female by the presence
of a fork at the posterior end of the body. The body is covered
by a cuticle which is sctilptured and the various markings are
of systematic importance: it is secroted by a hypodermis which
also includes nerve-cells and some gland-cells. In the adult
aquatic stage the alimentary canal shows signs of degeneration,
and it seems probable that in this stage Gordian worms take no
food. The mouth is terminal or subterminal; there is a weak
sucking pharynx situated behind the brain, and a long intestine
lying along the medio-ventral body-cavity; it ends in a cloaca
which receives the vasa deferentia in the male. There is a single
unsegmented nerve-cord which runs along the ventral middle line
and enlarges posteriorly bto a caudal ganglion and anteriorly
in a ganglion, the brain, which is not supra-oesophageal. The
peripheral nervous system is minutely described by T. H
Montgomery. There is a median eye on the head.
NEMERTINA
363
The Nematomoipha are nearly solid,— quite so at each end,
TnmCtmtrUi0NMtmnlBiit^.v6L B.. •^onBt.''«c. by pcnnlaaion ol Maanilka
Fig. I. — A water plant around which a Fic. 3. — Abdomen of
female Cordius is turninK and laying eggs. Pterosiirhia nigfr with the
a. a, dump and string ol eggs. terga removed to expose
the Gordius larva within.
Slightly magnified.
and only in the middle region of the body are there any body-
cavities, the space within the body being usually filled up with
parenchyma. There are four closed spaces of the nature of
body-cavities, two lateral and a doiao-median and a ventro-
median. Into the former the ovaries project, though the lumen
of the lateral body-cavity is quite shut of! ^m the lumina of
the ovaries or uteri. In the adult male
the lateral body-cavities are absent. A
curious duct with lateral branches termed
the supra-intestinal organ lies above the
intestine in the female. There are two
series of ovaries extending through a large
part of the body and accompanied by two
uteri; the latter open by two oviducts
which debouch into an atrium which also
receives the intestine and a single recep-
taculum seminis, and is continued back-
ward as the cloaca; this opens posteriorly.
The ovaries are epithelial sacs which open
into the uteri. The paired testes extend
through the greats part of the body and
end in two vasa d^erehtia which uinite
with the intestine to form a cloaca.
The eggs are laid in the spring as a rule,
and after about a week they give rise to a
Fic73!^TSrsal joint o"n"t«i ringed larva with a protrusible
ofanEphemerid farva boring apparatus consisting of three
into which two Gordius chitinous rods. By the aid of this the
'**^^' /\*) .fc^ larva makes its way into the soft body
penetrated. Magnified. ^^ ^^^ .^^^^ ^^^^ Ephemerids, Chiro-
nomids, or even of Molluscs, and encysts in the muscles or fat
body. The insect, which may have become an imago with the
Gordian larva still in it, is then eaten by a carnivorous insect
or by a fish, and the contained Gordian larva becomes elongate
and mature in its second host. After a year or more this larva
emerges into the water and commences to reproduce.
The unexpected occurrence of these worms in pools and puddles,
often m great numbers, has given rise to myths about showers
of worms. They occasionally make their way into the human
stomach with the drinking-water and are vomited; but this is a
C2se of pseudo-parasitism— they are no true purasite of man.
There are a considerable number of species divided among the
four genera: Cordius, Parazordius, Ckordodes and Paraehordodes;
the last, a genus of Camerano's, is looked upon with some doubt by
Montgomery. A free swimming nurine form with longitudinal rows
of bristles, known as NecUmema A. E. Verrill, may also come here,
but at present its life-history b unknown. The Nematomorpha
form an isobted group; at first sight they seem to be connected
vith the Nematocb. tnit in reality their only common feature is the
tubular geniulia opening into a cloaca, and it seems at present
noB GMtrtfcr Natmnt
Bi^try. voL M^. "Womw,**
4c . by pCTafauM of Mac-
oAuiftCbL. Ltd.
impoMible to connect them with the Annelida. Until more is known
it seems wisest to look upon them as an isolated assemblage of
animals with no near affinities to any of the great phyla.
LiTBRATUEB.— L. Camerano, " Monograffa dei Gordu." J/em. Au.
Torino, xlvii. (1897). contains literature; O. von Linstow, Arch,
mikr. Anat., IL (1898); T. H. Montgomery. Bull. Mus. Harvard,
xxxii. (1898); AmtT. Natural., xxxiii. (1899): Zool. Jahrb.. Anat.,
xviii. (1903) p. 387; F. Vejdovsky. Zeitukr. vriss. Zool., Ivii. (1894);
A. Villot. Arch. Zool. exp. U. (1887); C. R. Ac Sci„ cviu. (1S9);
H. B. Ward. BuU. Mus. Varvard, xxiu. (189a). (A. E. sT
NEMERTINA, or Nemestbans {Nemertea), a subdivision of
worms,* characterized by the dilation of the skin, the presence
of a retractHe probosds, the simple arrangement of the generative
apparatus, and in certain cases by a peculiar pelagic larval
stage to which the name " pilidium " has been given. Many of
them are long thread-shaped or ribbon-slu^>ed animals, more or
less cylindrical in transverse section. Even the comparatively
shortest spedes and genera can always be termed dongate, the
broadest and shortest of
all bdng the parasitic
Malacobdella and the
pelagic Pdagonemertes.
There are no exterior
appendages of any kind.
The colours are often
very bright and varied.
Nemertines live in the
sea, some being common
amongst the corals and
algae, others hiding in
the muddy or sandy
bottom, and secreting
gelatinous tubes which
cnsheath the body along
its whole length. For-
merly, they were gener-
ally arranged amongst
the Platydminthes as
a sub-order in the
order of the Turbd-
iarians, but with the
advance of our know-
ledge of these lower
worms it has been fotmd
desirable to separate
them from the Turbd-
larians and to look upon
the Nemertina as a
separate phylum.
0. BQrger dasnfies
Nemertines into four
orders: — Fic. i. — Linens geniculatus. (From
1. Protonemertioi, in BQrger.) i, Lateral slits on head; 2,
which there are two layers anus..
of dermal muscles, ex-
ternal drcular and in-
ternal longitudinal ; the nervous system lies external to the circular
muscles; the mouth lies behind the level of the brain; the proboscis
has no stylet; there is no caecum to the intestine. Families,
Carinbllidae. Hubrbchtiidab.
II. Mesonemertini, in which the nervous system has passed into
the dermal muscles and lies amongst them ; other characters as in
Protonemertini. Family, Cephalothricidab.
III. Metanemertini, in which the nervous system lies inside
the dermal muscles in the parenchyma; the mouth lies in front of
the level of the brain; the proboscis as a rule bears stylets; the
intestine nearly always has a caecum. Families, Eunembrtidab,
Ototyphlonbmertidab. Prosoruocmidab, Amphiporidab.
Tbtrastbumatidab, Nbctgnbhertidab, Pelaconemertidae,
M al acobdbllidab.
This order represents the Hoplonemertini of Hubrecht.
IV. Heteronamertini, in which the dermal musculature b in
three layers, an external longitudinal, a middle circular, an internal
longitudinal ; the nervous system lies between the first and second
of these layers; the outer layer of longitudinal muscles is a new
devebpment; there is no intestinal caecum; no stylets on the
probosds and the mouth is behind the level of the brain. Families.
EupOLnOAB. LiKBIDAB.
* Nemertes was a sea nymnh. daughter of Nereus and Doris.
One of the genera was named Nemerlts by Cuvier.
364
NEMERTINA
Thb order repretenu the Schixonemertini of Hubrecht and the
family Eupolidac.
The first three orders, which have a double muscular layer,
external circular and internal lotuptudinal, are tometiroes grou(>ed
together at the Dm yam a; the Heteronemertini, in which a third
coat of bngitudinal muscles arises outside the circular layer, are then
placed in a second branch, the Trimyaua.
The following families and genera are rep res e nted on the British
coasu: Carinbllidab. Can$uUa; Cbpualothricidae. Cepkalo-
tkrix, Carinomai Evnbiiertidab. Euntmertes', Ototyphlonb-
MBRTIDAB, OMyjMonemerUs ; Ampuiporidab. Amphipona, Dre-
panopkorus\ TBTRAstbiimidab. TetraUemma, Prosorkocmus',
MALACOBDBLLIDAB. Malacobddla\ EupoLnoAB. Eupotia, Valen-
cinia, Oxypolia; Linbidab, LineuSt Euborkuia. iiicrura, CtrAratu-
lus, MicrJia.
Anatomy. — Proboscis and Proboscidian Sheath. — The or^n most
characteristic of a Nemertine is without doubt the proboscts. With
very few exceptions {Malacobdeila, Akrostomum. where it has fused
Flo. 3.— Diagrams of the organs of a Nemertine. A. From
below ; B, from above.
m. Mouth.
div. Intestinal divcrticuU.
a. Anus.
0v, Ovaries.
», Nephridia.
Br, Brain-lobes.
In, • Longitudinal nerve stems.
pr. Proboscis.
ps. Proboscidian sheath.
P.O., Opening for proboscis.
with the mouth .into a nngle exterior opening), there is a terminal
opening, the rhyhchostome (subterminal in VaUncinia), at the fore-
most tip of the body, out of which the proboscis is seen shooting
backwards and forwards, sometimes with so much force that both iu
interior attachments are severed and it is entirely expelled from the
body. It then often reuins its viulity for a long time, apparently
crawling as if it were itself a worm, a phenomenon which is at least
partially explained by the extraordinary development of nervous
tissue, equally distributed all through the walls of the proboscis,
and either united into numerous longitudinal nerve-stems (Dre-
panophorus, Amphipoms) or spread out into a uniform and pom-
paratively thick layer (Cerebrahdus, sp.). This very effective and
elaborate innervation, which has been directly traced to the brain,
whence strong nerves (generally two) enter the proboscis, renders
it exceedingly probable that the most important functions of the
proboscis are a a sensiferous, tactile nature. In Nemertines the
everted proboscis is retracted in the same way as the tip of a glove
finger would be if it were pulled backwards by a threaa situated in
the axis and attached to the tip. The comparison may be carried
still further. The central thread just altaded to is represented in
the Nemertean proboscis by that portion which is never everted,
and the tip of the glove by the boundary between the evertible and
non.everttDle |x>rtion of the proboscis — a boundary which in the
Melanemertini is marked by tlie presence of a pointed or serrated
stylet. This stylet is thus situated terminally when the proboscis
Fio. X. — Anterior portion
of the body of a Nemer-
tine.
opening
hich the
Exterior
through whicl
proboada is everted
or ihynchostome.
Oesophagus and
mouth shown by
dotted lines.
has reached its maximum evcrnon. It adds a decisively aggressive
character to an orcan the original Mgnificance of which, as we have
seen, was tactile. This aggressive character has a different aspect in
several genera which are destitute of a centrsl stylet, but in which
the surface that is turned outwards upon
eversion of the proboscis is largely pro-
vided with nematocysts, sending the
urticating rods of different sixes m all
directions. I n others this surface is beoet
with thick, glandular, adhesive papillae.
The comparison with the glove-finger
ui in so far insufficient as the greater
portion of the non-evertible half of the
proboscis is also hollow and clothed by
glandular walls. Only at the very hinder-
most end does it pass into the so<allcd
retractor-muscle (fig. 3), which is at-
tached to the wall olthe space, or rhyn-
chocoeT, in which the proboscis moves
about. This retractor-muscle, indeed,
serves to pull back with great rapidity
the extruded proboscis, and is aided
in its action by the musculature of the
head. The extrusion itself depends en-
tirely upon contraction of the muscular
walls 01 the space just mentioned, the
rhynchocoel. As it is (i) closed on all Br, Brain-lobes,
sides, and (3) filled with a corpuscular N, Lateral nerves,
fluid, the contractions alluded to send PS, Proboscidian sheath,
this fluid to impinge against the anterior Pr, Proboscis,
portion, where the proboscis, floating in P.0.
Its sheath, is attached with it to the
muscular tissue of the head (fig. 3).
Partial extrusion lessening the re«st-
ance in this redon inevitably follows,
and when further contractions of the
walb of the sheath ensue total ex-
trusion is the consequence. It is
worthy of notice that in those Nemertines which nuke a very free
use 01 their proboscis, and in which it is seen to be continually
protruded and retracted, the walls of the proboscidian sheath are
enormously muscular. On the other hand, they are much leas con-
siderably or even insignificantly so in the genera that are known
to make a rather a^nng use
of their proboscis. The niyn-
chocoel M formed by a split
which appears in tne meso-
blast surrounding the epi-
blastic pit which is the fore-
runner of the proboscis.: It
does not seem to be coelomic
The proboscis, which is thus
an eminently muscular organ,
is composed of two or three,
sometimes powerful, layers of
muscles— one of longitudinal
and one or two of circular
fibres. In the po^erior re-
tractor the longitudinal fibres
become united into one bun-
dle, which, as noticed above, is
inserted in the wall of the
sheath. At the circular inser-
tion of the proboscis in front
of the brain tne muscular fibres of a Hoploncmcrtine.
belonging to the anterior ex- tracted ; fig. 5 everted.
tremity of the body and those
connected with the proboscis are very intimately interwo v e n , forming
a strong attachment. The short tube between this circular insertioo
and the rhynchostome is called the rhynchodaeum.
The proboscis broken off and expelled is generally reproduced,
the posterior ribbon-like end of thu reproduced
portion again fusing with the walls of the sheath.
There is reason to suppose that, when a wound i
inflicted by the central stylet, it is envenomed b',
the fluid secreted in the posterior proboscidian
region being at the same time expelled. A re-
servoir, a duct and a muscular bulb in the region
(fig. 4) where the stylet is attached serve for this pic. 6._The
purpose. The significance of two or more (in armature from
Drepanophorus very numerous) small sacs ron- the proboscis ol
taining so<alled " reserve " stylets resembling in Ihtpauophertu
shape that of the central dart is insufficiently known. '' '"'
The muscular walls of the rhynchocoel, which by their transverse
contractions serve to bring about eversion of the proboscis in the way
above traced, are attached to the musculature of the head just in
front of the ganglionic commissures (fig. 3). In nearty all Nemertirtcs
the rhynchococlcxtends backwards as far as the posterior extremity,
just above the anus; in Carinella it is limited to the anterior body-
region. The corpuscles floating in ^ fluid it conuins are of definite
Fic. 4. Fic. s
Fics. 4. 5.— Proboscis with stykt.
t and muscular bulb
Fig. 4 rc-
pcnerally reproduce
jced >«.^
ath. '^•^A.
Id is ^
dian If
.«• (/
eion w
NEMERTINA
365
abapc and in Cerebnhdus mrtieans they are deep red. possibly from
tbe presence of haemoglobin. They arc usually larger than the blood
corpuscles. Internally the muscular la)rers are lined by an epi-
thdiam. In the posterior portion this epithelium in certain HtUro-
ntwitrtea has a more glandular appearance, and sometimes the
interior cavity is obliterated by cell-proliferation in this region.
Saperiorly the sheath either closely adheres to the muscular body-
wall, with which it may even be partlv interwoven, or it hangs
fredy in the connective tissue which fills the space between the
iatcstine and the muscular bodv-walL
Cmtamtous System. — ExtemaUy in all species a layer of ciliated
celh forms the outer investment. In it are, moreover, enclosed
anicellular glands pouring their highly refracting contents, of a more
or less rod-like shape, directly to the exterior. They appear to
be tbe principal source of the mucus these animals secrete. In most
Heterooeniertines these elements are separated by a thin homo-
eeneoos basement membrane (fig. 8) from the following — that b,
tirom a layer in which longitudinal muscular fibres are lately inter-
mixed with tortuous glands, which by reason of their deeper situation
communicate with the exterior by a much longer and generally very
narrow duct. The iMgment u also principally localized in this layer,
slthoogh sometimes it is present even deeper down within the
musculatufe. The passage from this tegumentary layer to the
Mibjaccnt longitudinal muscular one is gradual, no membrane
separating them. In CSoniMsUa. Cepkaiatkrix, Polia and the Metane-
mcrtiaea the two te^mentary layers with their different glandular
elnnents are fused into one; a thick layer of connective tissue
is situated beneath them (instead of be t wee n them) and keeps the
entire cutaneous system more definitely separate from the muscular
(fi«.7.8). *^
Miusctdalmrt and QmnecHve Tissue. — ^The muscular layers by which
the body-wall » constituted have been very differently and to some
extent confusingly described by the successive authors on Nemertean
anatomy. There u sufficient reason for this confusion. The fact
B that not only have the larger subdivisions a different arrangement
and cren number of the muscular layers, but even within the same
genua, nay, in the same q)ecics, well-marked differences occur.
cHraX
•
Jffn
P»
U^
arm
UUmy.
Fig. 7-
Fio. 8.
Fio. 9.
Figs. 7-9.— The layers of the body-wall In carineUa (fig. 7), the
Mekaumertimi (fig. 8) and the HeiercnewierUni (fig. 9). c, (Jellular
tissue of tbe integument; Bm, basement membrane;^ cire. i. outer
circular, and Ung.^ longitudinal layer of muscular tissue: circ. 2,
long. I, additional circular and longitudinal layers of the same;
a/, nervoos layer.
Increase in sise appean sometimes to be accompanied by the develop-
ment of a new layer of fibres, whereas a difference in the method of
preparation may give to a Layer which appeared homogeneous in
one specimen a decidedly fibrous aspect in another. Nevertheless
there are throe principal tvpes under which the different modifications
can be arranged. One of them is found in the two most primitively
organixBd genera. Carindla and Cepkalolkrix, i.e. an outer circular, a
longitadinal and an inner circular layer of muscular fibres (fig. 7).
The second is comnson to all the Heteronemertines. as well as toFclta
and VaUncisnA, and also comprehends three layers, of which, how-
ever, two are loi^tudinal. vix. the external and tne internal one.
there being a strong circular layer between them (fig. 9;. To the
third type all the Metanemerttm correspond; their muscular layers
are only two, on external circular and an internal longitudinal one
(fir8).
The Heteranemertim thus appear to have devdopcd an extra la3rer
of lof^tudinal fibres internally to those which they inherited from
saore primitive ancestors, whrnas the Metanemerttm are no longer
in pos ses sion of the internal circular layer, but have on the contrary
largely developed the external circular one. which has dwindled
away in the HetercnemertmL The situation of the lateral nerve-
stems in the different genera with respect to the muscular lavers
lends definite support to the interpretation of their homologies here
given and forma the basis of BQrger's classification.
In CsrnMsOa. Cepkalolkrix ana PoNa, as well as in all Metane-
.raertines. the basement membrane of the skin already alluded
to is partaculariy strong and immediately applied upon the muscular
bycfs. In the Heteroneme r tines there is a layer in which the
cuuneo«» elements are largely represented below the thin basement
" I. 8). between it and the bulk of the outer longitudinal
i difference in the appearance of the basement mem-
imes wholly bomoeeneous. sometimes eminently
fibrillar— can more especially be observed in differently preserved
— ' ) of the genus PoUo.
Thc<
Fig. 10 _Flo. 11
Figs. id. ii.— Brain and
The connective tissue of the int^ument and basement membrane
imperceptibly merges into that which surrounds the muscular
bundles as they are united into denser and definite layers, and this u
especially marked in those forms ^Akroslomum) where the density of
the muscular body-wall has considerably diminished, and the con-
nective tissue has thus become much more prominent. It can then at
the same time be observed, too. that the compact mass of connective
tissue (" reticulum." Barrois) which lies between the muscular body-
wall and the intestine is directly continuous with that in which tne
muscular layers are embedded. Nuclei are everywhere present. The
omnipresence of thu connective tissue tends to exclude the formation
of any pmvisceral body cavity in Nemertinet.
In PoUa the connective tissue enclosed in the external muscular
layer b eminently vacuolai^^all the intermediate stages between
such cells in which the vacuole predominates and the nucleus is
peripheral and those in which the granular protoplasm still entirely
fills them being moreover present.
In addition to the musculature of the proboscis and proboscidian
sheath. k>ngitudinal muscular fibres are found in the walb of the
oesophagus, whilst transverse ones are numerous and united Into
vertical dissepiments be t ween the successive intestinal caeca, thus
bringing about a very regular internal meUmerixation. The genital
producu devekm in intermediate spaces similariy limited by these
dissepiments and alternating with the digestive caeca.
Nervous System and Seuse Orfans.—The nervous system of Nemer-
tines presents several interesting peculiarities. As central organs
we have to note the brain-k)ba
and the longitudinal lateral cords
which form one continuous unseg-
mented mass ol fibrous and cellular
nerve-tissue. The fibrous nerve-
tissue is more dense in the higher
differentiated, more loose and
spongy in the lower organised
forms; the cellular nerve-tissue b
similariy leM compact in the forms . . , «
that are at the base of the scale, lateral organ of a Schiaonemer-
No ganglionic swellings whatever tine (fif. 10) and a- Hopk>-
occur in the course of the longi- nemertine (fig. 11). «o. Exterior
tudinal cords. The brain must oe opening; uJ, superior brain-
looked upon as the anterior thick- lobe; pJ.» posterior brain-lobe,
em'ng of these cords, and at the same
time as the spot where the two halves of the central nerve s)rstem
intercommumcate. This is brought about by a double commissure,
of which the ventral portion is considerably thicker than the doreal,
and which, together with the brain-lobes, constitutes a ring through
whkh both proboscb and proboscidian sheath passw The brain-lobes
are generally four in number, a ventral and a dorsal pair, req)ectivdy
united together by the above-mentioned commissures, and moreover
anterioriy interfusing with each other, riffht and left. In CarineUa
thb separation into lobes of the anterior thickenings of the cords has
not yet commenced, the ventral commissure at the same time being
extremely bulky. There b great probabiUty that the central stems,
together with the brain, must be kx>ked upon as k)cal longitudinal
accumulations of ner- y^^sz^^^^^^*^
vous tissue in what was _ ./l/***^ ->' ^.^X^. .^A*
in more primitive an-
cestors a less highly
differentiated nervous
plexus, situated in the
body-wall in a similar
way to that which still
is found in the less
h ighly or«inizedCoclcn-
tcratcs. Such a nervous
plexus indeed occurs
in the body-wall of all
Heteronemertines,
sometimes even as a i_ -^ LJVf
comparatively thick pio. 12.— The brin of a Nemertine, with,
layer, situated, aa are jt. lobes and commbsuies.
S.N., Nerves to sensory apparatus.
P.N.I Nerves for proboscis.
Nervcii for oesophagus.
Lateral nerve-stems.
the nerve stems, be-
tween the extenoal
longitudinal and the _.
circular muscles (fig. rSj
9). In Car»ii*//a, where ^'"''
the longitudinal nerve-stems are situated exteriorly to the mus-
cular layers, this plexus, although present, is much less dense,
and can more fitly be compared to a network with wide meshes.
In both cases it can be shown to be in immediate continuity with the
coating of nerve-celU forming part of the longitudinal cords. It
stretches forward as far as the brain, and in CarineUa b again con-
tinued in front of it, whereas in the Heteronemertines the innervation
of the anterior extremity of the head, in front of the brain, takes the
form of more definite and less numerous branching stems. The
presence of this plexus in connexion with the central stems, sending
out nervous filaments amongst the muscles, explains the absence, in
Pro-, Meso- and Heteronemertines. of separate and distinct peri-
pheral nerve steins springing from the central stems innervating
the different organs and body-regions, the only cxc^ions being the
366
NEMERTINA
nerves for the probotdt, those for the tense orcans in the head and
the Btrong nerve pair {n, varus) for the oeaopnagus. At the came
time it renders more inteingible the extreme sensitiveness of the body-
wall of the Nemertines, a local and instanumcous irritation often
resulting in spasmodic rupture of the animal Vt the point touched. '
In the MetOHemertini, where the longitudinal stems lie inside the
muscular body-wall, definite and metamcrically placed nerve
branches spring from them and divide dichotomously in the different
tissues they innervate. A definite plexus can here no longer be
traced, In certain Metanemertines the lateral stems have been
noticed to unite posteriorly by a terminal commissure, situated
abofve the anus, the whole of the central nervous svstem being in
this way virtually situated above the intestine. In others there is an
approximation oi the lateral stems towards the median ventral line
(Dnpanophons); in a genus of Heteronemertines (Lanfia), on the
other hand, an arrangement occurs by which the longitudinal stems
are no lox^cr lateral, but have more or leas approached each other
dorally.
In addition to the nerves starting from the brain-lobes just now
especially mentioned, there is a double apparatus which can hardly
be tfcated of in conjunction with the sense organs, because its
sensory functions have not been sufficiently made out, and which
will therefore rather be considered along with the brain and central
nervous system. Thb apparatus is usually known under the name
of the lateral oiigans. To it bdong (a) superficial grooves or deeper
sUts utuated on the integument near the tip of the head. (6) nerve
lobes in immediate connexion with the nervous tissue of the brain,
and (c) ciliated ducts penetrating into the latter add communicating
with the former,, Embryology snows that originally these different
parts are separately started, and only ultimately become united
into one. Two lateral outgrowths of the foremost ))ortion of the
oesophagus, afterwards becoming constricted off, as well as two
ingrowths from the epiblast, contribute towards its formatbn, at
leut as far as both Meta- and Heteronemertines are concerned. As
to the Mesonemertinit in the most primitive genus, Carindtat we do
not find any lateral oi|^ns answering to the cfcscription above given.
What we do find is a slight transverse furrow on eacii side of the ncad,
close to the tip, but the most careful examination of sections made
through the tissues of the head and brain-shows the absence of any
further apparatus comparable to that described above. Only in one
species, Carindla ine x pe c lata, a step in advance has been made, in
so far as in connexion with the furrow just mentioned, which is
here also somewhat more complicated in its arrangement, a ciliated
tube leads into the brain, there to end blindly amidst the nerve-
cells. No other intermediate stages have as yet been noticed
between this arrangement and that of the Heteronemertini, in which
a separate posterior brain-lobe receives a similar ciliated canal, and
in which tne oesophageal outgrowths have made their appearance
and are coalesced with the nerve-tissue in the organ of the adult
animaL The histok«ical elements of this portion remain distinct
both by transmitted fight and in actual sections.
These posterior brain-lobes, which in all Heteronemertines are in
direct continuity of tissue with the upper pair of principal bbes,
cease to have this intimate connexion in tne Metanemertini; and,
althoush still constituted of (i) a ciliated duct, opening out exter-
nally, (2) nervous tissue surrounding it, and Cs) histological elements
distinctly different from the nervous, and most probably directly
derived from the oesopha^;eal outgrowths, they are nevertheless
here no longer constantly situated behind the upper brain-lobes and
directly connected with them, but are found sometimes behind,
sometimes beside and sometimes before the brain-lobes. Further-
more, they are here severed from the principal lobes and connected
with them by one or more rather thick strings of nerve-fibres.
In some cases, especially when the lobes lie before the brain, their
distance from it, as well as the length of these nervous connexions,
has considerably increased.
These curious neuro-glandular pits (fig. i), absent in the Mesone-
mertine and one or two aberrant species, have been shown to possess
large glandular cells at their base which secrete a mucus. The
development of these organs, which in the Protonemertinc are but
grooves in the epidermis, not far removed from the similar cephalic
slits of many Turbellaria, reaches its height in Dretanopkonu, Here
the pits split into two, one part ending in a sac lined with sensory'
epithelium, and embedded in nervous tissue, the oihcr projecting
backwards as a long, glandular, blind canal. The exit of these organs
takes many shapes, of value in systematic work. Their function b
still little understood. Two lateral, shallow pits occur on the ude
of the body about the level of the hinder end of the proboscis in
some spedes of the genus Carindla, which are termed side-organs.
These are capable <n being everted, and are probably sensory in
functbn (fig. ao. /7). , ^ ^ ^j, ^
For the Heteronemertines arguments have been adduced to prove
that here they have the physiotogical significance of a special respir-
atory apparatus for the central nervous tis-ue, which in all these
forms b strongly charged with haemoglobin. The hacmogbbin
would, by its pre-eminent properties of fixing oxygen, serve to
furnish tne nerve system, whkh more than any other requires a
constant su^ly, with the necessary oxygen. Such could hardly
be obtained in any other way by those worms that have no specbl
respiratory apparatus, and that live in mud and under stones whare
i-water is practically
the natural supply of freshly oxygenated 1
limited. Whether in the Metanemertines, where the bkod fluid is
often provided with haemogiobiniferous dbks. the chief functions
of the side organs may not rather be a sensory one needs further
investigation.
The exterior opening of the duct has been several times alluded to.
In the Metanemertines it b generally situated towards the mtddb
of a lateral transverse groove on either side
of the head, as was noticed for Carinetla, and
as b also present in Polia. Generally a
row of shorter grooves perpendicular to the
first, and simiiiariy provided with strong
cilia, enlarges the surface of these furrows
(fig. 14). m VaUncinia there is nothing but
a circular opening without furrow. In all
Heteronemertines there b on each side of
the head a longitudinal slit of varying length
but generally considerable depth, in the !-„„., vm-w. « n#.»i
bottom of whkh the dark red brain b very if'f Tl^TS^LSJJ^
»u:..i.. «:«:ku k„ ♦^..- -. Tk— -i:.' 91 * Mcteronemertinc
FkC. 14.
'4- —
Lateral views of head
13) with longi-
plainly visible by transparency. These slits
are contiiAied into the cilbtcd duct, being ti,a:«ar'«Iir ^nA W»
at the same time themselves very strongly M-»!»Um*rtS«irris« t J\
ciliated. InlifetheyareoommonlJrhythSir. tJth tra^^SS^^^Ji
cally opened and shut by a wavv move- ]Sdfunwr^*^
ment. They are the head slits (cephalic "^ »»'"'"•
fissures, *' Kopfspalten ") so characteristk of thb aubdivinoa
(fin. 10 and 13).
With respect to the sense organs of the Nemertines, we find that
eyes are of rather constant occurrence, although many Hetero-
nemertines living in the mud appear to be blind. The more highly
organized species have often very numerous eyes {Ampkiporus,
Dnpanopkonu)t which arc provided with a spherical refractinc
anterior portion, with a cellular " vitreous body,'* with a layer of
delicate radially arranged rod», with an outer sheath of dark pigment,
and with a separate ncrvc-twig each, springing from a common or
double pair 01 branches which leave the brain as n. opHci, for the
innervation of the eyes. Besides these more highly diffcrcntbtcd
organs of vision, more primitive eyes are present in othen down to
simple stellate pigment specks without any refracting apparatus.
Orsans of hearing in the form of capsules containing otoliths
have only been very rarely observed, apparently only in MttoM'
flUTttHt.
As to the organ of touch, the great senutiveness of the body haa
already been noticed, as well as the probable primary significance
of the proboscb. Small tufts of tactile nairs or papillae are sometimes
observed in small number at the tip of the head ; sometimes longer
hairs, apparently rather stiff, are seen on the surface, very sparim;ly
dbtributed between the cilb, and hitherto only in a very limiicd
number of small specimens. They may perhaps be coiuidcrcxi as
sensory.
Digestioe System. — ^The anterior opening, the mouth, b sttuatrd
vcntrally. close to the tip of the head and in front of the brain in the
Metanemertini^ somewhat more backward and behind the brain in
the other Nemertines. In most Heteronemertines it b found to be
an elongated slit with corrugated borders; in the Metanemertines
it b smalkrr and rounded; in Malacobdeila and Akrostommm it.
.moreover, serves for the extrusion of the proboscis, which emerges
by a separate dorsal opening just inride the mouth. The oesophagus
b the anterior portion of the digestive canal; its walb are folded
longitudinally, comparatively thick and provided with longitudinal
muscular fibres. Two layers are spiecially obvious in its walls-— the
inner layer bordering the lumen being composed of smaller cilbtcd
cells, the outer thicker one containing numerous granular celb and
having a more glandular character. Outside the wall of the oeso-
pha^ a vascuuir space has been detected which b in direct con-
tinuity with the longitudinal blood-vessels. In certain cases, how-
ever, the walls of the oesophagus appear to be very closely applied
to the muscular body-wall and this vascular qiaoe thereby con-
siderably reduced.
The posterior portion of the intestine b specially characterixcd
by the appearance of the intestinal diverticula horizontally and
symmetrically placed right and left and opposite to each other.
In the Metanemertini there b a curious diverticulum of the intes-
tine which stretches forward in the median line, ventral to the so-
called stomach. It b at times saccubted, but its chief interest b that,
as Lebcdinsky * has shown, the tip of the caecum in embryonk life
opens to the exterior as the blastopore. This subsequently closes up,
and the newly-formed oesophagus and stomach open in tlae intestire
above and behind it. It b a curious feature in Nemertines that the
alimentary canal seldom contains traces of food and yet most of these
worms are voracious. The food must be digested, absorbed and ex-
creted with great rapidity. There b some evidence that in thb
Sroup the ectoderm of the oesophagus is chiefly concerned with
igestion, whereas the endoderm of the intestine b limited to the
absorptbn of the soluble products.
Cases of asymmetry or irregularity in the arrangement of the
intestinal caeca, though sometimes occurring, are not normal. At
the tip of the tail, where the growth of the animal takes place, tht
■ Arek, mikr, AnaL xlix. C1897) p. 503.
NEMERTINA
367
1 are always enunently regular. So they are throughout (he
vbde body in most of the MetanemertinM. In Carindla they are
generally deficient and the intestine straight ; in young specimens
of this species, however, they occur, though leas regular ana nuwe in
tiK form of incipient foldings by which the digestive surface is,
incfpascd. The inner surface of the intestinal caeca is ciliated, the
caeca themselves are some-
times — especially in the
hindermost portion of the
bodv — of a considerably
smaller lumen than the in-
termediate genital spaces;
sometimes, however, the
reverse is the case, and in
both cases it is the smaller
lumen that appears enclosed
between and suspended by
the transverse nbres con-
stituting the muscular dis-
sepiments above mentioned.
The anus is situated ter-
minally, the muscular body-
wall through which the
intestine must find its way
outwards probably acting
in this region the part of a
sphincter. The lateral nerve
stems mostly terminate on
both sides in closest prox-
imity to the anus; in cer-
tain species, however, they
interfuse by a transverse
connexion above the anus.
The longitudinal blood-
vessek do the same.
Circulatory AMnrafus. —
The chief vessels are three
longitudinal trunks, a
median and two lateral ones.
They are in direct con-
nexion with each other both
at the posterior and at the
anterior end of the body.
At the posterior end they
communicate together by a
T-shaped connexion in a
simple and uniform way.
Anteriorly there is a cer-
tain amount of difference
in the arrangement. Where-
as in the Metancmertincsan
arrangement prevails as re-
Fio. 17.
FiCS. 15-17-— Diagrammatic
tions to show disposition of internal
_ _ presented in fig. 18, in the
orga'ns in Ckriii^iTiProtme^UnTi. Heteronemertines the
ag. 15, HeUronemertini, fig. 16, and lateral stems, while entirely
JUtctaiitmertsni, fig. 17.
C. Cellular portion of integument.
B. Basement membrane.
A . Circular muscular layer.
A', Longitudinal muscular layer.
A', Second circular (in CarineUa).
A", Second longitudinal (in
nemertint).
N, Nervous layer.
Lff, Lateral nerves.
PS, Cavity of probosddian sheath (the
sheath itself of varying thickness).
P. Probosda.
/. Intestine.
LBv, lateral blood-vesseL
DBv, Dorsal blood-vessel.
CT, Connective tissue.
uniform all through the
posterior portion of the
body, no longer individually
exist in the oesophageal
region, but here dissolve
themselves into a network
Hetero.* o^ vascular spaces surround-
- ing this portion of the di-
gntive tract. The median
dorsal vessel, however, re-
mains distinct, but instead
of continuing its course be-
neath the proboscidian
sheath it is first enclosed by
the ventral musculature of
this organ, and still farther
forwards it even bulges out
longitudinally into the
cavity of the sheath. Anterioriy it finally communicates with the
lacunae just mentioned, which surround the oesophagus, bathe the
posterior lobes of the brain, pass through the nerve ring together
with the proboscidian sheath, and arc generally continual in front
of the brain as a lacunar space in the muscular tissue, one on each
ade.
Special mention must be made of the delicate transverse vessels
reguUriy connecting the longitudinal and the lateral ones. They
are metamerically placed, and belong to the same metamere as the
digestive caeca, thus alternating with the generative sacs. The
biood fluid does hot flow in any definite direction ; its movements
are largely influenced by those of the muscular body-wall. It is
colourleM and contains definite corpuscles, which are round or
elliptical, and in many Metanemertines are coloured red by haemo-
globin, bcin^ colourless in other species. The circulatory system
of Carindla » considerably different, being more lacunar and less
lestricted- to definite- vascular channels. Two lateral longitudinal
lacunae form, so to say, the forerunners of the lateral vessels. A
median longitudinal vessel and transverse connecting trunin have
not as vet been detected. There are lanre lacunae m the head in
front of the ganglia.
The vascular system is entirely closed. It contains a colourless
fluid, with flat, oval nucleated corpuscles, as a rule colourless, but in
some cases tinged with yellow or red haemo-
globin. Its presence u one of the most dis-
tinctive features which separate the Nemer-
tines from the Platyhelminthes. In origin
the vascular system b due to a fusion of
spaces which arise in the meaoblast of the
larva. The blood is probably circulated by
the general contraction of the whole animal,
since it is very doubtful if there are any
intrinsic muscles in the vessel-walls. Its
function b less that of respiration than of r,c «q Diaeram
conveying the digested food-products all over „f Jh,. Hn^Jorv
the bod^. and tffe excretpry^^roducts. to the fppa^tus i^e SS^
nephndia, and doubtless it serves at times to tS^rhodvr^onoi
assist inthe extension and retraction of parts . MetancmeS^
of the body. The vessels in the more highly- "»c"»«-™«**«^
devck>ped genera seem to be partly lacunae and partly true veaaeb
with definite walls.
Nephridia, — ^Associated with the lateral blood-vessels are the single
pair of nephridia. Each consists of a more or less coiled, ciliated,
longitudinal canal, which on its external surface gives origin to one
or more transverse canals, which pass to the exterior and open a
little way behind the mouth on the sides of the body. On its inner
surface the longitudinal canal is adpresscd to the lateral blood-
vessel, and gives off a number of small, blind caeca or tags, each of
which ends in a small clump of cells. These tags indent the blood-
vesseL From their inner ends, projecting into the lumen of the tag,
hangs a bunch of cilia, which forms the flickering " flame " so well
known in the excretory apparatus of the Platyhelminthes and larval
Annelids (fig. 19). There is no communication between the nephridia
on one side and the other, but in Eupdia there are ducts opening
into the alimentary canal as well as to
the exterior, a condition of things which
recalls what obtains in certain Oligochaetes.
As a rule these organs only extend a short
way along the anterior end of the body,
a concentration which we may associate
with the development of a vascular system '
to bring the products of excretion to a
fixed spot. In Siichostemma, however.
Montgomeiy^ has described a series of
nephndia lying all along the body,
and each with a varying number of
external pores. The excretory system ia
epiblastic in its origin.
The ^ two external openings of the
nephridia are situated sometimes more
towards the ventral, at other times more
towards the dorsal side. Even in the
laiger Heteronemertines these pores are
only a few millimetres behind tne mouth
region. In transverse sections the nephridia
can be shown to be generally situated in
thetegion limited by (i) the proboscidian
sheath, (2) the upper wall of tne intestine,
(3) the muscular body-wall. No trace of
nephridia is found posterior to the oeso-
pMgus.
Generalae System. — In the Nemertines
the sexes are separate, with only very Fic. 19. — Part of the
few exceptions (Tetraslemma kerma- excretory system lying
phroditica, Marion). The reproductive on the lateral vessel m
system is of the simplest, strongly con- Drepano^horus specta-
trasting with the complicated arrange- bitis. (Magnified about
ments in the Platyhelminthes. A series 750.) i, The longitudinal
of sacs lined with an epithelium, the pro- excretory canal; 2, one
liferation of which gives rise to the ova of the tap containing the
or spermatozoa, alternate between the flame-cells.
caeca of the intestine. When mature,
each sac pushes out a process to the exterior, and this forms
the genital duct. The line of the genital openings is usually
dorsal to the lateral nerve. The whole sac, with its epithelial
wall and its contained genital cells, arises ultimately from some
of the parenchymatous cells of the body. The walls and con-
tents in some forms arise simultaneously; in others the walls are
first formed and their lining then proliferates. It has been pointed
out that the cavity of the sacs corresponds in many particulars with
the coelom of higher animals, and in Lebidinsky's observations on
the development there is some support to the view that a coelom
exists. Montgomery has also described certain spaces which may
be coelomic lying between the alimentary canal and the inner
longitudinal layer of muscles in the Heteronemertini. The ova and
^Zod. Jahrb. Anat., x. (1897) p. 265.
368
NEMESIANUS
spermatoioa, when mature, present no peculiarities. As the ova are
in many species deposited in a gelatinous tube 'secreted by the body-
walls, in which they are arranpKl (three or more together) in flask-
shaped cavities, impregnation must probably takeplace either before
or at the very moment of their being deposited. . The exact mode has
not yet been noticed.
pharynx, and he sums up their relationship to the Annelids by the
statement that to a certam extent the Nemertines represent Turbd-
laria which in the course of time have copied certain features of an
Annelid character.
Literature.— I. Barrois, " Rccherches sur I'embryologie des
N6mertes," Annaies dcs Sc. NatureUes, vi. (1877); O. Batschli,
Fig. 30. — ^Anterior end of a CarituUa, partly diagrammatic. Magnified. (From BQrger.) 1, Opening of proboscis: 9, oephalit.
glands runnine to frontal organ; 3. dorssil coihmissure of brain; 4, cerebral organ; 5, upper dorsal nerve; 6, under dorsal nerve;
7, rh)rnchocoelic blood-vessel; 8, fore-gut; 0, rhynchocoel: 10, nerve to proboscis; 11, proboscis; 13, genital sac; 13, genital pore;
14, mid-gut;. 15, circular nerves; 16. pore ot excretory system; 17, lateral oi^an; 18. excretory canal; 19, lateral vessel; 30.
lateral nerve; 31, oesophageal nerve; 33, mouth ; 33, ventral ganglion of brain; 34, dorsal ganglion of brain; ^5, rhyndiodaeum.
Development.— The crnbrj'olchg:)' of the Nomfrtinc? ofTers some
very rrmarkablc pecutlariuu*. Our knowWcc oC ihe devfploprncnt
of the rn<>5i primitive forrnft is scanty. Butn //^fcrtf- and Mttane-
mertini havr bwn mort citKauetively stiidiH ihsn the other two
erocipai, the (irst. a* was nw iced above, btjng chAfaacrizicd by peculiar
larval fDrms, the second dcvclaping withoijt mctdmorphosis..
The brv-a of CfrthrQiuiui is call™ the pilidium. In exTcrior sh^ipe
It fencmblcs a helmet with epikc 5ind ear-labcSj the »pike bcinsj a
stmng and tone flagellum or a tufi of Ion,;: cilj-i. the xi:ir-LJtv% liir ral
•dliaticd appcndagi^ (.fig. Ji). [t cncl4T.;tL, the pnmLti^f ili-r^N t.iry
tract. Two pairs of invaginations of
the sldn, which originally are called
the prostomial and mctastomial disks,
grow round the intestine, finally fuse
together, and form the skin and mus-
cular body- wall of the future Nemcr-
tine, whidi afterwards becomes cili-
ited, frees itself from the pilidium in-
vestment and develops into the adult
worm without further metamorphosis.
The efixs of these species are not
envelopra by such massive gelatinous
strings as are those of tne genus
Lineus. In the latter we find the
young Nemertines crawling about
after a period of from six to eight
weeks, and probably feeding upon a
portion of tnis gelatinous substance.
Fig. 31. — Pilidium-larva. which is found to diminish in bulk.
B, Bunch of cilia or flagel- In accordance with these more scden-
St,
lum.
Oesophagus.
Stomach.
Oesophageal outgrowth
for lateral organ.
am, Amnion,
^f. J., Prostomial disk.
poui., Metastomial disk.
tary habits during the first phases of
life, the charactenstic pilidium larva,
which is so eminently adapted for a
pelagic existence, appear to have
been reduced to a dose-fitting exterior
layer of cells, which is stripped off
after the definite body-wall of the
Nemertine has^ similarly originated
out of four ingrowths from the
primary epiblast. To this reduced and sedentary pilidium the
name of " larva of Desor " has been given.
In the Metanemertini, as far as they have been investigated, a
direct development without metamorphosis has been observed.
It appears probable that this is only a further simplification of the
more complicated metamorphosis described above.
As to the development 01 the different organs, there is still much
that remain's doubtful. The hypoblast in some forms originates by
invagination, in others by dclaminatton. The proboscis is an in-
vagination from the epiblast; the proboscidian sheath appears in
the mcsoblast, but is perhaps originally derived from the hypoblast.
The origin of the lateral organs has already been noticed ; that of the
nerve system is essentially epiblastic.
Affinities. — ^The position of the Nemertines in the animal king-
dom is now looked upon as more isolated than was formerly thought,
and recent writers have been inclined to treat them as a separate
phylum. Whether this view be adopted or not, and whether the
Turbellaria be regarded as neariy related or only remotely connected,
there can be little doubt that the Nemertines resemble the Turbel-
laria more neariy than they do any other group of animals. BQr^r
even goes to far as to horoologize the proboscis with the Turbellanan
" Einige Bemerkungen zur Metamorphose des Pilidiunb,*' Archn
far NaturteschichU (1873): L. von Graff. MpnotrapkU dtr Tur^
bellarien (1883): A. A. W. Hubrecht. " Uncersuchungcn aber
Nemertinen a. d. Golf von Neapel." Ntederl, Arckw fitr Zodope,
li. ; Id,, " The Genera of European Nemerteans critically revisra."
NoUs from the Ltyden Museum (1879); Id,, "Zur Anatomie u.
Physiologie «* Nervensystems d. Nemertinen," Verk, hem. A had,
V. Wetensch. (Amsterdam, 1880), vol. xx.; Id., "The Peripheral
Nervous Sysfem of the Palaeo- and Schizoneroertini, one of the layers
of the Body- wall," Quart. Journal of liter. Science, vol. xx.; Id^
" On the Ancestral Forms of the Chordata,** lb. Quly 1883): W.
Keferstein, " Untersuchungen Qber niedere Seethiere," Zeitsckr.
f. wissensck. Zool. vol. xii. (1863); J.* von Kennel, " Beitr^e
zur Kcnntniss der Nemertinen," Arbeiten a. d. Moot.-aoot. lussa,
ii. (Warzburg, 1878);. W. C. Macintosh, A Monograph of British
Annelida: I. Nemerteans (Ray Society, 1873-1874); A. F. Marion.
" Recherches sur les animaux inf^ieurs du Golfe de Maneille,"
Ann. des Sc. Nat. (1873); E.. Metschtiikoff, " Studien Qber die
Entwickelung d^ Echinodermen und Nemertinen," Mim. de VAcad,
Imp. de St PeUrsb. xiv. (1869); Max Schultze, Beitrdge tur Natur-
geschichU der Turbdlarien (Greifswald, 1851) and Zeilschr. fur
wissensch. Zool. iv. (1853), p. 178; W. B. Benham. Quart. Joum.
Micr, Set. xxxix. (1896). p. 19; A. Brown, Proc. Roy. Soc. Ixi.
(1897}, p. 38; O. BQrger, Zeit. f. wiss. Zool. I. (1890). p. i; Id.,
Mia. Zool. St Neapel, x. (1891), p. 306; Id., Zeit. f. unss. ZooL
Itii. (1892). p. 333; Id., Verk. Deutsch. tod. CeseUsch. (1893):
Id., Fauna u. Flora d. Golfe d. Neapel, Monograph 33 (1895;;
A. Dendy,Proe./?oy. 5oc. Ku:/or»tf(n.s.),iv. (1893). p. 85, v. pu 137
(1891-1893); B. Haller,^ilf&. Zoof. Inst. Wien, yiii^ (1889). p. 276;
Arch, Zool.
Blanchard's TrailA de Moologie (1894); J. N. Lebedinsky, Arch.
Hubrecht, " Challenger " Reports, xix. (1887); L. joubin,
{. Exper. (2), viii. (1890), p. 461 ; Id., '* Nemertines," in
i's TraiU de Moologie (1894); J. N. Lebedinsky, Arch.
Mihr, i4fiai. xlix. (1897), p. S03; T. H. Montgomery, Zool. Anaeig.
xvii. (1894), pp. 398, 301; Id., Zeit. J. wiss, Zool. lix. (1895). p. 83;
Id., ZotTjahrb. {Anat.) x. (1897J, p. i; A. E. VerSl. frmu.
), p. 383: D. Bergendal.
Cocj Zool.Jahrb. {AmsL)
Connecticut Acad. New Haven, vin. (1
Zool. Anuiger, xxiii. (1900), p. 313; W. ix. v.«c, *..«». .,ut*ru. vviinu.^
xii. (1899), p. 435; Id., Trans. Connect. Acad. ix. (1895), p. 479:
Id., Proc. Wash. Acad. iii. (1901), p. i ; T. H. Montgomery. Jomrm,
Morph., xiii. (1897) p. 381; Id., Zool. Jahrb. (Anat.) x. (1897).
?'. 365: R. C. Punnett, Quart. Joum. Mic. Sc. xliv. (looo), p. iii;
d., WUley's Zool. Results, pt. v. (1900). p. 569; Id., Quart. Jomm.
Mic. Sc. xliv. (I9o0> P- 547: Staub, Semon^s Foruhungsreiseu
(5 Bd., 1900); C. B. Thompson, Zool. Anuiger, xxiii. (1900). pp. 151,
627; C. B. Wilson, Quart. Joum. Mic. Sc. xliii. (1000), p. 97.
NEMESIANUS, MARCUS AUREUUS OLYMPIUS, Roman
poet, a native of Carthage, flourished about a.d. 383. He was
a popular poet at the court of the Roman emperor Carus
(Vopiscus, Carus, 11). He wrote poems on the arts of fishini;
(Halieutica), aquatics (Nautica) and hunting (Cynegaica), but
only a fragment of the last, 325 hexameter lines, has been
preserved. It is neatly expressed in good Latin, and was used
as a school text-book in the 9th century. Four eclogues, formeriy
attributed to Titus Calpumius (q.v.) Siculus, are now generally
considered to be by Nemesianus, and the Praise of HercnUs,
generally printed in Claudian's works, may be by him.
_ Complete edition of the works attributed to him in E. Bihreoa.
NEMESIS— NEMOURS, LORDS AND DUKES OF
369
PodaeLttim Min&res, iii. (x88i); Cyue^Hea: cd. M. IfaupC (with
Ovid's HaUeutica and Grattius Falitcus) 1838, and IL Stern, with
Crattius (1832) ; Italian translation with notes by L. F. Valdrighi
(1876). Tbe four eclogues are printed with those of Calpumius in
ih« editions of H. Schenkl (1S8O and E. H. Keene (1887) -.see
L Cisorio. Studio suUe Eglcghe di N. (189s) and Dell' imiiazion*
%(IU Etfdfeie di N. (1896): and M. Haupt. De Carminibus Bucolicis
Oiifmrni$ ei N. (1853). the chief treatise on the subject.
VBMBSIS. the personification of divine justice. This is the
only sense in which the word is used in Homer, while Hcsiod
{Theoi. 233) makes Nemesis a goddess, the daughter of Night
(some, however, regard the passage as an interpolation); she
appears in a still more concrete form in a fragment of the Cypria.
The word Nemesis originally meant the distributor (Gr. fc/mu')
of fortune, whether good or bad, in due proportion to each man
according to his deserts; then, the resentment caused by any
disturbance of this proportion, the sense of justice that could
not allow it to pass unpunished. Gruppc and others prefer to
connect the name with vquoaif, ■ wqutaiitaBai (" to feel just
resentment ")• In the tragedians Nemesis appears chiefly as
the avenger of crime and the punisher of arrogance, and as such
is akin to Ate and the Erinyes. She was sometimes called
Adrasteia, probably meaning " one from whom there is no
ecape*'; the epithet is specially applied to the Phrygian
Cybele, with whom, as with Aphrodite and Artemis, her cult
siiows certain affinities. She was specially honoured in the
district of Rhamnus in Attica, where she was perhaps originally
an ancient Artemis, partly confused with Aphrodite. A festival
called Nemcseia (by some identified with the Gcnesia) was held
at Athens. lu object was to avert the nemesis of the dead,
who were supposed to have the power of punishing the living,
if their cult had been in any way neglected (Sophocles, Eiccfra,
7^3; E. Rofade, Psychtf 1907, i. 236, note i). At Smyrna
there were two divinities of the name, more akin to Aphrodite
than to Artemis. The reason for this duality is hard to explain;
it is suggested that they represent two aspects of the goddess, the
kindly and the malignant, or the goddesses of the old and the
sew dty. Nemesis was also worshipped at Rome by victorious
generals, and in imperial times was the patroness of gladiators
and ttnaiores (fighters with wild beasts) in the arena and one of
the tutelary deities of the drilling-ground {Nemesis campestris).
In the 3rd century A.O. there is evidence of the belief in an all-
powerful Nemesis-Fortuna. She was worshipped by a society
called Nemesiad. In early times the representations of Nemesis
resembled Aphrodite, who herself sometimes bears the epithet
Nemesis. Later, as the goddess of proportion and the avenger
of crime, she has as attributes a measuring rod, a bridle, a'sword
and a scourge, and rides in a chariot drawn by griffins.
See C. Walz. De Nemesi Crtueorum (TQbingen. 1853) ; E. Toumier,
Himisis (1863). and H. Posnansky, " Nemesis und Adrasteia." in
Bredaner pktMotischg Abkandlungen, v. heft 2 (i8;h3)i both ex-
haustive monographs ; an essay, " Nemesis, or the Divine Envy,"
W P. E. More, in The New World (N. Y.. Dec. 1899): L. R- Famcll.
Ctdts of the Greeh SlateSf ii. ; and A. Lcgrand in Darcmberg and
Saglio's Dictumnaire des atUiquiUs. For the Roman Nemesis, see
G. Wis»wa, Reiigiou uad KmUus der Rimer (MOnich, 1903}.
I (fl. c, A.D. 390), a Christian philosopher, author
of a treatise npl ^Offeat ij^punrov {On Human Nature) , was,
according to the title of his book, bishop of Emesa (in Syria);
of his life nothing further is known, and even his date is uncertain,
but internal evidence points to a date after the Apollinarian
controversy and before the strife connected with the names of
Eutyches and Nestorius, i,e, about the end of the 4th century.
His book is an interesting attempt to compile a system of anthro-
pology from the standpoint of the Christian philosophy. Moses
and Paul are put side by side with Aristotle and Menander,
and there is a dear inclination to Platonic doctrines of pre-
existence and metempsychosis. In physiological matters he
is in advance of Aristotle and Galen, though we can hardly
assert—as has sometimes been thought— that he anticipated
Harvey's discovery of the drculation of the blood. The treatise
is condtisive evidence as to the mutual influence of Christianity
and Hdlenism in the 4th century. John of Damascus and the
schoolmen, induding Albertus Magntis and Thomas Aquinas,
XIX 7
hdd Nemesius in high esteem, believing his book to be the work
of Gregory of Nyssa, with whom he has much in common.
Editions: Antwerp, 157$: Oxford, 1671; Halle, i8oa: Mice's
Palrol, Cr, vol. 40. Versions: Latin by Alsanus, ed. Holzingcr
(1887); by Burgundio, ed. Burkhardt (1891-1896). Literature:
Bender, Untersuch. uher Nemesius (1898). See further Herzog-
Hauck's Realencyhlop, s.v,
NBHORENSIS LACUS (mod. Nemi), a lake in the Alban
Hills, in an extinct subsidiary crater in the outer ring of the
andcnt Alban crater, £. of the Lake of Albano. It is about
3i m. in diameter and some xio ft. deep; the precipitous slopes
of its basin are over 300 ft. high, and on the side towards the
modern village a good deal more, and are mainly cultivated.
1 1 is now remarkable for its picturesque beauty. In ancient times
it was included in the territory of Arida, and bore the name
" Mirror of Diana." The worship of Diana here was a very
ancient one, and, as among the Scythians, was originally, so it
was said, celebrated with human sacrifices; even in imperial
times the priest of Diana was a man of low condition, a gladiator
or a fugitive slave, who won his position by slaying his pre-
decessor in fight, having first plucked a mistletoe bough from
the sacred grove, and who, notwithstanding, bore the title of
rex (king). It is ctirious that in none of the inscriptions that have
been found is the priest of Diana mentioned; and it has indeed
been believed by Moipurgo and Frazer that the rex was not the
priest of Diana at all, but, according to the former, the priest
of Virbius, or, according to the latter, the incarnation of the
spirit of the forest. The temple itself was one of the most splendid
in Latium; Octavian borrowed money from it in 31 B.C., and
it is frequently mentioned by ancient writers. Its remains arc
situated a little above the levd of the lake, and to the N.E. of
it. They consist of a lazge platform, the back of which is formed
by a wsdl of concrete faced with opus reticuiaiumt with niches,
resting against the cliffs which form the sides of the crater.
Excavations in the 1 7th and the last quarter of the X9th centuries
(now covered in again), and also in 1905, led to the discovery
of the temple itself, a rectangular edifice, 98 by 5a ft., and of
various inscriptions, a rich frieze in gilt bronze, many statuettes
(ez-votos) from the Javissae of the temple in terra-cotta and
bronze, a large number of coins, &c. None of the objects seem
to go back beyond the 4th century B.C. A road descended to
it from the Via Appia from the S.W., passing through the modem
village of Gcnzano. The lake b drained by a tunnel of about
3 m. long of Roman date. On the W. side of the lake remains
of two ships (really floating palaces moored to the shore) have been
found, one bdonging to the time of Caligula (as is indicated by
an inscription on a lead pipe), and measuring a 10 ft. long by
66 wide, the other even larger, 333 by 80 ft. The first was
decorated with marbles and mosaics, and with some very fine
bronze beamheads, with heads of wolves and lions having rings
for hawsers in their mouths (and one of a Medusa), now in the
Museo ddle Terpe at Rome, with remains of the woodwork,
&c., &c. Various attempts have been nuuie to raise the first
ship, from the middle of the xsth century onwards, by which
much harm has been done. The neighbourhood of the lake was
naturally in favour with the Romans as a residence. Caesar
had a villa constructed there, but destroyed again almost at
once, because it did not satisfy him.
See F. Bamabci. jy^o/izM degli scavi (1895), 361, 461 ; (1896). 188;
397 «qq. (T. As.)
NEMOURS, LORDS AND DUKES OF. In the 12th and 13th
centuries the lordship of Nemours, in G&tinais, France, was in
possession of the house of Villebeon, a member of which, Gautier,
was marshal of France in the middle of the 13th century. The
lordship was sold to King Philip III. in 1274 and 1276 by Jean
and Philippe de Nemours, and was then made a county and
given to Jean de Grailly, captal de Buch in 1364. In 1404
Charles VI. of France gave it to Charles III. of Evreux, king of
Navarre, and erected it into a duchy in the peerage of France
(ducki-pairie). Charles III.'s daughter, Beatrix, brought the
370
NEMOURS, DUG DE
duchy to her husband Jacques de Bourbon, count of La Marche,
and by the marriage of their daughter, Eleanor, to Bernard of
Armagnac, count of Pardiac, it pa^ed to the house of Armagnac.
After being confiscated and restored several times, the duchy
reverted to the French crown in 1505, after the extinction of the
house of Armagnac-Pardiac. In 1507 it was given by Louis XII.
to his nephew, Gaston de Foiz, who was killed at Ravenna in
1 512. The duchy then returned to the royal domain, and was
detached from it successively for Giuliano de Medici And his
wife Philiberta of Savoy in 1515, for Louise of Savoy in 1524, and
for Philip of Savoy, count of Genevois, in 1528. The descend-
ants of the last-mentioned duke poss^sed the duchy until its
sale to Louis XIV. In 1572 Louis gave it to his brother I^iilip,
duke of Orleans, whose descendsmts possessed it imtil the
Revolution. The title of due de Nemours was afterwards given
to Louis Charles, son of King Louis Philippe, who is dealt with
separately below.
The following are the most noteworthy of the earlier dukes of
Nemours.
Jaices of AsiCACNAC, dukc of Nemours (e. 1433-1477), was
the son of Bernard d'Armagnac, count of Pardiac, and Eleanor of
Bourbon-La Marche. As comtede Castres, be served under
Charles VII. in Normandy in 1449 and 1450; and afterwards in
Guienne. On the accession of Louis XI. the king loaded him
with honours, married him to his god-daughter, Louise of Anjou,
and recognized his title to the duchy of Nemours in 1462. Sent
by Lows to pacify Roussillon, Nemours felt that he had been
insufficiently rewarded for the rapid success of this expedition,
and joined the League of the Public Weal in 1465. He subse-
quently became reconciled with Louis, but soon resumed his
intrigues. After twice pardoning him, the king's patience
became exhausted, and he besieged the duke's chAteau at Carlat
and took him prisoner. Nemours was treated with the utmost
rigour, being shut up in a cage; and was finally condemned to
death by the parlement and beheaded on the 4th of August 1477.
See B. de Mandrot, Jacques d'Armagnac, due de Nemours (Paris,
1890).
Phzup of Savoy, duke of Nemours (1490-1533), was a son
of Philip, duke of Savoy, and brother of Louise of Savoy, mother
of Francis I. of France. Originally destined for the priesthood,
he was given the bishopric of Geneva at the age of five, but
resigned it in 1510, when he was made count of Genevois. He
served under Louis XIL, with whom he was present at the battle
of Agnadello (1509), imder the emperor Charles V. in 1520, and
finally under his nephew, Francis I. In 15 28 Francis gave him
the duchy of Nemours and married him to Charlotte of Orlians-
LonguevUle. He died on the 25th of November 1533.
His son, James (1531-1585), became duke of Nemours In
X533. He d^tinguished himself at the sieges of Lens and Metz
(1552-1553), at the battle of Renty (1554) and in the campaign
of Piedmont (1555). He was a supporter of the Guises, and had
to retire for some time into Savoy in consequence of a plot.
On his return to France he fought the Huguenots, and signalized
himself by his successes in Dauphin6 and Lyonnais. In 1567 he
induced the coiirt to return from Meaux to Paris, took part in
the battle of Saint Denis, protested against the peace of Long-
jumeau, and repulsed the invasion of Wolfgang, count palatine
of Zweibriicken. He devoted his last years to letters and art,
and died at Annecy on the X5th of Jime .1585.
By his wife Anne of Este, the widow of Francis, duke of
Guise, the duke left a son, Chakles Esocanuel (1567-1595),
who in his youth was called prince of Genevois. Involved
in political intrigues by his relationship with the Guises, he was
imprisoned after the assassination of Henry, duke of Guise,
and his brother the cardinal of Lorraine, in 1 588, but contrived to
escape. He fought at Ivry and Arques, and was governor of
Paris when it was besieged by Henry IV. After quarrelling
VTith his half-brother Charles of Lorraine, duke of Ma3renne, he
withdrew to his government of Lyonnais, where he endeavoured
to make himself independent. He was imprisoned, however,
in the ch&teau of Pierre-Endse by the archbishop of Lyons.
After his escape he attacked Lyons, but was defeated owing
to the intervention of the constable de Montmorency. He died
at Annecy in July 1595.
His brother Henry (i 572-1633), called originally marquis de
Saint-Sorlin, succeeded him as duke. In 1588 he took the
marquisate of Saluzzo from the French for his cousin, the duke
of Savoy. The princes of Guise, his half-brolhers, induced
him to join the League, and in 1591 he was made governor of
Dauphin6 in the name of that faction. He made his submission
to Henry IV. in 1596. After quarrelling with the duke of Savoy
he withdrew to Burgundy and joined the Spaniards in their
war against Savoy. After peace had been proclaimed on the
X4th of November x6x6, he retired to the French court. He died
in 1632, and was succeeded by his eldest son, Louis, and on the
death of the latter in 164X by his second son, Charles Auadeus
(1634-1652), who served in the army of Flanders in 1645, ^^^
in the following year commanded the light cavalry at the siege
of Courtrai. In 1652 he took part in the war of the Fronde, and
fought at B16neau and at the Faubourg St Antoine, where be
was wounded. On the 30th of July of the same year he was
killed in a duel by his brother-in-law, Francois de Venddme,
duke of Beaufort. He had two daughters, Marie Jeanne Baptistc
(d. X724), who married Charles Emmanuel of Savoy in 1665;
and Marie Fran^oise Elisabeth, who married Alphonso VI.,
king of Portugal, in 1666. His brother Henry (1625-X659),
who had been archbishop of Reims, but now withdrew from
orders, succeeded to the title. In 1657 he married Marie
D'ORLiANS-LoNGUEViLLE (1625-X707), daughter of Henry II.
of Orleans, duke of Longueville. This duchess of Nemours is
a famous personage. At an early age she was involved in
the first Fronde, which was directed by her father and her
stepmother. Anne (knevieve de Bourbon-Cond^, the cele-
brated duchcsse de Longueville; and when her husband died
in X659, leaving her childless, the rest of her life was mainly
spent in contesting her inheritance with her stepmother. She
left some interesting MSmoires, which arc published by C. B.
Pctitot in the CMeclion compUte des mimoires (1819-1829).
NEMOURS. LOUIS CHARLES PHIUPPE RAPHAEL. Due oe
(1814-1896), second son of the duke of Orleans, afterwards
King Louis Philippe, was bom on the 25th of October 1814.
At twelve years of age he was nominated colonel of the first
regiment of chasseurs, and in 1830 he became a chevalier of the
order of the Saint Esprit and entered the chamber of peers..
As early as 1825 his name was mentioned as a possible candidate
for the throne of Greece, and in X83X he was elected king of
the Belgians, but international considerations deterred Louis
Philippe from accepting the honour for his son. In February 183 x
he accompanied the French army which entered Belgium to
support the new kingdom against Holland, and took part in
the siege of Antwerp. He accompanied the Algerian expedition
against the town of Constantine in the autumn of 1836, and in a
second expedition (1837) he was entrusted with the command
of a brigade and with Uie direction of the siege operations before
Constantine. General Damr£mont was killed by his side on the
1 2th of October, and the place was taken by assault on the X3th.
He sailed a third time for Algeria in X841, and served under
General Bugeaud, taking part in the expedition to reviciual
Medea on the 29th of April, and in sharp fighting near Mih'ana
on the 3rd to 5th of May. In the expedition against the fortified
town of Takdempt he commanded the xst infantry division.
On his return to France he became commandant of the camp
of Compiegne. He had been employed on missions of courtesy
to England in X835, in 1838 and in X845, and to Beriin ai»d
Vienna in 1836. The occasion of his marriage in X840 with
Victoria, daughter of Duke Ferdinand of Saxe-Cobuig, was
marked by a check to Louis Philippe's government in the form
of a refusal to bestow the marriage dowry proposed by Thiers xq
the chamber of deputies. The death of his elder brother.
Ferdinand, duke of (}rlcans, in 1842 gave him a position of greater
importance as the natural regent in the case of the accessioo of
his nephew, the young count of Paris. His reserve and dislike
of public functions, with a certain haughtiness of manner, how-
ever, made him unpopular. On the outbreak of the revoluiioB oi
NEMOURS— NENNIUS
37»
tM he hfeld tlie Tuilenes bsg enough to cover the king's retxeat,
but refrained from initiating active measures against the mob.
He followed his sister-in-Uw, tlie duchess of Orl6ans, and her two
SODS to the chamber of deputies, but was separated from them
by tlie lioters, and only escaped finally by disguising himself
in the uniform of a national guard. He embarked for EngUuid,
where be settled with his parents at Claremont. His chief aim
during his exile, especially after his father's death, was a re-
conciliation between the two branches of the house of Bourbon,
as indispensable to the re-establishment of the French monarchy
in any form. These wishes were frustrated on the one hand
by the attitude of the comte de Chambord, and on the other
by the determination of the duchess of Orleans to maintain the
pretensions of the count of Paris. Nemours was prepared to
go further than the other princes of his family in accepting the
principles of the legitimists, but lengthy negotiations ended
in 1857 with a letter, written by Nemours, as he subsequently
explained, at the dictation of his brother, Francois, prince de
Joinville, in which he insisted that Chambord ^ould express
his adherence to the tricolour flag and to the principles of con-
stitutional govemmenL In 187 x the Orleans princes renewed
their professions of allegiance to the senior branch of their house,
but they were not consulted when the count of Chambord came
to Paris in 1873, and their political differences remained until
his death in 1883.
Nemours had lived at Busbey House after the death of Queen
Marie Am^lie in x866. In 1871 the exile imposed on the French
princes was withdrawn, but he only transferred his establishment
to Paris after their disabilities were also removed. In March
1873 he was restored to his rank in the army as general of division,
and placed in the first section of the general staff. After his
retirement from the active list he continued to act as president
of the Red Cross Society until x88x, when new decrees against
the princes of the blood led to his withdrawal from Parisian
society. During the presidency of Marshal MacMabon, he bad
appeared from time to time at the £lys^. He died at Versailles
00 the a6th of June X896, the duchess having died at Claremont
on the xoth of November x8s7. Their children were Louis
Philippe Marie Ferdinand Gaston, comte d'Eu (b. X842), who
married Isabella, eldest daughter of Don Pedro II. of Brazil;
Ferdinand Philippe Marie, due d'Alengon (b. X844), who married
Sophie of Bavaria (X847-X897), .sister of the empress Elizabeth
of Austria; Margaret (1846-X893), who married Prince LAdislas
Czartoryski; and Blanche (b. 1857).
Sec R. Bazin. Le Dvc de Nemours (1907); Paul Thureau-Dangin,
Histoirt de la mtmarckic de juSlet (4 vols., 1884, &c.).
HEMOUHS, a town of northern France, in the department of
Sctne-et-Mame, on the Loing and its canal, 36 m. S. of Melun,
00 the Paris-Lyon railway. Pop. (1906) 48x4. The church,
which dates mainly from the x6th century, has a handsome
wooden spire, and there is a feudal castle. A statue of the
mathematidan Bizout (d. 1783), a native of the town, was erected
in 1885. In the vicinity is a group of fine sandstone rocks, and
sand Is extensively quarried: Nemours is supposed to derive its
tame from the woods (nemora) in the midst of which it formerly
stood, and discoveries of Gallo-Roman remains indicate its early
OTtgitt. It was captured by the English in 1420, but derives its
historical importance rather from the lordship (afterwards
duchy) to which it gave its name. In X58S a treaty revoking
previous concessi(ms to the Protestants was concluded at Nemours
between Catherine de Med ici and the Guises.
NEVADOVICH, MATEYA (i777-i8S4). Servian patriot, was
bom in 1777. He is generally called Prota Mateya, since as a
boy of sixteen he was made a priest, and a few years later became
archpriest (Prota) of Valyeva His father, Alexa Nenadovich.
Kna (chief magistrate) of the district of Valyevo, was one of the
most popular and respected public men among the Servians at
the beginning of the 19th century. When the four leaders of
the Janissaries of the Belgrade Pashalic <the so-called Dahis)
thought that the only way to prevent a general rising of the
Servians was to intimidate them by murdering all their principal
men, Alexa Nenadovich was one of the first victims. The
policy of the Dahis, Instead of preventing, did actually and
ixnmediately provoke a general insurrection of the Servians
against the Turks. Prota Mateya became the deputy-conunander
of the insurgents of the Valyevo distria (X804), but did xu)t
hold the post for long, as Kaxajseorge sent him in 1805 on a secret
mission to St Petersburg, and afterwards employed him almost
constantly as Servia's diplomatic envoy to Russia, Austria,
Bucharest and Constantinople. After the fall of Karageorge
(X813), the new leader of the Servians, Milosh Obrenovich, sent
Prota Mateya as representative of Servia to the Congress of
Vienna (x8x4-x8xs), where he pleaded the Servian cause inde-
fatigably. During that mission he often saw Lord Castlereagh,
and for the first time the Servian national interests were brought
to the knowledge of British statesmeiL
Prota Matcya^s memcMrs are the most valuable authority for the
histoiy of the first and second Servian insurrections against the
Turks. The best edition of the Memoari Profe MaUye Nenadovicka
was published by the Servian Literary Association m Belgrade in
1893.
NBNAGH, a market town of Co. Tlpperary, Ireland, finely
situated in a rich though hilly country near the river Nenagh,
96^ m. S.W. from Dublin by the Ballybrophy and Limerick
branch of the Great Southern & Western railway. Pop. (190X)
4704. Of the old castle, called Nenagh Round, dating from the
time of King John, there still exists the circular donjon or keep.
There are no remains of the hospital founded in x 300 for Austin
canons, nor of the Franciscan friary, founded in the reign of
Henry III. and one of the richest religious houses in Ireland. The
town is governed by an urban district council. It was one of the
andent manors of the Butlers, who recdved for it the grant of a
fair from Henry VUI. In 1550 the town and friary were burned
by O'Carroll. In X64X the town was taken by Owen Roe O'Neill,
but shortly afterwards it was recaptured by Lord Inchiquin.
It surrendered to Ireton iii X65X, and was burned by Sarsfield in
x688.
NENNIUS (fl. 796), a Welsh writer to whom we owe the
Historia Britonumt lived and wrote in Brecknock or Radnor.
Hb work is known to us through thirty manuscripts; but the
earliest of these cannot be dated much earlier than the year xooo;
and all are defaced by interpolations which give to the work so
confxtsed a character that critics were long disposed to treat it
as an unskilftil forgery. A new turn was given to the controversy
by Heinrich Zimmer, who, in his Nennius vindicalus (1893),
traced the history of the work and, by a comparison of the
manuscripts with the xith-century translation of the Irish
scholar, Gilla Coemgim (d. X073), succeeded in stripping off the
later accretions from the original nucleus of the Historia. Zimmer
follows previous critics in rejecting the Prologus maior (§§ x, 3),
the CapUulat or table of contents, and part of the MirabUia
which form the concluding section. But he proves that Nennius
should be regarded as the compiler of the Historia proper (§§ 7-65).
Zimmer's condusions are of more interest to literary critics than
to historians. The only part of the Historia which deserves to
be treated as a historical document is the section known as the
Cenealogiae Saxonum (§§ 57-65). This is merely a recension of
a work which was composed about 679 byaBritonof Strathdyde.
The author's name is unknown; but he is, after Gildas, our
earliest authority for the facts of the English conquest of England.
Nennius himself gives us the oldest legends relating to the
victories of King Arthur; the value of the Historia froih this
point of view is admitted by the severest critics. The chief
authorities whom Nennius followed were Gildas' De excidio
BritonuMf Eusebius, the Vila Patricii of Murichu Maccu Mach*
theni, the CMectanea of Tirechan, the Liber ouupalionis (an
Irish work on the settlement of Ireland), the Liber de sex
aetaiibtts mundif the chronicle of Prosper of Aquitaine, the
Liber beati Cermani, The sources from which he derived his
notices of King Arthur (§ 56) have not been determined.
See J. Stevenson's edition of the Historia Britonum (English Hist.
Soc., 1838), based on a careful study of the MSS. ; A. de la Borderie,
VHistoria Bn/ofium (Paris and London, 1883). which summarizes
the older negative critidsm; H. Zimmer, Nennius vindicatus
(Berlin. 1893); T. Mommsen* in Neues Arcktv der Cesellsekaft fir
dUere deutifhe Cesckichtskunde, xix. 383. (H. W. C. D.)
372
NEO-CAESAREA, SYNOD OF— NEOPLATONISM
NEO-CAESAREA, SYNOD OF, a synod held shortly after that
of Ancyra, probably about 314 or 315 (although Hcfele inclines
to put it somewhat later). Its principal work was the adoption
of fifteen disciplinary canons, which were subsequently accepted
as ecumenical by the Council of Chalcedon, 451, and of which the
most important are the following: L degrading priests who
jnarry after ordination; vii. forbidding a priest to be present
at the second marriage of any one; viii. refusing ordination
to the husband of an adulteress; xi. fixing thirty years as the
age below which one might not be ordained (because Christ
began His public ministry at the age of thirty); xiii. according
to city priests the precedence over country priests; xiv. per-
mitting Chorepiscopi to celebrate the sacraments; xv. requiring
that there be seven deacons in every city.
See Mansi ii. pp. 539-551; Hardouin i. pp. 283-286; Hefelc
(and ed.) i. pp. 242-251 (Eng. trans, i. pp. 222-230). (T. F. C.)
NEQCOMIAN, in geology, the name given to the ]owest stage
of the Cretaceous system. It was introduced by J. Thurmann
in 1835 on account of the development of these rocks at Neuch&tcl
(Neocomum), Switzerland. It has been employed in more than
one sense. In the type area the rocks have been divided into
two sub-stages, a lower, Valanginian (from Valcngin, E. Desor,
1854) and an upper, Hautcrivian (from Hautcrive, E. Renevier,
1874) ; there is also another local sub-stage, the infra- Valanginian
or Berriasian (from Berrias, H. Coquand, 1876). These three
sub-stages constitute the Neocomian in its restricted sense.
A. von Kocnen and other German geologists extend the use
of the term to include the whole of the Lower Cretaceous up to
the top of the Gault or Albian. Renevier divided the Lower
Cretaceous into the Neocomian division, embracing the three
sub-stages mentioned above, and an Urgonian division, including
the Barremian, Rhodanian and Aptian sub-stages. Sir A.
Gcikie {Text Book of Geology, 4th ed., 1903) regards " Neocomian"
as synonymous with Lower Cretaceous, and he, like Renevier,
closes this portion of the system at the top of the Lower Green-
sand (Aptian). Other British geologists (A. J. Jukes-Browne,
&c.) restrict the Neocomian to the marine beds of Speeton and
Tealby, and their estuarine equivalents, the Weald Clay and
Hastings Sands (Wealden). Much confusion would be avoided
by dropping the term Neocomian entirely and employing
instead, for the type area, the sub-divisions given above. This
becomes the more obvious when it is pointed out that the
Berriasian type is limited to Dauphinc; the Valanginian has
not a much wider range; and the Hauterivian does not extend
north of the Paris basin.
Characteristic fossils of the Berriaaan are Hoplttes eutkymi, H.
occitanicus; of the Valanginian, Natica leptathan, BeUmnUes pisiil-
liformis and B. dilatatus, Oxynoliceras Cevrili; of the Hautcnvian,
IJopliUsradiatus, Crioceras capricomu, Exotyra Covloni a.nd Toxasler
compicnatus. The marine equivalents of these rocks in England are
the lower Speeton Clays of Yorkshire and the Tealby beds ofLincoln-
shire. The Wcaldcn beds of southern England represent approxi-
mately an estuarine phase of deposit of the same age. Tne Hils
clay of Germany and Wealdcn of Hanover; the limestones and
shales of Teschcn; the Aptychus and Pyzope diphyoides marls of
Spain, and the Petchorian formation of Russia are equivalents of
the Neocomian in its narrower sense.
See Cretaceous, Wealden, Speeton Beds. (J. A. H.)
NEOCORATB, a rank or dignity granted by the Senate under
the Roman Empire to certain cities of Asia, which had built
temples for the worship of the emperors or had established
cults of members of the imperial family. The Greek word
vwKhpos meant literally a temple-sweeper (i«iit, temple, Kopttp,
to sweep), and was thence used both of a temple attendant
and of a priestly holder of high rank who was in charge of a
temple.
NEOLITHIC, or Later Stone Ace (Gr. in^, new, and.X£9ot,
stone), a term employed first byLord Avebury and since generally
accepted, for the period of highly finished and polished stone
implements, in contrast with the rude workmanship of those
of the earlier Stone Age (Palaeolithic). Knowledge of Neolithic
times is derived principally from four sources, Tumuli or ancient
burial-mounds, the LaJcc-dwcllings of Switzerland, the Kitchen-
middeDS of Denmark and the Bone-Caves. No trace of metal
is found, except gold, which seems to have been sometimes used
for ornaments. Agriculture, pottery, weaving, the domestica-
tion of animals, the burying of the dead in dobnens, and the
rearing of megalithic monuments are the typical developments
of man during this stage.
See Archaeology ; also Lord Avebury, Prehistoric Times (1900) ;
Sir John Evans, Ancient Stone Implements oj Great Britain (1897);
Sir J. Prestwich, Geology (i 886-1888).
NEOPHYTE (Gr. n6^os , from viofs, new, ^vr6r, a plant,
" newly planted ")» a word used in the Elcusinian and other
mysteries to designate the newly initiated, and in the cariy
church applied to newly baptized persons. These usually
wore the white garments which they received at their admission
to the church (see Baptism) for eight days, from Easter eve till
the Sunday after Easter (hence called Dominica in allns), but
they were subject to strict supervision for some time longer
and, on the authority of x Tim. iii. 6, were generally held
ineligible for election as bishops, a rule to which, however, history
shows ,some notable exceptions, as in the cases of St Ambrose
at Milan in 374 and Syncsius of Cyrene at Ptolemaic, in 400,
who were chosen bishops before they were even baptized. By
the council of Nicaea (325) this rule was extended to the priest-
hood. The ancient discipline is still maintained in the Roman
Church, and applies to converts from Christian sects as well
as to those from heathenism. The period, however, is deter-
mined by circumstances. The term " neophyte " is also some-
times applied in the Roman Church to newly ordained priests,
and even— though rarely—to novices of a religious order. In
a transferred sense the word is also given to one beginning to
learn any new subject.
See Bergier, Diet, de tkSologie, 8.v. ; Martigny. Diet, des OKfftMd^,
PP* 433-43$; Sicgcl, CkristRche Alter thumer, iii. 17 sea.; Riddle.
Christ. Antt^ities, pp. 313, i22;yNakoit, Sacred ArchaeMogy,s.v.
NEOPLATONISM, the name given specially to the last school
of pagan philosophy, which grew up mainly among the Greeks
of Alexandria from the 3rd century onwards. The term has
also been applied to the Italian humanists of the Renaissance,
and in modem times, somewhat vaguely, to thinkers who have
based their speculations on the Platonic metaphysics or on
Plotinus, and incorporated with it a tendency towards a mystical
explanation of ultimate phenomena.
Historical Position and Significancc^-The political history
of the ancient world ends with the formation, under Diocletian
and Constantine, of a universal state bearing the' cast of Oriental
as well as Graeco-Roman civilization. The history of ancient
philosophy ends in like manner with a universal philosophy
which assimilated elements of almost all the earlier systems,
and worked up the results of Eastern and Western culture.
Just as the Later Roman empire was at once the supreme effort
of the old world and the outcome of its exhaustion, so Neo-
platonism is in one aspect the consummation, in another the
collapse, of andcnt philosophy. Never before in Greek or
in Roman speculation had the consciousness of man*s dignity
and superiority to nature found such adequate expression;
never before had real science and pure knowledge been so under-
valued and despised by the leaders of culture as they were by
the Neophitonists. Judged from the standpoint of em[»ricai
science, philosophy passed its meridian in PUto and Aristotle,
declined in the post- Aristotelian systems, and set in the darkness
of Neoplatonism. But, from the religious and moral point of
view, it must be admitted that the ethical " mood " which
Neoplatonism endeavoured to create and maintain is the higbest
and purest ever reached by antiquity.
It is a proof of the strength of the moral instmcts of mankind
that the only phase of culture which we can survey in all its
stages from beginning to i!nd ctilminated not in materialism,
but in the boldest idealism. This idealism, however, is also
in its way a mark of intellectual bankruptcy. Contempt for
reason and science leads in the end to barbarism — its necessary
consequence being the rudest superstition. As a matter of fad,
barbarism did break out after the flower had fallen from Neo-
platonism. The philosophers themselves, no doubt» still liycd
NEOPLATONISM
373
00 tJie knowledge they repudiated; but the masses were trained
toasoperstition with whkh the Christian church, as the executor
of Ncoplatonism, had to reckon and contend. By a fortunate
coincidence, at the very moment when this bankruptcy of the
old culture must have become apparent, the stage of history
was occupied by barbaric peoples. This has obscured the fact
that the inner history of antiquity, ending as it did in despair
of this world, must in any event have seen a recurrence of
barbarisnn. The present ^vorld was a thing that men would
neither enjoy nor master nor study. A new world was discovered,
for the sake of which everything else was abandoned; to
make sure of that world insight and intelligence were freely
sacri6ced; and, in the light that streamed from bevond, the
absurdities of the present became wisdom, and wisdom
became foolishness.
Such is Neoplatonism. The pre-SocratIc philosophy took
its stand on natural science, to the exclusion of ethics and
religion. The systems of Plato and Aristotle sought to adjust
the rival claims of physics and ethics (although the supremacy
of (he latter was already acknowledged); but the popular
reiigioos were .thrown overboard. The post - Aristotelian
philosophy in all its branches makes withdrawal from the
objective world its starting-point. It might seem, indeed, that
Stoicism indicates a falling off from Plato and Aristotle towards
materialism, but the ethical dualism, which was the ruling
tendency of the Stoa, could not long endure its materialistic
pbysics, and took refuge in the metaphysical dualism of the
Platonists. dut this originated no permanent philosophical
creatkm. From one-sided Platonism issued the various forms
of scepticism, the attempt to undermine the trustworthiness
of empirical knowledge. Ncoplatonism, coming last, borrowed
something from ^1 the schools. First, it stands in the line
of post-Aristotelian systems; it is, in fact, as a subjective philo-
sophy, their logical completion. Secondly, it is founded on
scepticism; for it has neither interest in, nor reliance upon,
empirical knowledge. Thirdly, it can justly claim the honour
of Plato's name, since it expressly goes back to him for its
metaphysics, directly combating those of the Stoa. Yet even
on this point it learned something from the Stoics; the Neo-
platonic conception of the action of the Deity on the world and
of the essence and origin of matter can only be explained by
reference to the dynamic pantheism of the Stoa. Fourthly,
the study of Aristotle also exercised an influence on Ncoplatonism.
This appears not only in its philosophical method, but also —
though less prominently— in its metaphysic. And, fifthly, Nco-
platonism adopted the ethics of Stoidsm; although it was
found necessary to supplement them by a still higher conception
of the functions of the spiriL
Thus, with the exception of Epicureanism — which was always
treated by Ncoplatonism as its mortal enemy—there is no out-
standing eariier system which did not contribute something to
the new philosophy. And yet Ncoplatonism cannot be described
as an eclectic system, in the. ordinary sense of the word. For, in
the first place, it is dominated by one all-pervading interest— the
religious; and in the secpnd place, it introduced .a new first
principle into philosophy, viz. the' supra-rational, that which
lies beyond reason and beyond reality. This principle is not to
be identified with the "idea" of Plato or with the "form" of
Aristotle. Neoplatonism perceived that neither sense perception
nor rational cognition is a sufficient basis or justification for
religious ethics; consequently it broke away from rationalistic
ethics as deddedly as from utib'tarian morality. It had therefore
10 find out a new world and a new spiritual function, in order
first to establish the existence of what it desiderated, and then
to realize and describe what it had proved to exist. Man, how-
ever, cannot transcend his psychological endowment. If he will
not allow liis thought to be determined by experience, he falls
a victim to his imagination. In other words, thought, which will
not stop, takes to mythology; and in the place of reason wc
have superstition. Still, as we cannot allow every fancy of the
subjective reason to assert itself, we require some new and potent
priodple to keep the imaginatioD within bounds. This is found
in the authority of a sound tradition. Such authority must be
superhuman, otherwise it can have no claim on our re£.pect; it
must, therefore, be divine. The highest sphere of knowledge —
the supra-rational— as well as the very possibility of knowledge,
must depend on divine oommunicationi — that is, on revelations.
In short, philosophy as represented by Neoplatonism, its sole
interest being a religious interest, and its highest object the supn-
rational, must be a philosophy of revelation.
This is not a prominent feature in Ptotinus or his immediate
disciples, who still exhibit full confidence in the subjective pre-
suppositions of their philosophy. But the later adherents of the
school did not possess this confidence'; they based their philo-
sophy on revelations of the Deity, and they found these in the
religious traditions and rites of all nations. The Stoics had
taught them to overstep the political boundaries of states and
nationalities, and rise from the Hellenic to a universal human
consciousness. Throtigh all history the spirit of God has breathed ;
everywhere we discover the traces of His revelation. The older
any religious tradition or mode of worship is, the more venerable is
it, the richer in divine ideas. Hence the andent religions of the
East had a peculiar interest for the NeopIatonisL In the inter-
pretation of myths Neoplatonism followed the allegorical method,
as practised especially by the Stoa; but the importance it
attached to the spiritualised myths was tmknown to the Stoic
philosophers. The latter interpreted the myths and were done
with them; the later Neoplatonists treated them as the proper
material and the secure foundation of philosophy. Neoplatonism
claimed to be not merely the absolute philosophy, the keystone
of all previous systems, but also the absolute religion, reinvigorat-
ing and transforming all previotis religions. It contemplated a
restoration of all the religions of antiquity, by allowing each to
retain its traditional forms, and at the same time making each a
vehide for the religious attitude and the religious truth embraced
in Neoplatonism; while every form of ritual was to become a
stepping-stone to a high morality worthy of mankind. In short,
Ncoplatonism seizes on the aspiration of the human soul after a
higher life, and treats this psychological fact as the key to the
interpretation of the universe. Hence tfale existing religions,
after being refined and spiritualized, were made the basis of
philosophy.
Neoplatonism thus represents a stage in the history of reh'gion;
indeed this is precisely where its historical importance lies.
In the progress of science and enlightenment it has no positive
significance, except as a necessary transition which the race had
to make in order to get rid of nature-religion, and that under-
valuing of the spiritual life which formed an insuperable obstacle
to the advance of human knowledge. Ncoplatonism, however,
failed as signally in its religious enterprise as it did in its phil-
osophical. While seeking to perfect ancient philosophy, it really
extinguished it; and in like manner its attempted reconstruction
of ancient religions only resulted in their destruction. For in
requiring these religions to impart certain prescribed religious
truths, and to inculcate the highest moral tone, it burdened them
with problems to which they were unequal. And further, by
inviting them to loosen, though not exactly to dissolve, their
political allegiance — the very thing that gave them stability-
it removed the foundation on which they rested. But might it
not then have placed them on a broader and firmer foundation?
Was not the universal empire of Rome ready at hand, and might
not the new religion have stood to it in the same relation of
dependence which the earlier religions had held to the smaller
nations and states? This was no longer possible. It is true that
the political and spiritual histories of the peoples on the Mediter-
ranean run in parallel h'nes, the one leading up to the universal
monarchy of Rome, the other leading up to monotheism and
tiniversal human morality. But the spiritual development had
shot far ahead of the political; even the Stoa occupied a height
far beyond the reach of anything in the political sphere. It is
also true that Neoplatonism sought to come to an twderstanding
* Poiphyry wrote a book, wpl r^t i« "kaylitm ^iXmro^at. but this
was before he became a pupil of Plotinus; as a philotopher he was
independent of the Ximim.
374
NEOPLATONISM
with the Byzantine Roman empire; Julian perished in the
pursuit of this project. But even before his day the shrewder
Ncoplatonists had seen that their lofty religious philosophy could
not stoop to an alliance with the despotic world-empire, because
it could not come in contaa with the world at all. To Neo-
platonism political affairs are at bottom as indifferent as all other
earthly things. The idealism of the new philosophy was too
heavenly to be naturalized in the Byzantine empire, which stood
more in need of police officiab than of philosophers. Important
and instructive, therefore, as are the attempts made from time
to time by the state and by individual philosophers to unite
Neopiatonism and the universal monarchy, their failure was a
foregone conclusion.
There is one other question which we are called upon to raise
here. Why did not Neopiatonism set up an independent religious
community? Why did it not provide for its mixed multitude of
divinities by founding a universal church, in which all the gods of
all nations might be worshipped along with the one ineffable
Deity? The answer to this question involves the answer to
another — Why was Neopiatonism defeated by Christianity?
Three essentials of a permanent religious foundation were want-
ing in Neopiatonism; they are admirably indicated in Augustine's
Confessions (vii. i8-ai). First, and chiefly, it lacked a religious
founder; second, it could not tell how the state of inward peace
and blessedness could become permanent; third, it had no
means to win those who were not endowed with the speculative
faculty. The philosophical discipline which it recommended
for the attainment of the highest good was beyond the reach of
the masses; and the way by which the masses could attain the
highest good was a secret unknown to Neopiatonism. Thus it
remained a school for the " wise and prudent "; and when Julian
tried to enlist the sympathies of the common rude man for the
doctrines and worship of this school, he was met with scorn and
ridicule.
It is not as a philosophy, then, nor as a new religion, that
Neopiatonism became a decisive factor in history, but, if one
may use the expression, as a " mood." The instinctive certainty
that there b a supreme good, lying beyond empirical experience,
and yet not an intellectual good — this feeling, and the accom-
panying conviction of the utter vanity of all earthly things,
were produced and sustained by Neopiatonism. Only it could
not describe the nature of this highest good; and there-
fore it had to abandon itself to imagination and aesthetic im-
pressions. It changed thought into an emotional dream;
it plunged into the ocean of sentiment; it treated the old world
of fable as the reflection of a higher reality, and transformed
reality into poetry; and after all these expedients, to borrow
a phrase of Augustine's, it only saw afar off the land of its
desire.
Yet the influence of Neopiatonism on the history of our
ethical culture is immeasurable, above all because it begot
the consciousness that the only blessedness which can satisfy
the heart must be sought higher even than the sphere of reason.
That man shall not live by bread alone, the world had learned
before Neopiatonism; but Neopiatonism enforced the deeper
truth— a truth which the older philosophy had missed— that
man shall not live by knowledge alone. And, besides the pro-
paedeutic importance which thus belongs to it, another fact
has to be taken into account in estimating the influence of
Neopiatonism. It is to this day the nursery of that whole type
of devotion which affects renunciation of the world, which
strives after an ideal, without the strength to rise above aesthetic
impressions, and is never able to form a clear conception of the
object of its own aspiration.
Ori'im.— As forerunners of Neopiatonism we may regard,
on the one hand, those Stoics who accepted the Platonic dis-
tinction between the sensible world and the intelligible, and,
on the other hand, the so-called Neopythagoreans and religious
philosophers like Plutarch of Chaeronea and especially Numenius
of Apamea. But these cannot be considered the actual pro-
genitors of Neopiatonism; their philosophic method is quite
elementary as compared with the Neoplatonic, their fundamental
principles are uncertain, and unbounded deference is still fttM
to the authority of PUto. The Jewish and Christian thinken
of the first two centuries approach considerably nearer tbaa
Numenius to the later Neopiatonism.' Here we have Philo,
to begin with. Philo. who translated the Old Testament religioa
into the terms of Hellenic thought, holds as an inference from
his theory of revelation that the divine Supreme Being Is " supra-
rational," that He can be reached only through " ecstasy ",
and that the oracles of God supply the material of moral and
religious knowledge. The religious ethics of Philo — a compound
of Stoic, Platonic and Neopythagorean elements— already
bear the peculiar stamp which we recognize in Neopiatonism.
While his system assigns the supremacy to Creek philosophy
over the national religion of Israel, it exacts from the former,
as a sort of tribute to the latter, the recognition of the elevation
of God above the province of reason. The claim of positive
religion to be something more than the intellectual apprehension
of the reason in the universe is thus acknowledged. Religious
syncretism is also a feature of Philo's system, but it differs
essentially from what we find in later Neopiatonism. For
Philo pays no respect to any cultus except the Jewish; and be
believed that all the fragments of truth to be found amongst
Greeks and Romans had been borrowed from the books of Moses.
The earliest Christian philosophers, particularly Justin and
Athenagoras, likewise prepared the way for the speculations
of the Neoplatonists— partly by their attempts to connea
Christianity with Stoicism and Platonism, partly by their
ambition to exhibit Christianity as " hyperplaionic." In the
introduction to his Dialotue with Trypko, Justin follows a
method which bears a striking resemblance to the later method
of Neopiatonism: he seeks to base the Christian knovi ledge
of God— that is, the knowledge of the truth— on Platonism.
Scepticism and " Revelation." A still more remarkable parallel
to the later Neopiatonism is afforded by the Christian Gnostics
of Alexandriai^especially Valentinus and the followers of Basilides.'
Like the Neoplatonists, the Basilidians believed, not in an
emanation from the Godhead, but in a dyiuunic manifestation
of its activity. The same is true of Valentinus, who also placed
an unnameable being at the apex of his system, and rcgairded
matter, not as a second principle, but as a product of the one
divine principle. It must be added that the dependence of
Basilides and Valentinus on 2>no and Plato is beyond dispute.
But the method observed by these Gnostics in thinking out the
plan and the history of the universe is by no means thoroughgoing.
Ancient myths are admitted without undergoing analysis; the
most naive realism alternates with daring efforts at spiritualiz-
ing. Philosophically considered, therefore, the Gnostic systems
are very unlike the rigorous self -consistency of Neopiatonism;
although they certainly contain almost all the elements which
enter into the Neoplatonic theory of the universe.
But were the oldest Neoplatonists really acquainted with
the speculations of Philo, or Justin, or Valentinus, or Basilides?
Did they know the Oriental religions, Judaism and Christianity
in particular? And, if so, did they really derive anything from
these sources?
To these questions we cannot give decided, still less definite
and precise, answers. Since Neopiatonism originated in
Alexandria, where Oriental modes of worship were accessible
to every one, and since the Jewish philosophy had also taken
its place in the literary circles of Alexandria, we may safely
assume that even the earliest of the Neoplatonists possessed
*The resemblance would probably be still more apparent if m^
thoroughly understood the development of Christianity at Alexancira
in the 2nd century: but unfortunately we have only very mcagrr
fragments to guide us here.
> The dogmas of the Basilidians, as given by Hippolytus, read
almost like passages from Neoplatonic works: Ml oUIr ^. ol>x tM-
Awpetpirutt AvoMf . Awri9ii|dbw* kAv^mv ^k^n wm^amt «frrwt
iner^m orkpiia T4 It Ixp» »*»«» Ir *«wri ri>» toD mhvpm w«*»»#«iU*
\pkUos. vii. ao seq.). See Gnosticism. Basiliobs, &c.
NEOPLATONISM
375
an acqumintance with Judaism and ChrisUaaity. But if we
search Plotinus for evidence of any actual influence of Jewish
and Christian philosophy, we search in vain; and the existence
of any such influence is all the more unlikely because it is only
the later Neoplatonism that offers striking and deep-rooted
parallels to Phik> and the Gnostics. The Philonic and Gnostic
philosophies thus appear to be merely an historical anticipation
of the Neoplatonic, without any real connexion. Nor is there
anything mysterious in such an anticipation. It simply means
that a certain religious and philosophical tendency, which
grrw up slowly on Greek soil, was already implanted in those
who occupied the vantage-ground of a revealed religion of redemp-
tioD.. We have to come down to lamblichus and his school
b:fore we find complete correspondence with the Christian
GDosticism of the 2nd century; that is to say, it Is only in the
4ih century that Greek philosophy in its proper development
reaches the stage at which certain Greek philosophers who
had embraced Christianity had arrived in the and century.
The influence of Christianity — whether Gnostic or Catholic
—on Neoplatonism was at no time very considerable, although
individual Neoplatonists, after Amelius, used Christian texts
as oracles, and put on record their admiration for Christ.
Uiitory and Doctrines.— Tht founder of the Neoplatonic school
in AJezandria is supposed to have been Ammonius Saccaa {q.v.).
^•^fi^^ But the Enncads of his papil Plotinus are the primary
and classical document of Neoplatonism. The doctrine
of Plotinus is mysticism, and like all mysticism it consists of
two main divisions. The first or theoretical part deals with the
high origin of the human soul, and shows how it has departed
from its first estate. In the second or practical part the way
is pointed out by which the soul may again return t6 the Eternal
and Supreme. Since the soul in its longings reaches forth beyond
ill sensible things, beyond the world of ideas even, it follows
that the highest being must be something supra-rational. The
system thus embraces three heads — (x) the primeval Being,
(3) the ideal world and the soul, (3) the phenomenal world.
We may also, however, in accordance wjth the views of
Pbtinus, divide thus: (A) the invisible world— (i) the primeval
Being, (2) the ideal world, (3) the soul; (B) the phenomenal
worki.
The primeval Being is, as opposed to the many, the One;
as opp(»cd to the finite, the Infinite, the unlimited. It is the
source of all life, and therefore absolute causality and the only
real existence. It is, moreover, the Good, in so far as all finite
things have their purpose in it, and ought to flow back to it.
But one cannot attach moral attributes to the original Being
itself, because these would imply limitation. It has no attributes
of any kind; it is being without magnitude, without life, without
thought; in strict propriety, indeed, we ought not to speak
of it as existing; it is " above existence," " above goodness."
It h also active force without a substratum; as active force
the primeval Being is perpetually producing something else,
without alteration, or motion, or diminution of itself. This
production is not' a physical process, but an emission of force;
and. since the produa has real existence only in virtue of the
(Miginal existence working in it, Neoplatonism may be described
as a species of dynamic pantheism. Diriectly or indirectly,
everything is brought forth by the "One." In it all things,
so far as they have being, are divine, and God is all iii all. Derived
existence, however, is not like the original Being itself, but is
subject to a law of diminishing completeness. It is indeed an
imaig^ and reflection, of the first Being; but the further the line
of successive projections b prolonged the smaller Is its share
in the true existence. The totality of being may thus- be con-
ceived as a series of concentric circles, fadiqg away towards
the verge of non-existence, the force of the original Being in
the outermost circle being a vanishing, quantity. Each lower
stage of being is united with the '* One " by all the higher stages,
and receives its share of reality only by transmission through
them. AD derived existence, however, has a drift towards^
a longing for, the higher, and bends towards it so far as its
nature will permit.
The original Being firvt of all throws out the mom , whkh is a perfect
image of the One and the archetype of »11 existing things, ft is at
once being and thought, kleal world and idea. As image, the nou^
corresponds perfectly to the One, but as derived it is entirtrly different.
What Plotinus understands by the nous ia the highest sphere acces-
sible to the human mind <«iv«iof m|t4i}, and, along with that,
pure thought itself.
The image and product of the motionless nous is the soul, which.
accocdittg to Plotinus is, like the nous, immaterial. Its relation to
the nous is the same as that of the nous to the One. It stands
between the nous and the phenomenal worid, is permeated and
illuminated by the former, but is also in contact with the latter.
The nous Is indivisible; the soul may preserve its unity and remain
m the nous, but at the same time it has the power of uniting with
the corporeal worid and thus being disintegrated. It therefore
occupies an intermediate position. Rm a single soul (world-soul) it
bek>ngs in essence and destination to the intelligible world; but it
also embraces innumerable individual soub; and these can cither
submit to be ruled by the nous, or turn aside to the sensual and lose
themselves in the finite
Then the soul, a moving essence, generates the corpoceal or pheno-
menal world. Thb worid ou^ht to do so pervaded by the soul that
its various parts should remain in perfect narmony. Plotinus is no
dualist, like the Christian Gnostksi he admires the beauty and
splendour of the world. So long as idea governs matter, or the soul
governs the body, the world is fair and good. It is an image —
though a shadowy image — of the upper world, and the degrees of
better and worse in it are essential to the harmony of the whole.
But in the actual phenomenal world unity and harmony are replaced
by strife and discord; the result is a conflict, a becoming and
vanishing, an illusive existence. And the reason for this state of
things is that bodies rest on a substratum of matter. Matter is the
baseworkof each {,T606Bo%U^rw 4 &X17); it is the dark principle, the
indeterminate, that which has no qualities, tj^e fi^ 8*. Destitute of
form and idea, it is evil ; as capable of form it a neutral.
The human souls which have descended into corporeality are those
which have allowed themselves to be ensnared by sensuality and
overpowered by lust. They now seek to cut themselves loose from
their true being; and, striving after independence, they assume a
false existence. They must turn back from this; and, since they
have not lost their freedom, a conversion is still possible.
Here, then, we enter upon the practical philosophjr. Along the
same road by which it descended the soul must retrace its steps back
to the supreme Qood. It must first of all return to itself. This is
accomplished by the practice of virtue^ which aims at likeness to
God, and leads up to God. In the ethics of Plotinus all the older
schemes of virtue are taken over and arranged in a graduated series.
The lowest stage is that of the civil virtues, then follow the purifying,
and last of all the divine virtues. The civil virtues merely- adorn
the life, without elevating the ^ul. That is the oflicc of the purifving
virtues, by which the soul is freed from sensuality and led back to
itself, and thence to the nous. By means of ascetic observances the
man becomes once more a spiritual and enduring being, free from all
sin. But there is still a higher attainment ; it is not enough to be
sinless, one must become " Uod." This is reached through contem-
plation of the primeval Being, the One — in other words, through an
ecstatic approach to it. Thoujght cannot attain to this, for thought
reaches only to the nous, and is itself a kind of motion. It is only in
a state of perfect passivity and repose that the soul can recogniae
and -touch the pnmeval Being. Hence the soul must first -pass
through a spiritual curriculum. Beginning with the contemplation
oi corporeal things in their multiplicity and harmony, it then retires
uponitadf and withdraws into the depths of its own being, rising
thence to the nous, the world of ideas. But even there it does not
find the Highestt the One; it still hears a voice saying, " not wc
have made ourselves." The last stage is reached when, in the highest
tension and concentration, beholding in silence and utter forgetful-
ncss of all things, it is able as it were to lose itself. Then it may see
God, the fountain of. life, the source of being, the origin of all good,
.the root of the soul. In that moment it enjoys the highest indescrib-
able bliss; it is as it were swallowed up of divinity, bathed in the
light of eternity.*
Such is (he reli^ous philosophy of Plotinus, and for himself
personally it sufficed, without the aid of the popular rcUgion
or worship. Nevertheless he sought for points of support in
these. God is certainly in the truest sense nothing but the
primeval Being; but He reveals Himself in a variety of emana-
tions and manifestations. The nous is a sort of second god,
the X670C which are wrapped up in it are gods, the stars are gods,
and so on. A rigid monotheism appeared to Plotinus a miserable
conception. He gave aoneaning to the myths of the popular
religions, and he had something to say even for magic, sooth-
saying and prayer. In support of image>worship he advanced
' Porphyry tells us that on four occasions during the six years of
their intercourse Plotinus attained to this ecstatic union with God.
376
NEOPLATONISM
arguments which were aftc^rwards adopted by ihe Christian
image- worshippers'. Still, as compared with the later Neo-
platonists, he is comparatively free from crass superstition and
wQd fanaticism. He is not to be classed amongst the " deceived
deceivers/' and the restoration of the worship of the old gods
was by no means his chief object.
Amongst his pupils, Amelius and Porphyry are the most
eminent. Amelius modified the teaching of Plotinus on certain
p^^ points; and he also put some value on the prologue
^''^'^* to the Gospel of John To Porphyry {q.v.) belongs the
credit of having recast and popularized the system of his master
Plotinus. He was not an original thinker, but a diligent student,
distinguished by great learning, by a turn for historical and
pbdological criticism, and by an earnest purpose to uproot false
teaching— especially Christianity, to ennoble men and train
them to goodness. The system of Porphyry is more emphatically
practical and religious than that of Plotinus. The object of
philosophy, according to Porphyry, is the salvation of the soul.
The origin and the blame of evil arc not in the body, but in the
desires of the soul. Hence the strictest asceticism (abstinence
from flesh, and wine, and sexual intercourse) is demanded, as
well as the knowledge of God. As he advanced in life, Porphyry
protested more and more earnestly against the rude faith of the
common people and their immoral worships. But, outspoken
as he was in his criticism of the popular religions, he had no
wish to give them up. He stood up for a pure worship of the
many gods, and maintained the cause of every old national
religion and the ceremonial duties of its adherents. His work
Against the Christians was directed, not against Christp nor even
against what he believed to be Christ's teaching, but against
the Christians of his own day and their sacred books, which,
according to Porphyry, were the work of deceivers and ignorant
people. In his trenchant criticism of the origin of what passed
for Christianity in his time, he spoke bitter and severe truths,
which have gained for him the reputation of the most rabid and
wicked of all the enemies of Christianity. His work was
destroyed,* but the copious extracts which we find in Lactantius,
Augustine, Jerome, Macarius Magnus and others show how
profoundly he had studied the Christian writings, and how great
was his talent for real historical research.
Porphyry marks the transition to a new phase of Neoplatonism,
in which it becomes completely subservient to polytheism, and
seeks before everything else to protect the Greek and
Oriental religions from the formidable assault of
Christianity. In the hands of lamblichus (q.v.), the
pupil of Porphyry, Neoplatonism is changed "from a philo-
sophical theory to a theological doctrine." The distinctive tenets
of lamblichus cannot be accounted for from scientific but only
from practical considerations. In order to justify superstition
and the ancient forms of worship, philosophy becomes in his hands
a theurgy, a knowledge of mysteries, a sort of spiritualism.
To this period also belongs a set of "philosophers," with
regard to whom it is impossible to say whether they are dupes
or impostors— the "deccpti deceptores" of whom Augustine
speaks. In this philosophy the mystical properties of numbers
are a leading feature; absurd and mechanical notions are
glossed over with the sheen of sacramental mystery, myths are
explained by pious fancies and fine-sounding pietistic reflections,
miracles, even the most ridiculous, are believed in, and miracles
are wrought. The " philosopher " has become a priest of magic
and philosophy a method of incantation. Moreover, in the
unbridled exercise of speculation, the number of divine beings
was increased indefinitely; and these fantastic accessions to
Olympus in the system of lamblichus show that Greek philosophy
is returning to mythology, and that nature-religion is still a
power in the world. And yet it is undeniable that the very
noblest and choicest minds of the 4th century are to be found
in the ranks of the Neoplatonists. So great was the general
decline that this Neoplatonic philosophy offered a welcome
shelter to many earnest and influential men, in spite of the
* It was condemned by an edict of the emperors Theodosius II and
Valcntinian in ihe year 448.
charlatans and hypocrites who 'vere gathered under the same
roof. On certain points of doctrine, too, the dogmatic ol
lamblichus indicates a real advance. Thus his emphatic asser-
tion of the truth that the scat of evil is in the will is noteworthy;
and so also is his repudiation of Plotinus's theory of the divinity
of the soul.
The numerous followers of lamblichus— Aedcsius, Chrysan-
thius, Eusebius, Priscus, Sopater, Sallust, and, most famous of
all, Maximus (^.r.), rendered little service to speculation. Some
of them (Themistius in particular) are known as commentators
on the older philosophers, and others as the missionaries of
mysticism. The work De mysteriis Aegypticnm is the best
sample of the views and aims of these philosophers. Their hopes
rose high when Julian ascended the imperial throne (361-363).
But the emperor himself lived long enough to see that his
romantic policy of restoration was to leave no results; and
after his early death all hope of extinguishing Christianity was
abandoned.
But undoubtedly the victory of Christianity in the age of
Valcntinian and Tlieodosius had a purifying influence on Neo-
platonism. During the struggle for supremacy, the
philosophers had been driven to make common cause 'JST*
with everything that was hostile to Christianity. StaSo^*"
But now Neoplatonism was thrust from the great stage
of history. The church and church theology, to whose guidance
the masses now surrendered themselves, took in along with them
their superstition, their polytheism, their magic, their myths,
and all the machinery of religious witchcraft. The more all
this settled and established itself— certainly not without opposi-
tion — in the church the purer did Neoplatonism become While
maintaining intact its religious attitude and its theory of know-
ledge, it returned with new zest to scientific studies, especially
the study of the old philosophers. If Plato still remains the
divine philosopher, yet we can perceive that after the year 400
the writings of Aristotle arc increasingly read and valued.
In the chief cities of the empire Neoplatonic schoob flourishcc*.
till the beginning of the 5th century; during this period, indeed,
they were the training-schools of Christian theologians. At
Alexandria the noble Hypatia {q.v.) taught, to whose mcmor>'
her impassioned disciple Synesius, afterwards a bishop, reared a
splendid monument. But after the beginning of the 5th century
the fanaticism of the church could no longer endure the presence
of " heathenism." The murder of Hypatia was the death of
philosophy in Alexandria, although the school there maintained
a lingering existence till the middle of the 6lh century. But there
was one city of the East which, lying apart from the crowded
highways of the worid, had sunk to a mere provincial town, and
yet possessed associations which the church of the 5th centur>' felt
herself powerless to eradicate. In Athens a Neoplatonic school
still flourished. There, under the monuments of its glorious
past, Hellenism found its last retreat. The school of Athens
returned to a stricter philosophical method and the culti\*at)on
of scholarship. Still holding by a religious philosophy, it under-
took to reduce the whole Greek tradition, as seen in the light of
Plotinus, to a comprehensive and closely knit system. Hence
the philosophy which arose at Athens was what may fairly be
termed scholasticism. For every philosophy is scholastic
whose subject-matter is imaginative and mystical, and which
handles this subject-matter according to established rules io
logical categories and distinctions Now to these Neoplatonists.
the books of Plalo, along with certain divine oracles, the Orphic
poems, and much more which they assigned to a remote antiquity,
were documents of canonical authority; they were inspired
divine writings. Out of these they drew the material of their
philosophy, which they then proceeded to elaborate with the
appliances of dialectic
The most distinguished teachers at Athens were Hutarch
{q V ), his disciple Syrianus (who did important work as a com-
mentator on Plato and Aristotle, and further deserves |i„,||^
mention for his vigorous defence of the freedom of the
will), but above all Proclus (411-485) Proclus is the great
schoolman of Neoplatonism. It was he who, combining reUgious
NEOPLATONISM
377
ardour with fonnal aniteness, connected the whole mass of
traditional lore into a huge system, making good defects, and
smoothing away contradictions by means of distinctions and
speculations. " It was reserved for Proclus," says Zeiler, ' to
bring the Neoplatonic philosophy to its formal conclusion by the
rigorous consistency of his dialectic, and, keeping in view all
the modifications which it had undergone in the a>urse of two
centuries, to give it that form in which it was transferred to
Giristianity and Mahommedanism in the middle ages." Forty-
four years after the death of Produs the school of Athens was
closed by Justinian (a.d. 529); but it had already fulfilled its
mis&ion in the work of Proclus. The works of Proclus, as the
last testament of Hellenism to the church and the middle ages,
exerted an incalculable influence on the next thousand years.
They not only formed one of the bridges by which the medieval
thinkers got back to Plato and Aristotle; they determined the
scientific method of thirty generations, and they partly created
and partly nourished the Christian mysticism of the middle ages.
The disciples of Proclus are not eminent (Marinus, Asclepio-
doius, Aromonius, Zenodotus, Isidorus, Hegias, Damascius).
The last president of the Athenian school was Damascius iq.v.).
WhcQ Justinian issued the edict for the suppression of the school,
Damascius along with Simplicius (the painstaking commentator
on Aristotle) and five other Neoplatonists set out to make a home
in Persia. They found the conditions were iinfavourable and
vere allowed to return (see Chosroes 1.\
At the beginning of the 6th century Neoplatonism had ceased
to exist in the East as an independent philosophy. Almost at
the same time, however — and the coincidence is not accidental —
it made new conquests in the church theology through the writings
of the pscudo-Dionysius. It began to bear fruit in Christian
mystidsm, and to diffuse a new magical leaven through the
worship of the church.
In the West, where philosophical efforts of any kind had been
very rare since the 2nd century, and where mystical contcmpla-
tion did not meet with the necessary conditions, Neoplatonism
found a congenial soil only in isolated individuals. C. Marius
Victorious (^.v.) translated certain works of Plotinus, and thus
had a decisive influence on the spiritual history of Augustine
(Confess, vii. 9, viii. 2). It may be said that Neoplatonism
influenced the West only through the medium of the church
tbcobgy, or, in some instances, under that disguise. Even
Boetius (it may now be considered certain) was a catholic
Christian, although his wholr mode of thought was certainly
Neoplatonic (sec Boetius). Hb violent death in the year 525
marks the end of independent philosophy in the West. But
indeed this last of the Roman philosophers stood quite alone
in his century, and the philosophy for which he Ijved was neither
original, nor well-grounded, nor methodically developed.
NeopfalonUm and ike Tkedogy of ike Ckurck.—lhc Question as to
the influence of Neoplatonism on the development 01 Christianity
b acre easily answered, because it is scarcely possible to get a com-
plete view of their mutual relations. The answer will depend, in
the first instance, upon how much is included under the term " Neo-
platooism." If Neoplatonism is understood in the widest sense,
as the highest and fittest expression of the religious movements at
work in the Graeco-Ronun empire from the 2nd to the 5th century,
then it may be regarded as the twin-sister of the church dogmatic
which grew up during the same period; the younger sister was
brouefat up by the elder, then rebelkd against her and at bst tyran-
nxzea over her. The Neoplatonists themselves characterixea the
theolofians of the church as intruders, who had appropriated the
Greek philosophy and sooiled it by the admixture of strange fables.
Thus Porphyry says of Origcn (tuseb. H.E. vi. 19), " The outer
life of Ongen was that of a Christian and contrary to law; but, as
far as hia views of things and of God are concerned, he thought like
the Greeks, whose conceptions he overlaid with foreign myths."
This vordict of Porphyry a is at all events more just and apt than
that of the theologians on the Greek philosophers, when they accused
them ol having borrowed all their really valuable doctrines from the
ancient Christian books. But the important point is that the rela-
tionship was acknowledged on both sides. Now, in so (ar as both
Neoplatooism and the church dogmatic set out from the felt need of
redempcioo, in so far as both sought to deliver the soul from sensu-
ality and recognised man's inability without divine aid — without a
revdatioo — to attain salvation and a sure knowledge of the truth,
ihey are at oooe most intimately related and at the same time
inirtujlly independent^ It must be confessed that when Chri»
tiankty be^an to project a theoloey it was a ttfsidy deeply impregnated
by Helknic influences. Dut the infLuptir? \% to bo traced not so
much to philDSpophy as lo the ^I'neral culture o( the time, and the
whole let of conditiofis under which stpSriituJ life was manifested.
When XeopUitaTiJism appeared, the Chriiibn church had already laid
down the inain poisitioni of her theolufiy^ or if not, the worked
them out alongside of Neoplatonisin — tMS 11 not a men? accident—
but itilt independently. It wa* only by identify itig itself with the
hiatary of Greek philc^ophy, or by figuring a^ pure Flatonism
?d^ that Neopbtoni^m could atiiraatue the church thec4ogy
of Alt^Jundria as a plagtariiim ftom itieU. These asiumptions, how-
ever^ were fanciluL Although our sources are unfonunatcly very
imtreriect. the theology of ihi: church dues not appear lo have learned
much from NcopUtgni^m in the 3rd cent ur>— partly because the
la CUT had not yet readied the foceti in which its doctrines could
be accepted by the church dof maiic. and panly because theology
wm otfienniie occupied. Her first bu^itwH was to plant herself
firmly on her own territorv, to make good, hcf position and clear
away old and obiection4bfe opi^iorts. OrioMi was tjuiie as inde-
pcnficnt a thtnkcf as Plotinu*t only, tbey both diew on the same
tr HiiTion. From the Jih century downwards* howrver. the influence
of X v.]jlatoniam on the Oriental theologians ^nas of the utmost im-
p<.rr jii. r/- The church gradually exoresstd her most peculiar con-
VL tiirif, indc»Kn\a!t. which were formula t«ll by pKHowphical methods.
but w.-re irret'tinciLiUe wStA Nt-opLtoni^m {the Chri^tological
d<si'i.iN>; and the further thi& proce^ii went ihe more unrestrairiedly
did ilicologLani rt-iign ihefn^c-Uvii to ihe influrnce of Neoplatonism
on all other questions. The dtJClriRcik lA live Irttvjrnntionr the resur-
rection oF the fleih and the creation of the world in lirrc marked the
boundary line between the church's dogitiailc and Neoplatonism:
in every tether nMpect, theolpgiana and Ni^jpUtonii^is drew so closely
together that many of them are completely at one. In bet, there
wltc special cast*, like that of Synosiui, In which a sjKCulative
1x1 nfisif^i lion of distincii^Tly Chri^tliin d^MTirine* by CHrs^tian men
w^^ 'ivuikc-cl at. If a book does not happen to touch on any of the
above-mentioned doctrines, it may often be doubtful whether the
writer is a Christian or a Neoplatonist. In ethical precepts, in
dirert't.ns for ri^ht living (that is, asceticism), the two systems
appr '■.ini,ii:H.' mun and more closely. But it was here that Neo-
pi I'lni-m hnally relcbratcd its greatest triumph. It indoctrinated
thi < hurch with all its mvsticism, its mystic exercises and even its
m.j ,i> lI cij1[u& a» taught Sy lamblichus. The works of the pseudo-
Di! I'. -Uv^ (TiMMin a gnosis in which, by means of the teaching of
Iain I < I ij^ Ml 'I Proclus, the church's theology is turned into a
8ch..l.L cic m> l1. 'im with directions on matters of practice and
rii ill A;i.l a ihese writings were attributed to Dionysius, the
dibasic ui the apostles, the scholastic mystkism which they unfokl
was regarded as an apostolic, not to say a divine, science. The
influence exercised by these writings, first on the East, and then-
after the 9th (or I2th} century — on the West, cannot be overestima-
ted. It is impossible to enlarge upon it here : suffice it to say that the
mystical and pietistic devotion of our own day. even in the Protestant
churches, is nourished on works whose ancestry can be traced,
through a aeries of intermediate links, to the writings of the pseudo-
Arcopagite.
In the ancient world there was only one Western theologian who
came directly under the influence of Neoplatonism; but tluit one is
Augustine, the most important of them all. It was through Neo-
Rlatonism that Augustine got rid of scepticism and the last dregs of
lanichaeism. In the seventh book of hts Confessions he has recorded
how much he owed to the perusal of Neoplatonic works. On all the
cardinal doctrines — God, matter, the relation of God to the world,
freedom and evil— Augustine retained the impress of Neoplatonism;
at the same time he is the theologian of antiquity who most clearly
perceived and most fully stated wherein Neoplatonism and Chris-
tbnity differ. The best ever written by any church father on this
subject is to be found in chaps. ix.-xxi. of the seventh book of the
Confessions.
Why Neoplatonism succumbed in the conflict with Christianity is
a question which the historians have never satisfactorily answered.
As a rule, the problem is not even stated correctly. We have nothing
to do here with our own private ideal of Christianity, but solely
with catholic Christianity and catholic theology. These are the forces
that conquered Neoplatonism, after assimilating nearly everything
that it contained. Further, we must consider the arena in which
the victory was won. The battlefield was the empire of Constantine
and Theodosius. It is only when these and all other circumstances
of the case are duly realized that we have a right to inquire how
much the essential doctrines of Christianity contributed to the vic-
tory, and what share must be assigned to the organixation of the
church.
In medieval thcologv and philosophy mysticism appears as the
powerful opponent of rationalistic dogmatism. The empirical
science of the Renaissance and the two following centuries was itself
a new development of Platonism and Neoplatonism, as opposed to
rationalistic dogmatism, with its contempt for experience. Magic,
astrology and alchemy — all the outgrowth of Neoplatonism — gave
the first effectual stimulus to the observation of nature, and conse-
quently to natural science, and in this way finally extinguished barren
378
NEOPTOLEMUS— NEPAL
rationalism. Thus in the history of science Neoplatontsm has played
a part and rendered service? of which Plotinus or lamblicnus or
Proclus never dreamt. So true is it that sober history b often
stranger and more capricious than all the marvds of legend and
AuTiiowTlEs.-;;Oti the relation d" Neoplatonism lo Christtaniiy,
and the hiftttHrlf^l itnportanct of Ncopiatoiiiscn gcntriilly, set ih*: If .m-
«ng chuTch hisiiudt-s^ and the Hijitrhej af Dofma by Baur, Nir^^h.
liaroack^ &c. Compare afso LofHtT, iycr Pthtpnamm dtr Kja i^.n-
TzchLrticr. ttxli dei Htid^nihums (iHjq), pp. 574-61 8; BurckliirJt,
Vti Z^it Cansianlin' t dei Grasicn (1^5^) ; Cha$Tel» Htit- di Ja ^rMruc-
td4# dr« f'flfaawrtf/ dam L'empttt. d Orient {iH^o}) Bcugnot, Uat.
it la datnati^n da Paianitme en Ocadeni (1^35); E. von l^i -lullx,
£)*ir Unitrgini dei ileilen^smuJ tjK^}; Vogi, Neupimanismin und
ChHiitniknm {JB36); Ullmauot "' Einflu** dt^ Christcfiihum, ..uf
PmphsfriiiSH" in tht Sind. a. Kfiitken (t|^3jt Jean Rfivilh
/fr^i^idtt ^ Rome sotii Ui Sixtres (1886}; C Bi^ff- Tft^ C.": ':''»«
/^/oi^tJli o/" ^ififlflrff^i {t8H6) and Neitpiaitmum US95); Rufh- M.
JWK9k JlMflMJ l« A/j'JlttaJl /ff^fjJIUJfl {iTOq.), PP-jO f«ll' ^W furiluT,
C. Schmidt, Gnoiifuke Scknfien in Kcptnikct Spnuhe (iSgjj ; K. P.
Huse, Von Piiftin c« Geethe (1909); thofnas \Vhiuaker> Thi- N-o-
Fkitantiit:! ft^l); Peine, Per imat Reti^tem in Eppi before C.:-iSt
{taOf)}: M. HciTiBf, *^ NeupktcntfiiTius/' in Herzog-Hauickt Realfn..\k.
vml. ¥111. (1903). On the aflcT-<!frecti at NeopLitonUm on ihc
church'* do^jmatic, sec Ritichl, Theotofit und Meiapkysik (i. :■?!).
On thp relation of NeopbtQnisni to Monachism, compare Kuiriu ,-' itf
dem Urchiisi^nihtim U^7^)- ^^ iht hiatory ol Neoplatoni^m ^^ith
spctibl reference to I he di.xlinc of Ki^m4n pob'^hci&m, see, f.|.,
Samuel Dili Rfrman SKieiy iti ihe Lasl Ctniury cj (hs Weucrn
Empire (ifl<j8J. pp. Sj lolL On PloLinuSt Pbrphyry, &c., see separate
articles. 7a. Ha.; J. M. M.)
NEOPTOLEMUS (also called Pyrrhus), in Greek legend, the
son of Achilles and Deldameia. He was brought up by his
grandfather Lycomedes in the island of Scyros, and taken to
Troy in the last year of the war by Odysseus, since Helenus bad
declared that the city could not be captured without the aid of a
descendant of Aeacus. Neoptolemus was famed for his beauty,
eloquence and bravery. He was one of the warriors in the
wooden horse and slew Priam at the sack of Troy {Odyssey^
xi. 508-526; Aeneid, ii. 527). Apart from these Trojan tales,
Neoptolemus is a prominent figure in the legends of Epirus and
of I)clphi. He was the ancestor of the Mofossian kings, who
therefore claimed to be of pure Hellenic stock. He was murdered
at Delphi, where he was buried, and a festival was held in his
honour every eighth year.
NBOPYTHAOOREANISM. a Graeco-Alezandrian school of
[ihilosophy, which became prominent in the ist century aj>.
\'cry little is known about the members of this school, and there
has been much discussion as to whether the Pythagorean litera-
ture which was widely published at the time in Alexandria was
the original work of ist-century writers or merely reproductions
of and commentaries on the older Pythagorean writings. The
only well-known members of the school were Apollonius of Tyana
and Moderatus of Cades. In the previous century Cicero's
learned friend P. Nigidius Figulus (d. 45 B.C.) had made an
attempt to revive Pythagorean doctrines, but he cannot be
described as a member of the school. Further, it is necessary
to distinguish from the Neopythagoreans a number of Eclectic
Piatonists, who, during the ist century of our era, maintained
views which had a similar tendency {e.g, Apuleius of Madaura,
I'luiarch of Chacronea and, later, Numeniusof Apamea).
Neopythagoreanism was the first product of an age in which
abstract philosophy had begtm to pall. The Stoics discovered
that their " perfect man " was not to be found in the luxurious,
often morbid society of the Graeco- Roman world; that some-
thing more than dialectic ethics was needed to reawaken a
sense of responsibility. A degenerate society cared nothing for
syllogisms grown threadbare by repetition. Neopythagoreanism
was an attempt to introduce a religious element into pagan
philosophy in place of what had come to be regarded as an arid
formalism. The founders of the school sought to invest their
doctrines with the halo of tradition by ascribing them to Pytha-
goras and Plato, and there is no reason to accuse them of insin-
cerity. They went back to the Uiter period of Plato's thought,
the period when Plato endeavoured to combine his doctrine
of Ideas with the Pythagorean number-theory, and identified
the Good with the One^ the source of the duality of the Infinite
and the Measured (rd Airccpor and tkpm) with the resultant
uaU of realities from the One down to the objects of the material
world. They emphasized the fundamental distinction between
the Soul and the Body. Cod must be worshipped spiritually
by prayer and the will to be good, not in outward action. The
soul must be freed from its material surrounding, the '* muddy
vesture of decay," by an ascetic habit of life. Bodily pleasures
and all sensuous impulses must be abandoned as detrimental
to the spiritual purity of the soul. God is the principle of good;
Matter {phi) the groundwork of Evil. In this system we dis-
tinguish not only the asceticism of Pythagoras and the later
mysticism of Plato, but also the influence of the Orphic mysteries
and of Oriental philosophy. The Ideas of Plato are no longer
self-subsbtent entities; they are the elements which constitute
the content of spiritual activity. The Soul is no longer an
appanage of oOctk^ it is oOcla itself: the non-matexial universe
is regarded as the sphere of mind or spirit.
Thus Neopythagoreanism is a link in the chain between the
old and the new in pagan philosophy. It connects the tearhing
of Plato with the doarines of Neoplatonism and brings it into
line with the later Stoicism and with the ascetic system of the
Essenes. A comparison between the Essenes and the Neo-
pythagoreans shows a parallel so striking as to warrant the theory
that the Essenes were profoundly influenced, by Neopythago-
reanism. Lastly Neopythagoreanism furnished Neoplatonism
with the weapons with which pagan philosophy made ii% last
stand against Christianity.
See Pythagoras, Neoplatokism. Essenes: and ZeOer's Pkil»-
sophit d, Cnechen. For members of the school see ArOLLONivs of
Tyana and Moderatus of Cades.
MEPAL, Nepaitl or Nipal, an independent state, situated on
the north-eastern frontier of India, lying between So** 15' and
8S^ 10' E., and 26^ 20' and 30^ xo' N.; area, 54,000 sq. m. lu
extreme length is about 525 m., and its breadth varies from 90
to 140 m. It is bounded on the N. by Tibet; on the £. by
Sikkim; on the S. by Bengal and the United Provinces; and
on the W. by Kumaon, from which it is separated by the Kali
river. Its population is estimated by the natives at about
5,200,000, the common phrase used by the rulers in speaking
of popular opinion being, " but what will the BAwan {Le, fifty-
two) ULkh say to this."
Nepal consists physically of two distinct territories: (i) the
tarai, or strip of level, cultivated and forest land lying along the
southern border: and (2) the great mountainous tract stretching
northwards to Tibet. Alons the northern frontier stand many ci
kinchinjunga (28,146), and numerous ^ks varying from 20.000
to 24,000 ft. I (^ clear weather this magnificent snowy ntnjge may be
seen in an almost continuous line from the top of some ofthc lower
ranges near Katmandu. South of these are numerous parallel low^er
ranges, varying from 16,000 to 6000 ft. in height, which are broken
up at intervals by cross ranges, thus forming a series of glens with a
few hill-girt valleys interspersed.
These mounum ranges determine the course of the rivers, which
are divided by the cross ranges into four groups. The first of these
extends from Kumaon eastward as far as DnaulafirL and consists
of the affluents of the Kali (Sarda), Sarju, KumaC, Eastern Sarju,
and Rapti, all of which ultimately form the Gogra or Gonri, and
flow into the Ganges. The second group, known to the Nepaksc
as the S^pt Gandaki, rises from the peaks between Dhaulagiri and
Gosain Than, and unite at Trebem Ghat to form the Candak.
The third is a group of smaller rivers draining the great valley of
Nepal, the valleys of Chitlong. Benepa, and Panouti. and portions
of the tarai around the Chunaghati range of hills. These are the
various branches of the Bara Gandak. the lesser Rapti. the Bagmati
and Kumla. East of this again is the fourth group, known to the
Nepalese as the Sapt Kosi. rising from the peaks between Gosain
Than and Kinchinjunga, and uniting to form the Soon Kosi, which
falls into the Ganges.
There is thus a natural divtnon of the country into four portions.
The most western is the country of the Baisi (or twenty-two) rajas,
and contains the towns of Jumta, Doti and SuUiana. The second
is the country of the Chaubisi (or twenty-four) rajas, and contains
the towns of Malebum, Palpa, Gurkha and Noakote. The third i»
the district conuining Nepal proper, with the capital and many
hirge towns to be mentioned afterwards. The fourth is the eastern
ponion of Nepal, comprising the country of the Kiratis, and manv
small towns, such as Dnankota. 11am and Bijapur.
NEPAL
379
Rmie tmlo Ntpa^tht portion of Nepftl, excliuive of the tani.
vhkh b open to Europeans U the '* valley of Nepal." containing
tbe capital of the country, and a few adjacent itnallcr vaUevs.
There u only one means of access open to Europeans, and this
indeed is in general resorted to by the natives, as the other
routes to the capital are lonser and far more diflkult. The
road runs nearly north from Segauli, passing through tbe tarai
and sal forests, to Bhichhkhori ; then through the beds of mountain
screams, through a pass in the Churivaghati range, and through
another sal forest, to Hetoura; thence by a wide and good road to
Bhimphcdi at the foot of the Sisaghari range of hills. So far the
route is practicable for carts and baggage animals, but from thb
point the road is a mere rugged footpath over the Sitaghari Pass,
through the Chitlon^ valley and over the Chaodragiri range. The
distance from Segauh to Katmandu is 90 m.
The valley in extreme length from east to west is about 36 m..
and in breadth from north to south about 15. The surrounding
hau vary in height from 6000 to 9720 ft., the level of the valley
itself betng about 4500 ft. above the sea. Tradition has it that
Nepal was once a lake, and appearances are in favour of this view.
It M crossed from cast to west by a low limestone ranee, through
which 'he waters have gradually forced a passage, and in uloe manner
the collected rivers have escaped at the south-east comer of the
valley.
There are three principal streams, the Bagmati, Vishnumati. and
Manohora. besides many small tributaries oif these. All the rivers
rise within the valley, except the Bagmati, which springs from the
northern side of the Shiupuri peak, and enters the valley through a
ravine at the north-east comer. They all unite and pass through
a long narrow gorge in the limestone range, already mentioned, at
Chobhar. and ultimately escape f rpm the valley at Kotwaldar.
Climale.— In and around the Neoal valley, as in India, the year
may be divided into tbe rainy, cold and hot seasons. The rains
begin in June and last till October, but the fall b not so heavy or
continuous as in the plains of Hindustan. The cold season extends
from the middle of October to the middle of ApriL During these
months the climate b delicious. Hoar-frost and tnin ice are common
in the roomings, and the thermometer sometimes falls as low as 2$*
Fahr., but the days are bright and warm. From Christmas to the
end ci February there are occasional showers of rain; and snow
falk on the surrounding k»w ranges, but is very rarely seen in the
valley itself. From April to the beginning of the rains is the hot
season, but the thermometer seldom reaches 85* in the shade. The
result of observations extending over many years gives an average
otean temperature of 60* Fahr., and an annual rainfall of about
60 in. Violent thunderstorms are not uncommon, and occasionally
severe earthquakes occur, as in 1833 and 1866.
Flora and Fatma. — In a country possessing such a range of
altitodes the flora and fauna are of course v«y varied. For descrip-
tive purposes, Nepal may again be divided into three zones. These
are — (i) the Urai and lower ranges of hills up to 4000 ft. in height:
(2) the central ranges and high-Tying valleys, up to 10,000 ft. : and
(3) tbe alpine region, from 10.000 to 29.000 ft. in height. These
zones are not. however, shar^^y defined, as the dinuite varies
according to the latitude, the height of intermediate ranses, and the
depth ol^the valleys ; so that tropical plants and animals are some-
times found far in the interior, and the more northern species descend
along tbe loftier spurs into the southern zones.
The low alluvial land of the tarai is well adapted for cultivation,
and is. so to speak, the granary of Nepal; but owing to scantiness
of population and other causes the greater portion of it consists of
swampa. iungles and forests. Considerable stretches of land are,
bowrver. bcins reclaimed from year to year. The productions here
are those of British India— cotton, rice, wheat, pulse, sugar-cane,
tobacco, opium. IndigOL and the fruits and VMetables familbr in
sisO, and other valuable forest trees; and the Jungles aoound with
acacias, mimosas, cotton tree (Bombax), dak iBuUa frondosa).\Ane
bamboos, rattans, palms, and niunerous ferns and orchids. On the
Cburiaghati range the common Finns Umgifolia grows fredy. Tea
can be grown at a height of from 2000 to 4000 ft. The middle zone
supplies rice, wheat, maize, barley, oats, ginger, turmeric, chillies,
potatoes. Cucurbitaceae, pineapples, and many varieties of European
fruits, vcyetabtes and flowers. The forests contain tree rhododen-
drons. Finns lonrifolia, oaks, horse-chestnuts, walnuts, maples, hill
bamboos, wild cherry, pear, allies of the tea plant, paper plants
{Dapkneh roses, and many other inhabitants of temperate dimes,
with various orchids, ferns and wild flowers. In the alpine zone
exist Coniferae of many kinds, junipers, yew, box, boUies, birch,
dwarf rhododendrons and the usual alpine flora.
The wild animals f<rfk>w a nmilar distribution, and the foUowing
typical species may be mentioned. In the k>west zone are found the
tiger, leopard, wolf, hyena and iackal. the elephant and rhinoceros.
tbe gaur (Copoens ianrns), gayal {Cavtuns frontalis), wild buffalo or
ama, many species of deer, and the black bear (Ursns labiatns).
Anoiv the birds are found the pea-fowl, francolins, wild jungle
fowl, and the smaller vultures. &c In the middle zone there are tne
leopard, tbe Himalayan black bear {Ursns tibetanns), the wild dog.
cats of many sorts, squirrels, hares, porcupines, the pangolin, and
aone species of deer and antck>pe. Among the birds are the larger
vuknres and eafleB, pheasants (Cattaphasis), chukor. hill partridges,
Ac In the alpine zone are found the true bear (Ursns t sabet lin nst
or brown bear), the yak. musk deer, wild goats and sheep, marmots.
&c Amone the birds are the eagle-vulture (Cypaeins), the blooa
pheasant (iMafiiiis cruentus), snow pheasant ITetraogallns kima-
layensis)f snow partridge {Lerufa nimcola), the homed pheasant
iCeriomu soiyra), crested pheasant {Catrensvfallichi).&c. Geese,
luck^ waders of^ all sorts, and other migratory birds are found in
abundance in the two kmer zones.
Minerals.— The k>west zone in some directions abounds in fossib;
and deposits of lignite, and even of true coal, are met 'with, the
latter notably at a spot south of Palpa. The middle zone b rich in
limestone and nuirbies, and abounds with minerals, such as iron,
copper, zinc, lead and sulphur. Copper is found near the surface
in many places, and there are remains of mines both «t Markhu and
in the great valley of Nepal. Mineral springs, both hot and cold, are
aumerous. Traces of silver, and also of ^d, have been found in
the alpine zone.
People.— Tht rmces occupying Nepal arc of mixed Mongol
origin. To the north, inhabiting the higher mountains and
valleys, dwell the Bhutias or Tibetans. To the west lie the
Gunings and Magars. The Murmb, Gurkhalb and Newars
occupy the central parts; and the Kiratis, Limbus and Lepcbas
occupy the eastern dbtricts. There arc also Brahmans and
Chhatris in the hills. Besides these there arc many small tribes
residing in the tarai and some other malarious dbtricts, known
as Kumhas, Tharus, Mftnjis, &c, but generally classed together
by the Nepalese as Aoulias, or dwellers in the malarious or aoni
dbtricts. These arc probable descendants of immigrants from
the lower castes of Hindus, occupying the borderlands of the
tarai. Among the forests of the bwer eastern region arc also
to be found some small savage tribes, known as Cbepangs and
Kusundas.
All the races except the Aoulias arc of a decidedly Mongolian
appearance, being generally short and robust, and having flat
faces, oblique eyes, yellow complexions, straight black hair,
and comparatively hairless faces. The Newars, according to
the Vam^dvatl or native hbtory, trace their descent from the
races of southern Indb, but thb b rendered morc than doubtful
by both their appearance and language. The Gurkhalb (Gurkhas
or Ghurkhas) are descendants of the Brahmans and Rajputs who
werc driven out of Hindostan by the Moslems, and took refuge in
the western hilly lands, wherc they ultimately became dominant,
and wherc they have become much mixed with the other races
by ' " irriaEt,
—The Bhutbis Newars. Licnbus, Keratis, and Lepchas
an ^LL libjddhbtSi but their tL-li^n h^a become so mixed up with
Hinduium thAt it h now hinlly rccot;'iizable. The Newars have
encirtl;,-^ abaodoned the monank institutions of Buddhism, and
hav(^ la gmt meuure Adkipled the ruk^ of caste, though even these
sit bat I^htly upon thetru Th«y burn their dead, eat the flesh of
buIriEoMn, eqat»» sbecp, dvcks, and fowls and drink beer and spirits.
The Gurkhaltf, Magara, and Gurung^ are Hindus, but the bst two
arc by no means strict in the obier^^ftce of their religion, though
thpn? are iwTUff p<?culbrirj« which (hev carefully preserve. Thus,
for ' ' " : '' t not buffalo's flesh, whereas
th^ ■_..,... ._ : .. , ._ _. Og.
Friests. — Where temples are so numerous (there are 27t3 shrines
the valley) priests naturally abound, both of the Hindu and
Buddhist religions. The festivals too are many in number, and in
conseouence holidays are incessant. The r&j gurfi, or high priest, is
an influential person in the state, a member of council, and has a
brge income from government lands as well as from the fines for
offences against caste, &c Many other priests, gurus and purohits,
have lan(b assigned to them, and most of the temples have been
richly endowed by their founders. Every family of rank has a
special priest, whose office is hereditary.
Astrologers are also numerous, ana their services are in constant
request. One cannot build a house, set out on a journey, com-
mence a war, or even take a dose of physic, without having an
auspicious moment selected for him.
Laniua^es.— The various races have all separate languages, or
at least dialects. The Gurkhalis and western tribes use Khas (see
Paha ri). which, unlike the other dblects, is of Sanskrit origin. The
Newars have a distinct Unffuage and alphabets, for there are three
known to their pandits, though only one is in use now. Their
Unguage. called Gubhajius, greatly resembles Tibetan, but is now
interspersed with many Sanskrit words. The Bhutias use the
Tibetan language and alphabet.
Education. — There is a central educational Institution at Kat-
mandu with sixteen branches, or schools, over the. valley of Nepal.
This central institution has three departments, English . Sanskrit
and Persbn — or more correctly perhaps Urdu. Education is provided
38o
NEPAL
free by the sute, and is encouraged by grants of scholarships
and priies. Boys passing out well are sent at government expense
to tne various universities of nonhem India to compU'tc their
education, and some have lately been sent to Japan The evil
effects of higher education, as taught in the Indian colleges, on the
youth of Bengal, &c., has, however, given the Gurkha durbar a
distinct shock, and it seems not unlikely that education in Nepal
may receive a set-back in consequence. Some of the upper classes
speak English fluently, but the bulk of the labouring classes » quite
illiterate.
Katmandu is a perfect storehouse of ancient Sanskrit literature,
and some oi the oldest MSS. in that language as yet known to
scholars have been found there. There is also a fair English library.
Both are lodged in a good building
CaUndar. — ^Thcre are three pnncipal eras in use in Nepal The
Samvat of Vikramaditya begins fifty-seven years before the Chnstian
era, the- Saka era of S&livanhn begins seventy-eight years after
the Christian era, and the Ncpalcse Samvat dates from October a.d.
880. The Sri-Harsha and Kaligat eras are also sometimes used.
Day is considered to begin when the tiles on a house can be counted,
or when the hairs on the back of a man's hand can be discerned
against the sky. Sixty bipalas>i pala; 60 palas"i ghari or
34 minutes; 60 gharis* i day of 34 hours.
HtaUh. — All Tamilies of good position have at least one haid^ or
medical man. in constant attendance, and there are also many
general practitioners. There is a large central hospital at Katmandu,
and some thirteen other smaller hospitals arc distributed over the
.country, with free beds, and provision for outdoor treatment.
There is also a small hospital attached to the British Residency.
The diseases most prevalent in the country are rheumatism, chronic
dyspepsia, skin diseases, syphilis, goitre, smallpox, cholera and
leprosy. In the rains a number of cases of mild intermittent fever,
diarrhoea, and dysentery are met with. Fever of a severe typhoid
type is common i n the crowded lanes and dirty villages. Vaccination
is being gradually introduced into the country, and the general
health of the inhabitants of the principal cities in the valley has
ffreatly improved since the introduction of fresh water, which has
been brougnt in by pipes from mountain springs.
Towns. — There are three lar^e towns in the Nepal valley, Kat-
mandu, the capital, said to contain approximately 50.000 inhabitants,
Patan and Bhateaon about 30,000 each. The houses are from two to
four storeys in height, built oT brick and tiled. The windows and
balconies are of wood, and some arc elaborately carved. There
are numerous handsome temples in all the towns, the majority of
which are pagoda-shaped and built of brick, with roofs of copper,
which is sometimes eilt. The streeto are narrow, and they, as well
as the squares, are all paved with brick or stone. In front of the
temples generally stand monoliths surmounted by figures of Garuda,
or of the founder, made of brass gilt, or sometimes of black stone
Besides these three large towns, there are at least twenty smaller
towns and numerous villages in the valley, all of which possess
many temples. Some of these, as for instance those of Pashupati,
Bodnnatha and Symbhunatha, are considered of great sanctity.
Many thousands of pilgrims come at one festival to worship at
Pashucati, and it is there that the dying are brought to be immersed
in the Bagmati, and the dead are burned on its banks.
Agrieulture. — While the Gurkhalis are occupied in military afiairs,
the agriculture of the valley is carried on by the Newars- The
soil is varied in character, from light micaceous sand to dense
ferruginous clay. The whole valley is cultivated and irrigated
where practicable, and the slopes of the hills are carefully terraced,
so that there is little grazing ground, and few sheep or cattle are
kept There are some milch cows and buffaloes, which are cither
stall-fed or grazed in the jungles at the foot of the hills. Animals
for consumption and sacrifice are all imported, and are consumed
as fast as they are brought in. In the cold season the Bhutias bring
large flocks of sheep and goats laden with bags of borax, salt and
saltpetre. These are sold for consumption, except a few that are
retained to carry back the bags. These droves are generally accom-
panied by ponies and some of the large Tibetan dogs; the latter are
powerful, fierce, shaggy animals, about. the siae of a small Newfound-
land dog. Poultry are kept and used by the Newars. especially
ducks, the eggs of which are in great demand even among the
orthodox Hindus. The crops grown in the valley consist 01 rice,
both the transplanted and the dry-sown or ghaiya varieties, wheat,
pulse, murwah, maize, buckwheat, chillies, radishes, mustard,
gariic, onions, ginger, turmeric, sugar-cane, poutoes, ground nuts,
many species of cucumbers and pumpkins, &c. Nothing but
articles of food are allowed to be grown in the valley; hence its
capabilities for producing tea, cotton and tobacco arc unknown.
All of these, however, are grown in other parts of the country, both
in the hills and the tarau Large cardamoms are extensively grown
in the eastern hills, and form an important article of export. The
hemp plant {Cannabis indica) grows wild, and is used both for manu-
factunng purposes and for producing the resinous extraa and other
intoxicating products which are exported. Plants producing dyes,
such as madder or manjit, are grown in some places; and drugs,
such as chirata, are collected and exported. The better class of
soils yields a return of about Rs. 180 per khait, and the poorest
about Rs. 90 per khait. From some of^ the finer soils as many aa
three crops of various sorts are obtained annually. The land-
in use are different in different parts of the country.
per Nepali bigha according to quality of land. In t
chari^cd on tne plough, thus: one plough pays 13
ck without plough about 10 annas; one spade 61
to quality of bind. In the bilb
annas:
Thus, in the eastern tarai a btgha measures 90X90 yds. English,
while in the western urai it is only 15X15 yds. In the hills the
unit of land measurement is called ropnt, which b about twice the
sue of a western tarai bigha. — ^and twenty-five ropais make one
khait This measurement applies only to rice lands. Other land
measuremenu for the valley are as follows: One Nepali bigha is
90 yds. X 90 yds. British. (A British Indian bigha is 40 yds.X 40
yds. and 3 Nepali bighas equal about 5 acres.) Sixteen ropnis
equal i Nepali bigha.
Land TVumj.—- The tarai lands pay from two to nine rupees
(British) per Nepali bigha .......
taxes are ch ^ t
one bullock .
These taxes are termed //a/, Patay and KodaUy.
HorUcuUun. — The Newars are also fond of horticulture. Many
European fruits, flowers and vegetables have been introduced
and grow freely. The country is famous for its oranges and pine-
apples. Flowers are grown and sold for religious purposes, and even
wild flowers are brought into the market and mucn used by the
Ncwar women in adorning their hair, as well as for offerings at
the shrines. Many wild fruits are collected and sold in the
markets. Apples and pears, of English stock, thrive well; apricots
and plums are good; peaches and grapes grow freely and are
of large size, but they seldom ripen before the rains begin, when
they rot.
Trade. — All the trade and manufactures of the country are in
the hands of the Newars, and a few Kashmiris and natives oif Hindu-
stan. The trade in European goods is chiefly carried on by the
latter, whilst the Newars deal in corn, oil, salt, tobacco and articles
of domestic manufacture. The trade with India is carried on at
numerous marts along the frontier, at each of which a customs
station is established, and the taxes are collected by a tkikadar
or farmer. The Newars also carry on the trade with Tibet, through
a colony which has been for many years established at Lhasa, but
this trade has been a shrinking item since the opening dT the Lhasa-
Darjecling route. There are two principal routes to Tibet. One of
these runs north-east from Katmandu to the frontier-station of
Kuti or Nilam, crossing the Himalayan range at a height Of 14,000 ft.;
the other passes out of the valley at the north-west comer, and
runs at first upwards along the main branch of the Gandak, cro«ing
the Himalayas, near Kerung, at a height of 9000 ft. All goods on
these routes are carried on men's backs, except the salt. &c., carried
in bags by the Bhutia sheep and goats. The principal imports from
Hindustan are raw cotton, cotton goods, woollen goods, silks and
velvets, hardware, cutlery, beads, jewels, coral, saddlery, shoes,
guns, gunpowder, gbssware, vermilion, indigo, lac, tea, betel-nut,
spices, paper, sugar, tobacco, oils, sheet copper, goats, cattle,
buffaloes; and from Tibet, musk, medicines, yaks tails, tea, woc^len
cloth, blankets, borax, salt, saltpetre, paper-plant, honey, wax,
sheep, goats, yaks, ponies, silver, gold. The exports to Hindustan
include wax, paper-plant, musk, yaks* tails, medicines, cardanwms.
borax, sulphate of copper, brass pots, iron pots, ponies, elephants,
hawks, hides and horns (buffalo), rice, ghee, oil seeds, red chillies,
madder, cobalt, potatoes, oranges: and to Tibet, broad cloth, raw
cotton, cotton goods, tobacco, sugar, opium, coral, jewels, pearls,
spices, betel-nut, copper pots, iron pots and hard^-are. The
Nepalese are utterly regardless of statistics, but recent estimates
value the exports and imports to and from the British provinces
at 3 million sterling annually. Duties are levied on exports and
imports, which will be noticed under the head of revenue.
Manufactures.-^The Newars are skilful workmen. Their bricks
are excellent, and so also is their pottery, for which certain towns
are famous, such as Themi and Noakote. As carpenters they excel,
though the use of the large saw u still unknown, and planks are cut
with chisel and mallet. Some of the wood carvings on the temples
and large houses are most artistic in design and bold in execution,
though unfortunately they are sometimes of a most obscene char-
acter. The manufactures are few, consisting chiefly of coarse
cotton cloths, paper made of the inner bark of the paper-plant*
(Daphne), bells, brass and iron utensils, weapons, and ornarocncs
of gold and silver.
Coinage. — ^At one time Nepal supplied Tibet with its silver coinage,
but this was abandoned on account of the adulterations introduced
by the Nepalese. The ancient coins, specimens of which are still to
be met with, were made by hand. The modern coinage is struck by
machinery, a regular mint having been established by Sir Jung
Bahadur at Katmandu, and since improved by his successors.
Government. — The Nepalese have relations with China, and
occasionally send an embassy with presents to Peking. The
British too have considerable influence with the govemmest
in regard to their foreign relations, and a British resident is
stationed at Katmandu. But in all matters of domestic policy
the Nepalese brook no interference, and they are most jcak>iis
of anything that has a tendency to encroach on their inde^
pendeiicc. Theoretically the government of Nepal is a pure
despotism, and the mt^arajah is paramount. Practically, all
NEPAL
381
ceal power bas long been in the hands of the prime minister,
and much of the modem history of the country oonsbts of
accounts of the struggles of the various factions for power.
Under the prime minister there is a council, consisting of the
relations of the king, the raj giu-u, the generals, and a few other
officials known as kajis and sirdars and bbardars, which is con*
suited on all important business, aiKl which forms a court of
appeal for disputed cases from the courts of Uiw. There are
separate dvil and criminal cotirts, but the distinction is not
^ways pfaacrved, as difficult cases are often transferred from
one' tol^e other.
Lam and JtaHct. — ^The old savage legal code with its ordeals by
fire and water, and its punishments by mutilation and torture was
abolished by Sir June Bahadur after his return from England in
1851. Treason, rebellion and desertion in war-time are punished
by death. Bribery and peculation by public servants are punished
by dismissal from office, and a fine and imprisonment, the latter of
which can be commuted by payments at various rates, according
to the nature of the offence. Murder and the killing of cows are
!capital offences. Manslaughter and maiming cows are punished by
imprisonment for life, and other offences against the person or
p r o perty by imprisonment or fine. Brahmans and women are
exempted from capital punishment. Offences against caste are
beavOy punished by fine and imprisonment. In some cases indeed
aU the offender's property is connscated, and he and his family may
be sold as slaves. Bankroptcy laws have been recently introduced.
The marriage laws are somewhat peculiar. Among the Gurkhas
the laws resemble those of other Hindus as regards the marriage of
widcyws, polsrgamy, &&, but among the Newars every girl while still
an infant is married with much ceremony to a bd fruit, which as
then thrown into some sacred stream. As the fate of the fruit is
unknown, a Newari is supposed never to become a widow. At the
^;e dL puberty a husbancl is selected, but the woman can at any
moment divorce berseff by placing a betel-nut under her husband s
piUow and taking her departure. Adultery is punished by the im-
prisonment and hne of both the adulteress and her paramour. Sati
has been abolished in Nepal by law.
Gcels. — ^Thcre are three large prisons in the Nepal valley, one
for males and two for females; there are also a considerable number
of eaols throughout the country. The prisoners are kept in irons,
and employed in public works of various sorts. They are allowed
six pice a day for subsistence at the capital, and five pice in other
places. Their relatives are allowed to minister to their creature
Slavery '» an insdtution of the country, and all families of rank
posBCfls many slaves, who are employed in domestic and field work.
They are generally treated well, and are carefully protected by law.
The price of slaves ranges from Rs. 100 to Rs. 200.
Raent, — The revenue of Nepal is about one hundred and fifty
lakhs of rupees, «.e. £xo,ooo,ooa The chief sources of it are the
land-tax, customs, mines, forests and monopolies. About 10%
of the tarai lands, and 20% of the hill lands, are private property.
Some lands were assigned by the Gurkhali rajas to Brahmans,
soldiers and others, and these are untaxed. Others, which were
the gifts of the old Newar kings, pay from 4 to 8 annas per bigha.
All such grants of land, however, are subject to a heavy fine on the
corooaticm of a new raja. Land which does not produce rice is
lightly taxed, but in the valley of Nepal, and wherever rice is grown,
the government tax or rent is one half of the produce of the land.
Waste lands, when brought into cultivation, are rent free for ten
years, after which for five years the tax is only 4 annas per bigha,
and the cultivator receives one-tenth of the cleared land rent Tree
for his life. A considerable revenue in the shape of royalty is
obtained from mines of copper, iron, &c The taxes on merchandise
amount to from la to 14% on the value of the goods carried to and
from British India, and from 5 to 6% is charg^ on goods exported
to Tibet.
Army. — Much attention is devoted by the Gurkhalis to military
niattm, and the bulk of that race may be said to be soldiers. The
standing army consists of about 50.000 men, in a fair state of effici-
ency. Besides this force there is a reserve, consisting of men who
bave served for a few years and taken their discharge, but in case
of o e otsait y can be called on again to enter the ranks. These would
probaMy raise the strensth to between 70,000 and 80,000 men.
The regiments are formed on the European system, and similarly
drilled and officered Each man carries in addition to a bayonet a
kukri or narive knife. There is practically no cavalry, as the country
is not suited for horses. The artillery, however, is on a larger scale,
and oonsisu nearly entirely of batteries of mountain artillery.
There is a large arsenal well provided with supplies of gunpowder
and ottlhary stores. There are workshops where cannon are cast,
nod riJIcs, and ammunition of all sorts turned out in large quantities,
but of an tulifferent quality.
In addition to its own army, Nepal supplies to the British army in
India a large force of splendid soldiers, who were raised under the
foUowiag circumstances. In 1815 the British enlisted three battalions
of Gurkhas from amongst the soldiers of that race who were thrown
out of employment, owing to the termination of the first phase Of
the war with Nepal. These regiments were styled the 1st. and
and 3rd Gurkhas, and were soon employed on active service. The
1st and and behaved with much rallantiy at the siege and storming
of Bharatpur, and in the First Sikh War, while the 2nd and 3rd
won a great name for loyalty and courage during the Mutiny of 1857-
58, especially at the siege of Delhi. This induced the British to
raise, in 1858, two more battalions, which they numbered the 4th
and «h, and the whole Gurkha force has since proved its usefulness
and loyalty on many occasions, particularly during the Afghan War
of 1878-80. and on many frontier expeditions. Battalions have also
been sent, on service to Burma, Egypt, China and Tibet. The
Gurkhas in the British service now consist of ten regiments of
rifiemen of two battalions each, and number about 20,000 men.
History. — ^Nepaland the somewhat similar country of Kashmir
are peculiar among the Hindu states of India in possessing an
historical literature. The Nepalese Vam^Sval% professes to start
from a very early period in the Satya Yuga, when the present
valley was still a lake. The earlier portion of it is devoted to
the Satya and TreU Yugas, and contains mythological tales
and traditions having reference to various sacred localities
in the country. During these two Yugas, and also the Dwapur
Yuga, the VamQSvall deals in round numbers of thousands of
years.
In the beginning of the Kali Yuga, the Gupta dynasty is said
to have been founded by Ne-Muni, from whom the country takes
its name of Nepal. Lists are then given of the various dynasties,
with the lengths of the reigns of the rajas. The dynasties
mentioned are the Gupta, Ahir, Kirftti, Somavanshi, Suryavanshi,
Thakuri or first Rajput, Vaishya Thakurl, second Rajput and
Kamataki dynasties. The country was then invaded by Mukun-
dasena, and after his expulsion various Vaishya Thakuri dynasties
are said to have held the throne for a period of 225 years. The
chronology of the Vam^OwiH up to this period is very confused
and inaccurate; and, though the accounts of the various
invasions and internal struggles, mixed up as they are with
grotesque legends and tales, may be interesting and amusing,
they can hardly be considered authentic. Some of the names of
the rajas, and the dates of their reigns, have been determined
by coins, the cdophons of old MSS., and certain inscriptions
on the temples and ancient buildings. For instance, An^varma,
of the Thakuri dynasty, reigned about a.d. 633, as he is men-
tioned by the Chinese traveller Hsuan Tsang, who visited Nepal.
His name too is found in an inscription still extant. In like
manner it is ascertained from MSS. that Rudra-dcva-Varnut
was reigning in zooS; Lakshmikama-deva from 1015 to 1040;
Padma-deva, of the Vaishya Thakuri dynasty, in 1065; Mana-
dcva, of the second Rajput dynasty, in 1139; Ananta-Malla,
1286-1302; Harisinha-deva, 1324; Jayastithi-Malla, 1385-1391.
Much information as to the chronology of the various dynasties
can be obtained from the catalogue of the Cambridge MSS. com-
piled by Cecil Bendall, and also from his papers on the ancient
coins of the country. Inscriptions too have been edited by
Professor BQhler in the Indian Antiquary^ vol. ix. Detailed
lists of the rajas are to be found in Kirkpatrick's Account of
Nepal, in Hodgson's Essays, Prinsep's papers in the Asiatic
Society's Journal and Wright's History of Nepal.
The records begin to be more accurate from the time of the
invasion and conquest of the country by Harisinha-dcva, the
raja of Simraun, 1324. This raja was driven from Simraun
by Tughlak Shah of DeUii, but seems to have found little difficulty
in the conquest of Nq>al. There were only four rajas of this
Ayodhya djmasty, and then the throne was occupied by Jaya-
bhadra-Malla, a descendant of Abhaya-Malla, one of the Rajput
dynasty, who reigned in the 13th century. There were eight
rajas of this dynasty. The seventh, Jayastithi-Malla, who
reigned for forty-three years (1386-1429), appears to have done
much in forming codes of laws, and introducing caste and its rules
among the Newars. In the reign of the eighth raja, Yaksha-
Malla, the kingdom was divided into four separate states —
namely, Banepa, Bhatgaon or Bhaktapur, Kantipur or Kat-
mandu, and Lalitapur or Patau. There was only one raja of
Banepa, who died without issue. The Malla dynasty in the other
382
NEPAL
three branches continued in power up to the conquest of the
country by the Gurkhas in 1768.
The Gurkhas claim descent from the Rajputs of Chitor, in
Rajput&na. They were driven out of their own country by
the victorious Moslems, and took refuge in the hilly districts
about Kumaon, whence they gradually pushed their way east-
wards to Lamjung, Gurkha, Noakote and ultimately to the
valleyof Nepal, which under Raja Prithwi Narayana they finally
captured. In the struggle which took place at Bhatgaon, Jaya-
prakasa (the raja of Katmandu) was wounded, and shortly
afterwards he died at Pashupati. Ranjit-MaUa, the aged raja
of Bhatgaon, was allowed to retire to Benares, where he ended
his days. Tej Narsinha, the raja of Patan, was kept in confine-
ment till his death. During the latter years of the war Jaya-
prakasa applied to the British for assistance, and a small force,
under Captain Kinloch, was sent into the tarai in 1765, but it was
repulsed by the Gurkhas.
Prithwi Narayana died in 1774. He left two sons, Pratapa-
sinha Sah and Bahadur Sah. The former succeeded his father,
but died in 1777, leaving an infant son, Rana Bahadur Sah. On
the death of Pratapa-sinha, his brother, who had been in exile,
returned to Nepal and became regent. The mother of the infant
king, however, was opposed to him, and he had again to flee to
Bettia, in British territory, where he remained till the death of
the rani, when he again became regent, and continued so till 1795.
During this time the Gurkhas were busily annexing all the
neighbouring petty states, so that in 1790 their territories
extended from Bhutan to the Sutlej river, and from Tibet to the
British provinces. At length, in 1790, they invaded Tibet, and
were at first successful; but they were thus brought into contact
with the Chinese, who in 179 1 sent a large force to invade Nepal.
In 1792 the Chinese advanced as far as Noakote, and there
dictated terms to the Nepalese.
In 1 791 the Gurkhas had entered into a commercial treaty with
the British and hence, when hard pressed, they applied for
assistance against the Chinese to Lord Comwallis. In con-
sequence of this Kirkpatrick was despatched to Nepal, and
reached Noakote in the spring of 1 792, but not till after peace had
been concluded. One result of this embassy was the ratification
of another commercial treaty on the ist of March 1792.
In 1795 Rana Bahadur removed his uncle, Bahadur Sah, from
the regency, and two years subsequently put him to death.
From this time up to 1799 the king, who seems to have been
insane, perpetrated the most barbarous outrages, till at length
his conduct became so intolerable that he was forced to abdicate
in favour of his son, Girvan-yuddhaVikrama Sah, who was still
an infant. Rana Bahadur once again recovered the throne in
1804, but was assassinated in 1805.
In October 1801 another treaty was signed by the British and
Nepalese authorities, and a British resident was sent to the
Nepalese court, but was withdrawn in 1803, owing to the conduct
of the Nepalese. From this time the Nepalese carried on a
system of encroachment and outrage oh the frontier, which led
to a declaration of war by the British in November 1814. At first
the British attacks were directed against the western portion of
the Nepalese territory, and under Generals Marly, Wood and
Gillespie several disasters were met with. General Gillespie
himself was killed while leading an assault on a small fort called
Kalunga. General Ochteriony was more successful, and the
Gurkhas were driven eastward beyond the Kali river, and began
to negotiate for peace. Arms, however, were soon taken up again,
and Ochteriony, who was put in command, in January x8i6,
advanced directly on the capital in the line of the route that is
now in use. He soon fought his way as far as Mukwanpur, and
the Nepalese sued for peare. A treaty was concluded in March,
by which the Nepalese relinquished much of their newly acquired
territory, and agreed to allow a British residency to be estab-
lished at Katmandu. In November the raja died, and was
succeeded by his infant son, Surendra Bikran Sah, the reins of
government being held by General Bhimsena Thapa.
From this time the records for many yean furnish little of
interest except a history of struggles for office between the Thapa
and Pandry factions, and futile attempts at forming combinatiotts
with other states in Hindustan against the British.
In 1839 Bhimsena's enemies succeeded in driving him from
power, and he committed suicide, or was murdered, in prison.
The Kala Pandry faction then came into power, and there were
frequent grave disputes with the British. War, however, was
averted by the exertions of the resident, Mr Brian HodgsoiL
In 1843 MaUbar Singh, the nephew of Bhimsena, returned
from exile, soon got into favour at court, and speedily effected
the destruction of his old enemies the Kala Pandrys, who were
seised and executed in May 1843. At this time mention begins
to be made of a nephew of Matabar Singh, Jung Bahadur, the
eldest of a band of seven brothers, sons of a kaji or state offidaU
He rose rapidly in the army and in favour at the court, especially
with one of the ranis, who was of a most intriguing disposition.
In 1844 he was a colonel, and on the i8th of May 1845 killed his
uncle, and immediately, with the aid of the rani, took a prominent
part in the government. After a short but turbulent interval oC
intriguef, he got rid of his enemies at one fell swoop, by what is
known as the Kot massacre, on the 15th of September 1846.
From that time till the day of his death Jung Bahadur was in
reality the ruler of Nepal. His old friend, the rani, was banished,
and aJl posts of any consequence in the state were filled by Jung,
his brothers and other relatives. In 1850, finding himself
securely seated in power, Jung Bahadur paid a visit to En^nd,
which made a great impression on his acute intellect, and ever
after he professed and proved himself to be a stanch friend of the
British. On his return in 185 1 he at once devoted himsdf to
reforming the administration of the country, and, whatever may
have been the means by which he gained power, it must be
allowed that he exercised it so as to prove himself the greatest
benefactor his country has ever possessed. In 1853 a treaty for
the extradition of criminals was proposed, but it was not ratified
till February 1855. In 1854 the Nepalese entered into a war
with Tibet, which lasted with varying success till March 1856,
when peace was concluded on terms very favourable to Nepal.
In June 1857 intelligence of the mutiny of the native troops in
Hindustan reached Nepal, and produced much excitement. Juns
Bahadur, in spite of great opposition, stood firm as a friend of the
British. On the 26th June 4000 troops were sent off to assist,
and these rendered good service in the campaign against the
mutineers. Jung himself followed on the xoth of December, with
a force of 8000 men, 500 artillerymen and 24 guns, but too late
to be of much use. Many of the mutineers and rebels, including
the infamous Nana Sahib, took refuge in the Nepalese tarai,
and it was not till the end of 1859 that they were finally swept
out of the country. The Nana was said to have died of fever in
the tarai, and it is probable that this was the case. His wives
and a few attendants resided for many years near Katmandu.
In return for the aid afforded to the British, Jung Bahadur was
well rewarded. He was created a G.C.B., and in 1873 a G.C.S.I..
honours of which he was not a little proud. The troops employed
received food and pay from the day of leaving Katmandu;
handsome donations were given to those severely wounded, and
to the relatives of the killed; great quantities of muskets and
rifles were presented to the Nepalese government; and, to crown
all, a hrge portion of the tarai was restored to Nepal. This
ground contains most valuable sal and sisu forests, and yields a
revenue of several Ukhs of rupees yearly.
From the termination of the mutiny Nepalese history has been
uneventful. The country has been prosperous, and the relations
with the British have continued to be most friendly. Neverthe-
less the restrictions on commerce, and the prohibitions against
Europeans entering the country, or travelling beyond certain
narrow limits, are as rigidly enforced as they were a hundred
years ago. Sir Jung Bahadur died suddenly in the tarai in 1877.
In spite of all the exertions he had made to bring about a better
state of things, three of his wives i^'ere allowed to immolate
themselves on his funeral P3rre. His brother. Sir Ranadip Sn^
Bahadur, G.C.S.I., succeeded him as prime minister. Shortly
after his accession to power a plot was formed against him, but
nearly forty of the conspirators were seized and executed, while
NEPENTHES— NEPHELINE-SYENITE
383
othen escaped into eiile. He was, however, murdered in 1885
and was succeeded by his nephew Sir Shamsher Jung, G.C.S.I.,
who died in xgoi and was succeeded by his brother Deb Shamsher
Jung. But in June of that jrear a palace revolution placed another
brother, Chandra Shamsher Jung, in power, whilst Deb Shamsher
fled to India. Maharajah Chandra Shamsher has ruled Nepal
with much ability. He gave effective aid to the British during the
Tibet war of 1904, and the relations with the government of
India became more cordial after his accession to power. In
Z906 Chandra Shamsher was created a G.C.S.I., and in 1908 he
visited England as a guest of the government, when he was in-
\'ested with the G.C.B. by King Edward VII. He was also made
a major-general in the British army, and honorary colonel of the
4th Gurkha Rifles.
Temple^ Sydtrabadmtd Nepal iiSSj)', ^'. Wr.; H. Wy.)
MEPENTHES (Gr. ptimSit, sc. ^pojror, a drug that takes
away grief, from n^ privative, and tMos, ** grief "), an
Egyptian drug spoken of by Homer in the Odyssey (iv. 221).
Geoeially in the form ** nepenthe " the name is given to any
drug having a like property, and also occasionally to the herb
or plant from which such a drug is produced. It is also applied
to a special genus of plants, chiefly East Indian, known as the
** P'^^^/ 'P^t^" <»> account of the formation of the leaves.
MEPHBLINB, a rock-forming mineral consisting of sodium,
potassium and aluminium silicate, Na«KsAlaSitOu. Its crystals
belong to the hexagonal system, and usually have the form of
a short six-sided prism terminated by the basal plane. The
unsynunetrical etched figures produced artificially on the
prism faces indicate, however, that the crystals are hemimorphic
and tctartohedral, the only element of symmetry being a polar
hcxad axis. The hardness is 5}. The specific gravity (2-6),
the bw mdex of refraction and the feeble double refraction are
nearly the same as in quartx; but since in nepheline the sign of
the double refraction is negative, whilst in quartz it is positive,
the two minerals arc readily distinguished under the microscope.
An important determinative character of nepheline is the ease
with which it is decomposed by hydrochloric acid, with separa-
tion of gelatinous silica (which may be readily stained by
oolooring matters) and cubes of salt. A clear crystal of nepheline
when immersed in add becomes for this reason cloudy; hence
the name nepheline, proposed by R. J. Hatty in i8ox, from Gr.
n^iXai, a cloud.
Although in naturally occurring nepheUne sodium and potas-
sium arc always present in approximately the atomic ratio 3:1,
artificially prepared crystals have the composition NaAlSiOi;
the corresponding potassium compound, KAlSi04, which is
the mineral kaliophilite, has also been prepared artificially.
It has therefore been suggested that the orthosilicate formula,
(NaK)AlSi04, represents the true composition of nepheUne.
The mineral is one specially liable to alteration, and in the
laboratory various substitution products of nepheline have been
prepared. In nature it is frequently altered to zeolites (especially
natrolite), sodalite, kaolin, or compact muscovite. Gieseckite
and liebeneritc are pseudomorphs.
Two varieties of nepheline are distinguished, differing in their
external appearance and in their mode of occurrence, being
anak>gous in these respects to sanidine or glassy orthodase and
common orthodase respectively. " Glassy nepheline " has the
form of small, oolourlos, transparent crystals and grains with
a vitreous lustre. It is characteristic of the later volcanic rocks
rich in alkalis, such as phonoUte, nepheline-basalt, leudte-
basalt, &C., and also of certain dike-rocks, such as tinguaite.
The best crysUls are those which occur with mica, sanidine,
gumtt, kCt in the crystal-lined cavities of the ejected blocks
of Monte Somma, Vesuvius. The other variety, known as
elaeoUte, occun as large, rough crystals, or more often as
irregular masses, which have a greasy lustre and are opaque, or
at most translucent, with a reddish, greenish, brownish or grey
colour. It forms an essential constituent of certain alkaline
plutonic rocks of the nepheline-syenite series, which are typically
developed in southern Norway.
The colour and greasy lustre of elaeolite (a name given by
M. H. Klaproth in 1809, from Gr. IXoior, oil, and Xitfor, stone;
Ger. FeUsUin) are due to the presence of numerous microscopic
enclosures of other minerals, possibly augite or hornblende.
These endosures sometimes give rise to a ^toyant effect like
that of cat's^ye and C3rmophane; and elaeolite when of a good
green or red cobur and showing a distinct band of lig^t is some-
times cut as a gem-stone with a convex surface.
Closely allied to nepheline, and occurring with it in some
nepheline-syenites, is the spedes cancrinite, which has the
composition H^acCa(NaC03)sAU(Si04)«. It is frequently of
a bright yellow colour, and has sometimes been cut as a gem-
stone. (L. J. S.)
HBPHBUNE^TEMITB, or Elaeoute-syenxte, a holocrystal-
line plutonic rock which consists largely of nepheline and
alkali febpar. The rocks are mostly pale coloured, grey or pink,
and in general appearance they are not unlike granites, but dark
green varieties are also known. They do not contain quartz,
as that mineral and nepheline are mutually exdusive. From
ordinary syenites they are distinguished not only by the presence
of nephdine but also by the occurrence of many other minerals
rich in alkalis or in rare earths. Orthodase and aibite are the
prindpal felspars; usually they are intergrown to form perthite.
In some rocks the potash felspar, in others the soda felspar
predominates. Soda-lime felspars such as oligodase and andesine
are rare or entirely absent. Fresh clear microdine is very char-
acteristic of some types of nepheline-syenite. Sodalite, colourless
and transparent in the slides, but frequently pale blue in the
hand spedmens, is the principal fclspathoid mineral in addition
to nepheline. As a rule these two crystallize before felspar,
but they may occur in perthitic intergrowth with it. The
commonest ferro-nuignesian mineral is pale green augite, which
may be surrounded by rims of dark-green, pleochroic aoda-augite
(aegirine). The latter forms long flat prisms or bundles of
radiating needles. A dark reddish-brown biotite is very common
in some of these rocks and a white mica, probably not muscovite
but lepidolite, is occasionally present. The hornblende may be
brown, brownish-green, blue or blue-black, belonging as a rule
to the varieties which contain soda; it is often intergrown with
the pyroxene or endosed in it. The dark-brown tridinic horn-
blende aenigmatite occurs also in these rocks. Olivine is rare,
but may be found in some basic forms of nepheline-syenite.
The commonest accessories are sphene, zircon, iron ores and
apatite. Cancrinite occurs in several nepheline-syenites; in
others there is fluor-spar or melanite garnet. A great number
of interesting and rare minerals have been recorded from
nepheline-syenites and the pegmatite veins which intersect
them. Among these we may mention eudialyte, eukolite, mos-
andrite, rinkite, johnstrupite, lavenite, hiortdahlite, perofskite
and lamprophyllite. Many of these contain fluorine and the
rare earths.
Nepheline-syenites are rare rocks; there is only one occurrence
in Great Britain and one in France and PortugaL They are
known also in Bohemia and in several places in Norway, Sweden
and Finland. In America these rocks have been found in Texas,
Arkansas and Massachussetts, also in Ontario, British Columbia
and Brazil South Africa, Madagascar, India, Tasmania, Timor
and Turkestan are other k)calities for the rocks of this series.
They exhibit also a remarkable individuality as each occurrence
has its own special features; moreover a variety of types
characterizes each occurrence, as these rocks are very variable.
For these rcasous, together with the numerous rare minerals
they contain, they have attracted a great deal of attention from
petrographeis.
Manv types of nepheline-syenite have received designations
derived from the localities in which they were discovered. The
laurdalites (from Laurdal in Norway) are grey or pinkish, and in
many ways doscly resemble the laurvildtes of southern Norway,
with which they occur. They contain anorthodaae felspars of
lozenge-shaped forms, bioCite or greenish augite, much apatite and
sometimes olivine. Some of these rocks are porphyntic The
384
NEPHELINITES— NEPI
foyaitcs include the mater number of known ncphclinc-sycnitcs
and are called after Foya in the Serra de Monchiuue (southern
Portugal), from which they were first described. Tncy are grey,
green or reddish, and mostly of massive structure with preponderat-
ing potash felspar, some nepheline, and a variable (often small)
amount of femic minerals. Pyroxene-, hornblende- and biotite-
foyaites have been recognized according to their mineral com-
position. Examples of the first-named occur in southern Norway
with the laurdalites; they contain aegirinc and black mica. At
Alnd Island in the Gulf of Bothnia (Sweden) nmilar rocks are found
bearing enclosures or altered limestone with wollastonite and
scapolite. In Siebenbur^en ^Hungary) there is a well-known rock
of this group, very rich m microcline, blue sodalite and cancrinite.
It contains also orthoclasc, nepheline. biotite, aegirine, acmite. &c.
To this type the name ditroite has been given from the place where
it occurs (Ditro). Pyroxene-foyaite has been described also from
Pouzac in the Pyrenees (S. France). Mica-foyaite is not very
common, but is known at Miask in the Ural Mountains (miaskite),
where it is coarse-grained, and contains black mica, sodalite and
cancrinite. The hornblende-foyaites are usually brown or blue,
and intensely dichroic, but may ^contain also biotite or augite.
Rocks of this class occur in Brazil (Serra de Tingua) containing
sodalite and often much augite, in the western Sahara and Cape
Verde Islands; also at Zwarte Kopptes in the Transvaal, Madagascar,
Sio Paulo (in Brazil), Paisano Pass (West Texas) and Montreal,
Canada. The rock of^ Salem, Mass., U.S.A., is a mica-foyaite rich in
albite and aegirine: it accompanies granite and cssexitc.
Litchfieldite is another well-marked type of nepheline-syenitc,
in which albite is the dominant felspar. It is named after Litch-
field, Maine, U.S.A., where it occurs in scattered blocks. Biotite,
cancrinite and sodalite are characteristic of this rock. A similar
nepheline-syenite is known from Hastings Co.. Ontario, and con-
tams hardly any orthoclaae, but only albite felqar. Nepheline is
very abundant and there is also cancrinite. sodalite, scapolite, calcite.
biotite and hornblende. The lujaurites are distinguished from the
rocks above described by their dark colour, which is due to the
abundance of minerals such as augite, aegirine. arfvcdsonite and
other kinds of amphibole. Tvpical examples are known near Lujaur
on the White Sea, where they occur with umptekites and other
very peculiar rocks. Other localities for this ^up are at Tulianehaab
in Greenland (with sodalitc-syenite) ; at their margins tney contain
pseudomorphs after leucite. The lujaurites frequently have a
parallel-banding or ipeissosc structure.
Sodalite-syenites m which sodalite very largely or completely
takes the place of nepheline occur in Greenland, where they contain
also microcline-pertnite, aegirine, arfvcdsonite and eudialyte.
Cancrinite-syenite, with a large percentage of cancrinite, has been
described from Dalekarlia (Sweden) and from Finland. We may
also mention urtite from Lujaur Urt on the White Sea. which con-
sists very largely of nepheline, with aegirine and apatite, but no
felspar. Jacupirangite (from Jacupiranga in Brazil) is a blackish
rock composed of tiuniferous au]site, magnetite, ilmenile, pcrofskite
and nepheline, with secondary biotite.
The chemical peculiarities of the nephetine-syenttca are well
marked, as will be seen from the following analyses. They are
exceedingly rich in alkalis and in alumina (hence the abundance of
felspathoias and alkali felspars) with silica varying from 50 to 56%,
while lime, magnesia and iron are never present in great quantity,
though somewhat more variable than the other components. As a
group, also, these rocks have a low specific gravity.
SiOi.
AliO.
FeO
FesOi.
CaO.
M.O.
KiO.
N«fO.
Laurdalite .
Ditroite
Litchfieldite
Lujaurite .
5630
6039
5414
1907
2414
30-6I
312
2.'26
2-08
241
199
0-42
338
241
1.98
0-I3
0-I3
083
6-79
4-77
5-25
7-67
9-87
U. S. F.)
NEPHEUNITBS. The group of e£Fusive rocks which contains
nepheline with plagioclase felspar is subdivided into nepheline-
tcphrites and nepheline-basanltes, while those which contain
nepheline but not felspar are nephelinites and nepheline-basalts.
The tephrites differ from the basanites in the absence of olivine,
and the same distinction subsists between the nephelinites and
nephcline-bbsalts.
Lavas with nephdine, plagiodaae and . augit^ « nepheline-
tephrites.
Lavas with nepheline, plagiodaae. augite and olivine «nephdiiie-
basanites.
Lavas with nepheline and augite •nephelinites.
Lavas with nq>heline, augite and olivine "ncphcline-basalts.
In their essential and accessory minerals, appearance and
structure, these rocks have much in comMon, and they tend to
occur in a natural assodation as basic rocks comparatively rich
in alkalis and alumina. The nephelinites and tephrites are rather
dosely linked to the phonolites and pass into them by various
gradations. They are usually richer in alkalis and silica and
contain less iron, lime and magnesia than the basanites and
nepheline-basalts, a difference which finds expression in the
presence of olivine and the smaller amount of fdspan and
felspathoids in the hitter.
The nepheline is colourless and transparent when fxesh, often
in six^ded prisms, but also as irregular interstitial masses
filling the spaces between the other minerals, and hard to identify
owing to its low double refraction and frequent decomposition.
Leucite appears in some tephrites; hadyne is more frequent as
small dodecahedra often filled with black indusions. The
augite varies a good deal, being bright green or dark green
(aegirine) and rich in soda in some tephrites and nephdinitcs,
while in basanites and basalts it is often brown " basaltic "
augite or purple " titaniferotis " augite. It has often good
crystalline form, and occurs as eight-sided monoclinic prisms,
but the soda augites may be of late crystallization and form
mossy or irregular growths in the matrix. Brown homUeDde is
much less common, and a red biotite is very characteristic of
certain nephelinites. Of the fdspars, labradorite is probably the
most common, with more add varieties of plagiodaae. s««wiifM>
is by no means absent, but may be considered as an aooeaaory.
The olivine presents no peculiarities. Melilite, perofskite,
pseudobrookite, melanite garnet, iron oxides, apatite and
chromite are occasionally met with.
All these rocks are practically confined to lavas of Tertiary and
recent age. though some occur as dikes or small intrusive masses.
The plutonic facies of these rocks are found among the theralites,
shonkinites. esscxites and ijolitea. In the British Isles they are
exceedingly scarce* though nepheline-basanite occurs in a dike
which is presumably Tertiary, cutting the Triasaic rocks at Buttcrtoo
in Staffordshire, and nepheline-basalt has been found in a single
neck at John o' Groat's m Caithness and at one or two places near
North Berwick in Haddingtonshire. They attain a great develop-
ment in the Canary Islands (Teneriffe. Grand Canary. &cO and m
the Azores, Cape Verde Islands and Fernando Noronhau In Germany
they are represented among the Tertiary eruptive rocka of the
Rhme district and Thuringia, at the extinct craters of the Eiffd
and at the Kaiserstuhl. In central Bohemia there are many occur-
rences (rf nepheline-tephritca. basanites and basalts which though
fine grained contain all their minerals in excdlcnt preservation.
The nephelinite of Katxenbuckel in the Odenwald is well known.
Contrasted with the phonolites and leudtophyrcs these rocks are
scarce in Italy and the Mediterranean province, but Icudte-bcaring
nephdine-tephrites occur at Monte Vulture and nepheline-basalts in
TnpolL In America these rocks occur in Texas, in the Bearpaw
Mountains of Montana and at Cripple Creek. Cdorado. From
Argentina some members have been described: thay have a great
extenaon in East Africa (Somalilandand Masai-land) and occur also
in North Nigeria. A few also have been described from New South
Wales. New ZeaUnd (Dunedin) and Tasmania. (J. S. F.)
NEPHEW, the son of a brother or sister. The word is adapted
from Fr. neveu, Lat. nepos (originally " grandson "or " de>
scendant ")• The O. Eng. nefa survived in the form neve tiU the
iSth century; thb represents the Teutonic branch, cf. Ger.
Neffgf Dutch neef; the ultimate root is seen in the cognate
Gr. vhrohs, "descendants," dM^<i^, "kinsman," and Sans.
nap/U, naptt " descendants " or " descendant." The correlative
" niece," the daughter of a brother or sister, is from Fr. mUe^
Lat. nepiiSt the feminine form of nepos; the O. Eng. word was nifl^
d. Ger. Nickie. A euphemistic use of " nephew " is that of the
natural son of a pope, cardinal or other ecdesiastic; and from
the practice of granting prderments to such children the word
" nepotism " is used of any favotiritism shown in finding positmns
for a man's family.
NEPI (anc. Nepet or NepeU), a town and episcopal see of Italy,
in the province of Rome, 7I m. S.W. of the town of Civita
Castellana, 738 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) 2973. The site,
surrounded by ravines and accessible only on the W., is naturally
strong and characteristic of an Etruscan town; on this side
there is a considerable fragment of the andent Etruscan waO,
built of rectangular blocks of tufa (whether the rest of the site
was protected by walls is uncertain), and a ruined castle, etected
by Antonio da Sangallo the elder in i49Q,{or Pope Alexander VL,
and restored by Pope Paul III. The munidpio (town faaD) is
I from the designs of Vignohi, and contains some andent
NEPOMUK— NEPTUNE
385
inscriptions. The cathedral was bttrnt down by the French in 1 789
sod restored in iSjr. A mile and a half E.N.E. is the Roman-
esque charch of S Elia, founded about A.O. 1000, with freicoes
of the period. It ^contains a pulpit of the time of Pope Gregory
iV. (827-844), the sculptures of which are scattered about the
charch (F. Mazaanti in Nuo9o BoUeUmo d* Arckaeologia Cristiana,
X896. 34).
Nepet had become Roman before 386 B.C., when Livy speaks
of it and Sutrium as the keys of Etruria. In that year it was
surrendered to the Etruscans and recovered by the Romans,
who beheaded the authors of its surrender. It became a colony.
in 383 B.C. It'was among the twelve Latin colonics that refused
further help to Rome in 309 B.C. After the Social War it became
a wumkipiuM. It is hardly mentbncd in imperial times, except
as a station on the road (Via Amerina) which diverged from the
Via Cassia near the modem Settevene and ran to Ameria and
Tuder. In the 8th centurv aj>. it was for a short while the seat
of a dukedom.
See G. Dennis. Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria (London, 1883,
i. 82). (T. As.)
MEPOHUK (or Pomuk), JOHN OF, the national saint of
Bohemia. It is necessary to distinguish between the John of
Nepomuk of history and the legendary one. In 1393 a dispute
arose between King Wenceslaus IV. of Bohemia and the arch-
bishop of Prague, John of Jenzenstcin. Wenceslaus, wishing to
found a new bishopric in south-western Bohemia, determined to
neojt the revenues of the abbey of Kladnib as soon as the aged
abbot Ra£ek should die. The archbishop opposed this plan,
and by his orders his vicar-general, John of Pomuk— son of a
German turned W5lfel, a dtizen of Pomuk— advised the monks
to elect a new abbot immediately after RaSek's death. This
greatly incensed the king, who sununoned the archbishop and
some of his clergy— among whom was Pomuk— to appear before
him. He ordered them to be immediately arrested, and though
the archbishop escaped his four companions — among them
Pomuk-^were seized and subjected to cruel torture. They were
ordered to abandon the archbishop. Three of them consented,
but Pomuk, who refused to submit and was already on the point
of death, was carried to the bridge of Prague and thrown into
the Vluva. It is difficult to connect this historical event with
the I^end of St John of Nepomuk, who was canonized by the
church of Rome in 1739, mainly by the influence of the Jesuits,
who hoped that this new cult would obliterate the memory of
Hus. The Austrian chronicler Thomas £bendor£fer of Hasel-
bach, who lived two generations later, first states that it was
reported that King Wenceslaus had ordered that the confessor
of his queen — an office that John of Pomuk never held— should
be thrown into the Vltava because he would not reveal the secret
of confession. The story is afterwards told in greater detail by
the untrustworthy Bohemian historian Wenceslaus Hajek. It
appears certain that the person canonized in 1739 was not the
historic John of Pomuk or Nepomuk.
See A. H. Wratislaw. Life, Legend and Catwnitaium of St John
Nepomuk (1873), a valuable work founded on the best Bohemian
authorities: also A. Frind, Der tfisekickUiche Heilige Johann von
Nepomuk (1861): O. Abel, Die Legende vom heilieen Jokann von
Nepommk (1855); and particulariy vol. iii. of W. W. Tomek's
H ittory eftie Town of Prague (Caech) (12 vols., Prague, 1855-1901).
■EPOS* OORHBUUS (e. 99-34 B.C.), Roman historian, friend
of Catullus, Cicero and At tlcus, was bom in Upper Italy (perhaps
at Veronn or Tidnum). He wrote: Chronica, an epitome of
universal history; Exempla, a collection of anecdotes after the
style oC Valerius Mazimus; letters to Cicero; lives of Cato the
elder and Goero; and De wis iUustribus, parallel lives of dis-
tinguished Romans and foreigners, in sixteen books. One section
of this volttminous work {De excdlentibus ducibus exterarum
gentium, more commonly known as Vilae excetlentium impera-
lornm) and the biograpUes of Cato and Atticus from another
{De LaHnis historicis) have been preserved. Erotic poems and
a geographical treatise are also attributed to him. Nepos is not
altogether happy in the subjects of his biographies, and he writes
rather as a panegyrist than as a biographer, although he can
rebuke his own countrymen on occasion. The Lives contain
many tmn (espedaUy in chronology), but supply information
not found cbewhere. The language is as a rule simple and
correct. The Lives were formerly attributed to Aemilius Probus
of the 4th century aj>.; but the view maintained by Lambinus
(in his famous edition, 1 569)— that they are all the work of Nepos
—is now generally accepted. A dedicatory epigram written by
Probus to the emperor Theodosius and inserted after the life of
Hannibal, was the origin of the mistake. This dedication, if
genuine, would only prove that Probus copied (and perhaps modi-
fied and abridged) the work. In modem times G. F. Unger {Der
sogenannUCN., 1881) has attempted to prove that the author
was Hvginus, but his theory has not been favourably received.
Editions of the LtPM (especially selections) are extremely numer-
ous: text by E. O. Winitcdt (Oxford, 1904), C. L. Roth (1881).
C. G. Cobet (1881), C. Halm and A. Flcckeiaen (1889). with lexicon
for school use; with notes, O. Browning and W. R. Inse (1888).
J. C. Rotfc (U.S. 1894). A. Weidner and }. Schmidt (1902). C. Erbe
(189a), C. Nippcfdcy and B. Lupus (ed. maj.. 1879, school ed..
189s). J. Siebclis and O. Stange (1897).
NBPOS. JUUUS, the last but one of the Roman emperors
of the West (474-47 s)- He was a nephew of Marcellinus, prince
of Dalmatia, whom he succeeded in his principality. After
the death of Olybrius the throne of the West remained vacant
for some months, during which Italy was abandoned to bar-
barians. Being connected by marriage with Leo I., emperor of
the East, he was selected by him to succeed Olybrius on the
Western throne, and proclaimed at Ravenna. After capturing
his rival Glycerins, who had been nominated by the army in
473t at the mouth of the Tiber, he was recognized as emperor
in Rome, Italy and Gaul. The only event of the reign of Nepos
was the inglorious cession to the Visigoths of the province of
Auvergne. In 475 Orestes, father of Augustulus, afterwards
the last emperor of the West, raised the standard of revolt and
marched against Nepos at Ravenna. The emperor fled into
Dalmatia, and continued to reside at Salona untfl his assassina-
tion by two of his own officers in 480, possibly at the instigatwn
of Glycerins, who had been compelled to enter the church and
had been appointed bishop of Salona.
See Tillemont, Hist, des empereurs, vi.; Gibbon, Decline and
Fatf,ch.36.
NBPTUNB (Lat. Neptxtnus),- an Italian god, of unknown
origin and meaning, paired with Salada, possibly the goddess
of the salt water. At an early date (399 B.C.)' he was identified
with the Greek Poseidon (9.V.), when the Sibylline books ordered
a lectisternium in his honour (Livy v. 13). His festival, Nep-
tunalia, at which tents were made from the branches of trees,
was celebrated on the 33rd of July, and his temple, containing a
famous marine group by Scopas, stood near the Circus Flaminius.
In earlier times it was the god Fortunus who wss thanked for naval
victories; but Sextus Pompeius called himself son of Neptune,
and Agrippa dedicated to Neptune a temple (Basilica Neptuni) in
th e Camp us Martins in honour of the naval victory of Actium.
NEPTUNE, in astronomy, the outermost known planet of
our solar system; its symbol is t]^ . Its distance from the sun is
a little more than 30 astronomical units, i.e. 30 times the mean
distance of the earth from the sun, or about 2,796,000,000 m.
It deviates greatly from Bode's law, which would give a
distance of nearly 39. Its orbit is more nearly circular than
that of any other major planet, Venus excepted. Its time of
revolution is 165 years. Being of the 8th stellar magnitude it
is invisible to the naked eye. In a small telescope it cannot
be distinguished from a fixed star, but in a large one it is seen
to have a disk about 2-3' in diameter, of a pale bluish hue. No
features and no change of appearance can be detected upon it, so
that observation can give no indication of its rotation. Both its
optical aspect and the study of its spectrum seem to show that it
resembles Uranus. Its spectrum shows marked absorption-bands
in the red and yellow, indicating an atmosphere of great depth
of which hydrogen would seem to be a constituent. (See Planet.)
Only a single satellite of Neptune is yet known. This watt dis-
covered by William Lasaell soon after the discovery of the planet.
Its period of revolution is 5<f. 21 A. Its motion is retFOgrade. in a
plane making an angle of about 35* with the orbit of the planet.
This was the first case of retrograde motion found in any of the
386
NEPTUNE
185 -is'+o •148 (t-1890)
61 -asZdS*
16 '271'
planets or satellites of the solar system. The most notemrth^ feature
connected with the satellite is a secular chanse which is going on in
the position of its orbital plane. Were the planet spherical in form,
no such change could occur, except an extremely slow one produced
by the action of the sun. The change is therefore attributed to a
considerable dlipticity of the planet, which is thus inferred to be in
rapid rotation. It wiu ultinutdy be possible to determine from this
motion the position of the axis of rotation of Neptune with much
greater precision than it could possiUy be directly observed.
The following elements of the satellite were determined by H.
Struve from all the observations available up to 1893 :
Varying Elements rf Neptune's SateUUe.
I nclination to earth's equator
R.A. of node on earth's equator
Distance from node at epoch
Mean daily motion . . .
Mean distance at log A « I«4;r8l4
Epoch, 1890, Jan. o, Greenwich
mean noon
The eccentricity, if any. is too small to be certainly determined.
From the above mean distance is derived as the mass of Neptune
n iss* The motion of Uranus gives a mass Ti;irc^
Discovery of Neptune.— The detection of Neptune through
its action upon Uranus before its existence had been made known
by observation is a striking example of the precision reached
by the theory of the celestial motions. So many agencies were
concerned in the final discovery that the whole forms one of
the most interesting chapters in the hbtory of astronomy. The
planet Uranus, before its actual discovery by Sir William
Herschel in 1781, had been observed as a fixed star on at least
17 other occasions, beginning with Flamstced in 1690. In xSao
Alexis Bouvard of Paris constructed tables of the motion of
Jupiter, Saturn and Urantis, based upon a discussion of observa-
tions up to that year. Using the mutual perturbations of these
planets as developed by Laplace in the Mieanique Ctieste, he
was enabled sati^actoiily to represent the observed positions
of Jupiter and Saturn; but the case was entirely different
with Uranus. It was found impossible to represent all the
observations within admissible limits of error, the outstanding
di£Ferences between theory and observation exceeding i'. In
these circumstances one of two courses had to be adopted,
either to obtain the best general representation of all the observa-
tions, which would result in the tables being certainly erroneous,
or to reject the older observations which might be affected with
errors, and base the tables only on those made since the discovery
by Herschel. A few years of observation showed that Uranus
was deviating from the new tables to an extent greater than
could be attributed to legitimate errors of theory of observation,
and the question of the cause thus became of growing interest.
Among the investigators of the question was F. W. Bcsscl,*
who tried to reconcile the difficulty by an increase of the mass
of Saturn, but found that he could do so only by assigning a
mass not otherwise admissible. Although the idea that the
deviations were probably due to the action of an ultra-Uranian
planet was entertained by Bouvard, Bessd and doubtless
others, it would seem that the first dear statement of a con-
viction that such was the case, and that it was advisable to
reach some condusion as to the position of the disturbing body,
was expre^ed by the Rev. T. J. Hussey^ an English amateur
astronomer. In a letter to Sir Geoige B. Airy in 1834 he inquired
Airy's views of the subject, and offered to search for the planet
with his own equatorisd if the required estimate of its position
could be supplied. Airy expressed himself as not fully satisfied
that the deviation might not arise from errors in the perturba-
tions. He therefore was not certain of any extraneous action;
but even if there was, he doubted the possibility of determining
the place of a planet which might produce it. In 1837 Bouvard,
in conjunction with his nephew Eugene, was again working
on the problem; but it does not seem that they went farther
than to collect observations and to compare the results with
Bouvard's tables.
In 1835 F* B. G. Nicolai, director of the observatory at
Mannhdm, in discussing the motion of Halley's comet, con-
sidered the possibility that it was acted upon by an ultra-
* Briefwtehsei twischen Oibers u. Bessd, ii. 350 (Oct. 9, 1833).
Uranian planet, the existence of which was made probable by
the disagreement between the older and more recent observations.*
In 1838 Airy showed in a letter to the Asirtmemiscke Sack-
rickten that not only the heUocentric longitude, but the tabulated
radius vector of Uranus was largdy in error, but made no
suggestions as to the cause.*
In 1843 the Royal Society of Sdences of Gdttlngen offered
a prize of 50 ducats for a satisfactory working up of the whole
theory of the motions of Uranus, assigning September 18I46
as the time within which competing papers should be presented.
It is also recorded that Bcssel, during a visit to England
in 1842, in a conversation with Sir John Herschel, expressed
the conviction that Uranus was disturbed by an unknown
planet, and announced his intention of taking up the subject.*
He went so far as to set his assistant Fleming at the work of
redudng the observations, but died before more was done.
The question had now reached a stage when it needed only
a vigorous effort by an able mathematician to solve the problem.
Such a man was found in John Couch Adams, then a student
of St John's College, Cambridge, who seriously attacked the
problem in 1843, the year in which he took his bachdor's degree.
He soon found that the observations of Uranus could be fairiy
well represented by the action of a planet moving in a radius
of twice the mean distance of Uranus, which would dosdy
correspond to Bode's law. During the two following years he
investigated the possible eccentridty of the orbit, and in
September 1845 communicated his results to Professor James
Challia. In 1845, about the ist of November, Adams also sent
his completed dements to Airy, stating that according to his
calculations the observed irregularities in the motion of Uranus
could be accounted for by the action of an exterior planet, of
which the motions and orbital dements, were given. It is
worthy of note that the hdiocentric longitude of the unknown
body as derived from these elements is only between one and
two degrees in error, while the planet was within half a degree
of the ediptic. Two or three evenings assiduously devoted to
the search could not therefore have failed to make the planet
known. Adams's paper was accompanied by a comparison of
his theory with the observations of Urantis from 1780, showing
an excdient agreement. Airy in replying to this letter inquired
whether the assumed perturbation would also explain the error
of the radius-vector of Urantis, which he seemed to consider
the crudal test of correctness. It does not seem that any
categorical reply tp this question was made by Adams.
Meanwhile, at the suggestion of Arago, the investigation had
been taken up by U. J. J. Leverrier, who had published some
excellent work in theoretical astronomy. Leverricr*s first
published communication on the subject was made to the French
Academy on the loth of November 2845, a few days after
Adams's results were in the hands of Airy and Challts. A second
memoir was presented by Leverrier in 1846 (June i). Hb
investigation was more thorough than that of Adams. He first
showed that the observations of Uranus could not be accounted
for by the attraction of known bodies. Considering in succession
various explanations, he found none admissible except that of
a planet exterior to Uranus. Considering the distances to be
double that of Uranus he then investigated the other dements
of the orbit. He also attempted, but by a faulty method, to
determine the h'mits within which the elements must be contained.
The following are the elements found by Adams and Leverrierr
Leverrier.
Adams. 1
Hypothesul.
HypothesbH.
Eccentridty . .
Long, of perihelion
Mean longitude .
Epoch . . .
True longitude
36-154
0-1076
318-47'
38-38
0-16103
37-27^
O'l206i3
399; It'
I846,0ct.l
* Astron. Nock. xiii. (94.
* See Astron. Nach., ErgAnzungshdt, p. 6.
> Ibid. XV. § 317
NERAC
387
Tbe loQgitade of the actual planet was 337* 5/ on the xst of
October 1846.
Tlte close agreement of these elements kd Airy to suggest
to Challis, on the 9th of July 1846, a search for the planet with
the Northumberland telescope. He proposed an examination
of a part of the heavens 30° long in the direction of the ecliptic
and 10° broad, and estimated the number of hours' work likely
to be employed in this sweep. The proposed sweeps were
commenoed by Challis on the 29th of July. The phui required
each region to be swept through twice, and the positions of all
the known stars found to be compared, in order that the position
of the planet might be detected by its motion. On the 31st of
August Leverrier's concluding paper was presented to the French
Acaidemy, and on the x 8th of September he wrote to John G.
Galle (1812-19x0), then chief assistant at the Berlin observatory,
suggesting that he should search for the computed planet, with
the hope of detecting it by its disk, which was probably more
than 3' in diameter. This letter, probably received on the 23rd
of September, was communicated to J. F. Encke, the direaor
of the observatory, who approved of the search. H. L. d' Arrest,
a student living at the observatory, expressed a wish to assist.
In die evening the search was coounenced, but it was not found
possible to detect any planet by iu disk. Star charU were at
the time being prepared at the observatory under the auspices
of the Berlin Academy of Sciences. It was suggested by d'Arrest
that this region might be covered by one of the charts. Referring
to the chart, which was lying in a drawer, it was found that such
«u the case. Comparing the stars on the chart one by one
with the heavens it was found that an eighth magnitude star
DOW visible was not on the chart. This object was observed
until after midnight, but no certain motion was detected. On
the foQowing evening the object was again looked for, and found
to have actually moved, liie odstence of the planet was thus
established. It was afterwards found that Challis in his sweeps
had observed the planet on the 4th of August, but, not having
compared his observations with those made subsequently, had
failed to detect iL
The question whether Leverrier should receive the sole credit
of the discovery was warmly discussed. Arago took the extreme
groood that actual publication alone should be considered,
rejecting Adams's communications to Airy and Challis as quite
umrorthy of consideration. He also suggested that the name
of Leverrier should be given to the planet, but this proposal
was received with so little favour outside of France that he
tjpeei5jfy withdrew it, proposing that of Neptune instead.
The observations at the first opposition showed that the planet
was moving in a nearly circular orbit, and was at a mean distance
fnmi the son much less than that set by Leverrier as the smallest
pos^le. The latter had in fact committed the error of deter-
mining the limits by considering the variations of the elements
one at a time, assuming in the case of each that while it varied
the others remained constant. But a simultaneous variation
of all the elements would have shown that the representation
of the observations of Uranus would be improved by a simul-
taneous diminution of both the eccentricity and the mean
distance, the orbit becoming more nearly circular and the
planet being brought nearer to the sim. But this was not at
first clearly seen, and Benjamin Peirce of Harvard University
went so far as to maintain that there was a discontinuity between
the solution of Adams and Leverrier and the solution offered
by the planet itself, and that the coincidence in direction of the
actual and computed planet was an accident. But this view
was not well foxmded, and the only explanation needed was to
be found in Leverrier's faulty method of determining the limits
within which the planet must be situated. As a matter of
(act the actual motion of the planet during the century preceding,
as derived from Leverricr's elements, was much nearer the truth
than the elements themselves were. This arose from the fact
that his very elliptic orbit, by its large eccentricity, brought the
planet near to the sun, and therefore near to its true position,
during the period from 1780 to X845, when the action on Uranus
was at its greatest.
The observations of the first opposition enabled Sears Cook
Walker of the National Observatory, Washington, in February
1847 to compute the past positions of the planet, and identify
it with a star observed by Lalande at Paris in May X79S. This
being communicated to the Paris observatory, an examination
of Lahuide's manuscript showed that he had made two observa-
tions of the planet, on the 8th and loth of May, and finding
them discordant had rejected one as probably in error, and
marked the other as questionable. A mere re-examination of
the region to see which observation was in error would have led
him to the discovery of the planet more than half a century
before it was actually recogidred. The identity of Lahmde's
star with Neptune was also independently shown by Petersen
of Altona, before any word of Walker's work had reached him.
BiBLiocKAPRY.— The principal sources for the history of the
discovery of Neptune are the Asironomiscke NachrichUn, vols. xxv..
circumstances connected with the discovery, so far as be was cog-
nizant of them. Documents pertaining to the subject are found m
the Monikly Notices of tJie Royal Astron. Society. B. A. Gould,
RepoH to the Smitksontan Institution on the History of the Discooery
of Neptune, published by the Smithsonian Institution (Washington.
1850). is the most complete and detailed history of all the circum-
stances connected with the discovery, and with the early investiga-
tions on the orbit of the planet, that has been published. Leverrier's
investigation was published in extenso as an addition to the Con-
ntussance des temps» and Adams's as an appendix to the Nautical
A' ' r i-qi. Peirce's discussions, so far as published at all.
ar Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and
St rst computations of the orbit after the discovery
w( . LTB Cook Walker, and published by the Smithsonian
In a [ u [ iL>n ( i B\^ -1850). General tables of the motion of Neptune are
in Kdw^bld t Jc^^ies du mouvement de la UaniU Neptune; Newcomb's
Initsiiiaiiim &f Ute Orbit of Neptune, Washington, Smithsonian In-
stimtjexi (rS*0)i Levcmer's Annates de I'Observatoire de Paris;
Mtma^rs. vol, liv. (1877), and lastly Newcomb's "Tables" in
A.-.f^aa. Puperi iff the American Ephemeris, vol. vii., part iv. Tables
of the KitrlJitc Are found in Niewcomb, The Uranian and Nep-
turrian Systems; appendix to the Washington observations for
1873. (S. N.)
NiRAC, a town of south-western France, capital of an arron-
dissement in the department of Lot-et-Garonne, x6 m. W.S.W.
of Agen by road. Pop. (1906) town, 4018; commune, 6318.
The town, once the capital of the dukes of Albret, is divided by
the Baise into two parts, Grand-N^rac on the left bank and
Petit-N£rac on the right bank. The river is spanned by a bridge
of the x6th -century, called the Pont Vieux, and by the Pont
Neuf, of modem construction. Narrow winding streets often
bordered by old houses ascend from the narrow quays on both
banks. From the left bank a staircase leads to the Rue Henri
Quatrc, where stands a wing of the castle in which Henry IV.
lived. A statue of the king stands in one of the squares. The
former palace of the Chambre des Comptes is now occupied
by the tribunal of conmierce, the library and the museum. The
church of Grand-N6rac of the i8th century and the church
of Petit-N6rac of the 19th century offer no remarkable features.
On the left bank of the Baise, above Grand-N6rac, market
gardens have taken the place of the old gardens of the Sires
d'Albret, but remains of the Palais des Mariannes and of the
Pavilion des Bains du Roi de Navarre, both of Renaissance
architecture, are left. The famous promenade of La Garenne
laid out by Antoine de Bourbon, king of Navarre, stretches
for more than a mile along the opposite bank of the river. The
remains of a Roman villa, including a fragment of mosaic, have
been found there. A road leads from the south end of La
Garenne to the ruins of the feudal castle of Nazareth. The
Ch&teau du Tasta of the 15th century is within a short distance
of N^rac. The town has a sub-prefecture, and the industries
include brewing and cork-working.
N6rac appears at the beginning of the xith century as a
possession of the monks of St Pierre de Condom. The lords of
Albret gradually deprived them of their authority over the town,
and at the beginning of the X4th century founded a castle on the
left bank of the Baise. In the x6th century the castle was the
residence of Henry IV. during much of his youth and of
388
NERBUDDA— NERGAL
Marguerite de Valois, sister of Francis I., of Jeanne d'Albret,
and of the second Marguerite de Valois, wife of Qenry IV.,
who held a brilliant court there. N6rac, the inhabitants of which
had adopted the Reformed religion, was seired by the Catholics
in 1562. The conferences, held there at the end of 1578 between
the Catholics and Protestants, ended in February 1579 in the
peace of N6rac. In 1580 the town was used by Henry IV. as
a base for attacks on the Agenais, Armagnac and Gtiienne.
A Chambre de I'Edit for Guienne and a Chambre dcs Comptes
were established there by Henry IV. In 1621, however, the
town took part in the Protestant rising, was taken by the troops
of Louis XTTT. and its fortifications dismantled. Soon after it
was deprived both of the Chambre de TEdit and of the Chambre
dcs Comptes, and its ruin was completed by the revocation of
the Edict of Nantes in 1685.
NERBUDDA, or Naxbaoa, a river of India. It is traditionally
regarded as the boimdary between Hindustan proper and the
l)eccan. It rises on the summit of Amarkantak hill in Rewa
state, and for the first 200 m. of its course winds among the
Mandla hills, which form the head of the Satpura range; then
at Jubbulpore, passing through the " Marble Rocks," it enters its
proper valley between the Vindhyan and Satpura ranges, and
pursues a direct westeriy course to the Gulf of Cambay. Its
total course through the Central Provinces and Gujarat amounts
to about 800 m., and it faUs into the sea in the Bombay district
of Broach. It receives the drainage of the northern slopes
of the Satpuras, but not that of the Vindhyan tableland, the
streams from which flow into the Ganges and Jumna. After
leaving the Central Provinces, the river widens out in the fertile
district of Broach, with an average breadth of i m. to i m.
Bdow Broach dty it forms an estuary which is 13 m. broad
where it enters the Gulf of Cambay. The Nerbudda is nowhere
utilized for irrigation, and navigation is confined to the lower
section. In the rainy season boats of considerable size sail about
60 m. above Broach dty. Sea-going vessels of about 70 tons
frequent the port of Broach, but they are entirdy dependent
on the tide. In sanctity the Nerbudda ranks only second
to the Ganges among the rivers of India, and along its whole
course are special places of pilgrimage. The most meritorious
act that a pilgrim can perform is to walk from the sea to the source
of the river and back along the opposite bank. This pilgrimage
takes from one to two years to accomplish.
The Nerbudda has given its name to a division of the Central
Provinces, comprising the five districts of Narsinghpur, Hoshanga-
bad, Nimar, Betul and Chhindwara. Area, 18,382 sq. in.;
pop. (1901) 1,785,008.
NERCHINSK, a town of Eastern Siberia, in the government
of Transbaikalia, 183 m. by rail £. of Chita, on the left bank of
the Nercha, 2} m. above its confluence with the Shilka. Pop.
(1897) 6713. It is badly built of wood, and its lower parts
frequently suffer from inundations. It has a small museum.
The inhabitants support themselves mainly by agriculture,
tobacco-growing and cattle-breeding; a few merchants trade in
furs and cattle, in brick-tea from China, and manufactured
wares from Russia.
The fort of Nerchinsk dates from 1654, and the town was
founded in 1658 by Pashkov, who in that year opened direct
communication between the Russian settlements in Transbaikalia
and those on the Amur which had been founded by Cossacks and
fur-traders coming from the Yakutsk region. In 16^9 was signed
between Russia and China the treaty of Nerchinsk, which
stopped for two centuries the farther advance of the Russians into
the basin of the Amur. After that Nerchinsk became the chief
centre for the trade with China. The opening of the western
route through Mongolia, by Uiga, and the establishment of a
custom-house at Kiakhta in 1728 cUverted this trade into a new
channel. But Nerchinsk acquired fresh importance from the
influx of immigrants, mostly exiles, into eastern Transbaikalia,
the discovery of rich mines and the arrival of great numbers of
convicts, and ultimatdy it became the chid town of Trans-
baikalia. In z8i 2 it was transferred from the banks of the Shilka
to its present site, on account of the floods. Since the foundation,
in 1851, of Chita, the present capital of Transbaikalia, Nerchinsk
has been falling into decay.
NERCHINSK (in full Nercbimsxiy Zavod), a town and silver-
mine of East Siberia, in the government of Tnnsbaikalia, 150 m.
E.S.E. of another Nerchinsk (q.v.) (with which it is often con-
fused), on a small affluent of the Argun. Pop. (1897) 3000.
It lies in a narrow valley between barren mountains, and is much
better built than any of the district towns of East Siberia. It
has a chemical laboratory for mining purposes, and a meteoro-
logical observatory (51^ x8' N., 1x9*^ 37' £., 2290 ft. above
sea-levd), where meteorological and magnetical observations
have been made every hour since 1842. The average yearly
temperature is 25*3* F., with extremes of 97-7* and -s2-6'.
Nexchinsk Mining District extends over an area of 29,450
sq. m., and indudes all the silver-mines and gold-fidds between
the Shilka and the Argun, together with a few on the left bank
of the Shilka. It is traversed by several paralld chains of moun-
tains which rise to 4500 ft., and are intersected by a complicated
system of deep, narrow valleys; densdy wooded, with a few
expansions along the larger rivers, where the inhabitants with
difficulty raise some rye and wheat. The population (75,625
in 1897) consbts of Russians, Buryats and Tunguses. Included
in this number were some 2300 convicts. The mountains, so
far as they have been geologically explored, consist of crystalline
slates and limestones— probably Upper Silurian and Devonian —
intospersed with granite, syenite and diorlte; they contain
rich ores of silver, lead, tin and iron, while the diluvial and
alluvial valley formations omtain productive auriferous sands.
The Nerchinsk silver mines began to be worked in 1704, but
during the first half of the i8th century their yearly production did
not exceed 8400 oz., and the total amount for the first 150 >Tara
(1704-1854) amounted to ii,<uo.ooo' oz. The lead was n>o«tly
neglected on account of the dlmculties of transport, but its pro-
duction is at present on the increase. Gold was fint diacovfred in
1830. and betwwn X833 and 1855 260,000 oz. of gold dust were
obtained. In 1864 a large number of auriferous deposits were dis-
covered. Until 1863 all the labour was performed by serfs, the
property of the emperor, and by convicts, numbering usually
nearly four thousand.
NEREUS, in Greek mythology, the ddcst son of Pontus and
Gaea, and father of the fifty Nereids. He is a beneficent and
venerable old man of the sea, full of wisdom and skilled in
prophecy, but, like Proteus, he will only reveal what he kikows
under compulsion. Thus Herades seized him when asleep, aixi,
although he attempted to escape by assuming various fonns,
compelled him to reveal the whereabouts of the apples of the
Hesperides (Apollodopis ii. 5). His favourite dwelling-place is a
cavern in the depths of the AegeaiL The fifty dau^ters of
Nereus, the Nereids, are personifications of the smiling, quiet sea.
Of these, Thetis and Amphitrite rule the sea according to the
legend oi different localities; Galatea is a Sicilian figure, who
plays with and ddudes her rustic lover of the shore, Polyphemus.
Nereus is represented with the sceptre and trident; the Nereids
are depicted as graceful maidens, lightly clad or naked, riding on
tritons and dolphins. The name has nothing to do with the
modem Greek v€fA (really vtafit», " fresh " [water]): it is prob-
ably a short form of Ni^pcrof .
NERQAU the name of a solar deity in Babylonia, the main
seat of whose cult was at Kutha or Cuthah, represented by the
mound of Tdl-Ibrahim. The importance of Kutha as a religious
and at one time also as a political centre led to his surviving the
tendency to concentrate the various stm-cults of Babylonia in
Shamash (q.v.). He becomes, however, the representative ol
a certain phase only of the sun and not of the sun as a whole.
Portrayed in hymns and myths as a god of war and pestilence,
there can be little doubt that Neigal represents the sun of noon-
time and of the summer solstice which brings destruction to man-
kind. It is a logical consequence that Nergal is pictured also as the
deity who presides over the nether-world, and stands at the head
of the spedal pantheon assigned to the government of the dead,
who are supposed to be gathered in a large subterranean cave
known as Ar&lu or Irkalla. In this capadty there is associated
with him a goddess AUatu, though there are indications that at
onetime Allatu was regarded as the sole mistress of Arilu, rulicg
NERI, PHILIP
389
ia her own penon. Ordiiuuily the consort' of Nergal it Lu.
Nergal was pictured as a lion and on boundary-stone monuments
his symbol is a mace surmounted by the head of a lion.
As in the case of^Ninib, Nergal appears to have absorbed
a number of minor solar deities, which accounts for the various
names or designations under which be appeals, such as Lugalgira,
Shampu (" the burner/* perhaps a mere epithet), Ira, Gibil
(though this name more properly belongi to Nusku, q,v,) and
SibittL A certain confusion exists in cuneiform literature
between Ninib and Neigal, perhaps due. to the traces of two
different conceptions regarding these two solar deities. Nergal
is called the " raging king," the " furious one," and the like, and
by a play upon his name— separated into 'three dements Ne-uru-
gal " lord of the great dwelling *' — his position at the head of the
nether-world pantheon is indicated. In the astral-theological
system he is the planet Mars, while in ecclesiastical art the great
iion-headed colossi serving as guardians to the temples and
palaces seem to be a symbol of Nergal, just as the buU-headed
colossi are probably intended to ^ify Ninib.
The name of his chief temple at Kutha was £-shid-lam, from
which the god receives the designation of ShidlamtAea, " the
one that rises up from Shidlam." The cult of Nergal does not
appear to have been as widespread as that of Ninib. He is
frequently invoked in hymns and in votive and other inscriptions
of Babylonian and Assyrian rulers, but we do not learn of many
temples to him outside of Kutha. Sennacherib speaks of one
ftt Tarbisu to the north of Nineveh, but it is significant that
although Nebuchadrezzar II. (606-586 B.C.), the great temple-
builder of the neo-Babylonian monarchy, alludes to his opera-
tions at E-shid-lam in Kutha, he makes no mention of a sanctuary
to Nergal in Babylon. Local associations with his original
leat— Kutha — ^and the conception formed of him as a god of
the dead acted in making him feared rather than actively
worshipped. (M. Ja.)
KBRI, PHILIP (Fnippo de) (151 5-1 595), Italian churchman,
was bom at Florence on the 31st of July 151 5. He was the
youngest child of Francesco Neri, a lawyer of that dty, and
his wife Lucrezia Soldi, a woman of noble birth, whose family
had long served the state. He was carefully brought up, and
received his early teaching from the friars at San Marco, the
famous Dominican monastery in Florence. He was accustomed
in after life to ascribe most of his progress to the teaching of
two amongst them, Zenobio de' Medici and Servanzio Mini.
When he was about sixteen years old, a fire destroyed nearly
all his father's property. Philip was sent to his father's childless
brother Romolo, a merchant at San Germano, a Neapolitan
town near the base of Monte Cassino, to assist him in his business,
and with the hope that he might inherit his possessions. So
far as gaining Romolo's confidence and affection, the plan was
entirely successful, but it was thwarted by Philip's own resolve
to take holy orders. In 1533 he left San Germano, and went
to Rome, where he became tutor in the house of a Florentine
gentleman named Galeotto Caccia. Here he was able to pursue
his own studies under the guidance of the Augustinians, and to
begin those labours amongst the sick and poor which gained
him in later life the title of "Apostle of Rome," besides paying
nightly visits for prayer and meditations to the churches of the
dty and to the catacombs. In 1538 he entered on that course
of borne mission work which was the distinguishing charac-
teristic of his life; somewhat in the manner of Socrates he
traversed the dty, seizing opportunities of entering into con-
versation with persons of aU ranks, and of leading them on,
with playful irony, with searching questions, with words of wise
and kindly couxisel, to consider the topics he desired to set
before them.
In XS48 be founded the celebrated confraternity of the San-
tisrima Triniti de' Pellegrini e de' Convalescente, whose primary
object is to minister to the needs of the thousands of poor
pilgrims who flock to Rome, espedally in years of jubilee, and
also to relieve the patients discharged from hospitals, but still
too weak for labour. In 1551 he passed through all the minor
orders, and was ordained deacon, and finally priest on the 33rd
of May. He had some thought of going to India as a missionary,
but was dissuaded by his friends who saw that there was abundant
work to be done in Rome, and that he was the man to do it.
Accordingly be settled down, with some companions, at the
hospital of San Girolamo della Cariti, and while there tentatively
be^, in 1556, the institute with which his name is more esped-
ally connected, that of the Oratory. The scheme at first was
no more than a series of evening meetings in a hall (the Oratory),
at which there were prayers, hymns, readings from Scripture,
from the fatheis, and from the Martyrohgy, followed by a
lecture, or by discussion of some religious question proposed
for consideration. The musical sdections (settings of scenes
from sacred history) were called oratorios. The scheme was
devdoped, and the members of the sodety undertook various
kinds of xnission work throughout Rome, notably the preaching
of sermons in different churches every evening, a wholly novel
agency at that time. In 1564 the Florentines requested him to
leave San Girolamo, and to take the oversight of their church
in Rome, San Giovanni dd Fiorentini, then newly built. He
was at first reluctant, but by consent of Pius IV. he accepted,
while retaining the charge of San Girolamo, where the exercises
of the Oratory were kept up. At this time the new sodety
induded amongst its members Caesar Baronius, the ecdesi-
astical historian, Francesco Maria Tarugi, afterwards archbishop
of Avignon, and Paravicini, all three subsequently cardinals,
and also Gallonius, author of a well-known work on the Sufferings
of the Martyrs, Andna, Bordoni, and other men of ability and
(Ustinction.
The Florentines, however, built in 2574 a hirge oratory or
mission-room for the sodety contiguous to San Giovanni, in
order to save them the fatigue of the daily journey to and from
San Girolamo, and to provide a more convenient place of
assembly, and the headquarters were transferred thither. As
the community grew, and its mission work extended, the need
of having a church entirely itJk own, and not subject to other
claims, as were San Girolamo and San Giovanni, made itself
fdt, and the offer of the small parish church of Santa Maria in
Vallicella, conveniently situated in the middle of Rome, was
made and accepted. The building, however, as not large
enough for thdr purpose, was pulled down, and a splendid
church erected on the site. It was immediatdy after taking
possession of their new quarters that Neri formally organized,
under permission of a bull dated July 15, 1575, a community
of secular priests, entitled the Congregation of the Oratory. The
new church was consecrated eariy in 1577, and the clergy of
the new society at once resigned the charge of San Giovanni
dd Fiorentini, but Neri himself did not migrate from San Giro-
lamo till 1583, and then only in virtue of an injunction of the
pope that he, as the superior, should reside at the chief house
of his congregation. He was at first dcctcd for a term of three
years (as is usual in modem sodeties), but in 1 587 was nominated
superior for life. He was, however, entirely free from personal
ambition, and had no desire to be general over a number of
dependent houses, so that he desired that all congregations
formed on his modd outside Rome should be autonomous,
governing themselves, and without endeavouring to retain
control over any new colonies they might themselves send out —
a regulation afterwards formally confirmed by a brief of Gregory
XV. in 1633. Much as he mingled with society, and with persons
of importance in church and state, his single interference in
political matters was in 1593, when his persuasions induced the
pope, Qement VIU., to withdraw the excommunication and
anathema of Henry IV. of France, and the refusal to receive
his ambassador, even though the king had formally abjured
Calvinism. Neri saw that the pope's attitude was more than
likdy to drive Henry to a relapse, and probably to rekindle
the dvil war in France, and directed Baronius, then the pope's
confessor, to refuse him absolution, and to resign his office of
confessor, unless be would withdraw the anathema. Clement
yidded at once, though the whole college of cardinals had
supported his policy; and Henry, who did not Icara the facts
till several years afterwards, testified livdy gratitude for the
390
NERO
timely and politic interventioii. Neri continued in the govern*
ment of the Oratory until his death, which took place on the
26th of May 1595 at Rome. He was succeeded byBaronius.
There are many anecdotes told of him which attest his possession
of a pla>'ful humour, united with shrewd mother-wit. He
considered a cheerful temper to be more Christian than a melan-
choly one, and carried this spirit into his whole life. This is
the true secret of his popularity and of his place in the folk-lore
of the Roman poor. Many miracles were attributed to him
alive and dead, and it is said that when his body was dissected
it was found that two of his nbs had been broken, an event
attributed to the expansion of his heart while fervenUy praying
in the catacombs about the year 1545. This phenomenon is
in the same category as the stigmata of St Fnnds of Assist
Neri was beatified by Paul V. in x6oo, and canonized by Gregory
XV. in 1622.
" Practical commonplaceness,** says Frederick William Fabcr in
his panegyric of Neri, was the special mark which distinguishes his
form of ascetic piety from the types accredited before his day.
" He looked like other men . . . ne was emphatkally a modem
gentleman, of scrupulous courtesy, sportive ^ety, acc^uaintcd with
what was going on in the worid, taking a real mterest in it, nving and
getting intormatton, very neatly dressed, with a shrewd common
sense always alive about htm, in a modem room with modem furni-
ture, plain, it is true, but with no marks of poverty about it — in a
word, with all the ease, the gracefulness, the polish of a modem
gentleman of good birth, considerable accompUsomeats, and a very
various information.'* Accordingly, he was ready to meet the needs
of bis day to an extent and in a manner which even the versatile
Jesuits, who much desired to enlist him in their company, did not
rival; and, though an Italian priest and head of a new religious
order, his genius was entirely unmonastic and unmedieval ; he was
the active promoter of vernacular services, frequent and popular
preaching, unconventional prayer, and unsystematized, albeit
fervent, private devotion.
Neri was not a reformer, save in the sense that in the active dis-
chane of pastoral work he laboured to reform individuals. He had
no olfiiculties in respect of the teaching and practice of his church,
beinf^ in tmth an ardent Ultramontane in doctrine, as was all but
inevitable in his time and circumstances, and his great merit was the
instinctive tact which showed him that the system of monastidsm
could never be the leaven of secular life, but that something more
homely, simple, and everyday in character was needed for the new
time.
Accordingly, the congregation he founded is of the least con-
ventional nature, rather resembling a residential clerical club than
a monastery of the older type, and its rules (never written by Neri,
but approved by Paul V. m 1612) would have appeared incredibly
lax, nay, its religious character almost doubtful, to Bruno, Stephen
Harding, Francis or Dominic It admits only priests aged at least
thirty-six, or ecclesiastics who have completed their stucUes and are
ready for ordination. The members live in community, an^ each
pays his own expenses, having the usufruct ci his private means —
a startling innovation on the monastic vow of povmy. They have
indeed a common table, but it is kept up precisely as a regimental
mess, by monthly^ payments from each member. Nothing is pro-
vided by the society except the bare lodging, and the fees of a
visiting physician. Everything else— doming, books, furniture,
medidnea — must be defrayed at the private charges of each member.
There are no vows, and every member of the society is at liberty to
withdraw when he pleases, and to take his property with him.
The govemment, strikingly unlike the Jesuit autocracy, is of a
republican form; and the Superior, though first in honour, has to
take his turn in discharging ail the duties which come to each priest
of the sodety in the order of his seniority, induding that of waiting
at table, wluch is not entrusted in the Oratory to lay brothers,
according to the practice in most other communities. Four deputies
assist the superior in the government, and all public acts are decided
by a majority of votes of the whole congnigation, in which the
superior has no casting voice. To be chosen superior, fifteenyears
of membership are requisite as a qualification, and the office is
tenable, as all the others, for but three years at a time. No one can
vote till he has been three years in the sodety ; the deliberative
voice is not obtained before the eleventh year. There are thus three
classes of members— novices, triennials ara decennials. Each house
can call its superior to account, can depose, and can restore him.
without appeal to any external authority, aJthough the bishop of
the diocese in which any house of the Oratory is established is its
ordinary and immediate superior, though without power to interfere
with the mie. Their churches are non-parochial, and they can
perform such rites as baptisms, nurriages, &c., only by permission
of the parish priest, who is entitled to receive all fees due in respect
of these ministrations. The Oratory chiefly spread in Italy and in
France, where in 1760 there were 58 houses all under the government
of a superior-general. Malebrancbe, Thomassin, Mascaron and
Maasilk>n were members of the fansous branch — fM^«'»H in Paris
in 161 1 by B^Ue (after cardinal), which had a great nioceaa and
a distinfi;uished history. It fell in the crash of the Revolution, but
was revived by P^ P^titot, cur6 of St Roch, in 1852, as the
" Oratory of Jesus and the Immaculate Mary " ; the Church of the
Oratory near the Louvre belongs to the Reformed Church. An
English house, founded in 1847 at Birmingham, is celebrated as the
place at which Cardinal Newman fixed his abode after his sub-
mission to the Roman Catholic Church. In 18^9 a second congrega-
tion was founded in King William Street, Strand, London. withF. W.
Faber as superior: in i8;}4 it was transferred to Brompton. The
sodety has never thriven m Germany, though a few houses have been
founded there, in Munich and Vienna.
Authorities.— J. Marciano, Memorie istoriche deOd Omrrtfuien*
ddP Oratorio (5 vols., Naples, 1693-1702): Perraud. VOraioiro dt
Ft&v.n f.vii! ed., Paris, 1866): Jourdain de la Passardi^, L'Oratoire
tU J/ f'h. ^k Neri (1880); Ant. Gallonius, Vila Ph. Neri (Rome,
l6»:i.>} ; (Jiiicomo Bacd, Life of Saint Philip Neri, trans. Faber
(2 \.A^. London, 1847); Crispino, La Scuola di San FUippo Neri
(N.L[:lis 1^75); F. W. Faber, Spirit and Genius of St PUfip Neri
(L.>rnirip, I S50) : F. A. Agnelli, ExcetUncies of the Oratory of St Philip
Nrri, tt^n&.¥. I. Antrobus (London, 1881): articles by ¥. Theincr
and Hilars in Wetzer und Welte's Kirchcnlexicon, and by ReuchUn
amJ Z!.kU<:c in Herzog's Realencyklopddie. Neri's own writings
ind-^ K^jrdt, or Advtce to Youth. Letters (Padua, 1751), and a fev
sonnets printed in the collection of the Rime Oneste. Other lives by
POsl (Regensburg. 1847); P. Guerin (Lyons. 1852): Mrs Hope
(London, 1859); Abp. Capecelatro (2 vols., 1879; 2nd ed., 1884:
Eng. trans., 1882; 2nd ed. by T. A. Pope, 1894).
HERO (37-68), Roman emperor 54-68, was bom at Antinm
on the 1 5th of December 37. He was the son of Gnaeus Domitius
Ahcnobarbus and Agrippina the younger, and his name was
originally L. Domitius Ahcnobarbus. His father died when Nero
was scarcely three years old. In the previous year (39) his mother
had been banished by order of her brother Caligula (Gaius)
on a charge of treasonable conspiracy, and Xero, thus early
deprived of both parents, found shelter in the house of his aunt
Domitia, where two slaves, a barber and a dancer, began his
training. The emperor Claudius recalled Agrippina, who spent
the next thirteen years in the determined struggle to win for Nero
the throne which had been predicted for him. Her first dedsi\*e
success was gained in 48 by the disgrace and execution of
Messallina (q.v.), wife of Claudius. In 49 followed her own
marriage with Claudius, and her recognition as his consort in the
government.^ The Roman populace already looked with favour
on Nero, as the grandson of Ciermanicus, but in 50 his claims
obtained formal recognition from Claudius himself, who adopted
him under the title of Nero Claudius Caesar Drusus Gennanicus.*
Agrippina's next step was to provide a suitable training for her
son. The scholar L. Annaeus Seneca was recalled from exile
and appointed his tutor. On the 15th of December 51 Nero
completed his fourteenth year, and Agrippina, in view of
Claudius's failing health, determined to delay no longer his
adoption of the toga virilis. The occasion was cdebrateid in a
manner which seemed to place Nero's prospects of succession
be3rond doubt. He was introduced to the senate by Claudius him-
self. The proconsular imperinm and the title of princepi /weis-
tutis were conferred upon him.* He was spedally admitted as an
extraordinary member of the great priestly colleges; his name
was induded by the Arval Brethren in their prayers for the
safety of the emperor and his house; at the games in the circus
his appearance in triumphal dress contrasted significantly with
the simple toga praetexla worn by Britannicus. During the next
two years Agrippina followed this up with energy. Britannicuss
leading partisans were banished or put to death, and the all-
important command of the praetorian guard was transferred
to Afranius Bumis, a Gaul by birth, who had been the trusted
agent first of Livia and then of Tiberius and CUudius. Nero
himself was put prominently forward. The petitions addressed
to the senate by the town of Bononia and by the communities
of Rhodes and Ilium were gracefully supported by him in Latin
and Greek speeches, and during CUudius's absence in 52 *t
the Latin festival it was Nero who, as praefect ol the dty,
administered justice in the forum. Early in 53 his maniage with
* Tac Ann. xit. 26. 36: see also Schiller, Nero, 67
* Tac. Ann. sdi. 26; Zonaras xi. 10.
> Tac. Ann. xiL 41.
NERO
391
Clatidtus's daughter Octavia drew still closer the ties which
coimecte4 him with the imperial house. Agrippina determined
to hasten the death of Qaudius, and the absence, through illness,
a the emperor's trusted freedman Narcissus, favoured her
schemes. On the xjth of October 54 Claudius died, poisoned, as
an our authorities declare, by her orders, and Nero was presented
to the soldiers on guard as their newsovereign. From thesteps
of the palace he proceeded to the praetorian camp to receive
the salutations of the troops, and thence to the senate-house,
where he was promptly invested with all the honours, titles and
poirers of «mperor.'
Agrippina's bold stroke had been completely successful.
Only a few voices were raised for Britaimicus; nor is there any
doubt that Rome was prepared to welcome the new emperor
with genuine enthusiasm. His prestige and his good qualities,
carefully fostered by Seneca, made him popular, while his
ch3dish vanity, ungovernable selfishness and savage temper
were as yet unsuspected. His first acts confirmed this favourable
impression. He modestly declined the title of pater patriae;
the memory of Claudius, and that of his own father Domitius
were duly honoured. The senate listened with delight to his
promises to rule according to the maxims of Augustus, and to
avoid the errors which had renderec^ unpopular the rule of his
predecessor, while his unfailing clemency, liberality and affa-
bility were the talk of Rome. Much no doubt of the credit of all
this b due to Seneca and Bumis. Seneca had seen from the
first that the real danger with Nero lay in the savage vehemence
of his passions, and he made it his chief aim to stave off by every
mans in his power the dreaded outbreak. The policy of indulging
his tastes and helping him to enjoy the sweets of popularity
without the actual burdens of government succeeded for the
tune. During the first five years of his reign, the golden quin-
quennium Neronis, little occurred to damp the popular enthusiasm.
Nero's promises of constitutional moderation were amply
fulfilled, and the senate found itself free to discuss and even
to decide important administrative questions. Abuses were
remedied, the provincials protected from oppression, and the
burdens of taxation lightened. On the frontiers, thanks chiefly
to Corbulo's energy and skill, no disaster occurred serious enough
to shake the general confidence, and even the murder of Britanni-
cus seems to have been accepted as a necessary measure of self-
defence. But Seneca's fear lest Nero's sleeping passions should
once be roused were fully verified, and he seems to have seen
all akmg where the danger lay, namely in Agrippina's imperious
tempa and insatiable love of power. The success of Seneca's
own management of Nero largely depended on his being able
graduaOy to emancipate the emperor from his mother's control.
Daring the first few months of Nero's reign the chances of such
an emancipation seerned remote, for he treated his mother with
elaborate respect and consulted her on all affairs of state.
In 55, however, Seneca found a powerful ally in Nero's
pas»on for the beautiful freedwoman Acte, a passion which
be deliberately encouraged. Agrippma's angry remonstrances
served only to irritate Nero, and caresses equally failed. She
then rashly tried intimidation and threatened to espouse the
cause of Britanm'cus. Nero retah'ated by poisoning Britaimicus.
Agrippina then tried to win over Nero's neglected wife Octavia,
and to form a party of her own. Nero dismissed her guards, and
placed her in a sort of honourable confinement (Tac. Ann.
riii. 12-20). During nearly three years she disappears from the
history, and with her retirement things again for the time went
smoothly In 58, however, fresh cause for anxiety appeared,
when Nero was enslaved by Poppaea Sabina. a woman of a very
different stamp from her predecessor. High-bom, wealthy and
accomplished, she was resolved to be Nero's wife, and set herself
10 remove the obstacles which stood in her way. Her first object
was the final ruin of Agrippina, and by rousing Nero's jealousy
and fear she induced him to seek her death, with the aid of a
freedman Anicetus, praefect of the fleet of Misenum. Agrippina
was invited to Baiae, arid after an affectionate reception, was
conducted on board a vessel so constructed as, at a given signal,
« Tac. Atin. xii. 96; Suet. Nero, 8.
to fall to pieces. But Agrippina saved herself by swimming,
and wrote to her son, announcing her escape, and affecting entire
ignorance of the plot. A body of soldiers under Anicetus then
surrounded her villa, and murdered her in her own chamber.
Nero was horrorstruck at the enormity of the crime and terrified
at its possible consequences. But a six months' residence in
CampflLnia, and the congratulations which poured in upon him
from the neightMuxing towns, where the report had been officially
spread that Agrippina had fallen a victim to her treacherous
designs -upon the emperor, gradually restored his courage. In
September 59 he re-entered Rome amid universal rejoicing.
A prolonged carnival followed. Chariot races, musiod and
dramatic exhibitions, games in the Greek fashion rapidly
succeeded each other. In all the emperor was a prominent
figure, but these reveb at least involved no bloodshed, and
were civilized compared with the gladiatorial shows.
A far more serious result of the death of Agrippina was the
growing influence over Nero of Poppaea and her friends. In 62
Bumis died, it was said by poison, and Seneca retired from
the unequal contesL Their place was filled by Poppaea, and the
infamous Tigellinus, whose sympathy with Ncrro's sensual tastes
had gained him the command of the praetorian guards in
succession to Bumis. The haunting fear of conspiracy was skil-
fully used by them to direct Nero's suspicions against possible
opponents. Cornelius Sulla, who had been banished to Massilia
in 58, was put to death on the ground that his residence in Gaul
was likely to arouse disaffection in that province, and a similar
charge proved fatal to Rubellius Plautus, who had for two years
been living in retirement in Asia.' Nero's taste for blood thus
whetted, Octavia was divorced, banished to the bland of Panda-
teria and barbarously murdered. Poppaea's triumph was now
complete. She was formally married to Nero; her head appeared
on the coins side by side with lib; and her statues were erected
in the public places of Rome.
In the course of the year 61 Rome was startled by the news of a
disaster in Britain, .^t the time of the Claudian invasion of Britain
in A.D. 43 PrasutagUB. the kinz of the Iccni, had concluded a treaty
with Claudius, byr which no doubt he recognized the suzerainty of
Rome and was himself enrolled among " the allies and friends of
the Roman people." The alliance was of value to Claudius, for the
territory of the Iceni (Norfolk, Suffolk, and Cambridgeshire) lay
immediately north of the new province and its capital town Col-
chester, and Prasuta^s had loyally kept faith with Rome. But in
A.D. 61 he died, leaving no male heir. His kingdom therefore lapsed
to Rome, and Prasutagus, anxious that the transfer should be
effected in an orderly way, divided hb accumulated wealth between
his two daughters and tne emperor. His plan failed, for the local
Roman offiaab acted as though the kingdom had been conquered
in war; thev seized on the propernr of the late kins and his chiefs
and insulted his family. Fearing tnat worse might follow when the
kingdom should be annexed, and encouraged by the absence of the
legate and hb legions, the Iceni, led by Prasutagus's daughter
Boudicca (Boadicea) rose in revolt and were joined by the Trino-
bantes in Essex, who had been long subject to Rome and had their
own grievances to redress. Colchester, since A. d. ^o a Fomaa colony.
was sacked. The ninth legion which had hurried from Lincoln was
cut to piecrr, and ths insurpmti prepared to march on London.
The news of r)n> outbreak fDund rlu legate Suetonius Paulinos en-
gaged in atf.'cking Anj^lc&oy. H^:. i^-solution was at once taken.
At the head or such li^ht troops a^ h<: could collect, he marched in
haste alone tht. Watting St reel, l« w mg orders for the legions to
follow. Th 'I'-fTh the ttvx-i flli>nf! 1 h
road were rising. Suetonius
however to find himself too
fall back along the road by
hen Verulam, were abandoned
efined point on the Watling
reinforced he turned to face
succeeded in rL.-Achlns Lon'''
weak to hoi I ii. He «^a^ '
which he had c ome . l.ond*?'.
to the Britfir-'. Ar 1 *
Street his Ic^iona ji.1
the enemy. The engagement was severe but the Roman victory
was decisive, and Roman authority was restored throughout central
and southern Britain.
The profound impression produced in Rome by the ** British
disaster " was confirmed two years later in a.d. 63 by the partial
destruction of Pompeii by an earthquake, and the news of the
evacuation of Armenia by the Roman legions. A far deeper and
more lasting impression was produced by the great fire in Rome.
The fire broke out on the night of the 18th of July, 64, among the
wooden booths at the south-east end of the Circus Maximus.
Thence in one direction it rapidly spread over the Palatine and
* Tac Ann xiv. 59.
J
392
NERO
Velia up to the low diffs of the EsquOine, and in another it laid
waste the AvexxUne, the Fonun Boarium and Velabrum till it
reached the Tiber and the solid barrier of the Servian wall.
After burning fiercely for six days it suddenly started afresh in
the northern quarter of the dty and desolated the regions of the
Circus Flaminius and the Via Lata, and by the time that it was
finally quenched only four of the fourteen regiones remained un-
touched; three had been utterly destroyed and seven reduced
to ruins. The conflagration is said by all authorities later than
Tadtus to have been deliberately caused by Nero himself.*
But Tacitus, though he mentions the rumours, declares that its
origin was imcertain, and in spite of such works as Profumo's
Le fonii ed i tempi dello incendio Neroniano (1905), there is no
proof of his guilt.* By Nero's orders, the open spaces in the
Campus Martins were utilized to give shelter to the homeless
crowds, provisions were brought from Ostia and the price of
com lowered. In rebuilding the dty every precaution was taken
against the recurrence of such a calamity. Broad regular streets
replaced the narrow winding alleys. The new houses were
limited in height, built partly of hard stone and protected by
open spaces and colonnades. The water-supply, lastly, was
carefully regulated.
There is, however, no doubt that this great disaster told against
Nero m the popular mind. It was regarded as a direct mani-
festation of the wrath of the gods, even by those who did not
suspect the emperor. This impression no religious ceremonies,
nor even the execution of a number of Christians, as convenient
scapegoats, could altogether dispel. But Nero proceeded with
the congenial work of repairing the damage. In addition to the
rebuilding of the streets, he erected a splendid palace, the
" golden house," for himself. The wonders of his Domus aurea
were remembered and talked of long after its partial demolition
by Vespasian. It stretched from the Palatine across the low
ground, afterwards occupied by the Colosseum, to the Esquiline.
Gold, predous stones and Greek masterpieces adorned its walls.
Most marvellous of all were the grounds in which it stood, with
their meadows and lakes, their shady woods and their distant
views. To defray the enormous cost, Italy and the provinces,
says Tacitus, were ransacked, and in Asia and Achaia especially
the rapadty of the imperial commissioners recalled the days of
Mummius and of SuUa.* It was the first occasion on which the
provindals had suffered from Nero's rule, and the discontent it
caused hdped to weaken his hold over them at the very moment
when the growing dissatisfaction in Rome was gathering to a
head. Early in 65 Nero was panic-stricken by the discovery of a
formidable conspiracy involving such men as Faenius Rufus,
Tigellinus's colleague in the prefecture of the praetorian guards,
Plautius Lateranus, one of the consuls dect, the poet Lucan,
and, lastly, not a few of the tribunes and centurions of the
praetorian guard itself. Their chosen leader, whom they destined
to succeed Nero, was C. Calpumius Piso (9.9.), a handsome,
wealthy and popular noble, and a boon companion of Nero
himself. The plan to murder Nero was frustrated by a frecdman
Milichus, who, in the hope of a large reward, disclosed the
whole plot. Piso, Faenius Rufus, Lucan and many of their
less prominent accomplices, and even Seneca himself (though
there seems to have been no evidence of his complicity) were
executed.
But, though largesses and thanksgivings celebrated the
suppression of the conspiracy, and the round of games and
shows was renewed with even increased splendour, the effects
of the shock were visible in the long list of victims who during
the next few months were sacrificed to his restless fears and
resentment. Conspicuous among them was Paetiis Thrasea,
whose unbending virtue had long made him distasteful to Nero,
and who was now suspected, possibly with reason, of sympathy
with the conspirators. The death of Poppaea in the autumn of
*Tac. Ann. xv. 38; Suet. Nero, 38: Dio Cass. Ixii. 16; Pliny,
N.H xvii. 5.
« This work is a reply to C. Pascal's V Incendio dt Roma e i primi
Cristiani (Milan, 1900), which throws the guilt on the Christians.
»Tac. Ann. xv. 42; Suet. Nero, 31; d. Friedl&nder, Sitten-
gesckichte, iii. 67-69.
65 was probably not lamented by any one but her husband, but
the general gloom was deepened by a pestilence, caused, it
seems, by the overcrowding at the time of the fire.
Early, however, in the summer of 66, the Parthian prince
Tiridates visited Italy. This event was a conspicuous tribute
to the ability both as soldier and statesman of Cn. Domitius
Corbulo. As long ago as 54 the news reached Rome that the
Parthian king Vologaeses had expelled the king recognized by
Rome from Armenia and installed in his place his own brotho-
Tiridates. Orders were at once issued to concentrate all available
forces on the Cappadocian frontier under Corbulo, the first soldier
of his day. After some time spent in making his army efficient,
Corbulo invaded Armenia and swept victoriously through the
country. Armenia was rescued and Corbulo proposed that
Tiridates should become king of Armenia on condition of his
recdving his crown as a gift from Nero. But the government in
Rome had a plan of iu own, and a certain Tigranes, long resident
in Rome, but a stranger to the Armenians, was sent out, and
Corbulo was obliged reluctantly to seat him on the Armenian
throne. Tigranes's position, always insecure, soon became un-
tenable, and it became necessary for Rome to intervene once
more. A Roman force under Caesennius Paetus was sent to
restore Tigranes and re-establish Roman predominance. Paetus,
however, was no Corbulo. He was defeated, and Corbulo, now
legate of Syria, was obliged to come to his rescue. The result
was the final triumph of Corbiilo's policy. Tiridates agreed to
accept the crown of Armenia from the hands of Nero. In royal
state he travelled to Italy, and the ceremony of investiture was
performed at Rome with the utmost splendour. Ddighted with
this tribute to his greatness, Nero for a moment dreamt of
rivalling Alexander. Expeditions were talked of to the Caspian
Sea and Ethiopia, but Nero was no soldier and quickly turned
to a more congenial fidd. He had already, in 64, appeared on
the stage before the half-Greek public of Naples. But his mind
was now set on challenging the apphiuse of the Greeks themselves
in the ancient home of art. Towards the end of 66 he arrived
in Greece with a retmue of soldiers, courtiers, musicians
and dancers. The spectade presented by Nero's visit was
unique.* He went professedly as an enthusiastic worshipper of
Greek art and a humble candidate for the suffrages of Greek
judges. At each of the great festivals, which to please him were
for once crowded into a single year, he entered in regular form
for the various competitions, scrupulously conformed to the
tradition and rules of the arena, and awaited in nervous suspense
the verdict of the umpires. The dexterous Greeks humoured
him to the top of his bent. Everywhere the imperial competitor
was victorious, and crowded audiences importtmed him to
display his talents. The emperor protested that only the Greeks
were fit to hear him, and rewarded them when he left by the
bestowal of immunity from the land tax on the whole province,
and by the gift of the Roman franchise; he also planned and
actually commenced the cutting of a canal through the Isthmtis
of Corinth. If we may believe report, Nero found time in the
intervals of his artistic triumphs for more vicious excesses. The
stories of his mock marriage with Sporus, his execution of wealthy
Greeks for the sake of their money, and his wholesale plundering
of the temples were evidently part of the accepted tradition
about him in the time of Suetonitis, and are at least credible.
Far more certainly true is his ungrateful treatment of Domitius
Corbulo, who, when he landed at Cenchreae, fresh from his
successes in Armenia, was met by an order for his instant
execution and at once put an end to his life.
Meanwhile the general dissatisfaction was coming to a bead,
as we may infer from the urgency with which the imperial
freedman Helius insisted upon Nero's return to Italy. Far more
serious was the disaffection which now showed itself in the rich
and warlike provinces of the west In northern Gaul, early ia
68, the standard of revolt was raised by Julius Vindex, governor
of Gallia Lugduncnsis, and himself the head of an andent and
noble Cdtic family. South of the Pyrenees, P. Sulpidus Galba,
governor of Hispania Tarraconensis, and Poppaea's forrssr
* Suet. Nero, 19-34: Dio Cass. EpiL UiiJ. 8-i6.
NERVA
393
husband, Marcos Salviua Otho, governor of Lmitsnia, foDowed
Vindez's example. At Urst, however, fortune seemed to favour
Sao, It is veiy probable that Vindez had other aims in view
than, the deposition of Nero and the substitution of a fresh
emperor in his place, and that the liberation of northern Gaul
from Roman rule was part of his plan.* If this was so, it is
easy to understand botii the enthusiasm with which the chiefs
of northern Gaul rallied to the standard of a leader belonging
to their own race, and the oppodtion which Vindez encountered
from the Roman colony of Lugdunum and the legions on the
Rhine. For it is certain that the latter at any rate were not
animated by loyalty to Nero. Though they defeated Vindez
and his Celtic levies at Vesontio (Besanoon), their nezt step
was to break the statues of Nero and offer this imperial purple
to their own commander Virginius Rufus. He declined their
offer, but appealed to them to dedare for the senate and people
of Rome. Meanwhile in Spain Galba had been saluted imperator
by his legions, had accepted the title, and was already on his
march towards Italy. On the road the. news met him that
Vindez had been crushed by the army of the Rhine, and for
the moment he resolved to abandon his attempt. Meanwhile,
Nero had reluctantly left Greece, but returned to Italy only
to renew his revels. When on the z^th of March the news
reached him at Naples of the rising in Gaul, he allowed a week
to elapse before he could tear himself away from his pleasures,
and then contented himself with proscribing Vindez, and setting
a price on his head. The revdts in Spain and Germany terrified
him too late into something like energy. The senate almost
openly intrigued against him, and the populace wef« silent or
hostne. The fidelity of the praetorian sentinels even was more
,than doubtf uL When finally the palace guards forsook their posts,
Nero despairingly stole out of Rome to seek shelter in a freed-
man's viUa some four miles off. There he heard of the senate's
proclamation of Galba as emperor, and of the sentence of death
passed on himself. On the approach of the horsemen sent to
drag him to ezecutlon, be collected sufficient courage to save
bimaelf by suidde. Nero died on the 9th of June 68, in the
thirty-ficst 3rear of his age and the fourteenth of his reign, and
his remains were deposited by the faithful hands of Acte in the
family tomb of the Domitii on the Pincian Hill. With his death
ended the line of the Caesars, and Roman imperialism entered
upon a new phase. His statues were broken, his name every-
where erased, and his golden house demolished; yet, in spite
of all, no Roman emperor has left a deeper mark upon subsequent
tradition. The Roman populace for a long time reverenc«l his
menoqr as that of an open-handed patron, and in Greece the
recoDectknis of his ma^iificence, and his enthusiasm for art,
vere still fresh when the traveller Pausanias visited the country
a century hiter. The belief that he had not really died, but
would return again to confound his foes, was long prevalent,
not only in the remoter provinces, but even in Rome itself;
and more than one pretender was able to collect a following
by asMiming tlie name of the last of the race of Augustus. More
lasting still was the implacable hatred of those who had suffered
from his crudties. Roman literature, faithfully reflecting the
sentiments of the aristocratic salons of the capital, while it
shaost fiinonfryd those who had been his victims, fully avenged
their wrongs by painting Nero as a monster of wickedness. In
Chris^m tradition he even appears as the mystic Antichrist,
who was destined to come once again to trouble the saints. Even
in the middle ages, Nero was still the very incarnation of splendid
iniquity, wfaSe the belief lingered obstinately that he had only
diiappeared for a time, and as late as the nth century his
KstlesB spirit was supposed to haunt the slopes of the Pincian
Tfin
The diief ancient authorities for Nero's life and reign are Tacitus
{AmHob, ziS.-zvL, ed. Fumeaux),. Suetonius, Dio Cassius (Epii.
hd.. fadL, bdii.), and Zooaras (Ann. xL). The most important
oiodeni woric is that of B. W. Hendervon, The Lift and PnncipaU
^ Ik Emperor Nero (London, 1903; see an important notice in
*SaeC Nero, ^ Dio Cass. EpiL Ixiii. m; Plut. GaXba^ 4:
d also SchiDer^s Nero, p^ a6i seq.; Mommsen in Hermes^ xiii. 9a
ClasM. Rm. vol. zvIiL p. 57), which contains complete bibliogtaphy
of ancient and modem writers; sec alao H. Schiller's Nero, and
Cesekkhte d. Kaiseraeiti Lehmann, Clandius und Nero; histories of
Rome in generaL CH. F. P.)
NSRVA, MARCUS C0CCEIU8, Itoman emperor from the
1 8th of September 96 to the ssth of January 98, was bom at
Namia in Umbria on the 8th of November, probably in the year
SS* He belonged to a senatorial family, which had attained
considerable distinction under the emperors, his father and
grandfather having been well-known jurists. A single inscription
{CJ.L. vi. 31,297) gives the name of his mother as Sergia
PlautiUa, daughter of Laenas. In his early manhood he had been
on friendly terms with Nero, by whom he was decorated in 65
(Tacitus,i4fffMb, zv. 72) with the triumphal insignia after the
suppression of the Pisonian conspiracy (further valuable informa-
tion as to his career is given in an inscription from Sassoferrato,
(CJX.zi.s743).
He was praetor (66) and twice consul, in 71 with the emperor
Veq)asian for colleague, and again hi 90 with Domitian. • Towards
the dose of the latter's reign (93) he is said to have ezcitcd sus-
picion and to have been banished to Tarentum on a charge of
conspiracy (Dk> Cass. bcvu. 15; Philostr. ApoU. Tyan, vii.
8). On the murder of Domitian in September 96 Nerva was
declared emperor by the people and the soldiers. He is described
aa a quiet, kindly, dignified man, honest of purpose, but unfitted
by his advanced age and temperament, as well as by feeble
health, to bear the weight of empire. Nevertheless, his selection,
in q>ite of occasional ezhibitions of weakness, justified the choice.
His accession brought a wekome relief from the terrible strain
of the last few years. The new emperor recalled those who had
been ezOed by Domitian; what remained of their confiscated
property was restored to them, and a stop was put to the vez>
atiotis prosecutions which Domitian had encouraged. But the
popular feeling demanded more than this. The countless
informers of aU dasses who had thriven under the previous
rCgime now found themselves swept away, to borrow Pliny's
metaphor (Pliny, Paneg. 35), by a hurricane of revengeful fury,
which threatened to become as dangerous in its indiscriminate
ravages as the system it attacked. It was finally checked by
Nerva, who was stung into action by the sarcastic remark ii
the consul Titus Catius Caesius Fronto that, " bad as it was
to have an emperor who allowed no one to do anything, it was
worse to have one who allowed every one to do everything "
(Dio Cass. IzviiL* i).
Nerva seems to have followed the custom of announcing the
general lines of his future policy. Domitian had been arbitrary
and high-handed, and had heaped favours oh the soldiery while
humiliating the senate; Nerva showed himself anzious to
respect the traditional privileges of the senate, and such mazims
of constitutional government as still survived. He pledged
himself to put no senator to death. His chosen councillors in
all affairs of state were senators, and the hearing of claims
against the jEsciu was taken from the imperial procuratores and
entrusted to the more impartial jurisdiction of a praetor and a
court of jndices (Dio Cass. lzviii.a; Digest, i. a, 2; Pliny,
Faneg.s6).
No one probably ezpected from Nerva a vigorous admini-
stration either at home or abroad, although during his reign a
successful campaign was carried on in Pannonia against the
Germans (Suebi), for which he assumed the name Germanicus.
He appears, however, to have set himself honestly to carry out
reforms. The economical condition of Italy evidently ezcited
his alarm and sympathy. The last mention of a iex agraria m
Roman history is connected with his name, though how far the
measure was strictly q>eaking a law is uncertain. Under the
provisions of this Ux, large tracts of land were bought up and
allotted to poor dtizens. The cost was defrayed partly from the
imperial treasury, but partly also from Ncrva's private resources,
and the ezecutlon of the scheme was entrusted to commissioners
(Dig. zlvii. 21, 3j Dio Cass. Izviii. 2; Pliny, Ep. vii. 31;
Corp. Jnser. Lot. vi. 1548). He also founded or restored colonies
at Verulae, ScyOadum and Sitifis in Mauretania. The agrarian
394
NERVAL— NERVE
law was probably as short-lived in its effects as preceding ones
had been, bat a more lasting reform was the maintenance at the
public cost of the children of poor parents in the towns of Italy
(Aur. Vict. Ep. 24), the provision being presumably secured by a
yearly charge on state and municipal luids. Private individuals
were also encouraged to follow the imperial example. In the
hands of Trajan, Hadrian and the Antonines, Nerva's example
bore fruit in the institution of the alimenUxiiones, the most
genuiqely charitable institution of the pagan world. These
measures Ncrva supplemented by others which aimed at lighten-
ing the financial burdens on the declining industry of Italy.
The cost of maintaining the imperial postal system {vekiadctio)
was transferred to the fiscus; from the same source apparently
money was found for repairing the public roads and aqueducts;
and lastly, the lucrative but unpopuUr tax of 5% on all lei^acies
or inheritances {vicesima hereditalum)^ was so readjusted as to
remove the grosser abuses connected with it (Pliny, Paneg. 37). At
the same time Nerva did his best to reduce the overgrown expendi-
ture of the state (Pliny, Bp. ii. x). A commission was appointed to
consider the best modes of retrenchment, and the outlay on shows
and games was cut down to the lowest possible point. Nerva
seems nevertheless to have soon wearied of the uncongenial task
of governing, and his anxiety to be rid of it was quickened by the
discovery that not even his blameless life and mild rule protected
him against intrigue and disaffection. Early, apparently, in
97 he detected a conspiracy against his life headed by L. (or C.)
Calpumius Crassus, but he contented himself with a hint to the
conspirators that their designs were known, and with banishing
Crassus to Tarentum. This ill-judged lenity provoked a few
months later an intolerable insult to his dignity. The praetorian
guards had keenly resented the murder of their patron Domitian,
and now, at the instigation of one of their two prefects, Casperius
Aeliantis, whom Ncrva had retained in office, they imperiously
demanded the execution of Domitian's murderers, the chamber-
lain Parthenius and Petronius Secundus, Aelianus's colleague.
Nerva vainly strove to save, even at the risk of his own life, the
men who had raised him to power, but the soldiers brutally
murdered the unfortunate men, and forced' him to propose a
vote of thanks for the deed (Dio Cass. EpU, IxviiL 4; Aur.
Vict. Ep. 24) . This humiliation convinced Nerva of the necessity
of pladng the government in stronger hands than his own.
Following the precedent set by Augustus, Galbaand Vespasian,
he resolved to adopt as his colleague and destined successor,
M. Ulpius Trajanus, a distinguished soldier, at the time in com-
mand of the legions on the Rhine. In October 97, in the temple
of Jupiter on the Capitol, Trajan was formally adopted as his son
and declared his colleague in the government of the empire
(Pliny, Paneg. 8). For three months Nerva ruled jointly with
Trajan (Aur. Vict. Ep, 24); but on the ssth (according to
others, the 27th) of January 98 he died somewhat suddenly.
He was buried in the sepulchre of Augustus, and divine honours
were paid him by his successor. The verdict of history upon his
reign is best expressed in his own word»~ " I have done nothing
which should prevent me from laying down my power, and living
in safety as a private man." The memory of Nerva is still pre-
served by the ruined temple in the Via Alessandrina (il Cdonacce)
which marks the site of the Forum begun by Domitian, but which
Nerva completed and dedicated (Suet. Dom. 5; Aur, Vict. 12).
AuTHoaiTiiB.— Db Cass, hviiu 1-4; Aurdiui Vkrtor 12, and
Epil, 34; Zooaras xL 20: compare also Pliny, Epistolat and
Panegyncus; Tillemont, HisUrire des empemrs romains, iL;
C. Mmvale, History cf tk» Romans under Ike Empire, ch. 63; H.
Schilkr, Gesckichte der rihniscMen Kaiserteil, L pC. a (1883), p. 518;
J. Asbach, Rdmisches Kaiserthum und Verfassung bis auf Trajan
(Cokwne, 1896); A. Stein in Pauly-Witwwa** Reakncychpodie
ls.v. Cooodtu, 16): J. B. Bury, The Student's Raman Empire, ch. 23
(i893>. (H. t. P.)
KESVAL, GfoARD DB (1808-1855), the adopted name of
Gerard Labrunie, French man of letters, bom in Paris on tlie
22nd of May x8o8. His father was an army doctor, and the
child was left with an uncle in the country, while Mme Labrunie
accompanied her husband in his campaiyis. She died in Silesia.
In x8zx bis father returned, and beside Greek and Latin taught
the boy modem language and the elements of Arabic and
Persian. Gerard found his favourite reading in old books on
mysticism and the occult sciences. He distinguished himsdl
by his successes at the College Charlemagne, however, and his
first work, La France guerritre, iligies naiicnaltSt was published
while he was still a student In 1828 he published a tianslatioD
of Goethe's Paust, the choruses of which were afterwards used
by Bcrlios for his legend-symphony, Tke Damnation-af Faust.
A number of poetical pieces and three comedies combined to
acquire for him, at the age of twenty-one, a considerable literary
reputation, and led to his being associated with ThCophile
Gautier in the preparation of the dramatic feuiileUn for the
Pressc, He conceived d violent passion for the actress Jennie
Colon, in whom he thought he recognixed a certain Adrienne,
who had fired his childish imagination. Her marriage and her
death in 1842 were blows from which his nervous temperament
never really recovered. He travellod in Germany with Alexandre
Dumas, and alone in various parts of Europe, leading a very
irregular and eccentric life. In 1843 he visited Constantinople
and Syria, where, among other adventures, he nearly married
the daughter of a Druse sheikh. He contributed accounts of his
travels to the Rtvue des Deux Mondes and other periodicals.
After his retum to Puis in 1844 he resumed for a short time his
feuiUetoH for the Presse, but his eccentricities increased and he
committed suicide by hanging, on the 25th of Januar>* 1855.
The literary style of GiSrard is simple and unaffected, and he has
a peculiar faculty of giving to his imaginative creations an air of
naturalness and reality. In a series of novelettes, afterwards
published under the name of Les lUuminSs, cu Us pricurseun
du socialisme (1852), containing studies on R£tif de la Bretonne,
Cagliostro and others, he gave a sort of analysis of the feelings
which followed his third attack of insanity. Among his other
works the principal are Les Filles du feu (X854), whidi contains
his masterpiece, the semi-autobiographical romance of Syime;
Seines delavie orientate (1848-1850) ; Contes etfaOfies (1852);
La Bokime galante (1856); and VAlchimisU, a drama in five
acts, the joint composition of G^rd and Alexaodie Dnxnaa.
His Poesies comjpUtes were published in 1877.
There are many accoants of G^taid de NervaTi unhappy Itfe.^
Among them may be mentioned noticet by his friend iDtephiU
Gautier and by Ara^ne Houaaaye, prefiioed to the pocthumoos
Le Rjhe etiavie (1855): Maurice Toumeux's Bketcfa in his Age du
romantisme (1887); and a sympathetic study of tempfcnment ia
the Nierosis (1898) of Mme ArvMe Bazine. See also G. Ferritees,
Girard de Nerval (1906).
NERVE (Lat nervus, Gr. rd^Aor, a bowstring), originally a sinew
or tendon (and still so used in the phrase " to strain every nerve "),
but now a term practically confined to the fibres of the nervous
system in anatomy, though consequentially employed as a general
psychical term in the sense of courage or firmness, and sometimes
(but more usually " nervousness ") in the opposite sense. In
the present article the anatomy of the nerves is dealt with; see
also Nervous System, Muscle and Neeve, Neukopaihologt,
&c.
L Ceamial
The cranial nerves are those which rise directly ftom the
brain, and for the most part are concerned with the supply of the
head. With one exception they all contain medullated fibres
(see Nervous System). Twelve pairs of these nerves are
recognised, and they are spoken of as often by their numbers ss
by their names. The following is a list:—
(x) Olfactory; (2) Optic; (3) Oculo-motor or Motor ocoE;
(4) Ttochlearis or Patheticus; (5) Trigeminal or Trifacial; (6)
Abducens; (7) Facial; (8) Auditory; (9) Glosso-pharyxiigeal;
(xo) Vagus or Fnettmogastric; (zz) Spinal acoeasoiy; (12)
HypogloKaL
ThejSrxf, or elfadery Mrs*, condsts of the dfaOorj hulk and tuO,
which are a modified lobe of the brain and he beneath the iukvs
rectus on the frontal lobe of the brain (we fi^. i). At its post a i or
end the tract divides to become continuous with the two e-" ^'^—
of the limbic lobe (see Brain), while at its anterior end is the hnlb
from which some twenty small non-medullated nerves paSft throng
the cribriform plate of the ethmcnd to supply the sensory orgaas a
the olfactory mucous membrane (aoe Olfactory Organ}.
NERVB
395
rhe Momtf or opHe nerm coiMists of the optic traa, the optic
cmmssmrt or duaswia^ mnd the apHc nent proper. The optk tract
benns at the lowtr visaal centres or intemal and external geniculate
bodiea, the cu^erior qoadrigeminal body and the pulvinar (see fig. i),
but tbete acaun are connected with the higher visual centre in the
occipital tohe by the opdc radiations (see fig. a). In the rhiasma
«>ine off the fibres cross and some do not, so that the ri^t optic
tract forms the rijcht half of both the right and left optic nerves.
In addition to this the fibres coming from the internal geniculate
body of one side cross in the chiasma to the same body M the op-
poHte side, forming Cwdien's commissun.. The optic nerve panes
throogh the optic toranien in the skull into the orbit, wbeie it is
penetrated by the central artery of the retina, and eventually pierces
the scelerotic just intemal to the posterior pole of the eyeball. Its
fioal distribution is treated in the article Eyb.
The third or oadmmotof nerve rises from a nucleus in the floor of
the aqueduct of Sylvius (see Bkaot. fig. 8), and comes to the surface
lial lyp4 of olfMtory
.Tri^rmEAAl 11
l^t. (TOM.T4iltcbodjr
Abduccnl d
Int. cmicuLdc tiody
tiojl povt
Fu« ktlerraKLk
Audhjonr junre
Mid. ccTTbdkf pedmids
{^li;WBrp]iar]ni^ Mcve
VifiuDcnre
Spiiul tiexxswatf acrve
VeIMb ttt CenbfOulQ (Cul)
^« P. J. OBihaiiiii. fa r-nhnlwili TaUmk M AwOntf,
Fic. I.— View of the Under Surface of the Brain, with the lower portion of the temporal and occipital
lobes, and the cerebellum on the left side removed, to show the origins of the cranial nerves.
in a groove on the inner side of the cms cerebri (fig. i); it soon
pKices the dura mater, and lies in the outer wall of the cavernous
anus, where it divides into an upper and lower branch. Both
these enter the orbit through the sphenoidal fissure, the upper
branch supplying the superior rectus and levator palpebrae
sapericris muscles, the lower the inferior and internal rectus and the
inferior ebliaue. so that it supplies five of the seven orbital muscles.
The jomnk or trochlear nerve is very small, and comes from a
ttudeos a little lower than that of the third nerve. It is specially
temarkable in that it crosses to the opposite side in the subsUnce
of the valve of Virussens of the fourth ventricle, after which it
winds round the outer side of the cms cerebri (fig. i) and enters the
outer wall of the cavernous sinus to reach the orbit through the
sphenoidal fissure. Here it enters the superior oblique muscle
on its orbital surface.
The fifth or trigeminal nerve consists of motor and sensory roots.
The motor root nscs from a nucleus in the upper lateral part of the
floor of the fourth ventricle, as well as by a descending (mesence-
phalic) tract from the neighbourhood of the Sylvian aqueduct
(see bg. 3). The large sensory root goes to a sensory nucleus a
Kttle estcna] to the motor one, and also, by a spinal or descending
root, to the substantia gelatinosa Rolandi as low as the second
<;»nal nerve (see fig. 3). • The superficial origin of the fifth nerve is
from the side of the pons (see hg. i), and the two roots at once
paaa into • anull oompaftment of the dura mater, in front of the
apex of the petrous booe. known as MeckeTs cave; here the laige
crescentic Casserian ganifiom it formed upon the sensory root, anid
from this the three branches come off^ earning the nerve its name
of trigeminaL The first of these divisions b the ophthalmic, the
second the nuudUarv, and the third the mandibular, while the motor
root only joins the last of these. The first or ophthalmic division <^
the Jiftk rans in the outer wall of the cavernous sinus, where it
divides into frontal, lachrymal and nasal branches. They all enter
the orbit through the spKenoidal fissure. The frontal nerve divides
into snpraorbilal and supratrochlear, which pass out of the upper
part of the anterior opening of the orbit and supply the skin of the
forehead and upper part of the scalp as well as. the inner part of the
eyelids. The lachrymal nerve supplies that gland and the outer
part of the upper eyelid. The nasal nerve gives off a bcanch to the
ciliary or lenlicntar ganMon, which lies in the outer part of the
orbit, and througli whic&i as well as through its own long ciliary
brancheSt it supplies the eyebaQ
with sensation. It leaves the
orbit throueh the anterior eth-
moidal canal, and lies for a short
distance on the cribriform plate
of the ethmoid: it then enters
the nasal cavity through the nasal
slit and supplies thb cavity, as
wen as the surface of the nose as
far as the tip. with ordinary
sensation. The second or nuuil-
lary division of the fifth nerve leaves
the skull through the foramen
rctundum, and then mns across
the roof of the spheno-maxillary
fossa; here the spheno-maxillary
or Mechd's gan^um hangs from
It by two roots. The nerve then
rans in the floor of the orbit,
giving off superior dental branches,
until It emerges on to the face at
the infraorbital foramen, where it
divides into palpebral, nasal and
labial branches, the names of
which indicate their distribution.
The third or mandibular division
of the fifth leaves the skull
through the foramen ovak, and
at once gives off a set of motor
branches for the muscles of mas-
tication; these are derived from
the motor root of the fifth, except
that for the buccinator, which
really supplies only the skin and
mucous membrane in contact
vtith the muscle. After the motor
branch is given off, the third
division of the fifth divides into
linfual, inferior dental and
aurtculo-temporal. The lingual b
joined by the chorda tympani
branch ot the facial nerve, and
then passes to the anterior two-
thirds of the tongue. -In its course
it passes deep to the submaxillaiy
gbnd, and here the small sw-
maxillary ganglion b connected
with it by two roots. The in-
ferior dental nerve gives off a small
motor branch to the mylohyoid aiid posterior belly of the digastric
muscles, and then enters a canal in the lower jaw, where it gives
off twigs to all the lower teeth. A mental branch comes out through
the mental foramen to supply the skin of the chin. The auricula
temporal nerve rises by two roots, which embrace the middle men-
ingeal artoy, and mns backward and then upward cbse to the
lower iaw joint to supply the parotid eland, the skin on the outer
side of the ear, and the side of the scalp. At its beginning it com-
municates with the otic ganglion, which lies just internal to it below
the foramen ovak, and also receives a communication from the
nerve to the intemal pterygoid muscle.
The sixth or abducent nerve rises from a nucleus m the floor of the
fourth ventricle deep to the eminentb teres (sec fig. 3). It appears
on the surface of the brain just below the pons and close to the
middle line (see fig. i), soon after which it pierces the dura mater
and mns in the floor of the cavernous sinus to the sphenoidal fissure.
Entering the orbit through this, it quickly supplies the external
rectus muscle.
The seventh or facial nerve begins in a nucleus which b about the
same level as that for the sixth, but much deef)er from the floor of
the fourth ventricle as well as farther from the middle line (see fig. 3).
The fibres of the facbl loop round the nucleus of the sixth, and
then emerge in the triangular interval between the medulla, pons
and cerebellum, dose to the eighth nerve, and having the pars
396 , NERVE
intermedia betireeni (see fig. i). Entering the interna! auditory
meatus with these structures the facial nerve i
^ ' scxm passes into a
canal in the petrous bone known as the aqiuductus PaUopii, and in
this it makes a sudden
bend and forms the
MKUttAite gan^um,
from which the freoi
superficial • fdnsal
branch to Meckel's
ganglion is given off.
The canal ends at the
stylo-mastoid fora-
men on the base of
the skull, and here the
nerve enters the par-
otid gland, in which it
forms a plexus called
tint pes anserinus.
From this, branches
pass to all the muscles
of the face except
those of mastication.
In the aqueduct the
pars intermedia jmns
the seventh, and, be-
yond the geniculate
ganglion, leaves it as
the chorda tympanic
which runs through
the tympanum (see
Eak) to join the Un-
gual branch of the
fifth. It b prob-
able that the pars
intermedia, geni*
culate nngiion
and choraa tym-
pani. represent
the sensory root
of the facial
nerve. Just out-
side the styh>-
^ ^ « , . mastoid foramen
niTir««.B»»./^he facial gives
off the posterior
Fig. 2. — ujagnm of the Central Connexions auriaUar branch
of the Optic Nerve and Optic Tract. to the occipitalis
and posterior
auricular muscles, as well as a branch of supply to the stylo-
hyoid and posterior belly of the di^tric muscles.
The eighth or auditory nerve is in two bundles, c0cMesr and
vestibular. The former comes from the cochlear nuclei which lie
deep to the acoustic tubercle in the floor of the fourth ventricle
(see fig. 3), while the latter rises from the dorsal nucleus, nucleus
of Dciters and the nucleus of the descending root, which are
more deeply placed. The nucleus ef Deiters is connected with
the cerebellum, and is concerned in maintaining the equilibrium
(tf.v.) of the body, while, as is pointed out in the article Brain,
the cochlear nuclei are connected with the inferior quadri-
geminal body by the lateral fillet as well as with the internal
geniculate body, while this body again is connected with the
higher auditory centre in the grey cortex of the temporo-
sphenoidal lobe by the auditory radiations. The vestibular ^^^so
root passes in front of the restiform body (see fig. \), and the •*'«*«?
cochlear behind that body. Together they enter the internal
auditory meatus, and, at the. end of it, pierce the lamina
cribrosa. the vestibular nerve supplying the utricle and superior
and external semicircular canals, the cochlear nerve the posterior
canal, the saccule and the cochlea (see Ear).
The ninth or glossopharyngeal nerve is chiefly, if not entirely,
sensory, and its deep termination in the brain is the solita^
bundle (sec fig. 3 ; and Brain, fie. 4). It appears on the surface
between the olive and restiform body (see hg. i), and leaves the
skull through the posterior lacerated foramen ; as it does so two
ganglia, the jugular and petrous, are formed on it. after which
It runs downward and forward, between the internal and ex-
ternal carotid arteries, and eventually reaches the back of the
tongue (see Tongue). On its way it supplies the tympanum,
the stylopharyngeus muscle, though there is grave doubt as to
whether these fibres are not really derived from the facial nerve,
contributions to the pharyi^eal plexus, the tonsil and part 01
the epiglottis.
The tenth nerve or vag^s has sensory and motor fibres; the
former go to the solitary bundle mentioned in the description of the
last nerve (see fig. 3), while the latter come from the dorsal nucleus and
nucleus ambiguus, both of which are found deep to the lower half
of the fourth ventricle. The nerve appears on the surface between
r of these b the gangKon eflhorooi, and the lower the gasigiwu
t tnmk (see fil^ 4). From the former the auriadar broucm or
UTs nerve (see Ear) comes off. while from the latter are given
eflhei
AmokTs nerve (see I!.ar; comes off. while from the Utter are given
off the pharyngeal branches to the pharyngeal plexus (fig. 4, Ph.)
and the superior laryngeal branch whkh is the sensory nerve of the
larynx (fig. 4, &L.). Between the two ganglia the accessory part of
the eleventh nerve joins the tenth, and it is from this communicatxHi
that the motor twigs to the pharynx, larynx, alimentary and re-
spiratory tracU are derived, as well as the inhibitory fibres of the
heart. In the neck the vagus accompanies the carotid artery and
internal jugular vein, and here it gives off superior and inferior
caixiiac branches. The left inferior cardiac branch passes to the
superficial, while the three others go to the deep cardiac plcxusb
The nerve now enters the thorax, passing between the subclavian
artery and vein. On the right side its rocuneht laryngeal branch
loops under the subdavian artery (fig. 4, R.), and runs up to supply
all the muscles of the k^rynx except one (see Rbspiratoiy System).
In the thorax the left vagus passes in front of the arch of the aorta,
under which the left recurrent laryngeal loops, knd on both sides a
thoracic cardiac branch is given to the deep cardiac (dexus. Both
vagi pass behind the root of their own lung, and break up to form the
posterior pulmonary plexus after giving off some braikches for the
much smaller antertor pulmonary plexus; they then reach the
oesophagus, where they ^ain break up into an oesophageal pious
or plexus gulae. As the diaphragm b approached the two nerves
become distinct again, but the left one now lies in front and the
right behind the food tube, so that, when the stomadi b readied,
the left vagus supplies the front of the organ and communicates with
the hepatic plexus, while the right goes to the back and communicates
with the coeliact splenic and renal plexuses.
The eteoenth or spinal accessory nerve is entirely motor, and ooo-
lists of a spinal and an accessory part. The former rises tma the
the olive and restiform body and just below the ninth (see fig. i).
ft leaves the skull throush the posterior lacerated foramen, and,
like the glossopharyngeal, has two ganglia developed on it; the
Fraoi D. J. CuBsfaighiiii. lb GnimiBgiiuBli Ttx^-Bttk e>f Amattmy.
Fig. 3.— Deep Origins of Cranial Nerves from the Fourth Ventricle,
anterior horn of the grey matter of the spinal cord as low as the
fifth cervical nerve. Its hbres come to the surface mid-way betw e en
the anterior and posterior nerve-roots, and run up through the
foramen magnum to join the accessory part, the deep origin of
which is the lower part of the nucleus ambiguus. The aooessonr
part, as has been noticed, joins the vagus, while the spinal part
pierces the stemo-mastoid muscle and runs obUqudy aovnward
NERVE
397
Pna A. IL PUOMI. In OtaoIailMm's Tat-B^k tf Analtmy.
Fig. 4. — The DUtribution of the Pneumosastric Nerve.
Va.R, Riffht vagi.
Va.L, Left vagi.
r. Ganglion of the root and
connexions with
Sy, Sympathetic, superior cer-
vical ganglion.
CPU, Glocco-pharyngeaL
Au, Spinal accessory nerve.
K. Menineeal branch.
Aur, Auricular branch.
<, Ganelion of the trunk
ana connexions with
^7f Hypoglossal nerve.
Ci, CaLoop between the first
two cervical nerves.
Sy. Sympathetic.
Acc^ Siinal accessory nerve.
Pk, Pharyngeal branch.
Pk.Pl, Pharyngeal plexus.
5X, Superior laryngeal nerve.
I.L, Internal laryngeal branch.
£X, External laryngeal branch.
J.C,
Cai.
Cai,
R.L,
G14.
Internal, and
External carotid arteries.
Superior cervical cardiac
branch. tbranch.
Inferior cervical cardiac
Recurrent laryngeal nerve.
Cardiac branches from
recurrent laryngeal
nerves.
Thoracic cardiac branch
(right vagus).
A. P. PI, Anterior, and
P.P.PI, Posterior pulmonary
plexuses.
Oes.Pl, Oesophageal plexus.
Ca$t.R, and Ca»/.L, Gastric
branches of vagus (right
and left).
Coe.Pl, Coeliac plexus.
Hep.Pl, Hepatic plexus.
Su.Pl, Splenic plexus.
Ren.Pl, Renal olexus.
and backward acrois the posterior triangle of the neck to enter
the trapezius; both these muscles are m part supplied by the
llie twdflk or kypo^ossol nent b motor, and rises from a nucleus
in the floor of the fourth ventricle deep to the trigonum hypogloesi
(see Brain, fig. 3). It emerges from the brain between the anterior
pyramid and tne olive (see ^. i), and leaves theskuU in two bundles
through the anterior condylar foramen. Soon after this it b closely
bound to the vagus, and, in front of the atlas, receives an important
contribution from the loop between the first and second cervical
nerves. The nerve then passes downward until it reaches the
origin of the occipital artery, round which it loops, and then runs
forward on the surface of the hyo^lossus to tne muscles of the
tongue. As it bends round the occipital artery it gives off its de-
scendau hypcf,lossi branch, which derives its fibres from the com-
munkation with thr first cervical already mentioned. This branch
runs down and forms a kwp with the communicans cenicis branch
from the second and third cervical nerVes, and from thb kwp {ansa
kypoifossi) many of the depressor muscles of the hyoid bone and
larynx are supplied. Farther forward special branches are given
off to the thyro-hyoid and genio-hyoid muscles, and these, like the
descendens hyfMgKMM. are derived from the first and second cervical
loop, thus leaving all the true muscles of the tongue to be supplied
by the meduIUry part of the nerve.
For the embryok)gy and comparative anatomy of the cranial
nerves, see Nbkvous System.
n. Spinal .
The spinal nerves are those which arise from each side of the
spinal cord and are distributed to the trunk and limbs, though
some of the upper ones supply the lower parts of the head and
face. As is shown in the article Nervous System, the division
between cranial and ^>inal nerves is rather one of convenience
than of any real scientific difference. There are generally
thirty-one pairs of these nerves, which are subdivided according
to the part of the vertebral column through which they pass out;
thus there are eight cervical (abbreviated C), twelve thoracic
(Th.) — ^formerly called dorsal, — five lumbar (L.), five sacral (S.)
and one coccygeal (Coc.). As the thoracic nerves are the simplest
and most generalized in their arrangement, a typical one of these,
say the fourth or fifth, will be first described.
The nerve b attached to the spinal cord by two toots, of which
the ventral bj ' " .... . ^
or sensory,
the foramen
tween the verte-
brae through
which the nerve
The two
I purely efferent or motor and the dorsal purely afferent
On the dofMtl root b a fusiform ganglion which lies in
I be.
roots then join to>
gether to form a
mixed narve (sec
fig. 5), but very
soon divide once
more into anterior
(ventral) and pos-
tcrior (dorsal)
primary divisions.
These, however,
each contain sen-
sory and motor
fibres. lust before
it divides in thb
way the mixed
nerve gives and
receives its rami
communicantea
with the sympa-
thetic (see Ner-
vous System).
The anterior
primary division
runs round the
trunk, between the
ribs, forming an
intercostal nerve
and giving off a
lateral cutaneous
branch, when the
side of the body is ... j 1 u
reached, which divides intoanterior and posterior secondar^r branches.
The rest of the division runs forward, supplying the intercostal
muscles, as far as the edge of the sternum, when it ends in an
anterior cutaneous branch to the front of the chest. The dorsal
primary divbion divides into ai external (lateral) and internal
Fr» a. M. PfttOMO. fa Clianiniliam'a Ttxt-Boek </ Amaltmy.
Fig. 5. — Scheme of the Distribution of a
Typical Spinal Nerve.
398
NERVE
(mesial) branch tbiough which the slcifi and mutdea of the back are
•upplied.
It will be seen from the foregoing that the thoracic nerves are
almost completely segmental in their distribution, in other words,
Ftm A. M. FMenoo, b CmuJngham'i TtaSMk^4agmmfi
Fig. 6.— The Distribution of Cutaneous Nerves on the front of
the Trunk. On one side the distribution of the several nerves is
represented, the letters indicating their nomendatura
C.A.t Great auricularnerve. /.H, Intercostohumeral.
S.Cj Super&:ial cervical nerve. I.C, Internal cutaneous.
s.a,
AcTt
CI,
Si,
T,
Supraclavicular nerves.
Acromial.
Clavicular.
StemaL
J/.5, Cutaneous branch of mua-
culo-spiral nerve.
£.C, External cutaneous nerve.
6'.C, Gentto-cniral nerve.
a-ia. Lateral and anterior lf.O>'*. Middle cutaneous nerve,
branchesof thoracic nerves. /. O, Branch of internal cutane-
I.H, lUo-hypogastric nerve. ous nerve.
/./. Ilto-inguinal nerve. P, Branches of pudic nerve.
Ore, Cutaneous branch of dr- S.Sc, Branches of small sciatic
cumflex nerve, [nerve. ' nerve.
L.I.C, Lesser internal cutaneous
each supplies a slice of the body, but in the other regions this seg-
mental character is masked by the development of the branchial
skeleton and the limbs. In the cervical region the first cervical or
subouipital nerve comes out between the occiput and atlas and does
not always have a posterior root. When it has not. it obviously can
supply no skin. lu anterior primary diviskm joins those of the
second, third and fourth cervical nerves to form the eerneal plexus,
from whkh the skin of the skie of the neck and fewer part of the
head and face are supplied by means of the swuU oeapilal, treat
auHcuiar, tuperficvU cervical, suprasternal, supraclavicmlar and supra'
acromial nerves (see fig. 7), aa vrell aa those muscles of the neck
which are not supplied by the cranial nerves. The phrenic nerve,
which comes chiefly from the fourth cervkal, deserves aptdaA notice
because it runs down, through the thorax, to supply the greater pan
of the diaphragnL The explanatk>n of this k>ng course (see Uu-
PHRAGU) IS that the diaphragm is formed in the neck region of the
embryo. The posterior primary division of the second cervical nerve
is very lai^, and its inner (mesial) branch b called the gfMl occipital
and supplies most of the back of the scalp (fig. 7). The fifth, suth,
seventh and eighth anterior primary divisions 01 the cervical nerves
as well as a large part of that of the first thoracic are prok>ngcd into
the arm. and in the lower part of the neck and armpit communkate
with one another to form the brachial plexus. As a general bw
underiies the compositbn of the limb plexuses it will be worth while
to study the structure and distribution of this one with some little
care. It will be seen from the accompanying diagram (fig. 8) that
each component nerve with the exception of the first thoracic
divides into an anterior (ventral) and a (Mstcrior (dorsal) division
which are best spoken of as secondary divisions in order to prevent
SLny^ confusion with the anterior and posterior primary 'divisions
whkh all the spinal nerves undergo. In the diagram the anterior
secondary divisions are white, while the posterior are shaded. It
has been suggested by A. M. Paterson that the posterior secondary
branches correspond with the lateral branches of the thoradc nerves
already mentioned, but there are still ceruin difficulties to be
explained before altogether accepting this. Later on in the plexus
three cords are formed of which the posterior is altogether made up
of the posterior secondary divisions, while the anterior secondary
divtsbns of the fifth, sudh and seventh cervical nerves form the
Fnm Gny*! Amahmy. DtteHfUm nd SvptaL
Fig. 9.— Plan of the Lumbar and Sacnl Plexuses.
external cord, and those of the dghth cervical and first thoracic
the iitner. As a general rule the nerves which rise from the veatxal
secondary divisions of the limb plexuses run only to that sorface of
the limb which was ventral in the embryo, while the docsal secondary
divisions are confined to the ori^nal dorsal area, but, in order to
at>ply this to the human adult, tt mast be realind that the limbs
NERVE
399
are at one time Battened buds coming off at right angles from the
•de o( the body and having donal and ventnu Mirfacet.one (|>re-
ami) bofder toward the head of the embryo^ and one (postaxial)
tovaifd the taiL If a penoa lies prone upon the floor with the arms
outstretched and the paimt downward the embryological position
of the forelimb is to some extent restored, and it will now be easily
uodentood that the more preaxial part of the limb will be supplied
by those nerves which enter it from nearer the head, while the
poitazial part draws its nerve supply from lower down the spinal
cord. To use Herringham's words: (A) Of two spots on the skin,
that nearer the preaxial border tends to be supplied by the higher
nnve. (B) Of two spots in the preaxial area the lower tends to be
sapplied by the lower rerve, and of two «x»U in the postaxial area
the lower tends to be supplied bv the higher nerve." Other points
d general importance m regain to cutaneous nerve supply are,
firstly, that the ar.a of skin supplied by one spinal nerve is not
shai^ marked off from that of tJie next, but the two are separated
i 9f_Aimtomy.
•The Triangles of the Neck (Nerves).
by an overlapping region; and, secondly, that the area supplied bv
any one spinal nerve b liable to variation in different individuals
within moderete limits. This variation may affect the whole plexus,
and the term " prefixed plexus " has been devised by C. S. Sherring-
ton to indicate one in which the ^>inal nerves entering into its
formation are rather higher than usual, while, when the opposite
is the case, the plexus is spoken of as " postfixed."
With regard to the muscular supply of a limb the general rule is
that each muscle b supplied by fibres derived from more than one
spinal nerve; thb, of course, b made possible by the redbtribution
ol fibres in the plexuses. Moreover, the muiicular supply does not
necessarily correspond to that of the overiying skin, because (see
MtncuLAa System) some of the primitive muscles have been sup-
pressed, others have fused together, while others have shifted their
position to a considerable dbtance. Bearing the foregoing facts in
mmd, the main distribution of the nerves of the brachial plexus may
be surveyed, thouah the exact details must be sought in the human
aoatomy text-books. The outer cord of the plexus gives off the
extanal anierior thoracic nerve (C. 5, 6, 7) to the pectoralb major,
the muscmio-tutaMeons nerve (C. 5. 6) to the muscles on the front of
the ana, and to the skin of the outer side of the forearm and the
outer head of the median nerve (C. 5?, 6, 7). which joins the inner
head (C. 8, Th. i) and supplies most of the flexor muscles of the
front of the forearm as well as those of the ball of the thumb, the
outer two lumbricals and also the skin of the outer part of the palm
including the outer three digits and half the fourth.
From the inner cord come the inner head of the median just
mentioned, the nlnar nerve (C. 8, Th. i), which passes down behind
the internal condyle of the humenu, where it b popularly known as
the " funny bone " and supplies the flexor carpi ulnans, half the
flexor profundus digitorum, and most of the muscles of the hand
as wdl as the inner digit and a half on the pdmar and dorsal
aspects. Other branches of the inne^ cord are the intemal cutaneous
(C 8, Th. i) supplying the inner side of the forearm, the lesser
internal cutaneous CTn. i) which often joins the intercosto-kumeral or
lateral cutaneous branch of the second intercostal nerve to supi^y
the skin on the inner side of the upper arm, and the intemal anterior
thoracic nerve (C 8, Th. i) to the pectoralb minor and major.
From the posterior cord are derived the
three subscapular nerves (C. 5. 6, 7, 8)
which supply^ the subscapu&rb, teres
inajor ana btissimus dorsi muscles, the
circumflex nerve (C S, 6) supplying the
deltoid and teres minor muscles, and the
skin over the knrer part of the deltoid,
and the musculo-spiral nerve (C. 5, 6, 7, 8)
which b the kugest branch of the
brachial plexus and gives off cutaneous
twigs to the outer side and back of the
arm and to the back of the forearm, as well
as muscular twigs to the triceps and
adjacent muscles. At the elbow thb
nerve divides into the radial and posterior
interosseous. The radbl b entirely sen-
sory and supplies the skin of the outer side
of the back of the hand, including three
digits and a half, while the posterior inter-
osseous b wholly muscular, supplying the
muscles on the back of the forearm. It
will be seen th^t the posterior cord is
derived altogether from posterior second-
ary divisions of the pfcxus. but there
are three other nerves oerivea from these
which should be mentioned.
The posterior thoracic or respiratory
nerve of Bell comes off the back of the
fifth, sixth and seventh 'cervical nerves
inicmil Ur^- before the anterior and posterior secondary
jprd Dcivt divisions 8eparate,and runs down to supply
the serratus magnus muscle.
The posterior scapular or nerve to the
rhomboid muscles runs to those muscles
from the fifth cervkaL
The suprascapular nerve (C, %, 6) passes
through the suprascapular notch to supply
the Bupra^inatus and infraspinatus
muscles.
The spinal nerves which are dbtributed
to the lower limbs first intercommunicate
in the lumbar and sacr<U plexuses, which,
with the perineal nerves, are sometimes
spoken 01 together as the lumbo sacral
tlexus. The lumbar Uexus (see fie. 9) b
formed as a rule of tiic first four lumbar
nerves, though the greater part of the first
number b segmental in its distribution
and resembles one of the thoracic nerves.
It early divides into an ilio-hypogastric
and ilio-inguinal ^ branch, which run
round the abdominal wall in the sub-
stance of the muscles, and of which the former gives off an iliac
branch, which is in series with the lateral cutaneous branches of the
intercosul nerves and passes over the crest of the ilium to the
gluteal region, while the hypogastric branch runs round to the skin
of the pubic region. The ilio-inguinal on the other hand, gives off
no lateral cutaneous or ilbc branch, but is prolonged down the
inguinal canal to supply the skin ot the scrotum as well as that of
the thigh which touches it. In all probability the hypogastric
branch of the ilio-hypogastric and the whole of the iho-inguinal
represent the anterior secondary division of the first lumbar nerve,
while the posterior secondary division b the iliac branch of the ilio-
hypogastric.
The other anterior secondary divisions of the lumbar plexus is
the obturator (sec fig. 8). The obturator nerve (L. 2, 3, 4) supplies
the adductor group of muscles on the inner side of the thigh as
well as the hip and knee joints; it occasionally has a cutaneous
branch on the inner side of the thigh. The posterior secondary
branches of the plexus are the genito-crural. the external cutaneous
and the anterior crural. The genito<rural nerve (L. i, 2) is partly
anterior (ventral) and partly posterior (dorsal). It sends one
anterior branch through the inguinal canal to supply the cremastcr
HyTTtEkjE-il
l3ilT»-bji»it
400
NERVI— NERVOUS SYSTEM
mutcle. And another (posterior) to tfae •km of the thigh just below
thegfoin.
The ecternal cidaneous nent (L.3, 3) supplies the skin of the
'rcruriuil
outer side of the thieh, while the anterior c
(L.a. X, 4) innervates
the muscles on the m)nt of the thigh, tiie skin on the front and inner
eutameous nerve supplies the peroneus longus and brevis muscfesL
and the rest of the ^in of the dorsum, of the foot, and bwer part 01
the leg, while the skin of the upper part of the dorsum of the leg.
below thejcnee, is supplied by the external popliteal before its
division. The
popliteal nerve, after sup
the haro>
strings, is continued into the cau of the leg
as the posterior tibial and innervates all the
muscles on this, the ventral, surface. Behind
the inner ankle it divides into the external and
internal plantar nerves, from whk:h the
muscles and skin of the sole are supplied. A
little above the knee each poplitesl nerve
gives off a contribution to help form the
external or short saphenous nerve. That from
the internal popliteal is called the am-
tibialis, w
Sy, Sympathetic gangliated cord.
Phr, Phrenic nerve.
Fna A. U. PUaiaa, fa Cmaieiefum'm Tt^B^k if A mti^j.
F4G. fi.— Tlie Nojvea lA ihc Bnichial Plexus,
Cb, Nerve to coraco-brKhialis.
ii. Median nerve.
C.4, 5. 6, 7. 8, r.i, a, 3, Anterior primary divi- j,,,,^ Cord
ssSci^njJifes.^^^ "^"^ "^ ""'^{v^j;;!?^;^*"'^'^^'''""^"^
pV'LtTh^Scfc^^r!^'^'^"""*'^ /VllIt^rSLTutaneous nerve.
&rNer;fJ^.5SmlSdr(po.terior scapular). ^^-^^ Le«er internal cutaneous nerve.
SuUl, Nerve to subclavius muscle. Postertor Cord,
Jnt, Intercostal nerves. Cire, Circumflex nerve.
S.Sc, Supra-scapular nerve. The intercostal M.S, Musculo-spiral nerve,
part 01 the first thoracic nerve is omitted. S.Sub, Short subscapular nerve,
/v #— /•— J U.SMb, Lower subscapular nerve.
« . « ,, Ott^Conf. i^sub. Long subscapuUr nerve. ,i:.f rJh..t.«n • it
E.A.r, External anterior thoracfc nerve. ' I.H, Intcrcosto-huraeral nerve. i2!?«?m f»..tlor'w*'alir thT l^ll of rl-.
M.C, Muscular<utaneou8 nerve. Lot. Uteral branch of third interx:ostal nerve. gJSh ^ ^iJ iSte % 3 4) hd^J
while that from the
temal popliteal is the communicans fibularis.
These lom about the middle of the bsck of
the call, and the, now formed, short sephenous
nerve runs down behind the outer ankle to
supply the outer side of the foot. Some-
times it encroaches on the dorsum of the
foot, replacing part of the musculo-cutancous,
though, when this is the case, its doml con-
tribution from the external popliteal (com-
'^ municans fibularis) is always larger than
usuaL To return to the sacral plexus:
branches are ^ven off from the anterior
secondary divisions to the short external
^ rotator muscles of the hip (pyrifonnis« quad-
ratus femoris, Ac.), while from the posterior
'' secondary divisions come the superior glu-
"- teal (L. LS 4. 5) and the inferior gluteal
^ (L.5, S. I, 2) to the muscles of the buttocks.
In modem descriptions the lower branches
of the lumbo-sacral plexus are grouped into
a pudendal plexus, and the |}lan, though open
to critkism on morphological grounds, has
such descriptive advantages that it is followed
here. Contributions from the first, second,
third and fourth sacral, and the coccygeal
nerve, form it, and these contributions are
almost all anterior (ventral) secondary divi-
sions. The branches of this plexus are the
small sciatic, pudk:, visceral, perforatins
cutaneous, muscular and sacro-coccyge^
nerves. The xfiuiZf jcm/ic (S.I, a, 3) is partly
dorsal and partly ventral in its origin and
distribution; it supplies the skin of the
nde of the thieh, through its midSt and internal cutaneous branches,
and the skin of the inner side of the le? and itjot through the internal
saphenous branch. At first sight it ii difTiciilt to understand how the
anterior crural nerve, whkh WiEplies the akin of the front of the
thigh, is a ptosterior secondary ilivi&ton of the lumbar plexus, but
the explanation is that the from; of tTiio liuman thigh was originally
the dorsal surface of the limb bu<j, .:in'\ the- distribution of the nerve
is quite easily understood if the i"i ai<in 4,1' i1« hind limb of a lizard
or crocodile is glanced at. Th'. f^urrFi lui iliar nerve is sometimes
called the nervus furcalis, beca > -r ,. -isvl.fiiv.:, it partly goes to the
lumbar, and oartly to the sacr J \Av\v.-i Hi.:. 8), though, when the
plexus is prenxed, the third lur <l. .r ii.iy I. - the nervus furcalis, or,
when it is postfixed, the fifth lumbar. L::Jer ordinary conditions
the descending branch of the fourth lumbar nerve joins the fifth, and
together they make the lumbosacral cord, which, with the first three
sacral nerves, forms the sacral plexus. This plexus, like the others,
contains anterior and posterior secondary divisuins of its spinal
nerves, and it resembles the brachial plexus in that the lowest nerve
to enter it contributes no dorsal secondary division.
All the constituent nerves of the plexus run into one huge nerve,
the treat sciatic, which runs down the back of the thigh and. before
reaching the knee, divides into external and internal popliteal nerves.
These two nerves are sometimes separate from their first formation
in the plexus, and may always be separated easily by the handle of
a scalpel, since they are only bound together by loose connective
tissue to form the great sciatic nerve. When they are separated in
this way it is seen that the external popliteal is made up entirely
of posterior (dorsal) secondary divisions (see fig. 9), and is derived
from the fourth and fifth lumbar and first and second sacral nerves,
while the internal popliteal is formed by the anterior (ventral)
secondary divisions of the fourth and fifth lumbar and first, second
and third sacral nerves. The external popliteal nerve supplies the
short head of the biceps femoris (see Muscular System), and. just
below the knee, divides into anterior tibial and musculo-cutaneous
branches, whkh both supply the dorsal surface of the leg and foot.
The anterior tibial nerve is chiefly muscular, innervating the muscles
in front of the tibia and fibula as well as the extensor brevis digitorum
pedis on the dorsum of the foot, though it gives one small cutaneous
branch to the cleft between the first and second toes. ThemiuctJo-
to supply 'the sldn and muscles of the perineum and genital
organs. The visceral branches form the pelvk stream of white
rami communkantes (see Nbrvous System): they run from
the second and third or third and fourth sacral nerves to the pelvk
plexuses of the sympathetk system. The perforating cmtaneous
nerve (S.a, 3) pierces the great sacro-sciatk ligament and supplies
the skin over the lower internal part of the buttock. The musctdar
branches (S.3, 4) supply the external ^)hincter, levator ani and
coccygeus.
The sacnxoceygeal nerve (S.4, 5, Coc.i) runs down on each side
of the coccyx to supply the adjacent skin, and represents the ventro-
lateral nerve of the tail of lower mammals. (F. G. P.)
NERVI, a coast town of Liguria, Italy, in the province of Genet,
from which it is 7) m. S.E. by rail (also electric tramway), 82 ft.
above sea-level. Pop. (1901) 3480 (town); 6317 (commune).
It is much frequented as a winter resort. It is surrounded with
groves of olives, oranges and lemons, and its villas have beautiful
gardens. It is moistcr and less dusty than the western Riviera,
and is especially in favour with those who suffer from lung
complaints. At (Quarto, 2} m. N.W., xooo Garibaldians (1 mille)
embarked for Marsala in i86a
NERVOUS SYSTEM. The nervous system forms an extremely
complicated set of links between different parts of the body,
and is divided into (A) the central nervous system, composed of
(i) the brain, and (2) spinal cord; (B) the peripheral nervous
system, consisting of (i) the cranial nerves, (2) the spinal nerves,
(3) the various sense organs, such as the eye, ear, olfactory organ,
taste organ and tactile organs, and (4) the motor end plates;
(C) the sympathetic system. The anatomy and physiology of
many of these parts are treated in separate anide5 (see Bkaix,
Spinal Cord, Nerve. Eye, Ear, Olfactory Organ, Taste,
Touch, Muscle and Nerve, Sympathetic Nervous Systex).
The object here is to deal with anatomical points which an
NERVOUS SYSTEM
401
Axfa
Mydia
CDBunon to the whole systenii or for wfaicfa a place does not
eoovenieatly occur elsewhere.
Histology op the Nbrvoos Ststbii.
Three kinds of tissue are found in the nervous system, mrve
fibns, ngrve cells, and a supporting tissue called neuroglia. Nbrvb
FIBRES may be medullated or non-medullated, but, whichever they
are, they consist of the long process or axon of a nerve cell; in a
non-medtillated nerve thu proceis is either naked or enclosed in a
(Hicate membrane called toe primUioe skeatk or neuriUmma, but in
a meduUated nerve the process or axis cylinder is encased by a white
fatty substance called myelin, and so the term " myelinated " is
often used instead of " medullated " for these nerves (see fig. i}.
Outside thb white sheath the neurilemma is
present in most nerves, but u lost when they
are massed to form the white matter of the
central nervous system and in the optic nerve.
At regular inter^ds the myelin is mtemipted
by some substance which stains deeply with
silver nitrate, and these breaks are known as
nodes of Raneier. They do not, however, affect
the axu (^linder. In a large nerve, such as the
median, tne nerve fibres are collected into small
Primrtivi: bundles Called funiculi, enclosed in a connective
*^<*^ tissue sheath, the perineurium^ and separated
from it by a lympn space. From thb sheath
delicate processes penetrate among the fibres,
and these are known as the endoneurium. The
funicuU are collected into bundles called /ducictf/f,
and the whole nerve consists of a variable num-
ber of fasciculi surrounded by a dense fibrous
sheath, the epineurium. The various bundles
do not remain distinct, but break up and re-
arrange themselves, so that following them up
with the scalpel is a difficult and tedious work.
The nerve fibres, however, never join one anoth e r
and are often several feet in length.
Nbkvb cblls are unipolar, bipolar or multi-
polar. Unipolar cells are found in the ganglia oa
the posterior roots of the spinal nerves, and only
give off an axon or axis cylinder process; thi^
however, soon divides in a T-shapecl manner, and
all these cells were oru;inally bipolar, though the
cell has grown away from its two axons (or, as
they^ are often regarded, axon and dendrite),
leaving a stalk joimng it to them at right- angles.
Bipolar cells are found as an embryonic stage of
umpoJar, though in fish they persist in the sfMnal
l^mglia throughout life. They are also some-
times found in the syinpathetic ganglia. Multi-
polar ceUs are found in the brain and cord, and
are best studied in the anterior horns of the grey
matter of the latter, where they are nearly visible
j-gjif. to the naked eye (see fig. a). Of their many
processes only one b an axon, and it becomes
PiQ I ^jt^erve- ^^ ^^^ cylinder of a motor spinal nerve. The
fibre from a Frog, other fibres are called dendrites, and break up
rAftiM-w KAn:ir<v{ into delicate branches some of which surround,
VAiterv.iMMiucer.i ^^ ,^ .^ generaUy believed, aie not.actually
cootinnoas with, nrii^bouring cells or their processes. ^ It is known
that the axons are made up of delicate fibrils, and it b thought
by smne observers that there is actual continuity between some
of these and those of an adjacent neuron, as the combination
of a nerve cell, its axon and dendrites, b called. The celb of
Paridnje in the cerebellum show a particulariy rich arborization of
dendrites (see Bbain. fig. 7)* Nerve celb have generally a large clear
Budeus.
Thb Nbubocua b the delicate connective tissue whk:h supports
and binds together the nervous elements of the central nervous
system. One part of it. which lines the central canal of the cord
and ventricles of the brain, b formed of columnar cells, and b
called ependjma, while the rest consists of small celb with numerous
proce ss e s which sometimes branch and sometimes do not. These
fibres interlace with one another to form a delicate felt-work which
b untnibced irith nervous elements on the surface of the grey matter
of the brain (see Bbaim. figs. 7 and 15), though elsewhere it b inter-
Nbbvb Emdwgs.— Sensory nerves end by breaking up Jnto
fibrillae or by various tactile organs. In the former case the minute
fibrils, of which it has been shown that the axons or nerve fibres
consist, separate and end among epithelial celb of the mucous
membraae or skin. In the latter case the nerve fibres lose their
coating of myelin and end in one of the seven following organs:—
I. Eitd bulbs cfKrause (fig. 3, A), oval bulbs composed of elongated
cdb amoog whsch the nerve fibrib end in knobs or coils; each b
surrounded by a sheath of neurilemma, and the organs are found in
the lips, tof^ue, conjunctiva, epineurium of nerves, synovial mem-
branes of joints, and m the glans penb et cUtoridis, where they have
a mtilberry-like appea r anc e .
a. Pacimiau cerpuseUs (fig. 3. B) are large enough to be seen by
the naked eye, and are oval bodies made up of a series of concentric
capsules of connective tissue rather resembling the structure of an
onion; in the centre of thb b a structureless core, at the distal
extremity of whkh the nerve fibre ends ia one or more knobs. Tbeaa
all T«x$-Bt0k0/Aml»mf.
Fig. 2.— Three Nervc-Celb from the Anterior Horn of Grsy Matter
of the Human Spinal Cord.
bodies are found in the palm and sole, in the mesentery, the genital
organs and in joints.
3. Tactile corpuscles of Meissner and Wagner (fig. 3, C) are oval
bodies found in certain of the skin papillae and mucous membrane,
especially of very sensitive parts like the hand and foot^ lips, tongue
and nipple. They aie oval and made of a connective tissue capsule
from which septa enter the interior. The nerve fibre generally
takes a spiral course through them, loses its myelin dieath, and
ends by breaking up into its fibrils, which eventually become bulbous.
4. TaOile corpiucles of Grandry are found in the skin of those
parts devoid of hair, and consist of a capsule containing two or mote
Ftam Robert Bondcn, h Qianlivliam'i Ttal-Bcok •fAmaUmy.
Fig. A.— Tartile Corpuscles. A. End bulb (Krause); B. Corpuiide
of Pacini ; C, Corpuscle of Meissner. (B, C, after Ranvier.)
largish cells, between which the nerve fibre ends in the so-called
tactile discs.
5. Ru^ini's endings are flattened oval bodies with a thick con-
nective tissue capsule, in which .the nerve fibre divides into many
la
402
NERVOUS SYSTEM
branches which have a varicoie appearance, form a rich plexus, and
end in knobs. These organs are found between the true sldn and
subcutaneous tissue of the fingers.
6. Ortans of Colgi are found in tendons. Nerve fibres penetrate
the tendon bundles and divide in a tree-like manner to end in little
disks and varicosities.
7. Neuro-muscular spindUs are small fusiform bundles of em-
bryonic muscle fibres among which the nerve fibres end by en-
circling them and forming flattened dbks. These are sensory endings,
and must not be confused with the motor end i^tes. They are
Jfound in most of the striped muscles of the body.
Motor nerves end in striped muscle by motor end ftates. These
are formed by a nerve fibre approaching a muscle fibre and suddenly
losing its myelin sheath whue its neurilemma becomes continuous
with the sarcolemma of the muscle fibre. The axis cylinder divkles,
and its ramifications are surrounded by a disk of granular matter
containing many dear nuclei. In very long muscle fibres more
than one of these end plates are sometimes found. Involuntary
motor endings are usually found in ^mpathetic nerves going; to
unstriped muscle. The bbres form minute plexuses, at the points
of union of which small triangular gang^lion cells are found. After
thb the separate fibrils of the nerve divide, and each ends opposite
the nucleus of an unstriped muscle cell.
Thb Sympathetic Systbu
This system is made up of two gangliated cords running down one
on each side of the vertebral column and ending bebw in the median
vertebrae. In additk>n to these cords there are numerous ganglia
and plexuses through which the sympathetic nerves pass on tfieir
way to or from the viscera and blood-vessels.
A typical ganglion of the sympathetic chain is connected with its
corresponding spinal nerve by two branches called rami commumi-
cantes, one of which b
grey and the other white |k •^ ^
(see fig. 4). The white If
consbts of medulUted |
fibres belonging to the I
central nervous system, VW
and these are splanchnic \^
afferent or centripetal,
and efferent or centri-
fugal. The efferent fibres
lie in the anterior roots
of the spinal nerves, and,
like all the fibres there,
are either motor or sccre-
tory. They are the
motor paths for the
unstriped muscle of the
vessels and viscera, and
the secretory paths for
the celb of the viscera.
In the course of each
fibre^ from the nerve cell
in the spinal cord,
of . which it b an
axon, to the vessel
or viscus it supplies,
there b always a
break where it
arborizes round a
ganglbn cell, and
thb may be in its
own ganglion of the
sympathetic chain,
in a neighbouring
inglion above or
ilow, or in one of
the so<alled ool-
lateial ganglia in-
terposed between
the sympathetic
chain and the vis-
cera. In addition
to these there are a
certain number of Ai ,.
vaso-dilatpr and pic. 5.— The Distributkni of the Sym-
viscero-inhibitory patSetic GangUated Cord in the Neck.
tuh"«r anj Itn S>.». ^'Srs^^rLShS""-"^"""
<•««•< nAvSfVMcrrAn* nexions and brancnes.
rt.S™l^r™»ul JC. Internal caiwaaitay.
es
The splanchnic
Va,
afferent or centri-
^:«y.
Vagus.
ry, Hypqgl
".I, a, 3. 4. F»>
glossal.
irst four cervical
Sir5'nTrvS"f± pfe'' ^«yS^'Se?us.
sensory nerves from. QpJ^ Gloio-pEryngcal nerve.
and
iSL ^J^fl H!^ ^•^' to ext«^nal'ciT^id artery.
!S?ons~uSu t~ey^'-^' Middk«TvglgangUon,con««io,
«SSt «n* fhS^a^ C.S, 6. Fifth and sixth cervical nerves.
ESS^^"..'^f^ /•?*>. Inferior thyroid artery.
A.V,
Ansa Vicussenii.
Inferior cervical
land
spinal nerves, whkh 'o -
they do by travers- '''•3*
JSd^ 52* w'lSl ^-y'** Seventh wid\ighth cervix
«M.*i.^»£f. Tk* fic;^.. Vertt Vertebral plexus,
patlietic nie fibres q^ Caidiac braochea.
of the white lami *'*^* v-mw«. ui««ai».
conununicantes are remarkable for their small diameter, aikd
the efferent fibres, at all evrnts, are only found in two regions,
one of which b called the thoradco-Iumbar stream and extends
from the fint or secpnd thoracic to the second or third lumbar
nerve, while the pelvic stream b found from the second to the
fourth sacral nerves.
The grey rami communicantes are found in connexion with ail
n !i°* f^T^***"™* ^ ^ Constitution and Connexions of the Gajogfiated {b^*^h"thrj^**^'£tte ™!^^ iSy^^hSJh^^hS
Cord of the Sympathetic. The gangliated cord is indicated onthenght, gp/^. their fibres are mainly non-medulUted, and pass into
with the arrangement of the fibres arising from the ganglion cells. On i^lJth Toots of the spinal nerv4 and abo into tiie antmor and
thelcft tberootsandtrunksof spinal nervw are shown, with the airange- posterior primary Xvbions of those nerves. In thb way they
mentofthcwhiteramuscommunicansaboveandofthegrayramusbetow. j^ the body wall and limbs, and are somatfe vaao-mocor.
secretory and pilo-motor fibres, supplying the vesads, glands
In the nock the cords lie in front of I
/coccygeal ganglion U. tmter).
the anterior tubercles 01 the transverse processes of the cervical
vertebrae, in the thorax, in front of the heads of the ribs, while
in the abdomen they lie in front of the sides of the bodies of the I
and hair muscles of the sldn and its gbnds. The sympathetic
ganglia, from which these nerves come, contain multipolar nerve
cells with one axon and several dendrites as welt as a number ol
meduUated fibres passing through, and much ooonective
NERVOUS SYSTEM
+03
Some of the axons of these cetb pan in the connectives to ganglia
above and below, while others pan with the splanchnic etterent
nerves to the viscera.
The above sketch will give the general scheme of the sympathetic
system, but its exact topographical details in man must be sought
in the modem text-books such as those of Gray, Quain or Cunning-
bam. Here only the larger and more important details can be
given. In the gangliated chain there b a ganglion corresponding
to nearly each spinal nerve, except in the neclc. where only three are
found; of these the superior cervical ganglion is more than an inch
bog. and is connected with the first four spinal nerves as well as
Fram A. U- Pttcfioa, fa Ctta-
ainglMm'* r«i^5M* ^ Amkmy.
Fio. 6.— The Arrange-
ment of the Sympathetic
System in the Thorax,
Abdomen and Pelvis.
r.i-ia. L.i-^, 5.1-^, Co,
Antenor primary
divisions 01 spinal
nerves, connected
to the gangliated
cord of the sym-
pathetic by rami
communicantes,
white (double lines)
and gray (single
Unes).
Oes, Oesophagus and
oesoiMtageai {dexus.
Ao, Aorta and aorta
plexus.
Ka, Vagus nerve joining
oesophageal plexus.
5.1, Great q)lanchnic
Xt Great s|rfanchhb
ganglion.
5.3, Small splanchnic
5.3, Least splanchnic
nerve.
Co, Coronary artery
and plexus.
Spl, Splenic artery and
plexus.
Ht HepatK artery and
plexus.
SL, Semilunar ganglk>n.
Di, Dbphragm.
S.Rt Suprarenal capsule.
lUt Renal artery and
pbxus.
5.if. Superior mesenteric
artery and pbxus.
Sp, Spermatic artery
and plexus,
/.if. Inferior mesenteric
artery and plexus.
Hy, Hypogastric nerves
and plexus.
Ree, Rectal plexus.
Utf Uterine plexus.
Ves, Vesical pbxus.
V.V.V, Visceral branches
from sacral nerves.
srith the ttfaith. tenth and twelfth cranial nerves (see fig. 5. 5y.i).
Branches of distribution pass from it to the pharyngeal plexus,
the heart and the two carotid arteries. Of these the branch accom-
paoyiog the internal carotid artery passes to the carotid and cavern-
ous ptamses. and through these communicates with the spheno-
maxillary, mic and ciliary ganglia, while the branch to the external
carotid communicates with the submaxillary ganglion. The middle
cervical gaiqilion (fig. 5, 5y.2). when it is present, gives rami com-
I to the filth and sixth cervical nerves, as well as branches
(ansa Vieussenii) joining it to the middb cervical ganglion in front
of that vessel. It communicates snth the seventh and eighth wpioaX
nerves, and gives branches of distribution to the heart and to the
subcbvtan artery and its branches, especially the vertebral. The
thoracic part of the sympathetk cord has usually ebven gangib,
whkh receive both white and grey rami communicantes from the
spinal nerves (fig. 6) : of the former the upper ones run up in the
chain and come oflf from the cervical ganglia as already described.
wiiib the lower ones form the three abdominal q>bnciinics whkh
h the dbphragm (a.t.) a 1 ,/ /^
The gnat splanckntc (fig. 6, 5.i) comes from the sixth to the ninth
pass through t
iabdoi
and join the abdominal plexuses.
of distribution to the thyroid body and hcartc
The inferior cervical ^nglion ^fig. 5. Sy.^) lies behind the sub-
clavian artery, and. besides the main connective cord, has a loop
sanglb, and ends in the semi-lunar ganslion of the solar plexus
Tfig> 6, SL), The small splanchnic (6g. 6, Sjt) comes from the ninth
aiid tenth, or tenth and eleventh gangib, and ends in the aortico-
renal ganglion of the solar plexus, whUe the smallest qilanchnb
(6g. 6, Sm comes from the last thoracic ganglkm, whether it be the
tenth or eleventh, and ends in the renal plexiis.
In the lumbar region the ganglbted cord b vei^ faregubr; there
may be four or more gangib, and these are often fused. Gr^ rami
communicantes are given to all the lumbar spinal nerves, and white
ones are received from the first twa Most of the branches of dis-
tributbn pass to the aortb plexus. The sacral ganglbted cord runs
down just internal to the anterior sacral foramina: it usually has
four small gangib. and the two cords end by joining the coccygtai
iOn^um or ganf^ion impar, though the two-fourth sacral gangib are
united by transverse interfunicular commissures. The white rami
communicantes, already mentioned as the pelvic stream, from the
second to the fourth sacral ^inal nerves, do not enter the gangib
but pass directly to the pelvb plexuses (fig. 6, V),
SympalkeHe Piexuus.^ln the thorax are the suptrfictai and deep
cardiac pUxuses and the coronary plexuses; the former receives the
left superior cervical cardiac of the vagus, and lies in the concavity
of the arch of the aorta. The deep cardiac plexus b brger, and
lies in front of the bifurcation of the trachea; it receives all the
other cardbc nerves, and communicates with the anterior pulmonale
plexuses of the vagus (see Nbkvbs: Cranial). The right and kit
coronary plexuses accompany the coronary arteries; the former
communicates with both the cardiac plexuses, the btter only with
the deep cardiac plexus.
In the abdomen the solar plexus b by far the most important.
It lies behind the stomach and surrounds the coelbc axb; m it are
situated the semilunar, aortko-renal and superior mesenteric
gangib, and from it are prolonged subsidiary plexuses alon|( the main
arteries, so that diapkragmatict subrenal, renal, spermahc, eodiac,
superior mesenierict aortic and tnferior mesenteric plexuses, are
recognised. The hypogastric plexus b the continuation downward
of the aortk, and ues just below the bifurcation of the aorta (see
fig. 6. Hv); it divides into two branches, whkh accompany the
internal iuac arteries and are joined by the pelvk stream of white
rami communicantes from the sacral spinal nerves and some twi^
from the nngUa of the sacral sympathetk to form the pelvic
plexuses. Thrae are prolonged to the viscera along the branches of
the internal iliac artery, so that haemorrkoidal, vesiral, prostatic,
vaginal and uterine plexuses are found. By the side of the neck of
the uterus in the last-named pkxus several small gangib are seen.
(For the literature of the sympathetk system, sec Qu»xn*t Anatomy,
London, 1895.)
Embryology of Nervous System
The development of the brain. tpinaX cord and organs of special
sense (eye, ear, tongue), will be found in separate artkles. Here
that of the cranbl and spnal nerves and the svmpathetk system b
dealt with. The thoracic sfunal nerves are the most typical, and
one of them b the best to begin with. In fig. 7, A the ganglion on
the dorsal root (DR) b seen growing out from the neural crest, and
- hichiti
the cells or neurobbsts of whi
t b composed become fusiform and
grow in two directions as the ganglion recedes from the cord. Those
whkh run toward the q>inal cord are the axons, while those growine
into the mesoderm are probably enbrged dendrites. The ventral
roots (VR) rise as the axons of the larRe celb in the ventral horn of
the grey matter, and meet the fibres 01 the dorsal root on the distal
side of the ganglbn (fig. 7, B). As the two roots join each divides
into an anterior (ventral) ana a posterior (dorsal) primary divinon
(fig. 7, D), the btter growing into the dorsal segment of its musck
pbte and the skin of the back. The anterior primatv division
grows till it reaches the cardinal vein and dorsal limit of the coekm,
and there forks into a somatk branch to the body wall (fig. 7, C, So),
and a spbnchnk or visceral branch (fig. 7, C, Vt) which joins the
sympathetk and forms the white ramus communicans. The somatic
branch grows round the body wall and gives off btcnil and anterior
branches (fig. 7, E). In the limb rr^ons the anterior primary
divisions of the nerves divide into antenor and posterior secondary
divisions, which probably correspond to the anterior and bteral
branches of the thoracic nerves (fig. 7, E and F). These unite with
neighbouring nerves to form plexuses, and divide again, but the
anterior nerves keep to the ventral side of the limb and the posterior
to the dorsal.
The cranbl nerves are developed in the same wayas the S|Mnal,
so far as concerns the facts that the motor fibres are the axoiis
of cells situated in the basal lamina of the mesencephalon and
40+
NERVOUS SYSTEM
rhombencephalon (lee Beain), and the lensory are the axons and den- i there are two ventral roots to one dorsal. In the fishes and hiefaer
drites of cells situated in ganglia which have budded off from the vertebrates the dorsal and ventral roots unite, though in selachian
bnin. The evidence of comparative anatomy, however, shows that | (shark) embryos F. M. Balfour says that the dorsal and ventral
— - tix>t% aitematt (Th€ Dtodopnunt of Elasmobraiuk
Fishes, London, 1878). When limbs are developed,
beginning with fisoes, limb plexuses are forined.
Where the limbs are suppressed rudimentary
plexuses may pernst, as w the snake, though
usually they disappear.
which in their distribution do not always agree
«nth those of man. In the Amniota or reptiles,
birds and mammals, the eleventh and twelfth
nerves have been added. The researches of W.
H. Gaskell (" On the structure, distribution and
functions of the nerves which innervate the
visceral and vascular systems," /. €/ Pky$. vii.
I. 1886), O. S. Stronff ("The cranial nerves
of Amphibia," /. Morpk, x. xox), 1. B.
Johnston (/. Comp. Neurol, xii. 2 and 87).
and others, show that the cranial nerves are
formed of at least five components: (i) Ven-
tral motor. (2) Lateral motor, (a) Somatic
sensory, (4) Visceral sensory. (5) Lateral line
Ftam A. U. Psmoo, la Omaloclum's fat^Mt •fAmltmy,
Fio. 7.— Development of the Spinal Nerves.
A, Formation of nerve iDOta.
D.R, Dorsal root.
V.R, Ventral root.
JV.r, Neural tube.
No, Notochord.
Al.Ct Alimentary canaL
Ao, Aorta.
V, Cardinal vein.
M.P, Muscle pUte.
B, Formation of nerve trunk (N)
D.(7, Dorsal gan^ion.
Sympathetic cord.
Wolffian duct.
Coflom.
!?.*/)
Co,
the cranial nerves cannot be directly homologind with the spinal, nor
can the fact of there being twelve of them justify us in assuming
that the head contains the rudiments of twelve fused or unse^ented
somites. To this we will return kiter. The case of the optic nerve
is different to that of any of the others. A. Robinson (Joum. Anal,
and Phys.t vol. 30, p. 319) has shown that most of its fibres are the
axons of ganglion cells in the retina, and, as the retina is part of
the optic vesicle and an outgrowth from the brain, the so<alled
optic nerve b only comparable to a tract of fibres within the brain.
The twelfth or hypoglossal nerve b regarded as a fusion of the
motor roou of three spinal nerves, and embryology bears this out,
for Froriep has described a small and transitory ganglion corre-
sponding to the posterior root ganglion of this nerve. Another link
in the chain of reasoning is that the first spinal or sub-occipital nerve
often has its posterior root suppressed.
The sympathetic system is developed from the posterior root
ganglia of tlie spinal nerves, by cells which in man migrate a few
at a time. A. M. Paterson, however, believes that the sympathetic
is developed, independently of the cerebro-spinal system, in the
mesoderm (Phil. Trans, clxxxi. pt. B. p. 159)- In embryos of
14*5 m.m. there are found masses of cells on each side of the ab-
dominal aorta, permeated with blood vessels, and having the same
structure as the carotid and coccygeal bodies. They are known as
the organs of Zuckerkandl, and disappear soon after birth.
Comparative Anatomt
The comparative anatomy of the brain and wpioaX cord is dealt
with in the separate articles devoted to them.
Spinal Nerves. — In Am^ioxus the dorsal and ventral roots do
not unite with one another but alternate, a dorsal root on one ude
being opposite a ventral on the other. The dorsal roots are both
sensory and motor, the ventral only motor. In the Cyclostomau
iPetromyecn) the arrangement is nearly the same, but in some regions
^ The ventral tnoUtr components are those which
rise from cells situated close to the mid line, and
probably corre^>ond to the ventral roou of the
spinal nerves. The nerves to the eye musdcs
(motor oculi. trochlearis and abduccns) have this
origin (see Nerve: Craifta/), as also has the hypo-
glossal, which doubtless b a cephaltacd spinal
nerve.
The UUeral motor components rise from cells ntu-
ated more laterally, ana comprise the motor roots
of the fifth (trigeminal), seventh (facial), and
ninth, tenth and eleventh (glossopharyngeal,
vagus and spinal accessory). These nerves
supply muscles bdonging to the branchial
skeleton, instead of the muscles of the primi-
tive cranium, of which the eye muscles are the
remnants.
The somatic sensory components supply the
•Idn. and end in cells which, among tne cyclo-
stomes and fishes, form a considerable elcvatior
D, E. Formation of subordinate branches, in the rhombencephalon, known as the lobu^
L^t Lateral, and trigemini (fig. 8, Nuc. V.). These compcmcnts.
AiUt Anterior, branches. in the lower Torms, are found in the fifth, seventh
and tenth nerves, but In mammals practicalh
F, Formation of nerve trunks in relation only the fifth contains them. They correspoiui
to the limb; dorsal and ventral to the dorsal roots of the spinal nerves,
trunks corresponding to lateral and The splauchnic sensory or viscera sensory com-
anterior trunks in D and E.
So,
Ki.
P,
C, Formation of nerves.
Somatic division.
Visceral branch.
Posterior primary divinon.
fonents end in the brain in the medullary cells
known as the fascicvlus communis in fishes and
fasciculus solitarius in mammals (see Brain, fie- 4 ^
as well as in the lobus trigemini and lobus vagi (fig. 8. Nuc X.). The /
are found in the fifth, seventh, ninth, tenth and eleventh nervts.
and supply visceral surfaces. In mammals the lingual and palacLne
PVoa C«lrftfM 0fA$ Muimm «/lte Ktyet C«B«h ^ i
tadcd.
Fig. 8.~Brain (A) and Choroid Plexuses (B) of Lamprey,
branches of the fifth, the chorda tympani and great supcrCci^
petrosal (?) of the seventh, and all tne sensory fibn* of the ninth
and tenth except Arnold's nerve, represent these. In fishes and
Amphibia&s the palate b supplied by the seventh nenre instead of
NESFIELD— NESSELRODE
405
the fifth, fwt the ecphnation given for this difference is that in
these lower forms the Gasserian and geniculate ganglia are not
distinct, and so fibres from the compound ganglion may pass into
either nerve. These splanchnic sensory components of the cranial
serves evidently correspond to the branches which have already
been mentioned ks the splanchnic afferent fibres of the sympathetic.
The system of the lateral luu or acustuo-laleralis tamponaU b
a o m et i mcs regarded merely as a subdivisbn of the somatic sensory.
It is best developed in the fish, and may be divided into (ue* and
post-auditorv, and auditory. The i»e-auditory part comprises the
pit and canal end organs su)>plicd by the seventh, and also probable
the olfactory or^n supplied by the first nerve. The auditory
apparatus, suppbed by the eiehth nerve, is, according to modem
opinion, undoubtedly a part of thb systenii while the tenth nerve
sends a large branch along the lateral line supplying the special end
organs of the post-auditory part. All these components of the
lateral line pasS to the tuberculum acusticum in the fourth ventricle,
as well as to the cerebellum, which J. B. Johnston {ZodL Bull.
1. 5, p. 331, Boston) regards as a derivative of the rostral (anterior)
cod of Che acusticum. In mammals no doubt the olfactory and
auditory apparatus and ner\ies have the same morphological signi>
ficance as in fishes, but the seventh does not supply any cutaneous
sense organs en the head or face, and the only vestige of the post-
auditory supply of the tenth nerve to the lateral line is the small
auricular branch of the vagus, often called Arnold's nerve.
The following table, slightly modified from the one drawn up by
j. McMurrich. gives a fair idea of the present state of our knowledge
of the oerve components in the Mammalia.
Nerve.
Ventral
Lateral
Somatic
SpUnchttic
Sensory.
Lateral
Motor.
Motor.
Sensory.
Line.
1.
+(?)
II.»
III.
-r-
IV.
+
V.
+
+
+
VI.
+
VII.
+
+
VIII.
+
IX.
X.
■»-
+
+
+
XI. )
XII.
+
Spinal
+
(?)
+
+
* A tract of the brain.
For further details and literature of the nervous system see
Quain's Anatomy (latest editk>n): R. Wiedersheim's Comp. Anat. of
VertaraUs (Lond. 1907); Bronn's Classen und Ordnungen des TTtier-
racks ; C. S. Minot's Human Embryology (i 893) ; McMurrich 's Deoelop-
ment of (ke Human Body (London, 1906). For the theory of nerve
components see Onira Merritt, Journ. Anat. and Pkys., vol. 39,
p. 190. A general discussion on the comparative anatomy and
moqAoIogy ct limb plexuses will be found in Miss C. W. Saberton's
paper on the " Nerve Plexuses of Troglodjrtcs Niger " Studies in
Anatomy^ University of Manchester, vol. iii. (1906), p. 165. She
refers to most of the literature on the subject, but the papers of
H. Braus, Jena Zeitsckr. v. 31 (1898), p. 339 on fisa, of M.
Davidoff, Uotpk. Jakrb. v. 5 (1870). p. 450 on the pelvic plexuses
of fish, and of M. FOrbringer, Gegenb. Festsekr. v. 3 (1897), on
the ^no-oodpital nerves and brachial plexus of fish, are also very
important. (F. G. P.)
MESFIBLD. WILLIAM EDBII (1835-1888), British architect,
OQC of the leaders of the Gothic revival in England, was bom
in Bath on the 3nd of April 1835. His father, Major William
Andrew Ncsfield, a well-known landscape gardener, laid out
Regent's Park and St James's Park, and remodelled Kew.
Educated at Eton, Nesfield was articled first to Mr Bum, a
classicist, and then to his uncle, Anthony Salvfn, who took the
Gothic side in the " battle of the styles." Nesfield travelled
for study in Fnmce, Italy and Greece, afterwards publishing a
volume. Sketches from Prance and Italy (London, 1862), which
became one of the text-books of the Gothic revival. In 1859
Nesfidd settled down in London. His first important commission
was to build a new wing to Combe Abbey for Lord Craven. In
1863 began a nominal partnership with Norman Shaw, the fruits
of which have been exaggerated; they shared rooms in Argyle
Street Ux sonie years, but never collaborated. It was in Argyle
Street that the principal work of Nesfield's life was conceived —
Combe Abbey, Qoverly Hall and Kinmel Park. Here he showed
a mastery of planning and construction, a conscientious regard
for detail, an eye for the picturesque, an unfailing regard for
dignity, which make his achievements landmarks in the history
of his art. He built the lodge in Regent's Park (1864) and thai
in Kew Gardens (1866). Combe Abbey and Cloverly are some-
what " early French " in style, but as Nesfield developed he
adopted a purely English manner, and presented his newer ideas
in Loughton Hall and Kinmel Park. The gate lodge at Kinmel
Park, Abergele, is entirely " English Renaissance "; Cloverly
Hall (1864), planned- when he was twenty-nine, with its great
ball, fine approaches to the staircase, and the staircase itself,
is already half English, and Eastlake, in his History of Gothic
Revival, praises it on that very ground. The full development
of the revived classic taste in Nnfield came with his addition to
Kinmel Park — red brick, stone dressings, grey-green sbted roofs
— ^which elevated that originally unpretentious 18th-century
building into a small Renaissance palace. For contrast in style,
harmonious as they are in artistic expression, Cloverly and
Kinmel are the typical examples of the artist's style. Other
works are Famham Royal . House near Slotigh, Lea .Wood,
Loughton Hall and Wcstcombe Park. His more notable urban
works are the bank at Saffron Walden (1873), ui<l the Rose
and Crown Hotel; they stand next door to each other and exhibit
another contrast, the former being medieval and the latter what
is called " Queen Anne." Though he built no new important
church, Nesfield rebuilt the Early Decorated St Mary's, Famham
Royal, near Slough, mainly on the old lines. He restored King's
Walden church, Herts (x868), and Radwinter church, Essex
(1871), and Cora church near Whitchurch, Salop; but no great
public btiilding came from him. Nesfield's career was a com-
paratively short one. On the 3rd of September 1885 he married
Mary Annetta, eldest daughter of John Sebastian Guilt and
granddaughter of Joseph Giiilt, and he retired from practice some
years before his death at Brighton on the 25th of March 1888.
He left behind him a valuable series of sketches and measured
drawings, most of which are now in the library of the Royal
Institute of British Architects. (J. M. Bt.)
NESLB* the name of a place in France (dep. of Somme), which
gave its name to an old feudal family. This family became
extinct at the beginning of the X3th century, and the heiress
brought the lordship to the family of Clermont in Beauvaisis.
Simon de Qermont, seigneur de Ncsle, was regent of the kingdom
of France during the second crusade of St Louis. Raoul de
Clermont, constable of France, and Ouy I. (d. 1302) and Guy II.
(d. 1352) de Clermont, both marshals of France, were members of
the family. The lordship of Nesle was erected into a countship
for Charles de Sainte-Maure in 1467 and into a marquisate
for Louis de Sainte-Maure in 1546. It was acquired in x666 by
Louis Charles de Mailly. His grandson, Loius de Mailly, had five
daughters, of whom fotir (tbe countess of Mailly, the duchess
of Lauragais, the countess of VintimiUe, and the marquise de
la Touraelle, afterwards duchess of Ch&teauroux) were succes-
sively, or simultaneously, mistresses of Louis XV.
NESSELRODE, KARL ROBERT, Count (1780-1862), Russian
diplomatist and statesman, was bom on the X4th of December
1780 at Lisbon, where his father (d. x8xo) was Russian
ambassador. In deference to his mother's Protestantism he was
baptized in the chapel of the British embassy, thus becoming
a member of the Church of England. The Ncsselrodes were of
Westphalian origin, but -had long been settled in Livonia. Nessel-
rode's German origin was emphasised by his education in a Berlin
gymnasium, his father having been appointed ambassador to the
Prussian couft about X787. When he was sixteen he entered the
Russian navy, and his father's influence procured for him the
position of naval aide-de<amp to the emperor Paul- He
presently exchanged into the army, obtained a further court
appointment, and entered the diplomatic service. Nesselrode
was attached to the Russian embassy at Berlin, and transferred
thence to the Hague. In August x8o6 be received a commission
to travel in South Germany to report on the ■French troops;
he was then attached as diplomatic secretary to Generals
Xamenski, Buxhoewden and Bennigseh in succession. He
was present at the battle of Eyiau in January X807, and assisted
at the negotiation of the peace of Tilsit . Immediately afterwards
4o6
NEST— NESTOR
he was sent to Furis to join the embassy of G>unt Peter
Tobtoy, whom he accompanied in the spring of the next year
to the meeting of the two emperors at Erfurt. After his return
to Paris he strengthened the understanding between Alexander I.
and Talle3rrand consequent on the Erfurt meeting, and acted as
intermediary between the two. On the appointment of a
successor to Count Tolstoy he retired to St Petersburg, but
returned to Paris early in i8xo charged with a commission from
Spcranski to Talleyrand and the marquis de Caulaincourt,
formerly ambassador in St Petetsbuig, both of whom were
hostile to Napoleon's policy of aggression. After the breach of
diplomatic relations with Russia in x8xi, Nesselrode returned
to St Petersburg by way of Vienna in order to exchange views
with Mettemich. He sought to persuade Alexander to open
negotiations with Napoleon, if only to throw the onus of breaking
the peace entirely on the French side. He joined the tsar's
headquarters at Vilna in March 18x2 and, though Rumiantxov
was still foreign minister, it was Nesselrode who directed the
foreign policy of Russia from this time forward. He was present
at the battle of Leipzig, and accompanied the invading army
to Paris; he negotiated the capitulation of Marmont and
Mortier at Clichy, and signed the treaty of Chaumont on the 1st
of March x8x4. His former relations with Talleyrand facilitated
negotiations in Paris, and his great influence with the emperor
was used in favour of the restoration of the Bourbons, and, after
Waterloo, against the imposition of a ruinous war indenmityon
France. At the congress of Vienna he was associated with
Count Capo d'Istria, and when, in August 18x6, Alexander
made him secretary of state for foreign affairs in succession
to Rumiantzov, it was again in conjunction with the Greek
statesman, from whom he differed widely in temperament
and ideas. The emperor Alexander I., however, was apt to keep
the direction of affairs in his own hands and so long as Alexander
inclined to Liberalism Capo d'Istria was the interpreter of his
will, but as the emperor veered towards Mettemich's system
Nesselrode became his mouthpiece. After Alexander's final
" conversion " to reactionary principles, Capo d'Istria was dis-
missed (x82a) and Nesselrode definitely took his place. He had
consistently advocated Alexander's project of a "universal
union," symbolized by the Holy Alliance, in contradistinction to
the narrower system of the alUance of the great powers; and,
when the Greek insurrection broke out, he did much to determine
the tsar to sacrifice his sympathy with the Orthodox Greeks
to his dream of the European confederation (see Alexander I.,
emperor of Russia).
After Alexander's death in r825 Nesselrode retained office
under Nicholas I. He was responsible for the change of policy
of Russia towards the Ottoman empire after X829, viz. 'that
of abandoning the traditional idea of conquering Constantinople
in favour of keeping the Ottoman power weak and dependent
on the tsar. This was his policy during the revolt of Mehemet
Ali (9.V.), and it was Nesselrode who inspired the terms of the
famous treaty of Unkiar Skelessi (1833). Nicholas I. was,
however, even less inclined than his brother to place himself
in the hands of a minister; and Nesselrode showed himself
amenable, though when his views differed from those of the
emperor he stated them with great frankness. He conducted
the negotiations which led to the shelving of the treaty of
Unkiar Skelessi and to the alliance between Russia and Great
Britain which, issuing ultimately in the Straits Convention of
184X — to which France also was a party— healed the breach
which had so long divided the powers of eastern and western
Europe.
In 1849 1^ ^f*^ Nesselrode who suggested the intervention of
Rusua in Hungary in favour of the Austrian government,
although he restrained the tsar from active intervention in
France then as in 1830. During the crisis of 1853 he prolonged
negotiation in the hope of averting war. The last of his im-
portant political acts, the signing of the treaty of Paris in 1856,
undid the results of his patient efforts to establish Russian
preponderance in the Balkan peninsula. He then retired from
.the foreign office, retaining the chancellorship, which he had
held since X844. He died at St Petersburg on the isnl of March
1863.
See LeUres «( popiers du ckancdier comU de Sessdrede 1 760- 1 850,
the first volume of which was issued by his grandion Count Anatole
Nesselrode at Paris in IQ04. This work includes lettera of the
chancellor's father. Count Wflliam, Ncaaelrode's correspondence, and
important sUte papers. In vol. ii. is a fragment of an autobio*
graphy (to 1814), which Count Nesselrode did not live to complete.
See also Correspondance diUomatiqu* du comte Pcna di Borgo el du
comie de Neudrode^ edited by Charles Pozzo di Borto (Paris, 2 vols..
1890-1897).
NEST, the place where a bird lays its eggs, hatches them out,
and shelters them until they are fledged. The word is used by
analogy of other animals than birds, insects, &c It appears
in much the same form in Teutonic languages; related to it
are Irish nead, and Lat. nidwt whence Fr. nid. It has besn
referred to the Gr. v^oi, return home, but it is now established
that it represents a form niado- lot nuidth, from »»-, down;
cf. " nether," and sed-^ to sit. Sanskrit has nida. The Lat.
nidtu has given the scientific term for nest-building, nidijiccthn
NESTOR* hi Greek legend, son of Neleus and Chloris, king
of Pylos in Messenia. When all his brothers were slain by
Heracles, in consequence of the refusal of Neleus to purify him
for the murder of Iphitus, Nestor alone escaped, being absent
at Gerenia — Whence his epithet Gerenios in Homer (Apollodorus
i. 9). He is the old warrior of the Iliad and the wise counsellor
of the Greeks before Troy. After the fall of the city he returned
to Pylos, where Telemachus visited him to obtain news of his
father. In his earlier years he took part in the battle of the
CentauiB and Lapithae, the Calydonian boar himt, and the
Argonautic expedition. The name is used in modcnr times
for any old man of ripe experience, or the oldest member of a
class or corporation.
NESTOR (c. 1056-C. 1 1x4), the reputed author of the earliest
Russian chronicle, was a monk of the Pecherskiy cloister of
Kiev from 1673. .The only other fact of his life is that he was
commissioned with two other monks to -fitnd the relics of Si
Theodosius, a mission which he succeeded in fulfilling. The
chronicle begins with the deluge, as those of most chxoBickxs
of the time dUd. The compiler appears to have been mcquaintcd
with the Byzantine historians; he makes use especially of
John Malalas and George Hamartolus. He also had- in all
probability other Slavonic chronicles to compile from, which
are now lost. Many legends are mixed up with Nestor's
CkronicU; the style is occasionally so poetical that pexhnps he
incorporated bUini which are now lost. The early part is rich in
these stories, among which are the arrival of the three Varangian
brothers, the founding of Kiev, the murder of Askold and Dir.
the death of Oleg, who was killed by a serpent concealed in the
skeleton of his horse, and the vengeance taken by Olga, the
wife of Igor, on the Drevlians, who had murdered her husbarid.
The account of the labours of Cyril and Methodius among the
Slavs is also very interesting, and to Nestor we owe the tale
of the summary way in which Vladimir suppressed the worship
of Perun and other idols at Kiev. As an eyewitness he could
only describe the reigns of Vsevolod and Sviatopolk (1071^1112).
but be gathered many interesting details from the lipa of kM
men, two of whom were Giurata Rogovich of Novgorod, who
gave him information concerning the north of Russia, Pctchonu
and other places, and Jan, a man ninety years of age, who died
in XX06, and was son of Vishata the voivode of Yaxoslavl ar.d
grandson of Ostromir the Posadnik, for whom the Codex was
written. Many of the ethnological details given by Nestor of
the various races of the Slavs are of the highest value.
The latest theory about Nestor is that the Ckronide is a patchwork
of many fragments of chronicles, and that the name of Nestor was
attached to it because he wrote the greater part or perhaps because
he put the fragments together. The name of a certain Sylvester,
an fgumen, is altixed to several of the manuscripts as the author.
The Ckronide has come down to us in several manuscripts, but
unfortunately no contemporary ones, the oldest being the so-called
Lavricntski of the 14th century (1377). It was najaed after tK
monk Lavrentii, who copied it out for Dimitri Constant ioovich.
the prince of Sousdal. Tne work, as contained in this maauscnpt.
NESTOR— NESTORIANS
407
has had many additloiit nade to it from previom and contemporary
duonides. Micb as thow of VoUnia and Novforod. Soloviev, th«
Ruamn biatorian, remarks that Nestor cannot be called the earliest
Rianan cfanmiclerj but he is the first writer who took a national
pdat of view in his history, the othen being merely local writers.
Ihe langiia^ of his work, as shown.in the earlieit manuacripts just
mentioned, ts Palaeo-Slavonic with many Russsms. It has formed
the subject of a valuable monograph by iVofessor MiUodch.
The Cfcrmttdc has been translated into Pblish. Bohemian, German
and French., The compiler cannot very well be the author of the
Eves of Boris and Gkb. the martyrs, and of the life of St Theodosius,
because they contradict many panages in the CknmieU, The
work b of pnmaiy importance for early Ruislan history, and,
'^'^ '' devoid of literary meritjs not without its amusing epiaodes
um«iy uiciifcjw uvi wiuiwui n» amusing cpiaoacs
of an Herodotean character. The reputed body of the ancient
chnmicler may be seen among the lelics preterved m the Pecherskiy
aooastery at Kiev.
See Louis L»er*s Ckroitiqiu dite di Nestor (Pans, 1884);
Bestuahev Riumin, On the Compositum of Uu Raasian Ckronides
tiUUumd tfihe I4tk century (in Russian), (St Petersburg. 18M).
(W. R. M.}
nSTOB* the name of a small but remarkable group of parrots
peculiar to the New Zealand sub-rcgMO, of which the type
is the Psiilacus meridumalis of Gmelin, founded on a species
desczibed by J. Latham {Gen. Synopsis i. 264), and subse-
quently tenncd by him P. nestor, in allusion to its hoary head,
but now osoally known as Nestor meridionalis, the " Kaka "
of the Maoiies and English settlers in New Zealand, in some
parts of which it was very abundant, though its numbers are
fast decreasing. Forster, who accompanied Cook in his second
voyage, described it in his MSS. in 1773, naming it P. hypopolius,
and found it in both the principal islands. The general colour
of the kaka is olive-brown, nearly all the feathers being tipped
with a darker shade, so as to give a soJy appearance to the
body. The crown is light grey, the ear-ooverts ajid nape purpUsh-
broDze, and the rump and abdomen of a more or less deep
aimsoa-ied; but much variation is presented in the extent and
tinge of the last colour, which often becomes orange and some-
times bright yellow. The kaka is about the size of a crow;
hot a larger species, generally resembling it, though with plumage
mostly dull olive-green, the Nestor notahilis of J. Gould, was
discovered in 2856 by Walter Mantell, in the higher mountain
ranges of the Middle Island. This is the " JCeo " of the Maories,
and incurred the enmity of colonists by developing an eztra-
ordSnaiy habit of assaulting sheep, picking holes with its powerful
beak in their side, wounding the intestines, and so causing
death. The bird is admittedly an eater of carrion in addition
to its ordinary food, which, Uke that of the kaka, counts of
fruits, seeds and the grubs of wood-destroying insects, the last
being obtained by stripping the bark from trees infested by them.
Ihe amrwinf of injury the kea inflicts on flock-masters has
doubtless been much exaggerated, for Dr Menzies states that
OD one " run," where the loss was unusually large, the proportion
of sheep attacked was about one in three hundred, and that
those pasturing bebw the elevation of sooo ft. are seldom
disturbed.
On the discovexy of Norfolk Island (October xo 1774) a
parrot, thought by Forster to be specifically identical with the
ka^^ (as be wrote the name) of New Zealand — though his
son {Voyage, iL 446) remarked that it was " infinitely brighter
cokyured " — was found in its hitherto untrodden wood^ Among
the drawings of Bauer, the artist who accompanied Robert
Brown and Flinders, is one of a Nestor marked " Norfolk IsL
19 Jan. 1805," on which Herr von Pelzeb in i860 founded his
N. norfokensis. Meanwhile Latham, in 1833, had described,
as distinct species, two specimens evidently of the genus Nestor ,
one said, but doubtless erroneously, to inhabit New South
Wales, and the other from Norfolk IsUnd. In 1836 Ck>uld de-
scribed an example, without any locality, in the museum of the
Zocdogical Society, as Plycldophus prodtutus, and when some
time after he was in Australia, he found that the home of this
spedei, which he then recognized as a Nestor, was Phillip Island,
a very small adjunct of Norfolk Island, and not more than 5 m.
distant from it. Whethei the birds of the two ishtnds were
specifically distinct or not we shall perhaps never know, since
they are all extinct, and no specimen undoubtedly from Norfolk
Island seems to have been preserved. The Phillip-Island Nesltf
may be distinguished from both of the New-Zealand spedet
by its somewhat smaller size, orange throat, straw-coloured
breast, and the generally lighter shade of its tints.
The position of the genus Nestor in the order Psittaci must
be regarded as uncertain, but it is now usually placed in the
sub-family Nestorinae of the Trichogtossidae (see Pakrot).
Further knowledge of this very interesting form nsay be facilitated
by the following references to the Transactions and Proceedings
of the New Zealand Institute, ii. 64, 65, 387, iii. 45-53. 81-90, v. 307,
vL 114, 138, is. 340, k. 193, xL 377: and to Sir W. Buller^a
Birds ef New Zealand, (A. N )
NESTORIANS. Sx. TAc Eo^y J^eKofMiw.— Among those who
had been present at Ephesus in support of Nestorius {q.v.) was
Ibas, piesbyter and head of the theological school of Edessa.
In 435 he became bishop of Edessa and under his influence the
Nestorian teaching made considerable progress. On the accusa-
tion of the orthodox he was deposed by the " Robber Synod "
of Ephesus, but at Chalcedon in 451 was pardoned on condition
of anathematizing both Nestorius and Eutyches and accepting
the Tome of Leo. He had not, however, changed his views, and
this was generally recognized. Meanwhile one of his pupils,
Barsumas, had settled at Nisibis in Persian territory where he
became bishop hi 435 and established a Nestorian school. And
when the emperor suppressed the school of Edessa (" the Athens
of SyrisL ") in 489, and expelled its members, they travelled far
afield as eager uid successftd missionaries of the Goqpd. In
Persia their numbers and their zeal stimulated the old diurches
into vigour and led to the founding of new ones. And as they
were under ban from Rome and out of commimion with the
Byzantine Church the Persian government welcomed them as a
political ally, though the religious opposition of the Magi was
stilllargely retained. In their new environment the Nestorians
abandoned some of the rigour of Catholic asceticism, and at a
synod held in 499 abolished clerical celibacy even for bishops
and went so far as to permit repeated marriages, in striking
contrast not only to orthodox custom but to the practice of
Aphraates at Edessa who had advocated celibacy as a condition
of baptism. The liberty here granted to bishops was enjoyed
as late as the xsth century, but since then the Nestorian Church
has assimilated its custom to that of the Greek Church. That
the ascetic ideal was by no means wholly extinct is evident
from the Book of Governors written by Thomas, bishop of Marga,
in 840 which bears witness to a Syrian monasticism founded by
one Awgin of Egyptian descent, who settled in Nisibis about
350, and lasting uninterruptedly until the time of Thomas,
though it had long been absorbed in the great Nestorian move-
ment that had annexed the church in Mesopotamia.
The Nestorian Church in Eastern Syria and Persia was under
the jurisdiction of an archbishop {catkotikos), who In 498 assumed
the title " Patriarch of the East " and had his seat at Seleucia-
Ctesiphon on the Tigris, a busy trading city and a fitting centre
for the great area over which the evangelizing activity of the
Nestorians now extended. The church traced its doctrines
to Theodore of Mopsuestia rather than to Nestorius, whose name
at first they repudiated, not regarding themselves as having
been proselytized to any new teaching.
S a. The Later Nestorians. — ^In 608 Magian influence was so
strong in Persia that the Christians were persecuted and the
oflice of catholicus was vacant for so years, being filled again by
Jesu-Jabus, during whose patriarchate the Mahommedan
invasion overran Persia. The patriarch was able to secure
from the caliph permission for the Christians to practice their
religion in return for tribute money and this was afterwards
remitted. Ibn Ali Talib, anxious to perpetuate their severance
from the orthodox church and the Byzantine empire, confirmed
these privileges by charter and in 762 the patriarchate was
removed to Bagdad. For five centuries the Nestorians were
a recognized institution within the territory of Islam, though
their treatment varied from kindly to harsh. BirQnl, a Mahom-
medan writer, who lived at Khiva e. a.d. iooo, speaks oC them
as comprising the bulk of the population of Syria, Irak and
Khorasan, and as superior to the orthodox in intellectual ability.
4o8
NESTORIANS
They agreed with Byzantines in observing Lent, Christmas
and Epiphany, but differed from them in the observance of all
other feasts and fasts. The Latin church tried in vain during
the Crusades to secure their adhesion to Rome. The barbaric
invasions of the 13th and X4th centuries fell with crushing
force on the Nestorians. In 1258 Hulagu Khan t9ok Bagdad,
and about 1400 Timur again seized and sacked the dty. Though
the Nestorians were numerous, their moral influence and their
church life had greatly deteriorated. Those who escaped capture
by Timur fled to the mountains of Kurdistan, and the community
that had pbyed so large a part in Mesopotamian history for a
thousand years was thus shattered. In 1553 they were further
weakened by a large secession known as "the Chaldeans"
arising out of a dispute about the succession to the patriarchate.
The discontented appealed to Rome, and the pope Gulius III.)
consecrated the Chaldean catholikos. The Chaldeans are now
chiefly found in rural districts east of the Tigris. They have a
see at Bagdad, a monastery (Rabban Hormuz) at Elkoosh, and
are called by those Syrian Christians who have resisted the papal
overtures, MagUabin (" the conquered "). Other attempts
during the x6th century to promote uhion between the Nestorians
and Rome proved fruitless, but the Roman Church has never
ceased in its efforts to absorb this ancient community. The
history of the Jacobites or Syrian Monophysites who, like the
Nestorians, diverged from the Byzantine Church, but in an
exactly opposite direction, is told elsewhere (see Jacobite
Church,. &c.). Like the Nestorians they were great missionaries,
and up to the 7th century, and again in the 12th and zjth, pro-
duced the bulk of Syriac literature (9.V.). The chief Nestorian
authors were (a) in the 7th, 8th and gth centuries, Babbai the
elder and Isho-yabh of Gedhala, commentators; Sahdona, who
wrote on the monastic Ufe; Abraham the Lame, a devotional
and penitential writer; Dionysius of TcU Mahre (see Dionysius
Telmaharensis), whose Annals are important; and Thomas
(7.9.) of Marga; (6) in the 14th century, Abdh-isbo bar Berikha
<d. 13 18) the author of a theological treatise Marganiiha (" the
Pearl"), 1298, and the Paradis$ of Eden, a coUection of 50
theological poems.
§ 3. The Nestorian Missionary Enterprise.-^tht combined
hostility of the orthodox church and the Byzantine empire
drove the Nestorians into exile, but they went much further
than was needed simply to secure immunity from persecution.
They showed a zeal for evangelization which resulted in the
establishment of their influence throughout Asia, as is seen
from the bishoprics founded not only in Syria, Armenia, Arabia
and Persia, but at Halavan in Media, Merv in Khorasan, Herat,
Tashkent, Samarkand, Baluk, Kashgar, and even at Rambaluk
(Pekin) and Singan fu Hsi'en hi in China, and Kaljana and
Kranganore in India. In 1265 they numbered 35 Asiatic
provinces and over 70 dioceses. Mongolian invasions and
Mahommedan tyranny have, of course, long since swept away
all traces of many of these. The 400,000 Syrian Christians
(" Christians of St Thomas," see Thomas, St) who live in
Malabar no doubt owe their origin to Nestorian missionaries,
the stories of the evangelization of India by the Apostles Thomas
and Bartholomew having no real historical foundation, and the
Indian activity of Pantaenus of Alexandria having proved
fruitless, in whatever part of India it may have been exercised.
The theology of the Indian Syrian Christians is of a Nestorian
type, and Cosmas Indicopleustes (6th century) puts us on the
right track when he says that the Christians whom he found in
Ceylon and Malabar had come from Persia (probably as refugees
from persecution, like the Huguenots in England and the
Pilgrim Fathers in America). Pahlavi inscriptions* found on
crosses at St Thomas's Mount near Madras and at Kottayam
in Travancore, are evidence both of the antiquity of Christianity
in these places (7th or 8th century), and for the semi-patri-
passianism (the apparent identification of all three persons
of the Trinity in the sufferer on the cross) which marked the
Nestorian teaching. In 745 Thomas of Kana brought a new
* " In punishment by the cross (was) the suffering of th» One;
He who is the true Christ, and God alone, and Guide ever pure. '
band of emigrants from Bagdad and Nbeveh, and possibly the
name " Christians of St Thomas " arose from confusion between
this man and the apostle. Other reinforcements came from
Persia in 822, but the Malabar church never devdoped any
intellectual vigour or missionary zeal. They had their oim
kings, lived as a close caste, and even imitated the Hindus in
caste regulations of food and avoidance of pollution. In 1330
Pope John XXII. issued a bull appointing Jordanus, a French
Dominican, bishop of Quilon, and inviting the Nestorians to
enter " the Christian Church." The invitatioo was declined,
but in the x6th century the Syrian Christians sought the help
of the Portuguese settlers against Mussulman oppression, only
to find that before long they were subjected to the fiercer perils
of Jesuit antagonism and the Inquisition. The Syrians submitted
to Rome at the synod of Dampier in 1599, but it was a forced
submission, and in 1653 when the Portuguese arrested the Syrian
bishop just sent out by the catholicus of Babylon, the rebellion
broke our. The renunciation was not quite thorough, one party
adhering to the Roman Church as Romo-Syrians, the others
reverting wholly to Syrian usages and forming to-day about
three-fourths of the whole community. In 1665 a curious thing
happened. Gregory, the Jacobite metropolitan of Jerusalem,
visited Malabar, and, as the people had no consecrated bishop
at the time, he consecrated Mar liliomas, who had been filling
the ofllce at the people's request, and remained in the country
jointly administering the affairs of -the Church with Thomas.
Thus the Nestorian Church in India, voluntarily and with perfect
indifference to theological dogmas, passed under Jacobite rule,
and when early in the i8th century. Mar Gabriel, a Nestorian
bishop, came to Malabar, he had a cool reception, and could only
detach a small following of Syrians whom he brought back
to the old Nestorianism. The approaches of the AngUcan Church
through the Church Missionary Society in the first part of the
19th century were politely repelled. On the death of the bishop
Mar Athanasius Matthew in 1877, litigation began as to his
successor; it lasted ten years, and the decision (since reversed)
was given against the party that held by the Nestorian connexion
and the habitual autonomy of the Malabar church in favour of
the supremacy of the Jacobite patriarch of Antioch. The great
need of the Indian Syrian church to-day is an educated ministry.
Early evidence of Nestorian missions in China is extant in the
tablet found in 1625 at Chang'an in the district of HsTen-fu,
province of Shena. It commemorates *' the introduction aiKi
propagation of the noble law of Ta t*sin in the Middle Ringdozo,"
and beneath an incised cross sets out in Chinese and Syriac aa
abstract of Christian doctrine and the course of a Syrian mision
in China begiiming with the favourable recepti<m of Olopan,
who came from Judaea in 636. For two generations the little
cause prospered, and again after persecutions in 699 and 813.
Later on a second mission arrived, many churches were boih
and several emperors patronized the faith. This evidence b
confirmed by (a) the canon of Theodore of Edessa (800) aUowing
metropolitan^ of China, India and other distant hinds to send
their reports to the catholikos every six years; (6) the edict of
Wu Tsung destroying Buddhist monasteries and ordering 300
foreign priests to return to the secular life that the customs ol
the empire might be uniform ; (c) two 9th-century Arab travclleis
one of whom, Ibn Wahhab, discussed the contents of the Bible
with the emperor; (i) the discovery in 1725 of a Syrian MS-
containing hymns and a portion of the Old Testament.
In the zoth century the. Nestorians introduced Christianity
into Tartary proper; in 1274 Marco Polo saw two of thd:
churches. The legend of Prester John is based on the idea of
the conversion of a Mongol tribe, the Karith, whose chieftaio
Ung. Khan at baptism received the Utle Malek Juchana (Kinc
John). And there has lately come to'light a MS. of the 9th or
loth century in Sogdianese, an Indo-Iranian language qx)kefi
in the north-east of Ai^,which shows that theNestorianshad trans*
lated the New Testament into that tongue and had Unght the
natives the alphabet and the doarine. Their activity may «<£
be said to have covered the continent. Their campaign was ose
of deliberate conquest, one of the greatest ever planned by
NESTORIUS
409
Christian nuaiionaries. Marco Polo is wltnos that there were
Nestprian churches all along the trade routes from Bagdad to
Pckin. (A. J. G.)
§4. The Mcdem Nestorians.^Tht Nestorians or East Syrians
(Surayi) of Turkey and Persia now inhabit a district bounded
by Lake Urmia, or Urumia, on the east, stretching westwards
into KurdisUn, to Mosul on the south, and nearly as far as Van
on the north. They are divided into the Persian Nestorians of
the plain of Arerbaijan, and the Turkish Nestorians, inhabiting
chiefly the sanjak of Hakkiari in the vilayet of Van, who are
subdivid«:d into the Rayat or subject, and the Askita or tribal,
the latter being semi-independent in their mountain fastnesses.
Forming at once a church and a nation, they own allegiance
to their hereditary patriarch, Mar Shimun, Catholicus of the
East, who re^des at Qudshanis, a village about 7000 (t. above
the sea-level, near the Kurdish town of Julamerk. It is only of
late years, under the influence of the different missions, that
education, ruined by centuries of persecution, has revived
amongst the Nestorians; and even now the mountaineers, cut
off from the outer world, are as a rule destitute of learning,
and greatly resemble their neighbours, the wild and uncivilized
Kurds. Tliey are, however, extraordinarily tenacious of their
ancient customs, and, almost totally isolated from the rest of
Christendom since the sth century, they afford an interesting
study to the eccesiastical student. Their churches are rude
buildings, dimly h'ghted and destitute of pictures or images,
save that of the Cross, which is treated with the deepest venera-
tion. The qanki^ or sanctuary, is divided from the nave, by a
solid wall, pierced by a single doorway; it contains the altar, or
wiadkb'kka (literary, th: sacrificing place), and may be entered
only by persons in holy orders who are fasting. Here is ccle-
brated the Eucharist (Qurbana, or the offering-, cf. "Corban"),
by the priest (qaska), attended by his deacon {skamaska). Vest-
ments are worn only at the ministration of the sacraments;
incense b used invariably at the Eucharist and frequently at
other services. There are three liturgiea--of the Holy Apostles,
of Theodore and of Nestorius. The first is quite free from
Nestorian influence, dates from some remote period, perhaps
prior to 431, and is certainly the most ancient of those now in
use in Christendom; the other two, though early, are un-
doubtedly of later date. The Nestprian canon of Scripture
seems never to have been fully determined, nor is the sacra-
mental system rigidly defined. Nestorian writers, however,
generally reckon the mysteries as seven, i^. Priesthood, Oil of
Unction, the Offering of the Body and Bkxxl of Christ, Absolu-
tion, The Hdy Leaven, the Signation of the life-giving Cross.
The ** Holy Leaven " is reputed to be a part of the original
bread of the first Eucharist, brought by Addai and Mari* and
maintained ever since in the Church; it is used in the confection
of the Eucharistic wafers, which are rather thicker than those
used in the Western Church. Communion is given in both kinds,
as throughout the East; likewise, confirmation is administered
directly after baptism. Sacramental confession is enjoined,
but has recently become obsolete; prayers for the departed
and invocation of saints form part of the services. The bishops
are always celibates and art chosen from episcopal families.
The service-books were wholly in MS. tintil the press of the
archbishop of Canterbury's mission at Urinia issued the Takha
(containing the liturgies, baptismal office, &c.) and several other
bturpcal texts.
Tbie Nestorians commemorate Nestorius as a saint, and invoke
his aid and that of his companions. They reject the Third
Occmnenical Council, and though showing the greatest devotion
to the Blessed Virgin, deny her the title of Tkeotokos, i.e. the
mother or bearer of God. Their theological teaching is
misty and perplexing; their earliest writings contain no
error, and the hymns of their great St Ephrem, still simg
in thdr services, are positively antagonistic to " Nestorianism ";
their thoohgy dating from the schism b not so satisfactory.
They attribute two Kiani, two Qntmi and one Parsopa in
* The kgendary founders of the Syrian Church. Addai was sup-
posed to be one of the Seventy of Luke x. i. and Man his disciple.
Christ (see J. F. Bethunc-Dakcr's N^iHivrim and ktM Teackingl
To say I hit the tnodcrn Nestorians an noL d^^itcly atitj
fiftnly orthodox is prrfa^ps hunt than to chargr ihcm with
being distmctjy heretical.
5 5. Sffissi&ns ammgit the Nistmans.^Tkt pectdiar cirtiim'
stanceis, buth eccicsiasllcal and temporal, of the Neslorijiiis have
atlracttfd inuch alt cat ion in w^iiejli Chrialendom, and various
missionary entPTpnscs amonp^E them have resulted.
t. Thi kcmnn CmAitiu Ifimomj,— [n Turkey thin* cormtt of the
DofniniiTdn pii^ian. establiishc'd at Mosul during the i8th ccntuiy,
and in Perti2 of the French Lafariftt misskin, which §muns out of
some scbods c«mbh&hed by a Fr*ficli by man and bciennfk tnvellLT,
Eugdne Eon*, -in 183a. At M. Bof* ■ entreaty tht Propa™nda sent
tht first Laiah*t lather to Persia in 1840. The chief ^taiiCint of the
La£ariii4 art at Khoi^ova and Urmia. At the latter place their i»
an orphana|c under the supcnntt^nrJun-cc of the Siiitra ol Si Vincent
dc Paul. The »ork of these mi&sionj ia to expend aud EOnbolidjtL'
that Cathahcized and partly l..atinLzed olfbhodt of the P^c«tOfian&
known aa the VniatChaSdtatt Church (k? anu).
3. The AmiTt^an Preibperuin Mini^, e^ublishcd in PetKa in
I HM-t*J5 by the Revjgiun Perkins and Dr A-Grani, compriici larfip
buildinf* near Lfrmla, a ccllrEe and a hoftpitalr The ini:1ijeficr ni
this mi&tiDn don not extend much beyond the Turkish frootkr, biii
It is It rang in the Pcr^jan plain*- The original aim waa to influencf
the old Ni-storiin ChurLh raih^r than lo iet up a new nrligiotiA bodj
bul the wide diflemenct between Pre&byleriaTiiand rin Oricnlal Churcl^
rendered the attempt abortiw, nnd the result cf the btKiurii of tht
American! hit been the establinhment lince t»6j of a Syrian PfQ-
tc&tant community in Persia, wiih some ^adherefit^ in Turkey.
3. Tkt Archbiskff^ 0/ CtinttrbitTy's Minum io tkf Aiimmt
Ckrtitiaxs.—'Thi* Anj^lican mi&&ion wai promoted by ArchbtEhop
T^iit, and fiinally csi^iblJihed by Archbiihop IWn&on in laS*. [ta
aim ji thus olTttially dt lined: " To aid an exi&tlnc; Church. ... not
to Anglicaniien . . , not to change any docirineiheld Ly them which
are not contrary to that faith which the Holy Spirit, &peakiri||f
Ihroujjh the Oecumenical CounciU of the Undivided Church «?
t hriit, has tJught u& ai necesAari' *■> be believed by all Chritttac)^,
but > . . to strengThen an ancient Church, at the ear^tit ret^ui'ibt
of the Catholic oa, and miih the knowU-clge and blei«if»E o' ihe
Catholic patrijfrh of Antioch, otn; of the four patrian,-ht of the
Holy OrthodoK l-la stern Church, and occupant of the A|3cifitQlic Sec
from which the Church of the East fcvoicnl; at the time of Nt^iorius."
This misjuon has its headquarters at Urmia, with a caMegc for
candidates for hr*ly ordera and a printlnK-press. Two mjsdon-
pric%i» reside in Turkey, one at Qudsiiani.> with Mar Shimun, th^^■
Nestorian Catholicui and Patriarch. The Anglican Church in
America co-opefatci v-ith the mis&ion.
4. rftj Euiiian A/ij:ii>n.— One of the Nestorian bishops joined
the Russian Orthodox Church in j8(j8, and frturncd the Kime year
with a small band of mi'ssionariei ai-nt by the Holy Synud of Kus^i;!,
This mission enrtjlled a very Large nu ruber of adherents drawn
from the old Church, the Protestant Nestorians, and the LIniat-
Ch:ifdcans, but ii Can hardly be said to have tQmmenced any active
work, althaugjh ihr Anglican mission withdrew from competition by
do^lnST ii4 schools in the dioceses occupied by the Ku&sianv
AtJiitoitiTiEs. — J. S, As^cmani, B^hitoiketii OritnUUii, ii, and iv.;
A. J. Mactean and G. F. Uirowne, Tkt CttthititdJi of tht Eiiit ojtd hii
t'^eopie {London, lS9J^); G. P. Badger, Nfsion^nj attd thfir Riiitalf
(London, ifls^); hL Labourt. Le Chriitiatitinit dam l\mptrf prrfr
(l*.iri5. 10047: W. F. Adsrncy, The Gretk and Etukrn Chunkti.
Pp- 477 53fl (Edinbureh, i^oSh J. Rendcl Harris. Stdfhihh cm Netn
Jtiiamim Re search. LecL iv. ( London h igoS); C, Milne Rae, Thf
Syrian Churfh in India fiSqj); K. Hcussi tind H, Mulert, Adan
tar KirchcK^fichuhU, Map J if, (Tubinjitn, 1905); P. Carua, The
Ntiicrian Mofrnmcrti (Chicago and Lnndon, 1909); E. Crbhi>n.
DediAf end fail. ch. ilvii ; 1. VV. Ethtridge, Syruin Churchei
(1^46) ; Jkt LitMriycJiks HoiyAtosiki Adaiand Afdn, S^c. (London.
1 3(53 ) ; Piolet, Lei iKtaionf falhofiqufi au XIX'^ stixh (Paris, voL i.);
Qimruth Papers and^nnua; Reports of the Archbt-hop of Canter-
bury 'a AF-iyrjan Mission. (J, A. L, K.}
NESTOR [US (d. c, 451), Syrian ccclctiastic, fjatriarch of
Constantinople from 43S to 4jJi wis a iiali^-e of GprtKanlcia
at the foot of Mount Taurus, in S>Tia. The year of his bitLh b
unknown, HcrcccivddhiscdijralionalAiUioch.pTobsblyiitirler
Theodore of Mopsucslm. As monk in the neighbouring monasi{;rv
of Euprepius, and afterwards a.s prcsbjlcr, he became celebrated
in the diocae for hia osccLips^m, his onhodoxy and his eloquence 1
hostile critics, such as the churcli bi^torian Socralcs, aUege that
his axTOEance and vnnity were hardly less conspicuous. On the
death of Sisinniu^i palriarch of Conilanfinopk (Decemlwr 427),
TbeoJosius If.^ perplexcri by tlic various daim^ of ihe local
ckrR^V appointed the disin^ished preacher of Anlioch lo ibe
vacant sec. The tonsetration took place on tht loth of April
438, and then, almost immecUatdy 4flcn^ard5» in what 1*
4IO
NESTORIUS
said to have been his first patriarchal sermon, Nestorius exhorted
the emperor in the famous words—" Purge me, O Caesar, the
earth of heretics, and I in return will give thee heaven. Stand
by me in putting down the heretics and I will stand by thee in
putting down the Persians." In the spirit of this utterance,
steps were taken within a few days by the new prelate to suppress
the assemblies of the Arians, these, by a bold stroke of policy,
anticipated his action by themselves setting fire to their meeting-
house, Nestorius being forthwith nicknamed *' the incendiary."
The Novaliansand the Quarlodecimans were the next objects
of his orthodox zeal— a zeal which in the case of the former at
least was reinforced, accort^ing to Socrates, by his envy of their
bishop; and it led to serious and fatal disturbances at Sardis
and Miletus. The toleration the followers of Macedonius had
long, enjoyed was also rudely broken, the recently settled Pela-
gians alone finding any respite. While these repressive measures
were being carried on outside the pale of the catholic church,
equal care was taken to instruct the faithful in such points of
orthodoxy as their spiritual head conceived to be the most im-
portant or the most in danger. One of these was that involved
in the practice, now grown almost universal, of bestowing the
epithet 6cor6KOf, " Mother of God," upon Mary the mother of
Jesus. In the school of Antioch the impropriety of the expres-
sion had long before been pointed out, by Thradore of Mopsucstia,
among others, in terms precisely similar to those afterwards
attributed to Nestorius. From Antioch Nestorius had brought
along with him to Constantinople a co-presbyter named Anas-
tasius, who enjoyed his confidence and is called by Theophancs
his " synccllus." This Anastasius, in a pulpit oration which the
patriarch himself is said to have prepared for him, caused great
scandal to the partisans of the Marian cultus then beginning by
saying, " Let no one call Mary the mother of God, for Mary was
a human being; and that God should be born of a human being
is impossible." The opposition, which was led by one Eusebius,
a " scholasticus " or pleader who afterwards became bishop of
Dorylaeum, chose to construe this utterance as a denial of the
divinity of Christ, and so violent did the dispute upon it become
that Nestorius judged it necessary to silence the remonstrants
by force. The situation went from bad to worse, and the dispute
not only grew in intensity but reached the outer world.
Matters were soon ripe for foreign intervention, and the
notorious Cyril (q.t.) of Alexandria, in whom the antagonism
between the Alexandrian and Antiochene schools of theology,^
a» well as the jealousy between the patriarchate of St Mark
and thatof Constantinople, found a determined and unscrupulous
exponent, did not fail to make use of the opportunity. He
stirred up his own clergy, he wrote to encourage the dissidents
at Constantinople, he addressed himself to the sister and wife of
the emperor (Theodosius himself being known to be still favour-
able to Nestorius), and he beggared the clergy of his own diocese
to find bribes for the officials of the court.* He also sent to Rome
a careful selection of Nestorius's sayings and sermOns. Nestorius
himself, on the other hand, having occasion to write to Pope
Celestine I. about the Pelagians (whom he was not inclined to
regard as heretical), gave from his own point of view an account
of the disputes which had recently arisen within his patriarchate.*
While ordinarily Rome might have been expected to hold the
balance between the contrasted schools of thought, as Leo was
able later to do, it is not surprising that this implied appeal proved
unsuccessful, for Celestine naturally resented any questioning
of the Roman decision concerning the Pelagians and was jealous,
of the growing power of the upstart see of the Nova Roma of the
East. He was not slow to use the opportunity of gaining what
was at once an official triumph and a personal satisfaction. In
a synod which met in 43b, he decided in favour of the epithet
> At Alexandria the mystic and allegorical tendency prevailed,
at Antioch the practical and historical, and these tendencies showed
themselves in oiiferent methods of study, exegesis and poesentation
of doctrine.
' Letters of the archdeacon Epiphanius to the patriarch Maxi-
mianus (Mte:ne, Patr. Or. Ixxxiv. 826).
• The letter is given in F. Loofs. Nestoriana 166-168. partly trans-
lated in J. F. Bethune-Bakcr, Ntslorius and kis Teacking. p. i6Mq.
Qtor6Kos, and bade Nestorius retract his erroneous teaching, odd
pain of insUnt excommunication, at the same time entrusting
the execution of this decision to the patriarch of Alexandria.
On hearing from Rome, Cyril at once held a synod and drew up
a doctrinal formula for Nestorius to sign, and also twelve ana-
themas covering the various points of the Nestoiian dogmatic
Nestorius, instead of yielding to. the combined pressure of his
two great rivals, merely replied by a counter excommunication.
In this situation of affairs the demand for a general council
became irresistible, and accordingly Theodosius and Valentinian
III. issued letters summoning the metropolitans of the catholic
church to meet at Ephesus at Whitsuntide 431, each bringing
with him someable suffragans. Nestorius, with sixteen bishops
and a large following of armed men, was among the first to arrive;
soon afterwards came Cyril with fifty bishops. Juvenal of Jerur
salem and Flavian of Thessalonica were some days late. It
was then announced that John of Antioch had been delayed on
his journey and could not appear for some days; he, however,
is stated to have written politely requesting that the opening
of the synod should not be delayied on his account. Cyril and
his friends accordingly assembled in the church of the Theotokos
on the 22nd of June, and summoned Nestorius before them to
give an account of his doctrines. The reply they received was
that he would appear as soon as all the bishops were assembled;
and at the same time the imperial commissioner, Cmndidian,
presented himself in person and formally protested against the
opening of the synod. Notwithstanding these circumstances,
Cyril and the one hundred and fifty-nine bishops who were with
him proceeded to read the imperial letter of convocation, and
afterwards the letters which had passed between Nestorius and
his adversary. Almost immediately the entire assemUy y^uU
one voice cried out anathema oh the impious Nestorius and his
impious doctrines, and after various extracts from the writings
of church fathers had been read the decree of his exclusion from
the episcopate and from all priestly communion was solemnly
read and signed by all present, whose numbers had by this time
swelled to one hundred and ninety-eight. The accused and his
friends never had a hearing. As Nestorius himself said* " the
Council was Cyril "; it simply registered the Alexandrian
patriarch's views.
When the decision was known the populace, who had been
eagerly waiting from early morning till night to hear the result,
accompanied the members with torches and censers to their
lodgings, and there was a general illumination of the city. A
few days afterwards (June afith or a7th) John of Antioch arrived,
and efforts were made by both parties to gain his ear; whether
inclined or not to the cause of his former co-presbyter, be wa.«
naturally excited by the precipitancy with which Cyril had mcled.
and at a conciliabulum of forty-three bishops held in bis lodgings
shortly after his arrival he was induced by Candidian. the friend
of Nestorius, to depose the bishops of Alexandria and Ephesus
on the spot. The efforts, however, to give effect to this act on the
following Sunday were frustrated by the zeal of the Ephcsian
mob. Meanwhile a letter was received from the emperor declar-
ing invalid the session at which Nestorius had been deposed
unheard; numerous sessions and counter-sessions were after-
wards held, the conflicting parties at the same time exerting them-
selves to the utmost to secure an effective superiority at court.
In the end Theodosius decided to confirm the depositions which
had been pronounced on both sides, and Cyril and Memnon
as well as Nestorius were by his orders laid under arrest. Re-
presentatives from each side were now summoned before bim
to Chalcedon, and at last, yielding to the tense of the evident
majority, he gave a decision in favour of the " orthodox,** and
the council of Ephesus was dissolved. Maximian, one of the
Constantinopolitan clergy, a native of Rome, was promoted to
the vacant see, and Nestorius was henceforward represented
in the city of his former patriarchate only by one small con-
gregation, which also a short time afterwards became extinct.
The commotion which had been thus raised did not ao easily
subside in the more eastern section of the church; the Antio-
chenes continued to maintain for a considerable time an attitude
NESTORIUS
411
ofajaugonism towards Cyril and his creed, and were not pacified
until an understanding was reached in 433 on the basis of a new
formula Involving some material concessions by him. The union
even then met with resistance from a number of bishops, who,
rather than accede to it, submitted to deposition and expulsion
from their sees; and it was not until these had all died out that,
as the result of stringent imperial edicts, Nestorianism may be
said to have become extinct throughout the Roman empire.
Tlieir school at Edessa was closed by Zeno in 489. As for
Nestorius himself, immediately after his deposition he withdrew
into private life in his old monastery of Euprepius, Antioch,
until 435, when the emperor ordered his banishment to Petra in
Arabia. A second decree, it would seem, sent him to Oasis,
probably the city of the Great Oasis, in Upper Egypt, where he
was still living in 439, at the time when Socrates wrote his
Ckurck History. He was taken prisoner by the Blemmyes, a
Domad tribe that gave much trouble to the empire in Africa, and
when they set him free in the Thebaid near Panopolis (Akhmim)
c. 450, they exposed him to further persecution from Schenute
the great hero of the Egyptian monks. There is some evidence
that he was summoned to the Council of Chalcedon,* though
he amid not attend it, and the concluding portion of his book
known as The Bataar of Heraclides not only gives a full account
of the " Robber Synod " of Ephesus 449i but knows that Theo-
dosius b dead (July 450) and seems aware of the proceedings of
Chalcedon and the flight of Dioscunis the unscrupulous successor
of Cyril at Alexandria. Nestorius was already old and ailing
and must have died very soon after.
The Nestorian Heresy. — What is technically and conventionally
meant in dogmatic thcol<^ by " the Nestorian heresy " must now
be noticed. As Eutychianism is the doctrine that the God-man
has only one nature, so Nestorianism is the doctrine that He has
two complete persons. So far as Nestorius himself is concerned,
bovever, it is certain that he never formulated any such doctrine;'
nor doa any recorded utterance of his. however casual, come so
near the heresy called by his name as Cyril's deliberately framed
thini anathema (that regarding the "physical union " 01 the two
hypostases or natures) approaches Eutychianism. It must be
mnembered that Nestorius was as orthodox at all events as
Athanasius on the subject of the incarnation, and sincerelv, even
faoatically, held every article of the Nicene creed. Hefele himself,
one of the roost learned and acute of Cyril's partisans, is compelled
to admit that Nestorius accurately held the duality of the two
aatairs and the integrity 6t each, was equally explicitly opposed
to Arianism and Acx^Iinarianism, and was perfectly correct m his
assertion that the Codhead can neither be bom nor suffer; all that
be can allege against him is that " the fear of the ctmmunicatio
idiomatmm pursued him like a spectre." But in reality the question
raised by Nestorius was not one as to the communiaUto idiomaium.
bm simply as to the proprieties of language. " I cannot speak of
God." he sakl, " as being two or three months old," a remark which
vas twisted to his disadvantage. He did not refuse to speak of
Mary as being the mother ot Christ or as being the mother of
Emiranuel. but he thought it improper to speak of tier as the mother
of God, and Leo in the Letter to Flavian which was endorsed at
Chakudon uses the term " Mother of the Lord " which was exactly
what Nestorius wished. And there is at least this to be said for
him that even the most zealous desire to frustrate the Arian had
never made it a part of orthodoxy to speak of David as tfcordrup
or of James as dfcV^tfcof. The secret of the enthusiasm of the
roasies for the analogous expression Theotokos is to be sought not
BO much in the Nicene doctrine of the incarnation as in the recent
erowth in the popular mind of notions as to the dignity of the Vinin
Mary, which were entirely unheard of (except in heretical circles)
for ncariy three centuries of the Christian era. That the Vimn
should be given a title that was quasi-divine mattered little. The
danger was that under cover of such a title an unhistorical con-
ception of the facts of the Gospel should ^w up. and a false doctrine
of the relations between the human and the Divine be encouraged,
and this was to Nestorius a double danger that needed to be cx-
poaed. He was thus forced into the position of one who brings
technical objections against a popular term.
The fact that Nestorius was trained at Antioch and inherited the
Aatnchene aeal for exact biblical exe^is and insistence upon the
recognitkm of the full manhood of Christ is of the first importance
in onderstanding his position. From the days of Ignatius, down
through Paul ol Samosata and Lucian to the great controversies
of the 5th century which began with the theones of Apollinarius,
the theolagians of Antkich started from the one sure fact, that
* Coptic Life of Dioscunis (Rto. AgyMologmue, 1880-1883).
' J. F. bethune-Bakcr, Nestorius and his Teacking, cb. vi.
Christ lived on earth the life of man, and without questioning the
equally genuine Divine clement laid stress on this genuine human
consciousness. There is no reason to suppose that Nestorius in-
tended to introduce any innovations in doctrine,, and in any estimate
of him his strong religious interest and his fervent pastoral spirit
must have due weight. He was a great extempore preacher and
exposed to the peril of the unconsidered " telling " phrase. That
a man of such conspicuous ability, who impressed himself at the
outset on the people of Constantinople as an uncompromising
opponent of heresy shodd within a few short years be an excom-
municated fugitive, sacrificed to save the face of Cyril and the
Alexandrians, is indeed, as Duchesne says, a tragedy. No suc-
cessor of Chrysostom was likely to receive much piod-will from the
nephew and successor of Theophilus of Alexandria.
It is only within recent years that an attempt has been made to
judge Nestorius from some other evidence than that afforded by
the accusations of Cyril and the inferences drawn therefrom. This
other evidence consists partly of letters from Nestorius, preserved
among the works of those to whom they were written, some sermons
collected in a Latin translation by Marius Mercator, an African
merchant who was doing business in Constantinople at the time of
the dispute, and other material gathered from Syriac manuscripts.
Since the helpful collection of Nestoriana published by Dr F. Loofs
in 1905 there has also come to our knowledge the most valuable
evidence of all, Ncstorius's own account of. the whole difficulty,
viz. The Bataar ■ ef Heraclides of Dawtascus. This pseudonym served
to protect the book against the fate that overtook the writings of
heretk», and in a Synac version it was preserved in the Euphrates
valley where the followera of Nestorius settled. Ebed Tesu in the
14th century mentions it together with Letters and Homilies, as well
as the Tragedy, or a Letters to Cosmos, the Theopaschites (of which
some fragments are still extant) and the Liturgy, which is still used
by the Nestorian Church. The discovery of The Bataar, which is
the Apologia of Nestorius, was made public by Dr H. Gousaen
(though members of the Archbishop of Canterbury's Mission to the
Assyrian Christians had previously been acquainted with the book).
The text has been edited by P. Paul Bedjan (Leipzig. 1910) and a
French translation has been made by M. I'abbd P. Nau. A repre-
sentative selection of extracts has been given to English readers in
J. F. Bethune-Baker's Nestorius and his Teaching (Cambridge.
1908). chapter ii. of which describes the MS. and its accounts.
Much of the argument is thrown into the form of a dialogue between
(i) NestMius and an imaginary opponent Supenanus, (2) Nestorius
and Cyril. The book re\'eals a strong personality and helps us to
know the man and his teaching, even though we have to gather his
own views largely from hu criticism of his antagonists. He is
throughout more concerned for the wrong done to the faith at
Ephesus than to himself, saving that if he held the views attributed
to him by Cyril he would be the first to condemn himself without
mercy. All through the years of conflict he had " but one end in
view, that no one should call the Word of God a creature, or the
Manhood which was assumed incomplete." I n his letters to CelMtine
he had laid stress on the point that the teaching he attacked was
derogatoi^ to the Godhead and so he called its champions Arians.
" If the Godhead of the Son had its origin in the womb of the Virgin
it was not Godhead as the Father's, and He who was bom could
not be homoousios with God, and that was what the Arians denied
Him to be." It is thus increasingly difficult to believe that Nestorius
was a " Nestorian." Pdre J. Mah6 has shown {Revue d'InsU ecclis.
July, 1906) that in spite of notable differences of terminology and
form the chronologies of Antioch and Alexandria were in essence
the same. Personal rather than doctrinal reasons had by far the
larger part in determining the fate of Nestorius, who was sacrificed
to the aereement between the two great schools.. This view is
confirmedf by the evidence of the Synodicon Orientate (the collection
of the canons of Nestorian Councils and Synods), which shows that
the Great Syriac Church built up by the adherents of Nestorius
and ever memorable for its zeal in carrying the Gospel into
Central Asia, China and India cannot, from its inception, be rightly
described as other than orthodox. The " attenuated " («.«. un-
" Nestorian ") form which some historians have noted in the
early centuries of Persian Nestorianism was really there from the
beginning. The Nestorinn Church, following its leader, formally
recognizes the Letter of Leo to Flavian and the decrees of the
Council of Chalcedon. " When I came," said Nestorius 0as. Herac.),
" upon that exposition and read it. I gave thanks to God that the
Church of Rome was rightly and blamelessly making confession,
even though they happened to be against me personally." His aim.
he tells us, had been to maintain the distinct continuance of the two
natures of Christ when united through the Incarnation into one
Person. " In the Person the natures use their properties mutually.
. . . The manhood is the person of the Godhead and the Godhead
is the person of the manhood." The ultimate union of these two
natures appears to lie in the will — " For there was one and the same
will and mind in the union of the natures, so that both should will
or not will exactly the same things. The natures have, moreover, a
» Syriac, tigOrM, lit. " merchandise. " The Greek word may have
been lii-Kbpior. Nothing is certainly known of any such Heraclides.
413
NESZLER— NET
mutual will, since the person of this u the person of that, and the
person of that the person of this." The manner in which this
union is realized is thus stated by Nestorius: "The Word also
passed throueh Blessed Mary inasmuch as He did not receive a
beginning by birth from her, as is the case with the body which was
bom of her. For this reason I said that God the Wora passed and
not was bom, because He did not receive a beginning from her.
But the two natures being united are one Christ. And He who
was bora of the Father as to the Divinity, and from the Holy Virgin
as to the humanity is and b styled one; f(Mr of the two natures
there was a union.' It may truly be said that the ideas for which
Nestorius and the Antiochene school strove '^ won the day as regards
the doctrinal definitions of the church. The manhood of Christ was
safeguarded, as distinct from the Godhead: the union was left an
ineffable mystery."
Authorities. — On Nestorius, in addition to the modem literature
cited in the article, and the standard histories of dogma (A. Haraack,
F. Loofs. R. L. Ottley's Doctrine of the Incarnation, &c.) see R.
Sceberg, Lehrhuck der Dogmengesehichte, Bd. ii. fi 27 (Leipzig. 10 10),
L. Duchesne. Histoire ancienne de Viilise, vol. ih. chs. x. xi. (Paris,
1910).
a.S. 3l.;A.J.G.)
NESZLER, VICTOR (1841-1890), G«nnan musical composer,
was bora on the 38th of Jaj^uary 1841 at Baldenheim, near
Schlettstadt. At Strassburg be began his university career
with the study of theology, but he concluded it with the pro-
duction of a light opera entitled FUureUe (1864). To complete
his knowledge of music Neszlcr went to Leipzig to study imdcr
Haiiptmann. His opera Der Trompeter von Sdckingen, based
on Scheffel's poem, was composed and performed in 1884.
Besides a number of other operas, Neszler wrote many songs
and choral works; but it is with the Trompeter von SUckingen
that his name is associated. He died at Strassburg on the 28th of
May 1890. In 1895 a monument to him by Marzolff was erected
there.
NET,* a fabric of thread, cord or wire, the intersections of
which are knotted so as to form a mesh. The art of netting is
intimately related to weaving, knitting, plaiting and lace-making,
from all of which, however, it is distinguished by the knotting
of the intersections of the cord. It is one of the most andent
and universal of arts, having been practised among the most
primitive tribes, to whom the net is of great importance in himting
and fishing.
Net-making, as a modern industry, is principally concerned
with the manufacture of the numerous forms of net used in
fisheries, but netting is also largely employed for many other
purposes, as for catching birds, for the temporary division of
fields, for protecting fruit in gardens, for screens and other
furniture purposes, for ladies' hair, bags, appliances used in
various games, &c. Since the early part of the 19th century
numerous machines have been invented for netting, and several
of these have attained commercial success. Fishing nets were
formerly made principally from hemp fibre — technically called
" twine "; but since the adaptation of machinery to net-making
cotton has been increasingly used, such nets being more flexible
and lighter, and more easily handled and stowed.
Tlie forms of fishing nets vary according to the manner in
which they are intended to act. This is either by entangling the
fish in their complicated folds, as in the trammel; receiving
them into pockets, as in the trawl; suspending them by the body
in the meshes, as in the mackerel-net; imprisoning them within
their labyrinth-like chambers, as in the stake-net; or drawing
them to shore, as in the seine. The parts of a net are the head or
upper margin, along which the corks are strung upon a rope
called the head-rope; the foot is the opposite or lower margin,
which carries the foot-rope, on which in many cases leaden
plummets are made fast. The meshes are the squares composing
the net. The width of a net is expressed by the term " over ";
e.g. a day-net is three fathoms long and one over or wide. The
lever is the first row of a net. There are also accrues, false
meshes or quarterings, which are loops inserted in any given
row, by which the number of meshes is increased. To bread or
* Thfe is a common Tcut. word, of which the origin is unknown;
it is not to be connected with " knit " or " knot." The term " net,"
«.tf. remaining after all deductions, charges, &c., have been made, as
in " net pront," is a variant of " neat," tidy, clean, Lat. nitidus^
shining.
Fic. I.
breathe a net is to make a net. Dead netting is a piece without
either accrues or stole (stolen) meshes, which last means that a
mesh is taken away by netting into two meshes of the preceding
row at once.
Hand'NeUint.—Tht toob used in hand-netting are the needle,
an instrument for holding and ncttine the material; it is nuufe with
an eye E, a tongue T, and a fork ¥ (fig. i). The
twine is wound on it by being passed alternately A
between the fork and round the tongue, so that //l\
the turns of the string lie parallel to the length of the IM \\
needle, and are kept on by the tongue and fork. A " 1 1'
spool or mesh-pin is a piece of round or flat wood
on which the loops are formed, the perimeter of the
spool determining the size of the loops. Each loop
contains two sides of the square mesh; therefore,
supposing that it be required to make a mesh i in.
square — that is, measunng i in. from knot to knot,
—a spool 2 in. in circumference must be used.
Large meshes may be formed by giving the twine
two or more turns round the spool, as occasion
may require; or the spool may be made flat, and of
a sufficient width. The method of making the
hand-knot in nets known as the fisherman's knot
IS more easily acquired by example than described in
writing. Fig. 2 shows the course of the twine in form-
ing a single knot. From the last-formed knot the twine
pafise4 over the front of the mesh -pin *. and is cauefit
behiftii by the Iktle lltiger of the left hand, Torming i]ic bop J,
thence U pAibc% to the itont and is ciaught ai d by ilw k-Ji thumf'.
then through the loapa ^ and w as indscjiledK afler fthich the t»i«:
iii rHcajbcd by the ihumU and the knot U drawn '*iaut '" or lifht.
Fijj. J 13 3 bend knot us*>d for
uniting two ends of ttt'ine.
Ma£kine-N filing.— la
1773 a, nenbjE -machine was
patented by William Hot*
ton, Wilt Lam Ro^s, ThoJi»t
Davic* and J&hn Golby.
In rSoj tht French gov-ern*
mcnt fleered a reward of
lo.ooo francs to the pcn^n
who should invem an autt)-
maiic machine for
mak^nc^ loc- -— ^
quard s^btnltteJ {\ k I A /\ /\ /\ /^ X \ A
a model of a " ^J W i. ^J ^/ '' t\ \ J
machiEie which
Th j% hroughi unJtT the notke of Napoleon L
and Carti^t, iind ht *as s^uitimoncd to Paris by
Iht emftfnur who o»ktd — " Arc you ihc man
who pretends to do ivhat God Almij^hty cunnoc
— tie a knot in a stretched Btnng?" Jac-
quard '9 model, vhich i* incomplcic, was de-
pjfiited in ihc ConK-rvatoire des Arti ct Metiers ;
It W3S awarded a pri^e^ and he hIrnKll n?ceiwd
an a[i|>"mtnerit in the Conservatoire, wher^ he
prrJecied bis famou* attachment to the com-
mon loom. In the United Kingdom, the first Fic. 2.
to succeed in inventine an efficient machine
and in establishing the industry of machine net-making wss
James Paterson of Mussclbur^. Patcrson, originally a cooper,
served in the army through the Peninsular War, and was discharged
after the battle of Waterloo. He established a net factory in Mussel-
burgh about 1820: but the early form of machine
was imperfect, the knots it formed slipped readily,
and, there being much prejudice against machine
nets, the demand was small. Walter Ritchie,
native of Musselburgh, devised a method for
forming the ordinary hand-knot on the machine
nets, and the machine, patented in July 1835,
became^ the foundation of an extensive and
flourishing industry.
The Paterson machine is very complex. It
consists of an arrangement of hooks, needles and
sinkers, one of each being required for every mesh Fig. 3.
in the breadth being made. The needles hold the
meshes, while the hooks seize the lower part of each' and twist it
into a loop. Through the series of loops so formed a steel wire U
shot, carrying with it twine for the next range of loops. This twine
the sinkers successively catch and depress sufficiently to form the
two sides and loop of the next mesh to be formed. The knot formed
by threading the loops is now tiehtcned up. the last formed tnesh U
freed from the sinkers and transferred to the hooks, and the process
of looping, threading and knotting thus continues.^
Another form of net-loom, working on a principle distinct fraa
that of Paterson. was invented and patented in France by Oakai^tcn
Pecqueur in 1840, and again in France and in the united Kiof-
dom in 1849. This machine was improved by many subsequent
NETHERLANDS
413
tBventan; cipecklty I
UaltBd Kiogdoai ia
Baadoutn and Jouannin, patented in the
I. In this machine aeparate thipads or
cords running longitudinally for
each division of the mesh are ero>
ployed (fig. 4). It will be observed
that the alternate threads a and
b are differently disposed — the a
series being drawn into simple
loops over and through which the
threads of the 6 series have to pass.
On the machine the a series of
threads are arranged vertically,
while the b series are placed hori-
lonully in thin lenticular spools.
Over the horiiontal b series is a
ranee of hooks equal in number
witfi the threads, and set so that
they seize the b threads, rtise
them, and give them a double,
twist, thus forming a row of open
loops. The loops are then de-
FlG. 4. pressed, and. seizing the vertical a
threads, draw them cn>tchet*Iike
through the b loops into loops suflficiently long and open to pass
right over the spook containing the b threads (fig. s), after which
it only remains to tighten the threads and
the mesh is complete,
f Wire-nettini, which is in extensive db-
mand for nrden use, poultry coops, and
numerous like purposes, is also a twisted
structure made principally by machine
power. The industry was mainly founded
by Charles Barnard in 1844, the first net--
tmg being made by hand on wooden rollers.
The first machine appeared in 18S5. and.
ance that txn>e many devices, generally of extremely complex con-
struction, have come into use. The wire chiefly used is common
annealed Bessemer or mild steel (see B. Smith, Wtrg, JU lianf^aUure
nd Uses, New York. 1891).
HRHERLAIIDS. The geographical features of the countries
formeriy known collectively as the Netherlands or Low Countries
are dealt with under the modem English names of Holland
and BELCltTH. Here we are concerned only with their earlier
history, which is put for convenience under this heading in order
to separate the account of the period when they formed practically
a single area for historical purposes from that of the time when
HoUand and Belgium became distinct administrative units.
The sources of our knowledge of the country down to the 8th
century are Caesar's De Bctto GaUko, iv., the history of Vcllcius
^^ Paterculus, ii. 105, the works of Tacitus, the Historia
r ff JIH^ Prancorum (i.-iii.) of Gregory of Tours, the Fredegar's
Chronica (for the last two of which see D. Bouquet's
RecueU de kistariens des GauUs et de la France, X738-
tSjS). The Netherlands first became known to the Romans
through the campaigns of Julius Caesar. He found the country
peopled partly by tribes of Gallo-Celtic, partly by tribes of
Germanic stock, the river Rhine forming roughly the line of
demarcation between the races. Several of the tribes along the
borderland, however, were undoubtedly of mixed blood. The
Callo-Celtic tribes bore the general appellation of Belgae, and
among these the Nervii, inhabiting the district between the
Scheldt and the Sambre were at the date of Caesar's invasion,
S7 B.C., the most warlike and important. To the north of the
>fcuse, and more especially in the low-lying ground enclosed
between the Waal and the Rhine {insula Batavorum) lived the
Batavi, a dan of th^ great Germanic tribe, the Chatti. Beyond
these were found the Frisians (q.v.), a people of German origin,
who gave their name to the territory between the Rhine and the
Ems. Of the other tribes the best known are the Caninefates,
Cbaud, Usipetes, Sicambri, Eburones, Menapii, Morini and
Adnatid
Jufius Caesar, after a severe struggle with the Nervii and their
confederates, was successful in bringing the Belgic tribes into
subjection to Rome. Under Augustus, 15 B.C., the
conquered territory was formed into an imperial
province, Gallia Bdgicat and the frontier line, the
Rhine, was strongly held by a series of fortified camps.
With regard to the region north of the Rhine we first obtain
infoanatkw from the accounts of the campaigns of Nero, Claudius,
Dnisus and Tlbenus. The Batavialia were first brou^t under
Roman rule in the governorship of Dnisus, ajd. 13. They were
not incorporated in the empire, but were ranked as allies, socii
or auxilia. Their Und became a recruiting ground for the Rjoman
armies, and a base for expeditions across the Rhine. The
BaUvians served with fidelity and distinction in all parts of the
empire, and from the days of Augustus onwards formed a con-
siderable part of the Praetorian guard. The Frisians struggled
against Roman over-k>rdship somewhat longer, and it was not
until A.D. 47 that they finally submitted to the victorious arms
of Domitius Corbulo. The Frisian auxiliaries were likewise
regarded as excellent troops.
In the confusion of the disputed succession to the imperial
throne after the death of Nero, the Batavians (aj>. 69-70) under
the influence of a great leader, known only by his
Roman name, Claudius Civilis, rose in revolt. Civilis \f^^Sf
had seen much service in the Roman armies, and was
a man of statesmanlike ability. In revenge for his own
imprisonment, and the death of his brother by order of Nero,
he took advantage of the disorder in the empire not only
to stir up his fellow-countrymen to take up arms for independ-
ence, but to persuade a large number of German and Belgic tribes
to join forces with them. A narrative of the revolt is given
in detail by Tadtus. At first success attended Civilis and the
Romans were driven out of the greater part of the Belgic province.
Even the great fortress of Castra Vetera (Xanten) was starved
into submission and the garrison massacred. But dissensions
arose between the German and Celtic dements of Civilis's follow-
ing. The Ronians, under an able general, Cerealis, took
advantage of this, and Civilis, beaten in fight, retired to the
island of the Batavians. But both sides were exhausted, and
it was arranged that Cerealis and Civilis should meet on a broken
bridge over the Nabalia (Yssel) to discuss terms of peace. At
this point the narrative of Tadtus breaks off, but it would appear
that easy conditions were offered, for the Batavians returned to
their position of socti^ and were henceforth faithful in their steady
allegiance to Rome. The instda Batavorum^ lined with forts,
became for a long period the bulwark of the empire against the
inroads of the Germans from the north.
Of this period scarcely any record remains, but when at the
end of the 3rd century the Franks {q.v.) began to swarm over the
Rhine into the Roman lands, the names of the old
tribes had disappeared. The peoples within the
frontier had been transformed into Romanized pro-
vincials; outside, the various tribes had become merged in the
common appellation of Frisians. The branch of the Franks—
who were a confederacy, not a people — which gradually over-
spread Gallia Belgica, bore the name of the Salian Franks.
Nominally they were taken under the protection of the empire,
in reality they were its masters and defenders. In the days of
their great king Hlodwig or Clovis (481-511) they were in
possession of the whole of the southern and central Netherlands.
The strip of coast from the mouth of the Scheldt to that of the
Ems remained, however, in the hands of the free Frisians (9.V.),
in alliance with whom against the Franks were the Saxons {q.v.)*
who, pressing forward from the east, had occupied a portion of
the districts known later as Gelderland, Ovcrysscl and Drente.
Saxon was at this period the common title of all the north German
tribes; there was but little difference between Frisians and
Saxons dther in race or language,- and they were closely united
for some four centuries in common resistance to the encroach-
ments of the Frankish power.
The conversion of Govis and his rude followers to Christianity
tended gradually to dvilize the Franks, and to facilitate the
fusion which soon took place between them and the ^ ^
Gallo-Roman population. It tended also to accentuate qUI^^^
the enmity to the Franks of the heathen Frisians and ^^^^
Saxons. In the south (of the Netherlands) Chris^anity
was spread by the labours of devoted missionaries, foremost
amongst whom were St Amandus, St Bavon and St Eligius,
and bishoprics were set up at Cambrai, Toumai, Arras, Thdrou-
anne and Li6ge. In the north progress was much slower, and
Aaafts.
+H
NETHERLANDS
though s church was erected at Utrecht by Dagobert I. about
A.D. 630, it was destroyed by the Frisians, who remained obstin-
ately heathen. The first successful attempt to convert them
was made, under the powerful protection of Pippin of Heristal,
by Willebrord, a Northumbrian monk, who became, a.d. 695,
the first bishop of Utrecht (see Utr£CHt). His labours were
continued with even more striking results by another English-
man, Winfred, better known as St Boniface, the Apostle of the
Germans, who suffered martyrdom at Dokkum in a.d. 754 at
the hands of some heathen Frisians. The complete conversion
was, however, in the end due rather to the arms of the Caroh'ngian
kings than to the unaided efforts of the missionaries. Towards
the end of the century, Charlemagne, himself a Netherlander
by descent and ancestral possessions, after a severe struggle,
thoroughly subdued the Frisians and Saxons, and compelled them
to embrace Christianity.
In the triple partition of the Carolingian empire at Verdun in
843, the central portion was assigned to the emperor Lothaire,
separating the kingdoms of East Francia (the later
JfjiJjJjT Germany) from West Franda (the later France).
Lonmimt, • 1*bis middle kingdom formed a long strip stretching
across Europe from the North Sea to Naples, and
embraced the whole of the later Netherlands with the exception
of the portion on the left bank of the Scheldt, which river was
made the boundary of West Francia. On the death of the
emperor, his son Lothaire II. received the northern part of his
father's domain, known as Lotharii or Hlutharii Regnum,
corrupted later into Lotharingia or Lorraine. Lothaire had no
heir, and in 870 by the treaty of Meerssen his territory was
divided between the kings of East and West Francia. In 879
East Francia acquired the whole; from 9x2 to 924 it formed
part of West Francia. Finally in 924 Lorraine passed in the
reign of Henry the Fowler under German (East Frankish)
overlordship. Henry's son, Otto the Great, owing to the
disordered state of the country, phiced it in 953 in the hands
of his able brother, Bruno, archbishop of Cologne, for pacification.
Bruno, who kept for himself the title of archduke, divided
the territory into the two duchies of Upper and Lower Lorraine.
Godfrey of Verdun was invested by him with the government
of Lower Lorraine (Nieder-Uithringen). The history of the
Netherlands from this time forward— with the exception of
Flanders, which continued to be a fief of the French kings-
is the history of the various feudal states into which the duchy
of Lower Lorraine was gradually broken up.
It is a melancholy history, telling of the invasion of the North.-
mcn, and of the dynastic struggles between the petty feudal
sovereigns who carved out counties and lordships
for themselves during the dark centuries which
followed the fall of the Carolingian empire. It was a
time of oppression and cruelty, and of war and devasta-
tion, during which the country remained chiefly swamp and
tangled woodland, with little communication save up and down
the rivers and along the old Roman roads. Its remoteness from
the control of the authority of the German and French kings,
together with its inaccessibility, gave special facilities in Lower
Lorraine to the growth of a number of practically independent
feudal states forming a group or system apart. Chief among
these states were the duchy of Brabant, the counties of Flanders,
Hainault, Holland, Gelderland, Limburg and Luxemburg,
and the bishoprics of Utrecht and Li£ge. For their separate
local histories and their dynasties, their wars and political
relations with one another and with neighbouring countries,
reference must be made to the separate articles Flanders,
Holland, Brabant, Gelderland, Ldcburc, Luxekburc,
Utrecht, Li£ge.
During the 9th and loth centuries the Netherlands suffered
cruelly from the attacks of the Northmen, who ravaged the
Th9 te« shores and at times penetrated far inland. In 834
ra«toM Utrecht and Dorestad were sacked, and a few years
ottht later all Holland and Friesland was in their hands.
Norttmn, y^j, ^^j^gj. y^^ jj,g ^^^ went on under a succession of
leaders — Heriold, Roruk, Rolf, Godfrey — and far and wide
there was pillaging, burning, murder and slavery. In 873 Rolf
seized Walcheren, and became the scourge of the surrounding
districts. In 880 the invaders took Nijmwegen, erected a
permanent camp at Elsloo and pushed on to the Rhine. Li^ge,
Aix-la-Chapelle, Cologne and Bonn fell into their hands. The
emperor, Charles the Fat, was roused to collect a large army,
with which he surrounded the main body of the Northmen under
their leader Godfrey in the camp at Elsloo. But Charles pre>
fcrred negotiation and bribery to fighting. Godfrey received
a large sum of money, was confirmed in the possession of Fries-
land, and on being converted to Christianity in 882, received
in marriage Cisela, daughter of Lothaire II. Three years later,
however,- Godfrey was murdered, and although the raids of the
Northmen did not entirely cease for upwards of another oentuiy,
no further attempt was made to establish a permanent dynasty
in the land.
At the close of the nth century the system of feudal states
had been firmly esublished in the Netherlands under stable
dynasties hereditary or episcojMl, and, despite the
continual wars between them, dvilixation had begun to Smrftak
develop, orderly government to be carried on, and the
general condition of the people to be less hopeless and miserable.
It was at this time that the voice of Peter the Hermit roused the
whole of western Europe to enthusiasm by his preaching of the
first crusade. Nowhere was the call responded to with greater
zeal than in the Netherlands, and nowhere had the spirit of
adventure and the stimulus to enterprise, which was one of the
chief fruits of the crusades, more permanent effects for good. The
foremost heroes of the first crusade were Netherlanders. Godfrey
of Bouillon, the leader of the expedition and the firsi king of
Jerusalem, was duke of Lower Lorraine, and the names of his
brothers Baldwin of Edessa and Eustace of Boulogne, and of
Count Robert II. of Flanders are only less famous, llie third
crusade numbered among its chiefs Floris III. of Holland, Philip of
Flanders, Otto I. of Gelderland and Henry I. of Brabant. The
so-called Latin crusade of 1203 placed the imperial crown of
Constantinople on the head of Baldwin of Flanders. At the siege
and capture of Damietta (1218) it was the contingent of N<»th-
Netherlanders (Hollanders and Frisians under Count William I.
of Holland) who bore the brunt of the fighting and speciaUy
distinguished themselves. To the Netherlands, as to the rest of
western Europe, the result of the crusades was in the main
advantageous. They broke down the intense narrowness of the
life of those feudal times, enlarged men's conceptions and intro-
duced new ideas into their minds. They first brought the
products and arts of the Orient into western Europe; and in the
Netherlands, by the impulse that they gave to commerce, they
were one of the primary causes of the rise of the chartered towns.
Little is known about the Netherland towns before the 12th
century. The earliest charters date from that period. No place
was reckoned to be a town unless it had received a j^^ ^
charter from its sovereign or its local lord. The ttodtkp
charters were of the nature of a treaty between the
city and its feudal lord, and they differed much in
character according to the importance of the place
and the pressure it was able to put upon its sovereign. The
extent of the rights which the charter conceded determined
whether the town was a free town {wlje stadt— villa frama)
or a commune {gemeentc — communia). In the case of a oonmrane
the concessions induded generally Ihe right of inheritance,
justice, taxation, use of wood, water, &c. The lord's repre-
sentative, entitled " justiciary " {schout) of " bailiff " (fro/jtiv),
presided over the administration of justice and took the command
of the town levies in war. The gemeenU — consisting only of those
bound by the communal oath for mutual help and defence —
elected their own magistrates. These dectors were often a small
proportion of the whole body of inhabitants: sometimes a few
influential families alone had the right, and it became hereditary.
This governing oligarchy was known as " the patricians." The
magistrates bore the name of scabini (sckepenen or ie km n s ),
and at their head was the seigneurial official — the idbitf or
baljttm. These sckepenen appointed in their turn from ths
NETHERLANDS
415
dtizens to assist them a body of swoni coundllon (geMWoretun
or juris), whose presidents, styled " burgomasters/' had the
sapervision of the communal finances. Thus grew up a number
of municipalities— practically self-governing republicsr— semi-
independent feudatories in the feudal state.
The most powerful and flourishing of all were those of Flanders
— Ghent, Bruges and Ypr^ In the x^th century these towns
j^ had become the seat of large industrial populations
farniiift (varying according to different estimates from xoo,ooo
•— to 200,000 inhabitants), employed upon the weaving
^*'^' of doth with its dependent industries, and closely
bound up by trade interests with England, from whence they
obtained the wool for their looms. Bruges, at that time connected
with the sea by the river Zwijn and with Sluis as its port, was
the central mart and exchange of the world's commerce. In
these Flemish cities the early oligarchic form of municipal
government speedily gave way to a democratic. The great mass
of the townsmen organized in trade gilds — weavers, fullers, dyers,
smiths, leather-workers, brewers, butchers, bakers and others,
of which by far the most powerful was that of the weavers^
as soon as t hey became conscious of their strength rebelled against
the exclusive privileges of the patricians and succeeded in ousting
them from power. The patricians (hence called Idiaerts) relied
upon the support of the French crown, but the fatal battle of
Courtrai (1302), in which the handicraftsmen {dauwaerts) laid
k>w the chivalry of France, secured the triumph of the democracy.
The power of the Flembh cities rose to its height during the
ascendancy of Jacques van Artevclde (1285-1345), the famous
dtixen-statesman of Ghent, but after his downfall the mutual
jealousies of the cities undermined their strength, and with the
crushing defeat of Roosebeke (1382) in which Philip van Artevelde
perished, the political greatness of the municipalities had entered
upon its decline.
In Brabant — Antwerp, Louvain, Brussels, Malincs(Mechlin) —
and in the episcopal territory of Lidge — Li^ge, Huy, Dinant —
there was a feebler repetition of the Flemish conditions.
Flourishing communities were likewise to be found in
Hainault, Namur, Cambrai and the other southern
districts of the Netherlands, but nowhere else the
vigorous independence of Ghent, Bruges and Yprds,
nor the splendour of their civic life. In the north also the 13th
century was rich in municipal charters. Dordrecht, Leiden,
Haarlem, Delft, Vlaardigen, Rotterdam in Holland, and Middle-
burg and Zierikzee in Zceland, repeated with modifications the
characteristics of the communes of Flanders and Brabant.
But the growth and development of the northern communal
movement, though strong and instinct with life, was slower and
le» tempestuous than the Flemish. In the bishopric of Utrecht,
in Gelderland and Friesland, the privileges accorded to Utrecht,
Groningcn, Zutphen, Stavoren, Lecuwarden followed rather on
the model of those of the Rhenish " free cities " than of the
Franco-Flemish commune. In the northern Netherlands gener-
ally up to the end of the 14th century the towns had no great
political weight; their importance depended u];>on their river
commerce and their markets. Thus at the close of the 14th
century, despite the constant wars between the feudal sovereigns
who held sway in the Netherlands, the vigorous municipal life
had fostered industry and commerce, and had caused Flanders
b particular to become the richest possession in the worid.
It was precisely at this time that Flanders, and gradually the
other feudal states of the Netherlands, by marriage, purchase,
treachery or force, fell under the dominion of the
2j*J^ house of Burgundy. The foundation of the Burgundian
gamMm. rule in the Netheriands was laid by the succession of
Philip the Bold to the counties of Flanders and Artois
in 1384 in right of his wife Margaret de Mile. In 1404 Antony,
Philip's second son (killed at Agincourt 141 5), became duke
of Brabant by bequest of his great-aunt Joan. The consolidation
of the Burgundian power was effected by Philip the Good,
grandson of Philip the Bold, in his long and successful reign of 48
years, 1419-1467. He inherited Flanders and Artois, purchased
the county of Namur (1427) and compelled his cousin Jacqueline,
the heiress of Holland, Zeeland, Hainault and Friesland, to
surrender her possessions to him, 1428. On the death in 1430 of
his cousin Philip, duke of Brabant, he took possession of Brabant
and Limburg; the duchy of Luxemburg he acquired by purchase,
1443. He made his b&stard son David bishop of Utrecht, and
from 1456 onwards that see continued under Burgundian
influence. Two other bastards were placed on the episcopal
throne of Li^ge, an illegitimate brother on that of Cambrai.
Philip did not live to see Gelderland and Li^ pass definitively
under his rule; it was reserved for his son, Charles the Bold,
to crush the independence of Lidge (1468) and to incorporate
Gelderland in his dominions (1473).
This extension of dominion on the part of the dukes of Bur-
gundy impb'ed the establishment of a strong monarchical
authority. They had united under theirswayanumber
of provinces with different histories and institutions
and speaking different languages, and their aim was
to centralize the government. The nobility and clergy were on
the side of the ducal authority; its opponents were the munici-
palities, especially those of Flanders. Their strength had been
seriously weakened by the overthrow of Roosebeke, but Philip
on his accession found them once more advancing rapidly in
power and prosperity. He was quite aware that the industrial
wealth of the great Flemish communes was financially the main-
stay of his power, but their very prosperity made them the chief
obstacle to his schemes of unifying into a solid dominion the
loose aggregate of states over which he was the ruler. On this
matter Philip would brook no opposition. Bruges was forced
after strenuous resistance to submit to the loss of its most
cherished privileges in 1438, and the revolt of Ghent was quenched
in the " red sea " (as it was styled) of Gavre in 1453. The
splendour and luxury of the court of Philip surpassed that of
any contemporary sovereign. A permanent memorial of it
remains in the famous Order of the Golden Fleece, which was
instituted by the duke at Bruges in 1430 on the occasion of his
marriage with Isabel of Portugal, a descendant of John of Gaunt,
and was so named from the English wool, the raw material used
in the Flemish looms, for which Bruges was the chief mart.
The reign of Philip, though marred by many acts of tyranny
and harshness, was politically great. Had his successor been as
prudent and able, he might have made a unified Netherlands
the nucleus of a mighty middle kingdom, interposing between
France and Germany, apd a revival of that of the Carolingian
Lothaire.
Before the accession of Charles, the only son of Philip, two
steps had been taken of great importance in the direction of
unification. The first was the appointment of a grand
council with supreme judicial and financial functions, J^^
whose scat was finally fixed at Malines (Mechlin) in
1473; the other the summoning of deputies of all the provincial
" states " of the Netherlands to a states-general at Brussels
in 1465. But Charles, rightly surnamed the Bold or Head-
strong, did net possess the qualities of a builder of states. Im-
patient of control and hasty in action, he was no match for his
crafty and plotting adversary, Louis XL of France. His
ambition, however, was boundless, and he set himself to realize
the dream of his father— a Burgundian kingdom stretching from
the North Sea to the Mediterranean. At first all went well with
him. By his ruthless suppression of re\'olts at Dinant and Li^ge
he made his authority undisputed throughout the Netherlands.
His campaigns against the French king were conducted with
success. His creation of a formidable standing army, the first
of its kind in that age of transition from feudal conditions, gave
to the Burgundian power all the outward semblance of stability
and permanence. But Charles, though a brave soldier and good
military organizer, was neither a capable statesman nor a skilful
general. He squandered the resources left to him by his father,
and made himself hateful to all classes of his subjects by his
exactions and tyranny. When at the very height of power, all
his schemes of aggrandisement came to sudden ruin through a
succession of disastrous defeats at the hands of the Swiss at
Grandson (March 2, .J476), at Morat (Jtme 22, 1476)
4i6
NETHERLANDS
and at Kancy (Januaiy 5,~ 1477). At Nancy Qiarles was
himself among the slain, iMving his only dau^ter Mary of
Borgundy, then in her twentieth year, sole heiress to his
The catastrophe of Nancy threatened the looady-knit Bur-
gundian dominion with dissolution. Louis XI. daimed the
jf«7«r reversion of the French fiefs, and seized Burgundy,
Franche Comt£ and Artois. But the Netherland
umtMm*^ provinces, though not loving the Burgundian dynasty,
■Jjjj*' had no desire to have a French master. Deputies
^"^ representing Flanders, Brabant, Hainault and Hollaud
met at Ghent, where Mary was detained almost as a
prisoner, and compelled her (February xo, 1477) to sign the
" Great Privilege." This charter provided that no war could
be declared nor marriage concluded by the sovereign, nor taxes
raised without the assent of the states, that natives were alone
eligible for high office, and that the national language should be
used in public documents. The central court of justice at
Malines was abolished, but the Grand Council was reorganized
and made thoroughly representative. The Great Privilege was
supplemented by provincial charters, the Flemish Privilege
granted (February 10), the Great Privilege of Holland and
Zeeland (February i7)> the Great Privilege of Namur and the
Joyeuse Entrie of Brabant, both in May, thus largely curtailing
the sovereign's power of interference with local liberties. On
these conditions Mary obtained the hearty support of the states
against France, but her humiliations were not yet at an end;
two of her privy councillors, accused of traitorous intercourse
with the enemy, were, despite her entreaties, seized, tried and
beheaded (April 3). Her marriage four months later to
Maximilian of Austria was the beginning of the long domination
of the house of Habsburg. The next fifteen years were for
Masdmilian a stormy and difficult period. The duchess Mary
died from the effects of a fall from her horse (March 1482), and
Maximilian became regent (jmambaurj) for his son. The peace of
Arras with France (March 1483) freed him to deal with the dis-
cords in the Netherland provinces, and more especially with the
turbulent opposition in the Flemish cities. With the submission
of Ghent (June 1485) the contest was deddcd in favour of the
archduke, who in 1494, on his election as emperor,
^ was able to hand over the country to his son Philip
in a comparatively tranquil and secure state. Philip,
sumamed the Fair, was fifteen years of age, and his accession
was welcomed by the Netherlanders with whom Maximilian had
never been popular. Gelderland, however, which had revolted
after Nancy, bad Charles of Egmont for its duke, and the two
bishoprics of Li^ and Utrecht were no longer subject to
Burgundian authority. In 1496 Philip married Joanna of
Aragon, who in 1500 became heiress apparent to Castile and
Aragon. That same year she gave birth at Ghent to a son,
afterwards the emperor Charles V. Philip's reign in the Nether-
lands was chiefly noteworthy for his efforts for the revival of
trade with England. On the death of Queen Isabel, Philip and
Joanna succeeded to the crown of Castile and took up their
residence in their new kingdom (January 1506). A few months
later Philip unexpectedly died at Burgos (September 35th).
His Burgundian lands passed without opposition to his son
Charles, then six years of age.
The claim of the emperor Maximilian to be regent during
the minority of his grandson was recognized by the states-general.
„ Maximilian nominated his daughter Margaret, widow
•fjSSL ^^ Philibert, duke of Savoy, to act as governor-general,
and she filled the difficult post for eight years with
great ability, courage and tact; and when Charles at the age
of fifteen assumed the government he found the Netherlands
thriving and prosperous. In the following year, by the death
of Ferdinand of Aragon, his maternal grandfather, and the
incapacity of his mother Joanna, who had become hopelessly
insane, he succeeded to the crowns of Castile and Aragon, which
carried with them large possessions in luly and the dominion
of the New World of America. In 1519 Maximilian died, and
the following year his grandson, now the head of the bouse
of Austria, was elected emperor. Charies V. had been bom and
brought up in the Netherlands, and retained a strong predilection
for his native country, but necessarily he had to pass c^gg^^ y^
the larger part of his life, at that great crisis of the
world's history, in other lands. During his frequent absences
he entrusted the government of the Netheriands to the tried
hands of his aunt, Margaret, who retained his confidence until
her death (November 1530), and secured the affection of all
Netherlanders. Margaret was assisted by a permanent council
of regency, and there was a q>ecial minister charged with the
administration of the finances, sometimes under the name of
superintendent of the finances, sometimes under the title of
treasurer-general and controUer-generaL The duties of this
minister were of special importance, for it was to the Netherlands
that Charles looked for much of the resources wherewith to
carry on his many wars. During this time Charles consolidated
his dominion over the Netherlands. In 1524 he became lord
of Friesland by purchase, and in 1528 he acquired the tempor-
alities of Utr^t. He now ruled over seventeen provinces —
i.e. four duchies, Brabant, Gelderland, Limburg and Luxemburg;
seven counties, Flanders, Artois, Hainault, Holland, ZeeUnd,
Namur and Zutphen; the margraviate of Antwerp; and
five lordships— Friesland, Mechlin, Utrecht, Overyssei, and
Groningen with its dependent districts.
After the death of Margaret, Charles appointed his sister
Mary, the widowed queen of Hungary, to the regency, and for
twenty years she retained her post, until the abdication
in fact of Charies V. in 1555. She too governed ably, jji^jj
though in entire subservience to her nephew, but was
not in such intimate touch with the national peculiarities of
the Netherlanders as her predecessor. At the time of her
accession to office Charles changed the form of administration
by the treation of three separate councils, those of State, of
Finance, and the Privy Council. The regent was president of
the council of state, of which the knights of the Golden Fleece
were members. The policy of Charles towards the Netherlands
was for many years one of studied moderation. He redressed
many grievances, regulated the administration of justice,
encouraged commerce, reformed the coinage, but as time went on
he was compelled to demand larger subsidies and to take severer
measures against heretical opinions. Mary was forced to impose
taxation which met with violent resistance, especiaUy in 1539
from the stiff-necked town of Ghent. The emperor himself
was obliged to intervene. On the 14th of February 1540 he
entered Ghent at the head of a large army and visited the
city with severe punishment. All its charters were aimuUed,
its privileges and those of iu gilds swept away, and a heavy
fine imposed. It was a lesson intended to teach the Netherlanders
the utter futility of opposition to the will of their lord. The
struggle, however, with the Protestant princes of Germany not
only led to continual demands of Charles for men and money
from his Netherland dominions, but to his determination to
prevent the spread of Protestant opinions; and a series of
edicts was passed, the most severe of which (that of 1550) was
carried out with extreme rigour. Its preamble stated that its
object was " to exterminate the root and ground of this pest.**
By its enactments, men holding heretical opinions werecondemned
to the stake, women to be buried alive. Yet despite the efforts
of the government the Reformation made progress in the land.
In 1548 Charles laid before the states a scheme for making the
Netherlands an integral part of the empire under the name of
the Circle of Burgundy; but the refusal of the CSerman Electors
to make his only son Philip king of the Romans led him to
abandon the project, which was never renewed. Already the
emperor was beginning to feel weary of the heavy burdens
which the government of so many realms had imposed upon him,
and in 1549 he presented Philip to the states of the Netherlands,
that they might take the oath of allegiance to him, and PhDip
swore to maintain all ancient rights, privileges and customs.
The abdication of Charies V. took pUce on the ssth of October
1555 in the great hall of the palace at Brussels, and Philip II«
entered upon his long and eventful reign. His external policy
NETHERLANDS
417
VIS at fint auccetsfitl. Chiefly through the valour of Lamoral,
count of EgmoDt, two great victories were won over the French
m^H at St Quentin (August 10, 1557) and at GraveUnes
^^ G«ly »i. ^SS^)' The terms of the treaty of Caleau-
C&mbr£sis (February 1559) were entirely favourable to Philip,
lotemal difficulties, however, confronted him. His proposal
to impose a tax of 1% on real property and of 2% on movable
property was rejected by all the larger provinces. As a thorough
Spaniard who did not even understand the language of his
Netherland subjects Philip was from the first distrusted and his
acts regarded with suspicion. He himself never felt at home
at Brussels, and in August 1559 he set sail for Spain, never again
to revisit the Netherlands.
He appointed as regent, Margaret, duchess of Parma, a natural
daughter of Charles V. by a Flemish mother, and like the other
women of the House a strong and capable ruler.
She was nominally assisted by the members of the
three councils — the Council of State, the Privy Council
and the Council of Finance, but in reality all power had been
placed by Philip in the hands of three confidential councillors
styled the ConsuUa — ^Barlaymont, president of the Council
of Finance, Viglius, president of the Privy Council, and Antony
Perrenot, bishop of Arras, better known by his later title as
Cardinal Granvellc. This extremely able man, a Burgundian
by birth, was the son of one of Charles V.'s most trusted
councillors, and it was largely to him that the government
of the Netherlands was confided. Two burning questions at
the outset confronted Margaret and Granvelle — the question
of the new bishoprics and the question of the presence in the
Netherlands of a number of Spanish troops. The proposal to
reorganize the bishoprics of the Netherlands was not a new one,
but was the carrying out of a long-planned project of Charles V.
In isss there were but three dioceses in the Netherlands — those
of Toumay, Arras and Utrecht, — all of unwieldy size and under
the jurisdiction of foreign metropolitans. It was proposed now
to establish a more numerous hierarchy, self-contained within
tbe limits of Burgundian rule, with three archbishops and fifteen
diocesans. The primatiol see was placed at Malines (Mechlin),
having under it Antwerp, Hertogenbosch, Roermond, Ghent,
Bruges, and Ypres constituting the Flemish province; the
second archbishopric was at Cambray, wl^h Toumay, Arras, St
Omer, and Namur, — the Walloon province; the third at
Utrecht, with Haarlem, Middlcburg, Leeuwardcn, Groningen and
Deventcr, — the northern (Dutch) province. All these with the
exception of Cambray and St Omer were within the boundaries
of the Netherlands. The scheme aroused almost universal
distrust and opposition. It was believed that its object was
the introduction of the dreaded formof the Inquisition established
in Spain, and in any case more systematic and stringent measures
for the stamping out of heresy. It excited also the animosity
of the nobles jealous of their privileges, and of the monasteries,
which were called upon to furnish the revenues for the new sees.
Granvelle was made first archbishop of Malines, and all the
odium attaching to the increase of the episcopate was laid at
his door, though he was in reality opposed to it. The continued
presence of the Spanish troops caused also great dissatisfaction.
The Netherlanders detested the Spaniards and everything
Spanish, and this foreign mercenary foree, together with the
new bishops, was looked upon as part of a general plan for the
gradual overthrow of their rights and liberties. So loud was the
outcry that Margaret and Granvelle on their own responsibility
sent away the Spanish regiments from the country (January
1 561). The most serious difficulty with which Margaret had to
deal arose from the attitude of the great nobles, and among these
especially of William (the " Silent ") of Nassau, prince of Orange,
limoral, count of Egmont, and Philip de Montmorency, count
of Hoom. These great magnates, all of them Knights of the
Fleece and men of peculiar weight and authority in the country,
were disgusted to find that, though nominally councillors of
sute, their advice was never asked, and that all power was
placed in the hands of the ConsuUa. They began to be alarmed
by the severity with which the edicts against heresy were being
carried out, and by the rising indignation among the populace.
Wilham, Egmont, and Hoorn therefore placed themselves at
the head of a league of nobles against Granvelle (who had
become cardinal in 1561) with the object of undermining his
influence and driving him from power. They resigned their
positions as councillors of state, and expressed their grievances
personally to Margaret and by letter to the king in Madrid,
asking for the dismissal of Granvelle. The duchess, herself
aggrieved by the dictatorial manners of the cardinal, likewise
urged upon her brother the necessity of the retirement of the
unpopular minister. At last Philip unwillingly gave way, and
he secretly suggested to the cardinal that he should ask per*
mission from the regent to visit his mother at Bcsancon.
Granvelle left Brusselson the 13th of March 1564, never to return.
But the king was only temporizing; he had no intention of
changing his policy. He did but bide his time.
The Council of Trent had recently brought its long labours
to a close (December 4, 1563), and Philip resolved to enforce
its decrees throughout his dominions. He issued an
order to that effect (August 18, 1564), and it was sent ^^^
to the duchess of Parma for publication. The nobles
protested, and Egmont was deputed to go to Madrid
and try to obtain from the king a mitigation of the edicts and
redress of grievances. Philip was inexorable. The activity of
the Inquisition was redoubled, and persecution raged throughout
the Netherlands. Everywhere intense indignation was aroused
by the cruel tortures and executions. In the presence of the
rising storm the duchess was bewildered, seeing dearly the folly
of the policy she was obliged to carry out no less than its difficulty.
Following the example of William of Orange, Hoom, Berghen
and other governors, the magistrates generally declined to enforce
the edicts, and offered to resign rather than be the instruments
for burning and maltreating their fellow-countrymen. It was
at this time that the lesser nobility, foremost among whom were
Louis of Nassau (brother of William), Philip de Marnix, lord of
Sainte Aldcgonde, and Henry, count of Brederode,.
began to organize resistance, and in 1 566 a confederacy
was formed, all the members of which signed a docu-
ment called "The Compromise," by which they bound themselves
to help and protect one another against persecution, and to
extirpate the Inquisition from the land. The signatories drew
up a petition, known as the " Request," which was presented by
the confederates to the regent (April s, 1566) in the council
chamber at Brussels. As they approached, Barlaymont had
been heard to say to Margaret, " What, Madam, is ^
your Highness afraid of these beggars (gueux)?** Bqiws.
The phrase was seized upon and made a party name,
and it became the fashion for patriots to wear beggar's garb and
a medal round the neck, bearing Philip's image on one side and
a wallet on the other, with two hands crossed, and the legend
Fidcles au roijusqu'd la besace.
William of Orange, Egmont, and Hoom were alarmed at the
violent passions that had been aroused, and held aloof at first
from Brederode and his companions. At their instance, and
carrying with them instractions from the regent and the council,
the marquis of Berghen and Hoom's brother (the lord of Mon-
tigny) were persuaded to go to Spain and lay before Philip the
serious character of the crisis. Philip received them courteously,
but took care that neither of them should return home. Mean-
while in the Netherlands the sectaries had been making rapid
headway in spite of the persecution. Open-air conventicles were
held in all parts of the provinces, and the fierce Calvinist
preachers raised the religious excitement of their hearers ,
to such a pitch that it found vent in a furious outburst dute
of iconociasm. During the month of August bands of
fanatical rioters in various parts of the country made havoc in
the churches and religious houses, wrecking the altars, smashing
the images and pictures, and carrying off the sacred vessels and
other treasures on which they could lay their hands. These acts
of wild and sacrilegious destruction reached their climax at
Antwerp (August x6 and 17), where a small body of rioters
forced their way into the cathedral and were permitted without
4i8
NETHERLANDS
any interference on the part of the magistracy to wreak their
will upon its spendid and priceless contents.
The effect of the outbreak was in every way disastrous. The
regent was alienated from the popular leaders, and was no longer
disposed to help William of Orange, Egmont, and Hoorn to secure
a mitigation of religious persecution; and the heart of Philip
was hardened in its resolve to exterminate heresy in the Nether-
lands. He dissembled until such time as he could despatch his
greatest general, the duke of Alva, to Brussels at the head of a
picked force to crush all opposition.
William of Orange was not deceived by the specious temporiz-
ing of the king. He foresaw the coming storm, and he did his
utmost to induce Egmont, Hoorn and other prominent
^^^ members of the patriotic party to unite with him in
taking measures for meeting the approaching danger.
Egmont and Hoorn refused to do anything that might be con-
strued into disloyalty; in these circumstances William felt that
the time had come to provide for his personal safety. He with-
drew < April 1567) first to his residence at Breda, and then to the
ancestral seat of his family at Dillenburg in Nassau.
Margaret of Parma meanwhile, with the aid of a considerable
body of German mercenaries, had inflicted exemplary punish-
ftoaiiA* ^^^^ "P^^ ^^^ iconoclasts and Calvinist sectaries.
meatot A body of some 2000 men drawn principally from
th0B9ct* Antwerp were cut to pieces at Austruweel (March 13,
**■• 1567), and their leader John de Marnix, lord of Thou-
seule, slain. Valenciennes, the chief centre of disturbance in
the south, was besieged and taken by Philip de Notrcarmes,
governor of Hainault, who inflicted a savage vengeance (April
1567). The regent therefore represented to her brother that the
disorders were entirely put down and that the time had come to
show mercy. But Philip's preparations were now complete, and
Alva set out from Italy at the head of a force of some xo,ooo
veteran troops, Spaniards and Italians, afterwards increased by
a body of Germans, with which, after marching through Bur-
gundy, Lorraine and Luxemburg, he reached the Netherlands
(August 8), and made his entry into Brussels a fortnight
later.
The powers conferred on Alva were those of military dictator.
The title of regent was left to the duchess Margaret, but she
speedily sent in her resignation, which was accepted
Tl^^^j (October 6). Before this took place events had been
o/Biood. moving fast. On the glh of September Egmont and
Hoorn were arrested as they left a council at the duke's
residence and were confined in the castle of Ghent. At the same
time Orange's friend, the powerful burgomaster of Antwerp,
Anthony van Stralen, was seized. The next step of Alva was
to create a special tribunal which was officially known as the
" Council of Troubles," but was popularly branded with the name
of the " Council of Blood," and as such it has passed down to
history. As a tribunal it had no legal status. The duke himself
was president and all sentences were submitted to him. Two
members only, Vargas and del Rio, both Spaniards, had votes.
A swarm of commissioners ransacked the provinces in search of
delinquents, and the council sat daily for hours, condemning the
accused, almost without a hearing, in batches together. The
executioners were ceaselessly at work with stake, sword and
gibbet. .Crowds of fugitives crossed the frontier to
Mc/mA *^^ refuge in Germany and England. The prince of
Orange was publicly declared an outlaw and his
property confiscated (January 24, 1568). A few weeks later his
eldest son, Philip William, count of Buren, a student at the
university of Louvain, was kidnapped and carried off to Madrid.
William had meanwhile succeeded in raising a force in Germany
with which his brother Louis invaded Fri^and. He gained a
victory at Heiligcrlee (May 23) over a Spanish force under Count
Aremberg. Aremberg himself was killed, as was Adolphus of
Nassau, a younger brother of William and Louis. But Alva
himself took the field, and at Jemmingen (July 21) completely
annihilated the force of Louis, who himself narrowly escaped
with his life. One result of the victory of Hciligeriee
was the determination of Alva that Egmont and Hoorn
TftvSM-
should die before he left. Brussels for the campaign in
FriesUnd. They were pronounced by the Council of
Blood to be guilty of high treason (June 2, 1568). '
On the 6th of June they were beheaded before the J^J
Broodhuis at Brussels.
A few months after the disaster of Jemmingen, Orange, who
had now become a Lutheran, himself led a large army into
Brabant. He was met by Alva with cautious tactics.
The Spaniards skilfully avoided a battle, and in ^'^
November the invaders were compelled to withdraw JST*^
across the French frontier through lack of resources,
and were disbanded. Alva was triumphant; but though
Alva's master had supplied him with an invincible army, he was
unable to furnish him with the funds to pay for it. Money had
to be raised by taxation, and at a meeting of the states-general
(March 20, 1569) the governor-general proposed (i) an immediate
tax of 1% on all property, (2) a tax of 5% on all transfers of
real esUte, (3) a tax of 10% on the sale of all articles of commerce,
the last two taxes to be granted in perpetuity. Everywhere the
proposal met with uncompromising resistance. After m pro-
longed struggle, Alva succeeded in obtaining a subsidy of
2,000,000 fl. for two years only. All this time the brutal work of
the Blood Council went on, as did the exodus of thousands upon
thousands of industrious and well-to-do citizens, and Kiith
each year the detestation felt for Alva and his rule steadily
increased.
All this time William and Louis were indefatigably making
preparations for a new campaign, and striving by their agents
to rouse the people to active resistance. The first
successes were however to be not on bnd, but on the
sea. In 1569 William in his capacity as sovereign
prince of Orange issued, letters-of-marque to a number
of vessels to prey upon the Spanish commerce in the narrow
seas. These corsairs, for such they were, were known by the
name of Sea-Beggars (Cueux-de-Mer). Under the command of the
lord of Lumbrcs, the lord of Treslong, and William de la Marck
(lord of Lumey) they spread terror and alarm along the coast,
seized much plunder, and in revenge for Alva's cruelty com-
mitted acts of terrible barbarity upon the priests and monks and
catholic officials, as well as upon the crews of the vessels that fell
into their hands. Their difficulty lay in the lack of ports in
which to take refuge. At last by a sudden assault the
Sea-Beggars seized the town of Brill at the mouth of C^ftmnti
the Maas (April i, 1573). Encouraged by this success f^^i
they next attacked and took Flushing, the port of
Zeeland, which commanded the approach to Antwerp; and the
inhabitants were compelled to take the oath to the prince of
Orange, as stadiholder of the king. They next mastered Delis-
haven and Schiedam. These striking successes caused a wave of
revolt to spread through Holland, Zeekind, Gelderland, jt^^k
Utrecht and Fricsland. The principal towns gave in jb r*«
their submission to the prince of Orange, and acknow- momttn
ledged him as their bwful stadtholder. Within three *'•'*■'■'
months of the capture of Brill, Amsterdam was th^ only town in
Holland in the hands of the Spaniards.
This revolt of the northern provinces was facilitated by the
fact that Alva had withdrawn many of the garrisons, and was
moving to oppose an invasion from the south. Louis
of Nassau, with a small force raised in France with the J^^
connivance of Charles IX., made a sudden dash into
Hainault (May 1572) and captured Valendennes and
Mons. Here he was shut in by a superior force of Spaniards, and
made preparations to defend himself until relieved by the army
which Orange was collecting on the eastern frontier. Oa the
Qth of July William crossed the Rhine, and captured Malincs,
Termonde and Oudenarde, and was advancing southwards
when the news reached him of the massacre of St Bartholoisew,
which deprived him of the promised aid of Coligny and bis army
of 12,000 men. He made an attempt, however, to relieve Mods.
but his camp at Harmignies was surprised by a night attack, and
William himself narrowly escaped capture. The next mormas
he retreated, and six days later Mons surrendered.
NETHERLANDS
419
Orange however did not despair, and resolved to throw
in his lot for good and all with the rebel province of the north.
0^ Already at his summons thp states of Holland had
<i*MiV met at Dort (July 15) under the presidency of Philip
Mkfwth de Marnix, lord of Sainte Aldegonde, and they had
2^ ^ unanimously recognized William as their lawful stadt-
holder and had voted a large grant of supplies. The
prince now took up his permanent residence at Delft, and a
regular government was established, in which he exercised
almost dictatorial authority.
Alva was now free to deal with rebellion in the north. Malines,
which had surrendered to William, was given over for three
days to the mercy of a brutal soldiery. Then the army under
Alva's son, Don Frederick of Toledo, marched northwards,
and the sack of Zutphen and the inhuman butchery of Naarden
are among the blackest records of history. But the very horrors
(rf Don Frederick's advance roused a spirit of indomitable
resistance in Holland.
The famous defence of Haarlem, lasting through the winter
of 1572 to July 1573, cost the besiegers 12,000 lives, and gave
J. ^ the insurgent provinces time to breathe. The example
iSSigai o^ Haarlem was followed by Alkmaar, and with better
««tf success. The assault of the Spaniards was repulsed,
^*"*^' the dykes were cut, and Don Frederick, fearing for
his communications, beat a hasty retreat (August). A few
weeks later (Oct. 11) the fleet of Alva on the Zuyder Zee was
^y^^ _ completely defeated by the Sea-Beggars and its
^Jlg ' admiral taken prisoner. Disgusted by these reverses,
Awattv in bad odour with the king, and with his soldiers
*J*f^ mutinsdng for lack of pay, the governor-general
resigned. On the i8th of December 1573 Alva, who
to the end had persisted in his policy of pitiless severity,
left Brussels, carrying with him the curses of the people over
whom he had tyrannized for six terrible years of misery and
O|^ession.
Philip sent the grand commander, Don Luis Requescns,
a governor-general in his place, and after some futile attempts
n^i,^ at negotiarion the war went on. The prince of Orange,
^ who had now formally entered the Calvinist communion,
was inexorable in laying down three conditions as
indispensable: (i) Freedom of worship and liberty
to preach the gospel according to the Word of God; (2) the
restoration and maintenance of all the ancient charters, privileges,
and liberties of the land; (3) the removal of all Spaniards and
other foreigims from all posts and employments civil and military.
In February 1574 the Spaniards by the fall of Middlcburg lost
(heir last hold upon Walcheren and Zceland. This triumph was
however far more than counterbalanced by the complete defeat
of the army, led by Count Louis of Nassau, at Mookcrhcide near
N'ijmwegen (14th March). The gallant Louis and his younger
brother Henry both lost their lives. This was a grievous blow
to William, but his courage did not fail. The Spaniards laid
sKge to Leiden, and though stricken down by a fever at Delft
the prince spared no exertion to save the town. The
^•Jg^ dykes were cut, the land flooded, but again and again
^UMtu. ^ relieving force was baulked in its attempts to reach
the place, which for more than four months bravely
defended itself. But when at the very last extremity through
famine, a tempestuous flood enabled the vessels of Orange
to readt Leiden, and the investing force was driven to retreat
(October 3, 1574). This was the turning-point of the first stage
in the struggle for Dutch' independence. In honour of this
great deliverance, the state of Holland founded the university,
which was speedily to make the name of Leiden illustrious
throughout Europe.
In the spring of 1575 conferences with a view to peace were
held at Breda, and on their failure Orange, in the face of Spanish
successes in Zeeland, was forced to seek foreign
••^ succour. He sought at first in vain. The sovereignty
of Holland and Zceland was offered to the queen of
England, but she, though promising secret support,
declined. The situation w;^, however, relieved through the
sudden death of Requesens (March 1576). The stadtholder
summoned a meeting of the states of Holland and Zeeland to
Delft, and on the 25th of April an act of federation
between the two provinces was execute<'. By thb ^2i«<to«
compact the prince was invested with all the pre- ,
rogatives belonging to the sovereign. He was made
commander-in-chief of both the military and naval '
forces with supreme authority, and in his hands was
placed the final appointment to all political and judicial posts
and to vacant city magistracies. He was required to maintain
the Protestant reformed religion and to suppress " all religion
at variance with the gospel." He also had authority to confer
the protectorate of the federated provinces upon a foreign
prince.
In June 1570 the long siege of Zierikzee, the capital of
Schbuwen, ended in its surrender to the Spanbh general Mon-
dragon, after the failure of a gallant attempt by
Admiral Boisot to break the leaguer, in which he lost JJ* J?*'
his life. Things looked ill for the patriots, and Zeeland mUSt'
would have been at the mercy of the conqueror had
not the success been followed by a great mutiny of the Spanish
and Walloon troops, to whom long arrears of pay were due.
They chose their leader {eUito), marched into Brabant, and
established themselves at Alost, where they were joined by
other bands of mutineers. The principal fortresses of the country
were in the hands of Spanish garrisons, who refused obedience
to the council. William seized his opportunity, and with a body
of picked troops advanced into Flanders, occupied Ghent, and
entered into negotiations with the leader of the states-
general at Brussels, for a union of all the provinces on " ^^
the basis of exclusion of foreigners and non-interference
with religious belief. The overtures were favourably
received, the council at Brussels was forcibly dissolved, and a
congress met at Ghent on the 19th of October to consider what
measures must be taken for the pacification of the country.
In the midst of their deliberations the news arrived that the
mutineers had marched from Alost on Antwerp, overpowered
the troops of Champagney, and sacked the town with terrible
barbarities (Nov. 3). This tragedy, known as " the Spanish
Fury," silenced all disputes and differences among the repre-
sentatives of the provinces. A treaty establishing a firm alliance
between the provinces, represented by the states-general,
assembled at Brussels on the one part, and on the other by the
prince of Orange, and the states of Holland and
2^eland, was agreed upon and ratified under the title 2i£!ft#
of the " Pacification of Ghent." It was received with qS^
great enthusiasm. The provinces agreed first to eject
the foreigner, then to meet in states-general and regulate all
matters of religion and defence. It was stipulated that there
was to be toleration for both Catholics and Protestants; that the
Spanish king should be recognized as dejttre sovereign, and the
prince of Orange as governor with full powers in Holland and
Zeeland.
Meanwhile Philip had appointed hb natural brother, Don
John of Austria, to be governor-general in the place of Requesens.
After many delays he reached Luxemburg on the 4th d^ j^,
of November (the date of the Spanish Fury at Ant- ofAMirim
werp) and notified his arrival to the council of state, ttcomet
His letter met with a cold reception. On the advice 2113^
of the prince of Orange the states-general refused to
receive him as governor-general unless he accepted the " Paci-
fication of Ghent." Negotiations were entered into, but a dead-
lock ensued. At this crisis the hands of Orange and the patriotic
party were greatly strengthened by a new compact entitled
** The Union of Brussels," which was extensively ,,„ - -
signed, especially in the southern Netherlands. This flnisiel."
document (Jan. 1577) engaged all its signatories to
help in ejecting the foreign soldiery, in carrying out the
" Pacification," in recognizing Philip's sovereignty, and at the
same time in maintaining the charters and constitutions which
that king on his accession had sworn to observe. The popular
support given to the Um'on of Brussels forced Don John to yield.
4^0
NETHERLANDS
He promised to accept the " Pacification of Ghent/' and finally
an agreement was drawn up, styled the " Perpetual Edict,"
which was signed by Don John (February 12th) and
"SS ratified by Philip a few weeks later. The 8tate»>
bSS," general undertook to accept Don John as governor-
general and to uphold the Catholic- religion, while
Don John, in the name of the king, agreed to carry out the
provisions of the " PadficatiorL" The authority conferred upon
Orange as stadtholder by the provinces of Holland and Zedand
was thus ratified, but that astute statesman had no confidence
that Philip intended to observe the treaty any longer than it
suited his convenience. He therefore refused, with the approval
of the representatives of these provinces, to allow the publica-
tion of the " Perpetual Edict " in Holland and Zedand. As
events were to prove, he was in Uie right.
Don John made his state entry into Brussels on the xst of May,
but only to find that he had no real authority. " The prince of
ouMiuiijf ^^""*8e»" ^c informed the king, " has bewitched the
aUSii, minds of all men. They keep him informed of every-
thing, and take no resolution without consulting
him." In vain the fiery young soldier strove to break loose
from the shackles which hampered him. He was, to quote the
words of a contemporary, "like an apprentice defying his
master." Irritated and alarmed, the governor suddenly left
Brussels in the month of July with some Walloon troops and
went to Namur. It was a virtual act of abdication. The eyes
of all men turned to the prince of Orange. Through his exertions
the Spanish troops had not only been expelled from Holland
and ijfceland, but also from the citadels of Antwerp and Ghent,
which were now in the hands of the patriots. He was invited
to come to Brussels, and after some hesitation, and not without
having first obtained the approval of the states of Holland and
Zeeland, he assented. William made his triumphal entry into
the capital (September 23), which he had quitted as an outlawed
fugitive ten years before. In a brief period he was the acdaimed
leader of the entire Netherland people.
But it was not to last. The jealousy of Catholic against
Protestant, of south against north, was too deeply rooted.
Two dbtinctive nationalities, Belgian and Dutch, were
Mmtihia*. <dready in course of formation, and not even the
tactful and conciliatory policy of the most consummate
statesman of his time could unite those whom the whole trend
of events was year by year putting farther asunder. On the 6th
of October, at the secret inviution of the Catholic nobles headed
by the duke of Aerschot, the archduke Matthias, brother of the
emperor, arrived in Brussels to assume the sovereignty of the
Netherlands. He was but twenty years of age, and his sudden
intrusion was as embarrassing to the prince of Orange as to Don
John. William, however, whose position had been strengthened
by his nomination to the post of ruwaard of Brabant, determined
to welcome Matthias and use him for his own purposes. Matthias
was to be the nominal ruler, he himself with the title of lieutenant-
general to hold the reins of power.
But Philip had now become thoroughly alarmed, and he
despatched Alexander Famese, son of the duchess of Parma, to
Tk9 Duke i^^° ^ unde Don John with a veteran force of 20,000
•iABfom troops. Strengthened by this powerful reinforcement,
ma4J9ka Don John fdl upon the patriot army at Gemblours
^■•'■*'' near Namur on the 31st of January 1578, and with
scarcely any loss completdy routed the Netherlandcrs. All was
now terror and confusion. The " malcontent " Catholics now
turned for help from Matthias to the duke of Anjou, who had
invaded the Netherlands with a French army and seized Mons.
At the same time John Casimir, brother of the dector palatine,
at the invitation of the Calvinist party and with the secret
financial aid of Queen Elizabeth, entered the country at the bead
of a body of German mercenaries from the east. Never did the
diplomatic talents of the prince of Orange shine brighter than at
this diflScult crisis. The duke of Anjou at his earnest instigation
accepted the title of " Defender of the liberties of the Nether-
lands," and promised, if the provinces would raise an army of
10,000 foot and 2000 horse, to come to thdr assistance with a
like force. At the same time negotiations were successfully
carried on with John Casimir, with Elizabeth and with Henry ci,
Navarre, and their hdp secured for the national cause. Mean-
while Don John had aroused the mistrust of his brother, who met
his urgent appeal for iunds with cold silence. Deeply
hurt at this treatment and disappointed at his failure,
the governor-general fell ill and died on the xst of
October. Philip immediatdy appointed Alexander Famese to
the vacant post. In him Orange was to find an adversary
who was not only a great general but a statesman of insight
and ability equal to his own.
Famese at once set to work with subtle skill to win over to
the royalist cause the Catholic nobles of the south. The moment
was propitious, and his efforts met with success. ju»xaa4tr
Ghent had fallen into the hands of John Casimir,
and under bis armed protection a fierce and intolerant
Calvinism reigned supreme in that important dty.
To the " Malcontents " (as the Catholic party was styled) the
domination of heretical sectaries appeared less tolerable than the
evils attendant upon alien rule. This feding was wideqncad
throughout the Walloon provinces, and found expres-
sion in the League of Arras (5th of January 1579).
By this instrument the deputies of Hainault, Artois
and Douay formed themselves into a league for the defence of the
Catholic religion, and, subject to his ol»ervance of the political
stipulations of the Union of Brussels, professed loyal allegiance
to the king. The Protestant response was not long in coming.
The Union of Utrecht was signed on the 29th of January by the
representatives of Holland, Zeeland, Utrcdit, Odder- _
land and Zutphen. By it the northern provinces utgw^L
bound themsdves together " as if they were one
province " to maintain their rights and liberties " with life-blood
and goods" against foreign tyranny, and to grant com[rfete
freedom of worship and of religious opinion throughout the
confederacy. This famous compact was the work of John of
Nassau, at that time governor of Gdderland, and did not at first
commend itself to hb brother. William was still struggling to
carry out that larger scheme of a union of all the seventeen
provinces, which at the time of the " Padfication of Ghent **
had seemed a possibility. But his efforts were already doomed
to certain failure. The die was cast, which decreed that from
1579 onwards the northern and southern Netherlands were to
pursue separate destinies. For their later history see HoLUUiD
and Belgiuil
Bibliography. — General history: For the «iriy authorities
consult Collections de ckroniqves Bages xH&dites^' publ. par ordrc do
couvemement (89 vols., 1836-1893) ; and CoUeetions des chromiqmeim.
Tromires Beiges, publ. par rAcad6mie dc Bnixdlcs (58 vols.. x86S-
1870); among later writers, J. P. Arcnd, Alfenuane gesckiedems
des vaderlands van de vroegsle Ujden (4 vols., 1840-1885); J. Wage-
naar, Vaderlandsche kistorie (21 vols.. I749~I7S9)* J* >*• Blok.
A History of Ike People of the Netherlands (trans, from the Dutch by
O. Bicrsudt and R. Putnam), vols. i. and ii. (1898-1900). For the
Bumindian period — A. B. de Burante, Hisloire des dues at Bur^rgmt
(13^-1477), (13 vols., 1824-1826); L. Vandcrkindcre, Le SAde
desArtaeUe (1879): J. F. Kirk. History of Charles the Bold, Dmke
of Burgundy (3 vols.. 1863-1868). For the Habsburg penod to
1555— Th. Juste, Charles Quint et Marguerite d*AutricJu (1858);
A. Lc Glay, Maximilien I. et Marguerite dAutriche (1839) ; A. Hcane.
Histoire du rhgne de Charles V. en Belgique (10 vols., 1858-1860).
The Revolt of the Netherlands: Contemporary authorities:
P. C. Gachard, Correspondance de Philippe II. smr Us afoirta des
Pays-Bos (s vols., 1 848-1 879); Correspondance de Cmsttamme U
tacttume (6 vols., 1847-18^7); G. Groen van Prinstcter, ilrcJbtMX
ou correspondatue inidtte de la maison d'Orange, i* sfrric (9vols., i8.&i~
1861) ; Poullet et Piot, Correspondance du cardinal Granoelk <I2 vols^
1 879-1 899); J. M. B. C. Kcrvyn de Lcttcnhove, Rdatioms pdiHqmes
des Pays-Bos et de VAngleierre sous le rhgne de Philippe II. (5 vob.^
1882-1886); Collection de mimoires sur P histoire de Belgian
XVI% XVlI%et XVIII* sihcUs (47 vols.. 1858-1875) (chicflfSSuS
with the period of the Revolt) P. Bor, Oorspronch, begin ende oenmamg
der Nederlandscher oorlogcn, beroerten ende borgelikhe omeemukeyden
(1595); J' Ghysius. Oorsprong en voortgang der nederlaadseher
beroerten (1626); Hugo Grotius. Annates et histoire de rebus heiguis
(1657); P. C. Hoolt, Nederlandscher historien, x^5K-t587 (1656);
E. V. Reyd, Voomaenste gheschiedennissen in de Nederlanden, 1566-
l6ot (1626); A. Camero, Historia de las guerras cioiles que ka asids
en lot estados de Flandres des del aunp 1559 Aoifa el de t60Q, j las
NETHERSOLE—NETTLE
421
cMuudr la rtbtUou it Us dkkos ntadn (1625); B. Mendoca,
Commentaires mtwunbUs des punts dt Flandrts tt Pays-Bos, owe
mr sommairt dtscriptUm dts Pays-Bos 1567-1577 (1591); F.
Stnda, De htUo Bdpto decadts dmat (1640-1647); L Guicdafdini,
DescrittMu di tutti % Patsi Bassi (1588). Later woHcb: R. Fruin,
Het tocfspd von dtn tachHgjarigtr oorlog (1866) ; J. M. B. C. Kervyn
dc Lettenhovc, Lts Uuruenots tt Its Gneux i50O-i<8s (6 vols., 1883-
188^): Th. Juste, uisioin dt la rholutton dts Pays-Bas sous
Fkutipt II., 1555-1577 (4 vols., 1855-1867): W. T. NuyeosjGe-
tekieinis dir NtdtriondsaM btrvtrttH (a vt^, 18S9); £. Marx,
nitd - •• ■ ' - ■ • '
W. H. Prcacott. History of Ike Rtii
Siwiien tmr GtsckiekU dts niodtrlAndischen Aufslandts (1903);
W. H. Prcacott. History of the Rtirn of PkiUp II. 1555-1568 <i85S) :
J. L. Motley, Riu of Ike Dutch RtpttUic 1555-1584 (3 vols., 1856);
Ombridst Modem Histetry, vol. t., c xiii. (1903), and voL Ui., cc. vi.
and vu. (1904). {Bibliographies, voL L pp. 761-769, vol. iii. pp.
79 8-809). (G. E.)
IBTHERSOLE, OLGA (1865- >, English actress, of Spanish
descent, was bom in London, and made her stage d^but at
Brighton in 1887. From x888 she played important parts in
London, at fixst under John Hare at the Garrick, and in 1894
took the Court Theatre on her own account. She also toured in
Australia and America, playing leading parts in modem plays,
notably Clyde Fitch's Sapho (pxuduoed in London in 1902),
^hich was strongly objected to in New York. Her powerful
emotional acting, however, made a great effect in some other
plays, such as Carmat, in which ibe again appeared in America
in 1906.
HSTHQflll, the name given to the Temple assistants in
ancient Jerusalem. They are mentioned at the return from
the Exile and particularly enumerated in Ezra ii. and Neh. vii.
The original fomi of the name was Netktmim^ as in the Kkttib
(cooaonantal reading) of Ezra viii. 17 (cf. Numbers iii. 9), and
means " given " or " dedicated," U. to the temple. The Tabnud
has also the singular iorm—Nalkin. In all, 6^2 Nethinim came
back from the Exile and were lodged near the " House of the
Nethinim " at Ophd, towards the east wall of Jerasalem so as to
be near the Temple, where they served under the Levites and were
free of ail tolls, from which they must have been supported.
It is mentioned that they had been ordered by David and the
princes to serve the Levites (Ezra viiL 20).
Notwithstanding their sacred service, the Nethinim were
re^uded by later Jewish tradition as especially degraded, being
placed in tables of precedence below bastards (Talm. Jer, Hor,
vL 5, 7«6. viL 5) and in the llishna (Jeb, viiL 3) it is stated
that the prohibition against intermaxriage with the Moabites,
Ammonites, Egyptians and Edomites, though given in the Bible,
only applied for a certain number of generations and did not
apply at aU to their daughters, but, it is added, " Bastards and
Nethinim are prohibited (to marry laradites), and this prohibition
b perpetual and applies both to males and females."
To explain this combination of sacred service and exceptional
degradation, it has been suggested by Joseph Jacobs that the
Nethinim were, the descendants of the Kedisholh, «.«. women
dedicated to the worship of Astarte and attached to the Temple
before the Exile. There is evidence of these practices from the
time of Solomon (i Kings xi. 5) down to Josiah (2 Kings xiii. 4-6),
and even as late as EzekJd (Ezek. kxiii 36-48), giving rise to
the coovnand of Deuteronomy xxiiL 17.
An examination of the name lists given in duplicate in Ezra
n. 43-58, Neh. viL 46-59, t<^ther with the additional names in
the Greek Eadras (v. 29-35), shows that the Nethinim were in
charge of the rings and hooki coimected with the temple service;
they sheared the sheep offered for sacrifice in the temple and
poured the libations. Some of them were derived from the wars
with the Meunim; others from the campaign with Rezin of
Damascus. One of the names given in i Esdras v. 34, viol
Zoi^ ed. Fritzsche, Zcvfiia, ed. Swete, would seem to throw
light on the puzzling reading o*Rano (A.V. " Sabeans," R.V.
*' Drunkards ") of Ezek. jriii. 43, and if so would directly
connect **»e list of the Nethmim with the degxaded worship of
Astarte in the Temple.
A large majority^ of the names of the parents mentioned seem
to be feminine in form or meaning, and suggest that the Nethinim
could not trace back to any definite paternity; and this is con-
finned fay the fact that the lisu are followed by the enumeration
of those who could not "show their father's hoose" (Ezra
iL 60; Neh. vii. 63). The Greek versions, as well as Jdsephus,
refer to them as Up6bov\oi, which can mean one thing only.
The Talmudic authorities have an abstract term, Netkinulk,
indicating the sUtus of a Natkin {Tos. Kidd. v. i) ed. Zucker-
mandd, p. 341), and corresponding to the abstract Maimirutk,
" bastardy." The eidstence of this degraded class up to the
Exile throws considerable light lipon the phraseology of the
prophets in referring to idolatry as adultery and the scenes
connected with it as prostitution. Their continued existence
as a pariah dass after the Exile would be a perpetual reminder
of thie dangers and degradation of the most popular Syrian
creed.
These unfortunate creatures Jiad 90 alternative but to accept
the provisions made for them out of the Temple treasury, but
after the fall of the Temple they would naturally disappear
by intermarriage with similar degraded classes {Mishna Kidd,
viiL 3). In the Code of Khammurabi fifi i9r, 193, they could
be adopted by outsiders.
The above explanation of the special degradation of the
Nethinim, though they were connected with the Temple service,
seems to be the only way of explaining the Talmudic reference
to their tabooed position, and is an interesting example of the
light that can be reflected on Biblical research by the Talmud.
See Joseph Jacobs, Audits tn Biblical Archatology (1894), X04-122 ;
W. BsiudiauntCtschichitdtsAUtestamtntlicheH Priesltrlhums, 142 sea.
This view, however, is not accepted by Cheyne, Bneyclopaedta
BibUca, ».v. U- JaT
raniBTi a village in the Fareham parliamentary division of
Hampshire, England, 3 m. S.E. of Southampton on the east
shore of Southampton Water, and on a branch of the London
& South Westem railway. Here a Cistercian abbey was founded
in 1237 by Henry HI., and its ruins are extensive, including a
great part of the cmdform church, abbot's house, chapter house
and domestic buildings. The style b Early English and
Decorated, and many beautiful details are preserved. The
gatehouse was transformed into a fort in the time of Henry VIII.
Netley Hospital for wounded soldiers (x m. S.E. of the abbey),
was buOt in 1856 after the Crimean War. It is a vast pile giving
accommodation for upwards of a thousand patients, and is the
pri ncipa l military hospital in Great Britain.
nnCHElU GA8PAR (1639-X684), German portrait and
genre painter, was bom at Heidelberg in 1639. His father died
when he was two years of age, and his mother, fleeing, from
the dangers of a dvU war, carried him to Amheim, where he was
adopted by a physidan named Tullekens. At first he was
destined for the profession of his patron, but owing to his great
aptitude for painting he was placed under an artist named de
Koster, and, having also studied under Ter Borch, he set out for
Italy to complete his education there. Marrying, however, at
Li^e, he settled at Bordeaux, and toiled hard to earn a livelihood
by painting those small cabinet pictures which are now so highly
valued on account of their exquisite finish. After removing to
The Hague, he turned his attention to portrait-painting, and in
this branch of his art was more successful. He was patronized by
William III., and his earnings soon enabled him to gratify his
own taste by depicting musical and conversational pieces. It
was in these that Netscher's genius was fully displayed. The
choice of these subjects, and the habit of introducing female
figures, dressed in glossy satins, were imitated from Ter Borch;
they possess easy yet delicate pencilling^ brilliant and correct
colouring, and pleasing light and shade; but frequently their
refinement passes into weakness. The painter was gaining both
fame and wealth when he died premattirdy in 1684. His sons
Constantyn (1668-1722), and Theodorus (x66i->x732), were also
pai nters after their father's style, but inferior in merit.
NBTTLB (O. Eng. neteUf cf. Ger. Nessd), the English equivalent
of Lat. Urttcoy a genus of plants which gives its name to the
natural order Urticaceae. It contains about thirty species in.
the temperate parts of both east and west hemispheres. They
are herbs covered with sting^ hairSi and with unisexual floweis
on the same or on different plants. The male flowers consist of a
422
NETTLERASH— NETZE
perianth of four greenish segments enclosing as many stamens,
which latter, when freed from the restraint exerdsed upon them
by the perianth-segments while still in the bud, suddenly uncoil
themselves, and in so doing liberate the pollen. The female
perianth is similar, but encloses only a single seed-vessel with a
solitary seed. The stinging hairs consist of a bulbous reservoir
filled with acrid fluid, prolonged into a long slender tube, the
extremity of which is finely pointed. By this point the hair
penetrates the skin and discharges its irritant contents beneath
the surface. Nettle tops, or the veiy young shoots of the nettle,
may be used sa a vegetable like spinach; but from the abundance
of oystals (cystolUhs) they contain they are apt to be gritty,
though esteemed for their antiscorbutic properties, which they
do not possess in any exceptional degree. The fibre furnished
by the stems of several species is used for cordage or paper-
making. Three spedcs of nettle are wild in the British Isles:
Urtka dtoicct the common stinging nettle,' which is a hairy
perennial with staminate and pistillate flowers in distinct plants;
U. urenSf which is annual and, except for the stinging hairs,
glabrous, and has staminate and pistillate flowers in the same
panicle; and U. pUulifera (Roman nettle), an annual with the
pistillate flowers in rounded heads, which occurs in waste places
in the east of England, chiefly near the sea— the more virulent
of the British species. From their general presence in the neigh-
bourhood of houses, or in spots where house refuse is deposited,
it has been suggested that the nettles are not really natives, a
supposition that to some extent receives countenance from the
circumstance that the young shoots are very sensitive to frost.
In any case they follow man in his migrations, and by their
presence usually indicate a soil rich in nitrogen. The trailing
subterranean root-stock renders the common nettle somewhat
di fficult o f extirpation.
NETTLERASH, or UxtiCASiA, a disorder of the sicin char-
acterized by an eruption resenibling the effect produced by the
sting of a nettle, namely, raised red or red and white patches
occurring in parts or over the whole of the surface of the body
and attended with great irritation. It may be acute or chronic.
In the former variety the attack of ten comes on after indulgence in
certain articles of diet, particularly various kinds of fruit, shell-
fish, cheese, pastry, &c., also occasionally from the use of certain
drugs, such as henbane, copaiba, cubebs, turpentine, &c. There
is at firstconsiderablefeverishnessandconstitutional disturbance,
together with sickness and faintness, which either precede or
accompany the appearance of the rash. The eruption may appear
on any part of the body, but is most common on the face and
trunk. The attack may pass o£F in a few hours, or may last for
several days, the eruption continuing to come out in successive
patches. The chronic variety lasts with interruptions for a
length of time often extending to months or years. This form
of the disease occurs independently of errors in diet, and is not
attended with the feverish symptoms characterizing the acute
attack. As regards treatment, the acute variety generally yields
quickly to a purgative and the use of some antacid, such as mag-
nesia or liquor potassae. The local, irritation is alkyed by
sponging with a warm alkaline solution (soda, potash or ammonia) ,
or a solution of acetate of lead, and a lotion of ichthyol has
been found useful. Chronic cases have been known to benefit
from the administration of creosote or saloL ,
NETTLESHIP, HENR7 (1839-1893), English classical scholar,
was bom at Kettering on the 5th of May 1839. He was educated
at Lancing, Durham and Charterhouse sdiools, and Corpus
Christi College, Oxford. In x86x he was elected to a fellowship
at Lincoln, which he vacated on his marriage in 1870. In
x868 he became an assistant master at Harrow, but in 1873
he returned to Oxford, and was elected to a fellowship at Corpus.
In 1878 he was appointed to succeed Edwin Palmer in the
professorship of Latin, which post he held till his death at Oxford
on the loth of July 1893. Nettleship had been from the first
attracted to the study of Virgil, and a good deal of his time
was devoted to his favourite poet. After Conington's death
in 1869, he saw his edition of Virgil through the press, and revised
and corrected subsequent editions of the work. In 1875 he had
undertaken to compile a new Latin lexicon for the Clarendon
Press, but the work proved more than he could accomplish,
and in 1887 he published some of the results of twelve years*
labour in a volume entltltd Contributions to Latin Lexicography,
a genuine piece of original work. In conjunction with J. £.
Sandys, Nettleship revised and edited Seyffert's Diaionary of
Classical Antiquities, and he contributed to a volume entitled
Essays on the Endowment of Research an article on " The Present
Relations between Classical Research and Classical Education
in England," in which he pointed out the great value of the
professorial lecture in Germany. In his views on the research
question he was a follower of Mark Pattison, whose essays he
edited in ^889 for the Clarendon Press. In Lectures and Essays
on Subjects connected with Latin Literature and Scholarship,
Nettle^p revised and republished some of his previous publica-
tions. A second series of these, published in 1895, and edited
by P. Haverfield, contains a memoir by Mis M. Nettleship,
with full bibliography.
See obituary notices in The Times (nth of Tuly< 1893); Classical
Review f October, ¥.893); Oxford Magasine (i8th of October, 1893)*
NBITLBSHIF, RICHARD LEWIS (1846-1892), English
philosopher, youngest brother of Henry Nettleship, was bom 00
the X7th of December 1846, and educated at Uppingham and
Balliol College, Oxford, where he held a scholarship. He won
the Hertford scholarship, the Ireland, the Gaisford Greek verse
prize, a Craven scholarship and the Arnold prize, but took only
a second class in Litterae Humaniores. He became fellow and
tutor of his college and 'succeeded to the work of T. H. Green,
whose writings he edited with a memoir (London, 1880). He
left an unfinished work on Plato, part of which was published
after his death, together with his lectures on logic and some
essjays. His thought was idealistic and Hegelian. His literary
style was excellent; but, though he had considerable personal
influence on his generation at Oxford, a certain nebulousness
of view prevented his making any permanent contribution to
philosophy. He was fond of music and outdoor sports, and
rowed in his college boat. He died on the 35th of August 1892,
from the effects of exposure on Mont Blanc, and was buried al
Chamounix.
NETTLE TREEp the name applied to certain trees of the genus
Cellis, belonging to the family or natural order Ulmaceae.
The best-known species have usually obliquely ovate, or lanceo-
late leaves, serrate at the edge, and marked by three prominent
nerves. The flowers are inconspicuous, usually hermaphrodite,
with a 4- or s-parted perianth, as many stamens, a hairy disk
and a x -celled ovary with a a-parted style. The fruit is succulent
like a little drupe, a character which serves to separate the genus
alike from the nettles and the elms, to both of which it is allied.
Cdlis australis is a common tree, both wild and planted, through-
out the Mediterranean r^on extending to Afghanistan and the
Himalayas; it is also cultivated in Great Britain. It is a rapidly
growing tree, from 30 to 40 ft. high, with a remarkably sweet
fruit, recalling a small black cheny, and was one of the fdants
to which the term " lotus " was applied by Dioscorides and the
older authors. The wood, which is compact and hard and takes
a high polish, is used for a variety of purposes. C. occidenialis,
a N orth A merican species, is the hackbetry (q.v.).
NETTUNO, a fishing village of the province of Rom^, Italy,
2 m. E.N.E. of Anzio by rail, and 39 m. S.S.E. of Rome, 36 ft.
above sea-leveL Pop. (1901) 3406 (town), 5072 (commune).
It has a picturesque castle built by Alexander VI. from the
designs of Antonio da Sangallo the elder in X496. It is said to
have been a Saracen settlement. The picturesque costume
of the women is now worn only at festivals; To the £. on the
sandy coast on the way to Astura is a military camp and a range
for the trial of field artillery.
NETZE, a river of Germany, having a small portion of its
upper course in Poland. It is a right-bank tributary of the
Warthe, and rises in the low-lying lake district, through which
the Russo-German frontier runs, to the south of Inowrailaw.
The frontier crosses Lake Goplo, which is not far from the sooice
of the Netae, which on leaving it (in Prussian territory), Ikms
NEU-BRANDENBURG— NEUCHATEL
423
Dorth-west to the Trlonger lake, and continties thereafter in
the same general direction, but with wide fluctuations, to Nakel.
Here it joins the Brombexg cazud, which gives access to the river
Brahe and so to the Vistula. The Netse then turns west-
south-west and waters the moorland (much of which, however,
has been brought imder cultivation) known as the Netaebruch.
It joins the Warthe at Zantoch, after a course of 273 m. It is
navigable for 130 m. up to the Brombetg canal and thereafter
for smaller boau for 40 m. up to Pakosch on the Trionger lake.
Its drainage area is 5400 sq. m. From 1772 to 2807 that part
of Poland which was given to Prussia at the first partition
was known as the Netze District, as it extended along the
Netze. It was almost all. given back to Russia at the peace
of TUstt, but was restored to Prussia in 18x5 under the treaty
of Viaxna.
NBU-BRAllDBlfBURO, a town of Germany, in the* grand
duchy of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, is situated on a small lake called
the ToUense See, 58 m. N.W. of Stettin by raiL Pop. (1905)
XI ^3. It is still partly surrounded with walls, and possesses
four interesting old Gothic gates, dating from about 1300. The
prindpal buildings are the Marienkirche, a Gothic building of
the 13th century, the Johanniskirche, the town-hall and the
grand ducal palace. It possesses a bronze statue of Fritz Renter
(1893); a monument to Bismarck (1895); another commemorat-
ing the war of 1870-7 x (x895);.a small museum of antiquities;
and an art collection. On the other side of the lake is the grand-
ducal palace. Belvedere. Iron-founding, machine-making, wool-
spinning and the making of paper, tobacco and musical instru-
ments are carried on here, and the trade in wool and agricultural
products is considerable. The horse fair is also important.
Neu-Brandenburg was founded in 1248, and has belonged to
Mecklenburg since 1292.
See BoD, Chrcmkdn Vorderstadt Neubrandenburg (1875).
HEDBREISACH, a town and fortress of Germany in the
imperial province of Alsace-Lorraine, situated on the Rhine-
Rhone canal, x 2 m. E. from Colmar by the railway to Freiburg-
im-Breisgau. Pop. (1905 — including a garrison of 2300 men)
3520. It is built in the form of a hectagon, and together with
Fort Mortier, which lies on an arm of the Rhine opposite, forms
a place of great strategic strength. It contains an Evangelical
(garrison) church, a Roman Catholic church and a non-com-
missioned officers' schooL. There are electrical works in the
town.
Neubreisach was founded by Louis XIV. in X699 and fortified
by Vauban, the Neubieisacher canal being constructed to
transport the necessary materials. In the Franco-German War,
it was bombarded by the Germans from the 2nd to the loth of
November 1870, when it capitulated.
Sec Wolff. CesckkhU des Bombardemenh von ScUeUstadt und
Sfubreisack (Berlin, 1874); and von Neumann, Du Eroberung von
Sc&ifttsUxdt und Neubreisach im Jahre 1870 (Berlin, 1876).
MEUBUR6, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Bavaria,
is pleasantly ^tuatcd on the Danube, X2 m. W. of Ingolstadt,
on the railway to Neuoffingen. Pop. (X905) 8532. It is a place
of andent origin, but is chiefly noteworthy because formerly
for two centuries it was the capital of the prindpality of Pfalz-
Ncuburg. Its most important building is the old residence of its
princes, the handsomest part of which is in the Renaissance style
of the x6th century. The town also contains an Evangelical
and seven Roman Catholic churches, a town hall, several
schoob and convents, a theatre, and an historical museum with
a valuable library. It has electrical works and breweries, while
fruit and vegetables are cultivated in the neighbourhood, a
considerable trade in these products- being carried on by the
Danube.
Neuburg was originally an episcopal see. In the xoth century
it passed to the counts of Scheyem, and through them to Bavaria,
bdng ceded to the Rhenish Palatinate at the close of a war in x 507.
From X557 to 1742 it was the capital of a small principality
ruled by a cadef branch of the family of the elector palatine of the
Rhine. This principality of Pfalz-Neuburg had an area of about
xooo sq. m. and about xoo,ooo inhabitants. In 1742 it was
united again with the Rhenish Palatinate, with which it passed
in 1777 to Bavaria.
See Gremmel. Gesckichte des Hertoglums Ntuburg (Neuburg.
1872); and Fakretdurck ,dU Stadt Neuburg und deren UmgOung
(Neuburg, 1904).
KBUCHAtEL (Ger. Neuenburg), one of the cantons of western
Switzerhmd, on the frontier towards France. It is the only
Swiss canton that is situated entirely in the Jura, of which it
occupies the central portion (its loftiest summit is the Mont
Radne, 4731 ft. in the TCte de Rang range). The canton has
a total area of 3x1-8 sq.nL^of which 267*x sq. m. are reckoned
" productive " (foresU occupying 88*6 sq. m. and vineyards
4-4 sq- m.)- It consists, for the most part, of the k>ngitudinal
ridges and valleys characteristic of the Jura range, while its
drainage is very unequally, divided between the Thitie or Zihl,
and the Doubs, which forms part of Uie north-west boimdary
of the canton, and receives only the streams flowing from the Le
Lode and La Chaux de Fonds valley. Three regions make up
the territory. That stretching along the shore of the kke is
called Le VignobU (from its vineyards) and extends from about
X500 ft. to 2300 ft. above the sea-leveL An intermediate region
is named Les ValUcs, for it consists of the two prindpal valleys
of the canton( the Val de Ruz, watered by the Seyon, and the Val
de Travels, watered by the Areuse) which lie to a height of about
2300 ft. to 3000 ft. above the sea-IeveL The highest region is
known as Les Montagues, and is mainly composed of the long
valley in which stand the industrial centres of La Chaux de
Fonds (9.V.), and Le Lode (9.9.) to which must be kdded those
of La Sagne, Les PonU and Les Verridres, the elevation of these
upland valleys varying from 3000 ft. to 344S ft. The canton is
well supplied with railways, the direct line ifrom Bern past
Kerzers (Chi^tres), Neuchfttel, the Val de Travers and Les
Verridres to Pontarlier for Paris passing right through it, while
La Chaux de Fonds is connected by a line past Le Lode with
Morteau in France. Other lines join the capital, Neuchfttel,
to La Chaux de Fonds, as well as to Yverdon at the south-west
extremity of the lake, and to St Bhiise at iu north-east end, not
very far from Bienne.
In 1900 the population numbered 126,279 souls according to
the federal census (a cantonal census of X906 makes the figure at
that date X34,ox4), of whom xo4,55X were French-speaking,
17,629 German-speaking and 3664 Italian-speaking, while xo7,29x
were Protestants, X7,73x Romanists or Old Catholics, and X020
Jews. There are three "established and state-endowed"
churches, the National Evangelical (in X907 a proposal to
disestablish it was rejected by a huge majority), the Roman
Catholic, and the Old Catholic (this sect in La Chaux de Fonds
only), while the pastors of the Free Evangelical church and of
Che Jews (mostly in La Chaux de Fonds) are so far recognized
as such by the state as to be exempt from military servitt
Besides the capital, Neuchitd (^.v.), the chief towns are La
Chaux de Fonds (the most populous of all), Le Lode and
Fleurier (3746), the principal village in the Val de Travers.
The most valuable mineral product is asphalt, of which there is
a large and rich deposit in the Val de Travers, belonging to the
state but worked by an English company. The wine of the
Vignoble region (both sparkling and still) is plentiful and has a
good reputation, the red wines of Neuch&tel, Boudry and Cor-
taillod being largely exported, though the petU vin Uanc of
NeuchAtcI is all but wholly consumed within the canton.
Absinthe is largely manufactured in the Val de Travers, but
lace is no longer made there as of old. The well-known manu-
factory of Suchard's chocolate is at Serri^res, practically a
suburb of the town of Neuch&td, while in the canton there are
also cement factories and stone quarries. But the most char-
acteristic industry is that of watch-making and the making of gold
watch cases, which is chiefly carried on (since the early x8th
century) in the highland valleys of La Chaux de Fonds and of
Le Lode, as well as at Fleurier in the Val de Travers. At
Couvet, also in the Val de Travers, there is a large factory of
screws and knitting machines.
The canton is divided into 6 administrative districts, which
42+
NEUCHATEL— NEUCHATEL, LAKE OF
comprise 63 communes. The cantonal constitution dates in
its main features from 1858, but has been modified in several
important respects. The legislature or Grand Conseil consists
of members elected (since 1903) in the proportion of one to every
1 200 (or fraction over 600) of the population, and holds office for
three years, while since 1906 the principles of proportional repre-
sentation and minority representation obtain in these elections.
Since zgo6 the executive of 5 members (since 1882) or ConstH
d*^tat is elected by a popular vote. The 3 members of the federal
Conseii des £tats are named by the Grand Conseil, but the 6
members of the federal Conseil National are chosen by a popular
vote. Since 1879, 3000 citizens have the right of " facultative
referendum " as to all laws and important decrees, while since
1882 the same number have the right of initiative as to all
legislative projects, this right as to the partial revision of the
cantonal constitution dating as fa^ back as 1848, the number in
the case of a total revision having been raised in 1906 to 5000.
We first hear of the novum cast€Uum, regalissimam sedem in
the will (ion) of Rudolf in., the last king of Burgundy, on
whose death (1032) that kingdom reverted to the empire. About
1034 the emperor Conrad II. gave this castle to the lord of
several neighbouring fiefs, bis successors establishing themselves
permanently there in the X2th century and then taking the title
of " count." In 1288 the reigning count resigned his domains
to the emperor Rudolf, who gave them to the lord of ChiUon-sur-
Sa6ne, by whom they were restored to the count of Neuch&tel on
his doing homage for them. This act decided the futtire history
of Neuchitcl, for in 1393 the house of Ch&lon succeeded to the
principality of Orange by virtue of a marriage contracted in 1388.
The counts gradually increased their dominions, so that by 1373
they held practically all of the present canton, with the exception
of the lordship of Vahingin (the Val de Ruz and Les Montagnes,
this last region only colonized in the early 14th century), which
was held by a cadet line of the house till bought in 1592. In
1395 the first house ended in an heiress, who brought Neuch&tel
to the count of Freiburg im Breisgau. As early as 1290 the
reigning count had made an alliance with the Swiss Fribourg, in
1308 with Bern, and about 1324 with Soleure, but it was not till
X406 that an " everlasting alliance " was made with Bern (later
in 1495 with Fribourg, and in 1501 with Lucerne). This alliance
resulted in bringing the county into the Swiss confederation
four centuries later, while it also led to contingents from Neuch&tel
helping the Confederates from the battle of St Jakob (1444)
onwards right down into the early 1 8th century. In 14 57, throu^^
another heiress, the county passed to the house of the marquises
of Baden-Hochberg, and in 1504 similarly to that of Orl6ans-
Longueville (a bastard line of the royal house of France). From
1 51 2 to 1529 the Swiss occupied it as the count was fighting for
France and so against them. In 1532 the title of "prince"
was taken, while by the treaty of Westphalia (1648) the princi-
pality became sovereign and independent of the empire. In 1530
(the very year Farcl introduced the Reformation at Neuch&tel)
the overlordship enjoyed by the house of ChAlon-Orange passed,
by virtue of a marriage contracted in 15 15, to that of Nassau-
Orange, the direct line of which ended in 1702 in the person of
William III., king of England. In 1707 the Longueville house
of Neucb&tcl also became extinct, and a great struggle arose as
to the succession. Finally the parliament (states) of Neuch&tel
decided in favour of Frederic I., the first king of Prussia, whose
mother was the elder paternal aunt of William III., and so heiress
of the rights (given in 1288) of the house of Ch&lon, to which the
fief had reverted on the extinction of the line of the counts of
Neuchfttel. Thus the act of 1288 determined the fate of the
principality, partly because Frederic I. was a Protestant, while
the other claimants were Romanists. The nominal rule of the
Prussian king (for the country enjoyed practical independence)
lasted till 1857, with a brief interval from 1806 to 1814, when the
principality was held by Marshxd Berthier, by virtue of a grant
from Napoleon. In 18 14 its admission into the Swiss confedera-
tion was proposed and was effected in 181 5, the new canton
being the only non-republican member, just as the hereditary
rulers of Ncuch&tel were the last to maintain their position in
Switzerland. This anomaly led in 1848 to the establiahn>ent
(attempted in 1831) of a republican form of government, broui^t
about by a peaceful revolution led by A. M. Piaget. A royalist
attempt to regain power in 1856 was defeated, and finally,
after long negotiations, the king of Prussia renouni^ his claims
to sovereignty, though retaining the right (no longer exercised)
to bear the title of " prince of NeuchftteL" Thus in 1857
Neudi&td became a full republican member of the Swiss ccm-
federation.
BiBLiOGitAPHT —A. Bacfaelin, LHorioterie Netuhdtdmst (Neu-
ch&tel. 1888); E. Bourgeois, Neuchdid et la poliliou* prusxienne en
Prancke Comiit 1709-1713 (Paris, 1887) ; J. Boyve, Annates historiquei
du comti de Neueh&id et de Valangin (6 vob., Berne and Neuchitcl.
i85<): F. de Chambrier, Histoire de Neuckdlel et ValeMiin jusqu'i
I'avenentent de la maison de PrutUj 1707 (Neuch&td. 18^); L.
Cir.-f.^'rrrz. n::tc:rc dis -rtzr: ie NtmMltl tms fes rns de Pnase.
17c^-jS4S (Ktucii^Kil, iUhgU L- Jufiod, Hiiioite du canton de
NtucMid jDiti Us Toii de Ffusit, r 7^^-1843 (Ni^uchfl^re-U 1889): A.
Humbert and J. Clcrc, A. M. Fiagti el ta Ti:publiqvi nruckdieloix de
tS.fS d iSsS {2 vols.. r^eucbSlttl. lASS^iS^s) ; G, A, Matile. Uonu-
menis di t hhUnrt de NsM^hAlH (5 val^. Neuch&tct, 1^44-1848). and
HisiQirt i$ ta HipWuTie de Valitftgin jmquA fa tfimwrt d la direcie,
tjQ3 tNeuch&tcr IS^J): MiLiie N^urhd^lM^ (publLalied by the
Cantonal Eiiatorkal Society)^ rmm 1S64: Lf Paims nemckiaidois
(an anthology) (Neuchliel, iS^S); A. PfffghaTt. DU stkweittriscke
Uhremndu^iirie (Leipzig, iwjfij; E, QusnierLiTcntc, Rnme
kisliJTigve ci m(moi,rophtque des commutus du. cani^ de Neuckdid
(N cut hatcl . 1 897- 1 904 ). (W. A. B. C.)
NEUCHATEL, capital of the above Swiss canton, stuated
near the north-east comer of the lake of NeuchAtd. It is the
meeting-point of several important railway lines, from Bern
past Kerzers (27 m.), from Bienne (19 m.), from La Chaux de
Fonds (x9 m.), from Pontarlier (in France), by the Val de Travers,
(33|m.),and from Yverdon (23 m.). The lailway station (1575
ft.) at the top of the town b connected by an electric tramway
with the shore of the lake some 150 ft. lower. The older portioa
oi the town is i)uilt on the steep slope of the Chaumont, and
originally the waters of the lake bathed the foot of the hill on
which it stood. But the gradual growth of alluvial deposits,
and more recently the artificial embankment of the shore of
the lake, have added much dry ground, and on this site the
finest modem buildings have been erected. The i6th«century
castle and the 13th-century colleg^te church of Notre Dame
(now Protestant) stand dose together and were founded in the
1 2th century when the coimts took up thdr permanent readence
in the town, to which they granted a charter of hljerties in 1 314-
Among the buildings on the quays are the Mus£e des Beaux
Arts (modem Swiss paintings and also various historical collec-
tions, induding that of Desor relating to the Lake Dwellings),
the Gymnase or Coll^ Latin (in which is also the museum of
natural history and the town library), the university (rcfoundcd
in 1866 and raised from the rank of an academy to that <tf a
university in 1909), the ficole de Commerce and the post office.
The town owes much to the gifts of dtizens.- Thus David de
Purry (i 709-1 786) fotmded the town hospital and built the town
hall, while James de Purry bequeathed to \^t town the villa
in which the ethnographiod- museum has been installed (1904).
In 181 z J. L. de Pourtal^ (1722-1814) founded the hospital
which bears his name, while in 1844 A. de Meuron (1789-1852)
constmcted the lunatic asylum at Pr6fargier, a few miles from
the town. Among natives of the town are the theologians J. F.
Ostervald (1663-1747) and FrW6ric Godet (1812-IQ00), the
geologist E. Desor (1811-1882), the local historian G. A. Matik
(1807-1881) and the politicians A. M. Piaget (1802-1870) and
Numa Droz (1844-1899). Neuch&td (partly because very good
French b spoken there) attracts many fordgn students, while the
town is a literary centre. In 1900 Neuch&td ntmibered 20,843
inhabitants (in 1850 only 7727 and in 1870, 12,683), 15,177 bdog
French-speaking and 4553 German-speaking; there were 17,237
Protestants. 3459 Romanists and 80 Jews. (W. A. B. C)
NEUCHAtEL. lake of. This lake, in W. Switzerland, ia
with the neighbouring lakes of Bienne and Morit (both connected
with it by canals), the modem representative of the large body <A
water which at one time seems to have filled the whole of the
lower valley of the Aar. It is now the most considerable sheet
NEUENAHR— NEUILLY^UR-SEINE
425
of w&ter which is wholly within Switzerland (since parts of those
of Geneva and Constance belong to foreign countries), though it
does not belong entirely to aity one Canton— ^f its total area
of 92I sq. m., 36I sq. m. ore in the Canton of NeuchAtd and
rather over 33 sq. m. in that of Vaud, while Fribourg claims
20} sq. m. and Berne a aq. m. It is about 23} m. in length,
varies from 3} to 5 m. in width, and has a maximum depth of
502 ft., while its surface is 1427 ft. above sea-leveL It is mainly
formed by the Thi&Ie or Zihl river, which enters it at its south-
western end and issues from it at its north-eastern extremity,
but it also receives, near its north-west end, the Areuae (flowing
through the Val de Travers) and the Seyon (which traverses
the Val de Rus), as well as, near its north-east end, the Broye
(that flows through a canal from the Lake of Morat) . Successive
drainages have brought to light the remains of many lake dwell-
ings, of which there is a good collection in the natural history
museum at NeuchAteL The scenery of the lake, though pleasing,
canDot compare with that of the other Swiss lakes, despite the
fact that from it the giants of both the Mont Blanc and Bernese
Obcrland ranges are clearly seen. The first steamer was placed
on the lake in 1827. On the south-eastern shore the picturesque
and historical little town of Estavayer is the chief place. At
the south-western extremity of the lake is Yverdon (the Eburo-
danum of the Romans and the residence of the educationalist
Pestalozzi, 1806-1825). Far more populated is the north-
itrestem shore, where, from S.W. to N.E., we find Grandson
(famous for the battle of 1476 wherein Charles the Bold, duke of
Burgundy, was defeated by the Swiss), Cortaillod (producing
excellent sparkling wine), Serriires (with the famous manu-
factories of Suchard chocolate) and Neuch&tel itself. On the
north shore is Ia T^ne, famous for the remarkable relics of the
Iro n Age t hat have been discovered there. (W. A. B. C.)
MEUEHAHR, a spa of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine
province, {Situated at the foot of a iMisalt peak, in the pleasant
valley of the Ahr, xo m. N.W. of Remagen on the Rhine by the
raflway to Adenau. Pop. (1905) 3388. It is well laid out,
has an Evangelical and two Roman Catholic churches, and
carries on a considerable trade in the red wines of the district.
There are five alkaline springs with temperatures from 69' to
102* F., the waters of which are specific in chronic catarrh of
the re^ratory organs, gout, rheumatism and diabetes. In the
immediate vidnity lies the ApoUinaris spring.
See Schmitz, ErfahrunuH Hber Bad Newnakr (5th ed., Ahrweiler,
1887); and Schwcnke, DiM KurmitUl de* Bodes Neuenakr (Halle,
1900).
HEUBHDORF, a village of Germany, in the province of
Brandenburg, 2 m. E. from Potsdam, on the Nuthe, with a
station on the railway from Berlin to Potsdam. Pop. (1905)
6877. The place has considerable industries, chief among
which are carpet-weaving, jute-spinning and the manufacture of
railway plant. Within its area lies the colony of Nowawes laid
oat by Frederick the Great in 1754.
HSUFCHAtBAU, a town of eastern France, in the department
of Vosges at the confluence of the Mouse and the Mouzon, 49 m.
W.N.W. of Spinal by raO. Pop. (1906) 3924. The churches of
St Christopher (x3th and 15th centuries) and St Nicholas, the
latter combining the Romanesque and Gothic styles and built
above a Romanesque crypt, are of interest. A sub-prefecture,
a tribunal of first instance and communal colleges are among
the public institutions. NeufchAteau carries on wool-spinning
and the manufacture of embroidery, nails and chains. The
town, which is said to occupy the site of the Roman Neomagus,
belonged in the middle ages to the dukes of Lorraine, ruins
of whose chAtean are still to be seen. In 1641 it passed to
F rance.
nUHAIABRSUEBEV, a town of Germany, in the province
of Prassian Saxony on the Ohre, situated x8 m. N.W. from
)£agdd>iirg by the railway to Obisifelde and at the junction of a
line to Eialeben. Pop. (1905) 10,421. It has an Evangelical
church, an old equestrian statue of Henry the Lion and a gym-
Basium. lliere are several active industries, notably the
mamifactaie of majolica and terra-cotta wares, machinery,
cloves, beer, malt, cheese and sugar, while large pig markeu are
held here.
See Behrends, Chrmiik der Stadt NeukaUeiukbe» (new^ed., 1903).
HBUHOF. THBODORE STEPHEN. Baron von (c. X690-17S6),
German adventurer and for a short time nominal king of Corsica,
was a son of a Westphalian nobleman and was bom at Metz.
Educated at the court of France, he served first in the F^nch
army and then in that of Sweden. Baron de Goertx, minister to
Charles XII., realizing Neuhofs capacity for intrigue, sent
him to England and Spain to negotiate with Cardinal Alberoni.
Having failed in this mission he returned to Sweden and then
went to Spain, where he was made colonel and married one of
the queen's ladies-in-waiting. Deserting his wife soon afterwards
he repaired to France and became mixed up in Law's financial
affairs; then he wandered about Portugal, Holland and Italy,
and at Genoa he i^ade the acquaintance of some Corsican
prisoners and exiles, whom he persuaded that he could free their
country from Genoese tyranny if they made him king of the
island. With their help and that of the bey of Tunis he landed
in Corsica in March 1736, where the islanders, believing his
statement that he had the support of several of the great powers,
proclaimed him king. He assumed the style of Theodore I.,
issued edicts, instituted an order of knighthood, and waged
war on the Genoese, at first with some success. But he was
eventiu&Uy defeated, and civil broils soon broke out in the
island; the Genoese having put a price on his head and published
an account of his antecedents, he left Corsica in November
1736, ostensibly to seek foreign assistance. After trying in
vain to induce the grand duke of Tuscany to recognire him,
he started off on his wanderings once more until he was arrested
for debt in Anosterdam. On regaining his freedom he sent his
nephew to Corsica with a supply of arms; he himself returned
to the island in 1738, X739 and 1743, but the combined Genoese
and French forces and the growing strength of the party opposed
to him again drove him to wandering about Europe. Arrested
for debt in London he regained his freedom by mortgaging
his " kingdom " of Corsica, and subsisted on the charity of
Horace Walpole and some other friends until his death in
London on the ixth of December 1756. His only son, Frederick
ic. X 7 25-1797), served in the army of Frederick the Great
and afterwards acted as agent in London for the grand-duke of
WOrttemberg.
Frederick wrote an account of his father's life, Mimoires pour
servir d fhisUnre de la Corses and also an English translation, both
published in London in 1768. In 1795 he published a new edition
on Descripiiou ef Corsica with an account of its union to the cravm of
Great Britain. See also Fitzgerald, King Theodore of Corsica (London,
18 90). ,
MBUILLT-SUR-SBDIE, a town of northern France, in the
department of Seine, 3} m. N.W. of the centre of Paris, of which
it is a suburb, between the fortifications and the Seine. Pop.
(1906) 39,222. A castle at Neuilly, built by the count of Argenson
in the x8th century, ultimately b<M:ame the property and favourite
residence of the duke of Orleans (Louis Philippe), the birthplace
of nearly aU his children, and the scene of the offer of the crown
in 1830. The buildings were pillaged and burned by the mob
in X848. The park, which extended from the fortifications to the
river, as well as the neighbouring park of ViUiers (also belonging
to the princes of Orleans), was broken up into building lots, and
is occupied by many small middle-class houses and a few fine
villas. Within the line of the fortifications, but on Neuilly
soO, stands the chapel of St Ferdinand, on the spot where the
duke of Orleans died in.x842 from the results of a carriage
accident. The stained-glass windows were made at Sevres after
designs by Ingres; the ducal cenotaph, designed by Ary Scheffer,
was sculptured by de Triquetl; and the chapel also contains
a " Descent from the Cross," by the bst-named artist, and
aiL angel executed in Carrara marble by the princess Marie
d'Orieans, sister of the duke. The fine bridge, designed in the
x8th century by Perronet, is noteworthy as the first level bridge
constructed in France. The Galignani Institution, founded by
the brothers Galignani for aged booksellers, printers and others,
has accommodation for xoo residents. The manufactures
426
NEUMANN, F. E.— NEUQUEN
indttde perfumeiy, diooolate, oolouxs, vaniish, automobiks,
carpets, &c.
NEUMANN, FRANZ ERNST (X798-X895), German mineralogist,
physidst and mathematician, was bom at Joachimstal on the
xxth of September X798. In 1815 he interrupted his studies at
Berlin to serve as a volunteer in the campaign against Napoleon,
and was wounded in the battle of Ligny. Subsequently he
entered Berlin University as a student of theology, but soon
turned to scientific subjects. His earlier papers were mostly
concerned with crystallography, and the reputation they gained
him led to his appointment zk Privatdozent at KOnigsberg,
where in x8a8 he became extraordinary, and in X829 ordinary,
professor of mineralogy and physics. In X831, from a study
of the specific heats of compounds, he formulated " Neumann's
law," which expressed in modem language runs: " The mole-
cular heat of a compound is equal to the sum of the atomic
heats of its constituents." Devoting himself next to optics,
he produced memoirs which entitle him to a high place among
the early searchers after a true dynamical theory of light. In
1833, by the aid of a particular hypothesis as to the constitution
of the ether, he reached by a rigorous dynamical calculation
results agreeing with those obtained by A. L. Cauchy, and
succeeded in d^udng laws of double refraction closely resembling
those of A. J. Fresncl; and in subsequent years he attackfd
the problem of giving mathematical expression to the conditions
holding for a surface separating two crystalline media, and
worked out from theory the laws of double refraction in strained
ciystalline bodies. He also made important contributions to the
mathematical theory of electrodynamics, and in papers published
in X845 and 1847 established mathematically the laws of the
induction of electric currents. His last publication, which
appeared in 1878, was on spherical harmonics iBtUrUge kur
TkeoriederKugdfunctionen). He took part in foundixigthe Blathe-
matisch-Physikalisches Seminar, to give students a practical
acquaintance with the methods of original research. He retired
from his professorship in 1876, and died at KOnigsberg on the
35rd of May X895. His son, Cau. Gottfsizo Neuuamn (b. X833),
became in 1858 Privatdozent, and in x 863 extraordinary
professor of mathematics at Halle. He was then app6inted
to the ordinary chair of mathematics successively at Basel (1863),
Tubingen (1865)' and Leipzig (1868).
NEUMANN, KARL FRIBDRICH (x793-x87o), German
orientalist, was bom, under the name of Bamberger, at
Reichsmannsdorf, near Bamberg, on the 28th of December
X793. He studied philosophy and philology at Heidelberg,
Munich and G^ttingen, became a convert to Protestantism and
took the name of Neumann. From 182a to 1825 he was a teacher
at Spires; then he learned Armenian in Venice and visited
Paris and London. In 1829 he went to China, where he studied
the language and amassed a large library of valuable books
and manuscripts. These, about x 2,000 in number, he presented
to the royal libnry at Munich. Returning to Gennany in X83X
Neumann was made professor of Armenian and Chinoe in the
university of Munich. He held this position* untU x8s2, when,
owing to his pronounced revolutionary opinions, he was removed,
from his chair. Ten years later he settled in Berlin, where he
died on the X 7th of March x87a
Neumann's leisure time after his enforced rettrement wasoocupicd
in historical studies, and besides hx^GtschiciUedestnglischen Rtiehs
in AsitH (Leipzig. 1851), he wrote a history of the United States of
America, Ceuhichte der VereinigUn Staaten von Amerika (Berlin,
1863-1866). His other works include Versuck einer CtsckichU der
armenuckin LUeraUur (Leiprig, 1836); Die Volker des sUdlicken
Russiand (iMj and again 1855); and Gesekichte des englisck'
chinesiseken Krtegs (1846, and again 1855). He also issued some
translations from Chmese and Armenian : Catechism of the Shamans
(1831); Vahram*s Chronicle fff the Armenian Kingdom in Ciiicia
(1831) and History of the Pirates in the China Sea (1831). The
iouroal of the Royal Asiatic Society.(London, X871) contains a full
list of his works.
NEUMATR, MELCHIOR (1845-1890), German pa]aeontok>gbt,
was bom at Munich on the 24th of October X845, the son of
Max von Neumayr, a Bavarian Minister of State. He was
educated in the university of Munich, and completed his studies
at Heidelberg, where he graduated Ph.D. After some experience
in field-geology under C. W. von Gambd he joined the Austrian
geological survey in x868. Four years later he returned to
Heidelberg, but in 1873 he was appointed professor of palaeon*
tology in Vienna, and occupied this post until his death on the
29th of January X890. His more detailed researches related
to the Jurassic and Cretaceous Ammonites and to the Tertiary
freshwater moUusca; and in these studies he sought to trace
the descent of the spedcs. He dealt also with the xoncs of
climate during the Jurassic and Cretaceous periods, and en-
deavoured to show that the equatorial marine fauna differed
from that of the two temperate zones, and the hitter frx>m
that of the arctic zone, much as the faunas of similar zones differ
from each other in the present day; see his "Ober klimalische
Zonen wUhrend der Jura und Kreidezeit" {Denksckr. K. Akad.
Wiss, Wien, X883); he was author also of ErdgackickU (2 vols.,
X887); and Die StUmme des Tkierreickes (vol. i only, 1889).
Obituary by Dr W. T. Blanfoid in QuarU Jouru. Geei, Soc.
(1890).
NBUMttliirrBM, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province
of Schleswig-Holstein, lies on both banks of the small river
Schwale, in the basin of the St5r, 40 m. N. of Altona-Hamburg
by rail, and at the junction of lines to Kiel, Vamdrap (Denmark)
and TOnning. Pop. (1905) 31,347- It has an Evangelical and
a Roman Catholic church and several schools. It is, after
Altona, the most important industrial town in the province, and
contains extensive doth-factories, besides manufactories of
leather, cotton, wadding, carpets, paper, machinery, beer and
sweetmeats. Its trade is also brisk. The name, which was
originally Wipendorp, is derived from an Augustine monastexy,
founded in X130 by Vicelin, the apostle of Holstein, and b
mentioned as " novum monasterium " in a document of ZX56.
lU industrial importance began in the x7th century, when tlie
doth-workers of Segebeig, a town to the south-east, migrated
to it. It became a town in x87a
See Khmis, Gesekichte der Stadt NetanHnster (1900) ; and Dittmann.
Aus dem alten NeumHtuter (1879).
NBUNKIRCHBN, or OBER-NEXTionxcHEN, a town of Gennany,
in the Prussian Rhine province, on the Blies, X2 m. N.W. of
Saarbrttcken by xaiL Pop. (X90S) 32,358, ' consisting aLooost
equally of Protestants and Roman Catholics. It contains two
Caothic Evangelical and a Romanesque Roman Catholic church,
several schools, and a monument to Freiherr von Stumm (d.X9ox).
a former owner of the iron-works here. The principal industrial
establishment is a huge iron-foundry, employing upwards of
4800 hands, and producing about 320,000 tons of pig-iron per
aimum; and there are also boiler-works, saw-mills, soap manu-
factories and a brewery. Around the town are important
coal mines from which about 2^ million tons of coal are raised
aimually. The castle built in X570 was destroyed in 1797, aiMl xs
now a ruin. The town b first mentioned in X280, and t^**^"^
important industrially during the x8th century.
NEUQUEN, an inland territory of Argentina on the Chilean
frontier, between the Colomdo and llmay rivers, with the
province of Mcndoza on the N. and the territory of Rio Negxo
on the E. and S. Area, 4^,345 S4- nu Pop. (x89s) 14,517;
(1904, estimate) x8,022. The greater part of the territory is
mountainous, with fertile, well-watered valleys and valuable
forests. The eastem part, however, contains large buTen
plains, showing some stunted vegetation, and having numerous
salme deposits. Long drouths prevail in this region and there
is no inducement for settlement, the nomadic Indians ^visiting
it only on their hunting expeditions. Guanaoos and Argentine
hares are found in abundance in Neuquen, and to a lesser degree
the South American ostrich. The Neuquen, which unites with
the Limay near the 68th meridian to form the Rio Negro, b the
principal river of the territory. The largest of a gnmp of beanti-
f ttl lakes in the higher Andean valleys is the celebrated Nahnd-
Huapi (Lion Grsss), which is nearly 50 m. long from E. to W.
and about ao m. from N. to S. at iu widest part, and which lies
partly hi the S.W. angle of the territory, partly in Rio NcgxvK
and parUy hi the republic of Chile. It is the souroe cf the R»
NEURALGIA
427
Limay and receives the overflow firom two smaller neighbouimg
lakes. The temperature of the Andean region is cold even in
sunmer, but on the lower plains it is hot in summer, and only
nndexately cold in winter. The principal industry is the raising
of stock for the Chilean markets, as there is little cultivation.
Oreals, forage crops, vegetables and fruits of the cold temperate
aone can be produced easily, but distance from markets and lack
of transport have restricted their production to k>cal needs.
The territory is reached by a light-draft liver steamer which
ascends the Rio Negro to Fort Roca at the confluence of the
Limay and Neuqucn, and by a branch of the Great Southern
railway from Bahia Blanca to the same point. The population
is concentrated in a few small towns on the rivers and in some
colonics, established by the national government to check
Chilean invasions, in the fertile districts of the Andes. A
majority of the population, however, is of Chilean origin. The
capital is Chos Malal, a small town on the upper Neuquen, in
the mountainous district in the northern part of the territory.
NEURALGIA (Gr. p^Opev, nerve, and SXyoSj pain), a term
denoting strictly the existence of pain in some portion or through-
out the whole of the distribution of a nerve without any distinctly
recognizable structural change in ^e nerve or nerve centres.
This strict definition, if adhered to, however, would not be
applicable to a large number of cases of neuralgia; for in not a
few instances the pain is connected with some source of irritation,
by pressure or otherwise, in the course of the ailected nerve;
and hence the word is generally used to indicate pain affecting
a particular nerve or its branches from any cause. There are
few ailments which give rise to greater human suffering. The
existence of neuralgia usually betokens a depressed or enfeebled
state of health. It is often found to affect the hereditarily rheu-
matic or ^uty. In weakened conditions of the system from
impmptr or insufficient food, or as a result of any drain upon the
body, or in anaemia from any cause, and in such diseases as
syphflis or malaria, neuralgia is a frequent concomitant. Any
stram upon the nervous system, such as mental overwork or
anxiety, is a potent cause; or exposure to cold and damp,
which seems to excite irritation in a nerve already predisposed
to suffer. But irritation may be produced by numerous other
causes besides this — such as a decayed tooth, diseased bone,
local inflammations in which nerves are implicated, by some
source of pressure upon a nerve trunk, or by swelling of its sheath
io its passage-throu^ a bony canal or at its exit upon the surface.
The pain is generally localized, but may come to extend beyond
the immediate area of its first occurrence. It is usually of
paxo^smal character, and not unfrequently periodic, occurring
at a certain time of the day or night. It varies in intensity,
being often of the most agonizing character, or less severe and
more oi a tinging kind. Various forms of perverted nerve
funaion may be found co-existing with or following neuralgia.
Thus there may be hyperaesthesia, anaesthesia, paralysis,
or alterations of nutrition, such as wasting of muscles, whitening
of the hair, &c.
The forms in which neuralgia most conunonly shows itself
are facial neuralgia or tic douloureux, migraine (hemicrania or
brow ague), intercostal neuralgia and sdatica.
Facial neuralgia, or tic dovhttreuXj affects the great nerve of
sensation of the face (fifth nerve), and may occur in one or more
of (he three divisions in which the nerve is distributed. It is
usuaOy confined to one side. When the first or upper division
of the nerve is involved the pain is mostly felt in the forehead
and side of the head. It is usually of an intensely sharp, cutting
or burning character, either constant or with exacerbations,
and often periodic, returning at a certain hour each day while
the attack continues. The skin over the affected part is often
red and swollen, and, even after the attack has abated, feels
stiff and tender to the touch. In this, as in all forms of neuralgia,
there are certain localities where the pain is more intense, these
" painful points," as they are called, being for the most part in
those phces where the branches of the nerves emerge from bony
canals or pierce the fascia to ramify in the skin. Hence, in this
form, the greater severity of the pain above the eyebrow and
along the aide of the nose. There is also pain in the eyelid,
redness of the eye, and flow of tear*. When the second division
of the nerve is affected the pam is chiefly in the cheek and upper
Jaw, the painful points being immediately bekm the lower eyelid,
over the cheek bone, and about the upper lip. When the third
division of the nerve suffers the pain affects the tower jaw,
and the chief painful points are in front of the ear and about the
chin.
Hemicrania, migraine^ brotiHigue and sick headache are various
terms employed to describe what by some is considered to be
smother form of neuralgia. An attaick may come on suddenly,
but, in general, begins by a dull aching pain in the brow or
temple, which steadily increases in severity and extent, but
remains usually limited to one side of the head. It attains at
times an extreme degree of violence, and is apt to be aggravated
by movement, loud noises or bright light. Accompanying the
pain there is more or less of nausea, and when the attack rnches
its height vomiting may occur, after which relief comes, especially
if sleep supervene. An atuck of this kind may last for a few
hours or for a whole day, and after it is over the patient feels
comparatively well It may recur periodically, or, as is more
common, at irregular intervals. During the paroxysms, or even
preceding them, certain sensory disturbances may be experienced,
more especially affections of vision, such as ocukr spectra,
hemiopia, diplopia, &c. Gout, eyestrain and intestinal toxaemia
have been put forward as causes of migraine, and Sir W. Gowers
regards it as the equivalent of a true epileptic attack.
Intercostal neuralgia is pain affecting the nerves which emerge
from the spinal cOrd and run along the spaces between the ribs to
the front of the body. This form of neuralgia affects the left side
noore than the rig^t, is much more common in women than in
men, and occurs generally in enfeebled states of health. It might
be mistaken for pleurisy or some inflammatory affection of the
lungs; but the absence of any chest symptoms, its occurrence
independently of the acts of respiration, and other considerations
well establish the distinction. The specially painful points are
chiefly at the commencement of the nerve as it issues from the
spinal canal, and at the extremities towards the front of the body,
where it breaks up into filaments which ramify in the skin. This
form of neuralgia is occasionally the precursor of an attack of
shingles {Herpes tester) as well as a result of it.
Sciatica is another of the more common forms of neuralgia.
It affects the great sciatic nerve which emerges from the pelvis
and runs down the leg to the foot. It is in most instances
traceable to exposure to cold or damp, to overuse of the limbs
in walking, &c. Any source of pressure upon the nerve within
the pelvis, such as may be produced by a tumour or even by
constipation of the bowels, may excite an attack of sdatica.
It is often connected with a rheumatic or gouty constitution.
In general the nerve of one side only is affected. The pain which
is felt at first a little behind the hip-joint steadily increases in
severity and extends along the course of the nerve and its branches
in many instances as far as the toes. The specially painful
points are about the knee and ankle joints; besides which a
feeling of numbness is experienced throughout the whole limb.
In severe cases all movement of the limb aggravates the [>ain,
and the patient is obliged to remain in bed. In prolonged attacks
the limb may waste and be drawn up and fixed in one position.
Attacks of sciatica are often attended with great suffering, and
are apt to be very intractable to treatment.
In the treatment of all forms of neuralgia it is of first im-
portance to ascertain if possible whether any constitutional
morbid condition is associated with the malady. When the
attack is periodic the administration of a large dose of quinine
two or three hours previous to the usual time of the seizure
will often mitigate, and niay even prevent the paroxysm. Many
topical applications are of great ^cacy. Liniments containing
opium, belladonna or aconite rubbed into the affected part
will often soothe the most severe local pain. And antipjrrin,
phenacetin, aspirin and similar analgetics are commonly taken.
The plan at one time resorted to of dividing or excising a portion
of the affected nerve is now seldom employed, but the operation
428
NEURASTHEiSTIA—NEURITIS
of nerve-stretcliing in some fonns of neuralgia, notably sciatica,
is sometimes successful. It consists in cutting down upon ana
exposing the nerve, an4 in seizing hold and drawing upon it
so as to stretch it. Such an operation is obviously justifiable
only in cases where other less severe measures have failed to
give relief. The employment of electricity, in long continued
and intractable forms of neuralgia, proves in many iristancca
eminently serviceable. In the severest forms of tic dolouzeuz
complete relief has followed the eztiipation of the Gasserian
ganglion. (F. W. Mo.)
MBURASTHENIA (Gr. veDpof, nerve, and iurdbma, weakness),
the general medical term for a condition of weakness of the
nervous system. The symptoms may present themselves as
follows: (i) general feeling of malaise, combined with a mixed
state of excitement and depression; (2) headache, sometimes
with the addition of vertigo, deafness and a transitory clouding
of consciousness simulating ^U mal or migraine; (3) disturbed
and restless, unrefreshing sleep, often troubled with dreams;
(4) weakness of memory, especially for recent events; (5)
blurring of sight, noises or ringing in the ears; (6) variable
disturbances of sensibility, especially scattered analgesia (partial
and symmetrical) affecting the backs of the };ands especially,
and in women the breasts; (7) various troubles of sjrmpathetic
origin, notably localized coldness, particularly in the extremities,
morbid heats, flushings and sweats; (8) various phenomena of
nervous depression associated with functional disturbances of
organs, e.g. muscular weakness, lack of tone, and sense of fatigue
upon effort, dyspepsia and gastric atony with dilatation of the
stomach and gastralgia; pseudo-anginal attacks and palpitation
of the heart; loss of sexual power with nocturnal pollutions
and premature ejaculations leading to apprehension of oncoming
impotence. Objective signs met with in organic disease are
absent, but the knee-jerks are usually exaggerated.
According to the complexity of symptoms, the neurasthenia
is more particularly defined as cerebral, spinal, gastric and
sexuaL The cerebral form is sometimes termed psyckastkeniot
and is liable to present morbid fears cr phobias, e.g. agoraphobia
(fright in crowds), monophobia (fright of being alone), claustro-
phobia (fright of being in a confined place), anthropophobia
(fright of society), batophobia (fright of things falling), sidero-
dromophobia (fright of railway travelling). There may also be
mental ruminations, in which there is a continuous flow of
connected ideas from which there is no breaking away, often
most insistent at night and leading to insomnia. Sometimes
there is arithmomania (an imperative idea to count). Such
cases often exhibit a marked emotionalism and readily manifest
joy or sorrow; they may be cynical, pessimistic, introspective
and self-centred, only able to talk about themselves or matters
of personal interest, yet they frequently possess great intellectual
ability, and althou^ there may be mental depression, there is
an absence of the insane ideas characteristic of melancholia.
Traumatic neurasthenia is the neurasthenia following shock
from injury; it is sometimes termed " railway spine," " railway
brain," from the frequency with which it occurs after railway
accidents, especially in people of a nervous temperament. The
physical injury at the time may be slight, so that the patient
is able to resume work, but symptoms develop later wliich may
simulate serious organic disease. As in all forms of neurasthenia,
the subjective symptoms may be numerous and varied, whereas
the objective signs are but few and slight. Many difficulties,
therefore, present themselves in arriving at a soimd opinion
as to the future in such cases. It is desirable not only to study
the case carefully, but to obtain some knowledge of the previous
history of an individual who is claiming damages on account of
traumatic neurasthenia. (F. W. Mo.)
NEURI, an ancient tribe placed by Herodotus (iv. X05) to
the north-cast of Scythla. He says of it that it is not Scythian,
but has Scythian customs. Every member of it, being a wixard,
becomes a wolf once a year. The position assigned to their
district appears to be about the head waters of the Dniester
and Bug (Bugh) and the central course of the Dnieper just the
region which, on general grounds, place-names, recorded migra-
tions and modem distribution, appean to be the original location
of the Slavs (9.V.). The wolf story again recalls the tales ol
werewolves so common among Slavonic peoples, and there is
much probability in Schafarik's conjecture that the Neuri are
no thing but the ancestors of the Slavs. (E. H. M.)
NSURITU (Gr. v^l^por, nerve), a term applied to the in-
flammation of one or more bundled of nerve fibres. Two varieties
are known, the localized and the multiple. The localized form
frequently follows on exposure to cold and may attack a sang^
nerve. Facial paralysis (Bell's palsy) is commonly seen following
a neuritis of the facial nerve. Neuritis may fdlow blows and
wounds of a nerve, injuries involving stretching of « nerve or
long continued pressure such as may occur in a dislocation of
the elbow joint, or the nerve may ihaxt in the extension of a
neighbouring inflammation. The first symptom of a localized
neuritis is pain of a boring character along the course of a nerve
and its distribution, the part being sensitive to pressure. There
may be slight redness and oedema along the course of the nerve,
movement becomes painful in the muscles to which the nerve
is .distributed, numbness may follow and the tactile sense be
impaired, finally the muscles atrophy, and degenentxve changes
may take place in the nerve or nerve ^eath. Slight cases follow-
ing cold or injury may pass off in a few days, while severe cases
such as those following the pressure of an unreduced dislocation
may last for months.
Multiple neuritis or polyneuritis is a disease which may affect
many of the peripheral nerves symmetrically and at the same
time. For the pathological changes see Nettropatholoct. The
difference in these changes is due mostly to the difference in the
aetiology of the neuritis. The causes may be divided as follows :
(x) The toxins of acute infective diseases, such as diphtheria,
influenza, typhoid fever, malaria, scarlet fever and septicaemia,
(a) Acute or chronic poisoning by lead, arsenic, mercury, copper
and phosphorus. (3) General disorders: gout, theumatism,
tubercle, carcinoma. (4) The local action of leprosy and syphilis.
(5) Endemic disease: beri-beri (6) Alcohol, the most <
Alcoholic neuritis occurs as a result of conAant steady drinldns.
particularly in thooe who drink beer rather than spirit. The sliest
symptom is numbness of the feet and later of the hands, then painful
cramps in the legs appear and there a pain on moving the limbs, or
the patient complains of deadness, tingling and burning in the hands
and feet, and superficial tenderness is occasionally present. la
other varieties of the disease the earliest symptoms are weakness of
the legs and extreme fatiaue, leading to a characteristic *' steppase
gait," or marked inco-ordtnation of movement may occur and the
gait become ataxic. Trophic changes soon appear, in some cases
early and rapid muscular wasting occurs, the skin becomes diy and
glossy, the nails brittle and the hair thin. In time actual con-
tractures takes place, the hip and knee-joints become flexed and the
foot dropped at the ankle. In cases that recover there may be
permanent deformity. Should the case progress the patient may
become bedridden and powerless, and degenerative mental changes
nuiy take place, loss of memory, irritability of temper and emotiooal
instability. Various complications such as bronchitis, fatty changes
in the heart, albuminuria and a liability to pulmonary tubenmlc&is,
tend to carry off the victim of chronic alcOh^ic neuritis Cases sees
early in the p r ogres s of the disease, who can be placed under
supervision, may recover under treatment, but those in whom the
attacks have recurred several rimes and in whom there is much
mental impairment rarely make a complete recovery. The treat-
ment consists in putting the patient to bed, with the administratioa
of str>'chnine hyix>dermically, and attention should be paid to the
position of the bmbs so sw to avoid the development of contractum.
cradles being used, the limbs kept in the correct positions by sand-
bags, and gentle massage beingemployed as soon as possible. Should
contractures have already farmed some mechanical device adapted
to stretch the contracted muscle must be resorted to. Biers* hyper^
aemic suction apparatus b very useful in the painless stretching of
contracted joints, or old-standing adhenons may have to be brokea
down under an anaesthetic, extension apparatus being afterwards
worn. In the later treatment the galvanic and fara&ic currents
combined with massage are useful in helping to restore the wasted
muscles, and hot-air baths and warm applications are apprcctattd.
Arsenical neuritis mostly affects th« lower extremities, as con-
trasted with lead, which mainly paralyses the fingers and wrists:
recovery is even slower than in alcoholic neuritis, the treatment
being on the same lines, with the removal of the cause of the disease.
In the neuritis of chronic lead poisoning a fine tremor of the hands is
an eariy symptom and sensory symptoms are usually absent; the
muscles affected are the extenson of the wrists, thumb and fingcn
NEUROPATHOLOGY
429
(see Lead Poisoning). The ooune of the disease is long, and an
attempt should be made to eliminate the lead from the system by
pttfEatives and the administration cA potasuum iodide.
Tlie diabetic neuritis paraesthesta is slight, and the less are chiefly
affected; weakness and ataxia may be present. Trophic sores on
the feet are of frequent occurrence in this variety. The treatment is
that of the disease.
Post-diphtheritic neuritis occurs in about 10% 01 all cases of
diphtheria. In this form paralysis of the soft palate is the earliest
symptom, and this may be the only one, or the pharvnx may be
affected. The limbs are affected much later, usually about the 5th
or 6th week. Atrophy of the muscles is frequently rapid. If the
respiratory muscles are unaffected the prognosis b good, but the
paralysb of the Umbs may last for several months. The treatment
ts complete rest, good food and the administration of strychnine.
Acute polyneuritis with numbness and motor weakness has been
luted after influenza, toeether with slight muscular wasting and
dectrical degeneration. Later, loss of sensation in the peripheral
portion ol the limbo is complained of, and the motor weakness may
affect the muscles of the trunk and face. Such cases tend towards
co mplet e recovery.
NEUROPATHOLOOT, the general name for the science con-
cerned with diseases of the nervous system. As regards the
anatomy and physiology, see the articles Nerve, Nervous
System, Brain, Spinal Cord, and Syicpathetic System.
The morbid processes affecting the nervo*is system are numerous
and varied, but usually they are clinically divided into two great
groups of (i) organic disease, (3) function::! disturbance. Such
a d^afication depends upon whether or not symptoms observed
during life can be associated with recognizable changes of the
nervous system, gross or microscopical, after death. Sometimes
this b the morbid process itself, sometimes only the ultimate
result of the process. It must be remarked, however, that many
diseases which we now look upon as functional may be found
due to recognizable changes when suitable methods of investiga-
tion shall have been discovered. The paroxysmal neuroses and
psychoses may be considered a priori to be due to temporary
morbid fimctiomLl conditions. Our knowledge of the first group
b naturally much more advanced thxm of the latter, for, given
certain symptoms during life, we are able, as a rule, to predict
not only the nature of the morbid process, but its particular
locality.
The hbtological elements which make up the nervous system
may also be divided into two groups: (i) the nervous tmits or
neurones, (3) the supporting, protecting and nutrient tissues.
Organic diseases may start primarily in the nervous units or
neurones and cause their degeneration; such arc true diseases
of the nervous system. But the nervous units may be affected
secondarily by diseases starting in the supporting, protecting
and nutrient tissues of the nervotis system; such are essentially
diseases within the nervous s>'5tem, and include diseases of the
blood-vessels, lymphatics, membranes and the special nervous
connective tissue, neuroglia (a residue of the embryonal structure
from which the nervous system was developed). Tumoius and
new growths must also be included.
The modem conception of the " neurone " as an independent
complex cell with branching processes, in physiological rather
than anatomical association with other neurones, has modified
our ideas of the morbid processes affecting the nervous system,
especially as regards degenerations of systems, conununities or
collections of neurones subserving special functions. It was
formerly believed, and generally taught, that the primary
systemic degenerations were due to a sclerosis; thus locomotor
ataxy was believed to be caused by an overgrowth of the sup-
porting gUa tissue of the posterior columns of the spinal cord,
which caused a secondary atrophy of the nervous tissue. We
now know that this overgrowth of glia tissue b secondary to the
atrophy of the nervous elements, and the only true primary
overgrowth of glia tissue b reaHy of the nature of the new
growth (gliosb). But even in thb case it b doubtful if the mere
proliferation of the glia tissue elements could destroy the nervous
elements, if it were not for the fact that it leads to changes in
the vessel walb and to haemorrhages.
The symptoms manifested during life depend upon the nature
of the mortad process and the portion of the nervous system
affected. A correa understanding of neuropathology involves
the study of (i) the causes which give rise to morbid conditions,
which are often complex and due to various combinations of
factors arising from without and within the body, and (3) the
changes in the structure and functions of the nervous system
brought about by intrinsic and extrinsic causes.
The causes of pathological processes occurring in the nervous
units (neurones) may be divided into internal and external, and
it may be remarked that in all cases except direct injury the
two groups are generally more or less combined.
A. Internal Catues,---Ol all the causes of nervous disease
hereditary predisposition stands pre-eminently first; it may be
convergent, paternal, [maternal; from grandparents or even
more remote ancestors. Moreover, no study of heredity b com-
plete that does not take into consideration collaterals. Especially
does thb sUtemcnt apply .to fiwctional neuroses, eg. epilepsy,
migraine, hysteria and neurasthenia; and to psychoses, e.g.
delusional insanity, mania and melancholia, manic-depressive,
recurrent orperiodic insanity and dementia-praeoNC or adolescent
insanity.
In 70% of 150 cases of idiocy or imbecility in the London county
asylums, Dr Tredgold found a family history of insanity in some form
or another. Strictly speaking, it is the tendency to nervous disease
rather than the disease itself that b inherited, and thb b frequently
spoken of as a neuropathic or psychopathic taint. There are,
besides, a number of inherited diseases, which, although somewhat
rare, are of interest inasmuch as they affect members of a family,
the same disease frequently commencing in each individual at about
the same age. These are termed family diseases^ and include
hereditary ataxia (Friedreich's disease), myotonia (Thomsen's
disease), nereditary (Huntingdon's) chorea, amaurotic idiocy and
various forms of idiopathic muscular atrophy. Alcoholism, tuoercu-
losis and syphilis in the parents, especially if one or both come from
a neuropathic or psychopathic stock, frequently engender idiocy,
imbecility, epilepsy and general paralysis in the of»pring,by the
production Of defects in the vitahty of the germinal plasm, causing
arrest, imperfect development or premature decay of groups, com-
munities or systems of neurones, especially those which are latest
developed — tne symptoms manifested depending upon the portions
of the nervous system affected. To explain the hereditary neuro-
pathic tendency morphologically, we may suppose that there b an
inherited defect in tne germinal plasm which is concerned in the
formation of the neurones. We may regard the neurone as a complex
cell, and the nervous system as a community of neurones arranged in
systems and groups fiaving special functions. Like all^ cells, the
neurone nourishes itself and is not nourished ; certainly it depends
for its devdopment, life and functional activity upon a suitable
environment, but it must also possess an inherent vital energy by
^f-?_t- -^ _^_, ^_^«^M^^.|, j^jjjj gjQj^ yp nutrient material which may be
rc^ latent nerve energy), to be converted into
nc LA constant constructive and destructive
bi ccurs in the neurones of a healthy nervous
sy energy is high and the sense of fatigue is the
na sleep and repose, whereby^ it is constantly
ro luropathic or psychopathic individual it may
be I. < » < . . , ^ u , i , me portion of the nervous system, especially
the brain. thv\ xist communities, systems or groups of neu-
rones with infi> : IT potential, readily becoming exhausted, and,
unJrr the injlui ... . .Jtered blood states or stress, especially liable
to funcliofuj cj^iirt^^^nm, from which arise function-paralysis and
m^ lapcholLau A^^ain^ the bio<hemical substance which represents
pcti^nEbt in the nL'r\.<us system may be in a chemically unstable
ccTi>[iiiun^ fo aa rejrtiiy to fulminate when excited by abnormfil
CO M . '. I ! i . J ma (£.;< tax] n c 1 mditions of the blood), thus actine as a centre
of > I ^ h.irgcpl nervous energy, which may be manifested by mental
or ^<' <hl^< fiymptom^. We know that in strychnia and tetanus
p( I > ling the most lii.-.ilized peripheral excitation will cause general
m I < .ilnr 9pQ.sTn; in l:.>th toxic conditions the spread b probably
dt ( > 1 .1 bLi>chemIul ^ hange in the protoplasm of the spinal neurones,
w! 11 r< I ly the f xcitabili I y is greatly increased and a slight stimulus b
8uih*ui'jrLt Co fulminate the whole system of motor neurones. In
epilepsy and other paroxysmal neuroses and psychoses it is possible
that some altered condition of the blood, when associated with an
inherited bio<hemical instability of certain groups, systems or
communities of neurones, may act as a fulminating agent. In
neuralgia and local hyperaesthesia the slightest general or distant
local irritation suffices to produce pain; thus coughing, the vibration
of a passing train or the slamming of a door may produce pain by
the stimulation of the hyper-excitable neurones. Moreover, it must
be borne in mind that the symptoms of nervous disease are due as
much to normal physiological functional activity improperly applied,
as to actual loss 01 function occasioned by disease. Ihus squint,
caused by paralysis of one of the muscles of the eyeball, causes less
trouble to the patient than the double vision occasioned by the physio-
logical activity of the two retinae, upon the corresponding points
oTwhich the images are prevented by the paralysis from falling.
430
NEUROPATHOLOGY
B. The external causes producing morbid changes in the
nervous elements are: L Abnormal conditions of the blood and
lymph, by which the neurones are poisoned and their metabolism
morbidly affected, n. Excess or deficiency of normal stimula-
tion, or existence of abnormal stimulation. IIL Injuiy or
diseases of supporting, enclosing or vasailar tissues.
I. Abnormal CondUions of the Blood and Lymph. — ^The im-
mediate environment of aU the cellular elements of the body is
lymph, and in the central nervous system there is a special form
of lymph, the cerebro-spinal fluid, which is secreted by the choroid
plexus in the ventidcs of the brain. The neurones, Uke other
cellular elements, are bathed in the lymph, and extract from it
the materials necessary for their growth and vital activities,
casting out the waste products incidental to the bio-chemical
changes which are continually taking place. The lymph, there-
fore, serves as a medium of exchange between the blood and the
tissues, consequently the essential catises of change in environ-
ment of the nervous elements (neurones) are: (x) Deficiency or
absence of blood-supply to the nervous system in general (as
after severe haemorrhage), or to some particular portion, owing
to local vascular disturbance or occlusion. (2) Alterations in
the normal condition of the blood, due to (a) deficiency or
absence of certain essential constituents, (6) excess of certain
normal constituents, (c) the presence of . certain abnormal
constituents produced within the body, or entering it from
without.
(i) Quantity of Blood Supply. — ^Svncope or fainting occurs when the
blood supply suddenly fails to reach the higher centres of the brain ;
this usuaUy arises from sudden reflex arrest of the heart's action.
If a portion of the central nervous system is cut off from its arterial
blood supply by embolic plugging or by clotting of the blood in a
vessel with diseased walls, the portion of the brain substance thus
deprived of blood undergoes softening, the nervous elements are
destroyed, and the systems of nerve fibres, which have had their
trophic and genetic centres in the area destroyed, undergo secondary
degeneration. Clotting of the blood in the veins may also give rise
to destructive softening of the brain, and similar secondary
degeneration.
(2) Quality of Blood Supply.— (a) Insufficiency of oxygen, due to
poverty of the colouring matter or of the number of the red corpuscles,
which constitutes the various forms of anaemia, leads to functional
depression, lassitude and mental fatigue. Impoverishment of the
blood in women by frequent pregnancies ana excessive lactation
causes neuralgia, nervous exhaustion and, in the neuropath, hysteria,
neurasthenia, melancholia and mania. The mental depression, and
the tendency that the various neuroses and psychoses have to occur
and recur at the time of the menstrual and climacteric periods in
women, suggests the possibility of an alteration in the composition
of the blocxT, either in the nature of an auto-intoxication or " sub-
minimal deficiency," as the probable contributory factor of the
mental disturbance. It may be remarked that eclampsia, puerperal
and lactational mania arc relatively^ common forms of insanity in
women; although sometimes of septic origin, they more frequently
are occasioned by some morbid metabolism as yet little understood.
The most strikmg examples we have, however, of the effect of
absence or " sub-minimal " deficiency of a normal constituent of the
blood upon the development and functions of the nervous system
are afforded by cretinous idiots, who are lx>m without thyroid glands,
and whose brains never develop in consequence; and by those
people who suffer from the disease known as myxoedema, occasioned
by the absence of iodothyrin, a product of the internal secretion of
the thyroid gland. The proof of^this is shown by the disappearance
of the nervous phenomena, slowness of thought, slowness of speech,
&c., after a preparation of the gland has ocen continuously ad-
ministered by the mouth. Even cretinous idiots when subjected in
early life to thyroid treatment improve considerably. The removal
of the testicles in the male may produce a profound effect upon the
nervous temperament ; for probably there is an internal secretion
of this gland in the male, as of the ovary in the female, which has
some subtle influence upon the functional activity of the nervous
system. The seminal fluid contains a large amount of complex
phosphorus-containing substances, which, lost to the body by
sexual excess or onanism, have to be replaced by the blood; the
nervous system, which also needs these complex organic phosphorus
compounds, is thereby robbed, and neurasthenia ensues. Brown-
S^uard's testicular injection treatment for many nervous com-
plaints, based upon this idea, has not, however, met with much
success.
(6) Excess of certain Normal Constituents in the Blood. — Excess of
carbonic acid causes drowsiness, and probably in asphyxia is one of
the causes of the convulsions. All the series of the nitrogenous
waste products — the most highly oxidised, most soluble and least
harmful of which is urea — are normal constituents of the blood;. but
should the oxidation process be incomplete, owing to functional or
organic disease of the Uver, or should these substances accumulate in
the blood, owing to inadequate function of the kidneys, a toxic
condition, called uraemia, may supervene, the nervous manifestations
of which are headache, drowsiness, unconsciousness or coma, epilepti-
foi .mv i;t.?..ri- :i]i.! - ■- '■ ' Hi- . .f I .jlyneuritis. Again.
in' ; ■■ •:■. . :' ;n of exophthalmos,
fini^ U'L^TtiLir^, palijii^iuun anJ mental cxciLLnant, have by some
authoritite been cKplaintd by ti?c cstccM of thyroid internal secretion,
due to I he enUtiement 5.ttd increased functional activity of the
gUinil. The sucrcs^ful treat me ni of Cravc&'s disease by the ad-
min i^tr^itiaFi of the blood scrum and milk of animals (goats), which
hai] ihc thyroid glands remo\'cd, supports thU theory.
{£} I'hc! pruscncc of abTHfrmai constiinxnts ia ike blood is a most
important cjusc of disease of the nervous elements. "We may
con -icier the ?ij^i'-ct undrr ihc foUntiin? htadEnpt: Poisons produced
wi". ■ ■ : 1' ns or tissues, auto-
inl-'.-^—iuioa; i^'; L\ i^.-j. ^^i._i:. ^-i i:iii.;aui^^:ii5ms, protozoa and
bacteria, upon the living fluids and tissues 01 the body ; (y) poisons
introduced into the body from without, in the food and dnnk, or
by inhalation.
(a) Poisons resulting from perverted Function of the Organs. — In
the process of digestion a number of poisonous subrtanccs, ct.
albumoses, &&, are produced, which, although absorbed in the ali-
mentary canal, arc prevented by the living epithelium., and posably
by the liver, from entering the systemic circulation. Fatigue pro-
ducts, e.g. sarcolactic acid in profongcd muscular spasms, may lead
to auto-mtoxication. Excess of uric acid in the blood is associated
with high arterial pressure, deposits of Uthates in the urine, headache
and nervous irritability; it is an indication of imperfect metabolism
and auto-intoxication, as shown by the fact that marked improve-
ment occurs by suitable diet and treatment. Phosphoruria, oxaluria
and glycosuria, tokens of deranged metabolism, may be asaodated
with various nervous phenomena. Bile in the blood, cholaemia,
resulting from obstructive jaundice, may be attended by stupor and
psychical depression; and the term melancholia, signifying " black
bile," indicates the importance which has long been attached to the
liver asan organ the derangement of which causes nervous depresskm.
The rapidly taul results attending acute yellow atrophy of the liver,
namely, the profound changes in the urine, the jaundice and the
nervous phenomena of deltnum, motor irritation, delusions, stupor
and coma, demonstrate the important part this organ plays in pre-
serving the normal quality of the blood. The delirium and ctmia
which sometimes supervene in diabetes, heralded t^ acetonaemia,
is another instance of auto-intoxication. The coma is very posaibly
due to the saturation of the sodium salts of the blood by aceto-acetic
and oxybutyric adds, products of imperfect protdd metabolism.
The effect of this would be an interference with the elimination ctf
carbonic add in the processes of tissue and pulmonary res{nration.
Again, in pernicious and certain grave anaemias, the d e ge n er a tive
changes in the spinal cord found in some cases is due, net so much
to the defect in the red corpuscles, as to some neuro-toxin.which
probably arises from imperfect metabolism or absorption from the
alimentary canal. In this question c^ auto-intoxication, it must be
remarked that all the tissues of the body are mutually interde-
pendent. If one suffers, all suffer, and a disease of one organ (mt tissue
IS thereby apt to establish a vicious drcle which is constantly en-
larging; therefore nervous symptoms manifesting themselves in the
course of a disease add much to the gravity of the complaint.
09) Poisons produced by Infective Aficro-^nrganisms. — Son»c of these
poisons have a general devitalizing influence, by an alteration of the
blood and the production of fever. In the course of the acute
infectious diseases, typhoid, typhus, sma11i>ox, scarlet fever, measles,
influenza, also tuberculosis and septicaemia, delirium is a frequent
complication ; it may be the result of high fever or prolonged fever,
or directly due to the poison, or the two combined. In severe case*
stupor and coma may occur, and it has been shown that in this
extreme stage the nerve cells undergo an acute morbid bto-chemical
change. These particular poisons have no selective toxic action upoo
a particular part of the nervous system, and symptoms not qnly
during, but after, the acute illness.are liable to supervene, e s pecially
in a neuropathic individual. Thus many cases of neurasthenia,
insanity, neurons, also neuritis, date their origin from an acute
specific fever. In cerebro-spinal meningitis, tubercular meningitis,
acute delirious mania and leprous neuritis, the inflammation oJ the
membranes of the brain and spinal cord is due to the erowth of the
specific organism in the lymph and interstitial tissue elements.
Poisons may have a sdective infiuence upon some part of the nenroos
system. The syphilitic poison is the most important factor in the
production of two progressive degenerations of the nervous system —
one affecting especially the afferent conducting tracts of the s^oal
cord, namely, locomotor ataxy, and the other affecting especiany
the frontal and central convolutions pf the cerebral hemispbcfrs.
namely, general paralysis of the insane. A striking instance of the
selective action of the syphilitic poison is shown in the fact that only
in persons affected with acquired or inherited syphilis is a sympton
known as Argyll-Robertson pupil found; this is the absence oi the
pupil reflex contraction to light, while that for accommodatio«
persists. Seeing that this is the most common objective pheoomenoa
in the two diseases mentioned, it strengthens the presuroptioa.
NEUROPATHOLOGY
431
bated on experience, that the syphilitk poiaon is the cause of these
dis(a%s in the majority of insunces. Again, syphilis, when it
attacks the supporting, enclosing and nutrient vascular tissues,
shovs a predikcuon to aifect structures about the base 9I the brain,
and paralyses of the third nerve are almost pathognomonic of this
daease. In rabies, although the whole nervous system is charged
with the poison, the medulu oblongata (as shown by the symptoms)
is espedally affected. Again, in tetanus the bacilli are only found in
the wound; they must therefore be comparatively few in number,
but they elaborate a virulent poison, which affects particular groups
<d neurones. The fact that lockjaw nearly always occurs first, shows
chat the poiaon selccu the motor nucleus of the fifth nerve; but it is
remarkable that experiment has shown that the tetanus toxin, if
mixed with an emulsion of nervous matter before injection into an
animal, knes its toxicity. This fact indicates its affinity for nervous
matter, and also a power of absorption of the poison by some chemical
sutMtance in the nervous matter. Another example is offered by
diphtheria. A neuro-toxin is produced by the focal action of the
bacilli, for they do not become freely generalized in the blood and
tissues. Whether the poison is a direct production of the bacilli
themselves, or is an auto-toxin created in the body itself, by an
influence exerted on the living fluids and tissues by a ferment-like
product of the bacilli, is not determined. But whatever may be the
fource of the toxin, its eflects upon the neurones are consunt, as
shown t^ the sufferings of the patients — paralysis of the soft palate,
with nasal «ieech and reguiigitation of fluids through the nose when
iwalbwing is attempted ; inability to read, owing to the paralysis
of the muscle of accommodation ; weakness and mco-ordination of
the limbsL which may amount to paralysis; absence of the knee-
jerks; and often skin anaesthesia
The relation of protozoa to the existence of widespread diseases
affecting men aiid animals is becoming yearly of
greater importance and interest. Certain hitherto ob-
scure diseases in which the nervous system is profoundly
affected are now explaimxl by the invasion of the tissues
of the body by these lowfy or^nisms, for example,
Skqping- Siclcncss, the cause of which has been definitely
proved to be the Trypanosoma gambienae (see Plate If.
fig. I).
The discovery by Schaudinn of the presence of the Spirochaete
Pallida (see Plate 11. fig. a) in the primary and secondary lesions of
seventy successive cases m syphilis, and the general acceptance of
this organinn as the cause of the disease, taken together with the
fact that in many respects it simulates the trypanosome in its mode
of division and other characters, tend to prove that syphilis is also a
protozoal disease.
The bacteria] invasion of tissues is generally characterized by a
miration of polymorpho-nuckar leucocytes, but protozoal invasion
is characterized by a formative hyperplasia c^ the fixed cell tissues,
endothelial, epithelial and conjunctival, and there is a close similarity
in the dzfcnsivc reaction of the tissues to all forms of protozoal
invasion (see Plate II. with explanatory text)
If the cause ^ rabies be regarded as proved since the discovery of
Nesri bodies, wc may assume that just as in malaria the Haematozoon
nclariae undergoes its endocellular development in the red blood
corpuscle, the protozoon of rabies undergoes its endocellular dc-
vck>pmcnt in the nerve cell.
Only a short time has elapsed since Negri showed that in cases of
rabies, whether experimental or otherwise, curious bodies measuring
from I ^ to 30 ^ could be constantly found in the nerve cells, and that
these bodies arc not found in the nerve cells in any other disease ;
so that even if the theory advanced that they are endocellular forms
of protozoa prove not true, yet the discovery affords a valuable and
exnrdittous means of determining whether a suspected animal
MiOcrcd with rabies or not. It is known that the salivary glands and
saliva contain the virus, even before the animal shows symptoms.
It b known too that the central nei vous system contains the virus
and that it multiplies there. Experimental inoculation can be mads
either from the saliva or an emulsbn of the central nervous system
of an animal suffering with rabies. Moreover, the virus can pass
through a Berkfeldt filter; and if the filtrable product be injected
into an animal, the nnimal thus inoculated will die of rabies and
exhibit the Negri bodies. There are only two conclusions to be drawn
from these observations: (i ) If it be a protozoal disease, the orsanisni
at one period of its dcvebpmental cycle must be so small as to be able
to pass through the pores of the Berkfeldt filter. (2) Negri bodies
arc the result of intra-ccllular degenerative changes caused by an
elective affinity of the virus for the protoplasm of the nerve cell.
The virus, whatever it may be. does not exist in the blood and other
Mians and tissues. Seeing that the Negri bodiescannot be found in
the saliva, although the saliva contains the virus, nor can they be
found in the penphcral nerves, although the virus passes by the
lymphatks of the nerves to the nerve cells of the spinal ganglia and
central nervous system, it must be concluded that the filtrable virus
traveb to the central nervous system and there increases.
It is a remarkable fact that before the discovery^ of the Ne^i
bodies, the diagnosis of rabies was made by microscopic examination
of the spinal and sympathetic ganglia, particulariy the ganglia of the
vairus and fifth nerves. Changes were found similar to those met
Vith is other pfotozoal diseases, namely, sleeping sickness, dourine
and syphilis. These changes were proliferation of the interstitia,!
connective tissue cells forming the supporting structure oi the
ganglion and hyperplasia of the lymphatK endothelial cells forming
the capsule containing the nerve cells.
The diagram here given (fig. i) after Volpino explains the supposed
developmental cycle of the protozoon which is presumed to be the
cause of rabies. The weak hnk in the chain is tlie assumed sporozoit
which is so small as to be capable of passing through a Berkfeldt
filter. It has taken twenty years to kad to the complete knowledge
of the life history of the malarial parasite and its rebtion to the
disease, and all we can say is that there is now a certain amount of
evidence forthcoming which tends to show that rabies is due to a
protozoon, which Calkins, who discovered a similar body in the
epithelial cells of variob, places among the rhizopods.
There are certain chronic trypanosome infections in which the
nervous symptonu form a speciai feature of the disease, fwaua.
notably sieefdng sickness (see Plate II. fig. i) and a "^""^
disease affecting horws, termed mal de cmt or dourine.
The chronic trypanosome affections resemble in many
respects syphilis ; they are characterized by local infection,
enlargement of the nearest lymphatic gkmds, a ^neral
polyadenitis and successive eruptions, accompanied by
lever. The tissue changes are the same whether we ^^^^
examine the primary seat of infection, papular eruptions
on the mucous membrane or the skin, or the lymphatic glands.
When the nervous system is affected a local or general chronic
meoingo^nccphalitis is set up, characterized by a meningeal and
From a coloured pbte in C$iUnB4tU ftir Bakkndctlt, by pennbiioa oC Gustav
Fbcber. _
Fic. I.
I>erivascular infiltration with lymphocytes and plasma celts, occa-
sioned by a chronic irritative process, presumably caused in the
case of sleeping sickness by the presence of tr>'panosomcs in the
ccrcbro-spinal fluid (see fig. 8, Plate II.). The same perivascular
and meningeal infiltration with plasma cells and lymphocytes is
found in syphilitic and parasyphilitic diseases of the nervous system
(sec Plate II., figs. 7 and 9).
The significance of pathological changes in the ccrcbro-spinal fluid
has recently bccomcof great importance in the diagnosisof nervous
diseases, and a short account of the subject in this article 0^*^^--
will therefore not be out of place. The ccrcbro-spinal ^f*^^
fluid is clear like water; it has a specific eravity of 1006
and resembles in its composition the blood minus its
corpuscular and albuminous constituents. It is secreted
by the choroid plexus, and if any cause, such as tumour or ""^
meningitis, should interfere with its escape from the ventricles It
gives nse by pressure to internal hydrocephalus and cerebral anaemia
which may occasion epileptic convulsions and various degrees of
drowsy stupor, lethargy, unconsciousness and even coma. With-
drawal of the fluid by lumbar puncture and by tapping the ventricles
of the brain has been employed in treatment, but without very
satisfactory results. If, however, lumbar puncture has proved of but
little use in treatment, it has proved of inestimable service in the
diagnosis of various diseases of the central nervous system. The
fluid withdrawn may be examined in various ways which are comple-
mentary to one another.
It should be centrifu^ and the deport examined microscopically
if necessary after staining by suitable methods; the existence of cells
432
NEUROPATHOLOGY
in a fluid which normally contains no cellular elements indicates
disease of th — * -^""^^^^ — —^ Tn r^rcrrl paralysis, syphilis
ofthenervoi ; 1y stages oi these
diseases,^the<..- 1 ■ ■::![ ih m-'^tji l<j LuusLtL lumju^l ciunui/ of lymphocytes.
Some eviden. «.' • <i tlie progrets of the disease and tlie effect of treat-
ment may be ot '.ainra by coyntmi; the number of cells at different
periods. In tubercular meningitis chtrc _a.rc also lymphocytes in
abundance although usually tubrrck botilli c^innot readily be found,
yet bacilli art prc»nt, for mjcction of the: fluid into a guinea pig is a
certain mcani of dctcmsinln^ wht^thvr it is tuljcrcitlar menin^tis or
not; for if it is, the animal is siirc to develop tuLnrrclc. In epidemic
cerebro-spinal meninEitis ihc ct'lls in ihn deposit are polymorpho-
nuclear 1CUC^H-V[^■'^, riHiJ in thf h-urix \'tr^ caii tn- seen the specific
organism Pi ' ctcristic staining
and cultural ch^ruciui:.. -■■-^^.-. ^ u^ j-iJ ;j; ogcnic organisms
m&v also invade the central nervous system giving rise to meningitis,
and in these cases the deposit will be polymorpho-nuclear leucocytes,
and perhaiM the specific oiganbms may be seen in stained prepara-
tions; but if not, they can be obtained by cultural methods. In all
operations of this kind antiseptic precautions must be adopted both
for the safety of the patient and the reliability of the findings, other-
wise oiiganisms in the skin may contaminate the fluid withdrawn.
Other formed elements which may be found are lar^e cells, macro-
phages containing blood pigment; these cells indicate that some
haemorrhage has occurred. One of the most important uses of
lumbar puncture has been the discovery of the cause of sleeping
sickness. The fluid withdrawn and centrifugcd contains, as one
would expect from the lesions in the brain and spinal cord, large
numbers of lymphocytes and plasma cells (see Plate II. fig. lo), but
besides, the actively moving organisms (Trypanosoma tambunse)
(see Plate 11. fig. i) which are the essential cause of the (fiseasc. It
has been remarked that the normal cerebro-spinal fluid is devoid of
proteins, but in the various forms of disease above described as con-
taining cells in the centrifugcd deposit, there is also in the^ fluid an
appreciable amount of proteins. If pathological cerebro-spinal fluid
be added to an equal quantity ot saturated solution of sodium
sulphate there will be a oistinct turbidity indicating the presence of
proteins in appreciable quantity. This appreciable quantity of
proteins is especially sig^nincant in the case o\ fluid withdrawn from
cases of general paralysis or tabes, for it goes pari passu in amount
with a reaction which is known as the Wasscrmann sero-diagnostic
reaction for syphilis; a reaction, however, which is too complicated
to explam here, but which is of the greatest importance for the
diagnosis of general paralysis and tabes dorsalis. The finding^ of the
Trypanosoma gambiense in the cerebro-spinal fluid in sleeping sickness
led to the belief that the specific organism of syphilis, Spirochoetc
pallidum might be found m the cercbro-spinaf fluid in syphilitic
diseases of^ the nervous system, but although in a few instances
successful inoculation of animals with syphilis by injection of the
cerebro-spinal fluid has been effected, yet the organism has only once
been found in the fluid withdrawn by lumbar puncture. It has long
been a puzzle whv only certain individuals, about 5 "/vS % of those
infected with syphilis, should subsequently suffer with diseases of the
nervous system. The skin and mucous orifices are the most common
sites of secondary and tertiary lesions and after this the nervous
system, but no tissue or structure in the body is exempt. It is
probable that the virus attacks tissues when in a low state of re-
sistance in a random metastatic manner. It is necessary to dis-
tinguish between these true syphilitic lesions which arc the result of
the reaction of the tissues to the living virus and the parasyphilitic
affections, which own a different cause. The former may be most
successfully treated with mercury, which has the power of devitaliz-
ing the specific virus and preventing its multiplication, the same as
atoxyl prevents the multiplication of the trypanosomes. Iodide of
potassium favours the absorption of the d(;generative products of the
cells, and syphilitic tumours may rapidly resolve and disappear under
the influence of these drugs. Nervous symptoms even so severe as to
threaten a rapidly fatal termination may disappear with energetic
treatment when they are due to the syphilitic virus producing hn
inflammatory reaction of the tissues; not so, however, when the
symptoms are slow, insidious and progressive, due to a primary
decay of the neurones, e.g. the parasyphilitic affections tabes dorsalis
and general paralysis of tne insane, which Ate really one and the same
disease owning the same cause. We can understand that it may be
a chance whether a man suffers with true brain or spinal cord
syphilis, because it may be a chance whether the virus is carried
there by the blood-vessels and lymphatics, and if carried there finds a
suitable nidus to develop. But the parasyphilitic affections appear to
be due to a premature primary decay of the neural elements owing to
bio<hemical changes in the body induced by reaction to the syphilitic
virus. There are a good many facts now forthcoming whicn show
that the subjects of parasyphilis present mild symptoms of syphilis,
and upon an average it is not until ten years bter that they develop
nervous symptoms, which are aggravated rather than benefited by
mercury. Such subjects are immune to a second attack of syphilis,
and the examination of the blood and cerebro-spinal fluid oy the
Wassermann reaction of the deviation of the Complement reveals the
fact that there is a bio-chemical change; the presence of this reaction
may be correlated with the fact that these fluids contain lipoid sub-
stances and a globulin in excess. The cerebro-spinal fluid contains
these lipoid substances and gtobulin in proportion to the d^ree of
decay of the neural sti^ucture; they arise from the destructive
metabolism of the neural elements. But the same lipoid substances
and globulin are found only in the blood of syphilitic individuals,
consequently it must be supposed that in general paralysis and tabes
certain groups and systems of neurones undergo decay from ex-
cessive metabolic activity which is brought about by two factors
(i) a bio-chemical stimulus, the syphiUtic poison, (2) excessive
physiological stress, which in non-sypkilitic iiMlividuab would only
lead to cerebral or spinal neurasthenia.
Sleeping Sickness is charactmzed by a progreaave UiMarp,
paresis, tremors and the signs and symptoms of neural exhaustica
without neural destruction; it comes on sbwly and insidiously
often years after infection and eventually terminates fatally by
intercurrent disease or paralysis of the bulbar centres. Examination
of the central nervous system explains the fatal letharey; the
perivascular and meningeal lymphatics are filled with lymphocytes
and plasma cells (Plate ll. kf^. 6.); moreover, the neuroglia support-
ing cells have undergone a rapid formative proliferation (Plate II. figs.
3 and 5). The effect of this morbid process is to deprive the neural
elements of oxygen and nutrition; the neurones in consequence,
although not destroyed, are nevertheless unable to functioD for more
than a brief period.
(y) Poisons introduced into the Body. — ^The most widespread and
potent cause of nervous and mental disease is the abuse 01 alcohotk
stimulants. At least 30 % of the inmates of the asylums of London
are admitted with a history of alcoholism. In not more than 10 % cs
alcohol the efficient cause of the mental disease; in many it is only
a contributory factor, and in not a few the lapse from nraderation to
intemperance is the first sign of the mental breakdown. Mo$t d
the patients admitted inherit the neuropathic tendency, and it b a
rare thing, among such, to find cirrhosis of the liver with ascites, a
condition which indicates long persistent spirit-drinldng. Tbe
writer, from a very large experience as pathologist to the asylum< d
London, only remembers one such case, and that was in a natorious
woman who was convicted nearly four hundred times for drunkrn-
ncss before she could be certified as of unsound mind, a fact vhirh
indicates that she inherited a very stable nervous constitution. To
people with unstable nervous systems a relatively small quantity
of alcohol may act as a poison. Thus epileptics, imbeciles, criminals
potential lunatics, hysterics, neurasthenics and the subjects ot hc^
injury are liable to become anti-social and dangerous to themsdws
and others by indulgence in quantities of alcohol which would have
no harmful effect upon the mentally stable and sound individu;U.
Alcohol may produce acute delirium, with fine trcmcn, and. gcnc-r-
ally, visual hallucinations of a horrible nature, indicating acute taxic
influence upon the brain. This apparently acute form of akx>hai
poisoning is met with in chronic inebriates especially ; it is mucfa
commoner in men than in women, and it is rcmarkabk how a scvxtt
injury or illness, such as pneumonia, will bring out delirium tremens
in a drunkard. Chronic alcoholism manifests itself in a variety oi
ways according to the inborn temperament of the individuaL Tbc
well-fed man with an inborn stable well-balanced mental organizatkio
is able to consume daily large quantities of alcohol with no other
obvious effect than the lowered moral sense of indulgence in a vknou^
habit. However, chronic alcoholics form a large pru(x>rtk>n of those
convicted for crimes of violence, homicide, suicide and scxtul
offences. Alcohol acts especially upon the higher centres of tbe
brain, and a drunken man may exhibit " the abstract and brief
chronicle of insanity, going through its succesMve phases in a ^ort
period of time " (Maudsley). The effect on the nervous system d
chronic tippling may be dementia, a very characteristic loanifc^u-
tion of the mental degradation being absence of knowledge of lime
and place, personal illusions and loss of memory of recent events,
indicating a failure of receptivity and of the formation of memory -
pictures in the higher centres, mental confusion, delusions of nersccc-
tion, and especially a morbid jealousy with suspicions of fiodity d
the husband by the wife or of the wife by the husband. A certain
amount of improvement may occur when total abstinence ts enforced,
which shows the poison has damaged but not destroyed the nervous
elements. There is also a form of mental di-scase charactcrucd
especially by hallucinations of hearing and vision, associated «itb
delusions usually of a persecuting nature, unaccompanied by other
marked mental disorder. Abstinence and proper control gcrrf^Hy
ends in recovery, but such cases so freouently relapse that it is fairH-
certain that alcohol is an exciting factor to a morbid or insane
temperament. Besides mental symptoms of chronkr alcoholir
poisoning, there is frequently paralysis, affecting especially the \amxr
limbs (structures suffer most where vitality is least), although the
upper limbs, and even the respiratory muscles, may be affected in
severe cases. The patient, usually of the female sex, becomes help-
less and bedridden, and death frrauently occurs from heart failure
Characteristic features of this affection are great tenderness c3
pressure of the muscles, especially of the calves, absence dT rc6«cs.
a variable degree of skin anaesthesia, wasting of muscles and aUtrs-
tion of the normal electrical reactions, and frequently pyrexia. Then
is no loss of control over the bladder and bowels, unfess there is v<tn
marked dementia. This "complex of symptoms" pmnts to 3
peripheral polyneuritis, although frequently changes occur also in th<-
ganglion cells, from which the axis cylinders of the nerves have tbor
NEUROPATHOLOGY
Plate I.
Fig. I. — ^Left hemisphere, case of delusional
insanity; this in all respects might pass for a
normal brain.
w^
lb
Fig. 4. — Right hemisphere seen from
above instead of laterally: a hole cor-
responding to the middle of the central
convolutions is seen, out of which a
tumour is displaced towards the middle
line.
u'^Tr-V;.!
Fig. 5. — ^Left hemisphere of a woman who for
II years suffered with motor aphasia paralysis
of the lower half of the right side of the face,
deviation of the tongue to the right and some
weakness in the right leg and arm.
Fig. a.— Brain of a micro-
cephalic idiot, which weighed
only eight ounces although iu
possessor was an adult woman.
The striking lack of development
of the hemispheres is shown in
their small size, whereby the
cerebellum is almost entirely
uncovered; moreover the con-
volutional pattern is simpler
than that of an anthropoid ape's
brain.
Fie, J.— Left hcinis[)heri?, cjuc oi
abKHS of the frorsUl lobe: the con-
voluiioni 4iiid sulci are obiJl^raled
fltid the mernhmn^ thkUned. so
that (h(? fore part of the brjin prt^ents
I he jipfjcarELDCc of a tncmbuaous bag;
this contained a large amount of pus.
Fig. 7. — Left hemisphere: a case of ad-
vanced dementia, showing atrophy of the
convolutions, with deep and wide sulci in-
tervening.
Fig. 6. — Brain from a
case of apoplexy: the
tops of the hemispheres
have been sliced off to
show the haemorrhage
(dark patch) in the right
centrum ovale, which has
ruptured the 6bres pro-
ceeding from the motor
area of the brain, sit-
uated between the basal
ganglia.
Fig. 8. — The brain of an adult congen-
ital imbecile. There is a very simple
convolutional pattern in comparison with
the other brains shown in the figures.
The convolutions are small, the secondary
gyri are deficient in numbers. The
sylvian fissure turns obliquely uptwards
and there is an obvious deficiency in the
superior and inferior parietal lobes.
Fig. 9. — Right hemisphere of a woman who for
ntany vears was the subject of sensory aphasia.
The left bemuphere showed a similar lesion to the
right but rather more extensive.
Fig. 10. — Left hemisphere and cerebellum of a
case of porencephaly. A local atrophy of the
convolutions, owing to a vascular lesion before
birth, is seen in the parietal lobe.
Photographs of the brain illustrating various pathological conditions.
Plate II.
NEUROPATHOLOGY
Fig. I. — ^Trypanosoma gam-
biense in the blood from a case of
sleeping sickness in a European.
The imdulatory membrane* is
clearly seen; the head of the
organism with its micronucleus
is in contact with a red blood
corpuscle.
.: V
Fig. 4.— *Very marked syph-
ilitic arteritis, showing great
diminution of the lumen, mainly
caused by an inflammatory
thickening of the inner coat.
'«
Fig. 7. — Longitudinal section
of a small vessel of the cortex
from a case of well-marked gen-
eral p>aralysis of the insane.
Fig. 2. — A . and 5. The spiro-
chaete pallidum. A. shows the
organisms seen in a section of
mucous tubercle stained by
Levaditi*s silver method; the
lowest with 8 equal spirals and a
pointed end is the most typical.
B. Spirochaetes in a smear prep-
aration stained by Leishman.
Fig. 5. — Section of the base of
the brain of a monkey that died
of experimental sleepmg sick-
ness caused by inoculation of the
Trypanosoma gambiense.
^'
*w\
^.■''.'iL^^
Fig. 8. — Transverse section of
a small vessel of the cortex from
a case of sleeping sickness, show-
ing the perivascular cell infiltra-
tion of lymphocytes and plasma
cells.
Fig. 3. — Section of the brain
of a European who died of sleep-
ing sickness, showing an enor-
mous increase of large branch-
ing neuroglia cells around a
small vessel of the cortex.
Fig. 6. — Longitudinal section
of a perivascular sheath of the
cortex of a monkey that died of
experimental sleeping sickness.
The large branching neuroglia
cells are seen undergoing pro-
liferation.
Fig. 9. — ^Transverse section of
a small vessel of the cerebral cor-
tex from a case of syphilitic gum-
matous meningitis, showing the
same perivascular cell infiltration
of lymphocytes and plasma cells
as seen in figs. 7 and 8.
NEUROPATHOLOGY
433
offigJHi (widt pgt. 2, 3. 4, and $). Alcoholic polyneuritic psychosb
affecting women in many ways resembles delirium tremens; the
fact that neuritis occurs much more frequently in women is probably
aaaodated with a greater liability to the mfluence of microbial
toziiis by absorption from the organs of reprroduction. Many other
poisons, notably lead and
arsenic, the specific fevers
before mentioned, syphilis
and alterations of the blood
due to imperfect meta-
bolism, such as occur in
diabetes and gout, may
produce, or become impor-
tant factors in produang,
peripheral neuritis. The
outbreak of arsenical
neuritb from beer contain-
ing this poison in Man-
chester in 1900 is of in-
terest, from the fact that
the symptoms closely re-
sembled acute alcoholic
neuritis. A distinctive
feature, however, was the
pigmentation of the skin
and the severity of the
nervous s^ptoms. A
disease which is common
in the East, termed Beri-
beri^ is a form of neuritis,
the cause of which is not
exactly known (see Beri-
beri). Anaesthetic leprosy
is an interstitial inflamma-
tion of the nerves due to
the Lepra bacUlus. Among
the nervous diseases due to
occupation may be cited
lead-poisoning. This is
peculiar in selecting the
nerve which supplies the
extensor muscles of the
wrist and fingers, so that
dropped wrist iA almost
characteristic of this form
of toxic neuritis. Lead
also produces a chronic in-
flammation of the cerebral
cortex, EncephalUis salur-
nina, causing a complex of
symptoms, namely, de-
mentia, loss of memory,
weakened intellect, paresis
and epileptiform seizures,
hallucinations of sight and
hearing, and mental
exaltation or depression.
Mirror-makers sutler with
characteristic fine tremors,
from the slow absorption of
mercury into the system.
Workmen at indiarubber
factories may suffer from
severe menul symptoms,
owing to the inhalation of
the fumes of bisulphide of
Figs. 3,3,4 ands- — Spinal motor cells carbon. Serious nervous
In various stages of destruction, from a symptoms have followed
case of acute alcoholic poly-vacuolation. carbon monoxide poison-
Compare with the appearancesof a nor- ing. Cases which have re-
mat cell, fig. 12. covered from the immedi-
ate effects have suffered
with dementia and symptoms of disseminated sclerosis, the result of
multiple haemorrhayic softenings.
There are a certain number of poisons, besdes alcohol, which act
upon the nervous syiAem when continually entering the body as the
rcHtlt of a kabil. namely, absinthe, ether, cocaine, opium, morphia,
hashfaJi and tobacco. Each of these poisons produces a train of
symptoms denoting a selective influence upon certain parts of the
nervous system. In illustration thereof may be mentioned impair-
ment of central vision in tobacco amblyopia.
The disease peUapra, an affection of the skin associated with de-
generative changes in the brain and spinal cord and characterLKd by
melaocboly with suicidal impulses, sometimes mania associated with
psresis, was long considered to be due to the eating of bad maize.
But in 1910 the recent research on this disease, still in progress,
seemed to negative this theory (see Pellagra). Another disease.
ergotism, in an epidemic form, has affected poor people in Russia and
North Germany when obliged to subsist upon bread made of rye
vfakh baa been attacked by the ergot fungus. The poison thus intro-
Fig. 5.
duced into the system prodnces progressive degenerative changes in
the brain and spinal cord, whkh are manifested by psychical dis-
turbances, such as slowness of thought, weakness of memory, dulneaa
of perception, sometimes
delirium and incoherence; ^
othersymptomsareblunted
sensibility, dilated pupils,
muscular spasms, perhaps
even epileptiform seizures
and ataxy, and, lastly,
St upordeepeningintocoma.
Sausage disease, due to eat-
inff decayed meat and fi^
infected with BaciUus bolu-
tinus, is associated with
symptomswhichfrequently
terminate fatally, and it
has been shown that the
symptoms are due to a
poison which has a very
destructive effect upon the
nerve cells (fig. 6).
II. Normal and A bnor-
mat Stimulation. — The
nervous system, in order
to develop and manifest
functional activity, re- Fig. 6.— Cell illustratini; swelling of
quires suitable stimula- nucleus and chromatolysis m acute'tox-
tion from without Stnu*. ^^^^ produced by poison of badllus
t f.^ «^rf fnnrfVnn ^^ botulinus. Compare *with the appear-
turc and function are ances presented by a normal ccU, figTia.
mutually reaprocal and
interdependent; for a structure which is not used will
gradually lose its function, while its nutrition will also
suffer, and in time atrophy may occur. Consciously and
unconsciously, a continuous stream of impulses is pouring into
the nervous system from without by the sensory channels,
which are the avenues of experience and intelligence,' and our
sonuitic and psychical life depends upon the existence of such
stimuli The nervous system in the form of systems, groups and
communities of neurones, each with special functions, yet all
woven together in one harmonious whole, develops in a [>articular
way in consequence of the awakening influence of these stimuli
from without. Consequently nervous structures which are not
used are liable to undergo regressive metamorphosis and atrophy;
thus amputation of a limb in early life causes atrophy of the
nervous structures which presided over the sensation and
movement of the part. This is seen both in the grey and white
matter of the spinal cord; there is also an atrophy of Che psycho-
motor neurones of the brain pmiding over the movements of
the limb.
A healthy physical, intellectual and moral environment of the
individual is an essential factor in the prevention and cure of psy-
choses and neuroses, because it tends to develop and strengthen body
and mind, deliberation. |udgment and the higher controlling functions
of the brain. A function not used will gradually disappear, and
become more and more difficult to evoke. This fact is of importance
in functional neuroses and psychoses,. «;£.• hysterical paralysis,
melancholia and delusioilal insanity, because the longer mental or
bodily function is left in abeyance, the more likely is the defect to
become permanently installed. The converse b also true: the
longer a perverted function exists, the more unlikely it is to disappear.
Thus auditoiv hallucinations, a very important and frequent
symptom in the insane, commence with indistinct noises: these are
followed by " voices," whkh eventually become so (Ustinct and rwl
that the greater part of the patient's psychical existence is con-
centrated upon, and determined by, this abnormal stimulus from
within, indicating progressive strengthening and fixation of the
perverted functions of the mind, and progressive weakening and
dissolution of the normal functions.
Mental pain in the form of grief, worry, anxiety, fright, shock,
violent emotions (pleasurable or painful), disappointed love, sexual
excesses or perversions, and excessive brain work, frequently precede
and determine, in persons with the insane or neuropathic taint,
various forms (a) of psychoses, e.g. mania, melancholia, delusional
insanity; (6) of neuroses, e.f. chorea, hysteria, epilepsy, hystero-
epilepsy; (c) or organic bram disease, e.g. apoplexy, thrombosis,
general paralysis.
Visceral reflex irritation affords many examples of neuroses and
psychoses, the syinptoms of which are set up by irritation of the
viscera, e.g. intestinal worms. Teething and indigestible food are
often the exciting cause in infants and young children of convulsions,
spasms of the glottis and tetany. Various functional and organic
434
NEUROPATHOLOGY
diaeascs of the female reproductive organs act as excitine causes in
the production of hysteria, hystero-epilepsy, melancholia and
mania; moreover, paroxysmal attacks m these diseases arc more
liable to occur at the menstrual period or menopause. The irritation
of a carious tooth may produce spasmodic tic and trigeminal neuralgia.
Wax ip the car may occasion vertigo and tinnitus; and errors of
refraction in the eyes may be the cause of attaclcs of migraine, and
even tend to excite epileptic fits in a person suflFering from epilepsy.
Numerous other examples of peripheral disturbance could be
mentioqed as excitine causes of nervous affection in neurotic indi-
viduals. Irritation of the terminals of the vagus in almost any part
of its widespread visceral distribution may lead to vomiting. The
characteristic pain of angina pectoris, which radiates down the inner
side of the left arm, is explained by the fact that the cardiac branches
of the sympathetic arise from the same segments of the spinal conj
as the sensory branches of the ulnar nerve; consequently the pain is
referred to the corresponding skin area supplied by this nerve. This
is one example of a great number of rejerred pains.
III. Injury or disease of enclosing or supporting structures
may lead to paralytic or irritative lesions of the nervous system,
or the two may be combined. Blows or wounds of the head and
spine may damage or destroy the nervous structures by shock
or direct injury. Concussion of the brain or spinal cord may
occur, as a result of injury, without any recognizable serious
damage of the enclosing structures or even the central nervous
system. Shodc, due to concussion, can only be explained by a
molecular or bio-chemical change in the nervous structures.
Direct injury or a fall fracturing the skull, driving the frag-
ments into the brain, will cause direct destruction of the nervous
tissue; but wounds and diseases of the enclosing and supporting
structures, if producing simple non-infective inflammation, give
rise only to such symptoms as accord with the nerve structure
irritated or destroyed. Should, however, the wound or diseased
structure become infected with micro-organisms, the disease
spreads and becomes generalized likewise the symptoms. Of
all the causes of infective inflammation, middle-ear disease, on
account of its frequency and insidious onset, is the most im-
portant. It is very liable, when neglected, to be followed by a
septic meningitis, encephalitis and brain abscess, the most
frequent seat of which is in the adjacent temporal lobe, but it
may be in other parts of the brain, e.g. the cerebellum and frontal
lobe (Plate I. fig. 3). The peripheral nerves may be destroyed
or irritated by direct injury, disease or new growth in adjacent
tissues, or they may be involved in the callus thrown out round
the seat of a fracture.
Diseases of the blood-vessels are among the most frequent
causes of organic brain disease. Arteries or veins — more fre-
quently the former — may become blocked or ruptured from
various causes. The immediate effect is a disturbance or loss of
consciousness, and the individual may be " struck down " (see
Apoplexy) and never regain consciousness (see Coma). Should
the individual recover consciousness more or less permanent loss
or disturbance* of function will be the result. Paralysis of some
form, especially hemiplegia, is the commonest result, but the
loss or disturbance of function will depend upon the seat of the
injury.
The cerebral arteries may be occluded hy embolism: a portion of
a clot or vegetation from a diseased valve of the left side of the heart
may be detached, and escape into the circulation ; and this is carried
into one of the arteries of the brain, usually the middle cerebral, more
often of the left side than the righL The area of brain tissue supplied
by that artery b deprived 01 blood, and undergoes softemng in
consequence, resulting in paralysis of the opposite half of the body
(hemiplegia) associated with aphasia when the paralysis affects the
right side in a right-handed person (Plate I. figs. 5 and 9). When
the embolus is infective, as it frequently is in ulcerative endocarditis,
its lodgment in an artery of the brain, not only blocks the vessel but
leads to an infective inflammadon and softening of its coats, with
the formation of an aneurism. The aneurism may suddenly rupture
into the subsunce of the brain and produce apoplexy. In fact the
majority of cases of apoplexy from cerebral haemorrhage recurring
In young people are due to this cause. Softening may also arise from
coagulation of the blood (thrombosis) in the arteries or veins. There
are many causes which generally combine or conspire together to
produce thrombosis, viz. a weak acting heart and altered conditions
of the blood, and sometimes independently of vascular disease
spontaneous coag^ulation in a vessel of the brain may occur. It is
sometimes met with in the cachexia of certain grave diseases, viz. in
phthisis and cancer, in typhus and pneumonia, after parturition and
in marasmus at all periods of life, but especially in the very young
and very old. But thkkening, roughening and a d<»enenited con-
dition of the cerebral arteries known as atheroma when associated
with a weak acting heart is especially liable to give rise to thrombosis
and softening, and this is a very common cause of apoplexy, paralysis
and dementia in people who have passed middle lifje. General
disease of the artenes of the body, associated especially with chronic
Bright's disease and high arterial pressure, is frequently attended
with the fonnation of minute miliary aneurisms upon tne cerebral
arteries, which may rupture and cause apoplexy. Kacmorrhage into
the brain from this cause is especially liable to occur in certain
situations: one vessel in particular, supplying the basal ganglia,
most frequently gives way, the effused blood tearing through the
motor efferent fibres, which, proceeding from the cerebral cortex in
the shape of a funnel, become aggregated together to form the neck
between the two masses of grey matter — the optic thalamus and the
corpus striatum (Plate II. fief 6). The result is hemiplegia of the
oppoute side of the body. Disease of the arteries of the central
nervous system, occurring in a person under forty, is generally due to
syphilis, the virus of which produces an inflammation of the coats of
the vessel, especially the inner (see Plate II. figs. 4, 9. 10). The
thickening and narrowing of the lumen with loss of elasticity of the
arteries of the brain generally, may suddenly or gradually set up
conditions of cerebral anaemia and give rise to semi-comatose and
comatose or even apoplectic states. Occlusion by the inflammatory
proliferation or by the sudden clotting of blood in the diseased vessel
may occur, the immediate effect of which may be an epileptic or
apoplectic fit: the result is softening; and seeing that any or all
the arteries of the brain may be affected successively, simuluneously,
or at random, the symptoms may be manifold. They m^y be general
or local, and not uncommonly are associated with inflammation of
the membranes. The disease, under treatment, may abate, and the
paralytic or mental phenomena partially or completely disappear,
indicating the restoration, or partial restoration, of the circulation in
the diseased arteries; sometimes with the lapse of treatment and
sometimes without, new symptoms, such as paralysis of a fresh
group of muscles or of the opposite side of the body, nuy manifest
themselves, showing that the disease has attacked a fresh set of
arteries. Disseminated sclerosis (insider) u another random morbid
process, affecting especially the white matter, with certain character-
istic symptoms of a proeressive character, the pathology of which b
not understood fully. But is probably due to some toxic cause.
Islands of nervous tissue undergo a morbid change, commencii^ in
E^ lL"i:>ldtik>
Fig. 7. — Diaeram of left cerebral hemisphere, showing localization
of function. The motor region b situated in front 01 the central
sulcus, and is arranged in a series from " toe to larynx " downwards,
correspondins in an inverse manner to the spinal series. Irriution
of any part of thb area will cause localized convulsive spasms, which
may ^read in a definite march to the whole motw area, as in
Jacksonian epilepsy. Destructive lesions will cause paralysb. The
centre for " taste and smell " b represented at the tip of the uncinate
convolution. The centre for " half- vision " b only in small part
represented, for the lar^r part is\)n the mesial surface. *' Hearing "
b represented occupying the posterior half of the firrt temporal
convolution, but only a small part of the centre b seen, for the greater
part lies above within the fissure of Sylvius. Included in this area,
but in the left hembphere only, b the centre for " auditory word
memory ": destruction of thb causes inability to undersund the
meaning of words uttered, although the patient b able to read alood.
Behind this, in the angular gyrus, b tne centre for " visjal word
memory " ; destruction of thb causes loss of power of understanding
of written or printed words— therefore inability to read. In front of
the motor area is Broca's convolution, the centre of " motor speech ";
destruction of this produces motor aphasia, or inability to articulate
words. Above this is a centre which is connected with written speech.
These four centres concerned with verbal and written language are
connected by commissural fibres, and destruction of these connexions
leads to vanous defects in verbal and written bnsuage. It wtU be
understood from this dbgram that diseases of the left hembphere la
right-handed persons are assodated with results of more aignificajtce
than similar affections of the right hembphere.
NEUROPATHOLOGY
435
the myetin dwatli mnd ending in an incremae of the supporting
oeuraglia tiwiie at the expense of the true nervous tissue.
Tumonrs and new growths in the central and peripheral nervous
sysieoia may be primary or secondary: the former arise in the
supporting, endosins or nutrient tissue elemenU; the latter are
metastatic deposits from tumours originating elsewhere. Tumours
may be singk or multiple, the special s>'mptoms occasioned depending
Fic. 8. — Diagram of section of the M>inal cord in the upper cervical
r^ioo, showing recent degeneration ol the crossed pyramidal tract of
the rip^ side and direct pyramidal tract of the left side. The black
dots indicate the degenerated fibres stained by the Mardii method.
This d ege n eration is secondary to haemorrhage into the internal
capeple of the left hemisphere, and it will be observed by the number
of degeneiated fibres that the greater bulk have cr o i sed over to the
right side of the sfnnal cord, thus agreeing with the fact that the
paralyMS is ol the right half of the body.
/ Cmnbrai Ctft4M
^ttt /tarn.
Fig. 9.— a <fiagnm to indicate afferent, efferent and association
vystetiw of neurones. It will be observed that there are three nervous
circles indicated by the arr o w s s pinal, cerebellar and cerebral.
In every perfect co-ordinate movement impulses properly adjusted
are flowing along these three systems of neurones. In systemic
dcfeaetations one or more of these systems may be affected, and the
symptonia will depend partly upon the function which is lost or dis-
turbed, and partly upon the disturbance of equilibrium of the three
00-ordiaated avsteiat.
upon the seat of the tumour and whether it destroys or only irritates
the adjacent nervous tissue. Tumours situated within the cranial
cavity cause general symptoms, namely, optic neuritis, severe head-
ache and vomiting: these symptoms, which are caused by iiu;reased
intracranial pressure, are more severe in rapidly-growing vascular
tumours, even though small, than in large slow-growing tumours
■■•V;?^;-:' jt'V^-'-i--
Fio. to.— Diagram of spinal cord, fifth lumbar segment, from a:
case of advanced to6« dor salts. The posterior column is shrunken,
and but faintly stained, except in the anterior part ; the shrinkage
and the loss 01 suinabUity are due to the absence of fibres of the
posterior roots, which normally form the greater part of this region
of the cord. The fibres whk:h are seen in the anterior part o(f the
posterior column are derived from cells within the spinal cord, and
belong to s^iiial association neurones.
Fic. II.— Diagram illustrating the relative number and wealth of
cells and fibres in the cerebral cortex in the normal brain, in amentia,
and dementia. The horiiontal systems of fibres are association
systems, and it will be observed that these are espedally diminished
in amentia, and still more in dementia, whereaii the radial fibres are
less affected. In the normal, there are five layers of cells arranged in
columns (Meynert's); in the pathological conditions it will be ob-
served that the pyramidal-shaped cells no longer have their apical
processes pointing vertically upwards. The processes are broken off,
the cells are distorted in shape and diminished in numbers, and the
degree of dementia in a wasted brain is proportional to the atrophy
and destruction of the small and medium-sized pyramids of the whole
cerebral cortex, and the disapnearance of the superficial layers of
fibres. This is specially manifested in paralytic dementia and the
dementia of chronic insanity.
436
NEUROPATHOLOGY
Some tumours are highly vascular and a larfe thin-walled vessel may
suddenly rupture and cause an apoplectic fit. If the growth is
situatea in a portion o( the cortex having some special iocaUzin|(
function, e.g. the motor area {wU fig. 7), it may give rise to efulepti-
form convulsions, starting in a limb or definite group of muscles;
but the irritation usually spreads to the whole motor area of the same
aide, and even extends to the opposite hemisphere, by an overflow
of the discharge through the corpus callosum. In such case there is
loss of consdousneu. If, however, the tumour destroys the cerebral
cortex of a particular region, it may give rise to a paralytic lesion,
e.g. paralysis of the arm (pu^ Plate I., fig. 4).
Organic diseases of the blood-vessels, or of supporting and
enclosing tissues, produce secondary degenerations oif the nervous
system. The symptoms, like the lesion, are obvious, coarse and
obtrusive; frequently arising suddenly, they may in a
short tldle terminate fatally, or tend towards partial
or 'Complete recovery. Various forms of motor and
sensory loss and disturbance of function may arise,
indicating destruction or disturbance of particular
regions of the central nervous system; and degenera-
tions in certain tracts and systems of fibres arise, cor-
responding in histological character with those ob-
served when a nerve fibre is se[>arated from its ceU of
origin by section (secondary degeneration of Waller
and TUrck) (vide fig. 8, with explanation). This form
of degeneration must be distlngtiished from primaiy
degeneration, which is due to an inherent nutritional
defect of the nerve cell and all its processes (the
neurone), in which a regressive metamorphosis occurs;
it starts in the structures of the neurones latest^
developed (namely, the myelin sheath and the fine
temlinal twigs of the axis cylinder and dendrons),
and proceeds back to the main branches and trunk,
eventually destroying the trophic and genetic centre
itself, the nerve cell. These ^'mary degeneration pro-
cesses are insidious in origin, progressive in character,
and neariy. always fatal in termination; they affect
definite systems, groups and communities of neurones
in a progressive manner, and, therefore, are associated
with a progressive evolution of symptoms, related to
the structures affected (vide figs. 9 and 10).
To cite some examples: (i) Locomotor ataxy, on the one
hand, is a primary degeneration affecting the afferent
system of neurones; it is characterized by muscular inco-
ordination without wasting, inability to stand with the
eyes shut, lightning pains in the limbs, absent knee-jerks,
Argyll-Robertson pupils, and other symptoms pointing to
a morbid process affecting especially the afferent sensory
system of neurones. (2) Progressive muumtar atrophy, on
the other hand, is a disease of the efferent motor system
of neurones of the brain and spinal cord, characterised by
progressive wasting of groups of muscles innervated by
groups of neurones which are undergoing degeneration. A
fatal termination to this disease frequently arises from
affection of the medulla oblongata, causing what is known
of structures connected with the higher functions of the mind,
namely, the association neurones in the superficial layers of the
cerebral cortex (fig. 11). Conditions of dementia, primary or
secondary, are associated with progressive decay and atrophy of
the superficial layers of the grey matter of the cortex, and naked-
eye evidence thereof is afforded by partial or general wasting
of the cerebral hemispheres, accompanied with thickening of
the pia-arachnoid membrane, atrophy of the convolutions, and
with deepening and widening of the intervening sulci (Plate I.,
fig. 7).
The cerebro-spinal fluid fills up the space in the cranial cavity
caused by the atrophy of the brain; consequently there b a great
=^afi^s^
Fig. 13.
Fic. 12.
Fic. 14.
Fic. 16.
Motor Cells, drawn from Microphotographs of Preparations stained by Nissl
method to show Microchemical Changes produora by various diseases.
Fic. 12. — Normal motor cell from cerebral cortex, showing a mosaic pattern
as bulbar paralyris. Infantile paraly«s is an acute of the cytoplasm due to a substance stainable by basic aniline dyes; this sttain-
inflammation of the anterior horns of the spinal cord, able substance exists also on the dendrons. By comparing the appearances of
causing destruction of the Spinal motor neurones of the this cell with the other figures a just idea can be obtained of the ntorbid
anterior horn. It differs from the above chronic disease changes which result in various pathological conditions,
in its sudden onset and non-progressive character; it Fic. 13. — Cell from a case c^ hyper-pyrexia — disappearance of the mosaic
resembles it in producing paralysis of muscles without pattern, substance uniformly stained; aVsence of the 'chromatic elements on
sensory disturbance. (3) ueneral paralysis of the insane the dendrons, due to a precipitation of cell-globulin by the heat,
is a degeneration which begins in the association system Fic. 14.— Cell in an advanced stage of coagulation necrosis, complete absence
of neurones of the cerebral cortex, but which may be, of mosaic pattern; diffuse fine dust-like stain; breaking off of the processes:
and frequently is, associated with degeneration of the all caused by softening of the brain from vascular obstruction,
afferent or efferent systems (fig. 9). Fic. 15. — Another specimen from the same brain in a still more advanced
Neuroses and psychoses have not hitherto been sUge of destruction, and showing a phagocyte attached to the cell and devouring
satisfactorily explained by definite morphological ***t:?f*^iJ^ ?"!?,"'*:,u i n 1 .u . ^ .. _. .
/.k.n»*« in tK* Kr..'n ^Pia«« f Urn ,\ W- L«««, ij»»u •^*°- '6.— A cdl With enoHnously swollen nucleus, the result of hydration
changes m the brain (Plate I., fig. I). We know little due to absorption of fluid after li^ture of cerebral vessels. Such a cell wiU
or nothing accurately about the morbid histology probably recover,
of insanity, except as regards the morphologicad
changes met with in cases of amentia and dementia. The
conditions of amentia, namely, idiocy and imbecility, are
associated with arrest of development of the brain, as a whole
or in part, the naked-eye evidence of which may be afforded
by small size and simplicity of convolutions of the brain as a
whole or in part (Plate I., figs. 2, 8 and 10); and the microscopical
evidence by arrest of development, or imperfect development,
excess of this fluid. Before general paralysis was recognixed as a
disease some of the cases which died suddenly in a fit were doubtless
termed serous apoplexy. This wasting so characteristic of general
paralyus is especially due to atrophy of the cells and fibres of the
superficial grey matter of the cortex, sections of which, examined
microscopically, after suitable methods of staining have been
employed, show great poverty, or complete loss, of three sets of
delicate myelinated fibres, namely, tangential, super-radial and the
ipter-radiai corresponding to the line of Baittarger. Thb degencratkn
NEUROPATHOLOGY
437
of the cuperfidal ajMdation fibres of the cerebral cortex affects
tsptdaUy the frontal and central convolutions, and is the earliest
and most constant microscopical change in pr ogr e s si ve paralytic
den»ntia; it b accompanied usually by meningeal and vascular
chaises, atroi^y of the nerve cells, and proliferation of the ncuroQ^lia
(^ II): especially characteristic is the perivascular infiltration
with Ivmphocytes and plasma cdls (see Plate II., fig. 7). It was
iiKleed thought that thu condition of the vessels was pathognomonic
of gen«al paralysis; it certainly is not, for it u found throughout
the central ner\au% system in sleeping sickness and cerebro-q>inal
syphilis f Plate'II., figs. 8 and 0). It sometimes occurs in the neigh-
nwrhood of cerebraltumours out it is not found in uraemia or KAd
encephalitis. Possibly new methods may enable us to show changes
of structure in diseases such as epUe^ and delusional insanity, in
which hitherto no naked eye or ftucroscopical structural delects
accotinting for the symptoms havtf been certainly demonstrated.
In coacmions of acute mania there is usually condderaUe vascular
eogor^etnent. We should, however, probably be more correct in
assuming that insanity (cMjecially those forms In which there is
neitlwr amentia or dementia) is due to alterations iii the quality
Fic. ij.^Diagram to iUustiate various stages in degeneration and
r^neratioa of medullated nerve fibres.
I. Normal medullated nerve with
node of Ranvier.
3, Degenerated nerve, ten days
after section, showing de-
venerated myelin stained
uack; disappearance of axis-
cylinder.
3, Central end of cut nerve, show-
ing at the top an axis-cylinder
budding out, prdiierated
neurilemmal cells, and still
some dcfenerated myelin in
4. Pfcripbexal cut end of
sbowifw proliferated neuri-
lemmaf ceUs, still some de-
generated mydin.
5, Complete absorption of de-
generated myelin, proto-plas-
mic basis of new fibre formed
out of neurilemmal cells.
6, A new fibre, with axis-cylinder.
7, Central end of cut nerve at
junction, showing an axis-
cylinder sprouting and form-
ing a number of axis-cylinder
processes, which grow into the
peripheral end to form new
channels of conduction.
S, Is a new regenerated fibre re-
sembling a sympathetic fibre
in having as yet no myelin
sheath; as the nerve becomes
excitable and stimulus pass
a myelin sheath b fomied.
nther than the quantity of tlood in the brain. The primary de-
Bientb of adolesqeooe, which in 80% of the cases occurs before the
age of 35, in which hereditary taint b most common, and which
frequently b accompanied by, or terminates in, tuberculosisL can be
ex^dained by the effect of toxaemic conditions of the blood on
cerebral neurones with an inborn low specific energy and metabolic
activity. The histological changes found in the brain do not serve to
explain the ssnnp^oms, and we must look to bio-chemical changes in
the body acting upon an innatdy unstable brain to explain the
problems cf the disordered mind in thb "
Uicroscopical Changes in Degeneration of the Neurom. —
About 1850, Waller demonstrated that a nerve fibre underwent
degeneration to its tcnnination when separated from its cell
of origin; hence the term *'Wallerian degeneration." Embryo-
bgical researches by Professor His showed that the axis-cylinder
process (the essential conducting portion of the nerve fibre)
b an outgrowth of the nerve cell. The cell, therefore, b the
trophic and genetic centre of the nerve fibre. Acute alterations
and death of the nerve ceUs vazy occur from toxic conditions of
the blood; from high fever (io7'*-iio' F.); arrest of the blood
supply, as in thrombosb and embolism; or actual destruction
by injury, haemorrhage or inflammation. These morbid pro-
cesses produce, as a rule, bio-chemical as well as morphological
chanj^ in the nerve cell and its processes. Space will not allow
of a full description, but some of these changes are indicated
in figs. 18-22, with explanatory text. When a nerve cell dies,
the nerve fibre undergoes secondary degeneration and death;
that is to say, the whole neurone dies, and regeneration, at any
rate in the higher vertebrates, does not take place. Restoration,
or partial restoration, of function b due to other structures taking
Qn the function, and the more specialized that function b, the kss
likely b restoration to
take place. If,
a peripheral nerve b
divided, its component
fibres are merely severed
from their ceUs of origin.
All that portion of the
nerve which b in con«
nexion with the nerve
ceUs of origin practically
undergoes no change. The
peripheral portion un-
dergoes degeneration, but
from the central end of
the nerve new axb cylin-
ders again grow out and
a new nerve b formed.
With thb regeneration
comes restoration of
function, which may be
hastened by suturing the
ends of the cut nerve.
F»G.
18. — Di^;ram drawn from
pnotomicrograph to show different
forms of neuroglb cells in a patch of
aderosis secondary to degeneration and
after section of fibres of the white matter of the central ner-
vous system, and thb may be due to the fact that the nerve
fibres of the white matter of the cerebro-^inal axb possess
no nucleated sheath of Schwann, which, by the li^t of recent
investigations, b shown to play an important part in regenera-
tion; in the writer's opinion, the neurilemma! sheath of the old
fibre forms a new protoplasmic basis, into which the axis-
cylinder from above grows, the pas.«age of stimulus determining
its function. Fig. 17, Nos. 1-8, with explanatory text, shows
the changes whidi occur in degeneration and regeneration of a
peripheral nerve after section, with loss of function; and sub-
sequent union, with restoration of function. The writer, in
conjunction with Professor Halliburton, has shown that the
characteristic microscopical changes in the myelin sheath which
occur in the process of degeneration are due to a splitting up
or the complex phosphoretted substance " protagon " into
gl3rcero-phosphoric add, choline and oleic add by a process of
hydration. The Marchi reaction, which has been found so useful
for demonstrating degeneration of the central and peripheral
nervous systems, b dependent upon the fact that the myelin
sheath, after hardening b a solution of bichromate of potash, does
not turn black when acted upon by osmic add, whereas the simpler
non-phosphoretted fatty product of degeneration b stained black.
When the Marchi reaction of degeneration b fully develo[Msd,
it has been ascertained that the nerve yields no phosphorus.
The degeneration resulting from section of a nerve b termed
secondary t to distinguish it from another, primary, due to slow
438
NEUROPTERA
and progressive decay of the whole neurone, beginning usually
at the terminal twigs and proceeding back towards the cell body
with its contained nucleus. These primary degenerations
involve systems of neurones, correlated by function rather than
by anatomical situation. Examples are afforded by locomotor
ataxy and progressive muscular atrophy, the former being a
degeneration of the afferent sensory system of neurones, the
latter of the motor efferent system. The cause of primary
degenerations is probably a defect inherited or acquired in the
" vita propria " of the neurones affected. They slowly atrophy
and disappear, and their place is filled up by an overgrowth
of the supporting neuroglia tissue (figs, xo and i8). This over-
growth of dense tissue is termed sclerosis, and was erroneously
considered to be the cause, instead of the effect, of the atrophy
of the nervous tissue.
For further iaformation the reader may consult the Croonian
LKtuiei on the Degeneration of the Neurone, by F. W. Mott,
published in the Lancet (1900); and the same writer's " Introduc-
tion to Neuropathology, in AlbuU's System of Medicine. Also
Gower's Handoook of the Nervous System, von Monakow's Cehim
Pathologie, Ford-Rohcnmn's Pathaiogy of Mental Diseases and
Mott's Archives of Neurology, vols, x, 2, 3 and 4. (F. W. Mo.)
NEUROPTERA (Gr. Mvpor, a nerve, and mpbift a wing),
a term used in zoological classification for an order of the class
Hexapoda iq.v.). No ordinal name used in the class has had so
many varying meanings given to it by different authors. As
first used by Linnaeus (1735) it included all insects with mandi-
bulate jaws and two pairs of net-veined wings — dragon-flies,
May-flies, stone-flies, lacewing-fUes and caddis-flies— and it has
been employed in the same wide sense by D. Sharp {Cambridge
Nat. Hist. vol. v., 1895). But detailed study of these various
groups of insects shows that beneath their common superficial
resemblances lie important distinctions in structure, and essential
differences in the course of the life-history. Some of the families
— the stone-flies, for example — have the young insect much like
the adult, growing its wings visibly outside the thoracic segments,
and active at all stages of its life. The dragon-flies and May-flies
are also active throughout their lives and possess external wing-
rudiments, though the young insects differ rather strikingly
from their parents. ' All such famib'e»— falling into the group
ExopterygoU as defined in the classification of the Hexapoda—
were separated from the Neuroptcra by W. E. Erichson (1839)
and united with the Orthoptera, with which order some ento-
mologists still associate them under the name of " Pseudo-
neuroptera." The other groups of the old Linnean order (such
as lacewing-flies and caddis-flies) — which are hatched as larvae
markedly unlike the parent, develop wing-rudiments hidden
under the larval cuticle, and only show the wings externally
in a resting pupal stage, passing thus through a " complete "
metamorphosis and falling into the sub-class Endoptcrygota —
were retained in the order Neuroptera, which thus became much
restricted in its extent. More recently the subdivision of the
Linnean Neuroptera has been carried still further by the separa-
tion of the caddis-flies and scorpion-flies as distinct orders
(Trichopteraand Mecaptera respectively), and by the withdrawal
of the " Pseudo-neuroptera " from the Orthoptera— with whose
typical families they have little in common— and their division
into a number of small orders. Altogether, eight orders are
recognized in the classification adopted here, the first five of
these belonging to the sub-class Exopterygota and the last three
to the EndopterygoU (see Hexapoda).
The multiplication of orders is attended with practical diffi-
culties, and the distinctions between the various groups of the
Linnean Neuroptera are without doubt less obvious than those
between the Coleoptera (beetles) and the DIptera (two-winged
flies) for example. But if classification is to express relationship,
it is impossible to associate in the same order families whose
kinship to insects of other orders is nearer than their kinship to
each other. And no student can doubt that the stone-flies are
akin to Orthoptera and the caddis-flies to the Lepidoptera,
while dragon-flies and May-flies stand in an isolated position
with regaro to all other insects. In the present article, for
the sake of convenience, all the insects which have been regarded
by Linnaeus and others aa "Neuroptera** are included, but they
are distributed into the orders agreed upon by the majority
of modem observers, and short characters of these orders and
their principal families are given. For further details the reader
should consult the special articles on these groups, to which
cross-references will be found.
Sub<lass EXOPTERTGOTA
Order PlecopUra.
Thb order was founded (1869) by F. Brauer-<he name having
been long previously suggested by H. Burmeister (1832)— to include
the single family of thePerlidae or ttone-flies. They resemble the
Orthoptera more nearly than do any other group of the Linnean
Neuroptcra, having the anal area of the hind-wings folding fanwiae
bcneatti the costal area and the whole hind-wing covered by the fore-
wing when the insect is at rest, though the forewing b not firmer in
texture than the hind-wine, as is the case in the Ortho|^tera. In the
opinion of J. H. Comstock and j. G. Needham the wing-neuration
in thb order b the most primitive to be found in the Hexapoda.
The tenth abdominal segment carries a pair of jointed cerd which arr
often elongate, and the feelers are alwayis long, while the jaws are
usually feeble and membranous, though the typical parts of a
mandiDulate mouth are present — mandibles, maxillae with inner and
outer lobes and palps, and second maxillae (labium) whose lacinae
are not fused to lorm a ligula. Both head and trunk are somewhat
flattened dorso-ventrally, giving the insects a very distinct and
characteristic aspect. Tne stone-Hies further resemble the Orthoptcrs
in their numerous MalpialUan excretory^ tubes, which vary in number
f rom twenty to sixty. The reproductive organs, both ovaries and
testes, become fused tomther in the middle of the body. A re-
markable point in the Plecopters is the presence in some forms
(Pteronareys) of small branchmg gills on the throe thoracic and the
front abdominal segments. These orgaru appear, however, from the
observations of H. A. Hagen not to be functional in the adult insect —
they are merely survivals from the aquatic nymphal stage.
Life-history and Habits. — ^The nymphs of the Perlidae are doedy
like their parents and breathe dissolved air by means of tradheal gitls
on the thoracic segments, for they all live in the water of streams.
They feed upon weaker aquatic creatures, sudi as the larvae of May-
flies.
The perfect insects, whose flight b feeble, are never found far from
the water. A curious feature among them b the frequent reductioa
of the wirfgs in the males of certain species, contrary to the usual
condition among the Hexapoda, where if the sexes differ in the de-
velopment of their wings it is the female which has them reduced.
The Plecoptera are world-wide in their range and fossib referable to
them have been described from rocks of Eocene. Miocene and Jurassic
a|;e, while C. Brongniart states that allied forms lived in the
Qirboniferous Period.
Order Isoptera.
The two families included in this order agree with the Plecof^era
in the young insect resembling the parent, but they are all terrestrial
Ate C L. lisibtt. AK. BaB. 4 (NS). US. DtfL AgHe.
Fig. i.—T*rmes flavipes, N, America.
a, Male from above. b and c. Hind segments of male aad
female abdomens, showing sboct
d, Male from side. cerci.
e. Abdomen of female from /, End of shin and foo t -aeg mcn ts.
throughout life. The hind-wings have no folding anal area and the
wings of both pairs, when present, are doedy alike (see fiff. 1) whence
the name Isoptera (-equal winged) lately applied to the group by
NEUROPTERA
439
G. Eaderiein. The eleventh abdominal Kgment whkfa carries the
ahoct jointed oerd (fig. i» 6. c) may remain in a reduced condition
dtsttnct from the tenth. There are only six or eight Malpighian
tubes — oontraating with the large number of these excretory organs
found in the Orthofytera and Pleoopteia.
The Embndae are feeble* somewhat soft-skinned Insects with the
prothorax small and the mesothorax and metathorax elongate.
The feelers are long and simple, and the wings are very narrow, each
with a sub-costal, a radial, a median and a cubital nervure; the
brandies of the median and the cubital, however, as well as the anal
acrvurcs, are vestigial, and there are a few short cross-bars between
Altv Muhtt. SmL JW. 4 (iV^). VS. DtfL Agrk,
FlG- a. — Head of termite, a. Front view, b, Hind view, showing
jaws (note the clistinct inner and outer lobes of the second maxillae).
\M Zi£. I
the radial and the median. Some Embitdae are entifdy wingless in
the adult state, and it has been suggested that this is always the
cooditioa in the female sex. According to the recent investigations
of K. W. Verhocff, the family contains only thirteen known spedes.
The Embiidae live in warm countries, and are very retiring in
tlKir habks, hidine under stones where they spin webs formed of silk
produced by glands in the basal segments of the fore-feet.
The Ttrmitidae (so-called " white ants ") are the other family of
Isopteia. They are relatively shorter and broader insects than the
Embiidae with large prothorax and long wings, which have a trans-
verse line of weakness at the base and are usually shed after the
nuptial flight. The Termitidae are numerous in species in warm
countries. The vast majority of individuals in a community consist
of wingless forms — " workers " and " soldiers," which are unde-
veloped members of either sex. Their economy is fully described in
a Bpedal artide on Tbrmitbs.
Order ConoienHa,
The insects included in thu order differ from those of the two
preceding orders in their more condensed abdomens which bear no
cerd, while the number of Malpighian tubes is reduced to four.
In the absence of cerd the Corrodentia are more specialized than the
bopcera and Plecoptera, but some of them show a more primitive
diaxacter in the retention of vestigial maxillulae — the minute pair of
jaws that are found behind the mandibles in the Aptera (^.v.)* A
large p r opor t ion of the Corrodentia are wingless. ^ When- wings are
present tne front pair are much larger than the hind pair, and the
newmtioo Js remarkable for the concresence of the median with the
^BdL4QIS.),Dh.BMLV3.DttLApk.
Fic. 3. — Book-louse {/Atropos dmwUoria, Fab.)> Europe,
a. From bek>w. c. Second maxillae.
h. From above, (eyes, fcekr. feet <f, Mandible.
and daws more highly mag- e, Lacinia or " pick " of first
nified). maxilla. •
/, lu palp. Highly magnified.
cubital trunk, and the zigzag course of many of the branches. All
the insects of this order are of small size and the cuticle is im-
perfectly chitinizcd, so that the body as a whole is soft. The name
(TorrodentLi was first used \>y H. Burmdstcr (1832) and has reference
10 the biting habits of the insects. Orii^nally, however, the Corro-
dentia induded the order which Enderiein has recently separated as
Iscmtera (see above). As at present restricted, the Corrodentia
include two distinct sub-orders.
Copecptatka. — This sub-ordinal name has been applied by
Enderiein to the " book-Ike." These fnvU insects, the majority of
which have wings of the tyije described above, are further character-
ized by the presence of minute but distinct maxillulae, while the
inner lobe (lacinia) of the first maxilla is an elongate, hard structure
(the " pkk," fig. 3, e) and the outer lobe is convex and soft. The
labial (second maxillary) p^pe are reduced to small, rounded
prominences external to the still smatftk- prominences that represent
the lobes (fig. 3, c). The feelers of these insects are elongate and
thread-like, consisting of from a dozen to neariy thirty segments.
The prothorax u very smalL
The book-lice are familiar wingless insects, dften found in houses
running about amons okl papers and neglected biological collections.
They belong to the family Psocidae which has a few score species —
most of them winged — living out of doors on the bark of trees and
among vegetable refuse, in some Psoddae the irings are in a
vestigial state, and the fully winged species rarely if ever fly. H. A.
Hagen observed that some genera possess wing-like outgrowths on
the prothorax, comparable to those seen in certain ii^sects of the
Carboniferous Period. The Psoddae themselves have not been
traced back beyond theOligooene, in the amber of which period their
remains are fairlynumerous.
MaUophaia.--^ThM term was first applied by C. L. Nitzsch (1818)
to the degraded wingless parasites (fig. 4) commonly known as bird-
lice or biting-lice, differing from the true lice (see Hemiptbra,
Louse) by thdr jaws adapted for biting (not for pierdng or sucking).
By their structure they are evidently allied to the Copeognatna.
Tncy are abundantly distinct, however, through the short feelers
with only three to nve segments and the 0Qns(Hcuous prothorax.
The head is relatively veiy large, but the
eyes are degraded and often absent. A
remarkable feature is the frequent con-
crescence of mesothorax and metathorax
and in some cases, even, their fusion with
the anterior abdominal segments. The legs
are stout and spiny, and well adapted for
dinging to the nair or feathers of the host
After QriMrn, Bml. Baff. 7
animal. It is usual to divide the Mal<
lophaga into two families — the Liotkeidae^
possessing labial ixilps and two foot-daws,
being fairly active insects, which are
capaple, on the death of their host, of
seeking another, and the Pkilopttrxdat,
without labial palps and uith a single foot-
daw modified for clasping (fig. 4) which
never leave the host and perish themselves
soon after its death.
Order EphemeropUra,
This order indudes the single family of ,n c i-f/c n-i ^.^'
the Ephtmeridae or May-flies. The name. <^"£.>' ^■^' ^'J.^.*^,
although quite recently proposed by A. ,^^9: 4.—Biting-louse
E. Sh5)ley, should be used ratlier than {TrtchodecUs scolarxs) ol
A. S. Packard's older term Plectoptera on cattle,
account of the great liability of confusion
between the latter and Plecoptera.. The May-flies are remarkably
primitive in certain of their characters, notably the elongate cerci,
the paired, entirely mesodermal penital ducts, and the occurrence
of an ecdysis after the acquisition of functional wings. On the
other hand, the reduced feelers, the numerous Malpighian tubes
(40), the large complex eyes, the vestigial condition ot the jaws,
the excessive size of the fore-wings as compared with the hind-wings
and thdr complex neuration with an enormous number of cross-
nervules are all specializations. So in some respects u the life-
history, with a true larval preparatory stage, unlike^ the parent
form, and living an aquatic life, breathing dissolved air by means
of a paired series of abdominal tracheal gills. Except for its
aquatic adaptations, however, the ephemerid larva is wonderfully
thysanuran in character, and possesses conspicuous and distinct
maxillulae. See special artide on May-flies.
Ordsx Odonaia.
The distinctness of the dragon-flies from other insects included in
Linnaeus's Neuroptcra was long ago recognized by J. C. Fabridus,
who proposed for them the ordinal name of Odonata U77S)*
They resemble the May-flics in their " hemimetabolous " life-
history; the young insects are markedly unlike thdr parents, in-
habiting fresn water and breathing dissolved air, eitner through
tracheal gills at the tip of the abdomen, or by a branching system of
air-tubes on the walls of the rectum into which water is penodically
admitted. The winged insects resemble the May-flies in their short
feelers and in the large number (50 to 60) of their Malpighian tubes,
but differ most strikingly from those insects in their strong well-
armoured bodies, their powerful jaws adapted for a prcdaceous
manner of life, and the close similanty of the hind-wings to the fore-
wings. All the wings are of firm, glassy texture, and very complex in
thdr neuration: a remarkable and unique feature is that a branch
of the radius (the radial sector) crosses the median nervure, while,
by the development of multitudinous cross-nervulcs, the wing-area
becomes diviued into an immense number of small areolets. The
tenth abdominal segment carries strong, unjointed cerci, while the
presence of reproductive anrtature on the second abdominal segment
440
NEUSALZ— NEUSTADT
of the male IS a character found in no other older of the Heapoda.
See special Dsagom-flt.
Sutxlass Endoptbstgota
Order Ntwro^era.
The insects retained in the order Neuroptera as restricted by
modem systematists an: distinguished from the preceding orders by
the presence of a resting pupal stage in the life*history, so that a
" complete metamorphosis *' is undergone. Structurally the Neuro-
ptera are dutinguished by dongate feelers, a large, free prothorax, a
labium with the inner lobes of the second maxillae fused togethcr^to
form a median ligula, membranous^ net-vaned wings without hairy
covering, those ot the two pairs being usually alike, the absence of
abdominal cerd, and the presence of six or eight Malpighian tubes.
The larvae are active and well-armoured, upon the whole of the
*' campodeiform " type, but destitute of cerci; they are predaceous
in habit, usually with slender, sickle^haped mandibles, wherewith
they mace various insects so as to suck their juices. The order
conUins nine families, most of which are wide in their geographical
distribution. Fossil Neuroptera occur in the Lias and even m the
Trias if the rdationships of certain larvae have been correctly
surmised.
The Sialidae or alder-flies (qjB.) differ from other Neuroptera in the
jaws of the larva — which b aquatic, breathing by paired, jointed
abdominal ^ills^-resemblinK those c^ the imago, and being adapted
for the mastication of solid food. Some American genera (Corvdalis)
which bebng to this family are gigantic amons insects and their
males possess enormous mandibles. The Raphiaiidae or snake-flies
(^.t.) are remarkable for the long, narrow, tapering prothorax which
gives the appearance of a constricted neck, whde the female has a long
ovipositor. Both these families are very sparingly r e pres e nted in
our fauna.
The MyrnuUonidat are laige insects with short dubbed feelers on
their prominent heads, and two pairs of doscly similar net-veined
wings, with regular oblong areolets at the tips. Their predaccoiis,
suctorial larvae are the weU-known ant-lions {q.v.). No members of
this family inhabit our islands, thow[h a few species occur in neigh-
bouring parts of the continent. The same is the case with the
allied Asealaphidae, which are distinguished from the Myrmdeonidae
by their elongate feders— as long as the body— and by the irregular
apical areolets of the wings. The curious Nemopteridae have slender
feelers and very long strap-shaped hind-win^ TY\g, ManHspidae
are remarkable among the Neuroptera for their elongate prothorax.
raptorial fore-legs ami hypermetamorphic life-history, the young
campodeiform larva becoming transformed into a fat erudform grub
Erasitic on young spiden or wasp-larvae (see Mantis-ply). The
»t-named two families are confined to warm regions of the earth.
The lacewinfi[-flies (9.V.). however, of which there are two families,
the Hemerobiidae and Chrysopidae^ whose larvae feed on Aphids,
sucking their juices, are represented in our fauna. So are the tiny
ConiopierygidtUt which are covered with a white powdery secretion,
and have very small hind-wings^ Their larvae resemble those of the
lacewings, attacking scale-inaocts and sucking their juices.
Order Mecaptera,
This small order was founded (1869) by F. Brauer— under the
name of Panorpata — for the small family of the Panorpidae or
scorpion-flies (9.V.). The name Mecaptera is due to Packard. They
may be distinguished from the Neuroptera by the elongation of the
heaid into a beak, the small prothorax, the narrow, elongate wings
with predominantly^ longitudinal neuration, the presence of abdominal
cerd and the eruciform larva. They are generally but sparingly
distributed over the earth's surface and can be traced back in time
to the early Jurassic epoch.
Order Trichoplera,
The caddis-flics (q.v.) constitute thu order, the name of which
(suggested by H. Burmdster) indicates the hairy covering of the
wings. They are abundantly distinct from the Neuroptera and
Mecaptera, through the absence of mandibles in the imago, the
maxillae — both pain of which possess the typical inner and outer
lobes and jointed palps — forming a suctorial apparatus. The feelers
are long, slender and many-jointed. While the fore-wings are
elongate and narrow, the hind-win^ are broad, with a folding anal
area. At the base of each wing projects a dorsal lobe — the jugum —
and the neuration is predominantly longitudinal, resemDling so
closely that of the lower Lepidoptera (9.9.) that a nearer relationship
of the Trichoptera to that order than to any group of the old Linnean
Neuroptera a certain. Fossil Trichoptera occur in rocks of Liassic
age.
Frequently the whole of the Trichoptera are included in a single
family, but most special students of the order recognize seven families.
In all Trichoptera the maxillary palps of the female are five-
segmented. The family Phrygancidae have males with four-
segmented hairy palps; the larvae inhabit stagnant water and make
cases of vegetable fragments. In the Limnephilida* the maxillary
palp is three-segmented in the male, the larvae &>-e variable in habit,
many forming cases of snail-shells. The males of the Sericostomatidae
have two or three segmented palps; their larvae inhabit running
water and make cases of grains of sand, or of small stones. In the
LepteuHdatt Hydropsyckidae, RkyaeopkUidae and HydroptUidae the
palps of the males have five segmenu like those of the females.
The stone-built cases of the carnivorous Hydropsychid larvae are
familiar objects in the water of swift streams.
BiBLiocRAPHT.— For a general account of the various orden
mentioned in the present article see D. Sharp, CamhriduB Nahtrai
History^ v. (London, 1895); L. C. Miall, Nat, Hist. Aquatic Insects
/. __j__ .«_-v j^ G. Needham, &c.. Aquatic Insects in Neio
(London, 1895);
York State (Albany. N.Y., 1003); ,
Europas (Wien, 1876) : J. A. Palmen, Zur Morpkolofie des Trackefn-
York State (Albany. N.Y., 1003); F. Brauer, Die Neuropteren
systems (Leipzig, I877). Noteworthy writings on tne ^lecial orders
are: Plbcoptera: F. J. Pictet, Histoire ndtnreUe des insecUs
Neuroplhes-Perlides (Geneve, 1871-1873); A. Imhof, Beitrdu tur
AniUcmie van Peria maxima (Aarau, 1881); K.J. Morton, Trans.
EnL Soc, Land, (i 894-1896). IsoPTBftA:_Fqr Embiidae Ke H. A.
Enlom. xviL (188'
Ha^n^ CsiMx^fafi
G. Enderldn, Zool. Ant.
K. LeopM. Cardiu. Akad,
xxvL (1003): K. W. Verhoeff, A& ^
Ixxxii. (1904). For Termitidae see Tb&iiitbs. Corrodbmtia: For
Copeognatha see G. Enderldn, Ann. Hist. Nat. Urns. NaL Hungar, L
(1903). and Zool. Jakrb. Syst. xviiL (1903) : R. McLachlan, " British
Speaes " in Ent. Mo. Mag. iiL (1867). For Mallophaga see E. Piaget.
Les Pedicnlines (Leiden, 1880-1885); F. Grosse, Zetts. mss.ZcS^ig.
xlii. (1885). For Epubmbroptbra and Odonata, see M at-Flt and
Dragon-fly. Nburoptbra (sens, str.): H. A. Hagen, Proc.
Boston, Nat. Hist. Soc. xv. (1873) ; F. Brauer, Verh. ZooLboL CeseUs.
Wien, xix. (1869) ; R. McLachlan, " British Neuroptera Planipenoia"
in Trans. Entom. Soc. (1868). Mbcaptbra: F. Brauer {be. eU.).
Trxchoptbra : R. McLachlan, Trichoptera of the Europeass Fauna
(London, 1874-1880), and " British Trichoptera *' in Trans. Entom.
Soc. (x86^ and 1882); R. Lucas, Arck. f. Natnrg. lix. (1893); G.
Ulmer, AWuindl. naturhisL Verein Hamburg, xviiL (1903); A.
Thienemann, Zoohg. Jakrb. System, xxii. (1905). (C.H. C.)
NEUSALZ, a town of Gennany, in the Prussian province of
Silesia, on the Oder, ao m. by rail N.W. of Glogau. Pop. (1905)
13,002. It has three Evangdicol chnrcfacs, one of whidi belongs
to the Hermhut brotherhood, a Roman Catholic church and an
orphanage. Its largest industry is, perhaps, the noanufacture
of thread; there are also in the town ironworks, breweries,
shipbuilding yards and dectiical works. Neusak beome a town
in X743.
See Broniach, Cesckickte von Neusalt an der Oder (Neusalz, 1893).
NBUSS, a town of Gennany, in the Prussian Rhine province,
lies 4 m- to the W. of Dttssddorf and li m. from the W. bank
of the Rhine, with which it is connected by the Erft canal.
It lies at the junction of lines to Cologne, Viersen, Zevenaar
(Holland), Dilssddorf, DOren and Rbeydt. Pop. (1905) 30,494,
of whom 95% were Catholics. The chief building in the town
is the church of St (^uirinus, a remarkably fine example of the
transition from the Round to the Pointed style; and there are
six other Roman Catholic churches, two Protestant churches
and a gymnasium, which contains a collection of Roman
antiquities. The town hall was built in the X7tb and altered
in the xSth century. The old fortifications are now laid out as a
promenade endrclinjg the town. Neuss produces oil and meal,
and also manufactures woollen stuffs, chemicals and paper,
bricks and iron-ware. Its markets for cereals are among the
most important in Prussia, and it is also the centre of a brisk
trade in cattle, coals, building materials and the products of iu
various manufactories.
Neuss, the Novaestum of the Romans, frequently mentioned
by Tadtus, formerly lay dose to the Rhine, and was the natural
centre of the district of which Dilsseldorf has become the chid
town. Drusus, brother of the emperor Tiberius, threw a bridge
across the Rhine here, and his name is preserved in the Drusustor,
the lower half of which is of Roman masonry. In 1474-1475
Charles the Bold of Burgundy besieged the town in yain for
eleven months, during which he lost xo,ooo men; but it was
taken and sacked by Alexander Farnese in 1586. Since I887
extensive excavations have been made of the foundations of a
huge Roman camp, and many valuable Roman treasures have
been unearthed.
See C. TQcking, Cesckickte der Stadt Neuss (pQsseldorf, 1891):
F. Schmitz, Der Neusser Krieg, 1474-1475 (Bonn, 1896); W.
Eflmann, Die St Quirinus Kircke zu Neuss (DOssddorf, 1890); and
Band xx. of the Ckroniken der deutscken Stidu.
NEUSTADT (Polish, Pnidnik), a town of Germany, in the
Prussian province of Silesia, on the river Pnidnik, 60 m. by rail
S.E. of Breslau. It has four Roman Catholic churches and one
Evangelical. Pop. (1905) 20,187, the greater part of whom aie
NEUSTADT-AN-DER-HAARDT— NEUTRALITY
441
Roman CatlMUct. Tlie chief industries aze tanning, dyeing
and the manufacture of damask, linen, woollen stufls, Ittther
and beer.
Ia i745f X760 and 1779 engagements between the Austrians
and Pnia^ans took place near Neustadt, which on the last
occasion was bombarded and set on fire.
See Wdtid. CexhUkU dtr Sladt Ntustadl (NeusUdt, 1870).
■BUSTAOT-AK-DBR-HAAROT, a town of Gennany, in the
Bavarian Palatinate, picturesquely situated under the eastern
slope of the Haardt Mountains and at the mouth of the valley
of the Speyerbach, 14 m. W. of Spires, and at the junction of
railway lines to Worms, Weissenbuig and Monsheim. Pop.
(1905) z8,57S. It has four churches, two Evangelical and two
Roman Catholic The Protestant abbey church, a fine Gothic
edifice dating from the X4th century, contains the tombs of several
of the counts palatine of the Rhine. The Roman Catholic
Ludwigdurche is a modem Gothic structure. The chief indus-
tries of the town are cloth; paper, furniture, soap, starch and
hats. It has also breweries and (Ustilleries. A brisk trade is
carried on in wood, grain, fruit and wine, all of which are
extensiveiy produced in the vicinity. Neustadt, which became a
town in 1275, is one of the centres of the Rhenish " grape<ure,"
a nd thus attract s nimierous visitors.
HBD-STBTTIM, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province
of Fknnerania, on the small Strdtzig lake, 90 m. by rail
N.E^ of Stettin, at the junction of railways to Belgsrd, Posen
and Stolpmfinde. Pop. (1905) 10,785. Its industries are iron-
founding, djreing, brewing and the manufacture of machinery,
soap and matrhw, There is a considerable trade in cattle,
grain and other agricultural produce, and in timber and spirits.
Neu-Stettin was founded in 13 13 by Wratislaus, duke of
Pomcnuiia, on the model of Stettin.
See Wikke, Cknnik der Stadi Ntu-SteUin (Neu-Stettin. 1862):
and F. W. Kansid, Besckreibuni der watertOndischeu AlUrtkamer t»
NeuSleUM (Danzig, 1881).
HBU-VTRBUTZ, a town of Germany, capital of the grand-
duchy of Mecklcnbuzg-StreliU, situated between two small lakes,
the Zierker See and the Glambecker See, 60 m. N. of Berlin, on
the railway to Strabund,at the junction of lines to WamemQnde
and Buschbof. Pop. (1905) 11,656. It is built in the form of a
star, the ei^t rays oonverpng on a market-place adorned with
a statue of the grand-duke George (d. i860). The ducal residence
is a handsome edifice in a pBeudo-dassical style, with a library
of 75,000 volumes, and collections of coins and antiquities.
Other buildings are the churches (two Evangelical and one
Roman Catholic), the Carolinum (a large hospital), the town hall,
the barracks, the gymnasium and the theatre. Its manufactures
are iion-ware, Aiachinery, pottery, beer and mineral waters.
lu trade, chiefly in com, meal and timber, is facilitated by the
Zierker Siee and by a canal connecting the town with the Havel
andtheEUe.
About li m. to the south lies Alt-Strditz, the former capital
of the duchy, a small town the inhabitants of which are employed
In the ntanufacture of tobacco, leather and wax candles. Neu-
Stiditz was not founded till z 726. In the vicinity is the chAteau
of Hoben-Z ieriu, where (^leen Louise of Prussia died in 1810.
MBOVnUA, the old name given to the western kingdom of
the Franks, as opposed to the eastern kingdom, Austrasia
(9.V.). The most andent form of the word Is NwsUr^ from wsm/,
whidi wodd make the word signify the " most recent " con-
qncsts of the Franks. The word Neustria does not appear as
cariy as the Historia Francorum of Gregory of Tours, but b
found for the first time in Fredegarius. The kingdom of (Hxilperic
was retrospectively given this name, and in contemporary usage
it was 9ven to the kingdom of Cbvis II., as opposed to that of
Sigebert m., the two sons of Dagobert; and after that, the
princes reigning in the West were called kings of Neustria, and
those rdgning in the East, kings of Austrasia. Under the new
CkioUngSan dynasty. Pippin and Charlemagne restored the unity
of the Ftankish realm, and then the word Neustria was restricted
to the distzict between the Loire and the Sdne, together with
paztof thediocewof Rouen north of the Seizie; while Austrasia
comprised only the Prankish dominions beyond the Rhine,
perhaps with the addition of the three cities of Mainz, Worms
and Spires on the left bank. The districU between Neustria
and Austrasia were called if atfia Francio or simply Francia.
In 843 Brittany took from Neustria the countships of Rennes
and Nantes; and gradually the term Neustria came to be
restricted to the district which was later called Normandy.
Dudo of Saint (^entin, who flourished about the year 1000,
gives the name Neustria to the lands ceded to RoUo and his
foUowers during th^ 10th century. In the year Z663, the P^re
de Moustier gave to his work on the churches and abbeys of
Normazidy the title of NeuOria pia.
At the time of Charlemagne, Lombardy was divided into five
provinces: Neustria, Austrasia, Aemilia, Littoraria maris and
Tusda. Austrasia was the name given to eastem Lombardy,
and Neustria that given to westem Lombardy, the part last
occupied 'by the Lombards.
See F. Bourquclet, " Sens des mots Fiance et Neuttrie tout 1e
r^me m^vingicn/* in the Biblioliiqmg d« VtcoU des ckarUs,
xxvL 566-574: Longnon, Atlas kistoriqpt de la Ftamu, both atlas
and tett. (C. Pf.)
NEOimCHBIM (Czech No9$ JUin), a town of Austria, in
Moravia, 75 m. N.E. of Briinn by rail. Pop. (1900) zz,89z,
chiefly GermazL It is situated on a spur of the Carpathians, and
on the banks of the Titsch, an affluent of the Oder. It is the chief
place in the Kuhlindchen, a fertile valley peopled by German
settlers, who rear cattle and cultivate flax. At Neufitschein
manufactures of woollen cloth, flannel, hats, carriages and
tobacco are carried on; and it b also the centre of a brid^ trade.
The town was founded in 13ZZ. Neutitschein was in Z790 the
headquarters of the Austrian field-marshal Loudon, who died
here in th e s ame year and b buried in the parish church.
NEUTRAUTY, the sUte pr condition of being neutral (Lat.
neuter f neither of two), of not being on or inclined to one side or
another, particularly, in international law, the condition of a
state which abstains from taking part in a dispute between other
states. Neutrality b the most progressive branch of modem
International Law. It b also that branch of International
Law in which the practice of self-restraint takes the place
of the direct sanctions of domestic law most effectively. The
rapid changes it b undergoing are in fact bringing the state-
system of the modem world nearer to the realization of the dream
of many great writers and thinkers, of a community of nations
just as much governed by legal methods as any conmiunity of
civilized men. While the right of war was simply the ri^t of
the stronger, there was no room for neutral rights, for, without
going back to the time of the ancients, the so-called rights of war
and conquest are nothing but survivab of the right of brute
strength. No nation or community down to comparatively recent
times was treated as having a right to what it could not keep.
It b the growth of a law of neutrality, through the modem
possibility of concerted action among neutral states, which b
bringing about improvement, and, though the signs of our times
are not always reassuring, we have taken a long stride forward
since MoUoy, in hb De Jure maritimo et navali (z68o), wrote:
" As a tieuter neither purchases friends nor frees himself from
enemies, so commonly he proves a prey to the victor; hence it
b held more advantage to hazard in a conquest with a companion
than to remain in a state wherein he b in all probability of being
ruined by the one or the other."
It was Uie great commercial communities, the Hansa in the
north and Venice and the Mediterranean maritime republics in
the south, which were first able to insbt on some sort of regulation
of the usages of war for their own protection. With the growth of
intercourse among nations a further advance was made, by treaty
stipubtions enUred into in time of peace, to provide rules for
their guidance In the event of war, but it b only in our own
time that the idea of a substantive neutral ri^t has obtained
recognition. To our own time belongs the final acceptance of the
prindple that the neutral flag protects an enemy's goods except
contraband, the conception of zieutralization of territory, the
abolition of fictitious Mockades, the practice of declarations, of
+42
NEUTRALITY
neutrality, the detachment from the high sea and neutralization
of the zone called territorial waters, and the Areopagus of nations
called the European Concert, in which the right of neutrals is
asserted as a brake upon the operation of the still venerated
right of conquest. The rights of neutrals have received their
most recent affirmation in several of the decisions of the Hague
Peace Conferences.
International trade and intercourse have become so intricate
that war can 410 longer be waged without causing the most serious
loss to neutral nations, which, moreover, suffer from it without
any of the possible contingent benefits it may procure for the
immediate parties. So much is it so, that most great powers have
found it necessary for their self-protection to enter into defensive
alliances with others, the direct object of which is the preservation
of European peace by the threat of making war so gigantic a
venture that no state will again embark on it " with a light
heart." The next step will probably be alliances between
states which, by their nature or by their having reached the
limit of thdr expansion, have nothing further to gain by war
with each other, for the purpose of securing perpetual peace as
between themselves.
Different attempts have been made to define neutrality,
but the word defines itself, so far as a sucdnct definition serves
any purpose. The subject covers too wide and varied
an area of matter to be condensed into a short state-
ment of any kind. Neutrality entails rights and duties
on both the belligerent and the neutral sides. Theoretically,
neutrality, to be complete, would require the neutral to abstain
from everything which could even remotely be of assistance
to either belligerent. To this obligation would theoretically
correspond that the belligerent should cany on the war without
doing anything which could even remotely disturb or interfere
with the neutr^ state or the free activity of its citizens. Neither
the one nor the other is found to be practicable. It is not even
easy for the bdligerent to observe absolutely the duty of doing
no direct injury to neutral territoiy. A batUe may be fought to
the very edge of the neutral frontier, and shells may explode in
any neutral town within the firing range of modem artillery.
The present respect paid by belligerenu to territorial waters
is a palliative in the case of a seaboard frontier; but even the
three-mile limit acknowledged by most countries would permit
belligerent vessels with present range of artillery to fire land-
ward far into neutral territory. Compensation— it is true, would
be due for any damage done, but this does not alter the fact that
acts of war can produce direct consequences on neutral territory
which have the character of carrying war into a neutral state.
The neutral state, moreover, is obliged to incur heavy ex-
penditure to protea its frontier from being traversed by either
belligerent, and thus avoid itself being exposed to claims fdt
compensation for an act which it would otherwise be powerless
to prevenL In the case of a maritime war, the neutral state
is also bound to exercise strict supervision to prevent its ports
from being used by either belligerent for the purpose of increasing
its military strength. In short , war cannot be carried on without
heavy expense and inconvenience to neighbouring neutral states.
The inconvenience to the intercourse of neutral citizens is still
greater. Their ships are liable to be taken out of their course,
and their cargoes to be discharged to the bottom of the hold in
search of articles which are contxabaod according to circum-
stances over which they have no control, and they may be
confiscated without recourse by judges appointed by one of the
interested parties. Even their whole trade with specific ports
of the one belligerent may be stopped by the ships of the other
belligerent without indemnity. On the other hand, a great deal
of vital assistance can be given by neutral dtizens to the one
or the other belligerent in money, or by supplies of arms, ammuni-
tion, food and other commodities, which it is not at present the
duty of neutral states to interfere with.
lite respective rights and duties of belligerent neutrals in
current practice may be subdivided as follows:—
I. Belligerent duty to respect neutral territory and neu^
territorial waters.
(Com-
7, Neutral right of official representation and mediatkm;
of intercourse of neutral citizens with dtizensof eitherbeUigerent;
of convoy, &c.
3. Belligerent right of blockade, angary, visit and search,
capture and confiscation of contraband of war.
4. Neutral duties: {absoUUe) of abstention from any direct
corporate assistance to dther beUigerent, of enforcement of
respect by both belligerents for neutral territory; {rekoive)
of prevention of any recruiting for dther bdligerent, or arming
or equipping of vessels for their service; and {conUngp»l) of
allowing commerdal access to the one or other beUigerent without
distinction, and of granting impartiaUy to one or the other
belligerent any rights, advantages or privileges, which, according
to the usages recognized among nations, are not considered as an
intervention in the struggle.
This subdivision, we believe, covers the whole ground of
neutrality. We shall follow it in this artide.
BeUigerent i>K/y.— It is now universally recognised among
European states that a belligerent army must make no use
of its strength in the fidd to carry its operations into
neutral territory or into neutral waters. BeUigerent
forces entering neutral territory are by the practice
of nations bound to surrender thdr arms to the neutral
state, and remain hors de combat tiU the dose of the war.
pare arts. 11 and 13 of the Hague Conventk>n relating to the
*' Rights and Duties of Neutral Powers and persons in case of
war on land " x8th of October 1907.)
Through territorial waters bdUjpierent vesseb are allowed to
pass freely as in time of peace. Nor does the usage of nations
forbid a bdligerent vessel from entering a neutral port. 4,^^ g^
Motives of humanity have sanctioned thb distinction ^0^4^^
between territorial and maritime warfare. The Ad-tof^
miralty Instructions (2893) set out the rights of bd- 1
Ugerenu as Great Britain views them as foUows:^
" Subject to any Umit which the neutral authorities '
may place upon the number of beUigerent cruisers to be admitted
into any one of thdr ports at the same time, the captain, by
the comity of nations, may enter a neutral port with his ship for
the purpose of taking shdter from the enemy or from the weather,
or of obtaining provisions or repairs that may be pressingly
necessary (I. section 59a). He is bound to submit to any regula-
tions which the local authorities may make respecting the place
of anchorage, the Umitation of the length of stay in the port, the
interval to elapse after a hostile cruiser has Idt the port before
his ship may leave in pursuit, &c. (I. section 593). He must
abstain from any acts of hostiUty towards the subjects, cruisers,
vessels or other property of the enemy which he may find in
the neutral port (section 594). He must alto abstain from
increasing the number of his guns, from procuring military stores,
and from augmenting his crew even by the enrolment of British
subjects" (section 595).
Nor may the commander of a British warship take a capture
into a neutral port against the wfll of the kxal authorities
(HoUand, Manual 0/ Naval Prite Law, 1888, section 399). This
subject was one of those dealt with at the Hague Conference of
X 907. (See art. 18 of the " Convention rdating to the rights and
duties of neutral powers in naval war.")
Neutral J?i;Ab.— Neutral powers have the right to remain,
as far as possible, unaffected by the war operations, and, therefore,
continue their diplomatic relations with the beUigerent
sutes. The immunities and exterritoriality of their ^HZ,
diplomatic agents attach to them as in time of peace,
subject only to necessity of war, which may entitle a bdUgerent to
plan restrictions on this intercourse. Thus, during the Franco*
German War, on the surrounding of Paris, foreign diplomatists
in the besieged dty were refused by the German authorities aO
possibiUty of corresponding with their governments, except by
letters left open for thdr inspection. Neutral legations may also
undertake the representation of private interests of subjects td thr
one belligerent on the territory of the other. Thus in the Franoih
German War of 1871 the Germans in France were placed under the
protection of the United Sutes legation, and the Preach id
NEUTRALITY
443
Gennany under that oC tlie Britlih legfttioa; In the war of 1898
between the United Statet and Spain, American intercsu in
Spain were committed to the care of the British legation, and
those of Spaniards in the United States to that of the Austro-
Hungarian legation. By legations are undentood both diplo-
matic and consular authorities. The protection granted is in
the nature of mere mediation. It confeis no rights on the belli-
gerent subjecU in question, nor docs it give the neutral legation
any right to protect a belligerent subjea or his property against
any ordinary rights of war.
Good offices, properly spcalung, are a mOd form of mediation
or tentative mediation, ».e. mediation before it has been accepted
tf^i^ by the parties. Article 3 of the Hague Convention
■fflhi^ for the pacific settlement of intenational disputes
I*** of October 18, 1907, however, provides that " powen,
^H^jg^jy strangers to the dispute, have tke rigki to offer
' good offices or mediation, even during the course of
hostilities,'* and that " the exercise of this right can never be
regarded by one or other of the parties in conflict as an un-
friendly act." The Hague Convention puU an end to the doubt
whether a neutral power can mediate without involving itself
in some way with the one or the other side in the dispute. Media-
tion had already been provided for in several existing treaties,
such tf the Treaty of Paris (30th March 1856), which provides
that " if any dissension should arise between the Sublime Porte
and one or more of the other signatoiy powers and threaten the
maintenance of their good relations, the Sublime Porte and each
of these powen before resorting to force shall give an opportunity
to the other contracting parties in order to prevent such extreme
measures " (article 8); the Treaty of Yedo between the United
States and Japan (29th July 1858) stipulating that in the case of
difference between Japan or any other sute, " the president of
the United Sutes, at the request of the Japanese government,
will act as a friendly mediator in such matters of difference as
may arise between the government of Japan and any other
European power" (article 2); and the (kneral Act of Berlin
relating to West Africa (1885), which provides that " in the
case of a serious dissension having arisen on the subject of, or
within the territories" in question, between the signatory
powers, they undertake, before taking up arms, to have
recoune to the mediation of one or more of the friendly powen
(article xs).
In the Vcnenida-Guiana boundary question, the mediation
of the United Sutcs government was declined by Great Britain,
but its good offices were accepted. In the difficulty which arose
be t ween Germany and Spain in connexion with the hoisting of
the German flag on one of the Caroline Islands, Spain did not
consider arbitration consistent with the sovereign power she
claimed to exerdse over the Island in question, but she accepted
the mediation of the pope, and the matter was settled by pro-
tocols, signed at Rome (17th December 188s). These incidents
show the uses of variety and gradation in the methods of
diplomacy.
Neutral subjects have the right to carry on trade and inter-
course with belligerent subjects in so far as they do not interfere
g^^tg ^ with the operations or necessities of war, and it is no
mZml violation of the neutral character that this trade or
m^tt aa intercourse is of benefit to either side. This is subject
**y'"'** always to the belligerent right to capture and confiscate
contraband of war (see below). On the other hand, the
property of subjects and citizens of neutral states follows the
fortune of the beUigeient state within whose territorial juris-
dictioa it is situated. It is liable to the same charges as that of
native subjects and citizens, and in case of military contributions
neutral subjecU on belligerent soil can claim no protection or
exemption (see bdow. Angary). They have also the same rights
to all indemnities for loss as are granted to native subjecU and
The position of neutral public ships and the relative assimila-
tion to them of mail steamen has been the subject of some
oontroversy. A public ship is a ship having an official character
It includes not only wanhips, but also any ships affected to
any specific and exciunm government purpose. PobBc ships in
this sense are invested with an extra-territorial character, and
the sUte to which they belong is directly responsible
for their acts. They are therefore not liable to visit and SUSS
search for contraband of war, and are exempt from teni- pmtaa
torial jurisdiction even in belligerent waters. As regards **4p* aatf
vessels which are engaged partly in private traffic and **^^^
partly on public service, such as mail steamen and
government packets, the position Is necessarily different. Under
the Japanese Prise Law, adopted in view of the Chino-Japanese
campaign, any vessel carrying contraband of war, whose destina-
tion is hostile, may be detained, without exception being made
for mail steamen. The United Sutes proclamation of April
1898 in connexion with the Spanish War sUted that mail steamen
would only be stopped in case of grave suspicion of their carrying
contraband or of their violating a bkKkade.
On the arrest of the German mail steamen " Bundesrath " and
" General " during the South African War, the German govern-
ment represented to the British government that "it was highly
desirable " that steamen flying the German mail-flag should not
be stopped, and the British government thereupon issued orden
not to stop them on suspicion only {Parliamentary Papers,
Africa, No. I, X900). This was a precedent of the greatest
importance. It would have practically assimilated mail steamen
to public ships. Yet the mere circumstance of carrying the mails
does not manifestly per se change the character cf the ship.
Both this subjea and the position of packets under state owner-
ship, which may carry on trade and may consequently transport
contraband, require deliberate adjustment by treaty. The
convention between Great Britain and France respecting postal
communications (30th August 1890) provides that " in the case
of war between the two nations the packets of the two adminis-
trations shall continue their navigation, without impediment or
molestation until a notification is made on the part of either
of the two governments of the discontinuance of postal com-
munications, in which case they shall be permitted to return
freely to their respective ports " (article 9). The position of
either as neutral is not dealt with. The tendency seems to be
towards exemption, but in this case there should be official
certification that the ships in question carry nothing in the
nature of contraband.
Meanwhile the Hague Conference of 1907 has adopted rules
under which postal correspondence of neutrals or belligerents
is inviolable, whether it be official or private, or the
carrying vesaid be neutral or an enemy vessel, but in
so far as mail ships are concerned they are not otherwise exempt
from the application of the rules of war affecting merchant ships
generally (see Convention on restrictions on the exercise of the
right of capture in maritime war, October, 1907). Connected
with the position of public ships is the question of the right of
convoy. Neutral merchant ships travelling under the escort of
a wanhip or warships of their own flag are held by some
authorities to be exempt from visit and search. The Japanese
Prise Law, which is largely based on English practice, following
on this point the recommendations of the Institute of Inter-
national Law (see Riglement (Us prises maritimes^ Annuairo x888,
p. 23i), provides that " when the commander of a neutral convoy
declares that there is no contraband of war on board the vesseb
under convoy, and that all the papen are in order in these vessels,
the vessels shall not be visited " (article 23).^ The United Sutes,
* At the outset of the Chino-Japanese War. Vice-Admiral Sir E. R.
Fremantle sent a note to the Japanese admiral requesting htm to
" give orders to the ships under his command not to board, visit or
interfere in any way with British merchant vessels, observing that the
British admiral had directed all British ships under his orders to
afford protection to such merchant vessels, and not to Sllow them to
be molested in any way." Professor Takahashi, in his IntemoHonal
Law of Ike Chino-Japanese War, relates that the Jsmanese admiral
replied that "as the matters demanded by the British admiral
belonged to the sphere of international diplonucv, and consequently
were outudc his oflicial rcsponsibiHty. they should be communicated
directly to the Japanese Department of Foreign Affairs.'* " The idea
of the British admiral," observes Professor Takahashi, " seemed to be
not only to claim a r^t of convoy, which has never been recognised.
NEUTRALITY
in treaties with MencoCsth April xSji), Venezuela (Mth Januaiy
1836), Peru (6th Sept. 1870), Salvador (6th December 1870) and
It^y (26th February z 87 x) , have agreed to accept the commander's
declaration as provided in the Japanese Prise Law. Wharton
quotes in his IntenuUumal Law Dige^ a passage from a despatch
of Mr Secretary Forsyth (x8th May 1837) in which he states that
*' it is an ordinary duty of the naval force of a neutral during
either dvil or foreign wars to convoy merchant vessels of the
nation to which it belongs to the ports of the twillgerents. This,
however, should not be done in contravention of belligerent
rights as defined by the law of nations or by treaty." The
Spanish Naval Instructions (34th April 1898) in the war with
the United States granted unconditional exemption to convoyed
neutral ships (article xx). The subject has now been dealt with
by the Declaration of London (X908-X909), which requires the
commander of a convoy to give a statement in writing as to the
character of the vessels and cargoes (see Convoy). A neutral
merchant ship, travelling under enemy's convoy, places itself,
with the assistance of the belligerent force, beyond the application
of the belligerent right of visit and search, and thus commits a
breach of neutrality.
. BeBigeretU RigkU.—SiDce the declaration of Paris providing
that blockades in order to be binding must be effective, that is
ffj^^^,,,^ to say, must be maintained by a force sufficient really
to prevent access to the enemy's coast, the tendency
has been to give a precise form to all the obligations of the
blockading belligerent. Thus it b now generally agreed that
notification to the neutral should be sufficiently detailed to
enable neutral vessels to estimate, with practical accuracy, the
extent of their risks. French writers consider a general notifica-
tion, though desirable, as insufficient, and hold an individual
iMtification to each neutral ship which presents itself at the line
of blockade as requisite. This theory was applied by France in
the Franco-German War, and earlier by the Northern States in
the American Civil War. The new Japanese Price Law (1894)
does not attempt to prescribe any such notification to each ship,
but sets out that notice of blockade to each ship is either actual
or constructive. "Actual" it describes as being when the
master is shown to have had knowledge of the blockade, in
whatever way he may have acquired such knowledge, whether
by direct warning from a Japanese warship or from any other
source; " constructive," when a notification of its existence has
been made to the proper authorities of the state to which the
vessel belongs, and sufficient time has elapsed for such authorities
to communicate the notification to the subjects of that nation,
whether or not they have in fact communicated it. No blockade,
however, was attempted by the Japanese govenmicnt, and the
application of the rules was not put to the test.
In the war with Spain the United States proclamation of the
investment of Cuba stated that an efficient force would be
posted, so as to prevent the entrance and exit of vessels from
the blockaded ports, and that any neutral vessel approaching
or attempting to leave any of them, " without notice or know-
ledge" of the establishment of the blockade, would be duly
warned by the commander of the bkKkading forces, who would
endone on her register the fact and date of such warning, and
where such endorsement was made. The words " without notice
or knowledge" were explained fully in the instructions to
blockading vessels (20th June X898). " Neutral vessels," said
these instructions, " are entitled to notification of a blockade
before they can be made prise for its attempted violation.'*
** The character of this notification is not material. It may
be actual, as by a vessel of the blockading force, or con-
structive, as by a proclamation of the government maintaining
the blockade, or by common notoriety. If a neutral vessel
can be shown to have notice of the blockade in any way,
British prize courts, but also to exteod it oyer all waters of the
r.,
'ar East, where British warships were not actually engagins in
convoy. Soon afterwards the matter was settled without any diffi-
culty. On I ith August the under-Secfetary of the Japanese Foreign
Office received a letter from the British Minister m Ttkyt stating
that there must be some misunderstanding, and that the British
govcmmeot would never try to interfere with belligerent right."
she is good prise ■nd should be sent in for adjudication;
but should the formal notice not have been given, the rule
of constructive knowledge arising from notoriety should be
construed in a manner liberal to the neutziL" Thus the United
States government abandoned the system of individual notifica-
tion inserted in the proclamation of x^th April x86x, which wu
only found practicable in the case of vessels which had presumably
sailed without knowledge. In such cases it was provided by
the more recent instructions that they should be boarded by
an officer, who should enter the notice in the ship's log, su^
entry to include the name of the blockading vessel giving notice,
the extent of the blockade, and the date and place, verified
by his official signature. The vessel was then to he set free,
with a warning that, should she again attempt to enter the same
or any other blockaded port, she would be good prize. The
Declaration of London (X908-X909) exhaustively treaU of this
subject and has regulated it with a leaning towards continental
views (see Blockade).
Angaryt 01 Droit d*AngaHe, is a contingent belligerent right,
arising out of necessity of war, to dispose over, use and destroy,
if need be, property belonging to neutral sutes.> ^^
During the Franco-German War imminent necessity '^■"''
was pleaded by the German government, as the justification
of using force to seize and sink six British ooal-ships in the Seine
to prevent French gun-boats from running up the river and
interfering with the tactics .of the German army operating 00
iu banks. The captains of the vessels refused to enter into any
agreement with the commanding German general, and the vessels
were then sunk by being fired upon. The British government
raised no objection to the exercise of the ris^t, and confined itself
to demanding compensation for the owners, which the German
government declared itself ready to pay. Count Bismarck
evidently felt the use which might be made against Germany,
as a neutral power, of such an extreme measure, and took care
in the correspondence with the British government to emphasize
the pressing character of the danger, which could not be other-
wise parried.
A case given in the text-books as another one of angary
during the same war was the temporary seizure and conversion
to war purposes of Swiss and Austrian rolling-stock in Alsace,
without any apparent military necessity. Ordinaxy private
neutral property on belligerent soil, it must be remembered,
follows the fate of V^vate property generally. The only
distinction between the right of angary aiKi the right of
assimilating private neutral property to private property
generally on belligerent soil which seems based on reason is
that, whereas private property of neutrals generally which has
remained on belligerent soil is sedentary, or, so to speak, domi-
ciled there, neutral vessels are mere visitors with a distinct
external domicile. The writer thinks the assimilation of neutral
railway carriages to neutral vessels in this respect not unreason-
able.*
A neutral state in its corporate capacity, we have seen, most
abstain from acts which can be of assistance to either belligerent,
and it is bound to exercise reasonable diligence to
prevent its territory being used as a base for twHigerent
operations. The duties of a neutral state as a state
go no further. Commercial acts of its citizens, even the export
of arms and munitions of war to a beUigcrent country, do not.
ill the present state of international usage, so long as both
belligerents are free to profit by such acts alike, involve liability
on the part of the neutral state. But relief from the obligatioa
of repressing breaches of neutrality by contraband traffic of
subjects has its counterpart in the right granted to belligerent
warships of visit and search of neutral merchant vessels, and
in the possible condemnation, according to drcumstanccs, ol
the ship and confiscation of goods held to be contraband.
' Angaria (from tnrtipoi, a messenser), a post statioo. The Frendi
word kanfor or shed is probably of the same origin.
* Treaties between the Zollverctn and Spain (joth March 1868) and
between Germany and Portugal (2nd March 187a) contain spedal
prm'isions for the fixing of indemnities in case of any forecd atilis»>
tion by either ante of private property of the citiaeas of the other.
NEUTRALITY
445
Contraband is of two )dB6ar~ahsohl« oontraband, such as
anas of all kinds, madunexy for manofactunng arms, ammuni-
tiooi and any materials which are of direct application in naval
or militazy armaments; and conditional contraband, consisting
of articles which are fit for, but not necessarily of direct, applica-
tran to hostile uses. The British Admiralty Manual of Pnu
Lam (x888), following this distinction, enumerates as absduUiy
contraband: arms of all kinds and machinery for manufacturing
arms; ammunition and materids for ammunition, including
lead, sulphate of potash, muriate of potash, chlorate of potash
and nitrate of soda; gimpowder and its materials, saltpetre
and brimstone; also guncotton; military equipmenu and
clothing; military stores, naval stores, such as masts, spars,
rudders, and ship-timber, hemp and cordage, sailcloth, pitch
and tar, copper fit for sheathing vessels, marine engines and
the component parts thereof, including screw propellers, paddle
wheels, cylindov, cranks, shafts, boilers, tubes for boilers,
boiler plates and fire-bars, marine-cement and the material
used in the manufacture thereof, blue lias and Portland cements,
iron in any of the following forms — anchors, rivet iron, angle
iron, round bars of iron of from | to | of an mch diameter, rivets,
strips <A iron, sheets, plate iron exceeding | of an inch, and
Low Moor and Bowling plates;— and as conditumaUy contraband:
provisions and liquors fit for the consumption of army or
navy, money, telegraphic materiab, such as wire, porous cups,
platina, sulphuric add, materials for the construction of a
railway, such as iron bars, sleepers and so forth, coal, hay,
horses, rosin, tallow, timber.'
The classing of coal as conditional contraband has given
rise to much controversy. Great Britain has consistently bdd
^^^ g it to be so. During the war of 1870 the French and
Gem»n warships were only allowed to take at English
ports enough to return to a French or German port respectively.
In 18S5, during the Franco-Chinese campaign, after protest
by the Chinese government, Great Britain applied the same
rule at Hong-Kong and Singapore. During the Spanish-American
War neither belligerent seems to have treated coal as contraband.
In the case of the coal-ships which were prevented from landing
their cargoes at Cuba, the prevention seems to have been con-
nected with the bk>ckade only. At the West African conference
of 18S4 Russia declared that she would " categorically refuse
ber consent to any artides in any treaty, convention or instru-
ment whatever which would imply" the recognition of coal
as contraband of war {Parliamentary Papers, Africa, No. 4,
1885). Coal, however, is so essential to the prosecution of war
that it is impossible to avoid classing it as conditional contra-
band, so long as such contraband is recognized. The alternative,
of course, would be to allow both belligerenU fredy to supply
themselves at neutral ports, and neutral vessels fredy to supply
belligerent coaling sutions.
During the Franco-Chinese campaign of 1885 and the South
African War there was controversy as to the legality of treating
^_^ food-stuffs as conditional contraband. During the
2£ former the subject-matter was rice, and the drcum-
stances were exceptional. The hostilities being at
the outset reprisals, and not actual war, France at first exercised
DO right of search over British merchant ships. Great Britain,
on her side, for the same reason did not object to French war
vessels cooling, victualling and repairing at British ports.
Oa. China protesting against this indulgence to France, Great
* The Japanese Prise Law (21st Augiist 1894) makes the following
<fistiBctJoa: (i) Arms of all kinds, brimstone, dynamite, nitrate of
potssh. and all goods fit for the ourpose of war exclusively the
above-meatioaedgoods are oontmoand when they are on board a
veasd which dther has a hostik destination or calls at any port of the
enemy, (s) Provisions and liquors, money, telegraphic matenals.
such as wife, platinum, sulphuric add and rinc. porous cups, matenals
for the constructbn of a railway, as iron bars, sleepers, &c., coal,
timber and so forth: the above-mentioned goods are contraband
goods when the destination of the vessel is dther the enemy's fleet at
sea or a hostile port, used exdusively or mainly for naval or military
equipment When it b cleariy known that, though goods detailed in
the above sections I and 2 are found on board a vessel, they are
oerely for her own use, they cannot be deemed contraband goods.
Britain, as above stated, put in force her practice of treating
coal as contraband, and thereupon France exercised her corre-
sponding belligerent right of searching British vessels. The
dosing of British coaling stations to French warships was a
seriotis inconvenience to France, and she proclaimed '* that in
the circumstances in which war was being carried on " the
cargoes of rice which were being shipped to tbe northern Chinese
ports were contraband. By depriving the Chinese government
of part of the annual tribute sent from the southern provinces
in the form of rice she hoped to bring pressure on the Peking
government. This was a numifest stretching of the sense
of conditional contraband. Besides, no distinction was made
as to destination. The British government protested, but no
cases were brought into the French prize courts, and the
legality of the measure has never been judicially examined.
The controversy during the South African War was confined
to theory In practice no stoppage of food-stuffs seems to have
lakcD place, though the fact that the whole able-bodied popula-
tion of the enemy states formed the fighting force opposed to
Great Bntain made it clear that the free import of food supplies
from abroad helped the farmer-soldiers to cany on warfare
without the immediate care of raising food crops.
The two cases dted show the great difficulty of fixings the
character of conditional contraband in a way to prevent arbitrary
seizures. Dunng the Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905) there was
a warm controversy between the British and Russian govern-
ments on the scope of the belligerent right to declare
certain artides contraband. The Conf erentt of London ( 1 908-9) ,
by enumerating the artides which are absolute contraband,
limiting those which may be declared contraband, and fixing
certain artides which can in no case be declared contraband,
has endeavoured to meet the difficulties which arise in practice
(see CONTSABAMD).
Trade between neutrals has a prima fade right to go on, in
spite of war, without molestation. But if the ultimate destina-
tion of goods, though shipped first to a neutral port,
i& enemy's territory, then, according to the " doctrine 2l»«
of continuous voyages," the goods may be treated as if ^n,^,,
they had been shipped to the enemy's territory direct.
This doctrine, though Anglo-Saxon in its origin and devdop-
ment, has been put in force by an Italian court in the case of the
Dodvfijk, a Dutch vessd which was adjudged good prize on the
ground that, although bound for Jibouti, a French colonial port,
it was laden with a provision of arms of a modd which had
gone out of use, and which could only be intendnl for use by
the Abyssinians, with whom Italy was at war. The subject hi^
been fully discussed by the Institute of International Law, by
whom the following rule has been adopted: " Destination to
the enemy is presumed where the shipment is to one of the
enemy's ports, or to a neutral port, if it is tmquestioiuibly proved
by the facts that the neutral port was only a stage {itape) towards
the enemy as the final destination of a single commercial
operation."*
The question of the legality of the doctrine was raised by
Chancellor von BUlow during the South African War in connexion
with the stopping of German ships bound for Delagoa Bay, a
neutral port. He contended that such vessels were quite,
*The only person in that eminent assemblage who raited an
objection to the prindple of the doctrine was the distinguished French
wnter on maritime law, M. Desjardins, who declined to acknowledse
that any theory of continuous voyages was, or could be, consistently
with the existinji law of neutrality, juridically known to International
Law. He adimtted, at the same tmie, that penalties of contraband
would be incurred if the shipping to a neutral port were effected
merely in order " to deodve the belligerent as to the real desdnation
of the cargo.'* This was the French ruling in the Frau Hotmina case
(26th May 18^). He proposed to restrict the operation of the
doctrine to this condition, out was opposed by three Italian pro-
fessors of international law, Professors Fustnato, Catellani and
Bussati, on the ground that it would exclude, as it obviously wouM
do. the contingency of goods flipped to a neutral port, not for the
purpose of defrauding the belligerent, but for that of being ultimately
delivered to a belligerent not in possession of a seaport. The artide
as quoted in the text was also supported by the greatest German
authority on International Maritmie Law, Director Ptereb of the
German admiralty.
4+6
NEUTRALITY
at an times, outside bdUgerent jurisdiction, and that only the
authorities of the neutral port were entitled to stop contraband
on iu way to a belligetent force. He did not, however, press the
point, and only reserved the right of raising it at a future date.'
It was fully discussed at the London Conference of 190^x909.
In order to effect a compromise between conflicting theories
and practice, a distinction was made in the declaration between
absolute and conditional contraband, the doctrine of continuous
voyages not being applicable to conditional contraband when
documented to be discharged at a neutral port, except where the
enemy country has no seaboard (Declaration of London, arts.
30 to 36)
UnnnOral Serwce.— Under this heading the London Conference
of 1908-1Q09, concerning the laws of naval war, dealt with
analogues of contraband, and neutral vessels assisting or in the
service of the enemy. The articles adopted are as follows:—
A neutral veatel will be condemned and will, in a general way.
receive Che lame treatment as a neutral veatel liable to condemnation
for carriaee of contraband : (i ) If the is on a voyage specially under-
uken wi(h a view to the transport of individual pasaengetB who are
embodied in the armed forces of the enemy, or with a view to the
transmission of intelligence in the interest of the enemy. (2) If. to
the knowledge of either the owner, the charterer, or the master, she
IS transporting a miltUry detachment of the enemy, or one or more
persons who. in the course of the voyage, directly assist the operations
of the enemy.
In the cases specified under the above beads, goods belonging to
the owner of the vessel are likewise liable to condemnation.
The provisions of the present artkle do not apply if the vessel is
encountered at sea while unaware of the outbreak of hostilities, or if
the master, after becoming aware of the outbreak of hostilities, has
had no opportunity of disembarking the passengers. The vessel is
deemed to be aware of the existence of a state of war if she krft an
enemy port subsequently to the outbreak of hostilities, or a neutral
port subsequently to the notification oi the outbreak of hostilities
to the power to which such pan bcbnss. provided that such notifica-
tion was made in sufficient time. (Art. 43.)
A neutral vessel will be condemned and, m a general way. receive
the same treatment as would be applicable to her if she were an enemy
merchant vessel: (i) If she takes a direct part in the hostilities;
(3) If she is under the orders or control of an agent placed on board
by the enemy government ; (3) If she is in the exclusive employment
of the enemy government; u) If she is exclusively engaged at the
time either in the transport of enemy troops or in the transmission of
intellisence in the interest of the enemy.
In the caSes covered by the present article, goods belongidg to the
owner of the vessel are hkewise liable to condemnation. (Art. 46.)
Any individual embodied in the armed forces of the enemy who is
found on board a neutral merchant vessel may be made a prisoner
of war, even though there be no ground for the capture of the
v e ss el . (Art. 47.)
The procedure empbyed to ascertain whether a neutral
vessel carries contraband or not is called VisU and Starch (see
Seaech), a belligerent right universally recognized
„^^!^ And justified by the considerations that merchant
ships of the enemy might evade capture by hoisting
a neutral flag, if the belligerent had not the right of ascertaining
the real character of the ship, and that private neutral vessels
might carry contraband goods and generally help the enemy,
if the belligerent had not the right of examining their cargo.
All neutral private vessels in time of war are liable to visit by
belligerent warships on the high seas and in the territorial waters
of the belligerents, but not in the territorial waters of neutral
states. Neutral public ships are not liable to visit (see above as
to neutral public ships, mail ships, and convoy). Visit and
search must be effected at every stage with " as much considera-
tion as possible " (Herr von BOlow, in Reichstag, xgth January
xgoo). The visiting officer first examines the ship's papers.
If satisfied that the vessel is not liable to detention, he immedi-
ately quits her. If not so satisfied^ he proceeds to search her.
If in the course of the search be is satisfied that the vessel is
not liable to detention, the search is immediately discontinued.
The visiting officer has the right to inspect any lockers, stores or
boxes, and in case of refusal to open them he is justified in using
such coercive measure as the case warrants. If after the visit
and search the commander has reason to entertain suspicion
he gives the master an opportunity of explanation, and if the
> Pork Paptrs, Africa, Na i (1900). pp. 14. 25.
explanation is ussatlsfactoiy he detains the vessel. If the
seixure turns out after all not to have been justified, the ship and
cargo are immediately released and compensation is due for the
loss through the detention. In the case of the stoppage and
search of (German vessels during the South African War, the
German government proposed the appointment of arbitrators
to dedde upon the claims for compensation but this wu an
innovation to which the British government did not assent.
Resistance to search entails consequences which Art. 63
of the Declaration of London (X908-X909) has expressed aa
follows. —
Forcible restsunce to the legitimate exercise of the right of
stoppage, search and capture involves in all cases the condemnation
of the vessel The cargo is liable to the same treatment as the cargo
of an enemy vessel Goods bebnging to the master or owner of tne
vessel are treated as enemy goods.
The consequence of carrying contraband are capture, triel
by a beUigerent prize court, and possible confiscaUon of the
ship and cargo, or of the cargo alone or of a part of
the cargo, according to the facts of the case. All are fjy^;^
agreed as to articles which are absolute contraband SZT^ate
being liable to capture. As regards conditional con-
traband, British law,* in so far, at least, as concerns *'jiavil
and victualling stores." is less severe, the Lords of the Admiralty
being entitled to purchase such stores without condemnatbn
in a prize court. In practice such purchases are made at the
nuirket value of the goods, with an. additional xo% for loss
of profit. This proceeding is known in International Law as
the right of pre-emption. It is not, however, as yet officially
recognized on the continent of Europe, though the need of
some palliative for confiscation, in certain cases, is fdt, and
some continental jurists, moved by the same de^re to distiiiguish
unmbtakable from so to speak constructive contraband, and
protect trade against the vexatbn of uncertainty, have tried
to argue conditional contraband away altogether.
The tendency, however, among the majority of continental
authorities is seen in the rule drawn up in 1895, after several
years of discussion, by the Institute of International Law, a
body composed exclusively of international jurists of acknow-
ledged standing. The majority which adopted it represents
authoritative opinion in Germany, Denmark, Italy, Holland and
France, showing that the old antagonism between the British
and continental views on conditional contraband has ceased
to exist. To prevent confusion the Institute declares 000-
ditional CM^otentf abolished, and then adds that '*iicverthe>
less, the belligerent has, at his option and on condition of paying
an equitabb indemnity, a riffd of sequesiralion or prt-trnpUon
as to articles iobjtis) which, on their way to a port of the enemy,
may serve equally for use in war or in peace.** The proposed
rule goes beyond the directions of the British Prize Act, and it
could only come into operation under a verbal aJteratbn of the
Declaration of Paris, under which " contraband " alone b
excepted from the protection of the neutral flag, a fact which
seems to have escaped the notice of the Institute. British
prize law is at present governed by the Prize Act of 1864.
This act roust be overhauled to meet the requirements of
the new international Uw of the subject; the creation of an
International Court of Appeal and the new rules adopted by the
conferences of the Hague and London will make many changes
necessary.
Absolute Duties of Neutrals.^The very sense of neutrality
obviously implies abstention from direct corporate assistance.
The duty of neutral states to enforce respect for their emt^im'
territory has become a very serious one. A belligerent momtmt
cannot be albwed to cross the neutral frontier or carry ntmt mr
on war operations in neutral waten, without the same ""^
right being granted to the other belligerent. Pursuit of "
one force by the other would amount to waging war on the
neutral territory It is agreed among natbns that the
avoidance of such a contingency is in the interat of them sfl.
During the Franco-German War both France and Germany,
* The Naval Prize Act 1864. sect. ^
NEUTRALITY
447
as beDigerents, tnd Belgium and England, as neutrals, rigorously
observed their duties and enforced their rights, and no difficulty
occurred It is, nevertheless, conceivable that, under pressure
of military necessity, or on account of an overwhelming inurest,
a powerful belligerent state would cross the territory of a weak
neutral state and leave the consequences to diplomacy. The
South African War was exceptional, in that the Portuguese
govermnent exposed itself to no international difficulty through
allowing a belUgerent, whose final victory was certain, and of
necessity entailed total suppression of the conquered belligerent,
to cross its colonial territory. At the same time it is an unfor-
tunate precedent of taking advantage of the practical power-
lessness of neighbouring neutral states to conunit a violation
of the law of tuitions, respect for which it is a primary duty of
every self-respecting state to encourage.*
If, by inadvertence or otherwise, belligerent soldiers pass
the frontier, they have to be turned back. If they claim the
droit d^asikt they are arrested, disarmed, and kept in
such a manner as to render it impossible for them to
take any further part in the hostilities. In the case of territorial
waters, as has already been pointed out, the neutral state is not
in the same position as on land, all ships without distinction
having a right of iniMcent passage through them. Belligerent
ships also have the right to enter neutral ports, but the neutral
authority is bound to take precautions to prevent any favour
bdng shown to the one party or the other.*
^The right of way claimed and acceded to under the Anglo-
Portuguese Treaty of nth June 1891 was a mere right of transit for
merchandise, and could not in any way be construed as diminishing
Che neutral obligation to a belligerent who was ho party to the treaty.
* The rules laid down on this subject by the British authorities
duriog the Spanish-American War were as ioliows: — *
jRuJe I. — Durinc the continuance of the prenent state of war all
■hips of war of cstner belligerent are prohibited from making use of
any port or roadstead in the United Kingdom, the Isle of Man or the
Channd Islands, or of any of Her Majesty's colonies or foreign
poseeaoions or dependencies, or of any waters subject to the territorial
jurisdiction of the British crown, as a station or place of resort for
any warlike purpose, or for the purpoae of obtaining any facilities for
wariike equipment; and no ship of war of either belligerent shall
hereafter oe permitted to leave such port, roadstead or waters from
which any vessel of the other belligerent (whether the same shall be
a ship of war or a merchant ship) shall have previously departed until
after the expiration of at least twenty-four hours from the departure
cf such bst-mentioned vessel beyond the territorial jurisdiction of
Her Majesty.
Rule 2. — If there is now in any such port, roadstead or waters
feubject to the territorial jurisdiction of the Britbh crown any ship
of war of either bdligerent. such ship shall leave such port, roacbteac].
or waters within such time, not Icssf han twenty-four hours, as shall
be reaaooable. having regard to all the circumstances and the con-
dition of such ship as to repairs, provisions or things necessary for the
suttst^eoce o( her crew, and if after the date hereof any ship of war
of either belligerent shall enter any such port, roadstoul or waters
tabiect to the territorial jurisdkrtion of the British crown, such ship
shan depart and put to sea within twenty-four hoursafter her entrance
into any such port, roadstead or waters, except in case of stress of
weather, or of her requiring provisions or things necessary for the
subsistence of her crew, or repairs; in either of such cases the
authorities of the port, or the nearest port (as the case may be), shall
require her to put to sea as soon as possible after the expiration of
such period of twenty-four hours, without permitting her to take in
any mppUes beyond what may be necessary for her immediate use ;
and no such vessd which may have been allowed to remain within
British waters for the purpoae of repair shall continue in any such
port, roadstead or waters for a longer period than twenty-four hours
after her necessary repairs shall nave been completed. Provided,
nevertheless, that in all cases in which there shall be any vesseb
(whether ships of war or merchant ships) of both the said belligerent
parties in the. same port, roadstead or waters within the temtorial
jurisdiction of Her Majesty, there shall be an interval of not lesa than
twenty-four hours between the departure therefrom of any such
vesad (whether a ship of war or merchant ship) of the one belligerent
and the subsequent departure therefrom of any ship of war of the
other beSigerent. and the time hereby limited for the departure of
iodi ships of war respectively shall always, in case of necessity, be
extended so far as may be requisite for giving effea to this proviso,
but no further or otherwise.
Rule 3.-~No ship of war of either belligerent shall hereafter be per-
mitted, while in any such port, roadstead or waters subiect to the
territorial jurisdiction of Her Majesty, to take in any supplies, ement
pmv i si u os and such other things as mav be requisite for the sub-
McttH DuiUs of Neuirals.—'Reiatlve duties embrace those
duties which dtixens are bound to observe and for which states
innir a relative responsibility. It was the non-observ-
ance of these relative duties that led to difficulties 2!S^
between Great Britain and the United States at the momi, «a
close of the American Civil War and which brought
the two countries themselves to the verge of conflict. The
Treaty of Washington (8th May 187 1) referring these difficultiea
to arbitration defined the scope of the duties in question for
all future purposes between the two peoples (see below, " Pro-
clamations of Neutrality ")• Under this treaty the parties bind
themselves to use " due diligence," where they have " reasonable
ground " to believe that any acu have a belligerent character,
in " preventing " them. They are botmd to prevent —
(x) Fitting out, arming, or equipping any vessel;
(3) The departure from their jurisdiction of any vessel, having
been specially adapted in whole or in part within such jurisdiction
to warlike uses;
(3) The making use by a belligerent of their ports or waters
as a base of naval operations against thd other;
(4) The making use thereof for the purpose of the renewal
or augmenting of military supplies or arms;
(s) The making use thereof for the recruitment of men.
The contracting states undertook to bring the rules they
adopted on this subject to the knowledge of other maritime
powers, and to invite them to adopt them also, but nothing
was ever done to get them accepted among other states. Pro-
vision had already been made to enable the government to
carry them out in the Foreign Enlistment Act( 9th August 2870).
This act, which repealed the previous one of 18x9 on the
same subject, is minute in its provisions to prevent enlisting
or recruiting men, or the building or the equipping of vessels,
for the military service " of a foreign state at war with a friendly
state." Other states, except the United States (which
adopted a simihur act), have not followed the example of Great
Britain, but leave it to their govemmenU to deal with the cases,
when they may arise, as matters of public safety.*
There was evident relucunce among foreign states to commit
themselves to the obligation of exercising " due diligence.** It is
clear that the duty of a sute to forbear from committing any act
which may be of assistance to either bdligerent can never be formu>
lated as an absolute one in regard to the acts of private persons,
merely within the neutral jurisdiction. In recent times it has
certainly become possible for states to exercise a more effective
control than formeriy over these acts; but at the present moment,
though a much greater latitude is left to neutral subjects and citizens
than IS consistent with the idea of strict neutrality, there is no move-
ment to alter the usages to the disadvantage oi neutral interests.
That the (Geneva Arbitral Tribunal found in favour of the United
States in the " Ahbama ** case in no way implied that International
Law had u ndcrgone any change. The tribunal was bound by the ante>
cedent fixation of the Washington rules, and laid down no new prin-
ciple. On the other hand, the magnitude of the (Geneva award was not
likely to promote change in the direction of increasing neutral duties,
except as part of a general regulation of neutral and belligerent rights.
The whole subject was laid before the Hague Conference of, 1907,
which adopted the main principles of the rules enunciated in the
Treaty of Washington (see Art. 8 of the Convention relating to the
rights and duties of neutral sutes in maritime war).
sistence of her crew, and except so much <5oal only as may be sufficient
to carry such vessel to the nearest port of her own country or to some
nearer destination; and no coal shall again be supplied to any such
ship of war in the same or any other port, roadstead or waters
subject to the territorial jurisdiction of Her Majesty, without special
permisHon, until after the expiration of three months from the time
when such coal may have been last supplied to her within British
waters as aforesaid.
Rule 4.— Armed ships of either belligerent are interdicted from
carrying prizes made by them into the ports, harbours, roadsteads or
watere otthe United Kingdom, the Isle of Man, the Channel Islands,
or any df Her Majesty's colonies or possessions abroad.
' The French Penal Code, however, conuins the following clauses
covering the government's powers in this respect . —
Abt 84.--\Vhoever shall by hostile acta, not approved by the
(Government, ejcpose the Sute to a declaration of war. shall be
punished by banishment, and should war folk>w. by deportatioiL
Abt 85.— Whoever shall, by acts not approved by the (kjvemment.
expose Frenchmen to the nak of repn»ls, shall be punished by
banishment
448
NEUTRALITY
To some, extent the difficulty of determiniiig the extent of
relative neutral duty is overcome by the issue of proclamations
of neutrality; but neutrality and its rights and duties
JJJJJj^"* are in no respect dependent on their being proclaimed
meattmlK} ^X ^^ neutral power. Germany issues no proclama-
* tion; at least the German empire has issued none in
connexion with the different wars which have taken place since
1870. The Austro-Hungarian government during the same
period only in the case of the war of 1870 itself, and in 1877, issued
proclamations, and these probably had objects outside the
ordinary purposes of prodamationa of neutrality, and its usual
practice is the same as that of Germany. France usually issues
a short general proclamation, and Great Britain a more detailed
one, which must be as old as the " ancient custom " of its being
publicly read from the steps of the Royal Exchange by the
sergeant-at-arms and common crier of the City of London.*
The British proclamation practically recites the Foreign Enlist-
ment Act 1870 (an act to regulate the conduct of His Majesty's
subjects during the existence of hostilities between foreign states
with which His Majesty is at peace), admonishes all persons
entitled to British protection to observe and respect the exercise
of those belligerent rights which " We and Our Royal Predecessors
have always claimed to exercise," and warns them that any such
persons *' breaking, or endeavouring to break, any blockade
lawfully and actually established " by either belligerent, " or
carrying officers, soldiers, despatches, arms, ammunition, mUitary
stores, or materials, or article or articles, considered and deemed
to be contraband of war, according to the law or modem usages
of nations, for the use or service " of either belligerent, " rightfully
incur, and are justly liable to, hostile capture and to the penalties
denounced by the law of nations in that behalf." During the
South African War no proclamation of neutrality was issued by
any country.
Proclamations of neutrality may be made to serve the twofold
purpose of warning the belligerent of the length to which the neutral
government considers neutral duty to extend, and neutral subiccts
of the exceptional measures to which a foreign war exposes tnem.
They may also be used to give effect to any modification of neutral
right or duty which the neutral state may consider warranted by
special or altered drcumstancea.
No purely mercantile transactions are considered a violation
of neutrality. Six years before the American Civil War, President
g^ ^ Pierce, in his message to the Thirty-fourth Congress,
armmamt first session, made the following statement: — "The
mmaumh laws of the United Sutes do not forbid their dtixens
^'^^ to sell to either of the belligerent powers articles of
contraband of war, or to take mtwitions of war or
soldiers on board their private ships for transportation; and
although in so doing the individual exposes his person or property
to some of the hazards of war, his acts do not involve a breach
of the national neutrality, nor of themselves implicate the
government." This statement of international practice has been
confirmed by art. 7 of the Hague Convention of October 18,
X907, on the Rights and Duties of Neutral States and Persons
on Land (see below).
During the Franco-German War there was correspondence
between the Prussian diplomatic representatives in London and
at Washington and the British and United Sutes foreign
secretaries concerning shipments of arms and ammunition to the
French armies, in which the Prussian government contended
that it was incompatible with strict neutrality that French
agents should be permitted to buy up in the neutral country,
under the eyes and with the cognizance of the neutral govern-
ment, "many thousands of breech-loaders, revolvers, and
pistols, with the requisite ammunition, in order to arm there-
with the French people, and make the formation of fresh
army corps possible after the regular armies of France had
been defeated and surrounded." Nothing, however, was done
to prevent the departure of these supplies. Both the British
and United States governments daimed entire liberty for
the traffic in question.
< The Times, 28th April 1898.
In the case of loans publicly issued or raised on neutral territory
the position is a little different, inasmuch as the neutral suie
is necessarily cognizant of the fact. No restriction, ggg^gg^
however, is imposed by international usage, and imama^a
provided the same rights are granted to both belli-
gerents, either or both can raise money ad libUnm in
neutral countries. Thus neutral states did not prevent the issue
on their territory of the Russian war loan of 1876-1877. Nor in
the war of 1894 between China and Japan was any opposition
made by Japan to the raising of the Chinese loan in London.
Art. 18 of the Hague Convention on the Rights and Duties of
Neutral States and Persons on Land (see below) confirms the
existing practice.
Neutrality Reforms. — At the Hague Peace Conference 1899
a suggestion was agreed to, without discussion, that a further
state conference should be held for the purpose-
of dealing specially with neutrality. At the Con- <
ference of 1907 this was done, with the result that '
two fairly exhaustive conventions were "wiopt^- .JJflSJ*"*
The general provisions relating to neutrality are
as follow: —
Art. I. — Neutral territory is inviolable.
Art. 2. — Belligerents are forbidden to send troops or convcws
either of munitions of war or of provisions through the territory 01 a
neutral state.
Art. 3. — Belligerents are also forbidden: —
(a) To instal, on the territory of a neutral state, a radio-telegraphic
station or any apparatus intended to serve as a means of communica-
tion with the belligerent forces on land or sea;
Jb) To make use of any installation of like nature, erected by them
ore the war, on the territory of the neutral state, for an ex-
clusively military purpose, and which has not been opened to the
service of public correspondence.
Art. 4. — Bodies of combatants shall not be formed or recniiting
otRxxa opened on territory of a neutral power for the benefit of tm
belligetents.
Art. 5. — ^A neutral state shall not allow on its territory any of tho
acu mentioned in arts. 2 to ^. It is only bound to repress acts
contrary to neutrality in case tncy have been committed on its own
territory.
Art. 6. — ^A neutral state is not responable where individuals
separately pass the frontier to place themselves at the dispoial of
either benigercnt.
Art. 7. — ^A neutral state is not bound to prevent eacportation or
transit for the account of either belligerent, of arms, munitions of
war, and, in general, of anything which may be useful for an army
or a fleet.
Art. 8. — ^A neutral state is not bound to ^ohibit or restrict the
use, for bdligerents, of telegraphic or tekiphonic cables, or of wireless
telegraphy apparatus, which are its property or that of compamcs
or private individuals.
Art. 9. — ^Any prohibitive or restrictive measures adopted by a
neutral state relattve to the matten mentioned in arts. 7 and 8 shall
be applied uniformly by it to both belligerents. The neutral state
shall see that this obligation is observed by companies or private
individuab owning tek^phic or telephonic cables or wirckas tele-
graphic apparatus.
Art. 10. — ^The act by a neutral state of resisting any violation of
its neutrality, even by lorce of arms, cannot be reg^udcd as an act of
hostility.
Art. ii.^A neutral state receiving, on its territory, troops
belonging to the belligerent armies, shall, as far as possible, keep
them disunt from the area of hostilities.
It may keep them in camps, and even shut them up in fortified
places, or in places suitable for this purpose. It shall decide whether
officera may be left at liberty or parole not- to leave the neutral
territory without authorization.
Art. 12. — ^When there is no ncdal convention a neutral state
shall supply Internal prisoners with food, clothing, and the aid which
humanity calls for. When peace u established, the cost of kcc|Mng
the priaonere shall be reimburKd.
Art. 13. — ^A neutral state reodviiffi escaped prisottcra of war sfaafl
leave them at liberty. If it allows them to stay on its territory, it
may appoint a place of residence for them. The same rule is-appfi-
cable to priaonera of war brought by troops taking refuge on ncatral
territory.
Art. 14.— a neutral sute may authorize the passage on its
territory of wounded or sick belonging to the belligerent amues, 00
condition that the trains which carry them shall transport none of
the fighting force and no materiab of war. In such a case, the
neutral state is bound to Uke the necessary steps to ensure safety
and controL
The wounded or sick brought in these drcumstanoes into neutral
territory by one of the belligerents, and betonging to the enemy,
ahall be detained by the neutral sUte in such a way that they cannot
NEUTRALITY
+49
Main take part in the hoitflitiet. This oeutn! state ihall diacharae
the same dutiea if it be entrusted with the wounded or sick of the
other army.
Akt. 15. — ^The Geneva Convention applies to sack and wounded
interned on neutral territory (iceGBNKVA Comvbktion).
Art. 16. — ^Thc natives of a state not taking part in the hostilities
are considered as neutrals.
Art. ij.^A neutral person cannot take advantage of hb neu-
trality: —
(a) If he commits hostile acM against a belligerent;
(b) If he commits acts in favour oia belligerent, for instance, if he
voluntarily takes service in the ranks of the army of one of the
parties.
In such a case the neutral shall not be treated with more severity
by the belligerent against whom he has acted in contravention ot
his neutrality than a native of the other belligerent state would be
for the same act.
Akt. 18. — ^The following shall not be considered as acts committed
in favour of one of the belligerents, in the sense of Art. 17 (b): —
(a) Supplies or loans made to one of the belligerents provided the
purveyor or the lender inhatnts neither the territory of the other
party nor territory occu(>ied by it. and provided the supplies do not
come from these territones;
{b) Services rendered in matters of police or civil administration.
Art. to. — Railway property coming from the territory of neutral
states, whether it belongs to these states or to companies or to
private neraons, and recognizable as such, cannot be requisitioned or
utilized Dy a belligerent, except in such cases and in such a manner
as dictated by absolute necessity. Such property shall be returned
to its country of origin as soon as possible.
The neutral state can even, in case of necesuty, keep and utilise to
that extent property coiAing from the territory of a belligerent state.
An indemnity shall be paid, proportionate to the amount of the
property utilized and the duration of utilization.
The clauses of the Convention relating exclusively to neutrality
in naval war, which are still fuller, are: — .
Art. I. — Belligerentsare bound to resfxct the sovereign
righu of neutral powers and to abstain, either on the terri-
tory or in neutral waters, from all acts whuh might con-
stitute in the part of the oowers permitting them a non-
observann of their neutrality.
Art. 2. — AH acts of hostility, including capture and the
i of the right of visit and search, by. belligerent ships of war
io the territorial waters of a neutral power, constitute a breach
of neutralitv and are strictly forbidden.
Art. 3.— -when a vessel has been captured in theteiritorial waters
of a neutral power, thb power shaU, if the prize is still within its
jurisdictkm, use all means in its power to effect the release of
the prize and its ofhcers and crew, and that the crew placed on
board by the captor shall be interned. If the prize is out of the
jurisdiction of the neutral power, the capturine government shall, on
the request of the former, release the pnze with its oflkers and crew.
Art. 4. — No prize court can be constituted by a belligerent on
neutral territory or on a vessel in neutral waters.
Art. 5. — Belligerents are forbidden to make neutral ports and
waters the base of naval operations against their adversaries,
etnecially by installing radio-telegraphic stations or any apparatus
wtach may serve as means of communication with belligerent forces
00 sea or on land.
Art. 6. — ^The supply, under any ground whatever, «ther directly
or indirectly, by a neutral power to a belligerent power, of ships of
war. or of munitions or of material of war ojf any kind, is forbidden.
Art. 7. — A neutral power is not bound to prevent the exportation
or transit, for the account of either belligerent, of arms, munitions of
war, or, in general, of anything which may be useful to an army or a
fleet.
Art. 8. — ^A neutral government is bound to use the means at its
disposal to prevent, within its jurisdiction, the equipping or arming
of any vessel, which it has any reasonable suspicion otbetng destined
to act as a cruiser or to join in hostile operations against a power with
wfafch it is at peace.
It b also bodnd to exercise the same surveillance to prevent the
departure out of its jurisdiction of any vessel intending to act as a
cruiser or take part in hostile opentionsj and which, within the said
jurisdiction, may have been adapted either wholly or in part for
wariike purposes. ........
Art. q.—A neutralpower must apply eg ually to the two beUigerents
the restrictions, conditions and interdictions specified by it relating
to admission to its ports, roadsteads, or territorial waters, with respect
to ships of war or their prizes.
A neutral power may, however, forbid access to its ports and road-
steads, to any bellinrent vessel which may have neglected to comply
with the orders ano directkms issued by it or may have committed a
breach of neutrality. ... . ....
Art. la — ^The neutrality of a power is not compronused by the
simple passage thrcmgh its territorial waters of belligerent ships of
war andof their prizes.
Art. 11. — ^A neutral power may aUow ships 01 war 01 belligerents
to maike use of its licensed iMlots.
Art. I2.~!n default of other special provisions in the laws of a
neutral posrer, ships of war of belligerents are forbidden to remain
in the ports or roadsteads or in tte territorial waters of the said
power for more than twenty-fou
for by the present Conventkm.
r more than twenty-four hours, except in the cases provided
Art. 13. — If a power which has received notice of the commence-
ment of hostilities learns that a ship of war of a bcll^erent is in one
of its poets and roadsteads or in its territorial waters, it shall notify
the said ship that it must leave within twenty-four hours or within
the time prescribed by the local law.
Art. 14. — ^Abelliserentship of war may not prolong iu stay in a
neutral port beyond the legal period, except for the purpose of re-
pairing damage or bV reason of the state of the sea. It must leave as
soon as the cause 01 the delay has ceased.
The rule&relating to the limitation of stay in ports, roadsteads, and
neutral waters do not apply to ships of war exclusively employed on
religious, scientific or philanthropic missions.
Art. is, — Indcfaultof other special provinons in the laws of the
neutral power, Hie maximum number of ships of war of a belligerent
which may be at the same time in one of its ports or roadsteads shall
be three.
Art. 16. — ^When ships of war of two belligerents are at the same
time in a neutral port or roadstead, twenty-lour hours at least must
elapse between the departure of the ship of either belligerent before
that of the other.
The order of departure shall be regulated by the order of arrival,
unless the vcssd arriving first is entitled to a prolongation of the
legal period of its sUy.
A belligerent ship of war may not leave a neutral port or road-
stead until at least twenty-four houre after the departure of a
merchant vessel carrying the flag of its adversary.
Art. 17. — In neutral ports and roadsteads, belligerent ships of
war may only repair damage to the extent indispensable for their
seaworthiness, and may not, in any way, increase their military
strength. The neutral authority will ascertain the nature of the
repairs to be executed, which shall be carried out as rapidly as
possible.
Art. 18. — Belligerent ships of war may not make use of neutral
ports, roadsteads and territorial waten for the purpose of renewing
or increasing their military equipment or armarient or for com-
pleting their crews.
Art. 10. — Belligerent ships may not revictual in neutral ports or
roadsteads, except to complete tneir normal supplies as in time^of
peace. These ships may also only take on board the fuel necessary
for the purpose 01 reaching the nearest port of their own country.
They may also take in fuel sufficient to fiU up their bunkers properly
so called if they are in a neutral country whkrh has adopted this
method of fixing the amount of fuel to be supplied.
If, according to the law of the neutral power, ships may only
receive coal twenty-four houn after their arrival, the legal period of
their stay is prolonged for twenty-four hours.
Art. ao. — Belligerent shipsof war which have taken in fuel in the
port of a neutral power cannot renew their supply in a port of the
same power within three months.
Art. 21. — A prize may not be brought into a neutral port except
by reason of its unseaworthiness, or of the stress of weather or of
insufficiency of fuel or provisions. It must leave again as soon as the
cause of iu entry has ceased. If it does not do so. the neutral power
shall give it notice to leave immediately, and in the event of its not
complying therewith, the neutral power shall use the means at its
disposal to release it with its officere and crew and intern, the crew
placed on board by the captor.
Art. 23. — ^The neutral power shall also release any prize whkh has
been brought in not in accordance irith the conditions laid down in
Art. 21.
Art. 33.~^A neutral power may allow access to its ports and road-
steads to prizes, whether escorted or not, when they have been
brought there to be left in sequestration pending the decision of a
prize court. It may have the pnze conducted to any other of itsports.
If the CHize is escorted by a ship of war, the officers ana men
placed on board by the captor are allowed to go on board the escorting
ship.
If the prize is navigating alone, the persmnd placed on board is set
at liberty.
Art. 24.— If , in spite of notice from the neutral authority, a
belligerent ship of war does not leave a port in which it has no right
to rem^n. the neutral power has the right to take such steps as it
may think proper to render the ship incapable of going to sea during
the continuance of the war, and the commander of the diip must
facilitate the taking of such steps. When a belligerent ship is detained
by a neutral power, the officen and crew are also detained.
The officere and crew thus deuined may be left on board the ship
or lodged on board another vessel or on shore, and they may be
subjected to such restrictive measures as may be considered necessaiy
to be imposed on them. In any event, sufficient men must be left
on board the ship to keep it In onier.
The officere may be released on giving their parole not to leave the
neutral territory without permission.
Art. 3S.>-A neutral power is bound to exercise the surveillance
of which the means in its power admit, to prevent within its
450
NEUVILLE— NEVADA
ports or roadsteads and in its waters any violation of the preceding
provisions.
Art. 26.— The exercise by a neutral power of the righu defined by
the present Convention can never be considered as an unfriendly act
by either bellM»rent who has accepted the articles rdating thereto.
Art. 27. — ^The contracting powers will communicate to each other,
as soon as feasible, all the laws, ordinances and other provisions
which within their jurisdiction govern belligerent ships of war in
their ports and waters, by means of a notification addressed to the
government of the Netherlands and immediately transmitted by
the latter to the other contracting powers.
Art. 38. — ^The provisions of the present Convention are only
applicable as between contracting powers, and only if the belligerents
are all parties thereto.
Other reforms maybe expected from the Conference of 19x5.
Germany in the course of t)ie South African War and Great
Britain in that of the Russo-Japanese War showed great irrita-
tion at the stoppage of certain of their merchant vesseb, and
Great Britain in the one case had to consent io and in the other
to demand a modification of belligerent right under International
Law — a modification which, be it said, is a perfectly justifiable
one, viz. that the right of search fbr contraband of war be
restricted to a specified area. It Is probable that, in future
wars, powerful neutral states will show, In similar cases, quite as
much irritation as did Germany and Great Britain. (T. Ba.)
NEUVILLB, AlPHONSB MARIS DE (1836-1885), French
painter, was bora, the son of wealthy parents, at Saint-Omer,
France, on the jxst of May 1836. From school he went to.
college, where he took his degree of bachdier is UUres. In spite
of the opposition of his family he entered the naval school at
Lorient, and it was here, in 1856, that his artistic instincts first
declared themselves. After being discouraged by several
painters of repute, he was admitted to work in Picot's studio.
He did not remain there long, and be was painting by himself
when he produced his first picture, " The Fifth Battalion of
Chasseurs at the Gervais Battery (Malakoff)." In x86o dc
Neuville painted an " Episode of the taking of Naples by Gari>
baldi " for the Artists' Club in the Rue de Provence, and sent to
the Salon in x86x ** The Light Horse Guards in the Trenches
of the Mamelon Vert." He also illustrated le Tour du monde
and Guizot's History of Prance. At the same time he painted
a ntmiber of remarkable pictures: " The Attack in the Streets
of Magenta by Zouaves and the Light Horse" (X864), "A
Zouave Sentinel " (2865), ** The Battle of San Lorenzo " (X867).
and "Dismounted Cavalry crossing the Tchemaia" (1869).
In these be showed peculiar insight into military life, but his full
power was not reached till after the war of X870; He then aimed
at depicting in his works the episodes of that war, and began by
representing the " Bivouac before Le Bourget " (l872)< His
fame spread rapidly, and was increased by " The Last Cartridges "
(1873)1 in which it is easy to discern the vast difference between
the conventional treatment of military subjects, as practised by
Horace Vemet, and that of a man who had lived through the
life be painted. In X874 the " Fight on a Railroad " was not
less successful, and was followed by the " Attack on a House at
•Villetsezel" (X875) and the "Railway Bridge at Styring"
(1877). In 1878 the painter exhibited (not at the Great Exhibi-
tion) " Le Bourget," the " Surprise at Daybreak," " The Inter-
cepted Despatch-bearer/' and q^ considerable number of drawings.
He also exhibited in London some episodes of the Zulu War.
In x88x he was made an o£5cer of the Legion of Honour for
" The Cemetery of Saint-Privat " and " The Despatch-bearer."
During these years de Neuville was at work with Detaille on an
important though less artistic work, " The Panorama of Ren-
ville." De Neuville died in Paris on the x8th of May X885.
At the sale of his works the state purchased for the Luxembourg
the " Bourget " and the " Attack on a Barricaded House," with
a water-colour " The Pariey," and a drawing of a ** Turco in
Fighting Trim."
See Montxosier, Les Peintros nUUtaires (Paris, 1881), "De Neuville,"
in Goseds des boaux arts (Paris, 1885).
NBUWBILER, a town of Germany, in the imperial province
of Alsace-Lorraine, situated under the Vosges Mountains, 6 m.
N. from Zabera by the railway to Rastatt. Pop. (X905) 1906.
It is an interesting medieval town, still surrounded by waDs.
The Romanesque Evangelical church dates from the xsth
century; there are also a Romanesque Roman Catholic church,
which was restored in 1852, a synagogue, and an old town-hail.
The town has a considerable trade in hops and wine. Above
it rise the ruins of the fortress of Herrenstein, and of the castk
of'Hiineburg.
Sec F'ucheT,(ksckkkted£rAbteiuudStadtNeuueiier(Zabem, 1876).
NEUWIED, a town of (}crmany, in the Prussian Rhine
province, the capital of the mediatized countship of Wied, is
situated on the right bank of the Rhine, 8 m. below Coblenz, on
the railway from Frankfort on-Main to Cok>gne. Pop. (1905)
x8,x77. The prindpal edifice is the ch&teau of the princes of
Wied. This is situated in a fine park, and contains a collection
of Roman antiquities. The town has an EvangeUcal and a
Roman Catholic church. Its chief products are starch, sugar,
tobacco, cigars, chicory, buttons and enamelled ^oods. There
are large rolling-mills, and in the vicinity are several large iron-
foundries. The schools of Neuwied-enjoy a high repuUtion.
Neuwied was founded by Count Frederick of Wied in 1662,
on the site of the village of Langendorf, which was destroyed
during the Thirty Years'' War, and it rapidly increased owing
to the toleration accorded to all religious sects. Among those
who sought refuge here was a colony of Moravian Brethren;
they still occupy a separate quarter of the town, where they carry
on manufactures of porcelain stoves and deerskin gloves. Near
Neuwied one of the largest Roman castra on the Rhine has been
excavated. In April X797 the French, under General Hoche,
defeated the Austrians near Neuwied, this being their first decisive
success in the revolutionary wars. Legenhaus, in the neighbour-
hood, is one of the residences of the princes of Weld.
See Wirtgen and Blenke, Neuwied tmd seine Umiebung (Neuwied,
1901).
NEVA, a river of Russia, which carries off into the Gulf of
Finland the waters of Lakes Ladoga, Onega, Umen and many
smaller basins. It issues from the south-west corner of Lake
Ladoga in two channels, which are obstructed by sandstone reefs,
so that the better of the two has a depth of only 7 to x6 ft. A
little farther down it becomes completely navigable, and attains
a breadth of 4200 ft.; but between the village of Ostrovki and
that of Ust Tosna it passes over a limestone bed, which produces
a series of rapids, and reduces the width of the river from J050
to 840 and that of the navigable passage from 350 to 175 ft-
Nine or ten miles before reaching iu outfall the river enten St
Petersburg, and 5 or 6 m. lower down breaks up into the Great
Neva (850 to 1700 ft. wide), the Little Neva (945 to 1365), and
the Great Nevka (280 to 1205), this last, 2 m. farther on, sending
off the Little Nevka (370 to XX30 ft). Its total length is only
40 m. In front of the delta are sandbanks and xocks which pie-
vent the passage of vessels except by a canal, x8 m. long, 1 24
to 226 ft. wide, and admitting vessels with a draught of x8| ft.,
from Kronstadt to St Petersburg. Most of its alluvial burden
being deposited in the bkes, the Neva takes a long time to alter
its channels or extend its delta. The ordinary rise and faU of
the river is comparatively slight, but when the west wind blows
steadily for a long time, or when Lake Ladoga sends down its
vast accumulations of block-ice, inundations of a dangenNis
kind occur, as in X777, X824, 1879 and X903.
According to observatbns extending from 1706 to 1899, the mean
day of the freezing of the Neva is November 2«h, the earlirst
October 28th, the latest January 9th, and the next latest December
26th. The mean day of openingis April 21st, the eariicst March
i8th, and the latest May 12th. The moan number of days open is
218, the least 172, the greatest 279,
NEVADA (a Spanish word meaning " snow-dad " or *' snowy
land," originally applied. to a snow-capped mountain range on
the Pacific slope), one of the far western states of the American
Union, lying between 35** and 42* N. and xz4* z' 34' and xso*
x' 34' W. (37" and 43** W. of Washington). It b bounded N.
by Oregon and Idaho, E. by Utah and Arixona, the Colondo
sQver separating it in part from the latter state, and S. and W.
by California. Nevada ranks sixth in size among the states el
the Union. Of its total area of 1x0,690 sq, m., 869 sq. m. are
NEVADA
451
water surface. lU extieme length, N. and S., is 484 oIm tnd Its
extreme wfdtb, E. and W., b 33 z m. (For map, see CAuroRNZA.)
Pkysicgrapky.—Wnh the exception of its N.E. and S.E.
corners, the state lies wholly within the Great Basin, the floor
of which is really a vast table^land between 4000 and 5000 ft.
above the sea. This plateau, however, is not a plain, but con-
tains many buttes and mesas and isolated mountain ranges
rising from 1000 to 8000 ft. above its surface. In the N.E. an
unnamed range of highlands, with an E. and W. trend, forms
the water-parting between the streams tributary to the Hum-
boldt river in Nevada and those that flow into the Snake river
through Idaho and Oregon and thence to the Pacific Ocean.
This range is very broken and ill-defined, with peaks often reaching
altitudes of from 9000 to 12,000 ft., and with numerous spurs
diverging N. and S. from the main divide. Between this ridge
and Uie valley of the Colorado river lies all that portion of the
Great Basin included within the state. The surface of this
table-land is very nigged, and frequently broken by mountain
ranges running N. and S. and from 5 to ao m. wide at their
bases. Intersecting the mountains are numerous ravines and
passes. Between the ranges lie valleys of about the same width
as the bases of the mountains. Thes^ valleys are generally level-
floored, but at their borders gradually slope upward, and are
filled, often to a depth of several thousand feet, with the detritus
of gravel, sand and silt from the neighbouring hills. This is a
region of innumerable faulted crust blocks, the elevated ones
creating the N. and S. mountain ranges, and the depressed ones
the valleys that lie between. It is for this reason that the
mountain slopes are generally more abrupt on one side than on
the other. Several valleys often unite into a large elevated
plain, broken only by scat tered buttes and spurs. The combined
areas of the valleys and the area occupied by the mountains are
about equaL
The mean elevation of the sUte is 5500 ft. There are 5400
sq. m. between aooo and 3000 ft. above the sea; 11,100 sq. m.
between 3000 and 4000 ft.; 23,700 sq. m. between 4000 and
sooo. ft.; 29,800 sq. m. between 5000 and 6000 ft.; 30,100 sq. m.
between 6000 and 7000 ft.; 7800 sq. m. between 7000 and
8000 ft.; and 3800 sq. m. between 8000 and 9000 ft. The highest
point within the state is Wheeler Peak, near the centre of the
eastern boundary, with an elevation of 13,058 ft.; the lowest
points are along the Colorado river, where the altitudes range
from 700 to 800 ft. With the exception of this dip in the S.E.
comer, the entire state lies above the aooo ft. line.
'The Siena Nevada range, which forms the western rim of tne
Basin, sends into the state a single lofty spur, the Washoc'Mountatns.
At the foot of this range there is, relatively spealanf, a depression,
with ao altitude of about 3850 ft. above the sea. which receives the
drains^ of the eastern skrpes of the Sierra and what little drainage
there is in the northern half of Nevada. From this depression east-
ward the general level of the plateau gradually rises to an elevation
of 6000 ft. near the eastern borders of the state. The mountains also
increase in height and importance as far as the East Humboldt
range, a kfty mass about 60 m. W. of the Utah boundary. This
fange is the water-parting for nearly all the westward-flowing
streams of the state, and is by far the steepest and most rugged
within Nevada, a number of its peaks attaining a height of 1 1 ,000
or 12.000 ft. On its eastern slope the waters soon disappear within
the bed of narrow canyons, but break out again at the foot in ice-
cold springs that form the source of the Ruby and Franklin lakes;
on its western side the descent is more gentle, and the waten form
the South Fork of the Humboldt rive& Somewhat S. of the centre
tk the state lie the Toyabe Mountains, with several peaks from
10,000 to 12JOOO ft. in height. The watera on the eastern slopes
flow into the Smoky Vall^; those on the other side assist the
ncJehbouring Shoshone Mountains in feeding the Reese river,
which flows N. toward the Humboldt, but seldom has sufficient
volume to enable it to reach that stream. About 100 m. E. of the
California boundary lies a third important range, the Humboldt
Mountains, irtioee highest point (Star Peak) is 9925 ft. above the
sea. Owing to their great height these three ranges receive heavier
rainfall than the surrounding country and are feeders to the northern
vaOeys, which constitute the chief agricultural region of the sute.
Many of the block mountains of the Great Basin are of complicated
internal structure, showing rocks of all ages — slate, limestone,
qoartaites, granite, nralti-coloured volcanic rocks, and large areas
of lava overflow.
From the valley of the Humboldt river southward the piateau |
gradually rises until the divide between this stream and the Colorado
nver,,in the vfajnity of the White Pine Mountains, is reached.
From this point there is a fall, which is gradual as far S. as the 38th
parallel, and then more abrupt. Thus at Pioche the altitude is
6100 ft., at Hiko 3881 ft., at St Thomas 1600 ft., and at the Eldorado
Canyon 828 ft. The region of the Cokxado river b largely desert,
with occasional buttes and sputk
Rivers and Lakes.— Then are three drainage systems within the
sute. North of the HumboUt Valley an area of about 5000 sq. m.
is drained by the Owyhee, the Little Owyhee, the Salmon and
Bnineau riven, whose watera eventually reach the Pacific Ocean.
Below this region flow the streams of the Great Basin, none of
which reach the sea, but either terminate in lakes having no outlet
or else vanish in sfoughs or " sinks." Small streams often sink
from sight m their beds off gravel, and after flowing some distance
underi;round, reappear farther 01.. Of the basin streams the Hum-
boMt IS the most unporUnt. Rising in the N.E., it flows in a
tortuous channel in a general S.W. direction for 300 m. and drains
7000 or 8000 sq. m. This stream empties into the Humboldt lake,
the overflow from whkh goes into the so-called Carson Sink. At
no part of its course is it a large river, and near its mouth its waters
are sub-alkaltne. The Truckee river flows with more vigour, having
Its source in Lake Tahoe, in California, at an altitude of 6225 ft.,
and entering the Carson river through an irrigation canal com-
pleted in 1905; before this date it flowed into Pyramid Lake and
Lake Winnemucca in the depression at the foot of the Sierra Nevada.
A short distance to the S. two other streams, the Carson and the
Walker rivers, receive their waten from the eastern sk>pe of this
ranse and empty into lakes beaqng their names. Of this group
of lakes in the western depression. Pyramid Lake is the lanest..
being 33- ro. k>ng and 14 m. wide. Fed by the same stream is its
western neighbour. Lake Winnemucca. a much smaller body. The
waten of these two lakes are only moderately saline and may be
used for live-stock but not for human beings. Next in importance
b Walker lake, 31 m* k>ng and 6 or 7 m. wkle, whose watera are
strongly saline. On the western boundary, and partly included
within the limits of Nevada, b Lake Tahoe, 20 m. long and 10 m.
wide, which b 1645 ft. deep at its centre and whose waten have
never been known to freese, notwithstanding the lake's ebvation.
The topography and the climate of Nevada have led to the formation
of two kinds of lakes, the ephemeral and the perennial The perennial
lakes, such as those just described, hold their waten for yean and
perhaps centuries; but the ephemeral lakes usually evaporate in
the courae of the summer. The latter class b formed by waten
that fall on the barren mountain-sides and rush down in torrents,
forming in the valleys shallow bodies of water yeltow with the mud
held in suspension. The largest of these occun in the Black Rock
Desert, in the N.W., and at times b from 450 to 500 m. in length
and only a few inches deep. Such bodies often become nothing but
vast sheets of rt9uid mud. and are called " mud lakes." a term most
frequently applied to the sbughs fed by Quinn's river. When the
waten evaporate in the summer they leave a clay bed of remarkable
hardness, which b sometimes encrusted with saline matter of a
snowy whiteness and daszles the eyes of the traveller. When such
b the case the beds are called " alkali flats." During the glacbl
period many of the Nevada lakes atuined a great size, several of
them uniting to form the ancient " Lake Lahontan," in north-
western Nevada. As these lakes shrank after the return of an arid
climate, they left elevated beaches and deposito of various minerab.
which mark their former extent. Both not and coU springs are
numerous, with temperatures ranging from 50" to 204" F.
In the S.E. corner of the state b the third drainage system.
Here the Virgin river entcn the state after crossing the N.W, corner
of Arizona and flows S.W. for 60 m. until it joins the Colorado
river. The btter stream flows for 150 m. along the S.E. boundary
towards the Gulf of California.
Fauna and Flora.— Oi native animals the varieties are few and
the numben of individuals small. In the arid valleys coyotes
(prairie wolves), rabbits and badgen are found. Large animals,
such as the bUck and the grizzly bear, and deer are found on the
slopes of the Sierra Mountains, and antelope, deer and elk visit the
northernmost valleys in the winter. At rare intervab antelope appear
in the southern deserts. Here also are found the sage thrai&er,
Le Conte's thrasher, the Texas nighthawk, Baird's woodpecker, and
the mourning dove. Certain species of grouse are common high in
the timbered mountains. Several varieties of water-fowl, especially
curlews, pelicans, gulls, ducks, terns, geese' and snipe, are found
in the vicinity of the lakes. The Truckee river and the western
lakes abound in trout and black bass. Of the reptiles the leopard
lizard and gridiron-tailed lizard, the " chuck-walla " {^Sauromalus
ater), the rattle-snake, and the homed toad are the most numerous.
The *' black mouse " or Carson fiek) mouse (Microtus montanus)
is found throughout Nevada, as well as in Utah, north-eastern
Califomb, and eastern Oregon; it multiplies rapidly under favour-
able conditions, and at times causes serious injury to crops.
The flora of Nevada, although scanty, varies greatly according
to its kKation. With the exception of the alkali flats, no portion
of the desert b devoid of v^tation, even in the driest seasons.
In the Washoe Mountains, as in the rest of the Sierra Nevada range,
there b a heavy growth of conifers, extending down to the very
valleys; but in many places these mountains have been almost
452
NEVADA
deforested to provide timbers for the mines. In very limited spaces
on other mountains there are scattered trees— the pifton (nut
pine) and the juniper at an altitude between Sooo And 7000 ft.
on all but the lowest ranges, the trees rarely reaching a height of
over 15 ft.; and the stunted mountain mahogany on the principal
ninjps at :in ahityde of 6800 ft* Several varietiet oC popbr are
found in I he upper canyons, and trees ol the willoft-lfavcJ spn itsin
the HuroboMt Jilounuifib otun attatfi a hdght of 60 iu But t xc cpt
for these infrcquem wooded strips, the mgu mains arc cvtci mi>re
bajc thin the valicyt, because thtir shrub^i arc dwarfed from ex-
pDsun&v The treefl, cioccpt io the W-asho* Mountaifii. am of very
ftlow growth and thenefore knotty and ill -adapted lor timber. A» a
rule, the elevation of the timber line on ihe mountains in<rc-i-i s as
the latitude decreasei^ On the foothills arc found phloic and liiine,
and id the N. much bunch grasis. which is ^-aluabtc for irasini; pur-
pcpe*. The valle>'9 are covered with tvpical dcnrt shrubs; j^rcise-
wood {tofiobaiui ttrmuniaiui), creosote Pushes (Var/m ind^ins^i 1 . .md
A^bruifa i^rtemisda irtdenmia)* the ftrst-nametl plant isabundint,
chiefly in the N, This vegetation, covcdoir pbinSi mesas^ an.] i ten
extending up the sides of the mountain^, ^iie$ the entire bmiHipe
the greyish or dull olive colour chara<ien*tic of the Great ll.is-m.
To the southward. a« the valleys become iiicrea:MnEly i::incly nind
laline. even the wge-bru5ih disappcirs, and little vegetatfoa I'f^Mes
the cactus and the yucca is to be seen. The valleys arc rr- vl.-ss,
rxcept in the vicinity of the Truckce river» whfrr- . 1 ' ' ble
quantities of the cotLon wood and a small amount o( - :h,
and wild cherry arc found. The mesniMtc grow*. ice
from water, ana is *T' ■'■'!'■ """"'^ ^".1" *'^- f ■' - . i In
January I9I0 thtre klil icvcii naLicnal Jurcrii, in ^,a^ _..^._, cicated
since July 1908 and chiefly in 1909, containing 7983*76 sq. m.
Ctimatt. — As the lofty range of mountains on the w. deprives the
winds from the Pacific of nearly all their moisture before tney reach
the Great Baun, the clinute <m Nevada is characterixed bv an ex-
cessive dryness. The skies are clear nearly every day in tne year.
The mean annual precipitation varies from 3 in. in the S.W. (Esmer-
alda county) to 13 in. in ^he E. (White Pine county). In the
central, north-eastern and north-western sections, embracing the
counties of Nye, Elko and Humboldt, the average annual rainfall
varies from 7 to 8 in. ; in the west-central section, at the foot <4 the
Sierra, the average is about lo in. A so-calM " rainy season "
lasts from October to April, but the precipiution is chiefly in the
form of snow on the mounuins. Except at great altitudes snow lies
00 the ground only a few days, each year. The melting of the
mountain snow-caps in the spring causes severe freshets, which in
turn are followed by long seasons of drought at a time when water
is most needed for agricultural purposes. Fogs and hail are rare,
but, as in all treeless countries, the rain comes in unequal quantities,
and cloudbursts are not unknown. Thfe mean annual temperature
for the state is 49* F.. but varies from 54* in the S.W. to 46* in the
N. The daily and annual variation is very great, and is intensified
toward the E., where the altitudes are greater. At Elko, Elko
county, in the N.E., the mean temperature for the year is i6* F.;
for the winter (December, Janua^ and February) it is 96*, with
extremes reported of 73* and -42 ; the mean temperature for the
summer (June, Tuly and August) is 69*, with extremes of 108* and
20". At Hawthorne, Esmeralda county, in the S.W., the mean
temperature for the year is 54*; for the winter it is 36*, with ex-
tremes of 69* and -6*; the mean temperature for the summer is
72", with extremes of 102* and 32*. At the head of the Humboldt
river frosts are of almost nightly occurrence, and in the Carson
Valley damaging frosts often occur in Tune. In the extreme S. the
isothermal lines run almost due E. and W. ; but farther northward
they take a N.W. and S.E. direction. The annual range jof tempera-
ture is about 124"; the highest temperature ever recorded being
119*, and the lowest -42**. In spite of the high temperatures ot
summer, however, the low humidity prevents the heat from being
oppressive, and cases of sunstroke are unknown. While the western
mountains keep out the moisture, they do not ward off the winds
which pour down the steep slopes in the winter and spring and
raise clouds of dust. Eariy-sown grain is often injured by flying
sand and gravel. In the summer and autumn the winds are light.
Agriculture. — Because of this extreme aridity, a^culture in
Nevada is dependent on irrigation. The three principal areas in
which irrigation is practicable are along the Humboldt river, in the
plains watered by the Carson, Truckee and Walker rivers, and at
the foot of the mountains along the western edge of the state.
There are variou^places also near the mouths of desert canyons,
where snull amounts of water are obtainable for irrigation purposes
from intermittent streams. The total number of acres imeatcd in
1899 was ^,168. ah increase of 1247% in the decade. In 1902
the toul irrigated acreage was 570,001, an increase of 13*1 % in
three years. In 1902 Congress provided for the beginning of ex-
tensive irrigation works in the and West, and l^fevaaTa (where pre-
liminary reconnaissances had been made in 1889-1890) was the
first state to profit from this undertaking. The survey for the
Truckee-Carson system was begun in 1902, with the object of
utilizing the waters flowing to waste in western Nevada for the
irrigation and reclamation oif the adjacent arid re^ons In Churchill,
Lyon and Storey counties. A canal 31 m. long, diverting the waters
of the Truckee river into the Carson river, was completed in 1905
at a cost of |l,2^,ooa A system of reservoirs (the main reservoir
is Lake Tahoe with an area of 193 sq. m.), distributing canab. and
drain ditches was also projected, making it possible to reclaim
231,^ acres of the desert. It was estimated that the worts would
reouire nine years for their completion, at a total cost of $9,000,000.
although the first 200,000 acres could be reclaimed at a cost of
$2,700,000. The works were to be operated by the government for
ten years, and the cost assessed against the holders of the land.*
At the concluuon of this period the system was to pass into the control
of the landholders, with no further charge by the government.
The soil when reclaimed is well adapted for forage crops, cereals,
vegetables and deciduous fruits. Nevada is a great ranching state,
and stock-raising has shown a rapid extension. In 1900, 88-9%
of its farm acreage was devoted to hay and forage crops, being
more than doubled in the decade. Fifty-one per cent, of the im-
proved lands in 1899 were devoted to the cultivation of these crops.
With the growinff of grasses as the chief agricultural product,
farming in ffevada is necessarily extensive rather than intensive.
In 1890 the average uze of the farms was 11 74 acres.* The value
of the different kinds of agricultural products for 1899 was as ft^kms:
live stock, $4,37^073; hay and nain, $i.535'9H: dairy produce,
$385,220: vegetables, $216,600; fruits, $20,900. It thus appears
that the live stock industry is one of the most imporunt in the
state; the value of its product in 1899 exceeded its output of goU
and silver, which had then reached its lowest point, by over 00c
million dolUrs.* About 64% of the value of the live stock was
represented by neat cattle; 19% by sheep; 10% by h<n«es, and
the remainder by mules, swine, asses, burros and goats.
In spite of the predominating interest in stock-raising, intensive
cultivation of the soil is practicable where the water supply is
sufficient. Nevada, for example, ranked.third in 1900 in the aniount
of wheat produced to the acre (287 bushels).* but in tne total amount
producedf (1.033,000 bushels) ranked only thirty-eighth, and fur-
nished only 0*145% of the crop of the United States. In 1909 in
the amount of barley per acre (38 bushels) Nevada ranlnd tlucd«
and in the average farm price per bushel ($0-75) ranked first among
the barley-producing states of the country, but in the louA amount
produced (304,000 bushels) held only the twenty-second place: and
in the same year the average yield of potatoes per acre in Nevada
was 180 bushels, exceeded in two states — the average for the
entire country was io6-8 bushels per acre — but the total crop ia
Nevada (5^,000 bushels) was smaller than in any state or Territory
of the Union, except New Mexico.
The prevailing soils are sand and eravel loams, but other varieties
are numerous, ranging from rich alluvial beds of extinct lakes, as
in parts of Lyon and Esmeralda counties, to the strongly alkaline
plains of the southern deserts. The most productive part of the
state is the Humboldt Valley and the region near Pyramkl Lake,
including the counties of Humboldt, Elko and Washoe.
A singular menace to agriculture in Nevada was the plague b
I907-1908 of Carson field mice. These first appeared in large
numbers in the lower part of the Humboldt Valley in the summer d
1906, and in October and November 1907 it was estimated that
they numbered on certain ranches from«8ooo to 12.000 on every
acre. .The alfalfa crop suffered particulariy, the total lou being
about $3|oo.ooo. After unsuccessful attempts to rid themselves
of the mice, the farmers appealed to the United Sutes Biological
Survey, and alfalfa hay poisoned with strychnia sulphate was used
succcMfully in the Humboldt Valley in January 1908 and in the
Carson Valley, where a similar plaeue threatened, in April 1908.*
Minerals. — ^To its mineral wealtti Nevada owes its existence as a
state: but for the richness of its veins of gold and silver ore it wxmid
be still little more than an arid waste. Extending from central
California S.E. along the dividing line bctueen that state and
is;
*The public lands arc open to entry free of charge, bul the
)vemment withholds the title until all the payments for water
ive been made. The yearly payments amount to $2-60 per acre
under the present system; this amount covers the cost of mainten-
ance and operation and also of a thorough drainage system, which
is as important to the settler as irrieation. Lands already held in
private ownership are supplied with water at the same price as
public lands.
'Compare this figure with that for the neighbouring state of Cdi-
fomia, where the average size of the farms was 397*4 acres.
* That conditions are favourable to the animal industry is s&oim
by the fact that in 1897 the valleys of northern Nevada wtrre so
overrun with wild horses, to the detriment of the grazing grounds
for cattle, that the legislature authorized the killing of such animals.
For a time this was a profiublc pursuit, as the h<vse hides brought
goodprices.
« This is the yield reported by the United States Department <d
Agriculture. Between its reports and those of the Census Bur»a
in census years there are sometimes great discrepancies. AccocxHns
to the Year Book of the Department of Agriculture in 1909 a crop
of 165.000 bushels of oats was grown in Nevada on 7000 acres':
there was no crop reported of Indian com or of rye.
» See Sunley E. Piper. The Nevada Mouse Plague of r^o^tgoS
(Washington, X909), Fanners' Bulletin 352, U.S. Department cf
Agriculture.
NEVADA
453
Neyaik, and thoice put the OAon6o river Into Ariaoniu b one of
the rid»est mineral belts in the world. Gold was found in Gold
Canyon near Dayton, Nevada, as early as July 1849. In i8m the
discovery of the famous Con»tock iJode m Western Nevada led
to the building of Yirgiiua City, a prosperous community on the
side of a mountain whefe human beings under ordinary conditions
would not have lived, and eventually brought a new state into
existence. The mines of this one district had produced, up to 190a,
$371,248,388, of which $148,145,^85 was in gold, $204,653,040 in
wvcr, and the remainder m undassified taihngs. F<Hr the years
1862-1868 inclusive, the average annual production was over
Ji 1,000.000: in the second period of great productivity (1873-1878),
after the opening (by John W. Mackay and his partners. Flood,
Fair and O'Brien) in the Comstock Lode of the Great Bonanza
nrine, the average annual yield was over $26,000,000. In 1877
the maadmum annual output for the mines was attained, being
$36,301,537. For the three years 1875-1877 the production of gold
and silver in Nevada was more than the combined product of all
the other American states and Territories. After this last year
the output of the Comstock mines declined on account of the ex>
haustion of the ore supply, the increased expense of min'ng at great
depths, and the decrease in the price of silver. The yield reached its
lowest point in 1899, 'but subsequently increased through the
application of improved machinery, while the tailings of the old
diggings were treated by the cyanide process with profitable results.
In 1859 the mines were worloed only for their gold; the ignorant
miners threw away the " |)lack stuff " which was really valuable
silver ore with an aseay value four times as great as that of their
ores of gold; and when this was discovered there came a period of
unprecedented silver poduction. But the fall in the price of nlver
led to a reaction, and from 1893 the gold output predominated. The
gdd production of 1907 was ^uecT at $12,099455; the silver pro-
duction at $4,675,178.
In connexiQii with tlie operation ol the Comstock mines vn*
built (in 18 J- 1 7 . ■ the Sutfo Tunnel, named in honour of its
engineer. Ad 'i U -. tro (i^^cmftt^), piercing the m.DLjni:iin hori-
zontally far IfjlfW ihii m^uth of the mines, and at a distance of
nearly 4 m. st fUtim the fibaks of the Comstock Lode, stKurin^ vcnnla-
tion and cool aW lof the mi Mrs, draining the mines above its 1l %el,
and obviattfi,; much pumning and hDistin^.' Two bter^L tunnels
were aho cor.irrijctcd, mikinE the toul length 6^ m.
Another t lining regiott that attainpil impon-inoe iti the early
period was tbe Euntfca District, in F^uirka cdunrj-, about oo m. S.
of the South i?rii Padfic iraijiifay. Ore was Ent discovTrcr! here in
1864, bat it wa^ five vcars before the mines becaioe productive.
By 1883 the. bid nrodwcwJ $6o,ooq,ooo of precious met^b.
With the V lit of ibc depKraits in the Con^stCPcT! region, the
nimM indui n fl, and between 1^77 and igoo there w^3 a
period of g« ! 1^5, in which Nevsik fcU fn>m first to sitth
place among tht tilvi:!r-prodiiriftf «tatrs and Tenritories. In May
1900, bowevtr, very rich depOiiitH of E'^ld and silver wert disco vrred
in Nye count y, near the *ummil of the San Antonio Mount^iias.
and a new era be^n in Nevada's mining industry^ The vilbi^r of
Tooo|iah sprang mto existt-noc as *oon a* the rush of oe»ti>:i.>frs
to tins legion bcganp and in tgoj it contmned 4000 inKabLC^iits.
In two years f7.000.cKio worth of gold and tilver had been i:iken
from the Tonopah mines and it was assericd that they vi'ould pnive
as rich as the m3ne« of the Cami^toclc Ljidf . The Tonopah oni'^ ^v(>re
richer in silver than in g^idp the mpective values in 19^14 and etj05
banf[ approximately m the propDrtion of three to one. This dis-
covery gave a mrw Impetus to nrospeetinj^ in Routh'Western Nfv?ii;|a,
and it wasF"-^"^ h-— .t---^' *h^* -i-^ ,-1:.,--' - — "-' i-t i- "^'cd
mining legioi ' ' ah
is at the oq^Tonpin^i c, a iij..,.-h_. <\ IlJ^i- .■^.■•_i, __iUj..L ."or
several hundred feet below the surface for an unknown distance.
In 1903, in Esmeralda county, 24 m. S. of Tonopah, rich ores were
foand in the Gold6ekl District, and within three years there were
8000 people in this region. During 190c the town of Goldfield had
a period of mushroom growth, then quieted, and finally revived to
a hesHhy development. The value of the production of the Goldfield
District in 1904 amounted to $3441 .979> This discovery was
followed tn IQ04 by that of the Bidlfrog Dbtrict, in Nye county,
60 m. SE. 01 GolaiBeld, and within ninety days after its birth the
villase of Bullfrog, although 100 m. from a railway, had an electric-
Eghting plant, an ice plant and a hotel. In 190;; gold was dis-
covered in Nye county, 30 m. N.E. of Tonopah, in what became
known as the Blanhattan uistrict, and by March 1906 the village
of Manhattan was a mile in length and contained 3000 inhabitanu.
After 1902 the production of gold and ulver steadily increased,
being $4,9190,786 in that year, $9,184,096 in 1905, and $16,774,633
in 1007. By far the greater portion of these metals came from the
southctn part of the state. In production of gold in 1907 Esmeralda
county ranked lint with $8,533,617 (nearly 70% of the total);
Nye county's output was $1.547,408, Lincoln county's $929.77St
1 Apart from their commerdal uses, the Sutro Tunnel and the
diafts of the Comstock Lode have been employed for scientific
investigations, with the object of classifying igneous rocks, deter-
roinin^ the variations of temperature, and the character of electrical
manifestations beneath the earth's surface, and the relation between
the atmcture of rocks and their rate of cooling.
J«»»*/f H*"" — ••» ..wM. •w..w|«<Na/j '^^uHsw.uau v^^wukj a«^wwHVl y^i^^M.vt ff
from Fairview. Wonder and Stillwater), and Eureka county (with
lead stiver ores) and Storey county were third and fourth resp^i vely.
Copper, lead and zinc are produced in small quantities, being found
in fissure veins with «>ld and silver. In 1907 the production of
copper was 1,782,571 », valued at $356.5i4> The output of lead
in 1907
;i4.
Si).
$^3,3iBi). The output of zinc
6,271,341 lb (valued i .^ ,
2,168,783 lb (valued at $127,958).
Other minerals exist in great variety. Salt deposits are extensive
and commerdally important in Washoe and Churchill counties.
After 1900 the production of salt rapidly increased up to 1906, when
it was 11,349 bbls.; in 1907 it was only 6457 bbls., all graded
as " comment ccara? " and all obtained by solar evaporation from
brine, Bomx maniheB are numerous in the west and south-west,
but they are no longer commercially productive. Large beds of
mjcj are found in the cast. Gypsum occurs in a number of places,
the b«t known being in the north-west. Veins of antimony are
work■^d in the Battle Mountain District and in Bullion Canyon,
15 iTi. 6011 th q! Mill City. Thtre axe veins of bismuth near Sodaville.
A: ' hitc IS produced in Humboldt county. A sub-bituminous
lig nod in Esmcratda county (800 tons in 1906: 330 tons in
19 : ' rL<Hi Jcr^ble quantities of the following minerals Mve been
found: bar^'trs (he^vy ipar). rnagnetite (magnetic iron ore), and
pyrolu^itc (manganese dia^ideli in Humboldt county; roofing sbte
in EAmeraJda county; cinnaW (ore containing quicksilver) in
Washoe county; haematite in Elko and Churchill counties; cerussite
and galena Q^A ctc^) in Eureka county ^nd wolframite (a source
of tunsstcn) at Round Mountain, White Pine county. In 1903 and
1907 Nevada ranked second among the American states in the
production of sulf^hur, but its output is very small in comparison
with that of Louisiana,
Manjifa£iufes.—T\ = T' turing interests of Nevada are un-
important. Of thf luarrjULturing establishmenu in the state in
1900^ 109, or 47-8%. iwre situated in Reno, Carson City and
Virginia City, named in the order of their importance. These places
employed 3^*9% of the labour engaged in manufacturing, and the
value of their products was a8«8 % of the total for the st^te. Manu-
factures based on the products of mines and quarries (chemicab.
glass, clay, stone and metal works) constituted about one-fifth of
the whole product. Car construction and general shop work of
steam railways was the leading manufactunng industry in 1905;
next in impoitanoe were the flour and grist miUing industry and the
printing and publishing of newspapers and periodicals. Such
sutistics of the special census of manufactures (under the factory
system) of 1905 as are comparable with those of 1900 show 99
factories in 1900 and 115 in 1905, an increase of 1^2%. Their
capital in 1900 was $1,251,208 and in 1905 $2,891,997, an increase
of 1^1*1 %. The value of theu: products in X900 was $1,261,005,
and in 1905. $3,096,274. an increase of i45-5*/o.
Transportation. — In its industrial development Nevada has
always been hampered by lack of transportation facilities. There
are no navigable waterways, and the railway mileage is small.
Until the completion of the trans-continental railway in 1869,
wagon trains were the only means of transporting the products of
the mines across the desert. An unsuccessful attempt was made,
beginning in 1861, to domesticate the camel for this purpose.' The
railway mileage in 1880 was 739 m. ; in 1890, 921 m. ; in the following
decade railway building was at a standstill. Since 1900, however,
there has been considerable development, and the total mileage on
the 1st of January 1909, was 1,866-^2 m. The sUte is crxMsed
from east and west by three main lines of railway, parts of the
great transcontinental systems, the Southern Padfic and the Western
Pacific in the northern part of the sUte and the San Pedro, Los
Angeles & Salt Lake in the southern. The oldest of these trunk
lines, the Southern Pacific (forraeriy the Central Pacific), follows
the course of the Humboldt and Truckee rivers. It is met at several
points by lines which serve the rich mining districts to the south; at
Cobre by the Nevada Northern from Ely in White Pine county in
the Robinson copper mining district; at Palisade by the Eureka &
Palisade^ a narrow-gauge railway, connecting with the lead and
silver mines of the Eureka District; at Battle Mounuin by the
Nevada Central, also of narrow gauge, from Austin; at Hazen by
the Nevada & California (controlled by the Southern Pacific) which
runs to the California line, connecting in that state with other parts
of the Southern Pacific system, and at Mina. Nevada, with the
Tonopah & Goldfield, which runs to Tonopah and thence to Goldfield,
thus giving these mining regions access to the Southern Pacific's
transcontinental service ; and at Reno, dose to the western boundary,
by the Virginia & Truckee, connecting with Carson City, Mindcn,
in the Carson Valley, and Virginia City, in the Comstock District,
and by the Nevada-California-Oregon, projected to run through
north-eastern California into Oregon, in 1910, in operation to Alturas,
California. The Western Padfic railway, completed in 1910, extend-
ing from Salt Lake City to San Frandsco. and running entirely
' It is interesting to note that in 1875 the Nevada legislature
passed an act forbidding camels or dromedaries to run at large.
This law remained on the statute books until 1898, when it was
formally repealed.
454
NEVADA
acrcMs the state of Nevada, is parallel with the Southern Pacific for
some distance in the eastern part of the state, and crosses the
niounuins at Beckwith Pass 20 m. north of Reno. The San Pedro,
Los Angeles & Salt Lake railway, also an important factor in cast
and west transcontinental traffic, opened in May 1905, has been of
special value in the development 01 the southern part of the state,
it crosses a section that is mostly desert, but is connected with the
BuUfroe District by the Las Vegas & Tonopah. which runs from
Goldficld through Beatty and Rhyolite, and meets the San Pedro,
Los Angeles & Salt Lake at Las Vegas. The Goldfield and Bull-
frog districts have a further outkt to the south through a second
railway, the Nevada Short Line (Bullfrog -Goldficld and Tonopah
& Tidewater railways) which connects with the Atchison, Topeka
& Santa F6 at Ludlow in California.
Population.— Nevada, is the most sparsely settled state of
the Union. Its population in xS6o was 6857; in 1S70, 42>49i;
in 1880, 62,366; in 1890, AStl^i; in 1900, 43>335; ^nd in 1910,
81 ,875 (0-7 per sq. m.). In 1900 10,093 were foreign-born (mostly
English, Irish, Germans, Italians and Chinese in almost equal pro-
portions) ; and there were 35,405 white persons, 5216 Indians, 1352
Chinese, 228 Japanese and 134 negroes. There were then only
three towns of importance: Reno, Virginia City and Carson
City, the capital.
The Indian population consbts of Palu^e, Shoshoni and the
remnants of a few other tribes of Shosbonean stock. On the
Duck Valley reservation (488 sq. m.), established in 1877, in Elko
county, between the forks of the Owyhee river and lying partly
in Nevada and partly in Idaho, and under the western Shoshoni
(boarding) school (55 pupils in 1908), there were 352 Paiute,
238 Shoshoni and i Hopi in 1908; on the Pyramid Lake reser>
vation (503 sq. m.)i established in 1874, in Washoe county, on
the borders of the lake from which it is named, 486 Paiute;
on the Walker river reservation (79-37 sq. m.), established in
1874 (partly opened to settlement in 1906) along Walker river
and Walker Lake, 466 Paiute; on the Moapa river reserve
(15-6 sq. m.), in. the south-eastern part of the state, X17
Paiute.
In 1906, of the x4,944 members of religious denominations
9,970 were Roman Catholics, 1,210 Protestant Episcopalians,
1,105 Latter-Day Saints (Mormons), 6x8 Methodists and 520
Presbyterians.
Administration. — Nevada is governed under the original
constitution of X864, with the amendments adopted in x88o,
1889, 1904 and X906. The constitution as adopted limited the
suffrage to adult white males, but this provision was aimulled
by the fifteenth amendment to the Federal constitution; and
in 1880 amendments to the state constitution were adopted
striking out the word " white " from the suffrage clause and
adding a new article granting rights of suffrage and office holding
without regard to race, colour or previous condition of servitude.
A residence in the state Of six months and in the district or coimty
of thirty days preceding the election is required of all voters.
Persons guilty of treason or felony in any state or Territory and
not restored to dvil rights, idiots and insane persons, are excluded
from the suffrage. An unusual provision in the constitution,
a result of its adoption in the midst of the Civil War, gives soldiers
and sailors in the service of the United States the right to vote;
their votes to be applied to the township and county in which
they were bona fide residents at the time of enlistment.^ The
legislature has the right to nuike the payment of the poll
tax a requirement for voting, but no such provision is in
force.* A law passed in X887, requiring all voters to take an oath
against polygamy, with the object of disfranchising Mormons,
was declared unconstitutional by the State Supreme Court.
A governor, lieutenant-governor, secretary of state, attorney-
general, cdntxoller, treasurer, superintendent of public instruc-
^ An interesting application of this provision was made in 1898,
when Nevada soldiers on their way to Manila were allowed to vote
at sea. It was discovered, however, that no statiite had ever
been passed to carry this provision into effect, and the votes were
rejected.
* In 1897 a law was passed making the right of suffrage dependent
on the oaymcnt of poll uxes for the preceding two years; but
in the foltowinff year the Sute Supreme Court declared this act
unconstitutional because the title was not descriptive of the
matter.
tion and surveyor-general are chosen by popular vote every four
years. Their functions are similar to those of the administrative
officials in other states, with the exception that the governor
does not possess the usual pardoning powex but is ex ojicio a
member of the pardoning board. The governor and lieutenant-
governor must each be at least twenty-five years old at the time
of election to office. The legislative department consists of a
Senate, with members chosen every four years, about half of
whom retire every two years; and an Assembly, whose members
are chosen biennially. The constitution requires that the number
of senators shall be not less than one-third nor more than one-
half the number of members of the Assembly, and that the total
membership of both houses shall not exceed seventy-five. Bills
of any character may originate in either house. The legislative
sessions are biennial and are limited to fifty days; spedal
sessions are limited to twenty days. The judicial department
consists of a supreme court with a chief justice and two associate
justices, chosen for six years, and district courts, with judges
chosen for four years.
The state is di^ndcd into fifteen counties, each of which is go ve rned
in local matters by a board of county commissioners, and is divided
for administrative purposes into townships. The constitucbn re-
quires that township and county governments shall be uniform
throughout the state. For each township there is a justice of the
peace, chosen biennially by its voters. The homestead exemption
extends to a dwelling-house, with its land and appurtenances, with
a value not exceeding I5000; but no exemption is granted against
a process to enforce the payment of purchase-money, or for improve-
ments, or for legal taxes, or of a mortgage to which both the husband
and wife have consented. The exemption can be claimed by the
husband, wife, or other head of the family, by a written dcclaratioo
duly acknowledged and recorded in the manner prescribed for
conveyances; and the homestead can then be mortgaecd or alienated
by a husband only with the wife's consent, if the wi^ is at the t^nse
a resident of the state. The exemption is not affected by the death
of the husband or wife, but inures to the benefit of the surviving
members of the family. For divorce a residence in the state of six
months is ne ■■"■■. '.'' pounds for divorce are descrtioo or
neglect to privi^l^j for gnr; year, conviction of felony, habitnal
drunkenness, crticity or physical incapacity.
There are a numU-r of unusual provisions in the constitutioe off
Nevada. The assertion in the '^Declaration of Rights" that
" no power exUts in the penple ot this or any other state of the
Federal Union to cILwolvc their connexion therewith or p e if o im
any act tending to impair, subvert, or resist the supreme authority
of the governnii-nt of tiie L nited States," is a result of the drafting
of the instruni(^nt dtmtig thi^ Civil War. There is also a provision
that only thrcc-foL::!:^:^ uf cJie jurors may be required to agree to a
verdict m dvil cases, although the legislature has the power to
require by statute a unanimous agreement. Amendments to the
constitution must be passed by a majority of each house of the
legislature at two consecutive sessions and submitted to a vote off
the people at the next regular election. Under this provision no
amendment cannot be adopted until nearly four years after it is
first oroposed. At the election of 1004 an amendment was adopted
which provides that whenever 10% of the voters of the state, as
shown by the votes of the last preceding election, express a sri^
that any law or resolution of the legislature shall be submitted
to the people, the Act or Resolve shall be voted on at the next
election of the state or county officers, and if a majority of the
voters approve the measure it shall stand ; otherwise, it shall bec o cue
void. Nevada thus became the fourth American state to adopt the
referendum.
Institutions. — ^The state maintains a penitentiary at CarMo Gtr
and an insane asylum at Reno. The deaf, dumb and blind are cared
for at its expense in the California institution for these defectsvesk
The State University, established at Elko in 1874 and removed to
Reno in 1887, is supported by the income from a Federal grant off
two townships (73 sq. m.) of public land and an additional grant,
under the Momll Act of 1862. of 90,000 acres for the support off a
college for agriculture and mechanic arts. An agricultural experi-
ment station and a nomud school are conducted m connexioo with
the university. The control of this institution is vested in a board
of regents, chosen by popular vote. At Virginia City is a achool off
mines, established by the sUte in 1903. The Federal govemmeat
maintains three boarding schools for Indians in the state.
The public schools are supported by the income from a Federal
grant of 2,000,000 acres of public land (given in lieu of the ussial
sixteenth and thirty-sixth sections) supplemented by state and
local taxation. The constitution provides that a specul state tax.
at a rate of not over two mills on the dollar, may be levied for
school purposes. All fines collected under the penal laws, all escheat*
and 2% of the receipts of toll roads and bridges go into the school
fund, which is invested in sUte and Federal securities sad the
NEVADA
455
iBterat appoftioora abkmbs the oomitiM loooraing to tbeir Khool
popoUtion. The ftdminiscration of the tchool lyitein U in the
Bands of a superintendent of public instruction.
FtmoMu. — The bonded debt of the state on the 31st of December
IQ08 amounted to t^yijooo, of which the sute held an irredeem-
able bond for I380.000; the actual redeemable bonded debt of
$170,000 was due to the investment of the school and univenity
funds in the bonds of the state. The actual borrowing capacity of
the state is limited by its constitutbn to 1300,000, except for the
extraordinary puraose of repelling invasion or suppressing insur-
rection. Practically all the revenue is derived frcMn the taxation
of real and personal property. Mines and mining claims are exempt
from taxation, but a quarterly tax is levied on the net proceeds of
mines, and is not to be paid a second time so long as the products
lemain in the hands of the original producer. The rate of taxation
for state purposes is fixed by the legislature, and for county pur-
poses by the board of county commissioners. A poll tax b required
of an males bet w een the ases of 31 and 60 years, one half of which
goes to the county in which it is collected and the rest to the state.
At the close of 1908 the state receipts for the year amounted to
fiXXH/Hi, and expenditures to $875,941.
history.— The fixst recorded petsoD of Europeail descent to
eoter the limits of Nevada was Frandsco Garcis (X73&-Z78X),
of the Order of St Frands, who set out from Sonora in X775 and
passed through what is now the extreme southern comer of the
state on his way to California. Half a century later a party of
trappers of the Hudson's Bay Company entered Nevada and plied
their trade along the Humboldt river. American trappers came
about the lame time. Immigrants to California followed the
trappets, and many crossed Nevada in the early 'forties of the
xgth century. During x 843-1845 John C. Fr6mont made a
series of explorations in this region. By the treaty of Guadalupe
Hidalgo, negotiated in 1848, at the close of the war with Mexico,
Nevada beome United States territory. It was then a part of
California known as the Washoe Country, and remained so until
the 9th of September X850, ^hcn most of the present state was
indoded in the newly organized Territory of Utah. In the
meantime the discovery of gold in California had swelled the
stream of westward migration across the Washoe Country,
and bad resulted in the settlement of traders, mostly Mormons,
along the routes to the gold fields. The fiist settlement in what
is now the state of Nevada was planted in the valley of the
Caison river in X849. The earliest recorded public meeting was
held at Mormon Station (now Genoa) on the xath of November
1851. The object of this gathering was to frame a government
for the settlers, as the scat of the Territorial govenmient of Utah
was too remote to afford protection for life and property. Con-
gress was petitioned to organize a separate Territory. An inde-
pendent local govenmient was formed a week later, and this
lasted for several months, until the Utah authorities intervened.
In x8s4 the Utah legislature created the county of Carson,
which induded all the settlements in western Utah; .but the
inhabitants sought to rid themsdves of all connexion with the
people of the Salt Lake region, and petitioned Congress to annex
them to California. In 1858 Carson Qty was laid out, and in the
following year the people of Carson county held a mass meeting
and chose delegates to a constitutional convention, which met at
Genoa on the x8th of July 1859, and in ten days drafted a con-
stitution. The instrument was submitted to a vote of the people
and was adopted, and a full set of state officers was chosen.
This attempt to create a new state proved abortive, however,
and it was not till the mineral wealth of the Washoe Country
became generally known that Congress took any action. On
the 2nd of March x86x the Territory of Utah was divided at
J9* W. (of Washington) and the western portion was called
Nevada. As then constituted, the northern boundary of Nevada
was the 43nd paralld, its southern the 37th, and its western
boundary was made to conform to the eastern limits of the state
of California. James W. Nye (1 814-1876) of New York was
appointed Territorial governor. In December 1862 the Territorial
l^olatuxe passed an act " to frame a constitution and state
govenunent for the state of Washoe." This was submitted to the
people and adopted at the polls. Ddegates to a constitutional
convention accordingly drafted a frame of government, which
on the 19th of Januaxy X864 was submitted to a popular vote
and overwhelmingly defeated The instrument contained a I
very unpopular dause taixng aU mining property, unproduc-
tive as well as productive. Moreover, as state officers were
to be chosen at the same time that the constitution was
voted on, disappointed candidates for party nominations
fought against ratification. As a result, the constitution was
rejected while officers to act under it were at the same time
duly elected.
Early in X864, when it became evident that two more Republican
votes might be needed in the United States Senate for reconstruc-
tion purposes, party leaders at Washington urged the people of
Nevaida to adopt a constitution and enter the Union as a patriotic
duty, and on the axst of March X864 Congress passed an act to
enable the people of the Territory to form a state government.
The third constitutional convention in its history now met at
Carson City and dxew up a constitution which was duly ratified.
On the 3xst of October President Lincohi issued a proclamation
declaring Nevada a state. By the Enabling Act Congress had
extended the eastern boundary to the 38th meridian (W. of
Washington), and in 1866 still farther extended it to the 37th
and fixed the southern boundary as it exists at presenL The
additions eastward were made from Utah and those to the south
from Arizona.
Being "battle-bom,*' Nevada was loyal to the Union
throughout the Civil War, and in spite of its scanty populatk>n
furnished a company of troops in x86i, which were joined
to a California regiment. In 1863 the Territory raised six com-
panies of infantry and six of cavalry (about xooo men), which
saw no actual service against the Confederates but were
useful in subduing hostile Indians.
The history of the state since its organization has been largely
a history of its mines. The period from x86o to 1864 was one
of rapid devdopment accompanied by the wildest speculation.
This was followed by a reaction and a general collapse of inflated
values until 1873, when the discovery of the Great Bonanza
mine brought about a revival of Industry and of speculation.
A second period of decline followed the working out of this
mine and lasted until 1900, when the discovery of a new mineral
belt in southern Nevada brought renewed prosperity. Until
X870 the sUte was regularly Republican, but in this year the
Democrats gained most of the offices, induding the seat in the
national House of Representatives. The Republicans, however,
secured the dectoral votes of Nevada in 1873 and in X876, and
in X878 were again in full control, only to suffer defeat in x88o.
Not until the silver currency question became a political issue
did Nevada take a prominent part in national politics. In
1885 the Nevada Silver Association was formed for the purpose
of advocating the free and unlimited coinage of silver. Both
parties in the state in 1888 declared in favour of free coinage,
and in 1892 instructed their delegates to the national conven-
tions to oppose any candidate who did not favour this policy.
As a means of aiwrrting thdr views effectivdy, the dtizens,
irrespective of party, organized local silver dubs, and these
eventually led to the formation of the Silver party of Nevada,
which drafted a "platform" and nominated a state ticket
and presidential electors who were instructed to support the
Populist national tickeL The Republicans in the state divided,
and the majority of them went over to the Silver party. At
the national dectlon in this year the Silver ticket received in
Nevada 7204 votes; the Republican s8xx; the Democrat
7x4; and the Prohibitionist 86. In the state dection of 1894
the Silver party was again victorious, and not a Democrat
was returned to the legislature. In the dection of 1896 all the
parties in the state dedaied in favour of the free and unlimited
coinage of silver at the ratio of x6 to x. The Democratic and
Silver parties united, with the result that the state's electoral
vote went to Bryan and Sewall, the Democratic nominees,
while the Silver party retained most of the state offices. In the
presidential dection of 1900 the Nevada RepubUcans pursued
a non-committal policy with regard to the silver question,
declaring in favour of " the largest use of sflver as a money
metal in all matters compatible with the best interests of our
government." The Democratic and the Silver parties again
456
NEVADA— NEVERS
united, and subsequently dominated thi p61itics of the
state.
Territorial Ccoemor.—JamtM W. Nye, 1861-1864.
• StaU Cii9emors.
H. C. Blasdel. Rep., 1865-1870.
L. R. Bradley, Dcm., 1 871-1878.
L. R. Bradley, Dcm., 1871-1878.
T. H. Kinkbead. Rep., 1879-1883.
Jewett W. Adams, Dem., 1883-18
Christopher C. Stephenson, Rep.,
1886.
thruftopher C. Stephenson, FLep., 1887-1889.
Frank Bell. Rep., I890.
R. K. Colcord, Rep.. 1801-1894.
John E. Jones, Silver, 1895.'
Reinhold Sadler. Silver, 1^5-1902.
John Sparks, Dem. (Silver), 1903-1906.
D. S. Dickerson, Dem.. i907-y9ia
T. L. Oddic, Rep., 191 T-
BTBtlocaAPifV. — Clarence Kirff, Report of the GtokiiasJ ExplarO'
Imhi ojf Ike FoTiifih Paraild (PrQfcMtkjnal Fapcni of the tlnphpcr
Dcr^rtmcnt, U.% Army)^ GciorRi? M. WhceL*r, Kepari uppn VntUd
SUttfs Cs^^phical Surveys Wcii of the Om Itandrfdih Mrri^u'cu
(EnEiicvf UL-partmem, U.S. Armyf; Israel C. Kus^^H.^ preifn! .ind
briiee, /» Min€ti'^ Miff^ft Land (.Los Angctea^ 1904); H, Hoffnuini
CaiiJcTmt£n^ A'«u(f<i uni Mrxko (B^istl^ '^'^^^< jV^^oia ^tU ker
JCm'^wuhTi coinpilcd under iKe direct ion ol tne Stat? Durraij of
Itnin%nit^ (CAnan City, 1S94); U.S. Department of Ai^ricEihnre,
Nmlk Am^ica Fauna, No. 7, pt. a (iSqj); Wtlli^im WrvgCii.i/^'/>?ry
fflhe Bit Bonatim (Hartford, Conn., iVjb); C. II, Shinn, The .^lti}ry
af ihi Wn£ at fUiLsifaUd by ike Great Comittxk Lvdt ef A^rt^ J-^ . in
'^Tht Sfgfv of the Wc4t ^ *tric» (New Vt>fk, iH<*6); JTrf Silver
Nft^d^ tOakbnd^ CiL, taaj}; U. H. Dancrefi, HiJtQry cj AVi^rda,
C^or^d^ ^nd tVytfminPf in vol. xxv. of hift ll'^tffJb (Sati Vr^^< i-cO,
]^)t EUiot Cpue*, On Ike Trail of a Sp^niik Cavaiur^ Fnimjico
Gatidt {New York, 1900)^
NEVADA, a city and the county-seat of Vernon county,
Missouri, U.S.A., in the south-western part of the state, about
90 m. S. by E. of Kansas City. Pop. (1900) 7461, of whom 235
were foreign-bom and x68 negroes; (1910) 7176. It is
served by the Missouri Pacific and the Missouri, Kansas & Texas
railway systems. The principal public buildings are the county
court house, the federal building and the high school. Nevada
is the seat of Cottey College for girls (Methodist-Episcopal,
South, 1884) and of a sUte hospital for the insane, and there is
a sUte camp ground for the National Guard of Missouri. There
are three parks, one of which, Lake Park, is a pleasure and health
resort, with a lake and chalybeate and sulphur springs. The
smelting of lead and zinc and the manufacture of paper, lumber,
sheet metal and bricks are among the city's industries. Nevada
is a trading centre for the surroimding cotmtiy, and a fine farming
and stock-raising region, in which Indian com, oats, wheat,
clover, timothy and blue-grass are grown; coal is mined in
the vicinity. The city's water-supply is drawn from artesian
wells. Nevada (" Nevada City " until 1869) was platted in
1855, was bumed down in 1863 during the occupancy by the
state militia in war time, was incorporated as a town in 1869,
was entered by the first railway in 1870, and was chartered as
a city in 188 0.
NEVADA Crnr, a township and the county-seat of Nevada
county, California, U.S.A., about 130 m. N.E. of San Francisco.
Pop. (1890) 2524; (1900) 3250 (764 foreign-bora); (1910) 2689.
It is the terminus of the Nevada County Narrow Gauge railway,
which connects with the Southem Pacific railway at Colfax,
33 m. S. An electric line extends to Grass Valley (pop. in 1900,
4719), 4 m. S.W. Situated in a hilly and picturesque region,
3580 ft. above the sea, Nevada City is frequented as a health
and sununer resort (annual mean temperature, about 53-5^ F.;
mean summer temperature, about 66^). (>>ld-mining and
quartz-mining are its principal industries, and in 1907 Nevada
county's output of gold (104,590-76 oz., worth $2,163,083) was
second only to that of Butte county (i34.8i3*39 <»-i worth
$2,786,840) in California; the county is the leading producer
*Died the 3ist of September, 1890, and Frank Bell became
governor by virtue of his office as lieutenant-governor.
' Died the 10th of April 1895, and R. Sadler became governor by
virtue of his office as lieutenant-governor.
from quarU mines. Among the manufactures of the township
are carriages and products of planing mills, fotmdries and
machine shops; and grapes and fruits are raised in the surround-
ing country. Gold was first discovered within what is now
Nevada City, on Deer Creek, in the summer of 1848, by James
W. Marshall, who, in January of the same year, had found the
metal near what is now Coloma, Eldorado cotmty. . The first
settlement was made here in 2849; rich deposits of gold were
soon afterwards found on or near the surface^ and the settlement
had the characteristic growth of a westem mining town; its
output of gold reached its maximum in 1850-1851. Nevada
City was first incorporated in 1851 under a special act of the
legislature (repealed in 1852); it was reincorporated in 1856
and again in 1878.
VBViL or FiRN, the name given to the partly consolidated
masses of snow and ice which form in the hollows on .the sides
of mountains below the belt of freshly fallen snow and just above
the compact glader-ice. The n6v6, which generally consbts
of broad sheets of great beauty, is formed from the freshly
fallen snow during a series of alternate thaws and frosts. These
processes are accompanied by a gradual descent down the
mountain side, during which the n6v6 suffers consolidation,
until it becomes compact glacier-ice. The n6v6 is thus the
feeding ground of the glacier (q.v.). The word nM (Lat. »»,
firm, snow) is adopted from the French dialect of the French
Alps; Jim is German, meaning " last year's (snow)."
NEVBRS, a town of central France, capital of the department
of Ni^vre, 159 m. S.S.E. of Paris by the Paris-Lyons-M6diter-
ran6e railway to Nlmes. Pop. (1906) 23,561. Nevers is situated
on the slope of a hill on the right bank of the Loire at its con-
fluence with the Ni^vre. J^arrow winding streets lead from the
quay through the town where there are numerous old bouses
of the X4th to the X7th centuries. Among the ecclesiastical
buildings the most important is the cathedral of St Cyr, which
is a combination of two buildings, and possesses two apses.
The apse and transept at the west end are the remains of a
Romanesque church, while the nave and eastem apse are in
the Gothic style and belong to the 14th century. There b no
transept at the eastern end. The lateral portal on the south
side belongs to the late 15th century; the massive and elaborately
decorated tower which rises beside it to the eariy x6th centuiy.
The church of St fitienne is a specimen of the Romanesquo
style of Auvergne of which the disposition of the apse with its
three radiating chapels is characteristic It was consecrated
at the close of the xith century, and belonged to a priory
affiliated to Cluny. The ducal palace at Nevers (now occupied
by the courts of justice and an important ceramic museum) was
built in the 15th and i6th centuries and is one of the principal
feudal edifices in central France. The facade is flanked at each
end by a turret and a round tower. A middle tower contaim'ng
the great staircase has its windows adomed by soilptures
relating to the history of the house of Cloves by the roembets
of which the greater part of the palace was built. In front of
the palace lies a wide open space with a fine view over the valley
of the Loire. The Porte du Croux, a square tower, with corner
turrets, dating from the end of the X4tb century, is among
the remnants of the old fortifications; it now contains a coUectioo
of sculptures and Roman antiquities. A triumphal arch of the
1 8th century, commemorating the victory of Fontenoy and the
h6tel de viUe, a modem building which contains the library,
are of some interest. The Loire is crossed by a modem stone
bridge, and by an iron railway bridge. Nevers is the seat of a
bishopric, of tribunals of first instance and of commerce and of a
court of assizes and has a chamber of commerce and a branch
of the Bank of France. Its educational institutions indude
a tyeiet a training college for female teachers, ecdesiastkal
seminaries and a school of art. The town manufactures porcelain,
agricultural implements, chemical numures, glue, boileis and
iron goods, boots and shoes and fur garments, and has distilleries,
tanneries and dye-works. Its trade b in iron and steel, wood,
wine, grain, live-stock, &c. Hydraulic lime, kaolin and clay
for the manufacture of faience are worked in the vicinity.
NEVILLE
45?
NttitdMmtm, the early name of Neven was in later times
altered to Ntbinmm, The quantities of medals and other
Roman antiquities found on the site indicate the importance
of the place at the time when Caesar chose it as a military dep6t
for corn, money and hostages. In 52 B.C. it was the first place
seized hy the revolting Aedui. It became the seat of a bishopric
at the end of the sth century. The countship (see below) dates
at least from the beginning of the zoth century. The citizens
of Nevers obtained charters in Z194 and in 1331. For a short
time in the 14th century the town was the seat of a university,
transferred from Orleans, to which it was restored.
Counts and Dukes of Nevers. Having formed part of
the duchy of Burgundy, the coimty of Nevers (Nlvemais) was
given by Duke Henry I. in 987 to his stepson, Otto William,
afterwards count of M&con, who five years later handed it over
to his son-in-law Landri. The first house of the hereditary
counts of Nevcra originated in this Landri, and was brought to an
end in X192 by the death of Agnes, countess of Nevers, wife
of Pierre de Courtenay (d. 1217). The county subsequently
posed by successive marriages into the houses of Don^,
Ch&tiOon and Bourbon. Mahaut de Bourbon brought the
county of Nevers, together with those of Auzerre and Tonnerre,
to her husband Odo (Eudes), son of Hugh IV., duke of Burgundy,
in 1248. Her eldest daughter, Yoland, received the county of
Nevers as her dowry when in 1265 she married Jean Tristan,
son of King Louis IX. She became a widow in 1270^ and in
127Z married Robert de Dampicrrc, who became count of
Flanders. Her descendant by her second marriage. Marguerite,
daug;htcr and heiress of Louis II. de Male, count of Flanders,
married successively two dukes of Burgundy, Philip I. de Rouvre
and Philip II. the Bold. Philip (d. 14x5), the third son of Philip
the Bold, received the counties of Nevers and of Rcthel and the
barony of Donzy; his last male descendant, John, died in Z491.
The house of Cleves then inherited the Nivemais, which was
erected into a duchy by King Francis I. for Francis of Cleves in
1539. In 1565 Louis de Gonzaga (d. 1595), son of Frederick II.,
duke of Mantua, married Henrietta of Cleves, duchess of
Neven, and one of his descendants, Charles (d. 1665), sold the
Niveraais to Cardinal Mazarin in 1659. The cardinal devised
it* to his nephew Philippe Jules Mandni, whose descendants
possessed it until the French Revolution. The last duke of
Nivemais, Louis Jules Barbon Mandni Mazarini, died in 1798.
MEVILLB, or Nevill, the family name of a famous English
noble house, descended from Dolfin son of Uchtred, who had
a grant from the prior of Durham in 1131 of " Staindropshire,"
CO. Durham, a territory which remained in the hands of his
descendants for over four centuries, and in which stood Raby
castle, their chief seat. His grandson, Robert, son of Meldred,
married the heiress of Geoffrey de Neville (d. .1x92-1193), who
inherited from her mother the Bulmer lordship of Brancepeth
near Durham. Henceforth Brancepeth castle became the
other seat of the house, of which the bull's head crest com-
memocates the Bulmexs; but it adopted the Norman surname
of Nevflle {NatnUe). Robert's grandson, another Robert,
(d. 1282) held high position in Northumbria, and sided with
Henry III. in the Barons' War, as did his younger brother Geoffrey
(d. X285), ancestor of the NeviUs of Hornby. This Robert's
son Kobert (d. X271) extended the great possessions of the
iazaily into Yorkshire by his mafriage with the heiress of Middle-
bam, of which the powerful Norman castle still stands. The
summons of their son Ranulf (d. X331) to parliament as a baron
(1294) did but recognize the position of the Nevills as mighty
in the north country. Ralph (d. 1367) the second baron — whose
elder br^Jier " the Peacock of the North " was slain by the
Doug^ in X3x8-^was employed by Edward III. as a commander
against the Scots and had a leading part in the victory of Nevill's
Cross (1346), where David Bruce was captured, and by which
Durham was saved. His active career as head of his house
(x35i~x367) did much to advance its fortunes and to make the
name of Nevill a power on the Scottish march. Of his younger
sons, Alexander became archbishop of York (1374-1388) and
was a prominent supporter of Richard II., attending him closely
and encouraging his absolutist policy; in consequence of which
he was one of those " appealed of treason " by the opposition in
X388 and being found guilty was outlawed, and died abroad
in 1392. His younger brother William^ a naval commander,
took the opposite side, was a leading Lollard and a friend of
Widif, and in X388-X389 acted with the lords appellant.
John, the 3rd baroq (d. 1388), a warden of the Scottish marches
and lieutenant of Aquitaine, a follower of John of Gaunt
and a famous soldier in the French wars of Edward III., con-
tinued the policy of strengthening the family's position by
marriage; his sisters and daughters became the wives of great
northern lords; his first wife was a Percy, and his second
Lord Latimer's heiress; and his younger son, Thomas, became
Lord Fumival in right of his wife, while his son by his second
wife became Lord Latimer. His eldest son Ralph (1364-14 3 5).
ist earl of Westmorland (see Westmorland, eakls of), carried
the policy further, marrying for his second wife a daughter
of John of Gaunt and securing heiresses for five of his sons,
four of the younger ones becoming peers, while a fifth, Robert,
was made bishop of Durham (1438-1457). Among his daughters
were the duchesses of Norfolk, Buckingham and York (mother
of Edward IV. and Richard III.) and an abbess of Barking.
The Nevills were thus closely connected with the houses of
Lancaster and York, and had themselves become the most im-
portant family in the r«dm. Of the earl's sons by his second
marriage, Richard, earl of Salisbury (and three of his sons) and
William, eari of Kent, are the subjects of separate notices.
The greatness of the Nevills centred in the "kingmaker"
(Richard's son) and the heads of his house, after the ist earl,
were of small account in history, till Charles, the 6th earl, at
the instigation of his wife, Surrey's daughter, joined Northumber-
land in the fatal northern rising of 1569 to the ruin of hb house.
His estates, with the noble castles of Brancepeth and Raby, were
forfeited; Middleham, with the Yorkshire lands, had been
settled by the ist earl on the hehs of his second marriage.
Although the senior line became extinct on the earl's death
abroad (1601), there were male descendants of the xst. carl
remaining, sprung from George and Edward, sons of his second
marriage. George, who was Lord Latimer, was father of Sir
Henry, , slain at Edgcote fight, and grandfather of Richard,
2nd lord (1469-1530), a soldier who distinguished himself in the
north, especially at Flodden Field. His grandson (d. 1577)
was the last lord, but there were male descendants of his younger
sons, one of whom, Edmund, claimed the barony, and after
x6oi the earldom of Westmorland, but vainly, owing to its
attainder. In this line may still exist a male heir of this mighty
house.
The heirs male of Edward, Lord " Bcrgavenny " (now " Aber-
gavenny " CO. Monmouth), who died in X476, have retained
their place in the peerage under that style to the present day
by a special and anomalous devolution. His wife, the only child
of Richard (Beauchamp), earl of Worcester (d. 1429), brought
him the great estates which had come to her line with Fiu Alan
and Despencer heiresses, and in X450 he was summoned as
Lord Bcrgavenny, though not seized of that castle. Their
grandson, George (c. 147 i-i S3 s) the 3rd lord, was in favour with
Henry VII. and Henry VIII., and recovered from the latter in
X5X2 the castle and lands of Abergavenny. He was prominent
in the French campaigns of x 5 13-14 and 1523. On the death
of his son, Henry, the 4th lord, in 1587, a long-famous contest
ensued between his daughter, Lady Fane, and his heir-male,
Edward Nevill, which was eventually ended by James I., in
1604, assigning the barony of Abergavenny to Edward's son
and that of Despencer to Lady Fane. The former; subsequently
descended (on uncertain grounds) to the heirs-male with the
old Beauchamp estates under special entails. In X784 the then
Lord Abergavenny received an earldom, and the next lord
erected at Eridge^ Sussex, the present seat of the family, on
which the marquisate of Abergavenny and earidom of Lewes were
conferred in 1876. Its Sussex estates are mainly derived through
the Beauchamp*, from the Fits Alans, heirs of the Warennes.
The Nevills of Billingbear, Berks, were a junior h'ne, of whom
4S8
NEVILLE, G.— NEVIS
was Sir Henry Nevfll (d. 26x5), courtier and diplomatist, who
became a leading figure in parliament under James L His
grandson, another Sir Henry (d. 1694), was an author of some note
and a Republican opponent of Cromwell, by whom he was
banished from London in 1654. The family became extinct in
1740, and in 1762 Richard Aldworth (17x7-1793), on inheriting
Billingbear, took the name of NevilL From him descend the
Lords Braybrooke.
Neuville is a common French name, and it is not clear whether
all the Nevills who occur in the 1 3th and 13th centuries were of
the same stock as the lords of Raby. The baronial line of Nevill
of " Essex " was founded by the marriage, temp. Richard I., of a
Hugh de Nevill to the heiress of Henry de Comhiil, a wealthy
Londoner. He went on crusade with Richard I. and was after-
wards an active supporter of John, who names him in the Great
Charter (1215). His descendant, Hugh de Nevill, was summoned
as a baron in 131 1, as was hb son John, who served in the French
and Flemish campaigns, and died, the last of his line, in X358.
See Rowland's Historical and Cenealoiical Account efthe Family of
NetiU (18A0): Drummond's NabU British Families (1846); Swallow's
De Nova Villa (1885); and Barron's sketch in The Ancestor, No. 6
(1903). Also Dugdale's Baronage; G. E. C[okayne]'s Complete
Peeratei )- H. Round's Feudal Eneland; and for the Nevill castles
Mackenzie's Castles of England, toe the Kingmaker, see Oman's
monograph (1891). G- H. R.)
NEVIUi^ GBORGE {e, X43 2-1476), archbishop of York and
chancellor of England, was the youngest son of Richard Neville,
earl of Salisbury, and brother of Richard Neville, earl of Warwick,
known as the " Kingmaker." He was educated at Balliol
College, Oxford, and was from his childhood destined for the
clerical profession, in which through the great influence of his
family he obtained rapid advancement, becoming bishop of
Exeter in 1458. From this time forward Neville took a prominent
part in the troubled politics of the period. He was present with
his brother Warwick at the battle of Northampton in July X460,
immediately after which the great seal was committed to his
keeping. He took part in the proclamation of Edward of York
as king, who confirmed his appointment as chancellor. In X463
he was employed on a diplomatic mission in France; and in
1464, after taking part in negotiation with the Scots, Neville
became archbishop of York. During the next few years he as
well as his brothers fell into disfavour with Edward IV.; and in
1469, after a successful rising in Yorkshire secretly fermented by
Warwick, the king fell into the hands of the archbishop, by
whom, after a short imprisonment, he was permitted to escape.
When Warwick was in turn defeated by the king's forces at
Stamford in 1470, Archbishop Neville took the oath of allegiance
to Edward, but during the short Lancastrian restoration which
compelled Edward to cross to Holland, Neville acted as chan-
cellor to Henry VI.; and when the tide once more turned he again
trimmed his sails to the favouring breeze, making his peace with
Edward, now again triumphant, by surrendering Henry into
his hands. The archbishop for a short time shared Henry's
captivity in the Tower. Having been pardoned in April X47 1 , he
was re-arrested a year later on a charge of treason and secretly
conveyed to France, where he remained a prisoner till X475,
when he returned to England; he died in the following year,
on the 8th of June 1476. Archbishop Neville was a respectable
scholar; and he was a considerable benefactor of the university
of Oxford and especially of Balliol College.
See Thomas Rymer. Foedera, ffc. (London, 1704): John Wark-
worth, Chronicle ofthejirst Thirteen Years of the Reign ofEdteard IV.,
ed. T. O. Halliwell (Camden See., London, 1839): Paston Letters,
ed. J. Gairdner (London, 1 872-1 875): The Historical Collections of
a Citiun of London in the tsth century, ed. J. Gairdner (Camden Soc.,
London, 1876); Sir James H. Ramsay, iJincaster and York ijgg-
14SS (Oxford, 1892).
NEVILLE. RALPH (d. X244), bishop of Chichester and chan-
cellor of England, was a member of the great Neville family,
but of illegitimate birth. In 12 14 he became dean of Lichfield,
and obtained several rich livings; and in x 2 24 he was consecrated
bishop of Chichester. In 2226 he was appointed chancellor
by the coundl governing during the minority of Henry III.; and
when the king in 2236 demanded the return of the great seal,
Neville refused to surrender it, on the ground that only the
authority that had appointed him to the office had power to
deprive nim of it. In 223X he was chosen archbishop by the
monks of Canterbury, but the election was not ratified by the
pope. He died in 224^.
Neville's residence in London was a palace in the street opposite
the Temple, which from this association obtained the name of
Chancery Lane, by which it is still known; while the palace itself,
after pas«ng into the hands of Henry de Lacy, carl of Lincoln, was
called Lincoln's Inn after that nobleman when it became the abode
of students of law. Neville beoueathed this property to the see of
'Chichester, and the memory 01 his connexion with the locality is
further preserved in the name of a passage leading from Chancery
Lane to Lincoln's Inn which still Dears the name of Chichester
Rents.
MEVIN, JOHN WILLIAMSON (1803-1886), American tbeo-
logian and educationalist, was born on Herron's Branch, near
Shippensburg, Franklin county, Pennsylvania, on the aoth of
February 1803. He was a descendant of Hugh Williamson of
North Carolina, and was of Scotch blood and Presbyterian
training. He graduated at Union College in 2822; studied
theology at Princeton Theological Seminary in 2823-2828,
being in 2826-2828 in charge of the classes of Charles Hodge;
was licensed to preach by the Carlisle Presbytery in 2828; and
in 2830-2840 was professor of Biblical literature in the newly
founded Western Theological Seminary of Allegheny, Penn-
sylvania. But under the influence of Neander he was gradually
breaking away from "Puritanic Presbyterianism,'* and in
2840, having resigned his chair in Allegheny, he was appointed
professor of theology in the (German Reformed) Theological
Senunary at Mercersbuig, ' Pa., and thus passed from the
Presbyterian Church into the German Reformed. He soon
became prominent; first by his contributions to its organ the
Messenger; then by The Anxious Bench— A Tract for the Times
(1843), attacking the vicious excesses of revivalistic methods;
and by his defence of the inauguration address, The Principle
of Protestantism, delivered by his colleague Philip Schafi*,
which aroused a storm of protest by its suggestion thai Pauline
Protestantism was not the last word in the development of the
church but that a Johannean Christianity was to be its out-
growth, and by its recognition of Petrine Romanism as a stage
in ecclesiastical development. To Dr Schaff's 222 theses of
The Principle of Protestantism Nevin added his own theory ol
the mystical union between Christ and believers, and both
SchaS and Nevin were accused of a " Romanizing tendency."
Nevin characterized his critics as pseudo-Protestants, urged
(with Dr Charles Hodge, and against the Presbyterian Genoal
Assembly) the validity of Roman Catholic baptism, and defended
the doctrine of the " spiritual real presence " of Christ in the
Lord's Supper, tiotably in The Mystical Presence: a Vindication
of Ike Reformed or Calvanislic Doctrine of the Holy Eucharist
(2846); to this the reply from the point of view of rationalistic
Puritanism was made by Charles Hodge in the Princeton Retiem
of 2848. In 2849 the Mercershurg Renew was founded as the
organ of Nevin and the " Mercershurg Theology "; and to it
he contributed from 2849 to 2883. In 1851 he resigned from the
Mercershurg Seminary in order that its running expenses might
be lightened; and from 2841 to 2^53 he was president of Marshall
College at Mercershurg. With Dr SchafT and others he was on
the committee which prepared the liturgy of the German Re-
formed Church, which appeared*in provisional form in 2857 and
as An Order of Worship in 1866. In 2861-1866 he was instructor
of history at Franklin and Marshall College (in which Marshall
College had been merged), of which he was president in 2866-2876.
He died at Lancaster, Penn., on the 6th of June 2886.
See Theodore Appel. The Life and Work of John WittioMson Semm
(Philadelphia, 1889), conuining Ncvin's more imporunt artkks.
NEVIS, an island in the British West Indies, forming with St
Kitts one of the five presidencies in the colony of the Lecv&rd
Ishmds. Pop. (1902) 2 2,774. It lies ini7* 24' N. and 62" 33' W.,
and is separated from St Kitts by a shallow channel t m. wide
at its narrowest point. In form it is almost round, and from the
sea hal the appearance of a perfect cone, rising gradually to
the height of 3200 ft. Its total area u 50 sq. m. Although tlie
NEVYANSK— NEWARK, LORD
459
island is subject to levere storms, tbe dimate is healthy, the
avenge temperature being 83" F. Sugar, rum and moIasMS are
exportnl, and com, yams, coffee and fruit are grown. There are
medicinal springs and large deposits of sulphur. The chief town«
Charlestown, lies on a wide bay on the S.W. The legislative
council of St Kitts-Nevis meets at Basseterre, the capital of St
Kitts. Nevis was discovered by Columbus in 1498 and first
colonized in 1628 by the English from St Kitts. During the period
of the slave trade it was a .leading mart for slaves in the West
Indies.
NBVTAIISK, Nevyansxiy or Nzyvxnsxxy Zavod, a town of
Russia, in the government of Perm, 57 Tn, by rail N.N.W. of
Ekaterinburg, on the eastern slope of the Ural mountians, in the
populous mountain valley of the Neyva, in a district very rich
in iron, and auriferous sands. Pop. (1881) 13,980; (1897) about
16,000, all Great-Russians and mostly Nonconformists, who are
employed, partly at the Iron-works, partly in various small
industries, such as the manufacture of boxes, widely sold in
Siberia, iron wares and boots, and partly in agriculture. The
iron-works at Nevyansk are the oldest in the Urals, having been
founded in 1699. In 1702 Peter the Great presented them to
Demtdov, with 3,900,000 acres of land. Several other iron-
works are situated within a short distance, the chief being
Verkhne-Neyvinsk, x8 m. S.; Neyvo-Rudyansk, 8 m. S.;
Petrokamensk, 32 m. N.E.; Neyvo-Shaitansk, 20 m. lower down
the Ncyva; and Neyvo-Alapayevsk, 64 m. N.E. of Nevyansk.
HBW ABBET, a parish and village of Kirkcudbrightshire,
Scotland. Pop. of parish (1901) 957- l^e hill of Criffel and
Loch Kinder are situated within the parish boundaries. The
lake contains two islets, of which one was a crannog and the other
the site of an ancient kirk. The village, which Ucs 6| m. S. of
Maxwelltown, is famous for the ruin of Sweetheart Abbey, a
Cisterdan house Built in 1275 by Devorguila in memory of her
husband John dc Baliol, who had died at Barnard Castle in 1269.
His heart, embalmed and enshrined in a coffin of ebony and
silver, which she always kept beside her, was, at her death in
X290, buried with her in the prediicts of the abbey, which thus
acquired its name (Abbacia Dukis Cordis^ or Douxquer). The
building afterwards became known as the New Abbey, to dis-
tinguish it from the older foundation at Dundrennan, which had
been erected in 1 142 by Fergus of Galloway. The remains of the
abbey chiefly consist of the shell of the beautiful Cruciform
church, with a central saddleback tower rising from the transepts
to a height of over 90 ft., and a graceful rose window at the
west end of the nave. Most of the work is Early English with
Decorated additions. The abbot's tower, a sUtely relic, stands
a bout I m. N.E. of the abbey.
MEW ALBAHT, a city and the county-seat of Floyd county,
Indiana, U.S.A., on the N. bank of the Ohio river, at the head of
low water navigation, nearly opposite Louisville, Kentucky,
with which it is connected by three railway bridges, and 156 m.
below Cincinnati, Ohio. Pop. (1890) 21,059; (1900) 20,628, of
whom 1363 were forcign-bom and 1905 negroes; (1910) 20,629.
It is served by the Baltimore & Ohio South-western, the
Chicago, Indianapolis & Louisville, the Pittsburg, Cincinnati,
Chicago k. St Louis and the Southern railways, by electric
railways to Loubville, Indianapolis, &c., and by steamboats
on the Ohio; it \s connected by a belt line with the Louisville &
Nashville, the Chesapeake & Ohio, the Illinois Central and other
railways. The city is situated on an elevated plateau above the
river, in an amphitheatre of wooded hills. It has a good public
library, a well organized public school system and several private
schools and academies. Within the city limits is a national
cemetery. The manufactures include leather, iron, foundry
and machine shop products, furnituve and veneer, lumber,
cotton goods and hosiery, distilled Uquors and stoves. The value
of the factory products in 1905 was $4,110,709, 13% more than
in X900. Originally settled about the beginning of the 19th
century. New Albany was pbtted in 1813 and was chartered
as a city in 1839. The dty owed much of its early industrial
importance to the plate-^ss works successfully esublished
here by Washington Charles dc Pauw (x82»-x887), who endowed
the De Pauw College for Young Women (opened as the Indiana
Asbury Female College in 1852). The glass works left the city
because of the superior and cheaper fuel supplied by natural
gas in central Indiana. The De Pauw CoUe^ for Young Women
was rektively unimportant after the endowment of Indiana
Asbury University (now Dc Pauw University) by W. C. de
Pauw in 18 83, but it continued to give instruction unto X903.
NBW AMSTBRDAH, a town of British Guiana, situated in
6* ao' N. and S9*^ 15' W. on the east bank of the Berbice river,
about 4 m. from the mouth. Formerly the capital of the colony
of Berbice, it b now the capital of the county of that name.
It b a picturesque little town compmed almost entirely of wooden
houses, having a popubtion estimated in X904 at 7459. The
Colony House, standing in handsome grounds boide the small
but pretty botanical gardens, was formerly the residence of the
governor and the seat of the legislature, and now contains the
treasury and supreme courts. The town b lighted by municipally
owned electric works, and contains various government in-
stitutions, a town hall and market. The local government b
vested in a mayor and town council, the revenue (a littb over
£xa,ooo aimualfy) being mainly raised by a direct rate on house
property. The expenditure b prindinlly on streets, street
lighting, fire brigade, water supply and drainage. New Amster-
dam b connected by ferry and rail with Georgetown, to which
there b also a bi-weekly steamer service.
NEWARK. DAVID LBSUB. Loan (160X-X682), Scottbh
general, was bom in x6ox, the fifth son of Sir Patrick Leslie of
Pitcairly, Fifeshire, commendator of Lindores, and Lady Jean
Stuart, daughter of the xst eari of Orkney. In hb early life he
served in the army of Gustavus Addphus, where he rose to the
rank of cok>nel of cavalry. In X640 he returned to hb natiye
country to take part in the impending war for the Covenant.
In 1643, when a Scottish army was formed to intervene in the
Englbh Civfl War (see Gkeat Rebeluon) and placed under the
command of Alexander Leslie, earl of Leven, the foremost living
Scottbh soldier, Leslie was selected as Leven's major-general.
This army engaged the Royalbts under Prince Rupert at Marston
Moor, and Leslie bore a particubrly distinguished part in the
battle. He was then sent into the north-western counties, and
besieged and took Carlisle. When, after the battle of Kilsyth,
Scotland was at the mercy of Montrose and his army, Leslie
was recalled from Engbnd in 1645, and made lieutenant-general
of horse. In September he surprised and routed Montrose at
Philiphaugh near Selkirk, and was rewarded by the committee
of estates with a present of 50,000 mcrks and a gold chain;
but hb victory was marred by the butchery of the captured Irish
— men, women and children — to whom quarter had been given.
He was then declared lieutenant-general of the forces, and, in
addition to hb pay as colonel, had a pension settled on him.
Leslie returned to Engbnd and was present at the siege of
Newark. On hb return to Scotland he reduced several of the
HighUnd cbns that supported the cause of the king. In 1648
he refused to take part in the English expedition of the " en-
gagers," the enterprise not having the sanction of the Kirk.
In 1649 he purchased the lands of Abcrcrombic and St Monance,
Fifeshire. In 1650 he was sent against Montrose, who wa!»
defeated and captured by Major Strachan, Leslie's advanced
guard commander; and bter in the year, all parties having for
the moment combined to support Charles II., L^lie was appoint (d
to the chief command of the new army levied for the purport- on
behalf of Charles II. The result, though disastrous, abundani ly
demonstrated Leslie's capacity as a soldier, and it mighi \,t
claimed for him that Cromwell and the Engli&h regulars \}U,\*A
no match for him until hb movements were iuwtU nA wiih ui,<l
his anAy reduced to indiscipline by the r(p^(!>LlI{Jnvt^ •»( iIm
Kirk party that accompanied his hcadquartn^. Atdi l>uiil;jr
Leslie fought a stubborn defensive cam[>ji|.'ii uj; (u ilu- < luhz^ir.,:
of the Forth by Cromwell, and then a<««>j<.pji.u«1 1 huflr- lo
Worcester, where he was lieutenant ^ii.t •.if un>\*.^ ilir (m
who commanded in person. On the d(.ti.ai itt \Ut ruynt t*^r
Leslie, intercepted In his retreat tluou^:ii Vwii..tiiit. w.r •---
mitted to the Tower, where he g*Mi^uu.4 i\\[ iU* Krem^.M.
460
NEWARK
in 1660. He was fined £4000 by Cromwell's " Act of Grace " in
1654. In i66t be was created Lord Newark, and received a
pension of £500 per annum. He died in x68a. Hie title became
extinct in 179a
NEWARK (Newakx-upon-Trent), a market town and
municipal borough in the Newark parliamentary division of
Nottinghamshire, England. Pop. (1901 ) 14,992. It lies in a
flat, fertile lowland near the junction of the river Devon with
the Trent, but actually on the Devon. By means of a canal
x| m. in length it is connected with the Trent navigation. It is
X20 m. N.N.W. from London by the Great Northern railway,
and is on the Melton Mowbray joint branch of that company
and the London. & North- Western, and on the Nottingham &
Lincoln branch of the Midland railway. The church of St Mary
Magdalene, one of the largest and finest parish churches of
England, is specially notable for the beauty of the tower and of
the octagonal spire (223 ft. high) by which it is sumxmnted.
The central piers of the old church, dating from the nth or 12th
century, remain, and the lower part of the tower is a fine example
of Early English when at its best. The upper parts of the tower .
and spire are Decorated, completed about 1350; the nave dates
from between 1384 and 1393, and the chancel from 1489. The
sanctuary is bounded on the south and north by two chantry
chapels, the former of which has on one of its panels a remarkable
painting from the " Dance of Death." There are a few old monu-
ments, and an exceedingly fine brass of the X4th century. The
castle, supposed to have been founded by Egbert, king of the
West Saxons, was partly rebuilt and greatly extended by
Alexander, consecrated bishop of Lincoln in X123, who estab-
lished at it a mint. It rises picturesquely from the river, and
from its position and great strength was for a long time known as
the " key of the North." Of the original Norman stronghold
the most important remains are the gate-house, a crypt and the
lofty rectangular tower at the south-west angle. The building
seems to have been reconstructed in the early part of the 13th
century. In the reign of Edward III. it was used as a state
prison. During the Great Rebellion it was garrisoned for Charles
I., and endured three sieges. Its dismantling was begun in 1646,
immediately after the surrender of the king. There is a very
beautiful and interesting cross (the " Beaumond " cross) of the
latter part of the 15th century in good preservation in the town.
A grammar and song school was founded in the reign of Henry
VIIL, and endowed by Archdeacon Magnus, and there arc other
considerable charities. The other principal public buildings are
the town-hall in the Grecian style (erected in 1774), the com
exchange (1848), the Stock library and Mlddleton newsroom
(1828), the mechanics' institution (1836), a free library and a fine
hospital (1881). There is a large trade in malt, coal, com and
cattle. There are iron and brass foundries, boiler-works, agri-
cultural implement manufactories and breweries. Gypsum and
limestone are obtained in the neighbourhood, and plaster of
Paris is extensively manufactured. The town is governed by
a mayor, 6 aldermen and x8 councillors. Area X931 acres.
Newark {Ncwerca, Nouwerk) owed its origin, possibly in Roman
times, to its position on the great road called the Fosse Way,
in the valley of the Trent. In a document which purports to
be a charter of 664 Newark is mentioned as having been granted
to the abbey of Peterborough by Wulfhere. In the reign of
Edward the Confessor it belonged to Godiva, who granted it to
the monastery of Stow, and it remained in the hands of the
bishops of Lincoln until the reign of Edward VI. The castle
was erected by Bishop Alexander in 11 23, and the bridge about
the same time. Under Stephen a mint was established. There
were burgesses in Newark at the time of the Domesday Survey,
and in the reign of Edward III. there is evidence that it had long
been a borough by prescription. It was incorporated under an
alderman and twelve assistants in 1549, and the charter was
confirmed and extended by Elizabeth. Charles I., owing to the
increasing commercial prosperity of the town, reincorporated
it under a mayor and aldermen, and this charter, except for a
temporary surrender under James II., has continued the govern-
ing charter of the corporation. Newark returned two repre-
sentatives to parliament from X673 until 1885. A weekly market
on Wednesdays, and a fair on the eve, day and morrow of the
Invention of the Holy Cross, granted to the bish<^ of Lincoln
by John, are still held; another fair at St Mary 'Magi\»]f^ and
the four preceding days was granted by Henry UL, and is
probably represented by the fair now held on the X4th of May.
A market for corn and cattle is still held on Wednesdays, and
another on Tuesdays for fat stock has been added^
NEWARK, the largest city of New Jersey, U.S.A., a port of
entry, and 'the county-seat of Essex county, on the Passaic
river and Newark Bay, about 8 m. W. of New York City. Pop.
(1890) 181,830; (X900) 246,070, of whom 71,363 were foreign-
bom, and 6694 were negroes; (2910 census), 347,469. Of
the total foreign-bom population in 1900 (48,329 of whom hod
been fn the United States at least ten years), 25,139 were from
Germany, x 2,792 from Ireland, 8537 from Italy, 5^74 from
England, 5511 from Russia and 4074 from Austria. Of the
total population, 143,306 were of foreign parentage on both sides,
56,404 German, 30,261 Irish, 13,068 Italian, 8951 English and
8531 Russian. Newark is served by the Pennsylvania, the
Lehigh VaO<yr, the Erie, the Delaware,. Lackawaima & Western
and the Central of New Jersey railways, and by steamboats
engaged in coastwise and river commerce. By electric lines it
is connected with most of the cities and towns within a radios
of 20 m., including Jersey City, Patcrson and the residential
suburbs, among which are the Oranges, Montdair, Bloomficid,
Glen Ridge, Belleville and Nutley. It has a frontage on the
river and bay* of xo} m., and a total area of 23-4 sq. m.
The site is generally level, but the ground rises toward the
western part. Broad Street, 120 ft., and Market Street, 90 ft.
wide, the prindpol thoroughfares, intersect. The most prominent
public buildings are the City Hall, completed in 1906; County
Court-House, designed by Cass Gilbert (b. 1859), with sculpture
by Andrew O'Connor and decorations by Howard Pyle, \vill H.
Low, Kcnyon Qox, H. O. Walker, C. Y. Tumer, F. D. MiUel,
George W. Maynard and Edwin H. Blashfield; United States
Govemmcnt Building; PubUc Library, finished in x9or, and
City Hospital. There is a Roman Catholic Cathedral, and the
city is the see of a Roman Catholic and of a Protestant Episcopal
bishop. The Pmdcntial Life Insurance Company and the
Mutual Benefit Life Insurance Company have fine office buildings.
Many of the older buildings are of a brown sandstone, quarried
in or near the city. In Military Park is a monument to Major-
General Philip Keamy (18x5-1862), and in Washington Park
b a monument to Seth Boyden (i 785-1870), a Newark inventor
of malleable iron, of machinery for making nails, and of improve-
ments in the steam-locomotive. Newark has also a monument
to Frederick Theodore Frelinghuysen (x 8x7-1885), secretary of
state in the cabinet of President Chester A. Arthur, and to
Abraham Coles (X813-189X), a poet and physician, both of whom
lived here. On the banks of the Passaic b a house ha\'{ng as a
part of its walls the old walls of Cockloft Hall, in which Washing-
ton Irving frequently sojoumed, and of which he gave a diarmicg
description in Salmagundi. In the vicinity are the remains of
Peterborough, the home of Colonel Peter Schuyler (x7ro-x762).
who served against the French in 1746-48 and in the French
and Indian War. At the comer of Broad and William streets
stood untfl r835 the parsonage in which Aaron Burr was bora.
In 19x0 Newark had 658 acres in public parks, of which 637
acres were under the administration of the Essex County Plrk
Commission. To Washington, Military and Lincoln parks, the
older ones near the heart of the dty, there have been added
Branch Brook (277 acres), Weequahic (265-8 acres). West Side
(23 acres), and East Side (x 2-5 acres) parks. The principal ceme-
teries are Mount Pleasant, overiooking the Passaic in the iwrtbem
part of the city, and Fairmount in the western part; about xSo«
the remains of the early settlers were removed from the (Md
* The river channel before improvement had a navigable depth
of 7 ft. at mean low water; the depth was increased to about 10 ft.
by the Federal government before 1902 ; in 1907 further impctyve-
ment was authorized by Congress, the channel to be made 300 ft.
wide and 16 ft. deep.
NEWARK
461
Burying Gromtd to Fainnount Cemetery and placed in a lai^e
vsult marked by a monument.
As parts of its public school system the dty maintains twelve
sammer or vacation schools, evening schools, a normal and
training school for the education of teachers, a school of drawing,
and a technical school, the last for evening classes. The Newark
Academy, founded in 1793, is the leading private school; and
there are various Roman Catholic academies. In the toiniship
of Verona (pop. in 1905, 2576), about 7 m. N. by W. of Newark,
is the City Home for boys, in which farming, printing and other
tndcs are taught. The Public Library (opened in 1889) con-
tained about x6o,ooo volumes in 19x0, and the library of the
New Jersey Historical Sodety about 26^000 books, about
7^fioo pamphlets and many manuscripts; the Prudential
Insurance Company has a law library of about 30,000 volumes;
and the Essex County Lawyers' Club has one of 5000 volumes
or more. Among the charitable institutions are the City Hospital,
Saint Michael's Hospital, Saint Barnabas Hospital, Saint James
Hospital, the German Hospital, a Babies' Hospital, an Eye and
Ear Infirmary, a City Dispensary, the Newark Orphan Asylum,
a Home for Crippled Children, a Home for Aged Women and
three day nurseries. The municipality owns and operates the
water-works, and the water is brought from reservoirs in the
Pequanac Valley ao-30 m. N.W. of the city.
The dty charter (1857) provides for government by a mayor,
elected biennially, and a unicameral council, elected by popular
vote. By popular vote, also, the board of street and water
commissioners is chosen. The council chooses the dty derk,
treasurer and tax recover, and the mayor appoints the dty
attorney, police justices, the board of education, the trustees of
the public library, and the excise and assessment commissioners,
and, subject to the ratification of his choice by the council, the
comptroller, auditor and the tax, police, health and fire com-
missioners.
Newark has long been one of the leading manufacturing dtics
of the country. The manufacture of shoes and other leather
products, particularly patent leather, became an important in-
dustry early in the X9th century; in X770 there was one tannery
here; in 1792 there were three; a large one, still in operation,
W2S built in X837; in 1837 there were 155 cuniers and patent
leather makers in the dty, which then had an aimual product
of leather valued at $899,300; in X90S the value of the leather,
tanned, curried and finished was $i3,S77i7i9- The manufacture
of felt hats (product, X905, $4,586,040, Newark ranking third
in this industry among the dties of the United States), carriages,
chairs and jcwdry (an industry established about 1830; product,
1905, $9,358,095), developed rapidly early in the 19th century,
and there are extensive manufactories of malt liquors (product,
1905, $ro,9i7,oo3), and of clothing (product, 1905, $3t937iX38)i
foundries and machine shops (produa, 1905, $6,354,153),
and large establishments for smelting and refining lead and
copper, the product of the lead smelters and refining establish-
menta being in X905 the most valuable in the dty. ' Among the
ether important manufactures in 1905 were: chemicals, valued
at $3,964,736; slaughtering and meat packing, $3,933,877;
varnish, $2,893,305; stamped ware, $3,689,766; enamelled
goods, $2,361,350; boots and shoes, $3,383,051; reduction of
gold and silver, not from ore, $2,361,350; corseU, $2,081,761;
paints, $1,813,463; silverware and silver-smithing, $1,780,906;
tobacco, dgais and cigarettes, $x, 743,863; hardware,
$1, 616,75s; buttons, $x, 381,538, and saddlery hardware,
$1,1511789. In X905 an art pottery was established for making
" crystal patina " and " robin's egg blue " wares, in imitation,
to a certain extent, of old oriental pottery, and Clifton India
ware, in imiution of pottery made by the American Indians.
The total vahie of Newark's factory producU increased from
$1x3,728,045 in 1900 to $150,055,337 in 1905, or 33*x%. In
X905 the value of the dty's factory product was almost one-
fifth of that for the whole state, and Newark ranked tenth among
the manufacturing dties of the entire country. In the same year
Newark manufactured more than one-half (by value) of all the
\cw^iry, leather and malt liquors produced in the state.
Insurance is another important bnsineis, for here are the
headquarters of the Prudential, the Mutual Benefit Life and the
American Fire, the Firemen's and the Newark Fire Insurance
companies. The dty's foreign trade is light (the value of its
imports was $859,443 in 1907; of its exporU $664,535), but iU
river traffic is heavy, amounting to about 3,000,000 tons annually,
and being chiefly in general merchandise (including food-stuffs,
machinery and manufactured products), ores and metals,
chcmicab and colours, stone and sand and brick.
Newark was settled in x666 by about thirty Puritans from
Milford, Connecticut, who were followed in the next year by
about the same number of thehr sect from Branford and Guilford.
Because of the union of the towns of the New Haven Jurisdiction
with Connecticut, in 1664, and the consequent admission of others
than church members to dvil rights, these Puritans resolved
to remove and foUnd a new town, in which, as originally in the
New Haven towns, only church members should haxe a voice in
the government. They bought practically all of what b rwr
Essex county from the Indians for " fifty double hands of powder,
one hundred bars of lead, twenty axes, twenty coats, ten guns,
twenty pistols, ten kettles, ten swords, four Uankets, four barrels
of beer, ten pairs of breeches, fifty knives, twenty horses, dghteen
hundred and fifty fathoms of wampum, six ankers of liquor (or
something equivalent), and three troopers' coats." Thdr first
church was in Broad Street, nearly opposite the present First
Presbyterian Church, with cupda and flankers from which
** watchers " and " wards " might discover the approach of
hostile Indians, and as an honour to thdr pastor. Rev. Abraham
Pierson (1608-1678), who came from Newark-on-Trent, they gave
the town its present name, having called it Milford upon thdr
first settlement. The town was governed largely after the
Mosaic law and continued essentially Puritan for fifty years or
more; about X730 Presbyterianism superseded Congregational-
ism, and in 1734 Colonel Josiah Ogden, having caused a schism
in the preceding year, by saving his wheat one dry Sunday in a
wet season, founded with several folbwers the first Episcopal or
Church of England Society b Newark— Trinity Church. Partly
because of its Puritanic genesis and partly because of its in-
dependent manufacturing interests, Newark has kept, in spite
of its nearness to New York City, a distinct character of its own.
The College of New Jersey, now Princeton University, was
situated here from X747 to X756, for all but the first few months
under the presidency of the Rev. Aaron Burr, who published in
1753 the well-known Newark Grammar ^ long used in Princeton
and origiiudly prepared for Burr's very successful boys' school
in Newark. The city recdved large additions to its foreign-bom
population immediately after the revolution of 1848, when many
Germans settled here — a German daily newspaper was estab-
lished in 1857. Newark was incorporated as a township in r693,
was chartered as a dty in 1836 and recdved another charter
in 1857; from it the township of Grange was formed in x8o6 and
the township of Bloomfield in x8x3.
See H. L. Thowless, Hisimal SkeUh of the City of Ntwark, New
Jersey (Newark. 1903): F. j. Urquhart, Newark, the Story of its
Early Days (Newark, 1904): and J. Atkinson, The History of
Newark, New Jersey (Newark, 1878).
NEWARK, a dty and the county-seat of Licking county, Ohb,
U.S.A., at the confluence of three forks of the Licking river,
on the Ohio Canal, and 33 m. E. by N. of Columbus. Pop.
(X890) 14,370; (1900) i8,X57, of whom 1343 were foreign-bom
and 300 were negroes; (19x0 census) 35,404. Newark is
served by the Baltimore & Ohio, and the Pittsburg, Cincinnati,
Chicago & St Louis railways, and by inter-urban dectric lines.
It lies on a levd plain, but is surrounded by hills. Along two
of the forks of the Licking are some of the most extensive
earthworks of the " mound builders "; they occupy about
3 sq. m., and have a great variety of forms: paralld walls,
drdes, semicircles, a parallebgram, an octagon, &c. About
xo m. S.W. and connected with Newark by electric line is Buckeye
Lake, an artifidal body of water about 8 m. long and x m. wide,
frequented as a summer resort. Among the dty's attractive
features are Idlewilde Park and a beautiful auditorium, built
4-62
NEW BEDFORD
as a memorial to the sddiexs and Btflon of the Civil War. Newark
is the trade centre of an agricultural region, which also abounds
in natural gas and coal; natural gas is piped as far as Cincinnati.
The dty has electric car and steam car ^ops and various manu-
factures, including stoves and furnaces (the most important),
bottles, table glass-ware, cigars, rope halters, machine furniture
and bent wood. The total factory product in 1905 was valued
at $5,613,587, an increase of 94-9% over that in x9oa Newark
was laid out about x8oi and was incorporated in 1813.
For an account of the earthworks see Gerard Fowke, Arckaeohgical
History of Ohio (Columbus, 1903).
NEW BEDFORD, a dty and port of entry, and one of the
county-seats of Bristol county, Massachusetts, U.S.A., 56 m.
S. of Boston, at the mouth of the Acushnet river, and at the head
of New Bedford Harbor, an arm of Buzzard's Bay. Pop. (1890)
40,733; (1900) 62442, of whom 25,529 were foreign-bom,
including 8559 French Canadians, 5389 English, 4802 Portuguese
and 3020 Irish; (1910 census) 96,652. New Bedford is the
terminus of two divisions of the New York, New Haven &
Hartford railroad, and is connected with Taunton (the other
county-seat), Fall River, Brockton and other dtics by interurban
electric railways. Passenger steamboat lines connect with
Martha's Vineyard, Nantucket and Buzzard's Bay points; a
freight line and, in summer, daily passenger service to New York
are maintained; the Insular Navigation Co. (Empreza Insulana
de NavegagSo) runs passenger and frdght steamers from New
Bedford to Lisbon, and to the Azores; and there is a regular
sailing packet service between New Bedford and the Cape Verde
Islands. TVo bridges connect New Bedford with the township
of Fairhaven, on the E. side of the harbour; one, a steel bridge,
is almost x m. in length and cost $1,500,000. New Bedford is
attractively situated, and, commerdally, occupies a particularly
favourable position. It covers about 20 sq. m., and extends along
the W. side of the river and harbour for several miles. Unusual
dockage facilities are thus provided. The harbour was improved
by the Federal government, between 1840 and 1906, the channel
from Buzzard's Bay through the harbour being x8 ft. deep and
200 ft. wide; under a project of X907 it was contemplated to
increase the depth of the channel to 25 ft. and the width to
300 ft. There is a broad driveway along the shore of the harbour
to Clark's Point at the entrance, where during the Civil War the
United States government erected a stone fort. Fort Rodman,
in which a garrison of artillery is still maintained; New Bedford
was one of the 26 places reported by the U.S. Chief of Engineers
in X909 as having " permanent seacoast defences." Among the
prindpal biiildingi and institutions are the post office and
custom house, the dty hall, the county court house, the
registry of deeds building, the masonic building, the merchants'
national bank, the institution for savings, St Joseph's and St
Luke's hospitals, the Swain free school, St Mary's (Roman
Catholic) school, the Friends' academy, a state textile school,
a state armory and St Mary's home. The public library,
established as a private society library in x8o2, taken over by ue
dty in 1853, and housed in the refitted old dty hall building, was
one of the first free public libraries in the United States; it
contains about xoo,ooo volumes, and has notable collections
relating to the whaling industiy and to the (Quakers. The
Sailors' Bethel, built in X83X, and containing memorial tablets
reminiscent of the whaling days, is of interest. The Old Dart-
mouth Historical Sodety was organized in 1903. A fine park
system, aggregating 255 acres, indudes the Common, and Brook-
lawn, Buttonwood, Hazdwood, Grove and Triangle Parks.
The dty owns and operates a fine water-supply system.
When whale-oil was a widely used iDuminant, New Bedford
was long the prindpal port of the world's whaling industry;
and in point of tonnage owned it is perhaps still so, as many New
Bedford vessels now sail from San Frandsco. As early as the
middle of the x8th century, vessels sailed on whaling voyages
from the mouth of the Acushnet river, but it was not until 1765,
when Joseph Rotch, a Nantucket merchant, bought a tract of
land on the W. side of the river and constructed wharves
and warehouses, that the industry became established here. At
first the whales were obtained prindpally off the Virginia and
Carolina coasts, but by the outbreak of the War of Independence,
the New Bedford whalers sought their prey as far as West Ixxlian
and even South American waters. The War of Independence
temporarily ruined the industry, but it was soon re-established,
and the field of operations was much extended, after 1791 many
ships regularly rounding Cape Horn into the Pacific Onan. By
1804 there were 59 whaling vessels registered from New Bedford.
The unsettled commercial conditions of the early years of the X9th
century and the Embargo combined to ruin the business once
more, but the dose of the War of x8i 2 ushered in the greatest ers
of prosperity for the industry. By 1845 only New York, Boston
and New Ch-leans of American ports exceeded New Bedford in
tonnage. The production was greatest in that year, New Bedford
whalers importing 158,000 bbls. of sperm oil, 272,000 bbls. of
whale oil and 3,000,000 tb of whalebone. The beginning of
Arctic whaling in 1848 marked a new step in the industry, and
the tonnage was much increased. The highest point in capital,
tonnage and vessels was reached in 1857, when New Bedford
possessed 329 registered whaling ships, representing an invest-
ment of $x 2,000,000 and employing afloat and ashore xo,ooo
hands. From a succession of causes, of which the tntrodactjon of
petroleum into general use as an illuminant was the chief, the
industry began to decline from this time. The Civil War was a
great blow to the whalers; 25 vessels were sunk by Confederate
cruisen, entailing a loss of $1,650,000, and many more were
bought by the government to be sunk at the entrances of southern
harbours, or to be used as colliers or store ships.' In 187X and
X876 many vessels were lost in the Arctic ice, involving losses
of several millions. Still the industry survives on a compara-
tively small scale; in January 1909 there were 13 steamers and
barks, x brig and 4 schoonen, with an aggregate tonnage of 47x0^
employed, chiefly in sperm whaling, and the oil and whalebone
product of X908 was valued at about $35o,ooa
The prosperity that New Bedford lost with the decline of the
whaling industry has been more than made up by the growth of
the cotton spiiming industry. In 1905 New Bedfoi^ ranked
second among the dties of the United States in the manuf actore
of cotton goods (induding cotton small wares), producing 5%
of the total for the country; the spedality of the miOs is the
finer cotton goods. The firet cotton mill, a five^oiey stone
structure, was built by Joseph Grinnell (1789-1885) aiMl his
assodates in 1847, and began operations in the following year
with 15,000 spindks and 200 looms. This was the beginning of
the Wamsutta Mills, in X907 comprising 8 buildings, 228,000
spindles and 4300 looms. In X909 the dty had some 50 miOs,
with a total of over 2,137,000 spindles. The value c^ cotton
goods manufactured in X905 was $22,411,936, or 76-1% of
all manufactured products of New Bedford (in 1890 the product
was $8,185,286; in X900 $16,748,783). Among the dt/s other
manufactures are tools, cordage and twine, boots aiid shoes,
glass, oils, lubricants (notably black*fish oil, a lubricant for
watches and docks, of which almost the entire supply b mann*
factured here), mechanical toys, beer, ale, wodlen and silk
goods, and paints. The total value of all factory praducU was
$33>397>49z in XQOO and $29,469*349 in 1905. There is an
extensive commerce in coal, raw cotton, lumber and fish; the
direct fordgn trade is comparatively small— in X909 the Imports
were valued at $543f995i and the exports at $34t473-
The site of New Bedford was visited in x6o2 1^ the EagBsh
navigator, Bartholomew Ciosnold, who traded with the Iikdians
at the mouth of the Acushnet or Acoosnet. It was originaUy part
of the town of Dartmouth, which was occupied by settlers from
Plymouth, who in 1652 purchased the land from Massasott,
Sachem of the Narragansets, and his son Waznsutu (called
Alexander by the whites). About 1665 there was a oonsidierafale
influx of (Quakers, and members of this sect have always f onned
>From New Bedford In November and December 1861 mllBd
the " Stone Fleet." a flotilla of 45 whaling veneb collected by tht
Federal government and loaded with stone, most of whidi were
sunk off Charleston and other haibours on thie South Atlantic coaci
for the purpose of ttopiMng bkxkade running.
NEWBERN— NEW BRIGHTON
463
an important and influential dement in tlie population. There
were few settlers on the site of New Bedford until the middle of
the x8th century, and there was no village, properly speaking,
uatH 176a The town was first called Bedford after Joseph
Russell, one 6f the founders, whose family name was the same
as that of the dukes of Bedford; and it was later called New
Bedford to distinguish it from Bedford in Middlesex county.
During the War of Independence the harbour became a rendez-
vous for American privateers; this led to an attack, on the 5th
of September 1778, by a fleet and armed force under Earl Grey,
which burned seventy ships and almost destroyed the town.
In 1787 New Bedford was set off from Dartmouth and separately
incorporated as a to?mship; in z8i3 the township of Fairhaven
was separated from it. New Bedford was chartered as a city
in 1847. Its first newspaper, the Marine Journal, was established
in X793. The Mercury , founded in 1807, now one of the oldest
newspapers in continuous publication in the country, was for
some time edited by William Ellery Channing (1818-1901).
There i|ie Portuguese and French weekly newspapers.
See Daniel Ricketson, History of New Bedford (New Bedford,
l8$8); Z. W. iPoLse and G. W. Hough, New Bedford (New Bedford.
1889); D. H. Hurd, History 4^ Bristol County (Philadelphia. 1883);
L. B. Ellb, History of New Bedford and its Vicinity t6o2-i6ga
(Syracuse. N.Y., 1892); W. S. Tower, A History of the American
WkaU Fishery (Philadelphia, 1907); and The Old Dartmouth
Historical SkeUhes (1903 aeq.), pubhshed by the Old Dartmouth
Historical Society.
MSWBEBlf, a city, port of entry and the county-seat of
Craven county. North Carolina, U.S.A., near the head of the
estuary of the Neuse river and at the mouth of the Trent river,
about 90 m. N.E. of Wilmington. Pop. (1890) 7843; (1900)
9090, of whom 5878 were negroes; (1910 census) 9961.
Newbem is served by the Atlantic Coast Line and the Norfolk
& Southern railways. The Federal government has improved
both the Neuse and the Trent rivers for navigation; the Ncusc
has a channd of 8 ft. at low water to Newbem and one of 4 ft.
from Newbem to Kinston, and the Trent a channel of 3 ft.
from Newbem to Trenton. The Trent and the Neuse are both
spanned here by railway and county bridges. The " Waterway
between Newbem and Beaufort," projected in 1884, had in
1908 a controlling depth at mean low water of only s to 3} ft.;
it was decided to abandon this waterway on the completion of
sn inland waterway about 18 m. long with a channd zo ft.
deep at low water and 90-250 ft. wide, projected in 1907, which
would give Newbem an outlet to the ocean at Beaufort. The
remains of Tryon Palace, the residence of the royal governor
and the meeting-place of the legislature, which was built by
William Tiyon (q.v.) in 1765-1770, and was said to be the finest
building of its time in the colonies, are of historic interest, and
among the principal buildings are the United Sutes govem-
mcnt building, the county court house, the county jail and
the county home. At Newbem is one of the national cemeteries
of the Federal government, containing many fine monuments.
The most important industries are the manufacture of lumber
(espedaBy pine) and tracking. The total value of factory
products in 1905 was $i,343i384« In 1907 about 1000 men,
mostly negroes, were employed in the saw-mills, whose annual
prodnct averages about 1 70,000,000 ft. Among the manufactures
are fertiHaers, cotton seed oil and carriages; repair shops of
the Norfolk & Southern railway are here; the fisheries are of
considerable importance; and the dty ships quantities of fish,
cotton and market-garden produce — ^much of the last being
forced wider xanvas with steam heat. It is the port of entry
of the Pamlico customs district; in 1908 its imports were
valaed at $71,421. Newbem was settled in 17x0 by a company
of Swiss and Germans under the leadership of Baron Emanuel
(fe Graffenried (d. 1735) and was named for Bern, Switzerland.
It was incOTporated as a dty in 1723, but its present charter
dates from 1899 with amendments adopted in 1907. For several
years it was the capital of the province and for a long time was
the chief seaport of the state. Although strongly fortified
early in the Qvil War, Newbem was captured by a Union force
nnder General A. E. Bumside on the X4th of March i86a after
an engagement near the dly in which the loss to the Confederates,
who were under the command of General Lawrence O'Brien
Branch, was about 578 in killed, wounded, captured and missing,
and the loss of the Union force was 90 killed and 380 wounded.
Unsuccessful attempts to recapture the dty were made by the
Confederates on the X4th of March 1863, and on the ist of
February and the 5th of May 1864.
NEWBERRY. JOHN STRONG (1839-1893), American geofegist,
was bom at Windsor, Connecticut, on the sand of December
1833, and recdved a medical education at Cleveland, Ohio,
taking the degree of M J), in 1848. He completed his medical
studies in Paris. His attention was early attracted to geology
by collecting coal-measure plants from mines that had been
opened by his father, and an acquaintance with Professor James
Hall established his interest in the sdence. Hence wMe in
Paris he studied botany under A. T. Brongniart. In 1851 he
settled in practice at Cleveland, but in 1855 he was appointed
surgeon and geologist to an exploring party in northem California
and Oregon, and in 1857 his reports on the geobgy, botany
and zoology were published. Between then and i86x he was
employed on similar work in the region of the Colorado river
under Lieutenant J. C. Ives, and his researches were extended over
a large area of previously unknown country in Utah, Arizona
and New Mexico, the further results being published in 1876.
During the Civil War he did important work as a member of
the U.S. Sanitary Commission, his organizing capadty bdng
specially marked during the operations in the Mississippi Valley.
In 1866 he was appointed professor of geologyand palaeontology
at the Columbia School of Mines, New York, where he commenced
the formation of a magnificent collection of specimens; in 1869
he was made state geologist of Ohio and director of the (second)
Geological Survey there, and in 1884 palaeontologist to the U.S.
Geological Survey. Four volumes on the geology of Ohio were
publi^ed while he was director of the survey. Ids own reports
bdng confined to the surface geology and to the coal-mea&ures
and thdr' fossil plants. He devoted much hibour to the study
of Triassic, Cretaceous and Tertiary plants, and in particular to
those of the Laramie stage. He also carried on researches among
the Palaeozoic and Triassic fishes of North America. Among his
other publications may be mentioned The Origin and Classifica^
lion of Ore Deposits (1880). His work throughout was char-
acterized by great care and consdentious study, and it was
recognized by his inclusion in most of the leamed sodeties of
America and the Old World. He recdved the Murchison
medal of the Geological Sodety of London in 1888, and was
president of the American Association for the Advancement of
Sdence (1867), of the New York Academy of Sdences (1867-
1891), and of the International Congress of Geologists (1891).
He died at New Haven, Conn., on the 7th of December 1893.
Memoir (with portrait) by J. J. Stevenson, American Geologist
Ouly 1893).
NEWBOLT, HENRY JOHN (1863- ), English author, was
bom on the 6th of June 1863, the son of H. F. Newbolt, vicar
of St Mary's, Bibton. He was educated at Clifton College,
where he was head of the school in 1881 and edited the school
magazine, and at Corpus Christi College, Oxford. He was
called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn in 1887 and practised until
1899. His first book was a story. Taken from the Enemy (1893),
and in 1895 he published a tragedy, Mordred; but it was the
publication of his ballads, Admirals All (1897), that created
his literary reputation. These were followed by other volumes
of stirring verse. The Island Race (1898), The Sailing of the
Long-ships (1903), Songs of the Sea (1904). From 1900 to 1905
he was the editor of the Monthly Review, Among his later
books his novels The Old Country (1906) and The New June
(1909) attracted considerable attention.
NEW BRIGHTONf formerly a village (coextensive with the
town of Castleton) of Richmond county. New York, U.S.A.,
but since the ist of January 1898 the first ward of the borough
of Richmond, New York City. It is at the north-eastem end
of Staten IsUnd, about 6 m. S.W. of the borough of Manhattan,
with which it is connected by ferry. Pop. (1890) 16^433; (1900)
464
NEW BRIGHTON— NEW BRUNSWICK
ax,44X, of whom 6575 were foreign-bom and 259 negroes; (1905
state census) 23,659. At New Brighton is the Sailors' Snug
Harbor, founded under the will of Robert Richard -Randall
(c. 1740-1801), who in X77Z became a member of the Marine
Society of New York (an organization for the relief of indigent
masters of vessels and their families), and in 1790 bought from
Baron Poelnitz the " Minto farm," about 71 acres of land in
what is now the Fifteenth Ward of the Borough of Blanhattan.
This tract, with four loU in what is now the First Ward of
Manhattan, and cash and stocks to the value of about $10,000
Randall (who himself seems t6 have followed the sea for a time,
and was called " Captain ") bequeathed to a board of trustees,
directing that the income should be used " for the purpose of
maintaining and supporting aged, decrepit and worn-out uulors,"
who had served at least five years under the American flag,
and that the institution established for this purpose should be
called " the Sailors' Snug Harbor." The will was bitterly con-
tested by relatives, but finally was fully upheld in 2830 by the
United States Supreme Court. The Sailors' Snug Harbor was
incorporated in x8o6, and its charter was amended in 1B2S
to permit the building of the institution on Staten Island rather
than on the Randall estate, which had already greatly increased
in value. In 1833 the institution, with lands covering 160 acres,
was opened in New Brighton with about 50 inmates. Randall's
body was removed to the grounds in X834, and buried under a
marble monument, and in 1884 a life-sise bronze statue of him,
by Augustus Saint Gaudens, was placed in front of the main
building. In X909 the institution comprised the main building,
a hospital, a chapel, a parsonage, residences for the officials,
and several other buildings. The inmates (about xooo in X909)
empk>y themselves at simple trades, or at work about the grounds;
the use of intoxicating liquors is strictly prohibited, but the men
are furnished with plenty of tobacco, and are well cared for.
The present immense value of the Lsnd bequeathed by Randall
makes Snug Harbor one of the most liberally endowed charitable
institutions in New York City. At New Brighton tfre also a
Home for Destitute Children of Seamen, founded in X846 at
Stapleton, Staten Island, removed to a new building on the Snug
Harbor property in 2852, and maintained by contributions and
gifts; and the Samuel R. Smith Infirmary, founded in x86i
by the Medical Society of Richmond county, aud named in
honour of a Staten Islaind physician. At New Brighton there
are dry docks, paper and plaster mills, and silk-dyeing and
printing works. The village as incorporated in x866 included
the northern half of the township of Castleton, and as reincor-
porated in 1872 included all of that township.
NEW BRIGHTON, a borough of Beaver county, Pennsylvania,
U.S.A., on Beaver river, 2 m. from its confluence with the Ohio
and 28 m. N.W. of Pittsburg. Pop. (1890) 5616, (1900) 6820
(487 foreign-bom and 179 negroes); (1910) 8329. It is served
by the Pennsylvania railway, and is connected by bridge with
Beaver Falls. The borough has a public art gallery, a public
park and a general hospital. Coal and fireclay abound in the
vidnity, the Beaver river furnishes good water power, and the
borough has various manufactures. New Brighton was laid out
as a town in 18x5 and was incorporated as a borough in X838.
NEW BRITAIN, a dty of Hartford county, Connecticut, U.S.A.,
near the centre of the state, about 9 m. S.W. of the dty of
Hartford; land area 13-09 sq. m. in X906. Pop. (1890) of
the township, induding the dty, 19,007; of the dty, x6,5X9;
(1900) of the township, induding the dty, 28,202; of the dty,
35>998, of whom 9293 were fordgn-bom, induding X869 Irish
and x8ix Swedes, who have a weekly published here; (19x0
census) 43>9/6. It is served by the New York, New Haven &
Hartford railway, and by several inter-urban dectric railways.
The dty is the seat of a state normal school, and has a free
public library, formerly the New Britain Institute, and a public
park of about xoo acres. New Britain is an important manu-
facturing centre; its prindpal products are hardware, cutlery
and edge tools, hosiery, and foundry and machine shop products.
In 1905 the capital invested in manufacturing was $19,979,712
(an increase of 45* x% since X900) and the value of the factory
producu was $X4»959iS43 (ui increase of 34*8%). More than
one-half of the product-value was in hardware ($7,537,625).
New Britain, which was settled in. 2687, was originally a part
of the township of Farmington. On account of ecdoiastical
difficulties the " New Britain Sodety " — a parish— was organized
in X754. New Britain became a part of Berlin when that town-
ship was established in X78S. In 1850 the township of New
Britain was incorporated, and in X87X the dty was chartered.
By act of the state legislature in 2905 the township of New
Britain and the dty of New Britain were consolidated; the first
election under the new charter was in April X906. The dty was
one of the fixst in the country to build a munidpal subway for
electric light, telephone and telegraph wires.
See D. N. CMmp't Hisicry of New Briiaim (New Briuin, 1889).
NEW BRUNSWICK, a province of the Dominion of Canada,
lying between 45* 2' and 48* 3' N. and 63* 46' and 69*3' W.
Its length from N. to S. is 230 m., its greatest breadth 290 m.,
and it has a seaboard of about 550 m.
Physical Features. — ^The surface is generally undulating, but
in the north and north-west of the province are many ranges of
hills from xooo to 2000 ft. in height, rising in Bald Mountain to
2400 ft. These elevations are an extension of the Appalachian
Mountains and traverse the province from the state of Maine.
This whole section of the province is densdy wooded. The
southern region embraces the district along the Bay of Fundy.
Its coast is rocky and bold and interrapted by ravines. Inland
the numerous rivers, flowing through the soft sandstone and
conglomerate rocks, have cut broad valleys, the soil of which is
eztremdy rich and fertile. Along the shores on the east coast,
and for some miles inland, the country is flat and composed of
mosses and marshes, but beyond that distance it rises into gently
sloping hills, which extend as far as St John.
New Branswick is a network of rivers, bays and lakes, several
of which are navigable for vessels of large tonnage. The prindpal
rivers are the St John, Miramichi, Rcstigouche, Saint Croix,
Petitcodiac, Richibucto and Nipisiguit. The St John, which is
famous for its scenery, rises in the state of Maine and is over
450 m. in length. It is navigable for vessels of moderate tonxiage
from St John on the Bay of Fundy to Fredericton, a distance of
about 88 'm., but steamers of light draught ply as far as Wood-
stock, 65 m. farther, and during the rainy season boats go as
far as Grand Falls, a cataract 70 or 80 ft. high, 225 m. from the
sea. Among the many lakes which it drains is Grand Lake, 20 m.
long, and varying from 3 to 9 m. in breadth. The Miramichi
flows N.E. into a bay of the same name. It is 225 m. long, 7 m.
wide at its mouth, and navigable as far as Nelson (46 m.). la
the spring and autumn small steamera and barges go much
farther up. With its branches it drains a fourth of the province.
A large lumber trade is done in this district, and many saw-mills
are driven by the river. The Restigouche forms the xM>rth-cast
boundary of the province, is 100 m. in length and flows into the
Bay of Chaleur. It is composed of five main branches, its name
signifying in Indian " the river which divides like the hand."
Large v^scls may safely navigate it 18 m. from the bay. With
its tributaries it drains over 4000 sq. m. of fertile and weU-
wooded country. The St Croix separates New Brunswick from
the state of Maine at its south-west angle. lu source is a diain
of lakes called the Chiputneticook. The Petitcodiac is navigable
for 25 m. for ships, and schooners of 80 tons burden may procxcd
to the head of the tide, X2 m. farther; it empties into Shepody
Bay. The Richibucto discharges into the Gulf of St Lawrence.
The Nipisiguit and Tobique (a tributary of the St John) in the N.
are in much repute among anglers.
The coast-line of New Bmnswick is indented with numcroos
fine bays and harbours. The Bay of Fundy is an arm of the sea
separating New Brunswick from Nova Scotia and termixkatins
in two smaller bays, Chignecto Bay and the Basin of lAinav
Its length up to Chignecto Bay is X40 m. and its extreme breadth
45 m. It is noted for its hi^ tides, which rise about 30 ft. at
St John and over 50 ft. at the head of Chignecto Bay. At Bay
Verte, X4 m. distant, on the opposite side of the Isthmus of
Chigneao, the tide rises little more than 4 or 5 ft. The Bay of
NEW BRUNSWICK
Chaletir, which has several eicellent harbours, is over 90 m. in
length and from ao to 35 m. in breadth. The other inlets of
consequence on the east coast are Miramichi, Richibucto,
fiuctouche, Cocagne and Shediac Bays; on the south coast are
Passamaqooddy Bay, St John Harbour and Chignecto Bay.
465
•evere, and snow falls, to a great depth, but the harbour of St John
u open throughput the year. '^ ~ — "^ " *
average yearly snowfall was <,.
Scotia. The autumn b deliglitfi . . ,
sununer," after the fir«t frost, but before the weather' has broken.
Ana amd Poptdation,-^liat including the territorial sea. the area
«as oeptn. out the nartxmr ot bt John
r. During the period i875-i90< the
t 97*5 in.. 20 in. more than in Nova
Khtfui, especially during the " Indian
A rf
P Lj-^tHru-d-^
of the pcxivince is 27,985 sq. m., of which 74 are
water. It thus occupies an area rather larger
than that of the mainland of Scotland. The
At the mouths of the riven are in nearly every case excellent
harbours. To the province belong the islands of Campobello
and Grand Manan, at the entrance of the Bay of Fundy, from
both of which important fisheries are carried on.
Ceclory. — ^Along the Bay of Fundy, for about 30 m. inland, is a
band ot hard Cambrian and Cambro-Silurian rocks, with smaller
areas of Devonian, Huronian and Laurentian. The city of St
John is built upon very hard Cambrian slates, in which interesting
losab are found. North of this belt grey sandstones and con-
gkMnerates of Carboniferous aae occupy a triangular area, the apex
of which is near Oromocto Lake, the south side extending to Nova
Scotia and the north-west ude to Bathurst. Along the western
border this area is xcx> to 600 ft. high, but near the coast it is low
and flat. " The Carboniferous area of New Brunswick is continuous
acTOM the isthmus [of Chisnecto] with that of Nova Scotia, so that
from Miscou on the Bay of Chaleur to Sydney on the Atlantk coast
of Cape Breton, the whole coast of the Gulf of St Lawrence is
bmdered by coal-bearing rocks" (S. E. t>awson. North America^
London, lom). North-west of the Carboniferous. a belt of 40 to
50 m. wide IS occupied by Ordovician and pre-Cambrian formatk>ns.
with lafge masses of intrunve granite. The Ordovician is composed
of schistose, micaceous, and foliated slates and quartzitcs. in places
highly altered and disturbed. The pre-Cambrian roclu consist of
verv hard crystalline reddish felsite, chloritic quartzites. and fels-
patnic and micaceous schists. The whole of this region is rugged
and broken into numerous ranges of hills. The remainder ofthe
province to the north-western boundary is occupied by Silurian
rocks, mostly calcareous slates and shales associated with beds of
limest<»e. The whole province has been mantled with ice in the
Pleistocene period, and boulder-day and later modified deposits
occupy the surface. Marine clay and sand containing fossil shells
are found along the coast.
Oimote.— The climate, thougli tabject to extremes, b healthy.
The avcraK mean temperature in sumnier b 60* F., and in winter
10" F. Tne average rainfall for thirty yean (1875 to looj in*
dusve} was yi'6 m.. whereas in the neighbouring province of
Nova Sootia, with its larger coast-line, it was 39*6. Tne winten are
XIX 6*
population in 1901 was 331.130, and b practically
statkmary, there being httle or no immigration,
and a steady exodus to the United States and
to the western provinces of the Dominion. The
number of males slightly exceeds that of females.
The bulk of the people axe of Englbh descent,
the remainder Irish and French. The Scots,
so prominent In nearty aU the other provinces
of the Dominbn. are here less conspicuous. Of
the original Indbn inhabitanu of the province,
who were of Algonquian stock and divided into
two tribes, the Micmacs and the Malicites. about
1700 remain, nuny of whom have a greater or
lessproportion of white blood.
The capiul b Fredericton. on the St John
(pop. in iQOi, 7117^. The chief shipping and
commercial centre is St John (pop. in 1901.
^.7 It). Moncton b a large railway centre (pop.
in 1901 , 9036). None of the other towns exceeds
5000 inhabitants. Owing to the Urge Irish and
French dement over one-third of the poptUation
belongs to the Roman Catholu Church.
Campbellton (pop. 5000), a northern port on
Chaleur Bay. with an imporUnt lumber trade,
was destroyed by fire in July. 1910.
AdminutroHon.—'lhK province sends ten
senaton and fourteen memben of the House of
Commons to the federal pariiaraent. Since the
abolitioa of the legislative council in i8<^ the
provincial legisUture has connsted of a lieutenant*
governor and a legisUtive assembly. Though in
thb the membere are nominally divided on party
lines, the smallness of the population rem*ers the
division rather one of persons than of principles.
Both city and county districts have an elective
munidpu system.
Education. — ^There b a good system of primary
and secondary schools under provindal control.
When in 1 87 1 the system of free undenomina-
tional primary schools supported by the pro-
vince was introduced, feding rose so high among
^-.r .. the Ronoan Catholics that noting broke out and
life was lost. In view of the provisiohs in the
British North America Act for protecting the nghts of religious
minorities, the Roman Catholics sought to have the new s^em
declared unconstitutional, but the case, after bdng carried to the
judicial committee of the imperial privy councU. was dedded
against them. In 1875. a comprombe was arranged, by which
practical though not theoretic satisfaction is given to that church.
Renewed rioting broke out among the French Roman Catholics in
1890, but after some yean the compromise of 1879 was confirmed.
At Fredericton an efficient normal school for the training of teachera
b maintained, and a school for the deaf and dumb. Tne lazaretto
for lepen at Tracadie and the marine hospital at St John are sup-
ported by the Dominion. At Fredericton b a snuU provincial
university, founded in 1800 and re-established in 1850; at Sackville
b the university of Mount Allison College under Methodist control,
and at Memramcook one, working chiefly among the French, b
OT i Roman Catholics. In all these an adequate training
b t;r. ' '^ - ' 3 w. theologv and the literary subjects, but forsdence,
wIt li- r E ir^- or applied, most of the provincial students go dther
to • ' 1 ; : ' States or to the universities of Upper Canada.
ig to the beauty of Its scenery or to the excellence of
iti New Brunswick has produced a school of poetry,
he laries Roberts, which is unique in the Dominion.
,1^- : ; ■ . — ^The great predominance of the lumber industry
hsti t r '■ ] 1.) keep agriculture in the background. There b also
a GtcdUy tluw of the most active young men to the greater oppor-
tunities offered by the Carudbn and American west. Thus the
area under crop tends slowlv to decrease. Rather more than
6000 sq. m. is now occupied, of which about 1500 b under crop and
about 700 used for pasture, the rest being for the most part still
covenco with forest. In all the river valleys, and especially on the
fertile diked lands along the head of the Bay of Fundy. many rich
and prosperous farms are found varying in size from 100 to 3ao
acres, and good crops of wheat, oats, buckwheat and all the staple
grains and roots are grown. The raising of sheep and cattle, and
the production of cheese and butter, are becoming industries of
importance. A dairy school is maintained by the provincial govern-
ment at Sussex (King's county). Though no great development of
agriculture b possible, a quiet, equable prosperity b attained by
466
NEW BRUNSWICK— NEWBURGH
hundred* of farraers. Much crown bud ctill renudns unoccupied,
and is told by the provincial government on ea«y terms to bona fide
settlers.
Forests. — Its great forests, through which flow numerous rivers
with excdlent harbours at or near their mouths, have long made
New Brunswick a centre of lumbering. Thb industry has affected
the whole development of the province, and the wilder and more
unsettled life of its woodsmen contrasts with that of the fam^ of
Ontario or of the west. The most valuable and most widely*spread
tree b the black spruce {Abies nigra), from which b made a ycariy
increasing quantity of wood-pulp for paper-making. The hemlock
(Abies Canadensish the cedar, birch, boech, oak, ash and many
other valuable trees, are also widely spread. The chief ports for
shipping are St John, at the mouth of the St John river, and Chatham,
at the mouth of the Miramichi.
Though much remains, much has been destroyed by forest fires.
To thb day traces may be seen of the fire which in 1825 utterly
destroyed hundreds 01 square miles of timber along tne river
MirainichL
The same forests are also a paradise for sportsmen. The game
bws are being made increasingly strict, and the province draws a
brge revenue from the sale of licences, extra fees being imposed on
sportsmen from other countries. Moose (Cervus alces), canbou and
cleer may only be shot during about two months in the autumn,
and the number allowed to each gun b strictly limited. In 1903
the provincbl government set aside a large area of the hi^hbnds at
the sources of the Tobique, Nipbiquit and Miramichi nvers for a
national park and game prnerve.
Mines and Fisheries. — ^The mineral wealth of the phmnce b
small, though gold, iron, copper, lead, zinc and dumbago have
been worked on a small scafe at various times. Coak seams are
numerous, but are worked solely f<Mr local consumption. Albertite,
a species of coal found in Albert county and giving a very hot
flame, b now exhausted. Limestone and gypsum are extensively
quarried near St John and in Albert county.
The fisheries, on the other hand, are extensive, though less so
than those of Nova Scotb. Thb industry centres in the counties
of Chariotte and Gloucester, herring, salmon, k>bsters, sardines and
cod forming the chief catch. The Rcstigouche and other rivers near
the northern border are much frequented by anglers in search of
trout and salmon.
Manufactures.— Tht chief manufacture«i apar^ from the shipping
of St John, are connected with lumbering and with agriculture.
The making of paper pulp and of furniture b growing steadily in
importance. Co-operation in the manufacture m butter and chocse
has produced excellent results, and numerous cheese and butter
factories are scattered through the province. In no sense, however,
does New Brunswick pby an important part in the manufactures
of the Dominion.
Communications. — ^The rivers are still the main arteries of the
province. The roads, though improving, are as a rule bad. The
main railway system has since 1876 been that of the Intercolomal,
owned and operated by the federal government, by which the
province is linked to Nova Scotb on the b. and to the rest of Canada
on the W. The Canadian Pacific and the Grand Trunk Pacific also
run through the province, and by the Canadbn Pacific and the
Maine Central it has communication with the United States. Various
lines of steamers run, chiefly from St John, to Ameiican and
other Canadbn ports.
History.— VntH 1 784 New Bninswick tonntd part, first of the
French province of Acadia, bter of the Britbh province of Nova
Scotia. The first settlement within ita borders was made in
1604 by Pierre de Guast, sieur de Monts, with whom was Samuel
de Champlain. Their colony at the mouth of the St Croix river
was soon abandoned, but throughout the French regime the
district was frequented by bands of fur-traders. In 1763 the
first Englbh settlement was made at MaugerviUe on the St John
river, and in 1764 a body of Scottbh farmers and bbourers
took up land along the Miramichi. On the i8th of May 1783
a band of American loyalists settled at the mouth of the St
John. Thousands more followed, and in 1784 New Brunswick
was declared a separate province. At first governed by a repre-
sentative assembly and an irresponsible council, it obtained
responsible government in 1847-1848, after a constitutional
struggle in which no little abih'ty was shown. In 1867 It entered
without reluctance but without enthusiasm into the Canadian
Federation. Its economic and educational hbtory, both more
important than its political, have been indicated in earlier parts
of thb article. (For the boundary dispute, see Maine.)
Bibliography.— Sir J. W. Dawson, Acadian Geology (edition of
1 891), is the most easily accessible work on the geology of the pro-
vince. Numerous studies have been published, chiefly by the
Geological Survey of Canada, by L. W. Bailey. R. W. Ells. A. P.
Low. and G. F. Matthew. Valuable papers on various provincial
subject! have Lecii puM^iJied in the Tramsa^ions dL the Royal
Society of CjiudJj by W. F. Garvong. The provincbl government
issues a ycariy Vf>lumc of tou^iDcuil. papers; Acadiensis, a magazine
publibKcd in Sl John, should aE»o be consulted. The earliest account
of N'cw Brunswick is ^i%vn by Nicholas Denys, Descriflum gio-
grapki^itf (piiblitb«J Farii, tb7ii republished by W. F. Ganoog
with notes dnd introductbon, 19(18); there is no good tnodcra
histtQr>'; EL MontEtimery Martm, History of New Brunswick (1837):
G. E, Fcmoty. Poiiiicai NoUs (1867); James Hannay, History
of Aiadia (1^79), 4i^nd Lives ef Wtlmot and TiUey (1907) may be
coiJiuli^U (W.L.G.)
NBW BRUNSWICK, a city and the county-seat of Middlesex
county, New Jersey, U.S.A., on the Raritan river, at the terminus
of the Debware & Raritan canal, about 23 m. S.W. of Newark.
Pop. (1890) 18,603, (1900), ao,oo6, of whom 3526 were foreign-
bom and 755 were negroes; (1910 census) 33,388. It b
served by the Pennsylvanb and the Raritan River railwa>-s,
and by daily steamboats to New York. There is a fine stone
bridge across the Raritan. In the city are the WeUs Memorial
Hospital, St Peter's General Hospital, a Carnegie library, a
Federal building and a Soldiers' Monument. New Brunswick
is the seat of the Theological Seminary of the Reformed Church
in America, the oldest theological school in the United States,
foimded in 1784 in New York City, situated at Flatbush, Long
Island, in 1796-1810, and removed to New Brunswick in 1810,
and of Rutgers College (originally Dutch Reformed, now non-
sectarian), which was founded in 1766 as Queen's College, was
rechartered in 1770 as a college for " the education of youth in
the learned languages, liberal and useful arts and sciences and
especially in divinity," was first opened for instruction in 1770,
was dosed during 1795-1807 and 1816-1825, and was renamed
in 1835 in honour of Colonel Henry Rutgers (1745-1830), of
New York City, a liberal benefactor. The college embraces two
schoob: the classical school and the scientific school, which in
1864, in pursuance of the Morrill Act of 1862, was constituted
by the state legislature as the state college for the boicfit of
agriculture and the mechanic arts; a preparatory school b also
controlled by its trustees. An agricultural experiment station
is maintained in connexion with the college. In 1908-1909
there were 306 students. In 1908 the library of Rutgers College
contained 57,000 volumes, and that of the Theological Seminary
48,000 volumes. The dty has a variety of manufactures, and
the total value of factory products in 1905 was $8,916,983, 54^^
more thaa in 1900.
A settlement was made here in x68x, and for a time tbe place
was known as Prigmore's Swamp; later, after John Inian had
establbhed a ferry across the river, it was called Inian's Ferry;
the present name was adopted in honour of the house of Bruns-
wick. New Brunswick received a dty charter from the ro>-al
governor in 1730, and was chartered as a dty by the state legis-
lature in 1784. During the War of Independence, General
Washington and his army entered New Brunswick on the 38th
of November 1776, but on the approach of the enemy evacuated
it, and from the 3rd of December 1776 to the 13th of April 1777
it was occupied by the British under Lord Howe. Cornelius
Vanderbilt was for several years the proprietor of tbe BeUooa
Hotel of New Bninswick, now a tenement bouse.
NEWBUROH, or Nkwburc, a dty of Orange' county, New
York, U.S.A., on the W. bank of the Hudson river, about 57 m.
N. of New York City. Pop. (1890) a3f087, (1900) 34,943. <rf
whom 4346 were foreign-bom and 558 negroes; (1910, census)
37,805. It b served by the Erie, the West Shore, and— by
ferries across the Hucbon — the Central New England and
the New York Central & Hudson River raflways. Across New-
burgh Bay, as the expansion of the Hudson at thb point b
called, b the village of Fishkill, and an dectric line connects
with the village of Walden (pop. in 1910, 4004), about X3 m.
N.W., which has various manufactures, the most important being
pocket-knives. The dty occupies a commanding position on
terraces rising abmptly from the river, and on the flat plateau
above, whence a view may be obtained of the CatskiU Moaotains
to the N.W., of the HighUnds of the Hudson to the S. and of
the Hudson river for many miles in both directions. Orange
Lake, between Newburgh and Walden, b known for its ice
NEWBURGH— NEWBURY
467
yichting and skating races. Washington Park is in the central
part of the dty. Downing Park, named in honour of the horti-
culturist and landscape gardener Andrew Jackson Down&g,
(18x5-1852), a native of Newburgh, lies on a high plateau
overlooking the city and the surrounding country. Among
Newbuxgh's institutions are a public library, St Luke's Hospital,
a Children's Home, Mount St Mary's Academy (Roman Catholic)
and a business college. In Coldcn Square there is a statue of
Governor George Clinton. Cotton, woollen and silk goods,
laces, paper, plaster, plush, fdt and felt hats, carpets, engines
and boilers, and mill and farm jnachinery are manufactured, and
there are ship and brick yards. In 1905 factory products were
valued at $7,142,327, an increase of 33-3% over their value for
1900. Newburgh was first settled in x 709 by a colony of Germans
bom the Rhenish Palatinate under their minister, Joshua
Kockethal (d. 17x9), and was known as "the Palatine Parish of
C^uassaic" Towvd the middle of the century many of the
Germaiss removed to Pennsylvania, and Scottish and English
settlers took up their abandoned lands. In X753 the place was
renamed Newburgh, after the town of that name in Scotland,
whence many of the new settlers had come. From the spring of
1782 until August 1783 Washington made his headquarters here,
occupying the Hashrouck House (built by Jonathan Hasbrouck
between 1750 and 1770), which is still standing in Washington
Park, and was bought by the state in X849. It long contained
a collection of historical relics, for which the state has erected a
brick building in Washington Park. It was here on the 37th of
May X783 that he wrote his famous letter of rebuke to Colonel
Lewb Nicola (1717-c. 1807), who had written to him on behalf
of a coterie of army officers, it is said, suggesting that he assume
the title of king. Here, also, Washington made his reply to the
so<aIIed " Newburgh Addresses," written by John Armstrong,
and calling for action on the part of the army to force Congress
to redress its grievances. Here the arrangements were completed
for the disbandment of the Continental Army, and the centenary
of the disbandment was celebrated here on the x8th of October
1883. In commemoration of the disbandment also a monu-
ment, known as the " Tower of Victory " (53 ft. high, with
a life-sized statue of Washington), was erected in Washing-
ton Park by Federal and state authorities. Newburgh was
incorporated as a village in x8oo and chartered as a dty in
1865. The U.S. Geographic Board spells the name Newburg,
but the spelling Newburgh is adopted locally and by the
U.S. Post Office.
See E. M. Ruttenber, History of the Town of Newburth (Mewburgh,
1859) aixl History of Orange County (Newburgh, 1873).
HBWBUROH, a royal and police burgh of Fifeshire, Scotland.
Pop. (x90x) 1904- It is situated on the Firth of Tay, 7 m. N.W.
of Ladybaiik Junction by the North British Railway. Its
industries chiefly consist of the making of linen and floorcloth,
malting and quarrying, and there are fisheries, espedoUy- of
salmon. The harbour is used for the transhipment of the cargoes
of Perth-bound vessels of over 300 tons. On high groimd, about
I m. S.W., stand the remains (only the pedestal) of Macduff's
Cross, which marks the spot where the clan Macduff— in return
for the chief's services against Macbeth — was granted rights
of sanctuary and composition for murder done in hot blood.
Denmyln castle, about 1} m. S.E. of Newburgh, was the home
for more than 350 years of the Balfour family, of which the two
brothers. Sir James (1600-1657), the annalist and Lyon King,
and Sir Andrew (1630-1694), founder of the Botanic Garden in
Edinburgh, were the most distinguished members. Lindores
abbey, the gem of the district, is situated on the Tay, dose to
Newburgh, and 1} m. N. of the village of Lindores. Of the
Benedictine abbey, founded in X17S by David, earl of Hunting-
don, brother of William the Lion, there only remain the groined
arch of the prindpal entrance, a portion of the west tower and
other Early English fragmettU,but the ground plan of the whole
structure can still be traced. The monks were noted agriculturists
and their orchards famous. At Blackeamside, a forest of alders,
to the east of the village, Wallace defeated the earl of Pembroke
in 1398.
KBWBURM, an urban district in the Tyneside parliamentary
division of Northumberland, England, on the Tyac, s\ m. W.
of Newcastle by a branch of the North Eastern railway. Pop.
(190X) X 3,500. It has collieries, and iron, sled, engineering,
tool and fire-day works, and there is a large industrial population.
Newbum is of considerable antiquity. Roman remains have been
discovered in proximity to Hadrian's Wall. A church here was
destroyed by fire in X073 in the course of a dispute between two
claimants of the earldom of Northumberland. Here in 1640 the
Scottish Covenanters planted guns to protect them while fording
the river,' after which they defeated the English on the Durham
side at Stellaheugh, and subsequently occupied Newcastle. The
name of Scotswood, one of the manufacturing villages between
Newbum and the dty, commemorates one of their positions.
The district has many assodations with the famous engineer
Ge orge S tephenson, bom at Wylam, 3 m. W.
NEWBURY, a market town and municipal borough in the
Newbury parliamentary division of Berkshire, England, 53 m.
W. by S. of Reading by the Great Western railway. Pop. (1901)
xi,o6x. It is beautifully situated in the narrow well- wooded
valley of the Kennet, which is followed by the Kennet and Avon
canal. The town has north and south communications by the
Didcot, Newbury & Southampton railway (worked by the
Great Westem company), and is the terminus of the Lambourn
Valley light railway. The church of St. Nicholas is a large
Perpendicular building of the beginning of the i6th century.
It is said to have been built mainly at the charge of John
Winchcombe or Smalwoode (Jack of Newbury), an eminent
clothier, who, according to the brass to his memory, died in
February 15x9. A few picturesque old biiildings remain in the
town, induding part of Winchcombe's house and the Jacobean
doth hall, now a pubUc museum. The almshotises called King
John's Court are supported by a foundation known as St
Bartholomew's Hospital, to which in x 3x5 King John granted
by charter (renewed in 1596 to the corporation) the profits
of a fair on St Bartholomew's day (34th .of August). Shaw
House, on the outskirts of the town to the north-east, is an
Elizabethan mansion of brick, dating from 1581; to the north
is Donnington castle, retaining a Perx)endicular gateway and
other fragments. The suburb of Speenhamland was formerly
an important posting station on the Bath road. At Sandleford
Priory, to the south of Newbury, the site and part of the buildings
of an Augustinian priory (c. isoo) were utilized in the erection
of a mansion, in 178X, for Mrs Elizabeth Montague. The house-
holders of Newbury have the right to elect boys and girls to the
educational foundation of Christ's Hospital. The doth industry
is long extinct in Newbury, but large wool fairs are held annually;
there is considerable agricultural trade, and there are breweries
and flour mills. A racecourse was opened in the vicinity of
the town in 1905, and six meetings are held annually. The
borough is under a mayor, 6 aldermen and x8 councillors.
Area, 1838 acres.
Newbury (Neubiri, Neubiry) possibly owes its origin to the
village of Speen on the other side of the Kennet, which probably
marks the site of the Roman station Spinae. The name Newbury
(new town or borough) is first mentioned by Oderictis Vi talis;
it is probable, however, that the manor of Uluritone, entered in
Domesday as hdd by Eraulph de Hesdain and containing fifty-
one houses, covered a large part of the site of the town. The
manor was subsequently hdd by the Marshalls, and. later by
the Mortimers, through whom it passed to the house of York
and the crown. It formed part of the dowry of several queens-
consort, and was hdd by Elizabeth before her accession. In
1627 it was granted by Charles I. at a fee-farm to the corporation.
Newbury was a borough by prescription; in X187 its inhabitants
are called " burgesses " and a document of the time of Edward I.
speaks of it as " burgus." It was incorporated by a charter
of Elizabeth (1596) which was confirmed by Charles I. and
Charles 11.; a doubtfully vah'd charter of James II. (1685).
Newbury sent two representatives to the pariiamcnt of x3oa
and delegates to a council held in the reign of Edward III.
Newbury early became a centre of the woollen industry,'
468
NEWBURYPORT— NEW CALEDONIA
but at ihb beginning of the 17th century this was declining.
John Kendrick (d. 1624) left a sum of money to benefit the
clothing trade and to " set the poor on work," but the result
was not what was expected. Elias Ashmole (d. 1629) says:
" Newbury had lost most of its clothing trade, which the naviga-
tion of the river Kennet hither, now begun, will probably
recover"; the trade, however, was already irrevocably lost.
The Weavers' Company, which still exists, was incorporated
in 1 601. In the x8th century a considerable trade was done
in corn and malt. Newbury castle, of which traces remained
until the 17th century, is said to have been besieged by Stephen
in 1 153. Newbury was the scene of two battles during the Civil
War, in the first of which (1643) Lord Falkland was killed. An
important woollen market, established in 1862, is held annually
on the first Wednesday in July.
See W. Money. History of Newbury (1887); Victoria County
History, Berks,
NEWBURYPORT, a city and port of entry and one of the
county-seats of Essex county, Massachusetts, U.S.A., on the
S. bank of the Merrimac river, about 3 m. above its mouth, and
about 38 m. N.N.E. of Boston. Pop. (1890) 13,947; (1900)
14,478, of whom 2863 were foreign-born; (1910 census)
14,949. Area, about 12-85 SQ- >n* '^^^ ci^X ^ served by two
divisions of the Boston & Maine railroad, and by coast and
river freight steamers. There are many houses dating back
to the X7th century; of these the stone "garrison" house
(in Newbury), with walls 4 ft. thick and built in the form of
a cross, is an interesting example. Other private houses
worthy of mention are the former homes of " Lord " Timothy
Dexter and Caleb Cushing, the birthplace of William Lloyd
Garrison, and (3) m. from Newburyport in the township of
West Newbury) Indian Hill Farm, the birthplace of the
journalist Ben Perley Poore (1820-1887), author of Perky* s
Reminiscences of Sixty Years in ike National Metropolis (x8A6).
Among the public buildings and institutions are the Marine
Museum, the Public Library (founded in 1854 by Josiah Little
and containing about 45,000 volumes), the old Tracy mansion
(built in 177X or X772), which forms part of the Public Library
building, the Anna Jacques and Homoeopathic hospitals, homes
for aged wnnien and men, a Home for Destitute Children, Old
South Church, in which b the tomb of George Whitefield, and
the Young Men's Christian Associatipn building, which is a
memorial to George Henry Corliss (1817-X888), the inventor,
erected by his widow, a native of Newburyport. The General
Charity Society is a benevolent association. The city has a
good public school system. The Female High School was opened
in 1843 and is said to be the first high school for girls to be
established in the United States. The Putnam Free School,
now part of the public school system, was endowed early in the
19th century by Oliver Putnam of Newburyport and afterwards
of Hampstead, New Hampshire. Three parlu, Washington,
Cushing and Atkinson, are maintained by the city; and there
are a statue of George Washington (1879), by J.Q. A. Ward, one
of William Lloyd Garrison by D. C. French, and a memorial to
the soldiers and sailors of the Civil Wax^a bronze statue, " The
Volunteer " — ^by Mrs Theo (Ruggles) Kitson. A curious chain
suspension bridge across the Merrimac, coimecting Newburyport
with Amesbury, was built in X827, replacing a similar bridge
built in 18x0, which was one of the first suspension bridges
in America.
Newburyport in the early part of the x8th century
was one of the most prosperous commercial centres in New
England. At that time fishing, whaling and shipbuilding were
its principal industries, the clipper ships built here being among
the fastest and best known on the seas. After the Civil War
manufacturing became -Newburyport's chief interest. In 1905
its factory product was valued at $6,809,979, an increase of
33-5% since X900; •57'6% was in boots and shoes, and the
manufactures of combs and silverware, silversmithing products,
cotton goods and electrical supplies are also important.
Newbury, including the site of the present Newburyport,
was settled in X63S by a company under the leadership of the
Rev. Thomas Parker (i S9S- x677\ who had taught in Newbur>',
England, in his youth. In X639 a portion of the territory was
set off to form the town of Rowley, and in 1764 about 647 acres
were set o£f and incorporated as the town of Newburyport.
In X 819 the town of Parsons (now West Newbury) was formed
from Newbury. Newburyport, with its area considerably en-
larged, became a city in 185 1. During the War of Indepexideoce
and the War of x8i2 it sent out many privateers. In 181 x a
fire destroyed 250 buildings, including the greater part of the
business portion of the town.
See Caleb Cushing, History and Present State of the Town of Ne»-
burybort (Newburyport, 1826); Joshua Coffin, History of Netobttry,
Newburyport, and West Newbury, i63$-i845 (Boston, 1845); Mn
E. V. Smith, History of Newburyport (Boston, 1854): D. H. Hurd.
History of Essex County (Philadelphia. x888) ; J. J. Currier, History
of Newbury from the First Settlement of the Town to the Betinning of
the Twentieth Century (Boston. 1903), History of Newburyport, 176^
X005 (Newburyport. 1906), and Quid Newbury, Historical end
Biographical Sketches (Boston, 1898).
NEW CALEDONIA (Fr. Notndlc-CaUdonie), an island in the
western Pacific Ocean, belonging to France. (For map, see
pAcmc Ocean.) It is about 350 m. loifg, and has an extreme
breadth of 35 m. and an area including adjacent islets of 6450
sq. m.; is situated at the southern extremity of Melanesia,
between 39® 5' and 22' x6' S., and between 164* and x67' 30' E-,
and, like all the chief islands of that chain and the chain itself,
lies north-west and south-east. An almost unbroken barrier
reef skirts the west shore at about 5 m. distance, enclosing a
navigable channel; on the east, which is more abrupt and
precipitous, it is much interrupted. To the north the reefs
continue, marking the former extension of the land, for about
x6om., ending with the Huon Islands. The Isle of Pines, so
called from its araucarias (its native name is Kunie), geologically
a continuation of New Caledonia, lies 30 m. from its south-
east extremity. It formerly abounded in sandalwood, and
consists of a central plateau surrounded by a belt of cultivation.
At the two extremities of New Caledonia, parallel bngitudinal
ranges of mountains enclose valleys; for the rest the island
consists essentially of confused masses and ranges of mountains,
rising to an extreme elevation of 5387 ft., the plains being
chiefly the deltas of rivers. The landscape is rich and beautiful,
varied with grand rock scenery, the coast-line beii^ broken
by numerous small bays, into which flow streams rarely navigable
even for short distances, but often skilfully utilized by the
natives for irrigation; and sometimes flowing in subterranean
channels. The larger rivers in the wet season form impassable
morasses, especially in the S.E., where the mountains rise in
isolated masses from flat plains.
Ccotofy.*— Speaking generally. New Caledonia may be described
as a band of Palaeoiotc and probably Lx>wer Palaeozoic rocks,
associated doubtless with some Archcan beds; this band runs
from north-west to south-east, through the whole length of the
island. The second element in the composition of the islaiul consists
of Mcsozoic beds, which occur in a broken band along most 61 the
south-western coast. Most of the island is occupied by the band of
the old rocks, which include mica, glaucophane and sericite-schtsrs
and slates; there are small intrusions of granite, and numerous
dikes and masses of basic eruptive rocks. The slates are inter-
bedded with limestones containing fossil brachiopod?, mhich have
led to their determination as Silunan or Devonian: but L. Pelccan
classes all these limestones as Triassic Triassic beds of the Pacific
coastal type occur in a band alone the south-western coast. They
are covered by marine Jurassic beds and they in turn by Crctaccoua
coal-bearing, terrestrial deposits, resembling those of New Zealand.
According to E. Glasser, the basic isneous rocks which arc asKxiated
with the mineral deposits of New Caledonia were intrusive in Cainotoic
times, at the severing of the connexion between New Caledonia ar.d
New Zealand. New Caledonia is part of the Australasian Festoon.
and in its general characters resembles the geology of New Zealand.
The main mineral deposits are the nickel ores, occurring as \tit» of
garnicrite, associated with peridotite dikes, in the ancient rocka
of the eastern slope of the island.
* The basis of knowledge of the eeology of New Caledonia was laid
by Gamier, Ann. des Mines, ser. 6, vol. xii. (1867). Later account*
are by E. Glasser. " Les Richesses min£rales de la Nouvdle CalMooie.*"
Ann, des Mines, ser. to, vol. iv. mem. pp. 299-393. pi. id., and vol. w.
mem. pp. 39-54. 503-701. pi. ti. and xit. (1904): and by L. Pdctaa,
Les Rtckesses minerales des colonies fran^aises (Paris. 190a).
NEW CALEDONIA
GimaU, Flora, fistma.— The hottest and wettest months
469
some roiynestan and New Zealand aflimties, and on the west coast
a partially Australian chanurter; on the higher hills it b stunted:
on tJbe lower, however, there are 6ne gFass lands, and a scattered
growth of niaulis (if</a/CTi£a viridifloro), useful for its timber, bark
and cajeput oil. there is a great variety of fine timber trees. The
bread-fruit, saso, banana, vanilla, ginger, arrowroot and curcuma
gr«>w wild. The cocoa nut, maiae, sugar-cane, coffee, cotton, rice
and tobacco (which last does not suffer like other crops from the
locusu) do well. The orange, indigo, lucerne and European vege-
tables are grown. Mammals are very fe^: they include the rat and
Pteropus and other bats. The commonest birds are pigeons (the
large notou and other varieties), doves, parrots, kingfishers and ducks.
The kagu {RJnnochetus jubatus), a peculiar " wingless " biixl, is found
here only. Turtle abound on the coast, and fish, of which some kinds,
as the tetrodons (globe-fish), are poisonous, especially at certain
seasons. Land and marine molluscs are numerous, and include
Populalwn.— At the census of 190X the population of New
CaJcdonia numbered sx,4iS> consisting of 12,253 free Europeans
(colonists, soIdiexB, officials), 29,106 natives, 10,056 convicts.
In 1898, however, the inlioductidn of convicts into the island
€eased. The centres of population are Noumea (Numea), the
capital, on a fine harbour of the west coast near the southern
extremity of the island, with 7000 inhabitants; Bourail, an
agricultural penitentiary (x8oo); La Foa, in the centre of the
coffee plantations; Moindu, St Louis and St Vincent.
The natives, whom the French call Kanakas {CanaqueSj a
word meaning " man," applied indiscriminately to many Pacific
peoples), live on reservations. They are Melanesians of mixed
blood, of two fairly distinct types, one sub-Papuan and. the
other Polynesian. Of the first the physical characteristics
are a small, thin-limbed body, hair black, short and woolly,
projecting jaws, founded, narrow, retreating forehead, long
and narrow head, enormous eyebrow ridges, flat nose and dark
sklxL The second type is characterized by a Ughter skin, some^
times of a reddish-yellow, longer, less woolly hair, body taller
with better-proportioned lim^, and head broader. This is
the prevailing type in the east and south of the iskind. There
» nowhere a real defining line between the two (many New
Caledonians having bhick skins and woolly hair with Polynesian
superiority of limb), but the Polynesian type is generally found
( the chiefs and their kindred.
Both sexes amon^ the natives pieree the lobes of the ear for oma-
ineota. Tattooing is almost entire!]^ confined to the women. Both
sexes go naked, or with the scantiest loin<cloth. Their huts are
usually beehive-shaped, with a single apartment, low narrow door,
and 00 chimney. There are various degrees of hereditary chiefships.
and a supreme chief recognized by all. As in some other Paafic
islands, when a son is bom the chiefship passes to him, but the father
coatiaues to govern as regent. All property descends to the eldest
son by birth or adoption, though custom demands that the younger
members of the family should have a share. The people nave to
work on the chief's plantations and fisheries, and also work in parties
for each other, breaking up new land, &c. This often ends in
feasdi^ and in dances Qnlu piiuY, which include allegorical rcpre-
seotatioos' of events or ideas. The supreme chief's authority is
Smited by the advice of a council of elders, whom he b obliged to
sommon m certain emergencies. The standard of morality b low;
women are practically slaves, and infanticide was formerly common.
The Kanakas are excellent agriculturists, being accounted superior
in this matter to every other race of the Pacific About the middle
of the 19th century the indigenous population was 60,000. Returns
for 1904 showed tliat thb had fallen to rather less than half.
The languages of the different tribes are mutually unintelligible.
They express abstract ideas imperfectly. Thus there are several
wOTds for eating, each applied to a particular article of food. Their
reckoning shows the same peculiarity. The numbers go up to five,
and for nving objects the word bird is added, for inanimate yam,
for large objects skiP.^ There are other terms for bundles of sugar-
canes, rows (planted) of yams. &c. ; and sometimes things are counted
by threes. Ten b two fives, 15 three fives, 30 b a " man " (ten
fingers and ten toes), 100 b " five men,** and so on.
Adwumstraium and Industries. — ^The colony is admimstered
by a fovemor, who exercises military power through a marine
ii^antry colonel, and civU power with the assbtance of a privy
> A aiffltlar usage exists in Malay; see paper by Yule in Jour.
Autkrop. Inst. ix. aga
council, a director of the mtetior, a Judicial head, and a director
of the penitentiary adminbtration. There b also an elective
general council. Noum^ b the seat of a superior tribunal,
a tribunal of first instance, and a tribunal of commerce. The
bland and its dependencies are divided into five arrondissements.
Noumea alone has (since 1879) a mimicipality, other localities
being adminbtered by commissions, lliere are about z6oo
sq. m. of cultivable lands in the alluvial valleys, where coffee, *
maize, tobacco, sugar-cane, the vine, vegetables, potatoes,
and some of the cereals are grown with success. Coffee was
introduced about 1870, and has prospered well. Cheap agri-
cultural labour b supplied by the convicts, by the liberated
convicts, the Kanakas, and (to some extent) kbourers from
the New Hebrides. The soil b m three domains: that of the
stale, for the working of which concessions may be granted;
that of the penitentiaxy adminbtration; and that of the native
reserve. Many horses, cattle and sheep have been imported, and
the meat-preserving mdustry b prosecuted. Gold b found in
the valley of the Diahot, as well as lead and copper at Balade.
Iron b found everywhere. The yearly output of nickel and
chrome b considerable, and these minerab, with cobalt, constitute
the characteristic wealth of the bland. Coal has been worked
near Noumda, and kaoUn b found in places. Gypsum and
marble also deserve mention. The chief industrial establish-
ments are smelting furnaces for cobalt, meat-preserving works
at Ouaco, sugar-works and dbtiUeries at Noumea and La Foa,
tobacco, oil and soap factories at Noumea. The commerce in
x888 amounted to £480,000, of which £200,000 represented
the trade with France. In X900 the total had risen to £820,000,
of which £480,000 was for unports and £340,000 for exports,
the share of France in that year having been 45% of imports
and 47% of ^ports. The bland unports wines, spirits, tissues,
clothing and ironmongery; and exports ores, nickel, cobalt and
chrome (which represent over three-quarters of the total exports
m value), preserved meaU and hides, coffee, copra and other
colonial produce. There are about 150 m. of carriage xoads,
and in the mountaizMus regions there are many footpaths.
A railway running north-westward from Noumea to Dumb^a,
&c., b designed to connect the capital with Bourail. The
blands annexed to the colony of New Caledonia are the Isle
of Pines, used as a place of detention for habitual criminab;
the Lo^ty Islands (q.v.), E. of New Caledonia; the Huon
Islands, a practically barren group; the Wallb Archipelago
(q.v.) ; and Futuna and Alofa, S. of the Wallb group.
History. — ^New Caledonia was discovered by Captain Cook
in X774. He touched at the haven of Balade (the original name
of the bland) near the north-western extremity, as did d'Entre-
casteaux in X793, who closely explored the coast and surrounding
seas. They subsequently became known to sealers and traders
in sandalwood, who, however, established no friendly relations
with the natives. In 1843 French missionaries arrived at the
bland, and it was claimed for France, but on British representa-
tions the daim was renoimccd. In X85X a binding party from
a French vessel lying at Balade was attacked by the natives,
and massacred with the exception of a single member. France
was now determined on the annexation, and the flag was raised
at the same spot in 1853, but simultaneously the commander
of a British vessel was in negotiation with the native chief of
the Isle of Pines, and the Britbh flag was hobted there. The
chief, however, subsequently sided with the French, and the
British claim was finally withdrawn. The capital, Noumea,
was founded m 1854 (it was then called Port de France); in
x86o New Caledonia became a colony dbtinct from the French
possessions in the Pacific at laige^ in 1864 the first penal settle-
ment was made on Nou Island, off Noumea. In 1878 there was
a serious native insurrection, and another in i88x was only put
down after much bloodshed.
See H. Riviere, Souoenirs de la NouoOe'CaUdonk: Finsurrection
canaque (Parb, 1881); Gallct. La NouoeUe-CaUdonie (Noum^,
1884) ; Cordeil, Origines et protris de la NouoeUe-CaUdonie (Noumfa,
1885); C. Lemire, La Colonisation . . . en NouaeUe-Caiidonie
(Paris. 1878): Ihid. (Nourote, 1803); Vtf>o« a pied en Nomette-
CaUdonie (Parb, 1884); M. A. Legrand, An pays des Canaques
470
(Paris, 1893): Monoelon, Ia Bag^e «l ta eolonisaHen ptnaU d la
NotadU-aUdomu (Paris. 1886): A. Bernard. LArcUpd d» la
NotaeUe-CaUdoHie (Pixa, 1895); NouoetU-CaUdonit, set rickesses,
t<m aoenir (Paris Exhibition. J|90o); G. Griffith, In an unknown
Prison Land (London. 1901); Carol. La NtntodU-CaUdonU miniire
el atrieeU (Paris, 1900) ; Vallet, la CoUmisaHonfranfaise en NaitoeUc-
CaSdonit (Paris, 1905).
MBWCASTLB, DUKES OF. Within the space of a century
there were no less than four successive creations of dukes of
Newcastle in the British peera^. William Cavendish (see
below), nephew of the zst earl of Devonshire, was raised to the
dignity of duke of Newcastle-upon-Tyne in 1665. His son and
successor Henry (1630-1691) died leaving daughters only, and
one of these married John Hollos (1662-171 x), earl of Clare, who
was created duke in 1694. This duke died also without male
issue, leaving his estates to his sister's son, Thomas Pclhani
(see below), who, with other dignities; had the title of duke of
Newcastle-upon-Tyne conferred on him in 17x5, and a second
and similar ducal title (that of Newcastle-under-Lyme) in 1756.
The first dukedom became extinct at his death, but the second
title was granted him with remainder to Henry Fieimes Clinton,
earl of Lincoln, at once his nephew and nephew-in-law. From
his heir, who ranks as the and duke, Henry Fiennes Clinton
(1720-X794), the dukedom passed through father and son from.
Thomas Pclham Clinton (d. 1795), Henry Pelham Fiennes Pdham
Clinton (1785-1851), Henry Pelham Fiennes Pelham Clinton
(1811-1864), Henry Pclham Alexander (1834-1879), to the
7th duke, Henry Pelham Archibald Douglas Pelham Clinton
(b. 1864). The three principal dukes are more fully noticed
below.
X. William Cavendish, duke of Newcastle (i 593-1676),
eldest surviving son of Sir Charles Cavendish and of Catherine,
daughter of Cuthbert, Lord Ogle, and grandson of 3ir William
Cavendidi and " Bess of Hardwick," was bom in 1592 and
educated at St John's College, Cambridge. On the occasion of
the creation of Prince Henry as prince of Wales in x6xo he was
made a knight of the Bath, subsequently travelled with Sir
Henry Wotton, then ambassador to the duke of Savoy, and on
his return married his first wife, Elizabeth, daughter of William
Basset of Blore, Staffordshire, and widow of Henry Howard,
3rd son of the earl of Suffolk. His fortune was immense, and he
several times entertained James I. and Charles L with great
magnificence at Welbcck and Bolsover. On the 3rd of November
1620 he was created Viscount Mansfield, on the 7th of March
1628 earl of Newcastle, and in 1629 the barony of Ogle was
restored to his mother, this title, together with an estate of
£3000 per annum, descending to him. In 1638 he was made
governor of the prince of Wales, and in 1639 a privy councillor.
When the Scottish war broke out he assisted the king with a
loan of £10,000 and a troop of volunteer horse, consisting of
X20 km'ghts and gentlemen. In 1641 he was implicated in the
Army Plot, and in consequence withdrew for a time from the-
court. He was sent by Charles on the zith of January 1642
to seize Hull, but was refused admittance. When the king
declared open war, Newcastle was given the command of the
four northern counties, and had the power conferred on him
of making knights. He maintained troops at his own expense,
and having occupied Newcastle kept open commtmications with
the queen, and despatched to the Ung his foreign supplies.
In November 1642 he advanced into Yorkshire, raised the siege
of York, and compelled Fairfax to retire after attacking him at
Tadcaster. Subsequently his pkns were checked by the latter's
recapture of Leeds in January 1643, and he retired to York.
He escorted the queen, who retumeid from abroad in February,
to York, and subsequently captured Wakefield, Rotherham and
Sheffield, though failing at Leeds, but his successes were once
more ravished from him by Fairfax. In June he advanced again,
defeated the Fairfaxes to Adwalton Moor on the 30th of June,
and obtained possession of all Yorkshire except Hull and Wressel
■Castle. He might now have joined the king against Essex, but
icontinued his campaign in the north, advancing into Lincolnshire
to attack the eastern association, and taking Gainsborough and
Lincoln. Thence be returned to besiege Hull, and in his absence
NEWCASTLE, DUKES OF
the force which he had lefl in Lincolnshire was defeated at
Winceby by Cromwell on the xxth of October 1643, which caused
the loss of the whole county. On the 27th of October 1643
he was created a marquis. Next year his position was further
threatened by the advance of the Scots. Against prevailing
numbers he could do little but harass and cut off supplies. He
retreated to York, where the three armies of the Scots, Fairfax
and Manchester surrounded him. On the xst of July Rupert
raised the siege, but on the next day threw away his success by
engaging the three armies in battle, contrary to Newcastle's
desire, at Marston Moor. After this disaster, notwithstanding
the entreaties of the king and the remonstrances of Rupert,
Newcastle immediately announced his intention of abandoning
the cause and of quitting England. He sailed from Scarborough
accompanied by a considerable following, including his two sons
and his brother, resided at Hamburg from July 1644 to Februao'
1645, &nd removed in April to Paris, where he lived for three
years. There he married as his second wife Margaret (see below) ,
daughter of Sir Thomas Lucas of St John's, Colchester. He left
in 1648 for Rotterdam with the intention of joining the prince
of Wales in command of the revolted navy, and finally took up
his abode at Antwerp, where he remained till the Restoration.
In April 1650 he was appointed a member of Charles II.'s privy
council, and in opposition to Hyde advocated the agreement with
the Scots. In Antwerp he established his famous riding-school,
exercised " the art of manage," and published his first work on
horsemanship, Mitkode et invention noweUe de dresser Us eketanx
(1658, 2nd ed., 1747; translated as A General System of Horsc-
manskip, 1743).
At the Restoration Newcastle returned to England, and
succeeded in regaining the greater part of his estates, though
burdened with debts, bis wife estimating his total losses in the
war at the enormous sum of £94Xt303* He was reinstated in the
offices he had filled under Charles I.; was invested in i66x with
the Garter which had been bestowed upon him in 1650, and was
advanced to a dukedom on the x6th of March 1665. He retired,
however, from public life and occupied himself with his estate and
with his favourite pursuit of training horses. He established a
racecourse near Welbeck, and published another work on horse-
manship, A New Method and Extraordinary Invention to Dress
Horses and Work them according to Nature . . . (1667). He
wrote also several comedies, The Country Captain and TkeVarietie
(1649)1 The Humorous Lovers &nd The Triumphant Widow (1677).
With Dryden's assistance he translated Moliire's L*£toipdi as
Sir Martin Mar-AU (1688). He contributed scenes to his wife*s
plays, and poems of his composition are to be found among her
works; and he was the patron of Jonson, Shirley, Davenant,
Drydcn, Shadwell and Flecknoe, and of Hobbes, Gasocndi and
Descartes. He died on the 25th of December 1676, and was
buried in Westminster Abbey. By his first wife be had ten
children, of whom one son, Henry, survived him and became
and duke of Newcastle, dying in 1691 without male iasiie; the
title then became extinct and the estates passed to his third
daughter Margaret, wife of John Holies, earl of Clare, created
duke of Newcastle in 1694.
As a commander in the field Clarendon spoke oontempttKHisly
of Newcastle as " a very lamentable man, and as fit to be a
general as a bishop.'" It can hardly be denied, however, that
his achievements in the north were of great mOitary value to
the king's cause. For politics he had no taste, and adhered to
the king's cause merely from motives of personal loyalty, from
hatred of "whatsoever was like to disturb the public peace,"
and because the monarchy " was the foundation and support of
his own greatness." Even Clarendon concedes that be was
" a very fine gentleman," which is perhaps the best summary
of his character.
His second wife, Margaret, duchess of Newcastle {c idss-
1673), had been maid of honour to Henrietta Maria, and after
she married the duke in 1645 they continued to cherish a mutual
admiration of a very exaggerated character, each itganling the
otber as endowed with transcendent merits both of pcnoa
> Calendar pf Oaremdon Papers, iL ^
NEWCASTLE
471
And mind. The ducheu cultivated Uteniy compoiiu'on with
ezubennt fervour, and kept a bevy of maids of honour obliged
to be ready at all hours " to register her Grace's conceptions."
Walpolc speaJu of her as a " fertile pedant " with an " unbounded
passion for scribbling"; and, although giving evidence of
learning, ingenuity and imagination, her writings are fatally
marred by a defiaency in judgment and self-restraint. She is
best known by the Life she wrote of her husband, originally
printed by A. Maxwell at London in 1667. She also published
PkUosopkical Fancies (1653); Poems and Fancies (1653); The
World's Olio (1655) ; Nature's Picture drawn by Fancie's Pencil to
tie Life, which includes an autobiography (1656); PkUosopkical
and Pkysical Opinions (1655); Orations (1663); Plays (1662);
Sociable Letters (1664); Obseroations upon Etperimental Pkilo-
sopky (1666); Letters and Poems (1676).
The Life of WiUiam Catendisk, Duke of Newcastle, by Margaret,
duchess of Newcastle, has been edited by C. H. Firth (1886) ; it was
critidced by P^pys as " the ridiculous history of my Lord Newcastle
writ by his irife, which shows her to be a mad, conceited, ridiculous
woman, and be an ass to suffer her to write what she writes to him
and of him." but on the other hand eulogised by Charles Lamb
as a work for which " no casket is rich enoueh. no case sufficiently
durabk: to honour and keep soft such a jewel.' See also La Duekesse
et ie Due de Newcastle, by Emile Mont^t (1895). The diKhess's
Sdea Poems were edited by Brydses in 1813, and her Autobiography
in 18 14. The latter, edited by Lower, was published along with
hue Life of Ike Duke of Newcastle in 1873.
2. Thomas Pelham Holles, duke of Newcastle (1693-1768),
whose official life extended throughout the Whig supremacy
of the x8th century, was the elder son of Thomas, first Lord
Pelham, by his second wife Lady Grace Holles, younger sister
of John HoUes, duke of Newcastle-on-Tyne, who died in 171 z,
and left the whole of his vast estates to him. In 1712 he also
succeeded his father in his peerage and estates, and in 1714,
when he came of age, was one of the greatest landowners in the
kingdom. He vigorously sustained the Whig party at Queen
Anne's death, and had much influence in making the Londoners
accept King George. His services were too great to be neglected,
and in 17x4 he was created earl of Clare, and in 17x5 duke of
Newcastle-on-Tyne. He also became lord-lieutenant of the
counties of Middlesex and Nottingham and a knight of the Garter
in 1 7 18, in which year he increased his Whig connexion by marry-
ing Lady Henrietta Godolphin, granddaughter of the great duke
of Mariborough. In 1717 he first held political office as lord
chamberlain of the household, and in 1724 was chosen by Sir
Robert Walpole to be secretary of state in place of Lord Carteret.
This office he held continuously for tliirty years (1724-1754),
and only changed it for the premiership on his brother's death.
His kmg tenure of office has been attributed to his great Whig
connexions and his wealth, but some praise must be given to
his mexhaustible activity and great powers of debate. He was a
peculiarly muddle-headed man, and unhappy if he had not more
to do than he rould possibly manage, but at the iiame time he
was a consummate master of parliamentary tactics, and knew
how to manage the Houses of Lords and Commons alike. Lord
Hervcy (Memoirs) compares him with Walpole in 1735, and
lays: " We have one minister that does everything with the
same seeming ease and tranquillity as if he were doing nothing;
we have another that does nothing in the same hurry and agita-
tion as if he did everything." He continued in office on Walpole's
fall in 174a, and became more powerful on his younger brother
Henry becoming prime minister in X743. On Henry Pclbam's
death in March 1754, Newcastle succeeded him as premier; but
people who had been accustomed to him as secretary of state
would not stand him as premier, and in November 1756 he gave
place to the duke of Devonshire. For his long services he was
created duke of Newcastle-under-Lyme, with remainder to
Henry Fiennes Clinton, 9th earl of Lincoln, who had married his
niece Catherine Pelham. In July 1757 he again became prime
minister— for Pitt, though a great statesman, was a bad party
leader — on the understanding, according to Horace Walpole,
that " Mr Pitt does everything, the duke gives everything.**
Under this ministry England became famous abroad, but it
grsdiuUy fell before the young king's affection for Lord Bute,
who, after supplanting Pitt, became prime minisUr in the
room of Newcastle in May 1762. The duke went into strong
opposition, and kwt his two lord-lieutenandes for opposing the
peace of X763. In 1765 he became lord privy seal for a few
months, but his health was fast giving way, and he died Jn
November 1768. The duke was certainly not a great man, but
he was industrious and energetic, and to his credit be it said
that the statesman who almost monopolized the patronage of
office for half a century twice refused a pension, and finally left
office £300,000 poorer than he entered it.
See Memoirs of Ike Administration of ike Right Hon. H. Pdkam,
by W. Cose (1829).
3. Henry Pelbam Fiennes Pelham Cunton, sth duke of
Newcastle (181X-X864), the eldest son of Henry, the 4th duke,
was educated at Eton and at Cnrist Church, Oxford, where he
graduated in 1832. He was member of parliament for South
Nottinghamshire from 1832 to 1846, when he became member
for the Falkirk Burghs, retaining this seat until he became duke
of Newcastle in January 1851. As earl of Lincoln he was first
commissioner of woods and forests from 1841 to February 1846,
when he was appointed chief secretary to the lord-lieutenant
of Ireland, but the ministry fell in June of the same year. In
1852 Newcastle became secretary for war and the colonies under
the earl of Aberdeen, and when, after the outbreak of the Crimean
War, a separate war department was constituted, he was placed
in charge of it. As secretary for war he was regarded as being
largely responsible for the terrible hardships which befell the
British troops in the Crimea in the winter of 1854, and as the
result of a vote of censure he left office with his colleagues in
January 1855. He was secretary for the colonies from 1859 to
1864, and died on the i8th of October 1864, being succeeded as
6th duke by his eldest son, Henry Pelham Alexander.
See J. Martineau, Tke Life of Henry Pelkam, stk Duke of Newcastle
(1908).
KEVCASTLB, a seaport of Northumberland county. New
South Wales, Australia, at the mouth of the Hunter river,
102 m. by rail and 62 m. by sea N. by E. of Sydney, in 32* 55' S.,
151*' 49' £. Newcastle is the second city in New South Wales,
the fourth port of Australia, and the seat of an Anglican bishop.
The dty rises steeply from the sea, and possesses numerous
fine buildings, among which may be mentioned the railway
station, post office, custom-house, the cathedral of Christ Church,
the school of art with its large library, and the Victoria TheatreJ
There are also two state-subsidized hospitals, a college, a school
of mines, a technological museum, several large and handsome
churches, and numerous subsidized charitable institutions.
Communication between the different parts is maintained by
tramways, and steam ferry-boats ply between the city and its
suburbs on the shores of the harbour. The industries include
brewing, shipbuilding, copper and iron-founding, carriage-
building and fellmongery; there are boot factories, engineering
works, biscuit factories and smelting works at Cockle Creek.
There is also a large trade in frozen meat. There are numerous
coal mines in the vicinity, yielding coal of the finest quality.
Newcastle has a fine harbour, with an area of 540 acres, protected
by two breakwaters; the breadth of the channel at its entrance,
isi2ooft.,andthedepthatthebaris2s}ft. Vessels of the largest
tonnage can enter and lie alongside of the wharves, which are
5 m. in extent, equipped with travelling cranes, hydraulic and
steam cranes, lighted by electric light and connected with the
Great Northern railway by a branch line. There is a floating
dock to lift 2000 tons, and at Stockton there is a patent slip to
take large vessels for repair. The facilities for the shipment of
coal are excellent, and Newcastle is the chief coaling port in the
southern hemisphere. The harbour is protected by two forts.
Fort Scratchley, the strongest in Australia, and Shepherd's Hill
Fort. The city exports coal, wool, coke, horses, cattle, frozen
meat, silver, lead, copper, tallow, hides and country produce.
Newcastle returns three members to the legislative council and
six members to the legislative assembly. Most of the suburbs
are separate municipalities, namely. Stockton, Carrington,
Wickham, Hamilton, Merewether, Adamstown, Waratah, New
472
NEW CASTLE— NEWCASTLE-UPON-TYNE
LambtOD, Lambton, Wallsend and Plattaburg. The populatioa
of the municipality of Newcastle is 14,250; of the town and
suburba about 70,000.
The mouth of the Hunter river (named after Governor John
Hunter), now known as Newcastle Harbour, was discovered
in 1797 by Lieutenant John Shortland, who accompanied Hunter
to New South Wales. For many years after its discovery it was
used as a convict station. It became a free settlement in 1821,
and in 1859 was erected into a municipality. The centenary of
the landing of Shortland was celebrated in 1897, when a monu-
ment commemorating the event was erected.
NEW CASTLB, a city of New Castle coimty, Delaware, U.S.A.,
in the northern part of the sUte, at the head of Delaware Bay,
on a high point of land extending into the Delaware river, 6 m.
south of Wilmington. Pop. (1890) 4010; (1900) 3380 (315 foreign-
bom); (19x0) 335Z. It is served by the Philadelphia, Baltimore
& Washington (Pennsylvania System), and (vid Wilmington) the
Baltimore & Ohio railways, and by steamship lines connecting with
Baltimore, Philadelphia and river ports. The "old" county
court house, possibly built by the Swedes, is in New Castle; and
there are a public library, Uie Immanuel Protestant Episcopal
Church (partly built in 1689), and several residences of Dutch
and colonial types. The city has a good harbour and an excel-
lent river front for manufacturing sites and for shipping; it is
included in the customs district of Wilmington. Its industrial
establishments include shipyards, rolling mills and steel works,
flour-mills, and manufactories of cotton and woollen goods.
The shad fisheries are of some importance. In 1651 Governor
Peter Stuyvesant of New Netherland established near the place
Fort Casimir, as the first determined move in his aggressive policy
against the Swedes, who had settled in this vicinity about 1640.
The Swedes captured the fort in 1654, but this precipitated
the crisis in which New Sweden (Delaware) was lost to the
Dutch in 1655. Fort Casimir (renamed Fort Amstd) was made
the seat of government of the local Dutch possessions, and in
1657 was placed under the jurisdiction of the City of Amsterdam,
under which it remained, though prospering little — disease,
famine and fears of English attack causing most of the inhabit-
ants to leave in 1658 and 1659— \mtil just before the English
seized the settlements in Delaware in 1664. Under the English
the name was changed to New Castle, and trade and commerce
prospered; and an arc with a radius of la m., having the New
Castle coiirt house as a centre, became the northern boundary
of the " counties on the Delaware." New Castle was frequently
the meeting place of the colonial legislature, and after the
legislative separation of Delaware from Pennsylvania in 1704
it was the seat of administration of the colony until 1777. It
was chartered as a city in 1875.
MBWCASTLB. a seaside resort of Co. Down, Ireland, finely
situated on the western shore of Dundrum Bay, at the foot of
Slieve Donard, the highest eminence of the Moume Mountains.
Pop. (1901) 1553. It is the terminus of the Belfast and County
Down railway, being 36 m. S. of Belfast; and is also served by
a branch of the Great Northern railway. A fort guarded the
passage of the river Shimna here in early times, but the town is
entirely modem. The sandy shore affords good bathing, there is
a small spa, and the scenery of the Mouraes is fine. The demesnes
of Donard Lodge and Bryansford are of great beauty. The golf
links of the County Down Club here are well known.
' NEWCASTLE, a city and the county-seat of Lawrence county,
Pennsylvania, U.S.A., on the Shenango river, at the mouth of
Neshannock Creek, about 50 m. N.N.W. of Pittsburg. Pop.
(1890) iT,6oo; (1900) 28,339, 5334 being foreign-bom and 463
negroes ; (i 9 10) 36,280. It is served by the Pennsylvania, the Erie,
the Baltimore & Ohio, the Buffalo, Rochester & Pittsburgh, and
the Pittsburgh & Lake Erie railways. Cascade Park, in the
neighbourhood, is a pleasure resort. The surrounding country,
with which the city has an extensive trade, is well adapted to
agriculture, and abounds in bituminous coal, iron ore, limestone,
sandstone and fire-clay. In 1905 the city ranked fifth among
the cities of the state in the value of iU factory product, and
of its products (valued at $29,433i635i ^ increase of 47*1%
since 1900) iron and steel, and tin and teme-plates were the most
important. Newcastle was founded in 1802, became a borough
in 1869, and was first chartered as a dty in 1875, iu charter bang
revised in 1887.
NEWCASTLB-UNDER-LTHp, a market town and municipal
and pariiamentary borough of Staffordshire, England, a m. W.
of Stoke-upon-Trent by the North Staffordshire railway. Pop.
(1901) 19,9x4. The parish church of St Giles was rebuilt in
1873-1876 by Sir Gilbert Scott, with the exception of the tower,
which dates from the 12th century. The free grammar school,
originally founded in 1602, possesses large endowments, increased
by the amalgamation of various subsequent bequests for educa-
tional purposes, and now consists of high and middle schools
for boys and Orme's school for giris. There is also a school of
art induded with a free library in handsome municipal buBdings.
The manufacture of hats was once the staple trade, but it has
declined. There are cotton and paper mills; and tanning,
brewing, malting and the manufacture of army dothing are
carried on. In the neighbourhood there are large collieries, as at
Silverdale and elsewhere. Partly induded in the parliamentary
borough is the populous parish of Wobtanton, of which the
fine church, well placed on high ground, has good details of the
X3th century, with a massive tower and spire. The mining town
of Audley lies 4. m. N.W., with a fine early Decorated chtirck.
Newcastlc-under-Lyme is governed by a mayor, 6 aldermen and
x8 councillors. Area, 671 acres.
Newcastle-under-Lyme (Neofchastdl-sur-Lyme, Newcastle-
under-Lyme) is not mentioned in Domesday, but it must early
have become a place of importance, for a charter, known only
through a reference in a charter to Preston, was given to the
town by Henry II. The town owes its name to a castle built
here in the X2th century to supersede an older fortress at Chester-
ton about 2 m. to the north, of which the ruins were to be sees
in the x6th century, and to the fact that it was situated under the
forest of Lyine. Henry IU. (1235) constituted it a free borough,
granting a gild merchant and other privileges; in 1251 he leased
it at fee-farm to the burgesses; the governing charter in 1835
was that of 1590 enUrged by that of 1664, under which the title
of the corporation was the "mayor, bailiffs and burgesses of
Newcastle-under-Lyme." Newcastle, which was originally held
by the crown, was granted (1265) to Simon de Montfort, and
subsequently to Edmund Crouchback, through whom it passed
to Henry IV. In Leland's time the castle had disappeared
" save one great Toure "; in the X7th and i8th centuries the
town was flourishing and had a manufacture of hats. The
market was originally held on Sunday; in the reign of John it
was changed to Saturday; by the charter of Elisabeth it was
fixed on Monday. Markets are now held on Monday, Wednes-
day and Saturday. Grants of fairs were given by Edward L,
Edward III. and Henry VI. Up to the time of the passing of the
Municipal Reform Aa the farce of electing a mock mayor was
gone through annually after the election of the real mayor.
Newcastle sent two members to piirliament from 1355 to 1885,
when it lost one representative.
See Victoria County History, Stafford; T. Ingamclts. Historical
Records and Dirociory of NewcastU'tmder'Lyme.
NEWCASTLB-UPON-TTNE, a city and county of a dty,
municipal, county and parliamentary borough, and port of
Northumberland, England, 272 m. N. by W. of London, on
the North-Eastera railway. Pop. (1891) 186,300; (1901)
215,328. It stands on the N. bank of the Tyne, which is here
high and steeply inclined above the river. The mouth of the
river into the North Sea is 8 m. below Newcastle and its banks
are lined with docks and industrial towns, while its narrow waicis
are crowded with traffic.
Though Newcastle owes its origin to a Roman station at a
bridge over the river, its modem growth has largdy destroyed
traces of antiquity. Of the old walls which, according to Leknd,
" for strength and magnificence far surpassed all the waUs of the
dties of England and of most of the towns of Europe," and the
drcuit of which was s m. 239 yds., there are slight remaiio*
although the fortifications were allowed to go into disrepair
NEWCASTLE-UPON-TYNE
473
after the union of Scotland and England. The castle, from
which the town takes its name, stood on a slight elevation rising
abruptly from the river, and was erected by Henry II. between
1 173 and 1 177 on the site of an older structure built in 1080 by
Robert, eldest son of the Conqueror. It was originally the
strongest fortress in the north of England, and its keep is now
one of the finest specimens of the Norman stronghold remaining
in the country. While it was still incomplete, William the Lion
was led within its walls after his capture at Alnwick; and
within its great hall Baliol, on the 36th of December 1393, did
homage for the crown of Scotknd to Edward I. The area of the
castle within its outer walls and fosse was 3 acres. Fragments of
these walls, with the principal entrance or Black Gate (portions
of which arc, however, of later construction) and the Watergate
or southern postern remain, but the inner wall surrounding the
keep has been entirely removed. The massive keep, with walls
14 ft. thick, is in a state of good preservation, as is also the
chapel, a beautiful specimen of late Norman style. The castle
was purchased by the corporation in 1809, and is under the
charge of the Newcastle Society of Antiquaries, which uses a
portion of it as an antiquarian museum. Near the castle is St
Nicholas church, forming the cathedral of the diocese of New-
castle, instituted in 1883. The diocese covers praaically the
wholeof Northumberland, with a very small portion of Cumber-
land. The church, which is principally Decorated, consists of
nave, aisles, chancel and transepts, the total length of the interior
from east to west being 245 ft., and the width at the transepts
X28 ft. The principal feature of the church is the lantern tower,
a later addition and a very fine specimen of early Perpendicular.
Among other interesting old churches is St Andrew's church,
erected in the x i th century, and retaining Norman characteristics,
with a low square tower and a peal of six bells. During the
siege by the Parliamentary army in 1644 it was greatly damaged.
St John's church is a building of the 14th century with an ancient
front. Of the nine conventual buildings at one time existing
in Newcastle or its immediate neighbourhood, a few fragments
of the monastery of the Black Friars remain, and the chapel of
the hospital of St Mary at Jesmond forms a picturesque ruin.
There arc a number of quaint Elizabethan houses in the
steep street called the Side, and in the Sandhill at its foot.
Some of the modem streets of Newcastle are spacious and
handsome. The most noteworthy are Grey Street, in which
a complete scheme of Grecian architecture is followed, and
Grainger Street. This thoroughfare is named after Richard
Grainger (1798-1861), a wealthy local architect who devoted
himself to the beautifying of his city with remarkable energy.
Of numerous modem churches may be noted that of St George,
Jesmond, a landmark for a great dbtance and finely decorated
within, and the Roman Catholic cathedral of the diocese of Hex-
ham and Newcastle. The most important public buildings are
the corporation buildings, including a large public hall, and a corn
exchange; the guildhall, originally a hospital called the Maison
de Dieu, and afterwards used as *' the stately court of merchant
adventurers," re-erected in 1658; the moot-hall (1810) for the
meetings of assizes and sessions and the transaction of county
business; the exchange (i860); the central newsroom and art
gaUexy (1858); the Wood memorial hall (1870), used for the
meetings of the North of En^and Institute of Engineers; and
the custom-house. The Grey monument in Grey Street, an Ionic
column surmounted by a statue of Earl Grey, was erected in 1836
to commemorate the passing of the Reform Bill; the Stephenson
monument near the railway station was erected in 1863; a
marble statue of Queen Victoria in front of the Royal Victoria
Jsi&Tmary was unveiled in 1906, and a bronze statue of the queen
in 1903 in the cathedral square.
Among educational establishments the chief are the colleges
of medidne and of physical science of the university of Durham;
the first granting degrees in medicine and surgery; the second,
-with whidi the school of art is incorporated, degrees in science
and literature. The college of science, or Armstrong College
as it is called in commemoration of the first Lord Armstrong,
was founded in 1871; the north-east wing was opened in x888;
further parts of the building in 1894, and the west wing by King
Edward in X906. The royal free grammar school, founded in
X53S, occupies modem buildings in Jesmond. There should be
mentioned also Allan's endowed schools, founded in 1705, and
reorganized by the charity commissioners in 1877; and Ruther-
ford College and the Commercial Institute, providing technical
and commercial education. The Laing Art Gallery was erected
and presented to the city by Alexander Laing, and opened in
1904. Among clubs and similar institutions are the Literary
and Philosophical Society, founded in 1793, ^^^ Society of Anti-
quaries, founded in 1813, with a musi'um in the castle; the
Natural History Society and museum; the Tyneside Geographical
Society; the Tyneside Naturalists' Club, established in 1846;
the Mechanics' Institution, 1834; the North of England Institute
of Mining Engineers, 1853; the Fine Arts Society; the Farmers*
Club; the Northern Counties' Club; the Union Club; and the
University Club. Several clubs for working men form a note-
worthy social feature. There is a public library and newsroom.
The Royal Victoria Infirmary on the Castle Leazes is a memorial
of the Diamond Jubilee of Queen Victoria, and was opened in
X906. The benevolent institutions also include the dispensary
(i777)t fcver house (1803), lying-in hospital (1760), eye infirmary
(1833), children's hospital. Trinity almshouses (1493), hospital
of the Holy Jesus (1683), hospital (x7ox) for keelmen, <.e.
coal-bargemen; and institutions for the blind, dumb and
orphans.
Newcastle is wen supplied with public parks and recreation
groimds. To the N. of the city is the Castle Leazes ornamental
park of 35 acres, and beyond this the Town Moor and racecourse,
an extensive common, the survival of the pasture land of the
township. Eastward from Town Moor is Brandling Park, and
westward Nun's Moor. The picturesque grounds of Armstrong
Park N.E. of the city extend to about 50 acres, the larger half
of which was presented by Sir W. G. Armstrong, who also
presented the beautifully wooded grounds of Jesmond Dene.
Elswick Park in the south-west of the dty, extending to 8}
acres, indudes Elswick HaU. There are several others. Jesmond,
N.E. of the dty, is the chief residential suburb. It takes name
from " Jesus Mount," and was formerly a place of pilgrimage,
possessing a hospital dedicated to St Mary the Virgin.
Both the Northumberland and Durham banks of the river
arc lined with manufacturing towns or suburbs. Of these the'
most important is Gateshead iq.v.) immediately opposite New-
castle; while those adjacent to Newcastle on the same bank
are Benwcll and Fenham (pop. in 1901, 18,316) on the west,
and Walker (13,336) on the east. The last-named two (formerly
urban districts), together with part of Kenton, were incorporated
with Newcastle in 1904. Newcastle is connected with the south
bank of the Tyne by four bridges— two high-level bridges, an
hydraulic swing bridge and a suspension bridge. The old high-
levd bridge carries the North-Eastem railway, with a road and
footway beneath it. It was opened by Queen Victoria in X849.
The new high-levd bridge, carrying the railway only, was opened
by King Edward VIL in X906; it consists of four steel spans
on granite piers. The hydraulic swing bridge, on the low levd,
was built to replace a stone structure erected in X78X on the
site of a bridge- dating from 1350, and destroyed by a flood in
1 7 7 X. The Roman bridge, the Pons Aelii, is said to have spanned
the river at the same poinL The hydraulic bridge (1876)
consbts of one large centre pier, two midstream piers and two
abutments; and its foundations are iron cylinders resting on
the solid rock, 60 fL below the bed of the river. Two spans,
which open simultaneously by machines impelled by steam,
allow X03 fL of waterway for vessels going up and down the river.
About half a mUe farther up the stream is the Redheugh bridge
(187 1). The central station of the North-Eastera railway is
an extensive and handsome structure built on a sharp curve.
An underground line connects it with the BIyth and Tyne
station. The suburban line of the North-Eastem company
from the central station to Jesmond, Gosforth and Benton
was the first standard line to carry passengers by electric tractior
(X904).
474
NEWCOMB
Newcastle owes its prosperity to its convenient situation on
a tidal river, and to the immense stores of coal in the neighbour-
hood, which, besides being largely exported, stimulate a great
variety of industries which are dependent on their use. It began
to export coal about the end of the 13th century, but the trade
received a severe check by the act of Edward I. which made
the burning of coal in Lpndon a Capital offence. In the reign of
Edward III. licence was granted to the inhabitants " to dig coals
and stones in the common soil of the town without the walls
thereof in the place called the Castle Field and the Forth." The
quay in front of the town, extending from the hydraulic bridge to
the Ousebum, forms a fine thoroughfare of about a mile in length;
and by means of dredging a depth of water has been obtained
at the shore permitting vessels of large tonnage to approach,
although the berths of the ocean steamers are a little farther
down the river. The quay is supplied with the most improved
mechanical appliances, and has direct communication with the
North-Eastern railway. There is a large grain warehouse at
the E. end of the quay. Exports include coal, chemicals, pig-
iron, iron-work, steel, iron bars, plates and castings, machinery,
fire-day goods and copper. The chief imports are fruits, wheat,
maize, oats, barley, iron and steel, petroleum, sulphur ore,
timber and wood hoops, iron ore and potatoes. Steamers
carrying passengers serve the principal English ports, Cardiff,
Leith, &c.; also Baltic ports and New York; while Newcastle
is one of the chief ports for the extensive Norwegian tourist
traffic, the ships of the combined Bergenske and Nordenf jeldske
companies regularly serving Stavanger, Bergen, Trondhjem
and intermediate ports. To the industries of Newcastle indicated
by the exports may be added glass, lead and shot, brick and tile,
earthenware, tool, rope and ships'-fitting manufactures, and most
important of all, shipbuilding. The celebrated Elswick works,
founded by Messrs Armstrong in 1847, and amalgamated with
those of Mitchell & Co., are among the most important in
the world. The construction of ships of all sorts, including
the largest ironclads with aU their armour and guns, is carried
on. Ebwick is the name of the western part of the borough
of Newcastle. The borough returns two members to parliament.
It is the largest imdivided parliamentary constituency in the
United Kingdom. The city is governed by a lord mayor (the
title was conferred in 1906), zg aldermen and 57 cotmdllors.
Area, 8453 acres.
History. — Newcastle owes its origin to its position on the great
Roman wall and on the estuary of the river Tync. Its Roman
occupation is proved by existing remains, most important
among which are the foundations of a bridge, attributed to the
emperor Hadrian. Before the Conquest h'ttle is known of the
town except that it was called Monkchester, and that it was
destroyed in the 9th century by the Danes. After the defeat
of Edgar i£theling and Earl Waltheof on Gateshead Fell, it
was again destroyed by William the Conqueror, but Robert of
Normandy is said to have raised a castle there in zo8o on his
return from an expedition against Malcolm, king of Scotland,
and from that time the town was called Newcastle. Shortly
afterwards it was fortified by Robert de Mowbray in his rebellion
against William Rufus, but it was taken by the king in 1095.
In the reign of Stephen it was seized by David, king of Scotland,
and after iu restoration to the English in 11 57 Henry II. rebuilt
the castle and established a mint. The walls surrounding the
town are attributed to Edward I. During the X4th century
Newcastle was three times defended successfully against the
Scots, but in 1640 it was occupied for a year by the Scottish
Covenanters under Leslie. It was then garrisoned by royalists,
but again surrendered to the Scots in 1644 after a siege of about
six weeks, and Charles I. was taken there in 1646 when he had
yielded himself to the Scottish army. The burgesses are said
to have held the borough at a fee-farm rent under a grant from
William Rufus. The title of mayor was conferred by Henry HI.,
while Henry IV. in Z400 made the town a county of itself with
a sheriff, and granted the burgesses power to elect 6 aldermen.
Queen Elizabeth incorporated the town in 1589 under the title
of mayor and burgesses, and Philip and Mary in 1556 granted 4
additional aldermen, while the charter of James I. in 1604
appointed 34 common councilmen. Newcastle has been repre-
sented in parliament by two members since 1295. The coal
trade, to which the town owes its prosperity, began in the 13th
century, but, partly owing to the act of parliament passed in
the reign of Edward I. forbidding the use of coal in London,
did not become important until the 17th century. Glassmaking
was a considerable trade in the i7ih century, and in 1823 George
Stephenson established iron works at Newcastle, where the first
engines used on the Stockton and Darlington, and Manchester
and Liverpool lines were made.
See Victoria County History, Norlkumberland; Jeltn Brand. The
History and Anti^ities of the Town and County of the Town af New'
castle-upon-Tyne (1789); Chirograpkia, or a Suney of NewcastU-
upothTynt (1818).
MBWCOMB, SIMON (1835-1909), American astronomer, was
bom in Wallace, Nova Scotia, on the 12th of March 1835. He
became a resident of the United States in 1S53, and graduated
at the Lawrence Scientific School of Harvard University in 1858,
having paid special attention to mathematics and astroiwmy.
He assbted in the preparation of the American NaoUiad Almanac
for 1857. In x86i he became professor of mathematics in the
United States navy, and was put in charge of the great 36-ii).
equatorial erected at Washington Observatory in 1873. In 1877
he was appointed director of the American Nautical Alemanac
office, a post which he held until March 1897. In 1884 he
became professor of mathematics and astronomy at the Johns
Hopkins University, continuing, however, to reside at Washing-
tion. He was also editor of the A merican Journal of Uaihematia
for many years. In view of the wide extent and importance
of his labours, the variety of subjects of which he treats, and
the unity of purpose which guided him throughout, Simon
Newcomb must be considered as one of the most distinguished
astronomers of his time. A study of his works reveals an tinusual
combination of skill and originality in the mathematical treat-
ment of many of the most difficult problems of astronomy,
an unfailing patience and sagacity in dealing with immense
masses of numerical results, and a talent for observation of the
highest order. On assuming the directorship of the Nau^cd
Almanac he became very strongly impressed with the diversity
existing in the values of the elements and constants of astronomy
adopted by different astronomers, and the injurious effect which
it exercised on the precision and symmetry of much astronomical
work. Accordingly he resolved to " devote all the force which
he could spare to the work of deriving improved values of the
fundamental elements and embodying them in new tables of
the celestial motions." The formation of the tables of a planet
has been described by Cayley as " the culmmating achievement
of astronomy," but the gigantic task which Newcomb laid out
for himself, and which he carried on for more than twenty years,
was the building up, on an absolutely homogeneous baao, of the
theory and tables of the whole pkmetary system. Tlie results
of these investigations have, for the most part, appeared in the
Astronomical Papers of the American Epkemeris, and have been
more or less completely adopted for use in the nautical alman&cs
of all countries. A valuable summary of a considerable part of
this work, contauung an account of the methods adopted, the
materials employed, and the resulting values of the various
quantities involved, was published in 1895, as a supplement
to the American Epkemeris for 1897, entitled The EUmenis
of the Pour Inner Planets and the Fundamental Conslants of
Astronomy. In z866 Newcomb had published^ an important
memoir on the orbit of Neptune, which was followed fai 1873 by
a similar investigation of the orbit of Uranus.* About twenty-
five years later the Ubles of these planets were revised by hira
in view of all the observations which had accumulated in the
meanwhile at Washington, G.eenwich, Paris and Cambridge.
In the meantime the theory of Jtipiter and Saturn had been
thoroughly worked out by G. W. Hill, Newcomb's distini^uishcd
collaborator in the Naaiticai\ Almanae office, and thus was
* Smithsonian Contributions to Knemhdie, voL ly.
«/«rf.vol.xix.
NEWCOMEN— NEWDIGATE
475
completed ooe impoitant lection of the work projected by
Newcomb in 1877.
Among NewcomVs most notable achievements are his re-
searches in connexion with the theory ci the moon's motion.
His first work on this abstruse subject, entitled Thiorie ies
perturbations de la lune, qui satU dues d Paction ies pionUes^
is remarkable for the boldness of its conception, and constitutes
an important addition to celestial dynamics. For some years
after the publication of Hansen's tables of the moon in 1857 it
was gfenendly believed that the theory of that body was at last
complete, and that its motion could be predicted as accurately
as that of the other heavenly bodies. Newcomb showed that
this belief was unfounded, and that as a matter of fact the moon
was falling rapidly behind the tabular positions. With the view
of examining this question, he undertook the reduction of every
observation made before 1750 which appeared to be worthy
of confidence. In an ebborate memoir* he showed that the
ancient solar eclipses described by Herodotus, Thucydides,
and others, which seemed to require an increased value of the
secular acceleration of the moon's mean nation to bring them
into line with modem results, might safely be neglected, the
ambiguity of the accounts in each case rendering uncertain
either the totality of the edipse or the place from which it was
visible. In his investigation he employed the eclipses of the
moon recorded in the Almagest, the Arabian eclipses between
A.D. 800 and 1004, extracted from Caussin's translation of Ibn
Junis, the eclipses and occultations of Bullialdus, Gaasendi,
and Hcvelius, of the French astronomers at Paris and St Peters-
burg, and of Flamsteed at Greenwich, and deduced a secular
acceleration of 8*8', agreeing well with the theoretical value.
On taking charge of the 36-in. equatorial at the Um'ted States
Naval Observatory, Newcomb devoted it almost exclusively
for the first two years to observations of the satellites of Uranus
and Neptune, being of opinion that it was better to do one thing
well than many things indifferently. The results of these skil-
fully conducted observations were published in a memoir on
The Uranian and Neptunian Systems* From this research it
appears that the orbits of all four satellites of Uranus are sensibly
circular, and although no special search was made, he concludes
that none of Sir William Herschel's supposed outer satellites
can have any real existence. From the motion of the satellites
he finds that the mass of Uranus is TTinrth of that of the sun,
while for the planet Neptune he finds a mass equal to Triii^h
of the sun, agreeing with the value previously found by him
from the perturbations of Uranus within ^Xh of its amount.
As early as i860 Newcomb communicated an important memoir
to the American Academy,* On the Secular Variations and
Mutual Rdation of the Orbits of the Asteroids, in which he dis-
cussed the two principal hypotheses to account for the origin
of these bodies— one, that they are the shattered fragments of
a sin^ planet (Gibers' hypothesis), the other, that they have
been formed by the breaking up of a revolving ring of nebulous
matter.
In the Astronomical Papers of the American Ephemeris will
be found a large number of contributions from Ncwcomb's
pen on some fundamental and most important questions of
astronomy. Among these are papers on The Recurrence of
Solar Edipses, A Transformation of Hansen*s Lunar Theory,
Development of the Perturbatite Function and its Derivatives.
His memoir Oit the Motion of Hyperion, a New Casein Celestial
Mechanics, is in some respects one of bis most original researches.
He discussed the transits of Venus of 1761 and 1769, and those
oC Mercury from 1677 to i88t. At the international conference,
which met at Paris in 1896 for the purpose of elaborating a
comtfioa system of consUnts and fundamental stars to be
employed in the various national ephemerides, Newcomb took
a leadLig part, and at iu suggestion undertook the task of deter-
mining a definite value of the constant of precession, and of
» LumoHU, t. xvi. (1871), pp. 1-45.
* Washington Observations, 1875, Appendi
lixll.
* Ibid., 1873, Appendix I.
« Memoirs Arner. Acad, of Arts and Sciences, v. 134-153.
compiling a new catalogue of standard stars. The results of
these investigations were published in 1899,* and have been
in use since the beginning of 1901. In the intervals of these
immense labours, on which his reputation as an astronomer
rests, he found leisure for works of a lighter character, e.g. his
Popular Astronomy (1878) which has been translated into Geirnan,
Russian, Norwegian, Czech, Dutch and Japanese, his Astronomy
for Schools and CUleges (x88o), written in ' conjunction with
Professor E. €. Holden, and Astronomy for Everybody (1903).
After his retirement from official life he published an excellent
popular treatise on The Stars (1901). A more recondite work
is his Compendium of Spherical Astronomy (1906). He also
wrote on questions of finance and economics.
He received the honorary degrees of D.C.L. Oxford, and Sc. D.
Cambridge and Dublin. In 1872 he was elected an associate
of the Royal Astronomical Sodety, receiving its gold medal
in 1874. In 1877 he was elected a foreign member of the Royal
Sodety, which in 1890 awarded him the Copley medal. He
also received the first Bruce medal of the Astronomical Sodety
of the Pacific, awarded by the directors of the Berlin, Greenwich,
Harvard, Lick, Paris and Yerkes observatories. Except
Benjanun Franklin he was the only American to become an
Associate of the French Institute. He died at Washington
on the xxth of July 1909, and was given a military funeral,
having been made a rear-admiral by Act of Congress in 1906.
An autobiomphy, Reminiscences of an Astronomer, appeared in
1903; and a bibuogiaphy of his writings is given by Mr Archibald
in the Trans. Rey. Soe. Canada, XI. iii. 79. See also the obituary
aotioe by H. H. Turaer in the Man. Not. RSi.S. (Feb. 1910). p. 305.
NEWCOHm, MATTHEW {c, 16x0-1669), English non-
conformist divine, was bom about x6xo and educated at St
John's College, Cambridge (M.A. 1633). In 1636 he became
lecturer at Dedham in Essex, and was the leader of the church
reform party in that county. He assisted the elder Calamy in
writing Smectymnuus (1641), and preached before parliament in
1643. He was a man of many, gifts, excelling alike in preaching,
in debate and in friendship, and declined many offers of more
remunerative service. He protested against the extreme demo-
cratic proposals called " The Agreement of the People " (1647),
and was one of the commissioners at the Savoy Synod of 1658.
On the passing of the Act of Uniformity in 1663, Newcomen lost
his living, but was soon invited to the pastorate ^t Leiden,
where he was held in high esteem not only by his own people
but by the university professors. He died of the plague in X669.
NEWCOMEN, THOMAS (X663-X729), En^sh engineer, one of
the inventors of the steam-engine, was bom at Dartmouth in
1663. While employed as an ironmonger in his native town, he
corresponded with Robert Hooke about the previous investiga-
tions of Denis Papin and the marquis of Worcester as to the
applicability of steam-power for the purpose of driving machinery,
and in conjunction with John Calley (or Cawley), said to have
been a grazier or glazier in Dartmouth, and Captain Thomas
Savery (1650 ?-x7X5), a military engineer, he constructed in 1705
a " fire-engine," now known as the " atmospheric steam-engine."
He died in 1729, probably in London. (See Steam-Encxne.)
NEWDIGATE, SIR ROGER (1719-1806), English antiquary,
was born on the 30th of May X719. He was the sth baronet
of Harefield (in Middlesex) and Arbury (in Warwickshire), and
grandson of Sir Richard Newdigatc, an English chief justice
during the time of Richard Cromwell's protectorate. He was
educated at University College, Oxford. From 1741 to 1747
he was M.P. for Middlesex, and from 1750 to 1780 M.P. for the
university of Oxford. In 1753 he spoke in parliament on behalf
of the repeal of the Plantation Act, and during the debates on
the land tax in 1767 he opposed the duke of Grafton's administra-
tion and the proposed grant to the royal princes. Being the
owner of extensive collieries near Bedworth in Wanvickshire.
he actively promoted the Coventry, Oxford and Grand Junction
canal, cutting also a canal from his collieries to Coventry, and
interesting himself in the constmction of the turnpike road from
* Astronomical Papers of the American Ephemeris, vol. viii.
pts. L and iL
476
NEWEL— NEW ENGLAND
Coventry to Leicester. But it is as an antiquary and the founder
of a prize at the Oxford university that he is chiefly remembered.
His interest in old architecture dated from a tour in France and
Italy which was undertaken while he was a young man. He
filled two folio volumes with sketches of ancient buildings. His
collection of antiquities included marbles, casts of statues and
vases. Two marble candelabra found in Hadrian's villa at Rome
he purchased for £1800 and presented them to the Radcliffe
Library at Oxford. Among his other generosities tq the university
were a chimney piece, for the hall of University College, and the
sum of £2000 for the removal by Flaxman of the Arundel collec-
tion of marbles to the Radcliffe Library. The " Newdigate "
prize of twenty-one guineas for English verse, which is open for
competition eitch year to the undergraduates of Oxford Uni-
versity, was foimded by him and was first awarded in the year
of his death. He died at Arbury on the ajrd of November z8o6.
His portrait was painted by Kirkby for University College,
Oxford, and at the age of sixty-three he also sat to Romney.
liawiiL (O. Fr. nwd or noel, modem noyaUf properly a
kernel, from Lat. mtx, nut; other foreign equivalents are Ital.
alhero, Ger. Spindd), the term given in architecture to the central
shaft of a semicircular or winding staircase, which is built up or
consists of the narrow ends of the steps standing one over the
other. When in stone, both newel and steps are cut out of the
same block; when in wood, the newel becomes a vertical post
into whidi the steps are housed. The term is also given to the
vertical post at the foot or the angles of a square staircase, into
which the carriage or beam carrying the steps is tenoned.
NEW ENGLAND, a general name for the north-east section of
the United Sutes of America, embracing the states of Maine,
New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Rhode Island and
Connecticut. It has an area of 66,424 sq. m. (444S sq. m. being
water) ; and in igxo its population was 6,552,681, more than one-
half of which was in Massachusetts, although that state contains
less than one-eighth of the total area. The region is traversed
by the broken mountain ranges which form the N.£. continuation
of the Appalachian system; the soil is rather sterile, except in
the river valleys; and the climate of the long winters is often
severe. But the picturesque scenery and delightful summer
climate have made New England a favourite resort. When the
commerce of New England was interrupted as a consequence
of the Napoleonic wars, the abundance of water power afforded
by the rivers encouraged manufacturing, and the region rapidly
acquired prominence in this industry, especially in the manu-
facture of textiles, of boots and shoes, and of paper and wood
pulp; in 1905 the value of the textile products of New England
(excluding flax, hemp and jute) alone was $522,821,440 (more
than 45% of that of the entire country), the value of boots and
shoes was $181,023,946 (more than 55% of the total for the
entire country), the value of paper and wood pulp was $49>8i3»i33
(more than one-quarter of that of the entire country), and the
value of all factory products amounted to $2,025,998,437 (nearly
one-seventh of the total for the entire country).
Northmen very probably visited this region at the beginning
of the nth century. (See Vinland), To Europeans who visited
it in the x6th century it was included in " Norumbega," and some
of the early explorers searched here for the mythical city of that
name. Title to the territory was claimed by the English on the
basis of its alleged exploration by the Cabots in 1498. and by the
French on the basis of its exploration by Giovanni da Verrazano
in 1524. It was made favourably known to the English by the
explorations of Bartholomew Gosnold in 1602, of Martin Pring in
1603 and of George Weymouth in 1605, and was at this time
called North Virginia. In 1606 King James I. granted it to the
Plymouth Company with a view to encouraging settlement,
and in the next year a colony was planted at the mouth of the
Sagadahoc (now Kennebec) river, but this was abandoned in
1608; the efforts of the French to establish settlements along
the Maine coast were Ukewise unsuccessful. In 26X4-X616
Captain John Smith traversed the coast as far east as the mouth
of the Penobscot river and as far south as Cape Cod, gathered
much information from the Indians, wrote an attractive descrip-
tion of the country, prepared a map of it, suggested its present
name, New England, and made another unsuccessful attempt to
found a settlement. A new charter of X620 conveyed to the New
England Council, the successor of the Plymouth Company, all
the territory in North America between latitudes 40* and 48* N.
under the. name of New England, and in the same year a
perxxianent settlement was established at Plymouth by a band
of Separatists, who, although they had expected to settle in
Virginia, were prevailed upon by the captain of their vessel to
land in New England. During its existence of fifteen years the
New England Council made numerous grants of territory, and
from three of these grew three of the present sUtes : Massa-
chusetts, from a grant to the Massachusetts Bay Company in
X628; Maine, from the grant to Sir Ferdinando Gorges and John
Mason (the two most influential members of the council) in 1623,
and New Hampshire, from the grant to John Mason in 1629.
The Council attempted to establish a general govenunent over
its entire domain, but the scheme of some of its members for
supporting such a government with contributions from each
member in return for an allotment of land was a failure, and
although Robert Gorges, the second son of Sir FerdinaiKlo
Gorges, was sent over as governor-general in 1623, be accom-
plished nothing and returned in the next year in disgust. In
X635, when the Dutch were hemming in its domain on the west
and the French on the north, the Council nutde a final allotment
of its remaining territory among its members and surrendered
its charter. Coxmecticut was founded in the same year by emi-
grants from Massachusetts without any other authority than
that given by the mother colony. A separate colony was founded
at New Haven in 1638 by emigrants from England who had
stayed for a time in Boston and other Maasadiusetts towns,
but this was annexed to Connecticut in 1664 under the Con-
necticut charter of 1662. Rhode Island was founded in 1636 by
exiles from Massachusetts who had no authority whatever
from a superior government. Plymouth was a separate colony
until its union with Massachusetts imder the charter of 1691.
New Hampshire was a part of Massachusetts from 1641-1643 to
X679. Maine, having passed under the jurisdiction of Massa-
chusetts in X652, did not regain its independence until iSso.
Vermont was settled largely by emigrants from New Hampshire,
but New York claimed the territory and the dispute was not
settled until the new state was erected in X79X.
Massachusetts, Plymouth, Connecticut and New Haven
constituted in their early years a group of neighbouring colonies,
substantially independent of the mother country, and possessing
a unity of purpose and similar institutions but in need of mutual
protection from the Indians, the Dutch and the French, and
also needing an arbiter to whom they might refer their own
disputes, especially those relating to boundaries and trade.
To meet these needs they organized, under Articles of Confedera-
tion signed in 1643, the first form of colonial union in America;
they called it The United Colonies of New England, but it is
more commonly known as the New England Confederacy. The
confederate authority was vested in a board of eight com-
missionexs, two from each colony chosen annually by its General
Court.
This board was to meet annually in September, two years of every
five at Boston, one year of every five at Hanford. one at Ne*
Haven, and one at Plymouth: special meetings also might be calkd
by three magistrates cm any of the four colonies. The commiscioiMn
chose their'president at each meeting, but this officer had only the
powers of a moderator. An agreement of six commiaaoners was
necessary to pass any measure, but if there was an ^reemeot of
less than six the measure might be referred to the General Coons
and become a law of the Confederacy if all of those courts approved.
The most important powers of the Confederacy were tboK rebtisc
to defence, and in case of an invasion its entire force, coosistiof a
100 men from Massachusetts and 45 men from each of the other
colonies (or some other proportion which the commisnoBers might
name), was to march out if so requested by three niagiatntes of any
of the contracting colonies. The expenses of every defensive war
which the commissioners declared to be just were to be defrayed by
the several colonies in proportion to thar number of men and bo^
between the ages of sixteen and sixty. Other matters within the
jurisdiction of the commissionen were such as related to disputes
NEW FOREST
477
between two or more colonies and the return of etcaped tervantt,
priioocrs and fugitives from justice. As the commissioners had no
oeans of enforcing their orders, their function was chiefly advisory,
but it was nevertheless of considerable importance on several
occasions. Although the number of commissioners from each of
the colonies was the same, those from Massachusetts exerted the
dominant influence.
The commisfiioners met regularly until 16S4 — annually until
New Haven submitted to Connecticut in 1664, and triennially
from 1664 to Z684, when Massachusetts lost its first charter.
Upon the downfall of the Puritan Commonwealth in the mother
country (x66o) numerous grievances were presented to King
Charles II. against the Puritan governments of New England,
among them Massachusetts' extension of its jurisdiction over
the towns of Maine and New Hampshire, the persecution of the
Quakers, and the denial of the right of appeal to the crown,
and in 1664 a royal commission, consisting of Richard Nicolls,
Samuel Maverick, Robert Carr and George Cartwright, was
sent over to settle disputes and secure some measure of imperial
control, but Massachusetts, the chief offender, successfully
ba£9ed all attempts at interference, and the mission was almost
a complete failure. The grievances of English merchants arising
from the violation of the navigation laws by the colonies continued,
however, to receive the attention of the home government.
In 1676 the Lords of Trade and Plantations sent over Edward
Randolph to investigate and gather information which would
show the justice and expediency of imposing imperial control,
and two years later Randolph was appointed Collector and
Surveyor of Customs in New England. Randolph sent back
many charges, especially against Massachusetts, with the effect
that, in 1684, the charter of that colony was annulled by a
decree in Chancery on a writ of quo warranto. This done, the
home government set to work to organixe the royal domain which
should be known as New England, or the Dominion of New
England, and its plan for this provided for the annulment of
the charters of Rhode Island and Connecticut, and the inclusion
in the Dominion of these colonics, and New Hampshire, Maine,
New York and the Jerseys, thereby restoring to New England
all the territory, with the exception of Pennsylvania, that was
included in the grant to the New England Council in 1620. A
temporary government was established at Boston in May 1686,
with Joseph Dudley as president, and in December of the same
year Edmund Andros arrived with a commission and instructions
which were a copy of those to the governor of New York and
made him governor of all New England except Rhode Isbnd and
Connecticut. Rhode Island offered no resisUnce to the writ
against iu charter and Andros extended his authority over it
immediately after his arrival. Connecticut successfully baffled
the royal servants for a time, but when threatened with a division
of its territory agreed not to resist the royal purpose, and on
the last day of October 1687 it passed under the general govern-
ment of New England. Finally, a new commission to Andros,
issued in Aprfl x688, extended his jurisdiction over New York
and the Jerseys, and the whole region over which he was made
governor by this instrument was named " Our Territory and
Dominion of New England in America." But the English
Revolution of x688 inspired a revolt in New England by which
Andros was deposed in April 1689. Under William and Mary
no attempt was made to preserve the Dominion of New England,
but Rhode Island and Connecticut were permitted to resume
government under their old charters, Massachusetts received
a new one, and New Hampshire again became a sepaurate royal
province.
New En^and is prominent in American colonial history as
the "Land of the Puritans" and the home of the corporate
cobny. The chief motive of its founders in coming to the
New World was the establishment of a new Christian common-
wealth, but subordinate to this there was from the first an
economic motive. So long as the religious motive remained
dominant, " blue laws " were a prominent feature of the adminis-
tration, but by a slow transition the economic motive became
the dominant one^ and, as a consequence of this transition and
of the corporate form of government, European institutions
were transformed into American institutions and new political
ideas were generated more rapidly in New England than in either
the Middle or the Southern colonies. Owing to its geographical
position, nearer to Canada than any other group of colonies.
New England had to stand the brunt of the ^ting during the
wars between the English and the French (aided by their Indian
allies) in America, terminating with the conquest of Canada
by the Enghsh in 1759-1760, and a sense of common danger
helped to create a certain solidarity, which made easier the union
of the colonies for common action against the mother country
at the time of the War of American Independence. After that
war, New England was long the most essentially commercial
and industrial group of states, and was a stronghold of
Federalism; and in the period immediately before and during
the War of z8x3, when its commercial interests suffered terribly,
first from the restrictive measures of the general government
and then from warfare. New England was a centre of that
opposition to the policy of the National Administration (then
l!)emocratic), which culminated in the famous Hartford Conven-
tion of z8x4--z8x5 (see Haatyord).
See -t; aniclr? on uir ^fp/irxtc Nrv Lnjl^nd sUtM and fhe
authoiii-c3i there Ksvrrt: cimnng gi^twi gt^ucral wrirki mit j.Q, P^Urfv,
History t'f J^Fjn England {^ vot*.. Button, lajS-iBoo); J. A. Doy|^
Tht P:<r,iiiit Cetkmiei (j voli., Nrw ^'ork. iHfi^} '6.0. tames^ Tiff
Coloni^zhcn af ^'rtL' En^^S.jnd {rhlUdcl^ihi^. tt}Q^}^ H. h. Qtgtmdt
ThtAmtTuan Coianua m 44p Scimittwih Century tj voli., New York,
iQO^-t'jHJT^j John Fuitc, Tfu J^fmi^it^j of Nno Enj^tand^ or tlut
rurxtan Jiwecncy « iti Rdalion i& Cmt and Rttitunui Lihtriy
(Boston, %iS^)i S. A. Draktt Tkt Makixi t>f A'm^ Eniiand iS<w
York, ]8*^h W. B, Weeden. Etonemic and Sxial Htit&ry ef Ntw
Entlarl [7 volj^^ Doston, liQOj » And Edward Channine^ Ht^^rf of
Ike Uniicj 3Uiii:wt vdk. l. atid U. tNcw York, 1905, igoaj.
NEW FOREST, one of the few woodland regions left in England
covering about 93,000 acres in the south-west of Hampshire,
between the Solent, Southampton Water and the -river Avon.
About two-thirds of it is crown property, and is preserved more
or less in its natural condition as open woodland interspersed
with bogs and heaths. The trees principally represented are
oak and beech, with some newer plantations of Scotch fir. The
trees were formerly felled for building the ships of the navy and
for feeding the iron furnaces of Sussex and Hampshire. Pigs
and a hardy breed of ponies find a good living in the forest;
and in spite of an act in 185 1 providing for their extermination
or removal, a few red deer still survive. Foxes, squirrels, otters,
snakes (smooth snake, grass snake and adder), butterflies (some
of them peculiar to the district), and an occasional badger range
the forest freely. The tract derives its name from the extensive
afforestation carried through in this region by William the
Conqueror in X079; and the deaths of two of his sons within
its confines— Richard killed by a stag, and William Rufus by an
arrow— were regarded in their generation as a judgment of Heaven
for the cruelty and injustice perpetrated by their father when
appropriating the forest. Rufus's stone, near Lyndhurst,
marks the supposed spot where that monarch fell, ^bout one-
fourth of the area is tmder cultivation by private owners and
tenants. The principal village within the forest is Lyndhurst
(pop. 2x67 in X901); its church contains a fresco by Lord
Leighton, and here is held the verderers' court, which since
1887 has had charge of the crown portion of the forest. On the
western outskirts lies the town of Ringwood (q.v.). Brockenhurst
and Beaulieu are the villages next in importance. Bcaulieu,
at the head of the picturesque estuary of the Beaulieu river,
which debouches into the Solent, is famous for the ruins of
Beaub'eu Abbey, founded by King John for Cistercians. The
gatehouse is restored as a residence, and the Early English
refectory as a church. There are considerable remains of the
cloisters, chapter boxise and domestic buildings. The New
Forest gives name to a parliamentary division of the county.
The New Forest is one of the five forests mentioned in
Domesday. It was a hunting-ground of the West Saxon kings,
but, as already stated, was afforested by the Conqueror, whose
cruelty in the matter is probably exaggerated by the traditional
account. One of the chief sources of the wealth of the forest
in early times was the herds of pigs fed there. The New Forest
478
NEWFOUNDLAND
being under the forest laws, was affected by the forest clauses
of Magna Caru and by the Forest Charter (1217), which mitigated
their severity. The chief officer of this, as of other forests, was
the justice in eyre who held the justice seat, the highest forest
court and the only court of record capable of entering and
executing judgments on offenders; the lower courts were the
Swainmote and Wodemote, the former of which is still held,
in a modified form, in the Verderers' Hall of the King's House
at Ljmdhurst. The circuit of the justices in eyre, or their
deputies, continued down to 1635; ^^ were virtually ended by
the Act for the Limitation of ForesU (1640), though Charles II.
attempted to revive them, and they were not legally abolished
until 1817. Tlie lower officers of the forest, who held merely
local appointments, were the verderers, the regarders (one of
whose duties was that of seeing ta the ezpeditation of " great
dogs "), the foresters, the woodwards and the agisters^ There
was also a lord warden, who was usually a nobleman and performed
no judicial functions. The Deer Removal Act (1851) resulted
in the almost total extinction of the forest deer. Under the act
of 1877 the forest is administered rather as a national park
than for the growing of timber on commercial principles.
See J. R. Wise, The New Forest Uth ed., 1883), with over sixty
enmvings by W. J. Lintoa and a dozen etchings by H. Sumner;
and R. U. Blackmore, Cradock Noweil (1866).
nfiwrOUNDLAMD, a large island, forming a British colony,
and occup3ang an important and commanding position off the
eastern coast of the North American continent, not dissimilar
to that occupied by Great Britain towards Europe. It stretches
directly across the entrance of the Gulf of St Lawrence, to which
access is afforded at both the northern and the southern
extremities of the island. In the south-west its distance from
Cape Breton is less than 60 m., while only 1640 m. separate its
most easterly point from the coast of IreUind. It is situated
between 46* 36' 50' and sx* 39' N., and between 5 a* 3/ and
59" 34' so' W. The total area of the island is about 40,200 sq. m.
or one-^xth larger than Ireland: its maximum length from Cape
Ray to Cape Norman is 317 m., its maximum breadth from
Cape Spear to Cape Angidlle, 316 m. In shape it is roughly
triangular, three extensive peninsulas, which project from the
north (Petit Nord) and south-east (Avalon), assisting the con-
formation, althou^ the latter, the most populous region of the
island, is joined by a very slender isthmus, at one pUce only
3 m. wide. A further division of the Avalon peninsula is wrought
by the two bays of St Mary's and Conception. St John's, the
capital, is situated on the eastern side of Avalon,
Physical Features. — Viewed from the ocean the coasts of
Newfoundland appear bleak, rocky and barren. The brown wall
of rock, 200 to 300 ft. in he^t, is, however, broken at frequent
intervals' by deep fjords and large bays running in some instances
80 to 90 m. inland, and throwing out smaller arms in all directions.
For this reason the circumference of the island, which, measured
from headUnd to headland, is about 1000 m., is actually doubled.
The fjords resemble those of Norway; islands are numerous,
some of them clad with vegetation; and piauresque scenery is
not uncommon.
Near the coasts the surface of the country is of a hilly, nigged
character. In the interior the elevated undulating plateau is
diversified bv ranges of low hills, valleys, woods, lakes, ponds and
marshes. Much 01 this is a savanna country, giving sustenance to
large herds of caribou. All the principal hill ranges have a N.N.E.
and S.S.W. trend, as have also all the other great physical features
of the island, such as the bays, larger lakes, rivers and vallevs, a
conformation doubtless shaped by glacial action during the Ice
period. The most important range ot mountains is the Long Range,
beginning at Cape Ray and extending along the wes t ern doe of the
island for some 200 m., and having peaks more than 3000 ft. high.
Parallel to this but nearer the west coast u the Anguille Range,
3084 ft., being the highest on the island. Avalon peninsula is
also very hilly, but the greatest altitude is only 1200 ft. — North-East
Mountain, from which sixty-seven lakes are visible on a clear day.
Over the interior are spread a number of detached sharply-pointed
summits, springing abruptly from the great central plateau, bearing
the k)cal name of tolu." and serviceable as landmarks.
In comparison with the island's size large rivers are few. owing
to the broLiMf, unc^ien character of most of the country, and the
fact t\\at thf ponds ;^nd lakes find a convenient vent in the numerous
lengthy mk^i Jnrf srms of the sea. There are, however, three
cori^iiLrubl. >, the Expk>its, the (lumber and the Gander.
TtiL- iii:r\ n.r I in the extreme S.W. angle of the island, ckaae
to the ^"Lithem extremity of the Long Range, and after a course
of 2-^y ni falls into the Bay of £xpk>its. Notre Dame Bay. It b a
mi!>. uvU: at iu mouth, its channel is studded with i<Am,^f i;^
lai^^v t tr ing Thwart Island. 9 m. in length. Fourteen miles from
tht rcaiHiii: N is a su cces sion of cascades known as Bishop's Falln, and
fanhLt inland are the picturesque Grand Falls. The Exploits
drckicK An area of between 3000 and 4000 m.. much of it fertile land,
an^l iUn-^-^lY wooded with pine, spruce, birch and poplar. The
wicji ]] if I his fertile belt vanes at different parts of the nver. but it
b ck.Uiuaied that some 200.000 acres might be available for agri-
culture. The Humber rises 20 m. inland from Boone Bay, and.
after emptying itself by a dreuitous course into Deer Lake. faUs
into the Bay of Islands. It drains an area of 2000 sq. m. Rbing
near the southern coast, the Gander flows through Gander Lake
into Hamilton Sound, draining an area of nearly 4000 sq. na. Be-
sides these three there b the Codroy. rising in the Long Kange and
enaptying into the Gulf of St Lawrence.
The immense number of lakes and ponds constitutes pefhsips the
most striking physkal feature of the island. More than a third ot
the whole area b occupied by water. These bodies of water, large
and small, are found in the most various positions: in the movntain
gorges; in the depressions between the tow hiUs; in the valleys
and even in the hollows on the tops <rf the highest eminence*. The
largest b Grand Lake, ^ m. ]oas, 5 in breadth, with an area oC
192 sq. m. Its surface u but 50 ft. above sea-level, the bottom at
iu deepest portion being 300 ft. below sea-leveL It contains aa
island 33 m. k>ng. The next. Red Indbn Lake, b 37 m. loam, with
an area of 64 sq. m. Gander Lake b 33 m. in length, and Deer
Lake, through which the Humber flows, b 13 m. After thew
Michel Sandy Lake. Victorb, Hind's. Terra Nova and Gcocve IV.
lakes rank next in sixe. Save where the railway and lumbering
camps have invaded them the shores of these lakes are still primitive
wilderness.
The coasts of the island, intersected by many great bays, have
been familbr to fishermen from an eariy period, but the interior
remained almost completeljr unknown untu the geological survey,
still in process, was begun in i86m|. Chief amongst the inlets are
Placentia Bay, 55 m. in width at iU mouth and 90 m. long; Notre
Dame Bay, 50 m. wide and 70 m. long; Fortune Bay. 3$ na. wide
and 70 long; and St Marv's Bay, 23 m. wide by 35 m. in length.
Oppottte Fortune Bay. which has several important anna, ac« the
two islands of St Pierre and Miquelon, ceded by treaty in 1713 to
France, as shelter for her fishermen, and now all that remains of
French sovereignty in North America. In the ncishbourfaood of
Bay St George, on the west coast (40 m. wide at the mouth and
boasting a* good harbour) are situated some of the most fertile lands
in the uland, well-timbered and containing large deposits of coal
and other minerals. Three extensive arms run 30 m. inland from
Bay of Islands, the seat o( a profitable herring fishery. Conceptjoa
Bay b one of the largest and most important in the island, having
in 1901 a popuUtion scattered through the scttleroenu on its Stores
of over 40.000 inhabitants. Another principal inlet b Booavista
Bay, which contains numerous groups ci isUnds.
Geolop. — ^All the great ancient rock systems, between the Lower
Laurentian and the Coal-measures, are more or less re p re sented at
onepart or another of Newfoundbnd.
The Laurentbn system has an immense spread in the bland. It
constitutes the principal mountain ranges, coming to the aurface
through the more recent deposits, on the axes of anticlinal lines, or
brought up by great dislocations, most of which trend nearly parallel
with each other in ageneral bearing of about north-north-east and
south-south-west. The Laurentbn 1 * ' ■ • -
the western side, exten
Ray to the headwaters e _ ^
On the south-western extremity of the isbnd these rocks occupy the
coast from Cape Ray to La Poile. They are brgely exhibited oo
Grand Lake, running in a spur from the Long Range between it
and Red Indbn Lake, and bearing for the south-eastern shores of
Hall's Bay. The central portion of the northern peninsula is
Laurentbn, which also spreads over a wide expanse of country
between Grand Lake and the Humber and Exploits rivers, and
shows itself on the coast between Canada Bay and White Bay.
Another range of Laurentian comes up in the district of Ferryl^nd.
and shows itself occasionally on the coast of Conceptioo Bay.
Thus more than half the isbnd b Laurentbn.
Three-fourths of the peninsub of Avakm are Huroniaa. a forma-
tion which does not extend west of Fortune Bay. The town of Sc
John's and. in fact, neariy all the settlements between Fortune Bay
and Bonavista Bay are built upon it. Signal Hill, ovcrkxildttK the
harbour of St John's, b capped with the sandstone of thb formation.
The whole Huronbn system b not less than 10.000 ft. thick, and
has been cut through by denudation to the Laurentbn floor. The
rocks of the Primordial Silurian age are spread unconformably oivvr
the area thus ground down. These evidences of denudation and
reconstruction are very clear in Cooceptioa Bay, where the rocks
tner m agenerai oeanng 01 aoout nonn-nortn-east and
-west. The Laurentbn gndss of the Long Rancr. on
side, extends in a nearly straight course from Cape
loulwatera of the Castor in the great northern pcninsuul
NEWFOUNDLAND
479
ri?'-'- NEWFOUNDLAND
of the intermediaiy •ystetn have been ground down to the Laurentian
ptam, and, subaequently, the submarine valley thus formed has
been filled up with a new set of sediments, the remains of which
are still to be found skirting the shores of the bay and forming the
islands in it.
Rocks of the Silurian age are roost extenuve on the peninsub
of Cape St Mary, and around the head of Trinity Bay. These belong
to the Primordial Silurian group. The Lower Silurian rocks have a
large devdoproent, and in them the metallic ores occur which seem
destined to render the island a ^reat mining centre. The Lauxon
division of the Quebec group, which b the true metalliferous sone of
North America, has an immense spread in the island. It consists
of serpentine rocks associated with dolomites, diorites, &c., and is
well known throughout North America to be usually more or less
metalliferous. The Newfoundland rocks 'are no exception, but give
evidence of being rich in metallic ores. The Middle Silurian division
of rocks is also widely spread'; and the most fertile belts of land
and the most valuable forests are neariy all ntuated on the country
occupied by thia formation. The great valley of the Exploits and
Victoria rivers, the valley of the Gander and several smaller tracts
belong to it.
The Carboniferous series occupies a large area on the western
side of the islaad, in the neighbourhood of Bay St George and Grand
Lake. There is also a wider spread of the same series along the
valley of the Humber and round the shores of Deer Lake and the
eastern half of Grand Lake, and as far as Sandy Lake. " Coal."
says Mr J. P. Howley, F.R.G.S., head of the survey, " is known to
exist at several pla^ in this series; and seams, apparently of
workable thickness, Juddng from their out-crops, occur on the
Middle Barachois and Robinson's Brook, in St George's Bay."
It will thus be seen that the Carboniferous scries is confined to
the western side, while the middle, eastern and southern portions
are occupied by Silurian, Huronian and Laurentian formations.
From the extent to which the Lauzon diviuon of the Quebec i^roup,
the true metalliferous sone of North America, prevails m the island,
its vet undevekiped mineral wealth must be very great.
Climate.— The climate is more temperate than that of most portions
of the neighbouring continent. It is but rarely, and then only for
a few hours, that the thermometer sinks below zero in winter,
while the summer ranse rarely exceeds 80* F., and for the most part
does not rise above 70 . The Arctic current exeru a chilling influence
along the eastern coast, but as a compensation it brings with it the
enormous wealth of commercial fishes and seals which has rendered
the fisheries the most productive in the world. The Gulf Stream,
while it creates foes, modifies the cold. The salubrity of the climate
» evidenced by tnc robust healthy appearance of the inbabituita.
480
NEWFOUNDLAND
Open fiicplaon are sufficient to warm the houses, and free exercise
in the open air b attainable at all seasons. The average mean
temperature at St John's is 41-3* F., the maximum being 83* and
the minimum 7*; the average height of the barometer is 39-^7 in.
The average rainfall is sS'^o in. Winter sets in. as a rule, m the
beginning of December and UsU until the middle of April. Generally
the snow lies during this period, and the frost rarely penetrates the
ground to a greater depth than a few inches. Spnng b sometimes
ute in arriving, but once vegetation sets in it advances with mar-
vellous rapidity. The autumn b usually very fine, and is often pro-
longed till November. There b nothing in the climate to interfere
with agriculture. Tornadoes are unknown, and thunderstorms are
very rare. Fogs, of which so much b aaid in connexion with the
country, are confined to the shores and bays of the south-eastern
and southern coasts.
Fauna. — ^Among the well-known wild animab indigenous to the
country the cariteu or reindeer hold a conspicuous place. They
migrate regularly between the south-eastern and north-western
portions of the island. The winter months are passed in the south,
where " browse " b i^ntiful, and the snow b not too deep to prevent
them from reaching the lichens on the lower grounds. In March
they begin their spring migration to the barrens and mountains of
the north-west. In May or June they bring forth their young.
As soon as the frosts of October begin to nip the vegetation they
turn south. September and October are the best months for stalk-
ing. In addition to the caribou, the wolf and black bear are found
in the interior; the fox (black, silver, grey and red), beaver, otter,
arctic hare, North-American hare, weasel, bat, rat, mouse and
musquash or musk-rat are numerous. The famous Newfoundland
dog IS still to be met with, but good specimens are rare, and he
appears to thrive better elsewhere. The common dogs are a degene-
rate mongrel race. It b estimated that there are three hundred
species cl oirds in the island, most of them being minatory. Among
tnem may be enumerated the eagle, hawk, owl, woodpecker, swallow,
kingfisher, six spedcs of fly-catchers and the same number of thrushes,
warblera axul swallows in great variety, finches, ravens, jays. The
ptarmigan or willow grouse b very abundant, and b the finest game-
bird in the island. The rockptarmigan b found in the highest and
barest mountain ridges. The American golden plover, various
species of sandpipen and curlew% the brent fsooat, ducks, petrels,
gulb and the great northern diver are met with everywhere. The
great auk, now extinct, was once found in myriads around the
island. The little auk, guillemot and the raxor-billed. auk are
abundant. No venomous reptiles occur. Frogs have been intro-
duced and thrive well. Of molluscous animals the common squid,
a cephalopod about 6 or 7 in. in length, visits the coasts in immense
shoals in August and September, and supplies a valuable bait. A
gigantic speaes of cephalopod was discovered in 187%, which excited
much interest among naturalists: the body varies from 7 to 15 ft.
in length, with a arcumference of 5 or 6 ft.; from the head ten
arms radiate, the two longest Ctentadcs) being from 34 to 40 ft.
in length, and covered with suckers at tneir extremities; the other
eight arms vary from 6 to 1 1 ft., and on one side are entirely covered
with suckers. Professor Verrill, of Yale College, distinguished two
spe cie s one he named Arckiicutkis Hantyi, after the discoverer,
and the other Architeutkis monachus.
Flora. — ^The pine^ spruce, birch, jumper and larch of the forests
of the interior tumish amfje materials for a large timber trade as
well as for shipbuilding purposes. The white 4>ine grows to the
height of 70 or 80 ft. in so * * - . ••
There b an abundance of ^
height of 70 or 80 ft. in some places, and b 3 or 4 ft. in diameter.
There b an abundance of wood suitable for making pulp for paper;
and in IQ06-1907 a London company, with Lord NorthclifTe (of the
Daily Mail) at its head, acquired large tracts for thb purpose, and
operations were begun in 191a The mountain ash, balsam poplar
and aspen thrive weU. Evergreens are in sreat variety. The oory-
bearing plants cover brge areas of the island. The maidenhair or
capillaire yields a sacchariBe matter which b lusciously sweet.
Flowering plants and ferns are in vast varieties, and wild grasses and
clover grow luxuriantly. Garden vegetables of all kinds, and straw-
berries, raspberries, gooseberries, cuirants, &&. thrive wdL
PopvlaiioH. — By the earliest computation made in 1654 the
number of pennanent inhabitants in the island was 175a
Twenty-six yeaxs later the resident population was stated to
be 3380; in 1763, 7000; in 1804, 30,00a In 1833 the population
bad risen to 60,000; in 1836 to 75,094; in 1857, 134,388; and
in 1874, 161,374. By the census of 1901 the total population of
Newfoundland was 317,037, that of Labrador being 3947. The
capital, St John's, which contained a population of x 5,000 in 1835,
had in 1901 39,594 soxils. The rate of increase for the island
for the ten years ending in xoox was 9*37% as compared with
the rate of increase X874-X884, which was 33*30%. Certain
districU such as Carbonear, Harbour Grace and Ferryland, as
«rcll as Labrador, showed a steady decline, the largest increase
being in St George's district and on the west coast, where it is
not less than 40%.
Of the various religbus denominations the strength in 1901
was as follows: Roman Catholics, 75,989; Chuch of England,
73fOo8f Methodbu, 6x,388; Presbyterians, 1168; Congrega-
tionalbts, 954; Salvationbts, 6594; Moravians, Baptists and
others, 1554. The system of public education b denominational,
each religious body receiving grants from the revenue according
to numerical strength. The total sum allotted to education in
X904-1905 was $196,193. The aggregate number of pupils
under fifteen attending t^ie 783 elementary schook and academics
in the island was 3S,304' It b estimated that 35 % of the popula-
tion, chiefly the older folk, arc illiterate.
Fisheries.— Thtse constitute the great staple industry of the
Island. On the export of its products the trade of the colony
still mainly depends. The most important fish in these waters,
commercially, b the cod, which b here more abundant than
anywhere ebe in the world. Although subject to considerable
fluctuation the average annual export of dried cod-fish over a
term of yeaxs b about x, 300,000 qmntals. The value of the
export varies between five and six million dollars, according to
the market price of the dried fish. The cod axe taken on the
shores of the isUnd, along the Labrador coast and on *' the
Banks." These Baxxks, which have played such an important
part in the hbtory of the colony, and are the chief source of
its wealth, stretch for about 300 m. in a south-east direction
towards the centre of the Noith Atlantic, and probably at one
time formed a part of the North American continent. The depths
range from 15 to 80 or 90 fathoms. The deposits consbt of sand
and gravel composed of andent rocks, and fragments of quaiu,
mica, hornblende, febpars and magnetite; along with these are
many calcareous fragments of echinoderms, pdyxoa and many
foramlnifera. In the deeper parts there b sometimes a fine
mud containing the above-mentioned minerals and calcareous
fragments, and in addition nimierous frustules of diatoma. The
Banks are swept by the cold Labrador current, and icebergs are
frequently stranded upon them. The Gulf Stream passes over
their southern portions. These two currents bear ^ng many
species of pelagic algae and animab, which supply abundant food
to the myriads of echizKxlerms, molluscs, annelids, ooelenterates
and other invertebrates which live at all depths on the Banks.
These invertebrates in turn supply food to the cod and other
fishes which are sought for by the fishermen. Sea bixxb frequent
the Banks in great numbers; and, as diving birds are not met
with at any great dbtance fix>m theih, the presence of these in
the sea gives seamen an indication of the shallower water.
The total annual catch of cod in NewfoundUnd watere has been
estimated at about 3,500.000 quintab (a quinul beingone-twentieth
of a ton), with a value of about 1 1.400,000 sterling. The cod &hery
forms four-fifths of the entire industiy, in spite of the increase in
the herring and lobster catch. No increase in the quantities uken
is to be noted, but the market value of dried cod bsh is generally
enhanced. In 1885 an export of 1,384,710 quintals was only world
jM,o6i.6oa In 1905 1,196,814 quintab were valued at $6,108,614.
To this may be added the value of the fish consumed by the peopfe
of the colony, estimated at $450,000. According to the census of
1901 there were 41.2^1 males and 21443 females engaged in the
catching and curing of fish.
The figures have greatly varied in past yean: as for instance in
and the opening up of other industries has diverted labour from the
fisheries. The total number of vesaeb engaged b about 1550. with
a tonnage of 54.500; over 11,000 fishing rooms are in actual use.
The use of traps has followed the decrease in number of neu and
seines, bat the continued increase of fishing rooms shows that there
b no falling off in the Newfoundland cod fishery, which has now
been prosecuted for fully four centuries. Notwithstanding the
enormous drafu every year, to all appearanoe'thecod areasabundant
as ever. They begin to appear on the coasu of the island about the
first of June, at which time they move from the deep watere of the
coast to the shallower and warmer watere near the shore, for spawn-
ing purposes. Their approach is heralded by the caplin. a beautiful
little fish about 7 in. m length, vast shoab of which arrive, filing
every bay and harbour. The cod follow in thdr wake, feasting
peedily upon the caplin, which supply the best bait. In six weeks
the capUn dbappear, and their place is taken by the squid about
the 1st of August. These also supply a valuable bait, and are
foUowed by the herring, which continue till the middle or cod of
NEWFOUNDLAND
481
.October, when the cod iAtry dows., The cod are taken by the
hook-and-line*, the teine, the cod-net of fill-net, the cod-trap and
the bultow. Newfoundland exports cod to Brazil, Spain, Portugal,
Italy. Great Britain, Greece, the West Indies and the United States.
Brazil and Spain are the largest consumers.
After the cod the seal fisbwery is of next importance. The industry
was begun about 1740, when the value of the seal oil exports was
£1000. In 1904-1905 sealskins and seal oil to the value 01 S370,a6x
and $374,974 were exported, the price of a skin varying between
$-90 to $t -35. This shows a considerable falling off. The number of
men erapk>yod is about 4000. Steamers were first used in 1865.
They are from 350 to 500 tons burden, roost of them carrying from
200 to 300 men. The larger class can bring in from 30,000 to 40,000
seals. In one instance 41, 900 seals were brought in by a single
steamer, the " Neptune,'' tihe weight being 874 tons and the value
S103.750. In bad years the catch may not exceed 200,000— in
1893 it fell to 129,061. By law no steamer may leave port on a
seahng voyage until the 12th of March, and no seal may be killed
before the 14th of March. The young seals are bom on the ice
between the isth and 35th of February, and mature so rapidly that
they are in excellent condition in four weeks.
Of more recent origin is the k>bstcr fishery, their packing for
export having begun m 1873. By 1888 the value of the k>Dster
export had nsen to $385,077. In 1901-1905, while the catch had
somewhat diminished as compared with 1895, the value had in-
creased to $513,662.
A vigorous effort has been made to establish the herrin|[ fishery
on a soJe commensurate with the abundance of the fish m these
waters. In iB^S the total quantity exported was ^2,042 barrels,
with a value of $91 ,3^7. In 1905 there were 1761613 baurrels, valued
at $379,938. The principal seats of the herrine fishery are Fortune
Bay. Placentta, Bay St Geoi]ge and Bay of Islands, and the whole
coast of Labrador, which furnishes the finest kind of herrine. Besides
the herrinj; exported, at least $150,000 worth is sold to the French
and Americans as bait.
The export of preserved salmon, of which the island has an
abundant supply, does not form a lat]^ or important item, seldom
reaching in value $100,000. Salmon is Uken for the most part in
oeu in the coves and bays and at the mouths of rivers. The season
for taking it is brief, six or seven weeks, beginning at the end of May.
The proper preservation of the salmon waters has oeen for generations
ncglKted, and reckless practices bade fair wholly to exterminate the
fish. In 1888, however, a fisheries commission was appointed, and
river wzxdtn were charged with the stringent enforcement of the
new laws. The best salmon fisheries are in Bonavista Bay, Gander
and Exploits bays, and on the west coast.
Mackerel formerlv frequented the Newfoundland coasts, but
disappeaured about the middle of the 19th century: and few halibut
or haddock are causht. Sea trout and brook trout, however, abound,
and latterty Loch Leven and Califomian rainbow trout have been
introduced with success.
The most extraordinary increase concerns the whaling industry.
Before 18^ a very successful whale fishery was carried on. but it
then suddenly ceased and has only recently been revived. The
revival b due to the invention of a harpoon-gun which kills the
whale effectually and with despatch. There are now fourteen whale
factories in operation for the production of bone and oil. While in
1895 the value of the oil reached only $7300 and the bone $1000. a
decade later the values were $384,062 and $34,833 respectively;
no fewer than 1275 whales being caught. A patent process manu-
factures the carcases into a fine guano, and utilizes the by-products,
thus adding $100,000 to the industry.
On the whde the aggregate value of the Newfoundland fisheries
for 1906-1907 was neariy £3,000,000 steriing, including the fish
consumed in the cobny.
Agnculture, — Until recent yean little attention has been paid
to agriculture, the belief being current that the interior of the island
was a desert. The reports of the geological survey dispelled thu
fiction, it being conclusively shown that out of the 28,000 sc]. m.
of dry land over one-sixth or 7000 sq. m. b available under suitable
conditions for arable and for grazing jMirposes. The best land b -
situated in the Codroy valley, which » rich in alluvial soiL That
in the Bay St Geom district b vfiy fertile, and in the Humber
valley. Exploits valley and elsewhere many thousands of farmers
could woric to advantage. In 1874 only 3(5,3^ acres were under
cultivatJoa. In iQOi, 215,579 acres were occupied, of idiich 85,533
afres were actually under ailtivation, producing chiefly hay, oats,
atoes, tamips and cabbage*. In the numbers of live stock there
been a notable increase, especially in sheep. Newfoundland
seems especially adapted for a sheep-gradng country.
Umimg. — Not until a comparatively recent date was Newfound-
land known to contain minoal deposits of neat value. The first
discovery of cooper ore took place at a small fishing hamlet called
Tilt Cove in 1857. Seven years bter the mine was opened, and
during the foHowing fifteen years Tilt Cove mine yielded about
«o,ooo tons of copper ore valued at $1,572,154, besides nickel worth
$32,740. In 1875 another mine at Bett s Cove was opened. There
are thne prindpal mines, all in Notre Dame Bay, the copper exports
in 1905 being 81,491 tons, with a value of $4iB4oa Ine oopper-
beannf depottU are widely distributed. According to the geotopcal
potati
kis b
survey reports, oopper-bearinff rocks have a development of over
5000 sq. m. throughout the island. Iron-mining, however, has far
surpassed copper-mining, the chief centre being at Bell Island in
Conception Bay. Hematite iron has been found at Exploits river.
Fortune Harbour.. New Bay and other parts in Notre Dame Bay.
The iron exported in 1905 amounted to 635.350 tons with a value
of $63S.3SO. In 1895 the value of iron exporu was nil. Of iron
beii\g declared equal to the best Carnarvon slate. In 1005 1^,750
tons were sht|ppecL_ The caiitenoe oi coal in the island hu been
kDown since Cap Lain Cook 5r9E reported its discovery in 1 763. but
until hiv'iy lit tie ha« bcvn danp to exploit it. The most important
carboniFcrout f^Eion it at Gnnd l^ikc, St George's and the Codroy
recioTi din^cMy oppKitr the Cape Iki. tm coal-fields.
ZiiiC hu bwa foujid in many tr.»^1'ties, as also antimony, silver
and geld, A^be^tos ii frequently I'l.iid, aind mica of jrood size has
bcKti diiCOvcTed in the Laurrnikin rxks in the Long Range Moun-
tam^ ^nd in Labndof. At thr ir,< ■ th of the Humber are brge
deptrtk^ of morblo^ The va,tuat-l< rum-meuUic materiab include
talc, gyp*ijmK cpphite, Uthofraphi' m < ne and manganese.
Skifi^m^.^Jiie total nuitibf-r i.d ^ c seb sailing under Newfound-
land registry en ihc jifrt at rk^cr.Ur 1905 was 3049, with a net
tonnai^e of t itj,6t jf toti*. Of thtse 66 were steamers. The statbtics
of foneipi-foinc tcnn;it!i^ iSow a. remarkable growth in trade. The
bounty {TT^nieo by the legi«tlaturv h^ given a considerable impetus
to local bhjpbuilalniz. Between t^oo and 190^ the average of
^Traek annually buiJi in the colany was 105, with a total tonnage
for the five ycara of 17,698:. In 19*4-1905 the total value of exports
uas S 10,669, i^p. of import 1 $n>,77i).i^3. For the period of seven
ycar-i precedmF; the Txportn. exceeded thie imports by $7,174,676 or
;i tiaLincc of tnde in lavQur at the colony of over one million
duCWft aoniially.
Jfaiu/df&irfj.— In 1S74 there wcte only five nw-milb in the
colony, pTKludnff sin h. ol timber. The census returns of 1901
ihowed 195 ^w-miH? ^-nlued at $?97,790, emploYinff 2408 persons
arid prciducins HM^ i^^ ^^ liiDber, 16,197 ol shineTe a^ aoao of
laths, cil A total value at |4^t^55< P4per-making irom wood-pulp
h^ bn:n me^tiotitd m eonnexion wkh Fhra, above. Six tanneries
in icjoi ptxxiuccd jgaodi ia ihe vslue ot $98,200. There are boot and
ahac, iohticcti. naLl^ kjap, fEjrnitufe and carriage manufactories.
The roDc-w^k In St John s pc^uces rcpe and line valued at $300,000
annually.
Cotemment, — ^Newfoundland b a British colony, directly
dependent on the crown. Representative govenunent and a
constitution were granted to it in 1833, and " req)onsible govern-
ment " in 1855. Two legislative chambers were appointol^the
house of assembly, to be elected, and the legislative cotmdl, to be
nominated by the governor in coimdL This form of government
has worked satisfactorily. It consuls of a governor who b
appointed by the crown, and whose term of office b usually about
six years; an executive council chosen by the party commanding
a majority in the bouse of assembly, and consisting of seven
members; a legislative council or upper house, of fifteen members
nominated by the governor in council and holding office for life;
and a house of assembly elected every four years by the votes
of the people on a household su£Fnige basis. There axe seventeen
electoral dbtricta sending thirty-six members to the house of
assembly, all of whom are paid. The sessional allowances range
from $194 to $291. The supreme court, instituted in 1826, b
composed of a chief Justice and two assbtant Judges. They
are appointed by the crown, and hold their office for lifft. The
jurisdiction of Newfotmdland extends over the whole of the
Atlantic coast ot Labrador.
Pimance. — ^Duties levied on Imports form the basli of the revenue.
The nr" ^<^rrr intended for the cost of government and not for
iriiJu^iruLi ',■:•".:■•: won, the duties are not as a rule differential, being
janEv cJ i-nJofffm, partly specific
ThvTt h so direct taxation, amd there are no dty or town corpora-
tbfi^. Tbe customs revenue grew from $840,916 in 1885 to
$j ^95,959 in I .H>5. The pubhc debt incressed from $2,149^7
in ib£s u> Sj^i043^8 in XQOS. against which there was a smlang
f^nd of fjoG^jTi). The debt of St John's municipal coundH
Si,iF.j.i2i, on ^-^iJch full Interest b paid to the government, must
It r-r . I i : c'l to tiic gross public debt. In Decembo" 1905 a new loan
ot $636,903 V:<Ltt floated in England. Based on the value of the
exports the earning capacity of the popubUon increased from
$29 per head in 1885 to $47 per head in 1905. The postal and
telesraph revenue amounted m 1905 to $125,000, having more than
doubled in a decade. The crown bnds revenue, which in 1895
^f»» $5500, stood in 1905 at $4T^57> With the United Kingdom,
trade, which in 1888 was 38 % otthe whole, steadilv diminished in
volume, until it was in 1905 only 31 % of the whole. Trade with
482
NEWFOUNDLAND
America in this period showed an increase of 138*5 % and that with
Canada 76* > %.
Roads and Railways, — Railways play a unique part in the
modern history of the island. Not until 1835 was the first
road made; it was 9 m. in length, from St John's
to Portugal Cove. When representative government
was established in 1852 an annual grant was voted
for roads and bridges, and of late years not less than
$100,000 per annum has been expended on this head. There are
now over xooo m. of postal roads, and over 2000 of district
roads. In x88o after much agitation the legislature finally
agreed to raise a loan of £1,000,000 for the construction of a
railway from St John's to Hall's Bay, with branches to Brigus
and Harbour Grace, the distance being estimated at 340 m.
In November 1884 the line was completed for traffic as far as
Harbour Grace. In the following year the construction of a
line, 37 m. in length, from Whitboume to Phicentia, the old
French capital, was begim and finished in 1888. Shortly after-
wards it was decided to resume the line northwards from St
John's to Hall's Bay (which, owing to the failure of the con-
tractors, had been discontinued) with a view ultimately to a
transinsular railway. The tender of a well-known contractor,
Mr R.G. Reid of Montreal, was accepted, and the work was begun
in October 2890. But before the contractor had proceeded far
with the Hall's Bay line a new survey was made and another
route determined for the proposed transinsular railway, west-
wards from the valley of the Exploits, which was regarded
as much more favourable than the one originally contemplated.
It traversed the Exploits and Humber valleys, passing through
the most fertile territory in the island, to the Bay of Islands
on the west coast; hence it skirted Bay St George and the
Codroy valley and terminated at Port-aux-Basques, acommodious
harbour 95 m. distant from Sydney, Cape Breton. The new
route was chosen, and a contract signed on the x6th of May
1893, whereby the contractor was to be paid $15,600 per mile
in Newfoundland bonds, the whole line to be completed in three
years. At the same time, in order to provide for the working
of the line, it was agreed between the colonial government and
Mr Reid that the latter should maintain and work it, as well as
construct a system of telegraphs, for « period of ten years from
the ist of September 1893 at .his own expense, in consideration
of a " grant in fee simple to the contractor of 5000 acres of land
for each one mile of mail line or branch railway to be operated."
Should the line, therefore, be 500 m. in length the land grant
would be 2,500,000 acres, to be situated on each side of the
railway in alternate sections of x or a m. in length with
the railway, and 8 m. In depth, the cok>ny also retaining an
equal amount of land with the contractor along the route. Much
hostile criticism was subsequently directed, towards this arrange-
ment. In 1898 a new proposal was made by Mr Reid, under
the terms of which he undertook to work all the railways in the
island for a period of fifty years, free of cost to the government,
provided that, at the termination of the said period, the railways
should become his own property. He was also to receive a further
concession of land to the extent of 3,500,000 acres on terms
similar to those contained in the former contract. Mr Rdd
agreed to build and run seven steamers, one in each of the
large bays, and one to ply in Labrador in stunmer, to provide
an electric street railway for St John's, and also to pave a certain
portion of the capitaL The colony was to part with the telegraph
system to the contractor, who was to acquire at a fixed price
the govenuient dry-dock at St John's. On the other hand, to
complete the bargain, $x ,000,000 in cash was to be paid by the
contractor to the government within a year after the signing
of the contract. This remarkable covenant, which was afterwards
characterized by Mr Chamberlain, secretary of sUte for the
colonies, as a transaction " without parallel in the history of
any country," was nevertheless ratified by the legislature, and
submitted to the governor. Sir Herbert Murray, for his approval.
The governor dedined to append his signature to the instrument,
but upon its being referred to the imperial secretary of state,
it was decided that the arrangement was one relating exclusively
to the colony, and this being the case, that it would be "aa
unwarrantable interference with the rights of a seU-goveming
colony" to disallow the measure. The Reid contract was
therefore signed by Sir Herbert Murray before relinquishing
his post early in X898. Meanwhile considerable feeling had
been manifested in the colony; numerous public meetings in
support of the governor's action were held; and several
petitions were despatched to England; but it was not uxitil
the spring of 1900 that Sir James Winter and his colleagues
were forced to resign on acdount of the opposition which had
been engendered. The general election brought a Liberal, Mr
(afterwards Sir) Robert Bond, into power; and he had hardly
assumed office when the contractor approached the ministry
with further proposals to convert his property into a limited
liability company with a capital of £5,000,000 sterling, for which
proceeding the consent of the legislature was necessary, under
the terms of X898. Mr Bond refused unless a modification of
the contract was agreed to. The modifications demanded
were— that the telegraphs should revert at once to the govern-
ment; that the land grants, which included a large amount
of private property, ^ould be readjusted so as to conserve
the rights of those whose holdings had been confiscated; also,
that it should be optional for the colony to take over the railways
at the end of fifty years by paying back the sum of $1,000,000
with interest, the amount paid by Mr Reid to the colony; and
a sum to be arrived at by arbitration for all improvements
that may have been made on the property within the fifty
years. After considerable dispute these terms were substantially
agreed to, and the conversion into a company took place.
History. — Newfoundland, commonly termed the "aenioT
colony " of Great Britain, antedates in discovery (though not
in continuous settlement) any other British over-sea
dominion. John Cabot, sailing from Bristol in 1497,
appears to have made landfall at Bonavista and
the whole country for Henry VII. Three years later Caspar
Corte-Real, ranging the North American coasts, discovered
and named O)nception Bay and Portugal Qovty and was appointed
Portuguese governor of Terra Nova. The long series of annual
trans-Atlantic expeditions followed upon the voyages of Cabot
and Corte-Real, and thdr reports in England, Portugal and
France concerning the multitude of fish in Newfoundland. For
a long time it was supposed that the English fishermen did not
avail themselves to any extent of these advantages until the
middle of the i6th century, but this b now shown to be erroneous.
Mr Prowse sUtes that the trade during the first half of the century
was both " extensive and lucrative." In 1527 the little Devon-
shire fishing ships were unable to carry home their large catch,
so "sack ships" (large merchant vessels) were employed
to carry the salt cod to Spain and Portugal. An act of 1541
classes the Newfoundland trade with the Irish, Shetland and
Iceland fisheries. Hakluyt, writing in 1578, mentions that the
number of vessels employed in the ibhery was 400, of which
only oneK|uarter were En^ish, the rest being French and Spanish
Basque. But in the same year, according to Anthony ParUiurst,
" the English are conunonly lords of the harbours where they
fish aiid use all help in fishing if need require." Shortly there-
after England awoke to the importance of (fabot's great discovcfy,
and an attempt was nuule to plant a colony on the shores of
the island. Sir Humphry Gilbert, provided with
letters patent from Queen Elizabeth, landed in St ^^.
John's in August X583, and formally took possessioa JJJJ
of the country in the queen's name. The first attempt
at colonizing was frustrated by the loss of Gilbert sooq after-
wards at sea. In x6io James L granted a patent to John Guy,
an enterprising Bristol merchant, for a " plantation " in New-
foundland; but no marked success attended his efforts to found
settlements. In 1615 Captain Richard Whitboume of Emiouth
in Devonshire was despatched to Newfoundland by the British
admiralty to establish order and correct abuses which had
grown up among the fishermen. On his return in X633 he wrote
a " Discourse and Discovery of Newfoundland Trade " which
I King James, by. an order in coandl, caused to be distributed
NEWFOUNDLAND
+83
Amoog the parishes of the kingdom " for the encouragement of
adventures unto plantation there." A year after the departure
of Whitboume, Sir George Calvert, afterwards the first Lord
Baltimore, obtained a patent conveying to him the lordship
of the whole southern peninsula of Newfoundland, and the
right of fishing in the surrounding waters. He planted a colony
at Ferryhmd, 40 m. north of Cape Race, where he built a hand-
some mansion and resided with his family for many years.
The French so harassed his settlement by incessant attacks
that he at length abandoned it.
In 1650, or about a century and a half after its discovery,
Newfoundland contained only 350 families, or leas than 2000
individuals, distributed in fifteen small settlements,
chiefly along the eastern shore. These constituted
the resident population; but in addition there was a
floating population of several thousands who frequented the
shores daring the summer for the sake of the fisheries, which
had now attained very large dimensions. So eariy as.x6a6, 150
vessels were annually despatched from Devonshire alone; and
the shipowners and traders residing in the west of England
sent out their ships and fishing crews early in summer to prose-
cute these lucrative fisheries. The fish caught were salted and
dried on the shore; and on the approach of winter the fishermen
re-embarked for England, carrying with them the products of
their labour. Hence it became the interest of these traders and
shipowners to discourage the settlement of the country, in order
to retain the exclusive use of the harbours and fishing coves for
their servants, and also a monopoly of the fisheries. They were
able to enlist the British government of the day in their project,
and stringent laws were passed prohibiting settlement within
6 m. of the shore, forbidding fishermen to remain behind at the
dose of the fishing season, and rendering it illegal to build or
repair a house without a special licence. The object of this
short-sighted policy, which was persisted in for more than a
century, was to preserve the island as a fishing station and the
fisheries as ntirseries for British seamen.
There was, however, another element which retarded the
prosperity of the country. The French had early realized the
immense value of the fisheries', and strove long and
JSSkL desperately to obtain possession of the island. Their
constant attacks and encroachments harassed the few
settlers, and rendered life and property insecure during the long
wars between England and France. When at length, in 17x3,
the treaty of Utrecht ended hostilities, it did not deliver New-
foundland from the grasp of France, as it yielded to her the
right of catching and drying fish on the western and northern
aides of the island. Though no territorial rights were conferred
on the French, >nd the sovereignty was secured to England, the
practical effect was to exclude the inhabitants from the fairest
haU of the island.'
In spite of the restrictive regulations, the number of the
resident population continued to increase. The sturdy settlers
„__ clung to the soil, and combated the " adventurers "
as the merchants were called, and after a lengthened
conflict obtained freedom of settlement and relief from
oppression. But the contest was severe and prolonged. The
merchant-adventurers strenuously opposed the appointment of
a governor; but at length, in 1728, the British government
appointed Captain Henry Osborne first governor of Newfound-
hind, with a commission to establish a form of dvil government.
This constituted a new era in the history of the colony. In
1763 the fixed inhabitants had increased to 8000, while 5000
more were summer residents who returned home each winter.
In 1763 the coast of Labrador, from Hudson's Strait to the river
St John opposite the west end of the isUind of Anticosti, was
attached to the govemoiship of Newfoundland. The population
b 1785 had increased to xo,ooo. During the wars between
England and France which followed the French Revolution,
Newfoundlaiid attained great prosperity, as all competitors in
the fisheries were swept itbm the seas, and the markets of
Europe were exclusively in the hands of the merchants of the
country. . The vtiue of fish trebled, wages rose to a high figure.
and in 1814 no less than 7000 emigrants arrived. The population
now numbered 80,000. In 1832 representative government was
granted to the colony, and provision was made for education.
In 1846 a terrible fire destroyed three-fourths of St John's and.
with it an enormous amount of property; but the city rose from*
its ashes improved and beautified. In 1855 the ^stem of
responsible government was inaugurated. In 1858 the first
Atlantic cable was landed at Bull Arm, Trinity Bay.
Unproductive fisheries, causing a widespread destitution
among the working classes, marked the first eight years of the
decade between x86o and 1870. A system of able-
bodied pauper relief was initiated to meet the neces-
sities of the case but was attended with the usual
demoralizing results. The necessity of extending the cultivation
of the soil in order to meet the wants of the growing population
was felt more and more as the pressure arising from the failure
of the fisheries showed their precarious nature more sensibly.
In X864 copper ore was discovered in the north, and mining
operations were successfully initiated. In 1869 a series of
successful fisheries began which enabled the government to
terminate the injurious system of able-bodied pauper relief.
In 187 1 the revenue rose to $83x,x6o. In 1873 direct steam
communication with England and America was established.
By the treaty of Utrecht of 17x3 a right was reserved to
French subjects to catch fish and to dry them on that part of
Newfoundland which stretches from Cape BonavisU j^_^
to the northern part of the island and from thence JSff
coming down by the western side reaches as far as
Pt. Riche. By the treaty of Versailles of 1783 France renounced
the fishery from Bonavista to Cape St John on the east coast,
receiving in return extended rights upon the west coast as far as
Cape Ray. Neither treaty purported to grant exclusive right,
but there was annexed to the treaty of Versailles a declaration
to the effect that " His Britannic Majesty will take the most
jMsitive measures for preventing his subjects from interrupting
in any manner by their competition the fishery of the French
during the temporary exercise of it which is granted to them
upon the coasts of the island of Newfoundland, and he will
for this purpose cause the fixed settlements which shall be
formed there to be removed." Upon this declaration the French
founded a claim to exclusive fishing rights within the limits
named. A convention was entered into with a view to defining
•these rights in 1854, but it remained inoperative, the consent of
the Newfoundland legisUiture, to which it was made subject,
having been refused. Meanwhile the French government granted
a bounty to the French fishermen which enabled them to under-
sell the colonists.
In X884 a convention which had been arranged between the
British and French governments was submitted to the colonial
administration by its promoters Sir Clare Ford and
Mr E. B. Penneil, C.M.G., but without commanding ^^
the support of the Newfoundland government. In the
year following, on a change of ministry in the colony, the Ford-
Pennell convention was again offered to the Newfoundland
legislature in a slightly amended form, but the joint committee
of the colonial house of assembly and the council absolutely
refused to ratify the arrangement tmless the French government
would consent either to annul or to amend the system of bounties
paid upon French-caught fish in Newfoundland waters. At the
same tinie, to counteract the effect of these bounties, which
pressed very hardly upon the British competition, a Bait Act
was framed and carried in x886, empowering the executive to
prohibit the capture in Newfoimdland waters for exportation or
sale of bait fishes, except under special licence to be issued by
the colonial government. The consequence of this measure,
were its provisions properly enforced, would be to place an
embargo upon the local supply of bait requisite to the French
fishermen — the so-called " metropolitan fleet " — on the Grand
Banks. Upon being apprised of this enactment, the French
government immediately demanded that Great Britain should
deny its sanction to this Newfoundland Bait Act, and pressed
their objections with such persistence as to induce Lord Salisbury
+8+
NEWFOUNDLAND
to disallow the measure. Nevertheless, the de^>atch of the
govemor. Sir William des Voeux, to the colonial secretary.
Sir H. Holland, was so entirely in favour of the principle of the
bill that the Newfoundland authorities became imbued with a
fixed determination to urge forward the measure for imperial
acceptance. In 1887, therefore, a delegation, consisting of Sir
Robert Thorbum, the premier, and Sir Ambrose Shea, visited
England at a moment most propitious for obtaining the sym-
pathy and support of the imperial government and the press
and people of the mother country, it being the jubilee year of
Queen Victoria's accession to the throne. A conference of
colonial premiers was one of the notable events distinguishing
that happy period, and the subject was argued before the
conference at considerable length. The claim set up by the
senior colony " to control and legislate for her own fisheries "
met with general approval, the single dissentient being the
representative of Canada, who feared that Canadian fishermen
would suffer under the bilL When an assurance was tendered
that Canada's fishermen would be placed upon the same footing
with those of Newfoundland, the British government somewhat
reluctantly sanctioned the Bait Act. The stipulation was made,
however, that it should not be enforced until the spring following
(1888). In the meantime the chagrin of the French Foreign Office
at the failure of the Ford-Penndl negotiations, and the hostile
attitude taken up by the Newfoundlanders in what they deemed
to be the conservation of their interests, induced M. de Freydnet
to devise retaliatory measures. Instructions were issued " to
seize and confiscate all instruments of fishing bebnging to
foreigners resident or otherwise, who shall fish on that part of
the coast which is reserved to our use." Lord Rosebery, then
foreign secretary, protested to the French ambassador against
the qnrit of these instructions, which he insisted were in direct
contravention of the treaty, inasmuch as they ignored the
concurrent as well as those sovereign rights of Great Britain
which France solemnly undertook by the treaties never to
question or dispute. Nor were other opportunities soon iiranting
to the French to retort severely upon the Newfoundland
authorities for their passage of the Bait Act, as well as to repair
In large measure the injury which that act promised to infiict
upon the French industry. About 1874 a Nova Scotian named
Rumkey had established the first factory for the canning of
lobsters on the west coast. This concern proved profitable, and
others sprang up, until, at the dose of the season of 1887, Captain
Campbell, R.N., reported that twenty-six factories were at work,
employing about xzoo hands. It was at that time understood
that this was an industry which, by the very nature of the
process and the permanent shore structure it involved, the
French were disqualified from pursuing. So dearly was this
recognized that in 1886, when Commander Browne of H.M.S.
" Mallard " reported the existence of a French lobster factory at
Port-aux-Choix, a substantiaUy-built structure, roofed with
corrugated iron, the French authorities conceded that the
establishment was in violation of the treaties, and issued orders
for its removal. But this conciliatory policy was of brief dura-
tion. The year of the Bait Act's first successful application was
marked by the stoppage, by order of the French government,
of Messrs Murphy and Andrew's lobster factory, and by their
contention that the lobster-canning industry formed a part
of the privileges conceded under the treaties to the French,
whose partidpation by the British fishermen would be forcibly
resisted.
An exchange of notes took place between Lord Salisbury
and M. Waddington, the French ambassador, in which the latter
expressed an opinion which evoked a spirited protest on the
part of the British Foreign Office. "France," it was then
declared, " preserved the exdusive right of fishing she always
possessed. This right of France to the coast of Newfoundland
reserved to her fishermen is only a part of her andent soverdgnty
over the island which she retained in ceding the soil to England,
and which she has never weakened or alienated." This daim
of the French to an exdusive fishery was held to be wholly
untenable, and their classification of the lobster catching and
canning industry as amongst the " fishing " privileges granted
them by the treaty was denounced as contrary to both letter
and spirit of that instrument. Notwithstanding this, the French
agents on the treaty shore clamoured for the removal of several
of the British factories, which (it was declared) interfered with
the exdusive fishing rights of the French. The French govern-
ment also voted (x888) a spcdaX bounty for the establishment
of lobster factories by their subjects on the treaty coast. Pending
a settlement, the British foreign office deemed it expedient,
in order not to give offence to France, to invest the Fnench
daims with a semblance of right by issuing instructions to British
naval officers on the North American station to continue to
interpret and enforce the treaties with regard to the Neirfound-
land lobster-canning industry on the same terms as they had
done hitherto with regard to the cod-fishery. Acting under a
statute passed in the reign of George HI., empowering British
naval officers to interpret and enforce the treaties. Sir Baldwin
Walker and others proceeded to destroy or remove a number
of British factories at the request of the French agents. In
1890 the unexpected discovery was made that the act empower-
ing British naval officers to enforce the provisions of the treaties
with France had expired in 1832 and had never been renewed.
Consequently all the proceedings of which the cdonists had
been the victims were illegaL One of thnn, Mr James Baird,
immediatdy took proceedings against Sir Baldwin Walker
in the supreme court, which decided in his favour, mulcting
the admiral in £1000.
On an appeal to the privy councO the dedaon was upheld.
But before this hiddent had taken place, the controvetsy
between London and Paris culminated in the modus
Vivendi of 1890, by which the lobster factories, both
British and Frendi, which were in existence on the
xst of July 1889, were to continue for the present.
Instantly the colony took alarm, and a deputation consisting
of the island's leading men was sent to England to protest against
both the prindple and practice of such an arrangement. On
their return they Icamt that it was the intention of the imperial
government to re^nact verbatim d literatim the act for the
enforcement of the treaties which had expired fifty-nine yean
previously. To prevent such an occurrence, delegates from
both parties in Newfoundland visited London in April xSgr,
and, appearing at the bar of the House of Lords, promised that
if the measure which was then on the eve of being intiodufced
into that body were withdrawn, a temporary measure would
be passed by the Newfoundland legislature which would answer
the same purpose of enabling Great Britain to carry oat her
treaty obligations with France. The hope then gEntnSty
entertained was that the whole question of French rights in the
colony would soon be the subject of definite negotiations looking
to their total extinguishment. That hope was, however, not
speedily realized. For a number of 3rears the Modus Vivendi
Act was annually passed by the leg^ture, each year under
protest, the conviction gaining strength in the colony that 'the
imperial govenunent was averse from renewing negotiations
with France.
In X898 the secretary of sUte, Mr Chamberlain, yidding to
the urgent request of the senior colony, despatched a oommissioo
consistmg of Sir J. Bramston and Sir James Erskine, with Lord
Wcstmeath as secretary, on a tour of investigation along the
treaty shore; and the report which the royal comxnissionen
made (though not published) touched all points of the unhappy
dispute. Again, in xqox, on a suggestion put forward by the
colony, Mr Chamberlain sununoned Sir Robert Bond, the
Newfoundland premier, and a colleague, Sir E. P. Morris, to
London, for a new conference on the French shore question,
in which Lord Lansdowne, the foreign secretary, participated
Nothing commg of this, the Modus Vivendi Act continued to
be passed annually. In xqox a fresh attempt was made to effect
a settlement, but the negotiations were again unsuccessful, as
the colony declined to make concessions in regard to the sale
of bait unless the French system of bounties on the sale of fish
by their dtizens were abandoned or at least modified in important
NEWFOUNDLAND
+8s
puticoIasB. Lftter in tbe lame yetr negotiations were begUh
be t ween the British and French govemmenu for a general
treaty, in which all outstanding matters of dispute between
the two countries should be for ever settled. As regards New-
foundland, the discussion of the French fishery question on the
basis of arrangement in the matter of bait and bounties having
proved unavailing, it was proposed not to persist further in it,
but to put before the French government an arrangement which
would terminate the rights of French fishermen to land and dry
their fish on the shores of the island, but leave a concurrent
right of fishery, the regxilation and policing of which would be
in the manner provided in the North Sea Fishery Convention
of 1881 and the convention of X8S7.
On the 8th of April 1904 the Laiisdowne-Cambon Convention
was signed, which effected a final settlement of the French shore
question. For the total abandonment of the French
^^^ rights compensation was clearly not only due to the
MM. individuals actually engaged in the fishing industry,
but to the French nation at large. Territorial conces-
sions were therefore made consisting of a modification of the
Anglo-French boundary line in the Niger and Lake Chad district,
and a re-arrangement of the Gambia-Senegambia frontier, giving
Yarbatenda to Senegambia. The Los Islands opposite Konakry
Island were likewise ceded to France. Provision was made for
the reciprocal recognition, on the convention coming into force,
of a British consul at St Pierre and a French consul at St John's.
Claims for indemnity were duly submitted to an arbitral tribunal,
composed of an officer of each nation; and at length what is
known as the Lyttelton Award, was made as follows: —
Genera! award for French rights . $355>750
Low of occupation 326,813
Effecttleft by the French on treaty coast. 28.936
So far as concerned the French, an end was thus put to a
ntuation on the treaty shore, which for nearly two hundred
years had given rise to difficulties and anxieties.
Scarcely, however, had a year elapsed from the signing of the
convention, when another international disagreement connected
. with the fisheries assumed grave importance. There
jjjl^y* had long been intense dissatisfaction in the colony
r^gia. over the attitude of the American government and
American fishermen towards the colony. The action
of the American Senate in rejecting the Bond-Hay treaty negoti-
ated in 2902 stirred the coloniid government to retaliatory
measures. By virtue of the treaty of x8i8 American fishermen
enjoyed the follo%ring rights: (i) to take fish of every kind
on that part of the southern coast of Newfoundland which
extends from Cape Ray to Ramea Islands; (2) to take fish of
every kind on the western and northern coasts of Newfoundland
from the said Cape Ray to the Quirpon Isbtnds; and (3) to take
fish of every kind on the coasts, bays, harbours and creeks
from Mount Joly to the southern coast of Labrador, to and through
the straits of Belle Isle, and thence northward indefinitely along
the coast. Subjea to these limitations American fishermen
have a right in common with British fishermen to prosecute
their industry within those areas.
Tbe foregoing embraces the whole of their fishing privileges.
Every other right that they ever possessed they renounced under
the treaty in the following language: '* The United States hereby
renounce for ever any liberty heretofore enjoyed or claimed
by the inhabitants thereof, to take, dry or cure fish on or
within three marine miles of any of the coasts, bays, creeks
or harbours of His Britannic Majesty's dominions in America
not included in the above limits." This renunciation
contained but one qualification: "that American fishermen
shall be permitted to enter such bays or harbours for the
purpose of shelter and of repairing damages therein, of purchas-
ing wood, and of obtaining water and for no other purpose
whatever."
Under the Newfoundland Foreign Fbhing Vessels Act of 1893
the governor in. council was authorized to issue licences to
fofdgo fishing vessels, enabling them to enter any port on the
coasu of the isUnd to purchase bait, ice, supplies and outfiu
for the fishery, and to ship crews. In x 905 this act
was repealed and another passed by the colonial legisla- '***
ture imposing certain restrictions on American vessels,
and a further more stringent act in 1906, preventing
Newfoundlanders from joining American vessels. These acts
were resented by the American government, which, through
Mr Secretary Root, called upon the British government to
disallow such interferences on the part of the Newfoundland
legislature. Lord Elgin's reply was to suggest a wu>dus vhendi
pending further discussion of the questions at issue. In spite of
the colony's energetic protest, a modus vhetidi was agreed to in
October 1906, whereby the Foreign Fishing Vesseb Act of 1906
was held in abeyance, and the act of 1905 was held not to apply
to American fishing vessels, and light dues were waived, while
on the other hand American vessels were to report at the custom
house on entry for clearance, and their fishermen were to comply
with colonial fishery regulations. As regards Sunday fishing by
the Americans, which was an important colonial grievance, the
American government consented to waive it, if the use of purse
seines by American fishermen were allowed. Lord Elgin's action
was considered to be an interference with the internal affairs of
the colony and great public indignation was aroused. Retaliatory
measures were resolved upon, Newfoundland fishermen being
declared liable to fine and imprisomnent for selling bait to the
•Americans or for joining American vessels. The legislature voted
an address to the imperial government, protesting against the
modus vhendi, and this was carried to England in 1907 by
Sir Robert Bond, the premier of the colony, but without avail.
The matter was referred to the Hague tribunal for arbitration,
and pending this the modus vrKiufi (agreed to in 1908) continued
in force. The tribunal gave its award in September 19x0, the
two main points at issue being decided as follows: (a) Great
Britain had the right to make regulations as to the fisheries
without the consent of the United States, subject to the pro-
visions of the treaty of x8x8. (b) The " three-mile limit " in
bays (subject to special judgment in individual cases) was to
be taken from a line across the bay at the point, nearest the
entrance, where a width of ten miles is not exceeded. Among
other provisions it was decided that American vessels might
employ foreign hands (but these received no benefit under the
treaty); also that they might be required to report to customs
houses if facilities to do so existed.
Commerce, received a shock, but derived a salutary lesson from
bank failures which occurred in December 1894. The Union and
Commercial banks suspended payment, followed by the suspension
of the savines bank, a government institution. Thb at once lowered
the credit of the colony abroad, and caused the utmost misfortune
amongst all classes. There is little doubt but that a principal cause
of the disaster was the vicious and dangerous system of credit which
had been followed by the merchants in their dealings with the
" planters " and commission merchants. The insolvent institutions
were speedily replaced by branches of three prominent Canadian
banks, and a loan of St, 000,000 procured in London by Mr Bond
Bpon after the debacle served to tide the senior colony over its
financial difficulties. A new era of prosperity has since set in.
In politics, apart from the matters already alluded to, there
occurred in 1893 the filing of petitions under the Corrupt Practices
Act to unseat Sir William Whiteway and his colleagues, who had
been successful at the general election of that year. The charges
created no little interest in England, and the new government
was subjected to much unfair criticism, arising largely from a mis*
apprehension of the political and administrative conditions in
the colony. They were examined in detail by the supreme court,
which finally pronounced them unsustaincd, and the Whiteway
government resumed office after a brief period of abdication. On
the whole, it may be said that Newfoundland has passed the critical
stage in her history. Between 1863 and 1900 it has been estimated
that Sr 2, 000,000 worth of copper one has been exported, and since
1898, when a discovery of iron ore made at Bell Island, Conception
Bay, led to important results, the belief in the island's mineral resour-
ces, long entertained by geologists, received practical corroboration.
In 1900 the British admiralty, acting upon the repeated suggestions
of Sir Charles Dilke and others interested in the manning of the
navy, decided to initiate a branch of the imperial naval reserve in
the colony. In xoor a difficulty arose as to paying the men.
owing to the lack 01 any provision for that purpose m the Imperial
Reserves Act under which they were enlisted. The colony was asked
to bear tbe cost; its refusal was followed (1902) by the enactment of
4.86
NEW GLARUS— NEW GUINEA
Special lesialatioo rendering the enrolment and maintenance of the
-. , reserves in Newfoundland a special imperial undertaking.
l!? f^_ Several efforts had been and continued to be made to
mr ««M induce Newfoundland to confederate with the Dominion
of Canada, but the project never met with any degree of
favour with the electorate. Much of the diuavour
with which confederation was regarded in the colony was said to
be due to Sir John Macdonald's opposition on behalf .of Canada
to the Bond-Blaine commercial treaty, which was negotiated
between an emissary from the government of Newfoundland and
Mr Blaine, then secretary of state of the United States of America,
in 1890, but was subsequently disalbwed at his request by the
impenal government. It is. nowevcr, probable that the treaty
would never have received the sanction of the American Senate.
After the insolvency of the colony in 1 894-1895.' a delegation was
sent to Ottawa to ascertain if it were possible to arrange terms of
confederation; but Sir Mackenzie Bowell's government objected
to the assumption by the Dominion of the entire amount of New-
foundland's debt ($10,000,000), and the negotiations were abandoned.
Bibliography.— C. Pedley, Eislory 0/ Newftmndland (London.
1863); J. Hattori and M. Harvey. Newfoundland: its History and
Present Condition (London, 1883); M. Harvey. Newfoundland,
England^! Oldest Colony (London. 1897); Newfoundland in 1807
(London, 1897); Newfoundland in igoo (London, 1900); D. W.
Prowse, History of Newfoundland (2nd ed., London. 1897); New-
foundland Guide-hook (London, 1905): F. E. Smith. The Story of
Newfoundland (London, 4901); B. Willson. The Truth about New-
foundland; the Tenth Island f2nd cd., London, 1901); A. Bellet,
La Grande Fiehe de la morue a la Terre-Neuot (Pftris, 1902) ; J. G.
Millais. Newfoundland and Us Untrodden Ways (Ldodon, 1008);
Colonial and Foreign Offiu Reports,
(B.W:*)
NBW QLARUS. a town and a village of Green county, Wis-
consin, U.S.A., about 22 m. S.W. of Madison, on the Little Sugar
river, a branch of the Rock river. Pop. of the town (1890)
X180; (1900) 1245; (1905) 685; (19x0) 627; of the Ullage,
which was separated from the town in 1901 (1905) 665; (1910)'
70& New Glarus is served by a branch of the Chicago, Mil-
waukee & St Paul railway. It has agricultural and dairying
industries, but little or no manufacturing interests. It had its
origin in a colonizing experiment made by the canton of Glarus,
Switzerland in 1845. Agents sent by the canton chose the site
of New Glarus largely because the rocky slopes of the valley
suggested their Alpine home. The advance party then set about
constructing houses and sent for the colonists; and some two
hundred men, women and children started from Glarus in April
1845 under two leaders chosen by popular vote; misreading
their directions the party got by mistake to St Louis, whence
they proceeded up the Mississippi to Galena and thence overland
to their new home. To all intents and purposes they were an
independent people. They expected to be and were self-
sustaining, and for a generation or more retained their exclusive-
ness to a remarkable degree. • They brought with them a " form
of government " drawn up by the Cantonal Council of Glarus and
providing in great detail for a system of schools, for what was
practically a state chtirch (Reformed Lutheran) supported by
tithes, for a system of poor relief, for a system of courts, and for
a set of town officers elected on a limited property franchise.
This " form " was to be amended and new laws were to be added,
as circumstances should require, in a town-meeting in which
the essential features of the referendum were observed. The
original plan provided also for an equitable distribution of land
so as to give to each head of a family pasture, timber and farm
lands. With such adjustments as were found necessary for co-
ordination with the town and county governments of Wisconsin,
it remains practically the same to this day. The village and
town still have an Old World aspect, and the architecture,
customs, style of dress and language of the pioneers stiU persist
to a great degree. A famous organization is the New Glarus
Williaun Tell Club of sharpshooters. The village owns its water-
w orks a nd its electric lighting plant.
NBW GLASGOW, a manufacturing and mining town of Pictou
county, Nova Scotia, Canada, on the East river, near its entrance
into Pictou Harbour, and the Intercolonial railway, 104 m. N.E.
of Halifax. Pop. (1901) 4447* Extensive coal mines are in
the vicinity, and there are manufactures of iron and steel, mill
machinery, door and sash factories, &c., as well as several ship-
building yards.
NBW GRANADA (Span. Nueaa Granada), the title under
Spanish colonial administration of that part of South America
now known as the republic of Colombia, which at one time was
extended to include Venezuela and Ecuador. It also was for
a time the title of the united territories of Panama and Colombia
under republican auspices. The Bogoti plateau, then inhabited
by a partly civilized Indian nation known to the Spaniards as
Chibchas, or Muyscas (the second name seems to have been
applied to them through a misunderstanding, the word meaning
" men ")i was invaded from the Caribbean coast and conquered
in 1537 by Gonzalo Jimenez de Quesada, who, in honour of his
native province, called it the *' Nuevo Reino de Granada."
The title at first applied only to the plateau regions of Colombia,
as the coast provinces had been previously occupied and named.
In 1550 an audiencia real under the viceroyalty of Peru was
established at Santa F£ (BogotH), but in 1564 this isolated group
of Spanish settlements was transformed into a presidency. In
X 7 18,. owing to the unmanageable size of the viceroy^dty of
Peru, it was divided and a new viceroyalty was created from
the various provinces lying in the north-western ang^ of the
continent, extending from Tumbez northward to the northern
limits of Panama, and eastward to the Orinoco, to which
the name of Nueva Granada was given. The first viceroy was
Pedroza y Guerrero, but his successor, Jorge Villalonga, resumed
the title of president, and it was not untU' 1759 that the tide
of viceroy was definitely established. The new viceroyalty
included the provinces of Tierra Firms (now the republic of
Panama); Maracaibo, Caracas, Cumana aind Guyana (now
included in Venezuela); Cartagena, Santa Maru, Rio Hacba,
Antioquia, Pamplona, Socorro, Tunja, Sanu F6, Ndva, Mari-
quita, Popayan and Pasto (now included in Colombia); and
Quito, Cuenca and Guayaquil (now included in Ecuador). In
1777 the provinces of Maracaibo, Caracas, Cumana and Guyana
were detached from the viceroyalty to form the captaincy-
general of Caracas; otherwise it remained as above until the
termination of Spanish rule in South America.
For the republic of Colombia (1819-1830). the republic of New
Granada (i8ti-i86i). the United Sutes of Colombia (1861-1886}.
and the republic of Cobmbia (1886 to date), see Colombia.
NEW GUINEA, the largest island (excluding Australia) in the
world, lying between the equator and 12^ S. and 130^ 50' and
iSx** 3<^ E., separated from Australia by Torres Strait and
having the Arafura Sea on the south-west. It is divided politic-
ally between Britain (south-east), Germany (north-east) and
Holland (west), the Dutch territory occupying about 48-6% of
the whole area, the German 28*3% and the British Territory
of Papua 33* x%. The total area is estimated to be 312,329
sq. m.
New Guinea was probably in Miocene times, if not later, united
to the northern part of (^eensland. The deeply indented shore
of the Gulf of Papua forms the boundary of the subsided area
between the two countries, and from it the land stretches out
for 200 to 300 m. north and west on both sides of the Fly river
in vast plains, little elevated above sea-level. From Cape Bum
Tfirestwards precipitous limestone cliffs, several hiihdred feet high,
face the sea and rise into forest-dad mountains behind. The
northern extremity of New Guinea is all but severed from the
mainland by the deep MacCluer Inlet, running eastwards towards
Geelvink Bay which deeply indents the northern coast. South-
wards from Geelvink Bay the north-east coast is more regular
than the south-western. Of! its coast-line, on the paralld of
6* S., lies the vast Bismarck Archipelago, of which New Pomeiania
(Neu Pommern) is the most important member; and, on tbe
parallel of 10*^, the d*Entrecasteaux Islands, with tbe Marshall
Bennett group to their north-east; while stretching out from the
south-east promontory of the mainland is the Louisiade Archi-
pelago. The Great Barrier Reef of Australia can be traced more
or less continuously round the Gulf of Papua and along the
south-east coast to the extremity of the Louisiades. In a general
way it may be said that on the west coast of New Guinea, from
Cape Bum to the Louisiades, the sea is shallow, while on its
steeper eastern side the water close in-shore is often too deep
NEW GUINEA
487
for safe anchorage. Tbe islands on the southern margin of the
Loaisiade Archipelago are raised coral reefs, but the majority are
mocmtaiiious, rarely, however, exceeding 3000 ft.; all of them
are richly forested, but of little agricultural value. The volcanic
d'Entrecasteauz Islands are mostly larger, more elevated (the
highest being 8000 ft.), and stand in deeper water thab the
I/Miisiade group. To the east of Kiriwina (Trobriand) lies a
small group of uniquely formed islets, each of which is com-
pletely surrounded by a steep forest-dad marginal rampart of
coral 300 to 400 ft. high, concealing a depressed inhabited
central plateau.
Starting in the southern extremity of New Guinea from an
abrupt face some 3000 ft. high, and traversing its centre nearly
parallel to both coasts, run high ranges of mountains, which, if
not continuous, merge into each other in the same general direc-
tion. The Owen Stanley range-its highest summit, named
by Huxley in 1850 Mount Owen Sunley, 13,120 ft.— the Albert
Victor Mountains, the Sir Arthur Gordon range, and the Bis-
marck Mountains form a backbone united probably with the
Sneeuw (Snowy) Mts., where perpetual snow was found by Dr.
Lorentz in 1909 at 24,635 ft., and the height of Mt. Wilhehnina
was fixed at 15,580 ft. This height may be exceeded by Mt.
Carstenas. Other ranges, mostly of lower altitude,' run parallel
mainly to the east and west coasts. The most imporUnt and
best-known riven are the Amberno, in the north, discharging by
a wide delta at Pdnt d'Urville; the Kaiserin Augusta, which,
rising in the Charles Louis range, and entering the Pacific near
Cape della Torre, is luivigable by ocean steamen for 180 m.;
the Ottilien, a river of great length, which discharges into the
sea a short distance south of the last named; and the Mambare,
navigable by steam-launch for 50 m. which drains the eastern
aspect of Wasigororo Mountains and enten the sea. near the
Angk>-German boundary. Below 8" S. the narrowness of the
country predudes the existence of any very important rivers on
cither coast. The Purari, however, whose delta is ao m. long
by 30 bnoad, is navigable for 120 m. by steam-launch, while the
Fly has been tnvened by the same means for 500 and by a
whale-boat for over 600 m. The latter drains an enormous tract
of countiy, which Is so little elevated above the sea-levd that it
can never be of any agricultural or commerdal value. West of
141* £. the geographical features of the coast, except in .the
region of MacCluer Inlet and Geclvink Bay, are very' little
known, and those of the interior even less.
Ceelcgy.—Thte geofogy of British New Guinea it best known from
the report of A. Gibb Maitland {Ann. Rep., British New Guinea,
, . Pari. Papirs, Qucenslamf, 1893,
maps and 3 plates; bibliomphy, p. 85),
> of the territory is a high rkngje, composed, of slates and
C.A. 1. 53-85,
which shows that
1891-1892
with 3 n
the axis _ , ^_. ^
schists of undetermined age, with- intrusive plutonic rocks. In the
district around Port GlaaJEow. on the south coast of the eastern
peninsula, are the Boioro limestones, also of unknown age; they are
lead-coloured, brecciatcd limestones with intcrbedded dolcritea.
Some Creuceous or Upper Jurassic rocks occur in the basin of the
Fly river. The Port Moresby beds are Cainoaoic. They are highly
inclined, and occupy a large range of country along the south coast,
and include the Maceiltivray Ran|^, to the north-east of Beagle Bay.
They are marine and probably Miocene ; and range up to the height
of 800 ft. above the sea, approximately the same limit as in Victoria.
The Kevori grits, and the raised coral reefs are upper Cainosoic.
and perhaps Pleistocene; but the reefs occur inland up to a height
of 2000 ft. and their range back in time has not been fixed. The
volcanic series include the rhyolite of Nell Island, some obsidian,
and the sheets of basalts which form the Cloudy Mountains. Mount
Dayman and Mount Trafalgar (an active volcano), and also cover
wide areas to the south and west of the Owen Stanley Range.
Most of western British New Guinea consists of recent superficial
deposits, in the basin of the Fly river. The Louisiade and the
d'£ntrecasteaux Islands consist of the same slates and schists as
form the main axis of the eastern peninsula, and they are-auriferous.
The geology of the rest of New Guinea is imperfectly known. It
appears to consist in the main of a continuation of an axis of old
schists and slates, with granite intrusions, and flanked by coastal
plains with Cretaceous or Jurassic, and Miocene beds, with Pleisto-
cene sands and reefs and volcanic rocks. In the north-west coal
deposits occur. Fergusaon Island deariy shows remains of extinct
craters, and possessies numerous hot sprinss, saline lakes and
solfataras depositing sulphur and alum. In Murua (Woodlark I.)
are quarries of the banded quartrite from which the bat stone adzes
found throughout south-east New Guinea are made. |n Rossel
Island (Roua or Arova) occur crystalline schistose and. volcanic
rocks, and in Misiroa (St Aignan) fimestones and lavas in addition.
Nearly all the riven in New Guinea yield " colours ". of gold, but
only in the Louisiade Archipelago has enough been discovered to
constitute the district a goldfield. No auriferous reefs have been
found. Black magnetic uon sand coven the shore in Milne Bay.
Coal has been observed in the Purari sandstones. In the Gira river
the valuable alloy osmiridium has been discovered. Earthouakes
are rare on the mainland, twit not infrequent in Bismarck and
d'Entrccasteaux arehipelagos.
C/tino/r.— Since the mountains as a rule traverse the island parallel
to its coasts, the eastern shores have far less rain than the western.
The amount which falls, chiefly at night, varies from 30 in. on some
parts of the coast to 130 at.others, and to a far greater but unknown
amount in the mountains. Throughout the dry or cool season the
wind blows steadily and almost uninterruptedly (except for an hour
or so forenoon and afternoon) from the south-east. The temperature
488
NEW GUINEA
has an extreme range of from 72* to 9$* F.. with a mean of about
80*. At an elevation of 3000 it. the climate b pleasantly cool ; at
13,000 ft. ice forms in the night, biit disappears with the heat of the
sun. No snow is known certainly to fall, tnough it is alleged to have
been seen from the sea' lying on the summits of the Clurles Louis
range. Fever is very prevalent on the coasts, and even in the
interior at 2000 ft. above the sea. Though generally of a mild
character, it is persistently recurrent, and slowly saps and wears out
the constitution ; too often it is virulent and rapidly fatal.
Pautia. — New Guinea shares in the poverty in mammals of the
Australian sub-region. Monotremes (a »ecies) and marsupials
(4 familin and 44 species) predominate, out are not abundant.
Among the ■ latter two genera, Distaeckunu and DorcopriSt are
peculiar. A pig (JSui papuensis), a dingo, several species of mice
(of which Ckwuromys is a peculiar genus), a few squirrels, and a
considerable number of Ckiroptera (bats) inhabit the country.
The island is specially remarkable for the number and beauty
of its birds. The most recent lists record over 500 species as found
in the Papuan area, and of these between ^ and 60 genera are
peculiar to it. The birds of paradise, which are confined to the
sub-region, give special celebnty to its fauna. Between 70 and
80 species Mve alreadv been described, many of them the most
gorgeously adorned, and others, such as the Ptendophora albertisi, the
most wonderful of feathered creatures. They are absent from the
Louisiades, but species occur in the d'Entrecastcaux Islands which
have not been seen on the mainland oppoMte. The coologv of the
Bismarck Archipelago is little known. TKe species of birds so far
described .from it number 178 (referable to 38 families), of which
74 are peculiar to it, thougn closely allied to Papuan forms. It
contains, however, no Paradutida*. The Ampkibta, to which the
sea is a barrier, arc almost exclu»vely of Australian affinities.
Turtles and tortoises are plentiful on the coast. Cnatackelys insculpta
of the Fly river, a chclonian peculiar to New Guinea, is remarkable
in having its nearest affinities (as have the Papuan tortoises) with
South American species. Of the lizards, 3 of the 6 species of Varani-
dae, 16 of the 30 Scincidae, 8 Gtckonidae, and 8 out oithe 1 1 Agamidae
are peculiar. Salamanders, toads and frogs are numerous, and
crocodiles abound. Only 4 genera and 5 species of snakes are
peculiar to New Guinea* many of them poisonous. Butterflies,
moths and bees are very abundant, the former being remarkable
f<M- their aiae and splendid coloration; but these groupa have not
been investigated exhaustively enough to afford a correct idea of
their number or their true affinities. Although the list of CoUoptera
already known is long, it represents only a fraction of the species
remaining to be discovered. The land molluscs show rebtionship
with the Indian and the Malayan sub-regions; but many forms
have here their centre, and have spread hence into Australia and the
Pacific islands.
Flora. — Moat of the foreshores of New Guinea are eucalyptus-
dotted grass lands; in the interior dense forests prevail to a height
of many thousand feet. Vast tracts of the country have been, how-
ever, deforested by fire, and these are covered by the ull ineradicable
grass, Imperata arundinacea. So far the highest altitudes yet
botanically investieatcd are those of the Owen Stanley range and
the mountains in Kaiser Wilhelms Land, but of- the flora of the
highest range of all — the Charles Louis mountains— nothing is known.
The vascular plants already described number about 1500 species.
In the low and sub-mountainous lands the flora is a mixture of
Malayan, Australian and Polynesian forms. There are, according
to MQller, twice as many palms known from New Guinea as from
Australia. The alpine flora, beginning at 6000 ft., is specially
characterized by its rhododendrons, pines CAraucaria and Liboudnuh
and palms, by numerous superb species of Agapetes {pricaceaeY and
on tne summits by an extraordinary association of species cnarac-
teristically European {Ruhus^ RanunaduSt Leontodon, Aspidium),
Himalayan, New Zealandian iVeronica), Anurctic ana South
American {Drymus, Liboctdrus). Gocd pasture grasses are numerous,
but pasture lands are limited. The usual tropical food-plants are
cultivated. Tobacco has been found ^wing in the interior, and
may be indigenous, as is in some distncts the Kava pepper (Piper
meikysticum). At Dorey a cotton plant ((?. vUifolium) grows wild,
and IS also cultivated. .
Natives. — ^So large an' area of New Guinea remains unexplored
that it is Impoasibw, except approximately, to state the number of
iu inhabitants, but |»obably 600,000 is under rather than over the
mark. The people are broken up into numerous isolated tribes
differing greatly in feature, colour and language. Ethnically they
belong as a whole to the Melanesian division of the Indo>nci£c
races. The p redominant tribe are the Papuans (gJt.), who are
found here in their greatest racial purity and occupy practically
the whole island except its eastern extremity. The New Guinea
native is usually of a negroid type with fine physique, but in the
Arfak mountains in the north-west, and at points on the west and
north coasts and adjacent islands, the very degraded and stunted
Karons are found, with hardly the elements of social organization
(possibly the aboriginal race unmixed with fordgn elements), and
resembhng the Aetas or Negritos of the Philipmnes. and other
kindred tnbes in the Malay Archipelago. On the oanks of the Fly
river d'Albertis observed at least two widely differing tms, those
00 its upper course bearing some reaemblanoe to the tnbcs of the
Here, wedged in among the ruder Papoaas, wlio
reappear at the extremity of the peninsula, a very different-looking
people are found, whom competent observers, arguing from appear*
ance, language and customs, assert to be a branch of the fair Poly-
nesian race. But they are obviously of mixed blood. On the west
coasts there is a semi-civilization^ clue to intercourse with Malays
and Bugis, who have settled at various points, and carry 00 the
trade with the neighbouring islands, in some of which, while the
coast population is Malay or mixed, that of the interior u identical
with the people of the mainland of New Guinea. On the west coasts
Mahommedan teaching has also some civilizing effect. Many of
the tribes at the west end of New Guinea are, at all events in war
time, head-hunters, and in the mountains cannibals. Cannibalism,
in fact, is practised here and there throughout New Guinea. Tbe
frequent hostility and mistrust of stransers are partly due to slaves
hunting raids and ill-treatment by traders, but the different tribes
vary much in character. Thus in the mountains of the north-west
the Karons live by plunder, or by disposal of slaves or bird skins:
while their neighbours the Kebars are a peaceful agricultural peo|^
The mountain tribes are usually despised by their coast neagnbocrs.
but in the south of west New Guinea the coast people live in per-
petual terror of their inland neighbours.
At Humboldt Bay the people are ready to trade, as are the tribes
at Astrolabe Bay; here the Russian Miklucho Maday lived for
some time, and was favourably impressed by the natives. Still
farther east, the plateaus of the Finisterre ranges are highly culti-
vated and artificially irrigated by a comparatively fair people.
Man^ tribes in the south-west seem to be migratory. At rriitcess
Marianne Straits tribes much wiMer than those farther west, naked
and painted, swarm like monkeys in the trees, the stems of which are
submerged at high tide. But the Torres Straits islanders are em-
ployed by Europeans in the pearl shell fishery, and are good labourers;
and in some 01 the Kei and Aru Islands the Papuan inhabitants
form orderly Christian communities. The people of the south-east
peninsula are |;encrally far from ferocious. Englishmen, wandering
inland and bsing their way, have been found and brought back by
them. Their manners are more courteous, their women better
treated, than is usual with F^uans, but •they show perhaps less
ingenuity and artistic taste. Their chiklren, in the mission acboob,
show much intelligence.
Exploration and' Annexaium.—Tho\xtlti probably sighted by
Antonio d'Abreu, 1511, New Guinea was apparently first visited
either by the Portuguese Don Jorge de Meneses, driven on his
way from Goa to Temate in 1 536 to take shelter at " Isla Versija '*
(which has been identified with Warsia, a place on tbe N.W.
coast, but may possibly be the island of Waigeu), or by the
Spaniard Alvaro de Saavedra two years later. The nune of
" New Guinea " was probably given by Ortiz de Retes, or Koda,
who in 1546 first laid down several points along the north coast.
In the same and the two following centuries, though the coasts
were visited by many illustrioxis navigators, as Witlem Schouten
and Jacob Lemaire, Abel Tasman, William Dampier, L. V. de
Torres, L. A. de Bougainville and James Cook, little additional
knowledge was gained. Thu was due first to the difficulties of
the navigation, next to the exdusiveness of the Dutch, who,
holding the Spice Islands, prevented all access to places east of
them, and lastly to the stream of enterprise being latterly
diverted to the more temperate regions farther south. The
Dutch barrier was broken down by the arrival of Dampier and
other " interlopers " from the east, and of emissaries from the
(English) East India Company in search of sptce-beaxing lands.
The voyage of Thomas Forrest (1774) in the " Tartar gaUey ** of
xo tons, and his account of New Guinea (Koya^ to New Gmimea
and the Moluccas, London, 1780), are still full of interest. New
Guinea was actually annexed in 1793 by two commanders in the
East India Company's service, and the island of Manasvazi in
Gcelvink Bay was held for some months by their troops. After
the peace of 18x5 Dutch surveying expeditions to the west coasts
became numerous, and in Uter times sdcnlific explorers penetrated
many of the unknown parts of Dutch New Guixica, such as
A. R. Wallace <x856-x863), Odoaido Beccari (X871, 187s •'A
1876), and Maria d'Albertis(x87i-x878). ' Important expeditions
were those of P. van dcr Crab, J. £. Teysmann. J. G. Coorengel.
A. J. Langeveldt van Hemert and P. Swaan, undertaken for the
Nctherhmds Indian government 1871-1873, X87S-1876 (reports
published at The Hague in 1879) ; and of C. B. H. von Rosenberg
in the Geelvink Bay districts in X869-X870 (report publhhed at
The Hague m 1875). Subsequently to the visits of. J. A.
d'Entrecasteauz (X793) and Dumont d'UrviUe (1837^x840), the
eastern oossU were surveyed by Captains F.P. Blackwood (1835),
NEW GUINEA
489
Oven SUnley (1848), Charles B. Yule (1864), and other British
officers, including J. Moresby (1874). Among other explorers
on this period the following may be mentioned: Nicholas von
Miklucho Maday in 1870, 1877 and 1879-1881, in the Astrolabe
Bay district, &c; the missionary, Rev. S. Madarhuie (1875,
Fly river, &c); about 187^1880 the north-east coasts and
adjacent islands were explored by the Rev. G. Brown and by
Wilfred Powell, and in 1882 Dr Otto Finsch, whose name is wdl
kmwn in connexion with scientific i^ork in New Guinea^ made
valuable explorations in the neighbourhood of Port Moresby and
the Loluki river.
The surveys and reports of Captain Moresby in 1874 brought
home to Queensland (and Australia generally) the dangers
possible to her commerce were the coasts opposite to Torres
Strait and the entrance to the q;>lendid waterway inude the
Barrier Reef to fall into the possession of a foreign power. By
authority, therefore, of Queensland, the mainland of New Guinea,
opposite her shores east of the 141st meridian, was annexed to
that colony in 1883. But this action was disallowed by the
British government as Yule's and Moresby's had been. Finally,
bow«ver, in 1884. a British protectorate was authoritatively
proclaimed by Commodore Erskine over the region "lying
between the X4xst meridian eastward as far as East Cape, with
the adjacent islands as far as Kosman Island." German New
Guinea was annexed on the i6th of November 1884, when the
German flag was raised in Friedrich Wilhelmshafen and a
trading company was established on the north-east coast, and in
1S85 the two countries agreed to fix their boundaries through
the then neutral areas of the country. The result of this was the
assignation to Great Britain of the portion now known as the
Territory of Papua (British New Guinea), lying between the
extreme limits of 5^ and 1 2" S. and 141* and 1 55^ E. To (krmany
were assigned all the territory and islands to the north of the
British boundary under the name of Kaiser Wilhelms Land,
while all to the west of the X4ist meridian remained under its
oki flag as Dutch New Guinea.
Since this period explorers and investigators have been almost
coasuntly at work. There may be mentioned the work of the Rev.
J. Chalmers on the coast of the Gulf of Paoua (1893), and of officers
of the German Hew Guinea Company in the ship Ysabel " on the
coasts and among the islands of the German territory: the ex-
pedition which crossed the south-eastern peninsula from Huon Gulf
of whkh both the leaders, O. Ehlers and M. Piering. tost their lives
(1S9S). the important German expedition under C. Lauterbach
(1896), and the various explorations carried out by or at the instiga-
tion of Sir William MacCregor, including a crossing of the island
from the mouth of the Mambare river to that of the vanapa, and a
second cromng in the reverse direction (iSoj). Ethnographical
researches have been prosecuted by Messrs C. G. Seligmann and W.
Mersh Strong, and otncrs. The reports of travellers and of various
missionary societies have thrown a great deal of light on the natural
history .01 the island, on its resources, and the islanders.
British New Guinea
The British Territory of Papua has an area of about 90,540
sq. m. and a population estimated at 400,000, of whom about 600
are Europeans. The Protectorate, as declared in 1884, with its
seat of government at Port Moresby, was subsidized by the three
Australian colonies of Queensland, New South Wales and
Victoria, and lasted, under the administration of two successive
special commissioners (Major-General Sir Peter Scratchley and
the Hon. John Dou^), till the 4th of September x888, when it
was proclaimed by the first Administrator->afterwards Lieu-
tenant-(jovemor— Sir William MacGrcgor, a possession of Queen
Victoria. Its constitution was that of a crown colony in associa-
tion with (Queensland; but in X901 the federal government took
control of the territory and in X906 a proclamation by the
governor-general of the commonwealth gave it the xume of the
Territory of Papua. The lieutenant-governor is aided by an
executive and a legislative council, and advised by a xutive
rcgubtion board. Justice is administered by petty sessions in the
six magisterial districts into wiiich the possession is divided, with a
central court at Port Moresby (which, however, sits elsewhere as
necessary) having the jurisdiction of a supreme court, from which
in certain: cases an appeal lies to the supreme court of Queensland.
Order is maintained by an armed constabulary force, under a
European officer, of about x8o, almost all natives from different
districts, whose, members axe found to be very efficient and
trustworthy. The expenditure is about £38,000 annually, and
the revenue, mainly derived from customs duties, is rapidly
increasing. Only £5110 ^ i^S? i^ ^"'^ £iii^3 hi X899 and
£io,X97 in 190$.
Commerct atul TVodc— The making of mats, fishing-nets, shell
ornaments, decorated gourds, and stone implements, and the
manufacture of pottery, canoea and sa^, constitute the chief
native industries, which are the subject 01 barter between different
re^^ions. European industries include gold minina, in which 500
miners, besides natives, are engaged (chiefly in the Louisiade Archi-
pelago), and the btehe de mer and pearl-well fisheries, which were
lormeriy more productive than at present. Copra is naturally
largel)r preparea, as coco>nut palms are very numerous, and are
extenstvciv planted every, year. . A small amount of tortoise-shell
is collected. The rubber industry tSj according to Sir W. MacGregor,
** important and promising." Species of Fala^um, the genus from
which, in the Indian Archipdago, the best gutta-percha is obtabed.
, r- tSp v-'Vr, -trifl from thSr cultivation there misht in time be
t independentiy of European labour. Timber
aroe. Red cedar (Cedriiia) abounds in the
quality is poor ana commercially valudess;
but the wood u coarse. SmaU quantities
od are exported. " There can be no reaaoo-
Ligar-cane, which is native and present in a
r igo, eotton, probably also indigenous and of
y, will eventually be valuable " (MacGregor).
_ _ iw Guinea is exclusively with the Australian
colonies. Imports were valued at £72,286 in 1999-1900 (an increase
srcat many vcrirtic*,
':■ t: c <: [tliou Ally fi nc 1 1 n j
The trade oJ h,
Geucan New Guinea
The German protectorate of New Guinea, so called after the
island which contributes the greatest area, comprehends, besides
Kaiser Wilhelms Land, the isUnds whidi are now commonly
called the Bismarck Archipelago — viz. New Pomerania, New
Mecklenburg, with New Hanover and the Admiralty Islands
and the Solomon Islands (Bougainville and Buka). There are
besides neariy 300 snialler isUnds and islets scattered among
their greater neighbours. In X884 New Guinea was absolutely
wild, not a single white man living on what is now the German
part. On the islands New Pomerania and Mioko only two
trading firms had their establishments; and on New Lauenburg
the Wesleyans had a mission station. After the annexation
conunerdal enterprise set in at once, hand in hand with political
administration. Now on the mainland and in the islands
plantations have been established and tobacco and cotton have
been successfully grown. Three (merman mission societies formed
setUements on New Guinea, with a branch one on the Gazelle
peninsula. The protectorate is included in the Universal Postal
Union; each harbour has its post office, also a leading official'
with a number of assistants to control the natives and the
revenue. It is divided into two districts with separate adminis-
trations, New Guinea and the Bismarck Archipelago; over both
presides an imperial governor, the seat of government being
Herbertshdhe in New Pomerania. A small police force of natives
has been formed. In each district there is a registry of deeds and
a court of law, and in New Guinea a court of appeal, of which the
governor is president. A line of steamers plies between New
Guinea, the Bismarck Archipelago and Singapore. A special
silver coin of rupee value has been introduced. The area of
Kaiser Wilhelms Land is approximately 70,000 sq. m. It is
impossible to speak with any precision of the number of the
native population, but the white population in X906 was
X49.
The revenue of German New Guinea is derived from taxes, dues
and licences, and amounted on the 31st of March iSoa to about
£3000; on the same rate. 1901, to £3750. The annual revenue is
averaged at £5000, and the expcnditure.at £4200. The New Guinea
Company was to receive £20,000 for tranaerring proprietorship to
government, which took over the administration in 1890. In 190^
imports into Kaiser Wilhelms Land were valued at £33,316, and
exporu at £7703, and the estimated expenditure for 1907-1008
of £76,000 included an imperial subvention of £57,696. The cnief
harbours are Friedrich Wilhelmshafen and Konstantinhafen,
490
NEW HAMPSHIRE
Dutch Nbw Guucka
Dutch New Gainea comprises all the western portion of the
i»Und. The boundary on the east, separating it from British
New Guinea and German New Guinea, was finally settled in 1895.
Starting from the south coast, it follows 141** x' 48' E. up to the
Fly river, which is mounts until 141'* z' is reached, when it
once more follows the meridian up to the north coast. The
area of the territory is isi»789 sq, m., and the inhabitants have
been conjectured to number some 300,000. A few missionaries
hav^ established themselves, but otherwise the Dutch have
scarcely occupied their possession, which at present merely
forms part of the residency of Temate in the Moluccas. Dutch
New Guinea, however, has better natural advantages than either
the British or German possessions in the island, and should
eventually prove of real value to the Netherlands. The claims
to superiority over New Guinea on the part of the rulers of some
of the small neighbouring islands date at least from the spread
of Islam to the Moluccas at the beginning of the xsth century,
and were maintained by the Malay rulers both of Bachian and
of Gebeh and afterwards by the sultan of Tidore. When the
Dutch first came to these seas it was their policy to ally themselves
with certain chiefs, and support their claims over various islands,
so as to extend their own commercial monopoly; and they
therefore supported the claims (admitted by Great Britain in
1814) of the sultan of Tidore over both the Raja Ampat (t.e.
the four Papuan kingships, Waigeu, Salawatti, Misol and
Waigamma on Misol Island) and certain islands or points on the
north-west coast of New Guinea. Nominally the sultan of
Tidore is still the suzerain of western New Guinea, but his
authority is scarcely recognized, except on some few shores and
adjacent islands, and practically Dutch New Guinea used to be
administered partly from Temate and partly from Timor, upon
more peaceful lines than was the case when the rule of the Dutch,
in New Guinea largely consisted of the sending of a warship now
and again to some distant island or bay to bum a kampong, to
punish rebellious villagers, and thus assert or reassert Dutch
authority, or that of the sultan, who is their vassaL In 190X,
however, a more serious e£fort was made to establish some kind
of govemment in the southem province of Dutch New Guinea,
at Merawkay, where a small Dutch-Indian garrison was stationed
with the professed object of preventing raids by bands of savages
into the British territory near by. Such raids had been rather
frequent, the invaders attacking the natives who live under
British protection, burning their huts, murdering the men,
carrying off the women and children as slaves, and returning
to their own haunts laden with booty. There is an assistant
Resident at Merawkay, whose immediate chief is the Dutch
Resident at Temate, and who is the civil administrator of the
province of southem Dutch New Guinea. Assistant Residencies,
have also been established at Manokvary in northem Dutch
New Guinea, which has been formed into a province, under
Temate, and at Fakfak, in westem Dutch New Guinea, likewise
erected into a province, also under Temate. By 1902, therefore,
Dutch New Guinea formed a govenmient, with its headquarters
at Temate, divided into the three provinces named. At regular
intervals the steamers of the Dutch Royal Steam Packet Company
call at Dorey and other points, while administrative posts, have
been established elsewhere in lieu of others previously attempted
but abandoned.
A curious discussion arose in the Dutch states-general when
the govemment was seeking legislative sanction for the above
measures, with a provisional credit to cover the first establish-
ment expenses. It was seriously contended in one part of the
house that, as eminent men of geographical and ethnographical
science had settled the question whether New Guinea belongs to
Asia or Polynesia in favour of the latter, a New Guinea coloniza-
tion scheme could not properly be proposed and decided upon
in a sectiofa of the Dutch-Indian budget. This budget concerned
only the Asiatic possessions of Holland, not the Polynesian
ones, and Dutch New Guinea must, consequently, have its own
budget. Finally, the majority of the stat^general, backed by
govenunent, decided that New Guinea must still be reckoned to
belong to Asia.
AuTHoaiTii-^. — Narrafivw of the various eiplofieni mentioned:
E. C- Ryc> " BibtuJKfaphy ctf N«rw Guinea. " icompitts in 1883), in
SuppitnumLxry Pd/vrj, MGS. {J»H}\ H. Hasa. Ntderlaadsck
Nieu^ Gtrnuii en dt PatMschi EUcrfdjrm. Hutoriicht Bijdnft, tKOO-
iSfis (Bauvia. 1*154); H. H. Rom illy. The Wiz^crn F<^ific and New
Cum^fi (Londoei, 18-86): R, Parkinson, Im Banuirck Arckipd
CLi.-[p£ig, iSSj); C- Kinloch Cooke. AuAiratian Dtjfnces and New
Cui'wa (Lcmdon, 1S87}; J* Simchan, Ej;f4oraSitms and Adwentures
in Nftp Guitu-n (London, i&fiS); H. O. Forbes, ' Sritish New
Guinea afld Colony." in Bkih^od's Afas^^ne iju\y 1802): I. P.
ThonipBon, Britijk NftP Cviwa (London. iS^j); L. KArnbach,
Du buhfrift Er/ffrsrhMHt van Kaiter Wttkflmsiand (Beriin. 1893);
F. S. A- dr Ckrci] aoJ J. D, t, Schmelt/, Eiiitwrraffhuckebeschrimin
van de K'«^ tn mQrdk-uH ea^f NedtTland^ch Nituu-Gnktea (Letden,
(LcKlcn.
Royal
• of
iS^j.U: A. C* H^ddipn. Dec^ralivi Art tjf British A>\i C
Irish Academy (DubHn« 1S94); "Studic* in Anthrufhj
Br. fiew Guinea," in GtSfrapL Journ. voli. nvt . *».... x,,:^-
prjphiKhc UnttrBucbun^mla der West half t« von Neu' Guuiea," in
RtpoTt 0/ Stxth In^malumal G«9t*apki(iU Confffji {London, 1895):
J. Chnilnwri, Pionetr Life and Work in Nnm GmnKi (London, 1805):
Sir W. MacGregor, Bnitik fifrte Cuinfa (London. 1607}; H. Cayi^-
Wcbsi*T. Tkritugh New Cuttua (London. iS^>: R, Semon. /■•
Ausir^tichtn Buich und an dm Ktut^n drj K^raiUn Mitres (LetDzig,
iScjH]); Nafkruki^n Hturr Kaistf Wiikdm^t^tt4 (BcrUn, 1887-1890);
iairhim Graf vgxi Pfi^iL Studifii tind Bcpiyoi-hiuri^^fi etts der Swu€
B . ; . k . 1 Bgg ) ; M . K^k-gcr, Nrw Cumrfi ( BctI I n , 1 ^19) ', K. Blum,
/< '.^'ii und der Bismarck Atchip^l (QcrUn^; .'Lufor^s Com-
pc- . ■ . ./ Geoifopky and Travel; Unla-ysia and Pn. 'it Archipdo'
fp* t mrw issue editM by Dr F. H^ H. Gu !" ' ondon); TTu
Crui^ of ike " MarcAfia" (189^). by iht od volunie);
BnU^h £!mpj>r5^rif'ii" AuvtraljAia'' (Londu: ... Tappenbeck,
Dtuifch t'SfruguiTiea (Berlin, 1901); J. S< r^ir.ciiz, Bettrdge tur
Elhfiavi^rtipkie von Nmtuinfa (Leiden. 1900. sqq.; A. E. Pratt,
7\o Yean fimiynf[ Nnv Cutw^ Cantstbaij (London. )906); Amnual
Rep0ri' "-v H-'-h \.'\v (;'i>ii-.i
NEW HAMPSHIRE, a North Atlantic state of the United
States, one of the New England group, and one of the Ori^nal
Thirteen, lying between latitudes 42** 40' and 45* iS' 33' N., and
between longitudes 70* 37' and 72* 37' W. It is bounded N.
by the Canadian province of Quebec; E. by Maine, by the
Salmon Falls river, which separates it in part from Maine, and
by the Atlantic Ocean; S.E. and S. by MassachusetU; W. and
N. W. by Vermont (from which it is separated by the Connecticut
river— low water mark on the W. bank of the Connecticut is
New Hampshire's W. boundary), and by Halls Stream which
separates it from Quebec. The state has an area of 9341 sq. m.,
of which 310 sq. m. are water surface.
Physical Features. — The delightful scenery of mountains,
lakes, streams and woodlands gives to the greater part of New
Hampshire, which is in the New England physiographic province,
the appearance of a vast and beautiful park; and the state is a
favourite summer resort. In the N. central portion, the White
Mountains, a continuation of the Appalachian system, rise very
abruptly in several short ranges and in outlying mountain masses
from a base level of 700-1500 ft. to generally rounded summits,
the heights of several of which are nowhere exceeded in the eastern
part of the United Siates except in the Black and the Unaka
mountains of North Carolina; seventy-four rise more than
3000 ft. above the sea, twelve more than 5000 ft., and the
highest, Mount Washington, attains an elevation of 6293 ft.
" The principal ranges, the Preadential, the Franconia and the
Carter-Moriah, have a north-eastern and aouth-westem trend.
The Presidential, in the north-eastern part of the region, is separated
from the Franconia on the south-west by the Crawford, or White
Mounuin Notch, about 2000 ft. in depth, in which the Ammonoosuc
and Saco rivers find a passage, and from the Carter-Moriah, parallel to
it on the east, by the Glen-Ellis and Peabody rivers, the former
noted for its beautiful falls. On the Presidential range, which is
about 20 m. in length, are Mount Washington and nine other peaks
exceeding 5000 ft. in height: Mount Adams, S8o^ ft.; Mount
Jefferson, 5725 ft.; Mount Sam Adams, j^^s ft.; Mount Clay.
5554 ft.; Boot Spur, 5520 ft.; Mount Nfonroe. 5390 ft.; I. Q.
Adams Peak, 5384 ft.; Mount Madison, 5380 ft.; and Mount
Franklin, 3028 it« On the Franconia, a much shorter ranse.
. S028 . . .
Mount Lsiayette, 5260 ft. \ Mount Lincoln, 5098 ft.; and four others
exceeding 4000 ft. The highest peak on the Carter-Moriah rai^e
is Carter Dome, 4860 ft., but seven others exceed 4000 ft. Lcrftiest
of the isolated mountains is Moosilanke noted for its magnilkent
view-point 4810 ft. above the sea. Separatina Franconia a'-d
Pemigewaaaet ranges is the romantic Franconia Notch, ovcrlookicg
» I
• tiDCl
ite also contai:
•ring tne laiier aecau« inai oi inoian corn
NEW HAMPSHIRE
491
which from the upper cliff* of Profile Mountain is a remarkable
human profile, 7m Great SUm« Pace, immortalixed by Nathaniel
Hawthorne; here, too, is the Franconia Flume, a narrow upright
fissure, 60 ft. in hoght, with beautiful waterfalls.
The whole White Mountain region abounds in deep narrow
valleys, romantic glens, ravines, flumes, waterfalls, brooks a^ lakes.
The part of the state which lies N. of the White Mountains is
occupied by ridges and- wide rolling valleys, dte ridges rising occa-
sionally to heigrits of aooo ft. or mor^. soutn of the mountains a
Siteau-like surface — a part of the New England Upland»— broken
' residual mountains, or " monadnocks " Ca term derived from
ount Monadnock, 3186 ft. high, near the S.W. comer of the state)
and lenticular hills, or drumlins, but having a general S.E. slope
toward the sea, extends from the intervals of the Connecticut
river to the E. border of the Merrimac Valley. Between the Merri-
mac Valley and the sea b the only low surface in the state; a
oonstderable portion of this region is less than 500 ft. above the sea.
but even here are numerous ndgcs 1000 ft. in height or more, and
soiall drumlins. The seashore, about 18 m. in length, b for the
most part a low sandy beach; here and there, however, especially
to the northward, it b somewhat rocky, and to the southward are
two bluffs. The only harbour b at Portsmouth near the mouth of
the Piscauqua. About 9 m. from the shore are the bleak and
nearly barren Isles <A Shoab, nine in number, a part of which belong
to New Hampshire and a part to Maine.
Extending from Mount Monadnock in rkcsliirc, tbc S.W^ corner
county, to the headwaters of the Conr-triciit river in ttip N.E.
comer b a water-partins, W. of which tht ?.r.Ttp h dmiEMHi south w:ird
into Long Island Sound by the Connecticut .md its tribut;iric9 :md
E. of which it b drained south-eastward ifita tiw Atldntk Ocean
principally by the Merrimac in the S., the 5^^^ ^ /ind thr hcad*;iters
of the Memmac in the White Mounta . inr! iht: Amiro-
scocrin in the N. The Piscataqua b a 1 > led chtc-fty by
the^almon Falls, Lamprey and Exeter . . Ni^ hiuidwnti^ra of
the rivers are for the most part mountain -tn .j^i^ ^^r elevated Ukcs;
farther on their swift and winding currenu— Bowing fomrfimes
between wide intervales, sometimes bctwi>cn focky bAnkir— are
nark«l by numerous falb and fed by lakes.
The lakes and ponds, numbering several hundred, were formed
by glacial action and the scenery of many of them b scarcely less
attractive than that of the mountains. The largest and most
widely kikown b Lake Winnepesaukee on the S. border of the White
Mountain region ^ this b about ao m. long and from i to 8 m. wide,
b dotted by 274 islands, mostly verdant, and has clear water and a
rather level shore, back of which hills or mountains rise on all sides.
Among the more prominent of many others that are admired for
their beauty are bquam, New Found, Sunapee and Ossipee, i^l
within a radius of a few miles from Winnepesaukee; {ktlassabesic
farther S.; and Diamond Ponds. Umbagog and Connecticut lakes,
N. of the White Mountains. The rivers with their numerous falb
and the lakes with their high altitudes furnish a vast amount of
water power for manufactunng, the Merrimac. in particular, into
which many of the larger lakes, including Winnepesaukee, find an
outlet, b one of the greatest power-yielding streams of the world.
nora. — Exoept on the summits of the higher mountains New
Hampshire was ori^naUy an unbroken forest of which the principal
trees were the white pine, hemlock, sugar maple, yellow birch,
beech, rod oak, and white oak in the S.. red spmce, balsam, and
white birch on the upper mountain slopes, and red spruce, white
pine, sugar maple, white spruce and white cedar in the other parts
of the N. Tne jnimeval forests have- nearly disaj
_ _ _ _. ^ . _ but
much of the N. third of the state and many abandoned larms in the
S. have become reforested with much the same trees, except that
on the lower levels in the N. yellow birch, sugar mapje ana beech
have to a considerable extent supplanted spruce, white pine and
hemlock, and that wherever forest nres have occurred there b much
bird cherry, yellow birch and aspen. The butternut, hickory and
chestnut are common nut-bearing trees in the.S. Among indigenous
fruit-bearing trees, shrubs and vines the state has the bird cherry,
black cherry, blueberry, cranberry, raspberry, blackberry, goose-
berry, strawberry, grape and black currant; and conspicuous
among a very great variety of shrubs and flowering plants are
the rose, dogwood,, laurel, sumac, holly, winterberry, trilliums,
anemones, aroutuses, violets, azaleas, eslantine; clematb, blue
gentbns, oranae lilies, orchids; asters and golden rod. The sum-
mits of some of the mountains are too high for trees and above belts
of dwarf spruce, balcam and. birch they are clothed chiefly with
sandworts, dbpensia, cassiope, rushes, sedges and lichens.
Fauna, — ^The N. section of the state was originally a favourite
hunting-ground of the Indbns, for here in abundance were the
moose, caribou, deer, wolf, bear, lynx, otter, beaver, fox, sable,
mink, musk-rat. porcupine, wood<huck, ruffed erousc and pigeon.
These were rapidly reduced in number by the white man, the wild
pigeons are extinct, and the moose, caribou, bear. wolf, lynx and
Dover have become rare, but, under the protection of laws enacted
during the latter part of the 19th century, deer and ruffed grouse
are again quite plentiful. Rabbits, squirreb, raccoons, woodcock
and quaU are also common game. Many of the lakes and rivers
have been stocked with trout and salmon or bass; some, with
• smdt; the fmli waters of the state also conuin pickerel, perch,
pouts, eels, suckers, dace, sunfish and shiners. In the S. half of
New Hampshire are many song birds belonging to the Alleghany
faunal area; in the N. part many others belonging to the Canadbn
faunal area. The hermit thrush, veery, song sparrow^ red-eyed
vireo, bunting, warbler and wren are among tne song birds of the
forests.
Climate. — ^The winters are usually long and severe, and the summers
cool and salubrious, but the diversity of surface together with un-
equal disunces from the sea cause marked varbtions Tor the different
regions. The mean annual temperature ranges from about 42*. F.
at only moderate elevations in the White Mountain region and
farther N. to 47* F. at low altitudes in the S.E. The greatest
extremes of temperature occur in the deep mountain valleys where
it sometimes rises to 102* F. or above, in summer, and falls to -38** F.
or below in winter; higher up on the mountains it b never so
warm and along the sea-coast Doth extremes are considerably less.
The highest recorded winter mean b 25* F., at Nashua in the lower
valley of the Merrimac and at Durham near the sea-coast; the
.lowest recorded winter mean^b 18* F., at Bethlehem 1470 ft. above
. the sea in the White Mountain region ; the highest recorded summer
mean b 69* F. at Nashua, and the lowest recorded summer mean b
64* F. at Bethlehem. The mean annual precipitation for the entire
state b about ao in.; it b 43 in. at Nashua. 45*3 in. at Durham,
and perhaps still more on the E. slopes 6f the mountain ranges, but
it b only ^7*7 in. at Bethldiem in the N.W. part of the mounuin
region and only 351^ In. at Stratford in the upper valley of the
Connecticut. The distribution b quite even throughout the year,
but summer and autumn are slightly more wet than winter and
spring. Among the mountains and in the N. part of the state the
annual fall of snow is from 7 to 8 ft., but in the S.E. corner it b
little more than one-half that amount. The prevailing winds are
generally N.W., but in the vicinity of the sea they are S.E. during
summer.
Agriculture. — Fertile sofl in New Hampshire b confined
largely to the bottom-lands of the Merrimac and Connecticut
rivers, where on deposiu of glacial drift, which are generally
quite deep in the southera half of the state, there b considerable
alluvium. In the south-eastern section b also a moderately
productive soil derived largely from the disintegration of slate.
Elsewhere south of the mountains the surface soil b mostly
hard pan or tillf thb being deepest on the drumlins. In the
mountain region the soil b mostly a sandy loam composed of
disintegrated granitic gneiss and organic matter; on the lower
and more genUe slopes as well as in the valleys thb b generally
deep enou^ f or a luxuriant vegetable growth but on the upper
and more precipitous slopes it b thin, or the rocks are entirely bare.
Farms in the more sterile parts of New Hampshire were
abandoned when the depleted soil and the old methods of
agriculture made it impossible for owners or tenants to compete
with western farmers. Thb abandonment led in 1889 to the
adoption by the state Board of Agriculture of measures which
promoted the development of the state, especially the central
and northern parts, as a summer resort. Abandoned farms
were advertised as suitable for country homes, and within
fifteen years about two thousand were bought; and the carriage
roads were improved, game preserved and the interests of visitors
studied. Agriculture on the farms still operated was now
greatly modified, and the production of vegetables, fruits, dairy
products, poultry and eggs was largely substituted for the
production of cereals. The total acreage of all land included in
farms increased from 3,459«oi8 acres in 1890 to 3,609,784 acres
in 1900, or from 60% to 62-6% of the total land area of the
state, but the improved portion of thb decreased during the
decade from 1,727,387 acres t6 1,076,879 acres, or from 499%
to 29*8%; in no other state east of the Mississippi. river was
so small a proportion of the farm land improved at the close of
the decade, although in Florida it was only a trifle larger. The
total number of farms increased from 29,151 in 1890 to 29,324
in X900, and the average si2e increased from 119 acres to 1231
acres, but as a result of the more intensive form of agriculture,
farms containing less than 50 acres increased from 8188 in 1890
to 8764 in 1900, and those containing 50 acres or more decreased
during thb decade from 20,963 to 20,560. Of the total number
of farms in 1900, 26,344, or 89*8%, were operated by owners or
part owners, 1639 by cash tenants and 546 by share tenants.
Hay b the principal crop; in 1999 the acreage was 640,000
acres and the yield was 621,000 tons. The total acreage of cereals
decreased from 88,559 scr«s in 1879 to 61.498 acres in 1880. and to
42.335 acres in 1899: during the latter decade that of Indbn corn
492
NEW HAMPSHIRE
increand from 23,746 acres to ^5.694 acret (30,000 acres in 1909),
but that of oats aecreased from 26,618 acres to 12,589 acres (14,000
acres in 1909), that of wheat decreased from 2037 acres to 271
acres (none reported in 1909) ^ that of barley decreased from 493^
acres to 1596 acres (2000acres m 1909)^, that of buckwheat decreased
from 31 17 acres to 1835 acres (2000 acres in 1909), and that of rye
decreased from 1056 acres to 350 acres (none reported in 1909/.
With the exception of dairy cows and horses there was likewise a
corresponding decrease in the number of livestock during these
vears: the number of hogs decreased from 58,585 in 1890 to 56,970
m 1900 (51,000 in 1910); of sheep, from 21 1,825 in 1880 to 105.702
in 1900 (74,000 in 1910) ; and of neat cattle other than dair^- cows.
to 115,0^6 in lobo (122,000 in 1910). The value of the poultry and
egg product of 1899 was $1,824,399, which was more than twice
that of the cereals and nearly one-third of that of the hay and.
forage. The potato crop of the same vear was grown on 19,422
acres and amounted to 2420,668' busheu valued at $1,090,495; in
1909 the acreage was 21,000, and the crop was 2,7to,ooo bushels,
valued at $1,747,000. The acreage of other veffeubles in 1899 was
26,780 and the value of the market garden proauce, including small
fruits, which was sold, increased from $187,049 in 1880 to $394,283
in 1899 or iio«8%. Although the crop of orchard iruiu was no
greater in 1899 than in 1889 the number of apple trees increased
during the decade from 1,744,779 to 2,034,308, the number of peach
trees irom 19,057 to 48,819 and the numSer of plum trees from
10,151 to i8,iA7; in the number of pear trees and of cherry trees
there was a sliffht decrease. The fruit crop of 1899 included
Ii9t8t797 bushels of apples, 19,341 bushels of pears, 6054 bushels
orpeaches, 4042 bushels of plums, 1 183 bushels 01 cherries, 487,500 lb
of grapes, 568,640 qts. of strawberries, 124.760 quu of raspberries
and 105,290 qts. of blackberries and dewberries. The valley of the
Merrimac is the leading section for the producti(Mi of.hav, small
fruits and dairy products. In the bottom lands of the Merrimac
and of the Connecticut, south of the White Mountains, a large part
of the Indian com and vegetables b grown. Potatoes, however,
are grown in large quantities north and west of the White Mountains;
and this district leads in the number of cattle and sheep, and in the
production of all the cereals except Indian com. Apples, pears and
grapes are successfully grown throughout the central and southern
sections, but peaches and cherries chiefly south of Lake Winne-
Etaukee. Hillsboro and Rockingham counties, in the south-east,
d in the production of poultry and eggs.
foreslf.— The White Mountain region and Coos county tO the
north of it, embracing in all nearly one-third of the total area of the
state, is essentially a forest country. In 1903, however, only about
12% of this was still occupied by a vilvin merchantable forest and
69*8% was cut-over or culled land. In the southern part of the
state there is in the aggregate neariy as large an area of young
forests on lands, most of which were until abont*i850 used for
agricultural purposes. The principal merchantable timber of the
state is red spruce, and this is found chiefly in iT,- ' " - sts
which remain in the north, especially in those C'!l t he - lin
slopes between elevations of 1800 ft. and 3500 fu AV. <^. ^. .^ . -i ew
scattered trees of the white pine, which was onctr abuTidint in all
parts of the state below 150O ft. in elevation, his bcrn cut; but
some of the second growth in the south is alrcsdv mcrchani.jhie.
The most comm(Mi hardwood trees are sugar maple, vcliow tiifch,
white birch and beech; these are widely distributed throitu:h'>ut
the state, but are for the most part too young lo be cut for Eucnlier.
White cedar is almost wholly confined to the >wamrH ot the north,
and white oak is found chiefly on the mon- turtle bndji of the
south. Most of the virgin forests of the north> m hi-tclan v/t^ro cut
in the latter half of the 19th century, while in
the south were becoming reforested, and thf e's
lumber and timber products increased from $1,090,492 in 1850 to
$4,386,142 in 1870, and to $9,218,310 in 1900 and then decreased
to $7,519,431 in 1905; since 1890 large quantities of wood,
chiefly spruce, have also been used in the manufacture of paper and
wood pulp. In IQ09 a forestry commission was established.
Fisheries. — Although the trout and salmon of the fresh waters in
the interior are a great attraction to sportsmen, the commercial
fisheries, which are confined to Rockingham county, on the coast,
are of small and declining importance. The take of 1898 consisted
chiefly of cod, haddock, lobsters, mackerel, alewives, pdlock and
hake, but was valued at only $48,987. which was a decrease of 67 %
from that of 1889; in 1905 the total take Wiis valued at $51,944,
of which $33,575 was the value of lobsters and $8166 was the value
of fresh cod — the only other items valued at more than $1000 were
•oft clams ($2770), Irish moss ($2400), alewives, fresh and salted
($1220), and haddock ($1048).
Minerals. — The most important of the mineral products of New
Hampshire, which has lon^ been known as " the Granite State,"
is granite, which is quarried in the southem part of the state in the
area of " Lake Winnepesaukee gneiss," near Concord. Merrimack
county, near Milford, Hillsboro county, and E. of Manchester in
Rockingham county; in Sullivan county, near Sunapee; and in
the cast central part of the state in CarroU county, near Conway
and Madison. In IQ08 there were 8 quarries at Concord, all on
Rattlesnake Hill, and all within 2 m. of the sute house in Concord.
The Concord granite is a medium bluish-grey coloured muscovite-
biotite eranite, with mica plates so abundant as to effect the dura-
bility of the polish of the stone; it is used for building — the outer
walls of the Library of Congress at Washington, D.C.. are made ol
this stone — to a less degree for monuments, for which the output
of one ouarry is used exclusively, and for paving blocks. The out-
put of tne Milford quarries, which numbered in 1908 fifteen — twelve
south and south-west and three north-west of Milford — consists of
fine and mostly even-grained, quarta monzonites (i.e. granites with
an unusually large proportion 01 soda-lime feldspar), oivarious grey
shades, sometimes tinged with blue, pink or buff, aiKl always
marked with black mica; the finer varieties take a high polish and
are used for monuments, and the coarser grades are used for con-
struction, especially of railway bridges, andforoaving aad curbing.
The output of the Aubum quarry, 7 m. E. of Manchoter, is a de^
pink quartz monxonitc, marked with fine black dots, which has a
tine texture, takes a good polish and is used for monuments. The
Conway quarries, four in number in 1908, are on either side of the
Saco nver, south-east and south-west of North Conway; their
output is coarse constructional stones, all biotite or biocite-hora-
blcnde, but varying in colour, pinkish ("red") and dark-yellow
greenish-grey ( sreen ") varieties being found remarkably near
each other at Redstone, on the east side of the Saco valley. About
2| m. E. of Sunapee are ouarried two kinds of monumental stone:
the " light Sunapee," a fight bluish-grev biotite-muscovitc, finer
than the Concord granite, and capable ol a good polish and of fine
carving; and the " black pearl or " dark Sunapee." a dark
bluish-grey quartz-diorite, which seems black mottled with white
when polished, and which is coarser than the " light Sunapee.'*
New Hampshire ^nites were used for building as early as 1623.
The value of granite quarried in the state increased from $195,000
in 1887 to $1,147,097 in 1902, when building stone was valued at
$619,916, monumental stone at $346,735 and paving stone at
$101,5^8. In that year New Hampshire ranked fourth among the
states in output of granite, with 6*3 % of the total value of granite
quarried in the entire country ; in 1908, the value of granite
($867,028) was exceeded bv that of eacn of seven other sutes but
was more than one-half 01 the total value of all mineral products
of the state. Of this total the only other large items were day and
clay products (valued at $371,640), and mineral waters ($259.^20;
of which $150,512 was the value of table waters) from taine spring,
four in Rockineham, three in Hillsboro county and one each in
Coos and Carrol couhti^— and other mineral voters were used in
the manufacture of soft drinks. Mica,- first mined at Grafton,
Grafton county, if 1803, found also in the northern part of Merri-
mack county and in the north-westcm comer of Chesinire county in
such quantities that for sixty years New Hampshire was the largest
producer of mica in the United States, is no longer an important
product: in 1907 its value ($7227) was less than that of the mica
produced in South Dakota, Alabama, North (Carolina or Colorado^
A quartz schist, suitable for making whetstones and oilstones, was
discovered in 1823 by Isaac Fike at Pike Station, Oaf ton county,
and the Pike Manufacturing C>>mpany now owns and operates
quarries outside this state also; in 1907 New Hampshire was the
principal producer of scythe-stones in the United btates, and the
total value of whetstones made in 1907 (indudiog the value of
precious stones was $59,87a
Manufactures. — ^The heavy precipitation 00 the elevated
central and norlhcm parts, and ibe hundreds of lakes and ponds
which serve as reservoirs, give to the lower southern part of the
state on the Merrimac and other rivers such an abundant and
constant water-power that southern New Hampshire has become
an important manufacturing district, and manufacturing has
become the leading industry of the state. During the last two
decades of the 19th century the number of inhabitants engaged
in agricultural pursuits decreased from 45,122 to 38,782; and
the number engaged in manufacturing and mechanical pursmis
increased from 57,283 to 75,945. Many farmers abandoned their
sterile farms and made new homes in the West, where soil
yielded larger returns for labour, and a foceign-bom popula-
tion, consisting largely of French Canadians, came to the
cities in response to the demand for labour in the mills a&d
factories.
From 1850 to i860 the value of the manufactured prodocts
increased 62-3%: in the decade of the Civil War they further
increased in value 89%: from 1890 to 1900 the increase was fron
$S5>770.549 to $118,709,308, or 38*4%; and from 1900 to 190s
the value of the factory products increased from $107,590,803 to
$133,610,904, or 14'9%. Textiles, and boots and shoes 1
*Gems are not sought for syiftematicalty in New HamfaUre.
Topaz occurs on Baldface Mountain, near North Chatham.
NEW HAMPSHIRE
493
ia X90S mofe than one-half the total value. Cotton ffooda, the
manufacture of which was introduced in 1804, increatM in value
only slightly during the last decade of the 19th centuiy, from
la I. 958,003 to 123,998,349, but from 1900 to 1905 their value
increued a8'4%, or to 139,540.770; except in looo Uie manufacture
of cotton goods had long ranked first, measured by the value of the
product, among the state's manufacturing industries. Factory-
made boots and shoes increased in value from 111,986,003 in 1800
to $33405.558 in 1900, or 95-3%, the industry ranking first m
1900; but in 1905 there was a decrease to 123435,700, the industry
then ranking second ; in lOOO the valuoof boots and shoes was ai '8 %
and in 1905 it was i8-i % of the total value of all factory products,
and in no other state was the degne of specialixation in this in-
dustry so great as in New Hampshire. Woollen goods, third in rank,
decreased in value from 110,963,350 in 1890 to 110,381,056 in 1900,
but the factory product increased in value from 17,634,063 in 1900
to 111.0x3,982, m .1905, or 44*5%* Paper and wood pulp, for the
manufacture of which the spruce forests of the state are so largely
used, increased in value from 1 1,383,033 in 1890 to 17.344,733 in
1900, or 465* X %, and to 18,930,391 in 1905; and this industry rose
from ninth in rank in 1890 to fifth in 1900 and to fourth in 1905.
The manufacture of lumber and timber products, one of the oldest
industries of the state, ranked fifth in 1905; these products had
increased in value from 85,641445 in X890 to 89,3x8,310 in X900,
w 63-4%, but decreased to l7>5X943X in 1905, the decrease being
in kuge measure due to the great demand for spruce at the paper
and pulp mills. Foundry and machine shop pnxlucts, hosiery and
kxiit goods, wooden boxes^ flour and grist mill products, and malt
liquots are other important manufactures; the value of wooden
boxes increased from l979>758 in 1900 to 13,565,613 in 1905, or
161-9%, and the value 01 hosiery and knit goods increased during
the same period from 83,592,829 to 13,974,290, or 53*3 %• As
compared with other states of the Union, New Hampshire m 1905
ranked fifth in the manufacture of factory-made boots and shoes,
and in woollen goods, sixth in cotton goods, and seventh in paper
and wood pulp, in hosiery and knit goods, and in the dyeing and
finishing of textiles. In IQ05 the value of the products in the eight
cities oTManchester, Nasnua, Concord, Dover, Rochester, Laconia,
Keene, and Portsmouth, all of which are south of Lake Winne-
peaaukee, was 50*5 % of that for the entire state. Nearly one-half
the cotton gocxu were manufactured in Manchester. Boots and
shoes were manufactured chiefly in cities near the southern border.
Dover kd in the manufacture of woollens; Laconia in the manu-
facture of hoaery and knit coods: and Berlin, the chief manu-
facturing centre north of the White Mountains, in the manufacture
of £Stper and wood pulp.
TraHsporMUm,—^ith the exception of a Grand Trunk line in the
northern part of the state the several steam railways arey>wncd
or leased oy the Boston ft Maine. Up the steep slofw of Mount
Washington runs a cog railway. The first steps in railway build-
ing were taken in 1 835, when the Boston & Maine, the Concord,
and the Nashua & Lowell railways were incorporated. The Boston
& Maine was opened from Boston, Mass., to Dover, N.H., in 1842.
In X850 there were in operation 467 m. ; this mileage had mcreased
to X015 in 1880 and to il67«X4 on the xst of January 1909.
Portnnouth, the only port of entry, has a very small foreign trade,
but there is a' considerable trafllic in coal and building materials
here and on the Cocheco, which is navigable to Dover.
Fopvlaiian,— The population of the state was X4X,885 in
1790; 183,858 in x8oo; 2x4460 in x8xo; S44,x6t In 1820;
369,338 in 1830; 284,574 in 1840; 3i7>976 in 1850; 326,073 in
i860; 3x8,300 in X870; 346,99X in x88o; 376,530 in X890;
4x1,588 in X900; and 430,572 in xgio; the per cent of increase
was 9*3 from X890 to X900 and 4*6 from X900 to 19x0. Of the
to^ in 1900^ 88,107 were foreign-born; 58,967, or 66*9%, were
natives of Canada (44^420 French and X4,547 English), X3,S47
of Ireland, 5x00 of Eng^d, 30x9 of Scotfaind, 2006 of Germany,
ajid 2033 o£ Sweden. Of the .33348X native-bom, 80,435, or
34*8%, were natives of other states than New Hampshire;
56,310 of these were natives of other New En^nd states,
however, and 7502 were natives of New York. At the same
time there were X24,56x xiatives of New Hampshire numbered
among the inhabitants of other states, principally Massachusetts,
Vermont, Maine, New York, Illinois, California, Connecticut,
Rhode Island, Minnesota, Iowa, Wisconsin, Michigan, Pennsyl-
vania, Ohio, New Jersey, Kansas and Nebraska, and to induce
these to return fo^ a holiday season to their native state the
" Old Home Week "' festival, now held throughout New England,
was plannc»d in X899 ^ Frank West Rollins (b. x86o), who was
then governor of New Hampshire. Tlie Roman Catholic Church
in X906 had more members than any other religious denomination
(1x9,863 out of 190,298 communicants of all denominations);
xa the same year there were x 9,070 Congregationalists, x 5,974
Baptists, 12,529 Methodist Episcopalians (North) and 4892
Protestant Episcopaliaxis. Of the total population in X890 the
rural constituted 67-4% and the tirban 37-6%, but in X900 the
rural constituted only 53*3% of the total and the urban 46*7%.
The eleven dtics having a 'population in X900 of 5000 or
more were: Manchester (56,987); Nashua (23,898); Concord
(19,63a) ; Dover (x3,207) ; Portsmouth (10,637) ; Keene
(9x65); Berlin (8886); Rochester (8466); Laconia (8042);
Somersworth (7023), and Franklin (5846).
AdministratioH. — ^New Hampshire was the first of the original
thirteen states to establish a government wholly independent
of Great Britain. This was designed to be only temporary,^
but was in operation from the 5th of January 1776 to the 2nd
of June X784. The constitution which then went into effect
provided for a General Court consisting of a Senate and a House of
Representatives and made the Council a body advisory to the
state president; the X784 instrument was much amended in
X793, when the title of president was changed to governor, but
with the amendments adopted in that year it is in large meastire
the constitution of to-day. For sixty years there was no change
whatever, and only three amendments, those of x 85 3 (removing
the property qualifications of representatives, senators and the
governor), were adopted until X877, when twelve amendments
were adopted, — the most important being those providing for
biennial (instead of annual) state elections in November (instead
of March), and those doing away with the previous requirement
that representatives, senators and the governor " be of the
Protestant religion." Five amendments were ratified in X889
and four in X902. New Hampshire is the only state in the
Union in which amendments to the constitution may be proposed
only by a constitutional convention, and once in seven years at
like general election a popular vote is taken on the necessity of
a revision of the constitution. A radical revision of the con-
stitution is rendered especially diflicult by a provision that no
amendment proposed by a convention shall be adopted without
the approval of two-thirds of the electors who vote on the
subject when it is referred to them. Prior to X902 every male
inhabitant of a town who was twenty-one years of age or over,
a citizen of the United States, and not a pauper or excused from
paying taxes at his own request, had a tight to vote, but an
amendment adopted in this year made abUity to read English
and to write additional qualifications, except in the case of those
physically unable to read or to write, of those then having the
franchise, and of persons 60 years of age or more on the xst of
January X904. Various other amendments have been proposed
from time to time, but have been defeated at the polls.
By an act approved on the 9th of April X909 provision was made
for direct nominations of candidates at primaries conducted by
regular election officers.
There is a governor's council of five members, one from each
councillor district, which has advisory duties and share* with the
The governor and the councillors are elected for a term of two years,
and a majority of the votes cast is necessary to a choice. Where
no candidate receives such a majority the Senate and the House of
Representatives by joint ballot choose one of the two having the
greatest number. No person is eligible for either office who shall
not at the time of his election be at least thirty years of age and
have been an inhabitant of the state for the seven years next pre-
ceding; a councillor must be an inhabitant of the district from
which he is chosen. The governor and council appoint all judicial
*The constitution of 1776 provided that the Congress which
framed it " assume the name, power and authority of a House d
Representatives"; that said house choose twelve persons to be
" a distinct and separate branch of the legislature by the name of
a Council"; that the Council appoint a president; that civil
officers for the colony and for each countv (except clerks of court,
county treasurers and recorders) should be appointed by the two
houses; and that " if the present unhappy dispute with Great
Briuin should continue longer than this present year, and the
Continental Conffress give no instruction or direction to the con-
trary, the Council be chosen hy the people of each respective county
in such manner as the Council and House of Representatives shall
order." A constitution framed by a Convention which met in
Concord on the xoth of June 1778 was rqected by the people in
t779-
494
NEW HAMPSHIRE
offioecB, the attoreey-genaal, auditor, important adminictiative
boards, coronen and certain naval and military officers; they have
power to pardon offences; and they may exercise some contrM over
expenditure through the constitutional requirement of the governor's
warrant for drawing money from the treasury. The governor may
veto within five days, besides Sunday, after it has been presented to
him, any bill or resolution of which he disapproves, and a two-thirds
vote of the membns of both houses is required to pass over his veto.
A Senate and a House of Represenutives, which together constitute
the Genoral Court, meet at Concord on the first Wednesday in
January of every odd-numbered year, and at such other times as
the governor may appdnt for a special session, principally for the
malang of laws and tor the election of the aecretarv of state, the
state treasurer, and the commissary-general. The Senate is com-
posed of 24 members, one from each senatorial district, and these
districts are formed so as to be approximately equal with respect
to the amount of direct taxes paid in each ; repr e sentation in this
"body is therefore ap^rtioned on the basb oi property. In
House of Representatives, which has the large memberdiip of
In the
"body is therefore ap^rtioned on the basb <
House of Representatives, which has the large
representation is on the basis of population, but is so arranged as
to favour the rural districts; thus every town or ward of a citv
having 600 inhabitants is allowed one representative, but. although
for every additional representative 1200 additional inhabitants are
required, any town having less than 600 inhabitants is allowed a
representative for such proportionate ^art of the time the legislature
is m session as the number of its inhabitants bears to 600. Senators
and representatives are elected for a term of two years. A repre-
sentative must have been an inhabitant oS the state for at least
two years next preceding his election, and must be an inhabitant of
the town, parish or ward he is chosen to represent; a senator must
be at least thirty years of age, must have been an inhabitant of the
state for at least seven years next preceding his election, and must
be an inhabitant of the district by which be b chosen. The con-
stitution of New Hampshire places scarcely any restrictions on the
powers of the legislature. By an amendment of 1877, however, it
IS fo«1>idden to authorise any town to lend money or give credit
for the benefit of any corporation whose object is profit. Although
money bills may originate only.in the House of Representatives the
Senate may propose amendments. In 1909 the office of state
auditor was created.
For the administration of justice the state has a supreme court
and a superior court, each county has a probate court, and some
townaas well as the cities have a police court. The supreme court
and tne superior court consist each of one justice and four associate
justices. The supreme court holds one general term each year at
Concord and on the first Tuesday of every month except July and
August sits to hear arguments, nuke orders and render decisions;
the superior court holds one or two sessions a year in every county.
Both of these courts have extennve jurisdiction. Each probate
court, consisting of a single iudge. has jurisdiction within its countv
of the probate of wills, of the granting of administration, in insol-
vency proceedings, and in relation to the adoption of children; it
may appoint and remove guardians of minors, insane persons and
spendthrifts, and, upon application, may chan^ a person's name.
The court of a justice of the peace has jurisdiction in criminal cases
only where the punidiment is by fine not exceeding twentv dollars,
or by imprisonment not exceeding six months, or l>y both, and in
civil cases only where the title to real estate is not involved and the
damage demanded does not exceed thirteen dollars and thirty-three
cents. A police court has the same jurisdiction as that of a justice of
the peace, and. in addition, concurrent jurisdiction with the superior
court in certain cases where the title to real estate b not involved
and the damage demanded does not exceed one hundred dollars.
Judges and justices are appointed by the governor and council,
and with the exception of justices of the peace thev hold dike during
good behaviour or until they have attained the age of seventy
years; justices of the peace are appointed for a term of five years
only, but they may be reappointed.
Local affairs are administered by counties, towns (townships), vil-
lage districts and cities. In each county a convention, composed of
representatives from the towns, mceu every two years to levy taxes
and to authorize expenditures for grounds and buildings whenever
more than one thousand dollars are required. For the discharge of
other county functions the qualified electors of each county elect
every two years three commissioners, a sheriff, a solicitor, a treasurer,
a register of deeds and a register of pfobete; two auditors also are
appointed annually by the supreme court. The county commissbners
have the care of countv buildings, connsting chiefly of a court
house, gaol and house of correction, but are not allowed to expend
more than one thousand dollars for repairs, new buildings or grounds,
without authority from the county convention; the commissioners
have the care also of all other county property, as well as of county
paupers; and once every four years they are required to visit each
town of their county, inspect the taxable propert y therein, determine
whether it is incorrectly assessed and report to the sUte board of
equalization. In each town a recular annual meeting of the qualified
electors is called on the second Tuesday in March for the transaction
of miscellaneous business and the election of town officers. These
officers always inchtde three sclectroen. a clerk, a treasurer and one
or more auditors, and they may include any or all of the foUowii^:
unai in loini session.
e laws of New Hampshire the property rights ct hosbaad
e nearly equal. The wife may hold, acquire and manage
e same as if she were single; she b also subject to tbe
assessors, who together with the selectmen constitute a board for
the assessment of taxes, one or more collectors of taxes, overseers
of the poor, constables, wrveyors of highways, fenoe-viewera,
sealers 01 weights and measures, measurers of wood and bark, sur-
veyors of lumber, cullers of staves, a chief fireward or engineer and
one or more assistants, a clerk of the market and a pound koefier.
The moderator of the town meeting b elected at the general electioa
in November for a term of two years, and a board of hoilth, consb '
of three members, b appointed by the selectmen, one member <
vear. The general business of the town, other than that which co
before the town meeting, b managed by the selectmen, and they
are spedally intrusted with the reflation of the highways, side-
walks and commons. A village district b a portkui of a town,
including a village, which b set apart and organised for protectioo
from fire, for lightmg or sprinkfing the streets, for providing a
water-supply, for the construction and maintenance of sewers, and
for polkx protection; to serve these interests three commissioaers,
a moderator, a clerk, a treasurer and such other officers as the
voters of the district may deem necessary are chosen, eadi for a
term of one jrear. The government of cities b in part determined by
general laws and in part by individual charters. In accordance with
the general laws eadi city elects a mayor, a board of aldermen, and
a common council in whom is vested the administrattcm of its
" fiscal, prudential and municipal affairs " ; the mayor presides
at the meetinp;8 of the board of aldermen, and has a veto 00 any
measure of this body, and no measure can be passed over hb veto
except by an affirmative vote of at least two-thirds of all thealder>
naen; each ward elects three selectman, a moderator and a derk
in whom b vested the charge of elections; the city marshal and
assistant marshab are appmntcd by the mayor and aldermen, but
the city derk and city treasurer are electea by the akkrmen and
common coundl in joint sesmon.
Under the laws of New Hampshire the f
and wife are nearly equal. The wife may
property the same as if she were single; she b also subject 1 . .
same Ibbilities in relation to her property as a single woman except
that no contract or conveyance by her as surety or guarantor for
her husband is Innding. Rights 01 dower and courtesy both obtain.
Where there is no will or its provisions are waived, the right of a
widow, in addition to her dower and homestead rights, in the personal
estate of a deceased husband b the same as that of a widower, in
addition to hb estate by courtesy and homestead right, in the
personal estate of a deceased wife, f.tf. one-half if there b 00 sur-
vivitif issue and one-third if there b such issue. By releasing hb or
her right of dower or courtesy together with the homestead r^fat,
if any, the surviving widower or widow b also entitled, in fee. to
one-lulf the real estate, if said deceased leaves no issue surviving ;
if the husband leaves issue by the widow surviving, she is entitlnl
in fee to one-third of hb real estate ; if the wife leaves issue by htm
surviving, the husband also b entitled in fee to one-third of her
estate: but if the wife leaves issue not by him, he b entitled
only to a life interest in one-third of her real estate. Anoog
the grounds for a divorce are adultery, impotency, esctxemc
cruelty, conviction of a crime punishable in the state with
imprisonment for more than a year and actual imprisonment under
such conviction, treatment seriously injuring the health or en-
dangering the reason, wilful desertion for three years, or kiimng a
religious sect or society which professes to believe the rnation of
husband and wife unbwful, and conduct in accordance thenewith
for nx months.
The homestead law of New Hampshire exempts from seizure for
debt five hundred dollars' worth of any person s homestead except
for the enforcement oi a mortgage upon it, for the colkxtion of
debts incurred in making repairs or improvements, or for the col-
lection of taxes. Tbe law alsoprovides tnat except where a mortgage
is given to secure payment of the purchase money, the homestead
right of a married person shall not be encumbered withesit the
consent of both husband and wife. Tbe surviving wife or hudiand
and the minor children, if any, may occupy the homestead right
during- the minority of the children, and the surviving wife or
husband b entitled to the right during the remainder of her or his
lifetime.
From 185^ to 1903 the liquor law was cssentblly prohibitory,
but in the latter year an act licensing the traffic was passed.
However, some option still remains with each town and dty.
Once every four yeara in dties and once in two yeare in towns
the question of licence or no-licence must be submitted to a vote
of the electorate, and in a no-lioence town or dty no bar-room
or sakton b to be permitted; in such a > town or city, however,
malt liquor, dder and light wines may be sold at a railway
restaurant and an inn-keeper may serve liquors to lus booa-fide
registered guests.
Capital punidunent for murder in the first degree b inflicted only
upon the request of a jury.
The general supennsion of railways is vested in a board of three
commissionere appointed by the governor and coundl for a term
of three yeara, one each year, llie board is spedally diiectcd to
prescribe the manner in whkh the railway corporations shall keep
their accounts, to examine these accounts from time to time, to
examine the railways at least once a year, to investigate the caoae of
NEW HAMPSHIRE
+95
all acddenta and u^cm the petition of an interested party to fix rates
ttx the transportation of persons and freiglit. In 1909 an anti-pats
lav was enacted.
^ncd/MN.— New Hampshire formed a part of Maasachusetts
when, in 1647, the General Court of that province paaaedthe
famous act requiring every town in which there, were fifty
bousefaolden to maintain a school for tiwhing reading and
writing, and every town in which there were one hundred houae-
holdeis to maintain a grammar school with an instructor capable
ci preparing young men for college. Although not much en-
forced, this, with some slight changes, continued to be the school
law uxitil the dose of the colonial era. The beginning of the new
era was marked by the founding of Phillips Exeter Academy
(1781), and later several other similar schools were opened.
Their ejKellence aroused a much greater interest in the common
school system, and throughout the Z9th century various ez-
perimcnu for improving it were tried; among them were the
division of towns into districts, the appointment of county
school commissioners, and the establishment of a state board
of education. These, however, have been abandoned, and the
system is now administered chiefly by towns and a few special
districts under the general supervision of a state superintendent.
Each town is constituted a school district, and some special
districts are organized under special acts of the legislature. Some
oi the bustnos relating to the schools is transacts at the annual
district school mectine m which women as well as men have a vote,
but the schools of each district are mana^ very largely by a school
board elected at this meeting, one-third each year; in districts
without a fai^h school the board has only three members, but in
districts navmg a high school the board may have three, six or
nixie nterabers. The superintendent of public instruction is ap-
fMninted by the governor and council for a term of two years, and
It is his duty to prescribe the 'form of register to be kept in the
schools, to investigate the condition of the schools, to make sug-
gestions and recommendations for improving them, to lecture upon
educational subjects in the towns and cities, to hold at least one
teachers' institute each year in each of the counties, and to designate
the times and places for holding examinations of those who wish
to teach. The free school system now provides free hi^h schools for
an children within the state; for an act of IQ03 requires any town
not maintaining a hieh school, or school of corresponding grade.
an children within the state; for an act of IQ03 requires any town
not maintaining a hieh school, or school of corresponding grade,
or not uniting with adjoining towns in maintaining one, to pay the
toitioa of any of its children who attend a high school or academy
within the state. Evening schools for the instruction of persons
over fourteen years of age must be* established in any city or
town of more than 5000 Inhabitants if 5% of its legal voters
petition for them. Any town upon application, and by contract-
ing to appropriate annually a certain fixed sum for its mainten-
ance. n»y receive state aid for establishing a library, and in 1904
libraries bad been •established by this means in 146 towns. Every
district is required to keep its schools open at least twenty weeks
each year.
All children between the ages of eight and fourteen and those
be tw een the ages of fourteen and uxteen who cannot read and write
Eng&di are required to attend either a public or an approved private
BduxA for the full term unless excused by the school board on'
account d physical or mental infirmity. The schools are maintained
chiefly out of the proceeds of a district school tax, which must not
be leas ia any district than seven hundred and fifty dollars for every
dollar oi miblic taxes apportioned to the town or district, a pro-
portion wnich has gradually increased from five to one in 1789 and
from ninety to one in 1817. To this is added a " Literary Fund "
(deagned originally for founding a college) which is derived from
the proceeds of a state tax on the deposits, stock, &c. of savings
banln, trust companies, loan and trust companies, building and loan
associations and other similar corporations not residing in the state,
and a portion c^ the proceeds of a dog tax. both of which are dis-
tributed among the several districts m droportion to the number
of pupils not lew than five yeare of age who have attended school at
least two weeks. The state also makes appropriations for the pay-
ment of a portion of the tuition in high scnools and academies
distributing it among the districts in proportion to the rate of school
tax in each, appropriations for paying a portion of the salary of
school superintendents where two or more districts unite to form a
supervising district, and appropriations for general school pur-
tKMes to oe distributed among the districts according to the
number of teachera trained in norinal schools and to average school
attndance.
The plan of 183 x to use tbe Literaiy Fund for foundins and main-
taining a state -college for instruction in the higher branches of
science and literature was abandoned in 1828 and the only state
institutions of learning are the Plymouth Normal School (1870) at
Plymouth, the Keene Normal School (1909) st Keene, and the New
Hampshire College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts, organized as a
.dqiartaient of Dartmouth College in 1866, but removed to Durham,
StraflFord county, as a separate institution in 1891. The normal
schools are managed by a board of trustees consisting of the governor,
the superintendent ot public instruction and five other membera
appointed by the governor and council for a term of five years, one
each year, and they are maintained out of annual sute appropria-
tk>na The College of Agriculture and Mechanic Aru is managed by
a board of trustees consisting of the governor, the president of the
college one member chosen by the alumni, and ten membere ap-
pointed by the governor with the advice and consent of the counol
lor a term of four years, and it is maintained out of the proceeds
of grants by the Umted States government, annual state appropria-
tions and a private endowment. The principal institutions df higher
learning in the state are Dartmouth College (non-sectarian, opened
In >7^A At Hanover, and Saint Anselm's College (Roman Catholic,
opened in 1893), at Manchester. Dartmouth (College receives some
aid from the state.
The state charitable and correctional institutions consist of the
New Hampshire School for Feeble-minded Chikiren, at Laconia;
the New Hampshire Soldiera' Home, at Tilton; the New Hampshire
Industrial School, at Manchester; the New Hampshire Howital
for the Insane, and the State Prison, at Concord; and the New
Hampshire Sanatorium for consumptives (1909) near Warren
Summit, about 7^ m. north of Concord. The sUte also mates
annual appropriations for the care and education of blind and deaf
and dumb persons in institutkms outside of the sUte. Each county
has an almshouse and house of correction. Here, too, many of the
insane of the state were formerly confined; but by an act of 1903
the counties were entirely relieved of this care, and the insane were
removed to the state hospital. \^thin the state are alsa sixteen
orphan asylums, and though these are private institutions, in all
but one of them children are boarded at county or city expense.
Each of the state institutions is under the management ci an officer
or board of trustees appointed by the governor and council. In
1895 the legislature established a State Board of Charities and
Correction. This consists of five membera appointed by the governor
and council for a term of five yeare, one each year, and its duties
are chiefly advisory and supervisory. It is required to inspect both
state and county charitable and correctional institutions, except the
state prison and the state hospiul, to recommend such changes to
the state government as may seem desirable, and to have a special
care for dependent children whether in institutions or plarad in
permanent homes.
Finance. — ^The income of the state, counties and towns is derived
mainly from taxes levied on real estate, on male polls between the
ages of twenty-one and seventy, on stock in public funds, on stock
in corporations that pay a dividend and are not subject to some
special form of tax, on surplus capiul in banks, on stock in trade,
on live-stock, on railways, on telegraph and telephone Unes, on
savings banks and on the stock of fire insurance companies. Except
in the case of railways, telegraph and telephone lines, savings banks,
building and loan associations and fire msurance companies, the
taxes are assessed and collected by town officers, but every fourth
year the county commissionen are required to inspect the taxable
property in the towns and report any misappraisal to the state
boajd of equalization whose duty it is to equalize the valuation of
Property in the several towns. This board, which is composed of
ve membera appointed by the supreme court for a term of two
yeare, also assesses the taxte on the railways, and on telegraph and
telephone lines; for railways the average rate of taxation is assessed
on the estimated actual value of the road beds, rolling stock and
equipment, and for the telegraph and telephone lines this rate is
assessed on the estimated actual value of the poles, wires, instru-
ments, apparatus, office furniture and fixtures. Savings banks
pay to the state treasurer a tax of three-fourths of i % upon the
amount of deposits on which they pay interest; building and loan
associations pay to him a tax of three-fourths of i % upon the
whole amount of their capital stock paid in or shares in force, less
the value of their real estate and loans secured by mortgages on
real estate situated within the state and bearing mterest not ex-
ceeding 5%; and fire insurance companies pay to the same officer
a tax of I % upon the amount of their paid-up capital. The railway
tax 18 distributed as follows : one fourth is paid to the towns throuf^n
which the railways pass; such a portion of the remainder is paid
to any town as is equal to the portion of stock owned in that town;
and what is left is reserved as a part of the state tax. Such a portion
of 75 % of the tax on fife insurance companies is distributed among
the several towns, in proportion to the amount of stock owned in
each, as the amount of stock owned within the state beare to the
whole amount of stock, and the remainder is reserved as a part of
the state tax. All taxes on savings banks are distributed to the
towns in which the dcpositora reside, the tax on non-resident
depositora constituting a Literary Fund which is distributed to the
towns on the basis of the number of pupils in each. The whole tax
received by the state treasurer from each building and loan associa-
tion is paid by him to the treasurer of the town in which it is located.
The state also derives an income from fees charged for chartering
banks, railways, insurance companies and other corporations. The
financial condition at the close of the War of Independence was
alarming, and in September '1785 a mob at Exeter demanded relief
through the issue of more paper currency. This was refused them
+96'
NEW HAMPSHIRE
however, and bv the beginning of the Civil War the state was almost
free of debt. During that war the sute incurred an indebtedness
of about 14,336,000; this it reduced to $2,30^.695 in 187a, and
then assumed the war debt of the towns and cities, making lU total
indebtedness again $4. 138. 124. On the rst of September 1908 the
funded debt of the sute was 1706,70a
Hislory.— Martin Piing was at the mouth of the Piscataqua
in 1603 and, returning to England in the same year, gave an
account of the New England coast from Casco Bay to Cape Cod
Bay. Samuel de Champlain discovered the Isles of Shoals and
sailed along the New Hampshire coast in 1605, and much niore
infonnation concerning this part of the New World was gathered
in 16x4 by Captain John Smith, who in his Description of New
Engfafid refers to the convenient harbour at the mouth of the
PiscaUqua and praises the country back from the rocky shore.
Under the leadership of Sir Ferdinando Gorges there was formed
in. x6ao the Council for New England, which procured from
King James I. a grant o( all the country from sea to sea between
40^ and 48* N. latitude, and which made the following granU
bearing upon the history of New Hampshire by their inducement
to settlement, by determining the boundaries or by causing
strife through their conflicts with one another: to John Mason,
who has been called " the founder of New Hampshire," on the
9th of March 1622, a grant of the region between the Salem
and Merrimac rivers, under the name of Mariana; to John
Mason and Sir Ferdinando Gorges jointly, on the xoth of August
1622, a grant of the region between the Merrimac and Kennebec
rivers for 60 ni. inland, under the name of the Province of Maine;
to David Thomson and associates, in X622, a grant of six thousand
acres near the mouth of the Piscataqua; to Sir Henry Roswcll
and associates, on the X9th of March 1628, a grant of the region
from 3 m. south of the Charies river, " or to the southward
of any and every part thereof " to 3 m. N. of the Merrimac
river, " or to the northward of any and every part thereof,"
and extending west to the South Sea or Padfic Ocean, under the
name of Massachusetts; to John Mason alone, on the 7th of
November X629, a grant of that portion of the " Province of
Maine " which lay between the Merrimac and the Piscataqua,
under the name of New Hampshire; to the Laconia Company,
consisting of Gorges, Mason and associates, on the X7th of
Novembor 1629, a grant of an extensive territory (whidi was
called Laoonia) aroimd the Lake of the Iroquois (Lake Champlain)
together with one thousand acres at some place to be selected
along the sea coast; to Edward Hilton, on the x 2th of March
1630, the grant of a tract on and about the lower part of Dover
Neck; to the Laconia Company, in November X63X, a grant
of a tract on both sides of the Piscataqua river near its mouth,
known as the Pescataway grant; and finally to John Mason,
on the 23nd of April 1635, a short time before the Council
surrendered iu charter, a grant of the region between the
Salem river on the south and the Piscataqua and Salmon Falls
rivers on the north-east and extending 60 m. inland, under the
name of New Hampshire. Mason died in December of this
year, and New Hampshire, unlike the other colonies from which
the United States originated. New Jersey and Delaware excepted,
never received a royal charter.
The first settlement of which there is indisputable evidence
was esUblished in X623 by D^vid Thomson at Little Harbor,
now in the town of Rye. Thomson was the head of a company
which was organised for fishing and trading and whose entire
stock was to be held Jointly for five yeazs. He built a house
on Odiome*s Point overlooking Little Harbor, and, although
he removed to an island in Boston Harbor in 1626, he may have
continued to superintend the business of the company until the
expiration of the five-year term. At least there was a settlement
here which 'was assessed in X628, and it may not have been
completely abandoned when colonists sent over by the Laconia
Company arrived in x63a' The Laconia Company received
its first grant under the erroneous impression that the Piscataqua
river had its source in or near Lake Champlain, and its principal
object was to establish an extensive fur trade with the Iroquois
Indians. Although Lake Champlain could not be reached by
boat up the Piscataqua, and although the entexpriae was ulti-
mately a failure, the company sent over colonists who occupied
the house left standing by Thomson, and, not far away, built
" Mason Hall " or the " Great House " in what is now Poets-
mouth, a name (for the entire settlement) that replaced ** Straw-
berry Banke " in 1653. Edward Hilton with a few associates
appears to have established a settlement on Dover Point about
the time of Thomson's arrival at Little Harbor, and in the Hilton
grant of X630 it is stated that he had already built houses and
planted there; as early as X639 this settlement was named
Dover. In 1638 the Rev. John Wheelwright, an Antinomian
leader who had been banished from Massachusetts, founded
Exeter on land claimed to have been bought by him from tlie
Indians. In the same year Massachusetts encouraged friendly
Puritans to settle Hampton on the same purchase, and about
a year later this colony organized Hampton as a town with the
right to send a deputy to the General Court. Serious dissensions
had already arisen between Puritan and Anglican factions in
Dover, and Captain John Underbill, another Antinomian,
became for a time a leader of the Puritan faction. Puritan
Massachusetts was naturally hostile to the Antinomians at
Exeter as well as to the Anglicans at Strawberry Banke.
Although Exeter, in> X639, Dover, in 1640, and Strawberry
Banke, not later than X640, adopted a idantation covenant,
these settlements were especially weak from lack of a superior
tribunal, and appeals had been made to Massachusetts as early
as 1633. Moreover, the grants of Massachusetts and Mariana
were clearly in conflict. Under these conditions Massachusetts
discovered a new daim for its northern boundary. The diarter
of that colony was drafted under the impression that the
Merrimac flowed east for its entire course, but now an investiga-
tion was in progress which was to show that its source in Lake
Winnepesaukee was several miles north of any of the four
settlements in New Hampshire. Accordingly, Massachusetts
resolved to make the most of the clause in the charter whifch
described the ix>rthem boundary as three English mUes north
of the Merrimac river, " or to the northward of any and eveiy
part thereof," to ignore the conflicting grants to Mason and to
extend its jurisdiction over the offending settlements, Do\'er
submitted in X64X, Strawberry Banke (Portsmouth) soon after-
wards and Exeter in 1643.
The heirs of Mason protested, but little was done about the
matter during the period of Puritan ascendancy in the mother
country. Immediately after the resignation of Richard Cromwell,
however, Robert Tufton Mason (a grandson of the original
proprietor), who had become sole heir in 1655, began pctitioniog
first parliament and later the king, for rdief. The attorney-
general, to whom the petition to the king was referred, reported
that the petitioner had a " good and le^ right and title to the
lands." The commission appointed by the king in 1664 to
hear and determine complaints in New England decided that
Msson's lands were not within the jurisdiction of Massachusetts,
and made an attempt to set up a government under which his
claims could be tried, but this was a failure. In 1674 Mason
offered to surrender his rights to the Crown in return for one-third
of the customs, rents, fines, And other profits derived therefrom,
but although the offer was at first favourably considered it was
finally declined. Mason then petitioned again, and this time
Massachusetts was requested to send agents to England to
answer his complaints. They arrived in December 1676, and
the case was tried before the Lords Chief Justices of the Kihg*s
Bench and Common Pleas in April X677. Mason presented no
daim to the right of government, and as to the title to the lands
daimed by him the court decided that this was a question
between him and the several tenants to be determined by the
local court having jurisdiction in such matters. Thereupon
Mason, in January X679, petitioned the king to appoint a
governor who should have jurisdiction over all the landis which
he claimed, and on the x8th of September of this year New
Hampshire was constituted a separate province with a govern-
ment vested in a president and coundl appointed by the king
and an assembly chosen by the people. This was the principal
outcome of Mason's persistent efforts to establish his rights to
NEW HAMPSHIRE
497
tbe land; for although he succeeded in procuring the appoint-
ment of officers who supported his claims, and although decrees
were issued in his favour, the tenants, who contended that they
had profited nothing from what his grandfather had done or
that they were on lands which Wheelwright had bought from
the Indians, resisted the enforcement of those decrees. The
contest, however, especially for the waste lands, was continued
by Mason, his hein and assigns until near the dose of the tSth
century.
From 1686 to 1689 New Hampshire formed a part of the
Dominion of New England, which, after the first few months,
was under Sir Edmund Andros as governor-general. There
being no provincial authority in New Hampshire at the close
of this period, a convention of the leading citizens of its four
towns attempted to establish one. Upon the failure of this
attempt, a temporary nominal union with Massachusetts was
formed, but in 1692 Samuel Allen, the assign of Mason, caused
a royal government to be established with his son-in-law, John
Usher, as lieutenant-governor, and during the remainder of the
colonial era New Hampshire was separate from Massachusetts
except that from 1699 to 1741 the two had the same governor.
The boundary between the two provinces was yet to be deter-
mined. Massachusetts proposed to confine New Hampshire to
less than one-fourth its present area; that is, on the west to a
line drawn 3 m. east of the south course of the Merrimac and on
the north-east to a line drawn north-west from the sourcc*of the
Salmon Falls river. New Hampshire claimed for its southern
boundary a line drawn west from a point 3 m. north of the
mouth of the Merrimac and for its upper eastern boundary a
line running north by slightly west from the source of the
Salmon Falls river. Both provinces granted townships within
the disputed territory; Massachusetts arrested men there who
refused to pay taxes to its officers, and sought to defer the settle-
ment of the dispute. New Hampshire, being on the more
friendly terms with the home government, finally petitioned the
king to decide the matter, and in 1737 a royal order referred it
to a commission to be composed of councillors from New York,
Nova Scotia and Rhode Island. This body agreed upon the
present eastern boundary but evaded deciding the southern one.
Both parties then appealed to the king, and in 1741 the king in
council confirmed the decision of the commission in regard to the
eastern boundary and decided that the southern boundary
should be a line corresponding to the course of the Merrimac
from 3 m. north of its mouth to 3 m. north of Pawtucket Falls,
at its most southerly bend, and thence due west to the next
En^ish province. This gave New Hampshire much more
territory on the south than it had claimed. But the western
boundary was not yet defined, and as eariy as 1 749 & controversy
over that arose with New York. New Hampshire asked for the
territory west to within 30 m. of the Hudson river, or as far as
the western boundaries of Massachusetts and Connecticut, while
New York claimed east to the Connecticut river. Within a few
years the governor of New Hampshire granted in the disputed
territory 138 townships which were rapidly settled by those
whom it was the duty of the province to protect. But there was
a reluctance to incur the expense of a contest with so powerful
a neighbour as New York, and in 1764 that province procured
from the king in council a royal order declaring the western
boundary of New Hampshire to be the western bank of the
Connecticut river. The controversy, however, continued for
some years thereafter (see Vermont).
From 1676 to 1759 New Hampshire suffered greatly from
the Indians, and the fear of them, together with the boundary
disputes and Mason's claims, retarded settlement. But where
these troubles were removed the population increased rapidly,
and at the outbreak of the War of Independence the province
had about 80,000 inhabitants, the great majority of whom
were with the patriot or Whig party during that struggle. By
June X775 the once popular governor. Sir John Wentworth, was
a refugee; on the sth of January 1776 the fifth Provincial
Congress established a provisional government; on the 15th
of the following June the first Assembly elected under that
government decUred for independence; and on the i6th of
August 1777 the important victory at Bennington was won by
New Hampshire and Vermont troops under the command of
GeneFBl John Stark, who had a commission from New Hampshire.
Six states had ratified the Federal constitution when the New
Hampshire convention met at Exeter on the 13th of February
1788, to accept or reject that instrument, and so great was the
opposition to it among the delegates from the central part of
the state that after a discussion of ten days the leaders in favour
of ratification dared not risk a decisive vote, but procured an
adjournment in order that certain delegates who had been
instructed to vote against it might consult their constituents.
Eight states had ratified when the convention reassembled at
Concord on the X7th of June, and four days later, when a motion
to ratify was carried by a vole of 57 to 47, adoption by the
necessary nine states was assured. The War of Independence
left the state heavily burdened with debt and many of its
citizens threatened with a debtor's prison. As a means of
relief a number of citixens demanded of the legislature the issue
of paper money equal in amount to the state's debt, and as this
was refused, an armed mob numbering about 300 surrounded the
meeting-house in Exeter in which the legislature was in session,
towards evening on the 3oth of September 1786. But General
John Sullivan (1740-1795) was at that time president of the
state, and on the next day he, with 3000 or more militia and
volunteers, captured 39 of the leaders and suppressed the revolt
without bloodshed.
National elections in New Hampshire were carried by the
Federalists until 1816, except in 1804 when President Thomas
Jefferson won by a small majority; but within this period of
Federalist supremacy in national politics the Democrat-Repub-
licans elected the governor from 1805 to 181 2 inclusive except
in 1809. In 1816 the Democrats won both state and national
elections; and out of the transition from Federalist to Demo-
cratic control, which was effected under the leadership of William
Plumer (1759*1850), a prominent pcUtician in New Hampshire
for half a century, a United States senator from 1802 to 1807
and governor of the state in 1812-1813 and 1816-1819, arose the
famous Dartmouth College Case. As the trustees of this institu-
tion were Federalists with the right to fill vacancies in their
number, the Democrats attempted to gain control by converting
it into a state university and increasing the number of trustees,
but when the case reached the Supreme Court of the United
States that body pronounced (18x9) the charter a contract
which the Federal constitution forbade the state to violate.
Heretofore the Federalist regime had taxed the people to support
the Congregational Church, but now the Baptists, Methodists
and Univcisalists joined the Democrats, and in 18 19 this state
support was abolished by the " Toleration Act." Because of
Daniel Webster's arguments in the Dartmouth College Case,
and because his party had favoured the support of the Con-
gregational Church by public taxation, he became very unpopular
in this his native state. Accordingly, his denunciation of
President Andrew Jackson's bank policy added strength to the
Jacksom'an Democracy, and, later, his Whig connexions were the
greatest source of ihe Whig party's weakness in New Hampshire
John Quincy Adams was an intimate friend of William Plumer,
the Democratic leader, and airried the state both in 1834 and
1838, but a Jackson man was elected governor in 1837, 1839,
1830 and 1831. The Whigs never won a national or state
election, and often their vote was only about one-half that of
the Democrats. But the Democrats broke into two faaions in
1846 over the question of slavery (see Hale, John Parker);
the American or " Know-Nothing " party elected a governor
in 185s and X856; and then control of the state passed to the
Republican party which has held it to the present. After
1890 the railway corporations were charged with a corrupt
domination of the legislature and the courts, and. in 1906 a
" Lincoln Republican " movement was organized under
the leadership of the well-known novelist Winston Churchill
(b. 187 1), with the object of freeing the state from this
influence. x*
498
NEW HARMONY
1679-1681
I68i-i68a
1682-1685
1685-1686
The govvmocB or prendent* of the province and itate have been:
, .^ ^ .^ Pfowao.
John Cutt, praident
Richard Waldron. president ....
Edward Cnnfield. lieutenaat-govcmor .
Walter Barefoot, deputy-governor .
Joseph Dudley, preudent of Council for New
England 1686-1687
Edmund Andros, governor-general of New
Enffland ........ 1687-1689
without a government .... 1689-1690
Nominally united with Maaaachuactts 1690-1692
Samuel Allen, governor 1692-1698
Richard Coote, earl of Bdlamont, governor . 1699-1701
Joieph Dudley, governor 1702-1715
loh
WU
Jonathan Belcher, governor
Bcnninff Wentwortb, govemc
John Wentworth, governor
amuel Shute, governor
[ohn Wentworth, lieutenant-governor
llliam Burnett, governor
1716-1723
1723-1728
1729-1730
I730-»74I
1741-1767
1767-1775
Transition from Pronnce to State.
Matthew Thornton, president of the Pro-
vincial Convention 1775
Stole Presidents.
Meaheck Weare
I ohn Langdon
ohn SuUivan
ohn Langdon
ohn SuUivan
osiah Bartktt
Toaiah Bartlett
lohn Taylor Gilman
John Langdon
Jeremiah Smith .
ohn Langdon
'llliam Plumer
State Governors.
loh
loh
Jcr
loh
Wil
John Taylor Gilman .
William Plumer .
Samuel Bell . .
Levi Woodbury .
David Lawrence Morril
Benjamin Pierce
JohnBeU . . .
Benjamin Pierce
Matthew Harvey
Joaeph Morrill Harper (acting)
Samuel Dtnamoor
WiUiam Badger
laaac HiU .
John Pase .
Henry Hubbard
John Hardy Steele
mthony ColbL
Jarod Warner NVUliama
>%._....
Samuel Dinamoor
Noah Martin
Nathaniel Bradley Baker
Ralph MetcaU . .
WdUamHaile . . .
Ichabod Goodwin
Nathaniel Springer Berry
J<>aeph Albiee dilmore
Frederick Smyth
Walter Harriman
Onalow Steams .
James Adams Weston
Esekid Albert Straw .
James Adama Weston
Peraon Colby Cheney
Benjamin Franklin Prcacott
NattHead . . .
Charles Henry Bell
Samud Whitney Hale
Moody Currier
Charles Henry Sawyer
Davul Harvey Gooddl
Hiram Americus Tuttle
John Butler Smith
Charfes Albert Buaiel
George Allen Ramadell
Frank Weat RoUina .
Chester Bradley Jordan
Nahum Joaiah Bachekkr
John McLane
Chariea M. FUyd
Henry B. QuinSy
Robert P. Baas . •
1776-1785
1785-1780
1786-1787
1788-1789
1789-1790
1790-1792
1792-1794 Federalist
1794-1805 ^ u ^ ^
1805-1809 Dcm.-Repub.
1809-1810 Federalist
1810-1812 Dcm.-Rcpub.
1812-1813
ti3-i8i6
1816-1819 Dem^Repub.
1813
I Federalist
1819-1823
1823-1824
1 824-1 827 " Adama Man "
1827-1828 " Jackson Man "
1828-1829 *' Adams Man "
1829-1830 ** Jackson Man "
1830-1831 „
1831-1834
1834-1836 Democrat
183&-1839 „
1839-1842 „
1842-1844 „
1844-1846
1846-1847
1847-1849
1849-1852
1852-1854 „
1854-1855
1855-1857 Know-Nothing
1857-1859 Republican
1859-1861 „
I 86 1-1863
1863-1865
1865-1867
1867-1869 n
1869-1871 ^ H
1871-1872 Democrat
1872-1874 Republican
1874-1875 Democrat
1875-1877 Republkaa
1877-1879 n
1879-1881 „
1881-1883 M
1883-1885
1885-1887 „
1887-1889 „
1889-1891 „
1891-1893
1893-1895
1895-1897
1897-1899
1899-1901
1901-1903
1903-1905
1905-1907
1907-1909
1909-191 1
1911-
BiBLiocaAPHY.— C. H. Hitchcock, Ceology ef New Hampdun
(Concord, 1874-1878); New Hampshire Annual Reports (1871),
eapecially thoae of the Forestry Commission. Fish and Game Com-
mission, Board of Agriculture and Board of Charities and Concc-
tion; J. F. Colby, Manwal of the ConUitniion of the State of Hew
Hampshire (Concord. 1902). conuining an historical sketch of the
constitutions of the state; F. A. Ward, "The New Hampshire
Constitution,*' in The New Enghnd Majfuine, N.S., vol. 29
(September 1903); Laws of New Hamjbshire, including Public and
Pmale Acts and Resohes and the Royal Commissions and Instructions,
with Historical and Descriptive Notes, edited by A. S. Batchellor
(Manchester, 1904): Captain John Mason, the Founder of New
Hampshire, induding hu tract on Newfoundland, the American
charters in which he was a grantee, with letters and other historical
documents, together with a memoir by C. W Tutlle (Boston, 1S87),
edited by J. W. Dcane; New Hampshire Prcoincial Papers;
J ., 1857:. . . ^ . . _
History of New Hampshire from its discovery, tn 1614, to the passage
of the toleration act, in 1819 (New York. i8m): E. A. Chariton, ^r»
Hampshire as it is (Claremont. 1857);]. N. McClintock. History cf
New Hampshire (Boston. 1889); F. B. Sanborn. New Hampshire,
an Epitome of Popular Government (Boston. 1904) in the " American
Commonwealths Scries"; and W. H. Fry, iViFiir Hampshire as a
Royal Province (New York. 1908).
NEW HARMONY, a village in Posey county, Indiana, U.S.A.,
on the Wabash river, about 22 m. N.W. of Evansville. Pop.
(1900) 1341; (1910) 1229. It is served by the Illinois Central
railway, and has regular steamboat connexion with the river
cities. New Harmony had its beginning in 1814-181 5, when
it became the home of a communistic religious sect known
variously as the Harmonists, Harmonilcs and Rappites,
founded in CSerroany towards the end of the i8th century by
George Rapp (1757-1847). a native of Iptingen in Wtirttemberg.
Rapp and his followers, who sought to form a community aftcf
the manner of the primitive Christian Church, were persecuted
in Germany, and in 1803-1804 emigrated to Butler county,
Pennsylvania. There they established in 1805 a community
known as Harmony, consisting of some 600 persons, who held
their property in common and in 1807 adopted celibacy. In 1814
Rapp sold most of his Pennsylvania land and bought about
24i735 acres (in the next ten years more than 14,000 acres in
addition) on the Wabash river in Indiana TeiritMy. In 1814-
1815 Rapp and a thousand of his followers settled on the Indiana
tract, their headquarters being established at New Hannony,
or Harmonic as they called it. The settlers, mostly Germans,
devoted themselves to agriculture, weaving and leather-working
so industriously that they prospered from the start. Rapp,
however, in 1825 disposed of his lands and property to Robert
Owen, having returned with part of hb followers to Pennsyl-
vania and founded a new community known as Economy ig.v.),
in Beaver county, where he died in 1847. Intent on founding a
socialistic community, Owen went to the United States in 1824.
and purchased Rapp's lands and live stock for $i82,ooa He
interested several well-known scientists in his settlement, and
with them came to New Harmony in the springof 1826. Within
six months the community numbered over 1000. Among its
most notable members were Robert Owen's sons, Robert Dale
Owen (1801-1877), a political leader and diplomat; David Dale
Owen (1807-1860) and Richard Owen (1810-1890), botli geo-
logists of note; William MaClure (1763-1840), the founder of the
Academy of Natural Sciences at Philadelphia; Thomas Say
( 1 787^1834), " the father of American Zoology " ; Charles Lesocur,
a scientist and antiquarian; and Gerard Troost (1776-1850),
a well-known geologist. The greater part of the settkts, how-
ever, were impractical theorisu or adventurers. Constitution
after constitution was adopted, and with the adoption of each
new constitution and with each new religious discussion a group
would secede and form a separate community — in x8a8 there
were ten— the best known and most successful being Maduiia
(like the others, occupying a part of Owen's land), named alter
William MaClure, who became its directing power. The whole
organization broke up in 1827, and Owen kft New Hannony
in 1828. New Harmony has a Working Men's Institute
Public Ubraiy, founded in 1838 by WiUiam UaOsic,
NEW HAVEN
499
and having in 1907 18,000 volumes; the collection is rich in
works deaUng with socialism.
See "The Harmony Society" in German-American Annals
(Philadelphia), voL 2 (new series), for January 1904; G. B. Lock-
wood and C. A. Prosser, The New Harmony Movement (New York,
1007): Meredith Nicholson, The Hoosiers (New York, 1901); Morris
Hilkiuit, History of Socialism in the United SlaUs (New York, 1903) ;
and Frank Podmore, Robert Owen (London, 1906).
HEW HAVEN, the largest dty of ConnecUoit, U.S.A., the
CDunty'Scat of New Haven and the scat of Yale University.
It is co-cztensive with the tovoiship of New Haven (though there
is both a township and a dty government), and lies in the
south-western part of the state, about 4 m. from Long Island
Sound, at the head of New Haven Bay, into which empty three
small stteams, the (^uinnipiac, the Mill and the West rivers.
Pop. (i8go) 81,398; (1900) 108,027, of whom 30,802 were
foreign-bom, including 10,491 Irish, 5262 Italians, 4743 Germans,
3193 Russians and 1376 Swedes; (19x0 census) 133,605.
Land area (1906) X7«9i sq. m., of which more than one-half was
annexed since 1900. New Haven is served by the main line and
five blanches of the New York, New Haven & Hartford railway,
by three iuter-urban dectric lines and by two steamship lines
connecting with New York. The city is built on a level, sandy
plain, in the rear of which is a line of hills terminating in two
spurs, East Rock and West Rock, respectively 360 and 400 ft.
high and 2 m. and al m. distant from the Green. On East
Rock is a monument to the Connecticut soldiers who fell in the
War of Independence, the War of 181 2, the Mexican War and
the Civil War; on the West Rock is a cave, " Judges' Cave,"
in which the regicides William C>ofFe and Edward Whallcy are
said to have concealed themsdvcs when sought for by royal
ofiicen in x66x. The central and older portion of the city is
laid out in squares surrounding a public Green of x6 acres, which
was in former days the centre of religious and social life. New
Haven is popularly known as the " City of Elms," because of
the number of these trees. Besides the Green there are 12 other
parks, ranging from 6 to 300 acres in area, four of them being on
the water front, along the harbour. On the west side of the
dty is Edgcwood Park (120 acres); on the north is Beaver
Pond Park (xoo acres); and East and West Rocks, mentioned
above, have been made into suburban parks.
Among the public buildings and phces of interest are the three
churches on the Green, built in X814; Center Church (Con-
gregational), in the rear of which is the grave of John Dixwell
(1608-1689), one of the regicides; United (formerly known as
North) Church (Congregational), and Trinity Church, which
belongs to one of the oldest Protestant Episcopal congregations
in Connecticut. On the north-western side of the Green are
the buildings of Yale University (g.v.); the "college " campus
is the square enclosed by College, Chapel, High and Elm streets,
with Battel! Chapel at its eastern comer, Famam, Lawrence,
Phelps, Wekh and Osbom halls on its south-eastem side,
Vanderbilt Hall, Connecticut (or South Middle) Hall, the oldest
of the Yale buildings (1750), and the Art School on the southern
side, the Library, Dwight Hall and Alumni Hall on the north-
western and Durfee Hall on the northcm side; farther north of
the Green are the Divinity School, the University Campus, on
which are the Bicentennial Buildings and Memorial Hall, and,
lying between Grove Street and Tmmbull Street and Prospect
Street and Hillhouse Avenue, the buildings of the Sheffield
Scientific School. In the vicinity is the Grove Street Cemetery,
in which are the graves of many famous Americans. Besides the
University Library, there are a Public Library (1887), containing
alMUt 80,000 vols., the library of the Young Men's Institute
(1S26) and the collection of the New Haven Colony Historical
Society. The dty contains a State Normal School and a number
of hospitals and charitable institutions.
Among the newspapers of New Haven are the Morning
Journal and Courier (1832, Republican), whose weekly edition,
the Conructicut Herald and Weekly Journal, was established as
the New Haven Journal in 1766; the Palladium (Republican;
daily, 1840; weekly, 1828); the Evening Register (Independent;
daily, 1840; weekly, 1812); and the Union (1873), a Democratic
evening paper. At New Haven also are published several
weekly English, German and Italian papers, and a number of
periodicab, induding the American Journal of Science (1818),
the Yak Law Journal (1890) and the Yale Review (1892), a
quarterly.
In 1900 New Haven was the most important manufacturing
centre in Connecticut, and in X905 it was second only to
Bridgeport ib the value of its factory product. In 1905 its estab-
lishments numbered 490. The principal manufactures are
hardware, foundry and machine shop products, ammunition and
fire-arms (the Winchester Company), carriages and wagons,
malt liquors, paper boxes and corsets. Meat packing is also
an important industry. In 1905 the total capital invested in
manufacturing was $31,412,7x5 and the total product $39,666,118
(a gain of x3-7% since 1900). Commerdally, New Haven is
primarily a distributing point for the Atlantic seaboard, but
the city is a port of entry, and foreign commerce (almost ex-
clusively importing) is carried on to some extent, the imports in
1909 being valued at $404,805. In 1908 the assessed valua-
tion of real and personal property was $119,592,508, the net
debt was $3,854,498 and the rate of taxation was X4'75 mills
on the dollar.
Under a charter of 1899, as amended afterwards, the dty
govemment, which has almost entirely superseded the town
government, is in the hands of a mayor, who holds office for two
years and appoints most of the administrative officers, except a
board of aldermen (of whom each has a two-year term, six are
chosen from the city at large and the others one each from each
ward, the even-numbered wards electing their represenUtives
one year and the odd-numbered the next), a dty derk, con-
troller, sheriff, treasurer and tax collector, all chosen by
popular vote, and an assistant derk, appointed by the board of
aldermen.
The first settlement in New Haven (called (^innipiac. Its
Indian name, until 1640) was made in the autumn of 1637 by a
party of explorers in search of a site for colonization for a band
of Puritans, led by Thcophilus Eaton and the Rev. John Daven-
port, who had arrived at Boston, Massachusetts, from Enghnd
in July 1637. In the following spring a permanent settlement
was made. It was governed under a " plantation covenant "
until the 4th of June X639, when, at a general meeting, the
*' free planters " adopted the fundamental prindples of a new
govemment. They agreed that the Scriptures should be their
guide in civil affairs, and that only approved church members
should be admitted to the body politic; twelve men were ap-
pointed to choose seven men ("seven pillars") who should found
the church and admit to its original membership such planters
as they thought properly qualified. This having been done, the
first deneral Court of which there is record met on the 25th of
October. At this court the members of the new church, together
with six members of other approved churches, were admitted
to dtizenship; a magistrate, four assistants, a secretary and a
constable were chosen as the civil officers; annual elections and
an armual session of the General Court in the last week of October
were agreed upon; English statute and common law were
expressly excluded; and the " worde of God was adopted as the
oncly rule to be attended unto in ordering the affayres of govem-
ment in this plantation." As thus founded, New Haven was
town and colony combined. In 1643-1644 the colony was ex-
panded into the New Haven Jurisdiction,' embradng the towns
of New Haven, Guilford, Milford, Stamford and Branford in
Connecticut, and, on Long Island, Southold; but this " Juris-
diction " was dissolved in X664, and all these towns (except
Southold) passed under the jurisdiction of Connecticut, according
to the Connecticut charter of 1662. The govemment of the
Jurisdiction was of the strictest Puritan type, and although the
forty-five " blue laws " which the Rev. Samuel Peters, in his
General History of Connecticut, ascribed to New Haven were
much confused with the kiws of the other New England colonics
and some were mere inventions, yet many of them, and others
equally " blue," were actually in operation as enactments ox
as court decisions in New Haven.
500
NEWHAVEN— NEW HEBRIDES
Among those in the Petcn's list which are wholljr or substantially
true are the following: " The judges shall determine controversies
without a jury "; " Married persons must live together or be
imprisoned ' ; " A wife shall be good evidence against her hus-
band"; "No minister shall keep school"; "The selectmen, on
finding children ignorant, may take them away from their parents
and put them into better hands, at the expense of their psurents."
Among those in the same list which are whoUv or in part spurious
are: "No woman shall kiss her child on the Sabbath or Tasting day,"
and " No one shall travel, cook victuals, make beds, sweep house, cut
hair or shave on the Sabbath day."
One of the most imporUnt events in the history of New Haven
was the removal hither in October 1716 from Say brook oj the
G>llcgiate School of Connecticut, which developed into Yale
University. The period of greatest material prosperity of New
Haven in the colonial period began about 1750, when a thriving
conunerce with other American ports and the West Indies
developed. As a port it was notorious for its smuggling and
illicit trade. New Haven also had extensive shipbuilding
interests. All attempts to enforce the British commercial regula-
tions were inefifectual. On the 32nd of February 1763 a town
meeting resolved to encourage colonial manufactures and to
refrain from importing from England hats, clothing, leather,
gold and silver lace, buttons, cheese, liquors, &c. Two years
later Jared Ingersoll (i 722-1781), who had been sent to England
to protest against the Stamp Act, but had accepted the office of
Stamp Distributor on the advice of Benjamin Franklin, was
forced to resign his office. In 1 770 most of the merchants agreed
not to import goods from England and transferred their
trade with New York City, where Loyalist influence was strong,
to Boston and Philadelphia. When news of the embargo of
the port at Boston arrived at New Haven, a Committee of
Correspondence was at once formed; and in the War of Inde-
pendence the people enthusiastically supported the American
cause. On the 5th of July 1779 the phce was invaded by a
British force under General William Tryon, who intended to burn
the town, but met so strong a resistance that he withdrew before
the next day. New Haven's commerce sulfcred severely during
the war, but by the close of the first decade of the 19th century
it had regained its former importance. When the War of x8ia
opened there were fully 600 seamen in the city, practically all
of whom were engaged in privateering or in the regular naval
service of the United States. Among them was Captain Isaac
Hull. In 181 5 the Fulton, the first steamboat on Long Island
Sound, made its first trip from New York to New Haven. The
second quarter of the 19th century was the period of develop-
ment of railways and manufactures. The period since the Civil
War has been marked by a diversification of industries. To that
conflict New Haven contributed approximately $30,000,000,
and 3000 men, 500 of whom were killed. From 1701 until 1873
New Haven was the joint capital (with Hartford) of Connecticut.
New Haven was incorporated as a city in 1784; new charters
were secured from the General Assembly of the state in 1869,
lE". ^.. * .^, ,. FairlTiv^ L v - ^: :.-.xed toNewHavenin 1897.
Si^ Ltcfuard Bacon, Tkitk^n Unii^riiiil Discourses (New Haven,
taj9); J. W. Qarbtr.^ HnUtry aitd AniiqvUies of New Haven (srd ed..
New Havtni+ 1870)1 C. H. LcvcrmoTt, Tfwn and City Government of
New //opnr, und The Repuhiic of Nov Haven (Baltimore, 1886);
£, 5. Qartktt, Historijial SkeiLkej of New Haven (New Haven, 1897);
Edward £. Atwatcr, IHnsry of Ow Colony of New Haven to its A b-
Mrption iniv Cirnnaikbt (f^ew HavlqTl^ lii.Ji); H. T. Blake, Chronicles
ot New Hoven Green (New Haven, 1^9 si); Records of the Colony of
New Wiretw i6jS-iC6s (j vftlt.» Hanf ,rd, 1857-1858), edited by
C. H. Haidly: and th(: ^opiri and pther publications (1865 sqq.)
of Npw H'vpn Cokjny Itiitorifut Socieiy.
IhswhAVEN, a seaport in the Eastbourne parliamentary
division of Sussex, England, $6 m. S. from London by the London,
Brighton & South Coast railway, on the English Channel at the
mouth of the Ouse. Pop. of urban district (1901) 6772. The
church of St Michael has a Norman square embattled tower
surmounted by a spire, and an apsidal chancel The port is
protected by fortifications. A harbour was first granted to
Newhaven in 17 13, and during the early part of the i8th century
it possessed a large shipping trade. This afterwards declined,
but it is now one of the principal points of communication
between England and France, the railway company maintaining
a daily service of fast steamers to Dieppe in connexion with the
Chemin de fer de I'Ouest. The tidal harbour, which is owned
by a company, is enclosed by two piers and a breakwater, the
area being about 30 acres, and the quayage 1400 yds. The
roadstead is one of the finest on the coast of England. With
France there is a large traffic in wines, spirits, silk, fruit, veget-
ables and general provisions. The coasting trade consists
chiefly of imports of coal and provisions, the exports bcisg
principally timber for shipbuilding and flint for the Staffordshire
potteries. Some shipbuilding is carried on.
NEW HEBRIDES, a chain of islands in the western Pacific
Ocean, between 166* and 171* E., and 13* and 21* S., included
in Melanesia, and under the joint influence of Great Britain and
France. (For map, see PACinc Ocean.) From New Caledonia
to the S.W. they are separated by a deep channel; but a com-
paratively shallow sea indicates their physical connexion with
the Santa Cruz group (q.v.) to the N. The chain lies S.E. and
N.W., but the main islands are arranged somewhat in the form
of the letter Y. The south-easternmost island is Aneiteum;
N.W. from this the main islands are Tanna or Aipere, Eromanga,
Efat^,* the Shepherd Islands and Api or Epi. At this point the
arms of the Y divide, the western comprising the large islands of
Malckula or Mallicollo and Espiritu Santo,* Uie eastern consisting
of Ambrym, Arag and Maiwo or Aurora, with Aoba or Leper
Island between the two arms. Espiritu Santo, the largest
island, has an area of 875 sq. m. Irr^jularly disposed to the N.
of the Y are the lesser islands composing the Banks groups
Gaua, Vanua Lava, Mota, Valua, &c., and the Torres Islands.
With their rugged outline and rich vegetation, the islands as
seen from the sea are very beautiful. Excepting the small Tones
group, which are low-lying and perched on reefs, but without
lagoons, all tlie islands are of volcanic, not coral, formation, the
larger ones lying on both sides of the fa'ne of volcanic activity.
The coasts are almost free from reefs and the shores rise abruptly
from deep water. Old coral is sometimes found elevated to a
considerable height. The islands are formed chiefly of basalt
and recent eruptive material; earthquakes and submarine
eruptions are not infrequent; and some of the islands themselves
have active craters. All have considerable elevations, the
loftiest being the isolated cone of Lopevi, near the junction of the
arms of the Y; its height is 4714 ft. The volcanic soil is very
rich. Numerous clear streams water the islands, but some
debouch upon flat ground towards the sea, and form imhealthy
marshes there. Copper, iron and nickel are the most important
minerals known in the group, and sulphur is of some commercial
importance."
The climate is generally hot and damp, but there is a season
(November to April) which is specially distinguished, as such,
and is somewhat unhealthy. The trees — Casuarina, candle nut
{AleuriUs trUoha)^ kauri pine (or Tanna), various species of
Ficus, Myrtauoe and many othersr— are magnificent; the
coco-nut is not confined to the coast, but grows high up the
valleys on the hill-sides. Sandal-wood is also found. Besides
the breadfruit,- sago-palm, banana, sugar, yam, taro, arrowroot
and several forest fruits, the orange, pine-apple and other
imported species flourish; and European vegetables are exported
to Sydney. Land mammals are scarce; they include bats, rats
and pigs which have run wild. There are some lizards and
turtles; birds include pigeons, parrots, ducks and swallows;
locusts, grasshoppers, butterflies and hornets are numerous,
and the sea abounds in fish, which, however, arc generally inferior
as food, and in some cases poisonous.
The native population is estimated at 50,000; in 1904 the
British population was 2x2, the French 401. The island of
Efat6 contains the seat of the joint government, Vila or Port
Vila (formeriy Franceville), and the majority of the French
population. There are several British and French trading
companies, and a considerable area is cleared and worked by
settlers. The chief exports are copra, coffee, maiie, ha n a n ay
timber, &c.
* EfatI, Vat«. Fat«. Efat or Sandwkh island.
* Abbreviated to Santo; native Marina.
NEW IBERIA— NEW JERSEY
Tlie natives of the New Hetnide* are Melanetians of mixed blood,
and vary much in different islands. On Efat^ and some others
Pblynesian immisration has produced a taller, fairer and less
savage people. In some parts, as on Aoba. isolated Polynesian
communities exist. But the general type is Melanesian: black
skin, woolly hair. k>w, receding forehead, oroad face, flat nose and
thick lips. The natives decorate themselves with nose-rinn and
ear-rings and bracelets of shells. The men are constantly fightina;
their weapons are bows and poisoned arrows, often beautifully
designed, clubs of elaborate patterns and spears. Their houses are
eittor round huts, or rectangular with pitched roofs resting on
three parallel rows of posts. The villages are scrupulously clean
and neat, ornamented with flowering shrubs, crotons and drscaenas,
and are often fortified with stone walls. In character the New
Hebrideans are ferocious and treacherous, though most of their
onhospitality and savagcxy is to be traced to the misconduct and
cruelty of traders and labour agents. The women occupy a de*
graded position, and in some Islands widows are buried alive with
the bodiies of their husbands. There b a creat belief in sorceries
and omens; but prayer and offerings (usually of shell money) arc
addressed mainly to the spirits of the (recently) dead, and there is
another class of spirits, called Vui, who are appealed to when incor-
porate in certain stones or animals; of one of two such the divinity
IS recognised generally. By the villages a space shadowed by a
great Mnyan tree is often set apart for dances and public meetings.
A certain sanctity attaches also sometimes to the Casuarina and trie
Cyeas. An important institution is the club-house, in which there
are various grades, whereon a roan's rank and influence mainly
depend, his grade being recognised even if he goes to another island
where bis language is unintelligible. In like manner a division into
two great exogamous groups prevails, at all events throughout the
northern islands. It would therefore seem that the present diversity
of languages in the group must be of rcbtively rvccnt origin. These
languages or dialects are numerous, and mutually unmteIHgible,
but alike as to grammatical construction, and bck>nging to the
Melanesian class.
History.— Tht Portuguese Pedro Fernandez de Quires, sighting
E^ritu Santo in x6o6, thought he had discovered the great
southern continent then believed to exist, and named it Australia
del Espiritu Santo. Louis de Bougainville visited the islands
in X768, and Captain Cook, who gave them the name they bear,
in 1774. The subsequent visits of several explorers, the ex-
ploitation of the sandal-wood and other products by traders
and the arrival of missionaries helped to open up the islands and
to give them a certain commercial importance by the middle of
the xgAh century. Trade was mainly with New Caledonia, and
Fiance was thus indicated as the dominant power in the New
Hebrides; even British planters pressed France to annex the
islands in 1876, but in the following year some of the missionaries
urged the same course on England. In 1878 the islands were
dedared neutral by Great Britain and France. The presence of
British and French settlers under independent authority led to
unsatisfactory administration, especially in regard to the settle-
ment of dvil actions and jurisdiction over the native population.
As to the establishment of commercial supremacy, French
interests clashed with Australian, and in 1882 M. John Higginson
of New Caledonia (d. 1904) consolidated the former by founding
the trading society which afterwards became the SocUU fran^ise
des NottveOcs-H^ndes. In x886 one of the most serious of
many native outbreaks occurred, necessitating a French de-
monstration of force from New Caledonia. An Anglo-French
convention of the x6th of November 1887 provided for the
surveillance of the islands protection of life and property) by a
mixed commission of naval officers. The Anglo-French agreement
of X904 had a clause providing for an arrangement as to proper
jurisdiction over the natives and for the appointment of a com-
mission to settle disputes between British and French landed
proprietors. In this and the following year there was much
tmrtst among the natives, and a joint punitive expedition was
necessary.
Strong feeling was aroused meanwhile in Australia owing to
the disabilities suffered by British settlers in the islands. British
annexation, or at least a division of the group Into British and
French spheres, was urged. But on the 20th of October 1906
a convention was signed in London, confirming a protocol of
the preceding 37th of February, and providing that " the group
of the New Hebrides, hiduding the Banks and Torres Islands,"
ibould form " a region of joint influence," in which British and
French subjects should have equal rigfau in all respects, and
501
each power should retain jurisdiction over its own subjects or
dtizens. The claim of other powers to share the joint influence
was ezduded by the provision that their subjects resident on the
islands must be under dther British or French jurisdiction. A
British and a French high commissioner were appointed, each
assisted by a resident commissioner; provision was made for
two police forces of equal strength, and the joint naval com-
mission of 1887 was retained for the purpose of keeping order.
The high commissioneis were given authority over the native
chiefs. A joint court was established, consisting of two judges,
appointed respectively by Great Britain and France, and a
third, to be president, and not a British subject or French
dtizen, appointed by the king of Spain. Its jurisdiction covers
dvil cases (Induding commerdal suits and those respecting
landed property), native offences or crimes against non-natives,
and all offences against the provisions of the convention. The
sale of arms and intoxicants to natives is forbidden; and the
convention regulates the recruitment of native labour. Pro-
vision was made for community of interests in regard to pubh'c
works, finance and the official use of the English and French
languages. The creation of munidpalities on the application
of groups of not less than thirty non-native residents was pro-
vided for, munidpal votes being given to both sexes. The con-
vention provided against the establishment of a penal settlement
and the erection of fortifications.
This convention was bitterly criticized in Australia on the
ground that many of the provisions which nominally established
equality between British and French would operate in practice
to the advantage of the French; and there was no little dis-
satisfaction on the ground that the Australian government was
neither represented at the preliminary conference, nor fully
consulted during the negotiations.
See Parliamentary Papers, Frsnce, No. i (1888 and 1906): and
*' Correspondence relating to the Conventbn . . ."(Cd. 3388), (1907).
NEW IBERIA, a dty of Ix>uisiana, U.S.A., capital of Iberia
parish, on the Bayou Techc, in the southern part of the state,
about 125 m. W. of New Orleans. Pop. (1890) 3447; (1900)
6815 (3309 negroes); (1910) 7499. It is served by the Southern
Padfic, the Franklin and Abbeville, and the New Iberia &
Northern railways. Lumber, sugar, cotton and rice are pro-
duced in the neighbourhood. At the village of Avery Island,
about 10 m. S.E., there are deposits of rock salt. The
munidpality owns and operates the waterworks and the
electric lighting plant. New Iberia was laid out in 1835 and
was chartered as a dty in 1839.
NEW JERSEY, one of the Middle Atlantic states of the
American Union, lying between 41* 21' 22*6' and 38" 55* 40*
N. lat., and 75* 3 s' »nd 73* Si' 39* W. long. It is bounded, N.,
by the state of New York; E., by the Hudson river, which
separates the state from New York, and by the Atlantic Ocean;
and S. and W. by the Delaware Bay and river, which separate
New Jersey from Delaware and Pennsylvania. All the boundaries
except the northern are natural. New Jersey has an extreme
length, N. and S., of 166 m., an extreme width, E. and W., of
57 m., and a total area of 8224 sq. m., of which 7x0 sq. m. are
water-surface.
Pkysiofraffhy. — ^There are within the state four distinct topo-
graphic belts— the Appalachian, the Highlands, the Triassic Low-
land and the Coastal Plain. The folded Appalachian belt <
the N.W. comer of the state, and includes the Kittatinny Mountain
and Valley. The mountain has a north-east-south-west trend,
crosung the Delaware river at the Delaware Water Ckip and con-
tinuing S.W. into Pennsylvania. In width the range varies from
4 or S m. in the N. to about 2 m. in the S. Its western foot lies
along the Delaware river, which for some distance flows parallel
with the range, and has an altitude of about 400 ft. above the sea
at Port Jervis. where it enters the state, and ot about 300 ft. at the
Water (?ap, where it leaves it. Where the crest of the ridse enters
the sute Its elevation is 1539 ft.; at High Point, 1} m. S.W. the
ridge attains a height of 1803 ft., the h^hest point within the state.
A short distance S.W. of this point, in a depression in the mountain
crest, is Lake Marcia, at an elevation of 1570 ft. Beyond Culver's
Gap the mountain again narrows to a ridge, and for a portion of its
length it is double-crested. On the eastern side the slope is so
abrupt as to make ascent difficult and at places impossible, but the
western sbpe, on account of a dip of the rock to the N.W., is more
502
gradual. The eastern foot has a very uniform altitude of from
900 to 1000 ft. above the sea. The crest of the ridge is from 600
to 1200 ft. W. of the foot, and from 459 to 600 ft. above it. At
the Water Gap the ridge is cut through to its base, and the Delaware
river flows through the opening. This gap, 900 ft. wide at the
base and 4500 ft. wide at the top, with sides rising very abruptly
to a height of 1200 ft. and more, is an impressive sight. The
Kitutinny Valley, S.E. of and parallel to the Kittatinny Range, is
about 40 m. long and 13 nu wide and has an average elevation of
700 ft. Its western marvin is from 900 to 1000 ft. above the sea,
and its eastern border b from 400 to 500 ft. lower. The floor of the
valley is very undulating, and contains numerous small streams,
whose divides are from 700 to 900 ft. above the sea. South-east of
the Kittatinny Valley, and parallel with it, lies the second topo-
graphic belt, the Highlands. This region embraces an area of
900 sq. m., haWng a length, N.E. and S.W., of 60 m., and a width
varyii^ from 9 to 18 m. It consists of an upland plateau now
dissected by streams into a series of hills and ridges, and corresponds
to the Piedmont Belt farther to the S.W. and to the upland region
of southern New England. The average elevation of the Highlands
is about 1000 ft.; the highest point, between Canistccr and Vernon,
in Sussex county, being 1496 ft. The third belt, called the Triassic
Lowland, occupies about one-fifth of the surface of the state. Its
N.W. border is marked by a line drawn S.W. across the state through
Pompton, Morristown, Lebanon and Highbridge to the Delaware;
its S.E. border by a line drawn from Woodbridge to Trenton. The
surface is irregular, with altitudes ranging from about sea-level to
900 ft. A noteworthy feature of this area b the series oif trap rock
ridges, between which the Passaic river makes its irregular way
through a region of flat bottom lands. On the N. E. border of the
Lowland, one of these trap ridgn lines the western bank of the
Hudson river for about 3S m., and is known as the Palisade Ridec.
or simply the Palisades, oecause of the scenic eiTcct produced by
NEW JERSEY
the columnar jointing and steep eastern wall of the trap sheet.
To the W. the slope oTthe ridzc is very gentle. The Palisades extend
from a point N. of the New York boundary as far S. as Weehawkcn.
their height gradually decreasing southward. A slope of debris
occurs at the £. base of the Palisade Ridge, but the summit is
covered with trees. The trap formation extends to the Kill van Kull
Channel, and includes, among other ridges, the so-called First and
Second Watchung (or Orange) Mountains W. of the group of suburbs
known as the "Oranges," but S. of Weehawkcn it has no scenic
attractiveness. With the exception of the ridges, the Triassic Low-
land N. of the Raritan river is usually below 300 ft. in altitude;
S. of the Raritan the topography of thb belt is similar to the northern
portion, but much of the area is over aoo ft. above the sea. South-
east of the Triasac Lowbnd lies the fourth topographic belt, the
Coastal Plain, containing an area of 4400 sq. m., or slightly more
than one-half the entire surface of the state. This belt, bordered
on the E., S. and W. by water, is highest near its centre and k>west
along its margins. It is free from mountainous ridges, but there
arc a number of isobted hUls, such as the Navc:ink Hichbnds
(2M ft.) in Monmouth county. One-third of the Coastal Pbin is
below so ft. in altitude; two-fifths are between 50 and 100 ft.;
and somewhat more than a fourth of the area is over 100 ft. above
sea-level. The total area of the belt as high as 200 ft. above the sea
does not exceed 15 so. m. About one-eighth of the area consists
of tidal marsh, lying chiefly between the long sandy ridges or barrier
beaches of the Atlantic coast and the mainland. The width of the
marsh varies from I to 6 m., being bast in the extreme N. and S.
and greatest near the mouths of streams. There b also a marsh
along Debware Bay, unprotected by a beach. The waters between
these beaches and the mainbnd are gradually filling with sediment
and changing into tidal marsh. In addition to the stretches of marsh
along the coast, the eastward-flowing rivers of the Coastal Plain are
Yrin^ with bige areas of swamp bnd, some of which b well
forested.
For the entire state the average elevation is 250 ft., with 4100
sq. m. below 100 ft.; 2100 sq. m. between 100 and 500 ft. ; 1400
vq. m. between 500 and 1000 ft.; and 215 sq. m. between 1000 and
•1500 ft. The four topoeraphic belts of the state correspond very
closely to the outcrops <m its geological formations; the rocks of the
Appalachbn belt being of Palaeozoic age; the formation of the
Highbnds, Archaean; that of the Triassic Lowbnd, Triassic ; that
of the irrcgubr hills of the Coastal Plain, Cretaceous and Tertiary.
The great terminal moraine of the glacbl epoch crosses the N.E.-
S.W. topographic belts of the state, in an irregubr line running W.
and N.W.. from Suten Isbnd. N.Y. North of the moraimc belt
the effect of the gbcbtion b seen in the irregubr courses of the
streams, the numerous bkes and freshwater marshes and the falls
and rapids along those streams displaced by the glaciers from their
former courses. The effect of gbcbtion on the soil b noted in a
bter paragraph.
The Delaware river, from its junction with the Ncvcrsink Creek
to the capes, flows along the western and southern borders of the
sute for a distance of 245 m.. and has a total drainage area in
New Jersey of 2345 sq. m. Of equal importance is the Hudson,
whose lower waters, forming the north-eastern boundary of New
Jersey for a distance of 22 m.. drain a very small part of the state,
but hove contributed materially to the sUte's commerdal develop-
ment. The streams lying wholly within the state are rebtively
unimportant. Of the tributaries to the Debware river the northern-
most is Fbt Brook, 25 m. long, draining an area of 6^ aq. m. W. of
the Kittatinny Mountain. The Kittatinny Valley is drained by
Paulins Kill and the Pequest river in the b. and S.E., and by the
Walkill river in the N.E. Of the streams of the Highlands and the
Triassic Lowbnd, the Passaic river b the roost important. Rising
in the N.E. — in the southern part of Morris county— it pursues a
winding north-easterly course, passing through a gap in the trap
rock at Little Falls, and by means of a cascade and a mile of rapida
descends 40 ft. At Paterson, 3 m. farther, the stream passes through
a crevasse in the trap rock and has a sheer fall of 70 ft. (the Great
Falls of the Passaic^.^ The stream then makes a sharp bend south-
ward and empties into Newark Bay.* The Passaic and its small
tributaries — tne Whippany, Rockaway, Pequanac. Wanaqoe,
Saddle and Ramapo— drain an area of about Q50 sq. m. On account
of the rapid fall 01 its tributaries, the union of so many of them with
the main stream near its middb course and the obstructions to the
flow of the water in the lower course, the Passaic b subject to
disastrous floods. In 1903 a heaw rainfall caused a flood which
continued from the 8th to the 19th of October and destroyed not
leffi than $7,000,000 worth of property. Another, whkh continued
from the 25th of February to the 9th of March 1902, destroyed
property valued at $1,000,000 or more, and there were leas dis-
astrous floods in 18S2 and 1896.* The Hackensack river enters the
state about 5 m. W. of the Hudson river, flows almost parallel
with that stream, and empties into Newark Bay, having a length
of 34 m. and a drainage area of 201 sq. m. The Rantan ri\'cr.
flowing eastwardly through the centre of the state, is the largest
stream lying wholly within New Jersey, and drains IIOS sq> m.
CommercblTy, however, this stream b less imponant than the
Passaic. In the southern half of the sUte the drainage b simple,
and the streams are unimportant, flowing straight to the Debware
or the Atbntic. The westward streams are only small creeks;
the eastward and southward streams, however, on account of the
wider slope, have greater Icn^h. Among the btter are the Maurice
river, 33 m. long, emptying into Debware Bay; and the Great Egg
Harbor river, 38 m. long, and the MuUica, 32 m. long, emptying into
the Atbntic. In the northern part of the state, and espedally
among the Highlands, are numerous bkes, which are popular fdaces
of resort during the summer months. Of these the largest and the
most frequented aro Lake Hopatcong. an irregubr body of water ia
Morris and Sussex counties, and Greenwood Lake, lying partly ia
New York and partly in New Jersey.
Fauna and Flora. — ^The fauna of New Jersey does not differ
materially from that of the other Middb Atlantic states. Large
game has almost disappeared. The red, or Virginb, deer and the
grey fox are still found in circumscribed localities; and of the
smaller mammals, the squirrel, chipmunk, rabbit, raccoon and
opossum are still numerous. Among game birds are various species
of ducks, the quail, or " Bob White^" and the woodcock. The
waters of the coast and bays abound in shad, menhaden, bluefish.
weak-fish (squeteague), cbms and oysters. The interior streaou aiv
stocked with trout, buck bass and perch.
The conditions of pbnt growth are varied. In the noi t hera and
north central parts of the state, where the soil consisu partly of
glacbl drift, the species have a wider ranee than is the case farther
S., where the soil is more uniform. New Jersey b a meeting ground
for many species which have their prinapal habitat farther N. or
farther S., and its flora therefore may be divided into a aonhera
and a southern. Still another class, and the most clearly mariced of
all, is the flora of the beaches, salt marshes and meadows. The
toul woodbnd area of the state b about 3234 sq. m. Two distinct
types of forest are recognized, with the usual transitioa aooe bet wwu
them. South and east of a line drawn apNoximately from Scabright
to Cbssboro, and thence southward to Debware Bay, b a nearly
level, sandy region known as " The Pinea.*' Thb b tbiegreat fofest
area of the state; it contains about 1,200,000 acres 01 woodland,
practically continuous, and portions of it still but sparsely inhabited.
The original forest has been entirely removed, but a yoong arowth
of the same tree species, chbfly pitch pine with a variety of oaloi;
replaces it. Within " The Pines,'* immedbtelv north of the MuUka
river, lies an area of about 20.000 acres called ^ The Plains." Tbeae
are sparsely clothed with prostratepitch pine, scrub oak and lanrei
Tree forms are entirely absent. The cause of thb condition b stiD
undetermined. Along the streams in thb section are many swaraps.
valuable for the white cedar that they produce, or when oeared. for
cranberry bogs. The northern part 01 the state b much more rugged.
* As the waters of the stream have been diverted into mill races,
the river very seldom makes thb leap in its natural channeL The
power thus generated has been largely tnatntmental io creatine the
dty of Paterson (q.vX
"The toul length of the Plassak b aboot 100 m., bot hi ooorae b
so irregular that the distance in a straight Une from its aoaice to
its mouth b only about 15 m.
> See G. B. Hollbter and M. O. Leighton, The Pamaie Fhad «f
iQoa (Washington. 1903), and M. O. Leighton. Tke Possbsc FUod€f
'903 (Washington. 1904), being numbeia 88 and 9a of the Water
Supply and Irrigation Papers of the U.S. Geological Sorvcy.
NEW JERSEY
and the focests are chiefly oC chestnut and various species of oak.
Thou^ much broken by fanns and other elements oi culture they
aggregate about 740,000 aoes. New Jersey's forests have suffered
much ffom 6re, but with the exception of " The Plains " the soil
everywhere b well adapted to tree growth. A comparatively mild
ctimate and good market facilities mcrease the potential value of
the whde woodland area. The state maintains a Forest Com-
nussion whose chief concern is to control the fires and thereby give
value to private holdings. In this effort it is meeting with consider-
able success. The state is also acquiring, and mamtaining as de>
monstration acres and public parks, forest reserves in various parts
of the sute. The five reserves now hekl are in Atlantic, Burlington
and Sussex .counties and aggr^ate 9899 acres.^
ClimaU, — Between the extreme northern and southern sections
of the state there u a greater variation in climate than would natur-
ally result from their ofiflerenoe in latitude. This is due to the prox-
inutv of the ocean in the S. and to the relatively high altitudes in
the N.^ Near Cape May fruit trees bloom two or three weeks earlier
than in the Highlancu. The mean annual temperature ranges
from 49*3^ F. at Dover, in the N.. to ^5-4* at Bridgeton, in the S.
The average date of the first kiUing frost at Dover b the 4th of
October, and of the last, the loth 01 May; at Atlantic City, on the
sea-coast, these dates are respectively the 4th of November and the
11th of April. . At Dover the mean annual temperature is 40®:
the mean for the winter is 38*, with an extreme mmimum recoraea
of -13*; and the mean for the summer is |^o*, with an extreme
maximum recorded of 103*. At Atlantic City the mean annual
temperature is 52* ; for the winter it is 34", with an extreme of -7*;
and for the summer, 70*, with an extreme of 99^ At Vineland. a
a strildng illustration of the moderating influence of the ocean u;>on
the extremes of summer and winter. On account of the proximity
to the sea. New leraey has a more equable climate than have some
of the states in the same latitude farther west. During the summer
months the general coune of the wind along the sea-coast is in-
terrupted about midday b^ an incoming current of air, the " sea
breeie." which gradually increases until about three o'clock in the
afternoon, aiul then gradually lessens until the offshore wind takes
its place. As the heat is thus made less oppressive along the coast,
the beaches of New Jersey have rapidly ouilt up with towns and
dtks that have become popular summer resorts — among the best
known of these are Long Branch, Asbunr Park, Ocean Grove.
Atlantic City (also a winter resort) and Cape May. Among the
interior resorts are Lakewood, a fashionable wmter resort, and Lake
Hopatcong, and Greenwood Lake and surrounding regions, much
frcquentea in the summer. In the summer the {prevailing winds
throughout the state are from the S.W.: in the winter, from the
N.W. The normal annual precipitation is 47*7 in., varying from
46'6 in. on the sea<oast to 49*1 in. in the Highlands and the Kitta-
tinny Valley. Prccipitatbn b from i to ^ in. greater in the
summer than in the other seasons, which differ among themselves
very little .in the average amount of rainfall. From December to
March, inclusively, part of the ptecipitation b in the form of snow.
In the extreme S. there b more rain than snow in the winter; but
no part of the state b free from snow storms. In the summer
thunder storms are frequent, but are generally local in extent, and
are much more common in the afternoon and early evening than in
the morning.
SoUs. — ^Thc soils of the state exhibit great variety. Those of the
northern and central sectbns are made up in part of glacial drift;
those of the S. are sandy or loamy, ana arc locally enriched by
depoMts of mari. The most fertile soils of the state lie in the cby
and marl region, a belt from 10 to 20 m. wide extending across the
state in a general south-westerly direction from Long Branch to
Salem. South of thb belt the soib are generally sandy and are not
very fertile except at altitudes of less than 50 ft., where they are
loamy and of alluvial origin.^
Agricuiture. — In 1900 very little more bnd was under cultivation
than in 1850. the total acreage for these years being respectively
a.840.966 and 2.752,946. The number of farms, however, mcreascd
from 23,905 to 34.294, and the average size of the farms decreased
from 1 15-2 acres to 82 acres, an indication that agriculture g^dually
became more intensive. In 1900, 22% of the farms contained
from 20 to 50 acres, 48*3 %. 50-1 75 acres and only 7*8% con-
tained over 175 acres. Farms were smallest in Hudson county,
where the average size was 7-9 acres, and bjnrcst in Sussex county,
where the average size was 143-4 acres. The counties with the
largest total acreage were Burimgton (343,006), Sussex (256,896)
and Hunterdon (248.733). Between 1880 and 1900 the percentage
of farms operated by owners decreased from 75*4 to 70*1 ; the per-
* The amount of timber cut within the state b very small. Before
the inttw^ction of coal and coke as fuel in the forges and furnaces
the cutting of young trees for the manufacture of charcoal was a
profitable imlustry, and the process of deforestation reached its
maximum. Since i860 the forest area has only slightly diminished,
and the condition of the timber has improved, but large trees are
ftiO scarce.
503
centage of cash tenants i nc reased from io>s to 15*3 ; and that of
share tenants remained about sutionary. being 14- 1 in 1880 and
14-6 in 1900. In thb bst year 27-5 % of the farms derived their
principal mcome from live stock, 20*3 % from vegetables, 17*2 %
from dairy produce, 7*8 % from fruits and 7*8 % from hay and
grain.
In 1907, according to the Year Book of the United States Depart-
ment of Agriculture, the principal crops were: hay, 634,000
tons ($10,778,000): potatoes, 8400,000 busheb ($6,216,000);
Indbn com, 8,757,000 busheb (l5>5i7/>oo); wheat, 1.998,000
busheb ($1,958,000); rye, 1,372.000 busheb ($1,043,000); oais,
1.770.000 busheb ($091,000). The number and value of each of
the various classes of live stock in the state on the ist of January
1008 were as follows: horses, X02/)oo ($11,^6.000); mules, 5000
($675,000); inikh cows. 190,000 ($8,170,000); other neat cattle,
82.000 ($1,722,000); sheep, 44,000 ($220,000); swine. 155,000
^$i.555iOOO). In 1809, 5959 farms were classified as dairy farms,
f^. they derived at least 40 % of their income from dairy products;
and the total value of dairy products was $8436,869, the brger
items bein^ $6,318,568 for milk sold and $818.62^^ for butter sold.
Poultry raising also b an important agricultural industry: poultry
in the sute was valued at $1,300,853 on the ist of June 1900; and
for the year 1809 the value of all poultry raised was $2,265,816.
and the value of ens was $1,938,304. In the production of cereals
the state has not taken high rank since the development of the wheat
fiekb of the western states; but in 1890 the acreage in cereals was
45*4 % of the acreage in all crops, •nd the value of the yield was
25*3% of that of alTcrops. Of the total acreage in cereals in 1907,
278,000 acres were in Indian com; 108,000 m wheat; 78,000 in
rye; and 60,000 in oats. The chief cereal-producing counties in
1809 were Burlington. Hunterdon. Monmouth and Salem. The most
valuable field crop in 1907 was hay and forage, consisting mostly of
clover and cultivated grasses; in 1899 the value of thb crop was
20-2 % of that of all crops.
Since 18^0 market gardening in New Jersey has become in-
creasingly imporunt. especblly in the vicinity of large cities, and-
has proved more profitable than the growinj;; of cereals. In the toul
acreaee devoted to the raising of vegetables in marketable quantities
New Jersey in looo was surpassed by only two other states. The
value of the marketable vegeubles in 1899 was $4,630,658, and the
value of the total vegetable crop. $8425.S9(S. or 30-7 % of that of all
crops. Among the vegetables grown the potato b the most im-
portant; in 1907 there were 70,000 acres in potatoes, yielding
8.400.000 bushels, valued at $6,216,000. Between 1809 and 1907
the value of the potato crop more than doubled. In 1899 the state
also produced 5>304.503 bushels of tomatoes; 2418.641 bushels of
sweet poutoes; 2,052.200 bunches of asparagus; 17.890,980 heads
of cabbage; 2I495>940 musk melons; 3.300,330 water melons;
and 1 ,01 5. 1 1 1 bushels of sweet com. Fmit-growmg has also attained
considerable importance. In 1899 the total value of the crop was
$4,082,788; the value of the orchard fruit was $2,504,981 ; of small
fmits, $1406,049; and of grapes, $81,758. Peaches erow in all
parts of the state, but most of the crop comes from Hunterdon,
Sussex and Somerset counties. Apples are grown there and also
in the western part of Buritngton county. In the decade 1889-
189Q the apple crop increased from 603,890 to 4,640,896 bushels.
In Monmouth, Camden and parts of Burlington and Gloucester
counties great quantities of pears are grown. Atbntic, Burlington,
Camden and Salem counties are the great centres for strawberries;
Atlantic, Cumberland and Salem counties lead in grapc-growiiig:
and a laige huckleberry crop b yearly gathered in the Pines."
In 1899 New Jersey produced nearly a fourth of the cranberry crop
of the United States, the chief centre of production being the bogs of
Burlington and Ocean counties. Other fruits grown in considerable
quantities are cherries, plums, bbckberries and raspberries.
Minerals and Mininr. — In 1907 the total value of the state's
mineral products was $32,800,299. Cbys of different degrees of
value are found in nearly every section, but the principal cby
mining areas are: the Middlesex county area, where the best cbys
are found along the Raritan river and tne coast ; the Trenton area,
in which cby b mined chiefly at Doetown, E. of Trenton; the
Debware river area, in the vicinity of Palmyra; and the Wood-
mansie area, in Ocean county. As the cby pits contain only small
amounts of any one kind of cby, it has proved more profitable for
manufacturers to buy their raw materbis from a number of minere
than for them to operate the mines themselves, and conseouently
clay mining and tne manufacture of cby^ products arc largely
distinct industries. In New Jersey the mining of clays b more
important than in any other state, the amount mined and sold in
1902 being a third of the entirc output of the United States, and the
amount in 1907 (440,138 tons) being more than one-fifth of all cby
miiKd and sold in the United States; and in 1907 in the value of
clay products ($16,005460; brick and tile, $9,019, 8^, and pottery.
$6,9^)5,626) New Jersey was outranked only by Ohio and Pennsyl-
«*ania. In Warren and Sussex counties are abundant materials tor
the manufacture of Portbnd cement, an industry that has attained
importance since 1892; in the value of its product in 1907
($4,738,516) New Jersey was surpassed only by Pennsylvania.
Granite is found in Morris and Sussex counties, but is not extensively
quarried; there are extensive quarries of sandstone in the Piedmont
S04
•ectkm: and limestone and trap rock are important minefal
reaouroea. In 1907 the total value of stone quarried in the sute
was $1,533,313, of which $995*436 was the value of trap rock.
$374453 of limestone. $177,667 of sandstone and '$75,757 of
cranite. Some roofing slate is produced in Sussex county; in 1907
the output was valueaat $8000. The mining of natural fertili sers
white and greensand marls — b a long established industry; the
output in 1907 was 14.091 tons, valued at $&i^
Of mineral ores the moat important are iron, anc and copper.
The manufacture of iron in New Jersey dates from 1674, when the
metal was reduced from its ores near Shrewsbury, Monmouth
county. Magnetic orea, found chiefly in Morris, Passaic and Warren
counties, form the bans of the present industry. Bog ores were
mined until about 1840; since that date they have had no market.
The product of the iron mines has fluctuated greatly in quantity,
being nearly 1,000.000 tons of ore in 1893, 357,335 tons in 1897.
and 549,760 tons in 1907, when the output was valued at $1,815,586,'
and was about nine-tenths magnetite and one>tenth brown ore.
The chief places of production are Hibernia (Morris county) and
Mt Pleasant (Hunterdon county); in 1^ four mines in the state
produced 316,336 tons. In the production of zinc New Jersey once
took a prominent part; in 1907 the only producer was The New
Jersey Zinc Company's mine at Franklin Furnace, Sussex county,
with an output of 13.573 'hort tons, valued at $1,601,614. The
chief deposits consist of red oxide, silicate and franklinite, and the
average sine content is 33 %. The copper deposits of the sute were
worknl to a small extent in colonial days. One of the brass cannon
used at Yorktown was made of copper taken from the Watchung
Mountains during the War for Independence. These mountains are
still the chief source of copper, but the orcS| chiefly cuprite, mala-
chite and chrysocolb, are also found in various parts of the Pied-
mont region. In theycars following 1900 there was renewed interest
in copper mining. There are many valuable mineral springs in the
state: for 1907 eleven springs (three in Bergen and two each in
Morris. Camden and Somerset counties) reoortod to the U.S.
Geological Survey the sale of 983.445 gallons (mostly Uble water).,
valued at $10^.083. Other minerals, which are not found in com-
mercial quantities, are lead in the form of galena, in Sussex countv;
Sip^ite. in the crystalline schistose rocks of the HighUinds; molyb-
num, in the form of a sulphide, in Sussex county: and barytes in
Mercer and Sussex counties. In Bergen, Warren, Sussex and
Morris counties are numerous bogs contaim'ng peat of a ffood quality.
Manufactures. — After 1850 New jersey made rapia pnmesa m
manufaauring, which soon became its kaiding industry. In 1850
7*7 % of the population were employed as wage-earners in manu-
facturing establishments; in 1900, 13-8 %. The value of the pro-
ducts in 1850 was $39,851,356; in 1890. $354,573,571: in 1900,
$61 1,748,931. Such figures of the census of 1900 as are comparable
with those of the special census of 1905, when only the establiuiments
under the factory system were enumerated, show that between 1900
and 1905 the number of factories increased 9*^ %; the capital,
49-8 %; and the value of the producu.* 40 % (from $353,005,684
to $774,369.03^). This rapid development is due to the excellent
transportation facilities, and to the proximity of large markets and
of great natural resources, such as tne clays of New Jersey and the
coal and iron of Pennsylvania. The chief manufacturing centres in
1905, as judged by the value of their products, were Newark
($150,055,377). Jersey dt^ ($75,740,934). Bayonne ($60,6^.761),
NEW JERSEY
mden
of great
ooal and
!5,3y7irja^v City ($75,740.934).\B^^^^ ($60,633.
I ($54,073,083), Perth Amboy ($34,800,403), Cai
($33.5*7.373). and Trenton ($^3,719,945^. In 1905, 67-1 % of the
factories were in municipalities having a population m at least
8000 in 1900. and their product was 74-1 % (in value) of the total.
There are indications, however, that industries are slowly shifting
to the smaller towns.
The textile industries uken together are the most tmporunt of
the manufacturing industries, having a greater output (in 1900,
$81,910,850: in 1905, $96,060407), employing more labourers and
capital, and paying more wages than any other group. Among the
various textiles silk ukes the first pboe, the value of the factory
product in 1900 being $39,966,663. and in 190^, $43,863,907. In
1900 the value of the silk output was 48*8 % of the toul value of
the textiles, and silk manufacturing was more important than any
other industry (textile or not) : in 1905, however, owing to the great
prcwress in other industries, silk had dropped to fourth place, but
stillcontributed 44-6 % of the value of the textiles. In 1900 New
Jersey furnished 37*3 ^ and in 1905. \»'i % . of the silk products
of the United Sutes. and was surpassed by no other state. The silk
industry is centred at Paterson, the chief silk manufacturing city of
the United States. West Hoboken and Jersey City are also Im-
portant producers. A second textile industry in which New Jersey
in 1900 and in 1905 took first rank was the manufacture of felt haU:
the toul value of the product in 1904 was $9,540,433. ^ K^in of
33'3 % since 1900, and constituting 36 % of the value of the product
of the entire United Sutes. Most of the product comes from the
o'ties of Newark and Orange. From 1900 to 1905 the value of the
worsted goods increased from $6,833,731 to $11,935.136, or 74-8 %■
* The following sutistks of the producu for 1900 and for 190S
are for factory products, those for 1900 differing, therefore, from the
■utistics which appear in the reporu of the census of 190a
the greatest gain made by any of the textiles. In this industry New
Jersey was surpassed only by Massachusetts, Rhode Island and
Pennsylvania. During this five-year period there was an increase of
31*3 % (from $6,540,389 to $8,518,537) in the value of the cotton
goods manufactured in New Jersey; of I3*6 % (from $3,168,570
to $3,441,516) in that of linen goods; of 45-3 % Unmi $1,748. 14a
to $3,«9,i78) in that of hosiery and kmt goods, and of 14-8 %
Sfrom $1,533,837 to $1,748,8^1) in that of carpeu and rugs. In
yeing and finishing textiles New Jersey was firrt anKM^ the states
of the Union in 1900 (value. $10,488,963, being 33-3% of the total
for the country) and in 1905 (value, $11,979,947* being 33-6 % of
the total for the country); nterKW is the centre of tnis industry
in New Jersey.
In the manufacture of clay products, including brick, tiling, tena
cotu and pottery, the sute takes high rank: the total value of
pottery, terra cotu and fire-clay producu increased from $8,940,733
in 1000 to $11,717,103 in 1905: in 190$ the most valuable pottery
product was saniury ware, valued at $3,006,406; and in that year
New Jersey furnished i8-3 % of the total pottery product of the
United Sutes, and was suriassed in this industry only by Ohio.
The city of Trenton is one of the two great centres of the Amencaii
pottery industry, and in 1905 it manufactured more than one-lutif
of the sUte's output of pottery, terra cotU and fire-clay prodi
The pottery products include china, cc ware, white gramte ^
s. belleek and porcelain. Much of the raw materia
samury ware. I
lucta
WRue.
material for
The leading single industry in the sute in 1901^, as determined by
the value of its products, was the smelting and refiniiy of ooppcr.
In 1900 the output was valued at $38,365,131; in 190$, at
$63,795,713. An increase of 63-7 %; and in 1905 3i-6 % of the
product 01 the United Sutes came from New jersey. The raw
materials for tbb industry, however, are imported into New Jersey
from other sutes. In the smelting and refimng of platinum. nackeL
gold and silver (not from the ore) there was a striking devetopsnent
between 1900 and 1905, the value of the product increasing fn»
$469,334 to $7,034,139- The value in 1905 of gold and silwr
reduced and refined (not from the ore) was $5.381, 80s. The values
of the other leading manufactures in 1905 were as follows: products
of foundry and* machine shops. $49435,38^: iron and stcrP Ga-
cluding producU of blast furnaces and rolling mills). $33,667*^3;
wire (exclusive of copper wire). $11,103,950; petroleum refining.
$46,608,984; Unned, curried and finished leather. $31495.339
i5th in the United Sutes in 1900 and 1905): malt bquon.
; 1 7446447; sbughter-house producU and packed meats,
$17,338,076; electrical machinery, supfdics and apparatus,
$13,893,476 (5th in the United Sutes in I900andin I905):diemicab»
$13,043,039: robber ,bclUng and^ hose, $9,^15.743: jewelry,
$^.303,646 (4th in the Umted Sutes in 1900 and in 1905): tobaooow
cigars and ogarettes, $8,331,611. Other manufactures valued in
1905 at more than $5,000,000 were: booU and shoes, cars and
general railway shop work, illuminating and heating gas. lumber
and planing mill products, phonographs, fertilisers, flour and grist
mill products, iron and sted ships, refined lard and paper and
wood pulp.
Fisheries.-— The fisheries of the sute are of great commercial
value. In 1904 the fisheries and the wholesale fish trade gave
employment to 9094 persons. Until 1901 New Jersey's fisheries
were more imporUnt than those of any other sute in the Middle
or South Atlantic groups; but after that date, owing to a decrease
in the catch of bluefish, shad, dams and oysters, the annual catch
of New York and Virginia became more valuable. The great
length of river and sea front, and the easy commuracation from aB
parts of the state with the leading urban markets, have brought about
the development of this industry. The total catch in IQ04 was
90,108,068 lb, valued at $3,385415, a dedine of 38 % in value since
1901. The chid varieties of the product in 1904, with their value.
pursuit, is earned on in seventeen counties,
atuins iu greatest imporUnce in Cumberland county, where the
catch in 1904 was valued at $1,090,157, and the oyster catch alone
at $i.046,t47> In the other counties along the Delaware shad is
the chid product, and these counties furnish neariy nine-tenths of
the catch. A small amount of shad is uken also in the Hudaoo
river. The value of the shad fisheries has greatly dedined since
1901. Along the coast squeteague b the most abundant edible
variety Uken. Bluefish are very plentiful from 4 to 10 m. off
Seabnght. The shdl fisheries (oysters particulariy) are centred ia
Delaware Bay and at Maurice River Cove, in Cumberland county,
but are important also in Cape May, Atlantic, Ocean and Monmouth
*This is one of the oldest of the imporUnt industries in New
Jersey: at Old Boonton. about 1770, was esublishcd a rolling aod
slitting mill, probably the first in the country.
S
NEW JERSEY
eoontics on the Atlantic sesbbuxl. Thb iiiduatry declined for a
time, partly on account of the poUution of the streamt by lewage
and the rduae of manufacturing establiahroents, but lawi have been
enacted for its protection and development. Clama are gathered
from Perth Amboy to the upper Delaware Bay; the moet imporunt
fiaheriet being at Keyport, Port Monmouth and Belford. In 1909
the State Bureau of Shell Fisheries estimated the annual value of
abell fisheries in the sute at nearly |6,ooo,ooo. of which $500,000
was the value of dams. Monmouth, Ocean and Cape Mav counties
furnish large quantities of menhaden, which are utuised lor oil and
fertiliser. This industry in 1904 yielded fertilinr valued at
f 154.360 and oil valued at $33,110.
Transportation, — In 1905. with a total railway mlleafl^ of
3374'40) Ner jnvry porassnl An avenge of ^q aa m. of railway
for each !«> kj- m. of territory, an d\icragc higher than that of any
c^hcr American itatc; in tE^, according to the State Railroad
Ccousuwoncfis, the miJcagt was 23540^ tiiKEuding additional
tradcB, odloEa, 5rc. , Sij- 1 38 m.), Owins to 11 s gcrpgraphical position
the state is cnoasea by sX\ roadi niching; Ntw York Citv from
tlw & and W-« ami «11 iKoee jr?AchinK Phihdclphi.i from the N. and
E, Tbe eastern tcnninata or the southern jind wi:;^tcrn lines running
fmn New York Qit^ art ^ttiatc^j on the wratcm shore of the Hudson
river* in Wechawken. Hobokim or Jerwy City; whence passengers
and freight are cairied by ferry to Nc* York. Jeney Qty and
KobolceD an alio co<nnect«l with Ntrw York by tunnels under the
Hudson river. Among tbe» lines an! tbe Eric system, extendins
W. frao Jeriey Oty via BljETjIo: the hjew York, Susquehanna &
Wabon (subbdiaiy to the Exx). fmiu Jersiy City to Wilkes- Barr^,
Ptanmylvanii ; the Delaware^ Lackawanna Ss. VVe^tr.-m, from Hoboken
to BoJalo^ tbe Lehigh V^alley, from Jersey City to Buffak>: the
Pemuylvanidr ffom Jersey City to tho S- and W'; the New York,
Ontario & Western (controlled by the New York, New Haven &
Rirtfofid}, from Wcehawkcn to Osweco; th« West Shore Ceased
by iher New York Central), from Wcchauki^n to Buffalo; and
the Central railway of New Jersey tconi rolled by the Philadelphia
& ReadinE)^ with numeroui short lines from Jersey City to the S.
and W. Thc$e ri>ad:& sisa operate numcious brnnch lines and control
other short ltr!« buiU indtpcndently. Atncmc ihc latter class are
tbe Atlantic Ck>(; railway (contrDllcd by the Philadt Iphia & Reading)
|n?rn Phibdclpnia to varioiis coast resorts in wutliem New Jersey;
and the We»t Jersey ^ Seaahore (controlled by ^he Pennsylvania),
from Philadelphia to Atlantic City and Ciipc Miy. The railways
opaf^yiag indepetiidcri,tiy of the great " trunk '' ^yttems are few and
mant. The cjocellence of the w^ggopi rrt.ids of the state is
due to the plentiful supply of trap nxik in New Jersey.
tew Jcirsey's 4)^7 m. of boundary, 319 in. are touched by
ftavig:ablc for boatt of varying araft. There is tidal water
« tbr E. and S,, and al^ on the W, at; far N, as Trenton. The
bnRT Hudson is n^viga|J]<^ for the largest ocr^rin'-going steamers.
From BcTHtn Point to Perth Amboy, W. of St it en Island, lie the
narrow channel!^ of the Kill van Kulland Arthur Kill, with a minimum
depth of 9 or to ft. at low waier. Raritan Bny, to the S., is navigable
o^y for amalE vesstl*. There are no good harbours on the Atlantic
eout* The lower Delaware is navia'abLc for ociran steamships as
far N. as Camden (oppd$ite Fhtladefphia), and Ux small vessels as
fir oa Trenton^ which is the head of nasigation. The onlv deep
water tjcnninals of the state arc Jersey City and Eloboken. Amoi^^
the riwrt the Raritan i* navigable to New Orun^^ck, the H^kcn-
^K.fe for small boats for 70 tn. above its mouth, the Rahway as far
ai Rah way, the Grtrat Egif Harbor river as far as May's Landing,
tbe Mullica for 20 ni. above it& mouth, and the Elizabeth river as
far at Elizabeth, lii 1907 an inland waterway from Cape May to
Bay Head was ptanncd; the length of thii channel, through and
betwi^^n coaiLal souEidd from the ftouthernmost pwrt of the state to
the northern end of Borncgal Bay in the N,£, part of Ocean county,
was to be about it 66 nt,,. and the channel n^a^ tn be 6 ft. deep and
100 It. wide. The ixiawaj* and fUntan caiut* was long a very
*The Pennsylvania railway has constructed tunnels under the
Hudson river, and has erected a large terminal sution on Manhattan
* In William Winterbotham's An Historical, Ceoiraphical, Com-
murcial and Pkilosopkical View ef the American United States, &c.
(London, 179^ there was a discussion of the feasibility of a canal
between tbe Delaware and the Rariun. In 1804 a company was
chartered 'to build such a canal; in 1816 a route was surveyed;
in 1823 a commission was appointed whkJi recommended a route
and siwgested that the sUte take part in building the canal; in
December 1826 a canal company was incorporated with a monopoly
of canal and railway privileges within 10 m. of any part of the canal
authorised, but Pennsylvania refused permission to use the waters
of tbe Delaware, and the charter lapsed; in 1830 the Delaware and
Raritan Calial Company was incorporated by an act which forbade
the omstniction of any other canal within 5 nu of the -'———«
route of the Delaware and Raritan, and which
state tbe right to buy the waterway 30 years (changed in 1831 to
SO ycars)^aiter iU completion. Lieutenant (afterwards Commodore)
Robert F. Stockton (i795-«866), president of the Company, con-
505
important artificial waterway. Its main channel (opened for
traffic in 1838) extends from Bordentown, Burlington county, on
the Ddaware to New Brunswick, on the Raritan. 44 m.by the canal
route, and thus carries the waters of the Delaware river entirely
across the state, dischaiging them into the Rariun at New Bruns-
wick. It is 40 ft. wide at the bottom. 80 ft. at the top and 9 ft.
deep; it has a navigable feeder (30 ft. wide at the bottom and 60 ft.
wide at the top, with a depth of 9 ft.), which is 22 m. long, extending
from the Delaware at Bull's Head to Trenton. The canal passes
through Trenton (the highest point— 56-^ ft. above mean tide);
Kiogston, Cmggston. Weston and Bound Brook, and has one kxlc
(or more) at each of these places. It is used chiefly for the trans-
portation of Pennsylvania coal to New York, and is controlled by
tbe Pennsylvania railway. The total cost up to 1906 was $5. 1 13.749.
The Morris Canal,* opuoed in 1836, is 50 ft. wide at the surface.
y> ft. wide at the bottom and $ ft. deep, and (excluding 4*1 m. of
feeders) 102*38 m. long, beginning at Jersey Qty and passing
through Newark, Bloomfield, Paterson, LitUe Falls, Boonton,
Rockaway, Dover, Port Oram, Lake Hopatcong, Hackettstown and
Washington to Phillipsburg on the Delaware; it is practically in
two sections, one east and the other west of Lake Hopatcong (Sussex
and Morris counties; about 928 ft. above sea-level; 9 m. long from
N.E. to S.W.; maximum width, i m.), which is a reservoir and
feeder for the canal's eastern and western branches, and which was
enlarged considerably when the canal was built. There is another
feeder, the Pompton, \'6 m. long, in Passaic county. The canal
crosses the Passaic ana Pompton rivers on aqueducts. The Canal
(the Morris Canal Banking Company) was leased in April 1871
to the Lehigh Valley Railroad Company for 999 years. It is no
longer of commerdal importance as a waterway. At Phillipsburg it
connects with an important coal carrying canal (lying almost
entirely in Pennsylvania), the property of the Lehign Coal and
Navigation 0>. (teased to the Central Railroad of New Jersey),
which follows the Lehigh river to Coalport (Carbon county, Pennsyl-
vania), penetrating the coal regions of Pennsylvania.
i>0pt(la/>0».— The population of the sUte in x88o was 1,131,1x6;
in 1890, x,444>933; in X900, x,883,669 (43X1S84 foreign-bom,
and 69,844 negroes); in 1905 (state census) 2,X44,X34; in 1910,
3>537»i67. Of tbe native-bom white population in 1900, 556,394
were of foreign parentage, and 825,973 were of native parentage.
Among the various elements comprising the foreign-bora popula-
tion were 1x9,598 Germans; 94,844 Irish; 45,428 Enj^ish;
41,865 Italians; 19,745 Russians; 14,9x3 Hungarians; X4,728
Austrians; X4,357 Poles; X4,2xx Scotch; and xo,26i Dutch.
In x8oo barely 2% of the population was urban; in X900 80%
of the inhabitants cither lived in dties or were in daily com-
munication with Philadelphia or New York. The rural popula-
tion is practically stationary. The chief cities in 1 910 were
Newark (pop. 347,469), Jersey City (267,779), Palerson(x25,6oo),
Trenton (96,815), Camden (94,538) and Hoboken (70,324).
Owing to its milder climate aiid its laiger number of cities New
Jersey has a negro population somewhat larger than that of the
states of the same latitude farther west. The rate of incrca.<(e
of this element, which is greatest in the dties, is about the same
as that for the white inhabitants. Since x88x colonies of Hebrews
have been established in the southem pait of the state, among
them being Alliance (x88x), Rosenhayn (1882), Carmcl (1883),
and, most noted of all. Woodbine, which owes its origin to the
liberality of Baron de Hirsch, and contains the Baron de Hirsch
Agricultuxal and Industrial SchooL As regards church affilia-
tion, in X906 Roman Catholics were the most numerous, with
44x^132 members out of a total of 857,548 communicants of all
denominations; there were x 22,51 x Methodists, 79>9i2 Presby-
terians, 65,348 Baptists, 53,93x Protestant Episcopalians,
32,290 members of the Reformed (Dutch) Church in America,
and 24,X47 Lutherans.
* The Morris Canal & Banking Company was chartered in 1824
Cributed greatly to iu financial s
with the Camden & Amboy railway.
success. In 183 1 it was combined
to build the Morris Canal, whkh never proved a financial success,
partly because of the competition 01 the Delaware Raritan.
whicn soon commanded the coal trade, and partly because of phyacal
and mechanical defects. It was exempted from all taxation by the
state, which reserved the right to buy it, at a fair price, in 1923 or.
without making any payment, to succeed to the actual ownership
in 1973 upon the extnration of the charter. The idea of utilizing
the waters of Lake Hopatcong was that of Georse P. MacCulloch
of Morristown. A peculiar feature of the canal was a system of
inclined planes or railways on which there were cradles, carryingthe
canal boat up (or down) the incline; these were devised by Pro-
fessor James Renwick (1818-1895) of Columbia College; 12 of them
in the eastern division raised boats altogether about 720 ft., and ix
of them in the western division lowered the boats about 690 ft.~the
remainder of the grade was overcome by kxks.
5o6
NEW JERSEY
Administration.— The state is governed under the constitution
of 1844, with subsequent amendments of 1875 and of 1897.
The only other constitution under which the state has been
governed was that of 1776 (see History below). The right of
suffrage is conferred upon all males, twenty-one years of age and
over, who have resided in the state for one year and in the county
for five months preceding the election.^ Paupers, idiots, insane
persons and persons who are convicted of crimes which exclude
them from being witnesses and who have not been pardoned
and restored to civil rights are disfranchised. The executive
power is vested in a governor, who is elected for a term of three
years and may not serve two successive terms, though he may
be re-elected after he has been out of office for a full term. He
must be at least thirty years of age, and must have been a citizen
of the United States for a least twenty years, and a resident of
the state seven yeara next preceding his election. He may not
be elected by the kgislature, during the term for which he is
elected as governor, to any office under the state or the United
States governments. He receives a salary of $10,000 a year.
If the governor die, resign or be removed from office, or U his
office be otherwise vacant, he is succeeded by the president of the
Senate, who serves until another governor is elected and qualified.
The governor's powers under the constitution of 1776 were
greatly limited by the constitution of 1844. His appointive
power is unusually large. With the advice and consent of the
state Senate he selects the secretary of state, attorney-general,
superintendent of public instruction, chancellor, chief justice,
judges of the supreme, circuit, inferior and district courts, and
the 80<allcd " lay " judges of the court of errora and appeals,
in addition to the minor administrative officers who are usually
appointive in all American states. The governor may make no
appointments in the last week of his term. The state treasurer,
comptroller and the commissioners of deeds are appointed
by the two houses of the legislature in joint session. The
governor is ex officio a member of the court of pardons, and his
affirjnative vote is necessary in all cases of pardon or commuta-
tion of sentence (see below).
The legislative department consists of a Senate and a General
Assembly. In the Senate each of the 21 counties has one repre-
sentative, chosen for a term of three years, and about one-third
of the membership is chosen each year. The members of the
General Assembly are elected annually, are limited to sixty (the
actual number in 1909). and are apportioned among the counties
according to population, with the important proviso, however,
that every county shall have at least one member.
The arrangement of aenatorial representation is very unequal;
and the densely popubtcd counties are under-represented. A
senator must at the time of his election be at least thirty years old.
and must have been a citizen and inhabitant of the state for four
years and of his county for one year immediately preceding his
election ; and an assemblyman must at the time oc his election be
at least twenty-one years old, and must have been a citizen and
inhabitant of the state for two years, and of his county for one year,
immediately preceding hb election. The annual salary of each
senator and of each member of the General Assembly is $500.
Money bills originate in the lower house, but the Senate may propose
amendments. The legislature may not create any debt or liability
" which shall, single or in the aggregate with any previous debts or
liabilities, at any time exceed ^100,000," except for purposes of
war, to repel invasion or to suppress insurrcction,*without specifying
distinctly the purpose or obiect, providing for the payment 01
interest, and limiting the liaDiHty to thirty-five years; and the
measure as thus pa^cd must be ratified by popular vote. The
constitution as amended in i8;r5 forbids the (egislature to pass any
private or special laws regulating the affaire of towns or counties,
or to vote state giants to any municipal or industrial corporations or
societies, and prescribes that in imposing taxes the assessment of
taxable property shall be according to general laws and by uniform
rules; and anti-race-tiack agitation in 1891-1897 led to a further
amendment prohibiting the legalizing of lotteries, of pool-sellitq^
*The constitution of 1844 limited the suffrage to white males,
and although this limiution was annulled by the fifteenth amend-
ment to the Federal G>nstitution, it was not until 1875 that the
state by an amendment (adopted on the 7th of September) struck
the word " white " from iu suffrage clause. At the same time
another amendment was adopted providing that saibre and soldien
in the service of the United States in time 01 war might vote although
absent from their election districts.
or oi other forma of gamblii^.
any item in any appropriation bill, 1
i 187s) veto
Thegovcrnoc n
but any b
fe maioriti . _
both houses. Bills not returned to the l^islature in five days
. ... . any. bill (or item) nay be
passed over hb veto by bare majorities (of all members elected) I
become law, unless the lefljislature adjourns in the meantime.
Amendments to the constitution must first -be passed by the Icgia-
lature at two consocutiv» sesuons (receiving a majority vote of all
members elected to each house), and then be ratified by the vqcars
at a special election, and no amendment or aroendmenu may be
submitted by the legislature to the people oftener than once in
five years.
The judicial system Is complex and b an interesting develop-
ment from the English system of the x8th century. At iU head
b a court of errors and appeals composed of the chancellor, the
Justices of the supreme court and six additional " lay " judges.
The supreme court consbts of a chief justice and eight associate
justices, but it may be held by the chief justice alone or by any
one of the associate justices. The state b divided into nine
judicial dbtricts, and each supreme court justice holds circuit
courts within each county of a judicial dbtrict, besides being
associated with the " president " judge of the court of common
pleas of each county in holding the court of common pleas, the
court of quarter sessions, the court of oyer and terminer and the
orphans' cotirt. One of five additional judges may hold a cimiit
court. in the absence of a justice of the supreme court, or 'the
" president " judge of a court of common pleas may do so if the
supreme court justice requests it. In each township there axe
from two to five justices of the peace, any one of whom may
preside over the " small cause court," which has juzisdiction
of cases in which the matter in dbpute does not exceed $300
and b not an action of replevin, one in which the chaiige b slander,
trespass or assault, battery or imprisonment, or in which, the
title to real estate b in question.
The court of common pleas, vriiicfa may be hekl either by the
" prendent " judge or by a justKC of the supreme couit. may hear
appeals from the small cause court," and has original jurisaictioa
in all civil matters except those in which the title to real esute is in
question. The court of quarter sessions, whkh may likewbe be held
by either the judge of the court of common pleas or by a jostioe ol
the supreme court, has jurisdiction over all criminal cases except
those of treason or murder. The ccnut of oyer and tenaincr ia a
higher criminal court, and has cognizance of all crimes and offences
whatever. Except in counties having a popuUtioo of 300/)Oo or
more, a justice ol the supreme court must preside over it, and the
judge of the court of common pleas may or may not sit with him;
m a county having a population of 300.000 or more the judge of
the court of common pleas may nt alone. Writs of error in cases
punishable with death are returnable only to the court of errors
and appeals. No appeab are permitted in criminal cases. The
orphans' court mav be held either by the judge of the court c£
common pleas or oy a justice of the supreme court; and it has
iurisdiction over controversies respecting the existence of wills, the
taimess of inventories, the right of administration and guardianship,
the allowance of accounu to executors, administrators, guardians or
trustees, and over suits for the recovery of legacies and distrOwtive
shares, but it may refer any matter a>ming before it to a 1
chancciy. The prerogative court, which b presided over by the
chancellor as ordinary and surrogate-general, or by a viceHonunary
and vice-surrogate-general, may hear appeab from the orphnns*
court, and has the authority to grant probate of wiUs and letters of
adminbtFBtion and guardbnship, and to hear and determine disputes
arising therein. The court of chancery b administered by a chan-
celk)r. seven vice-chancellors and numerous masters in chancery.
Besides the ordinary chancery jurisdiction it hears all applicailions
for divorce or nullity of marriage^ Appeab from the court of
chancery as well as write of error from the supreme coortarebcnrd
by the court of erron and appeals. New Jcisey has a ooort of
pardons composed of the governor, chancellor and the six ** lay "
jud^ of the court of errore and appeals, and the ooncurreaoe of a
majority of ite members, of whom the governor shsU be one, is
necessary to grant a pardon, commute a sentence or remit a fine.
Thb court has, also, the authority to grant to a convict a liceaoe
to be at large upon such security, terms, conditions and limitations
as it may requue. The judges of the several New Jcney courts
are appointed by the governor with the consent of the Senate for a
term of years, usually five to fl
For the purposes of local government the state b divided into
counties, cities, townships, towns and boroughs. The govern.
ment of the towns b adminiateied through a coundl, derk,
collector, assessor, treasurer, 8te., choaen by popular vote; that
of the townships b vested in the annual town meeting, at whkh
adminbtrative oflkcrs aze elected. Any township with oiore
NEW JERSEY
duo 5000 inbabiUBts DAy be incorponted as a town, witb iu
gavmantnt vested in a mayor and coundL Any township or
part thereof with less than 4 sq. m. of territory, and less than
5000 inhabitants, may be incorporated as a borough, with iu
government vested in a mayor and council.
In 1903 a law (leviaed in 1908} was pasted provtdiji|t for the
conduct at public cost of primary elections for tne nomination of
nearly all elective officers, and for the nomination, of delegates to
party nominating conventions; nominations for primary elections
are made by petitions signed by at least ten voters ^except in very
small election districts) who make affidavit as to their party
tiooa; the nominee thus indorsed must file a letter 01 acceptance.
Under this act a "political party" b one which polled at least
one-twentieth of the toul number of votes cast in the next preceding
election in the area for which the nomination is made; and in party
oooventioas there must be one delegate from each election district*.
and one delegate for each 300 votes cast by the party in the next
preceding gubernatorial election.
An act approved on the loth of April 1908 authorised a Gvil
Ser vfce Commission of four members appointed by the governor,
who choose a chief examiner and a secretary of the commission.
Qvil service rules adopted by this commission went into effect in
the same year for certain state empbyes. In 1910 that part of the
hw permitting munidpah'ties to adopt these rules through their
governing boaMS was declared unconstitutional; but munidpalities
may adopt them by popular vote.
A state Board of Railroad G>inmisaionen (three appointed by
the governor), created in 1007, became in 19 10 a Board of Public
Utifaty Cbmmintoners with jurisdiction over all public utilities
fincluding telephones and telegraphs) ; its approval b nec essa ry
lor the issue of stock or bonds, but it has no power to fix rates.
The 'state acu concurrently with New York in preserving the
natural beauties of the Pahsades of the Hudson river; and in
IQ09 the Palisades Inteistatc Park, with a front of 13 m. on the
Hu«>n, from Fort Lee to Piermont, was dedicated.
The homestead exempt from sale under sdzure is limited to the
house and lot, not exceeding $1000 in value, of a debtor having a
Noilly. To entitle the property to exemption, it roust be registered
as a nomcstead in the office of the county clerk, and it may be
sold, then, only with the consent of the husband and wife, and the
proce e ds of the sale, to the amount of $1000, must be applied to
the porchase of another homestead. The exemption does not extend
to a sale for unpaid taxes, for labour done on the homestead, materials
furmshed to it. or for a debt contracted in the purchase thereof, or
prior to the ren)rding of the notice. The exemption inures to the
benefit of the widow and family of the householder until the youngest
child becomes twenty-one years of age.
Capital punishment is by electrocution. A law of 1903 provides the
death penalty for any murderous assault on the president of the United
States, thechief executive of any state, orthe heir toany foreien throne.
The grounds for an absolute divorce are only two: adultery and
' wilful, continued and obstinate " desertion for two years; but a
decree of limited or permanent separation may be obtained in case
of extreme crudty. Unless the cause of action is adultery or at
least one of the parties was a resident of the state at the time the
cause of action arose and has continued to reside there, no suit for
a divorce can be begun until one of the parties shall have resided in
the state for the two years next preceding. Furthermore, the cause
of action must have been recc^nized in tne jurisdiction in which the
petitioner resided at the time it arose.
No child less than fourteen vears old is permitted to work in any
factory, workshop or mill; ana the penalty for each offence is $50.
The employment of children under sixteen years of age in any
mercantile establishment for more than 10 hours a day. or M hours
a week, or between. 6 o'dock in the evening and 6 o'dock in the
morning is prohibited, except one evening each week when they may
be permitted to work until 9 o'clock, and except in the evenings from
the 15th to the 35th of December when they may be permitted to
work until 10 o'clock. There are strict provisions for the protection
and for the sanitary housing of factoiy employees, and prohibiting
sweat-shops. A state law (1899) reouires the payment of wages in
lawful money at least every two weeks to its employees on the part
of every firm, association or partnership doing business in the state.
Edmcation. — During the colonial period there were schools
maintained by churches, a few town schools of the New England
type, and, in the latter part of the era, a number of private
schools. But the schoob of colonial New Jersey, especially the
private schoob, were usually taught by incompetent makers,
and many children were permitted to grow up without any
schooling whatever. Public interest in education, however,
began to awaken soon after the dose of the War of Independence.
Under the encouragement of an act of the legblature passed in
1794 several academies were established. A public school fund
was established in 1817. Three years Uter townships were
KOibonzed to levy. taxes for maintaining schoob for poor children.
507
The division of townships into school districts and the election
of three trustees were provided for in 1829. In 1846 each town-
ship was required to raise as much money for school purposes
as the state contributed. In 1855 a normal school for training
teachers was established at Trenton. And in 1867 a school law
was passed which established the main features of the present
school system, although it was four years later before a state
school tax was imposed and schoob were made free to all
children in the state. The public school system b adminbtered
under the direction of a superintendent of public instiuction
and a state board of education. The former decides all con-
troversies arising under the school law, and exercises a general
supervision over the public schoob; the latter has the control of
a number of special state educational institutions, appoints
the county superintendents and supervises the execution of the
school laws of the state. In general each dty, town and township
in the state constitutes a separate school dbtrict, although two
or more of these may tmite to form a single district. Each dbtrict
b required to fumbh free textbooks. All children between the
ages of 7 and 15 are required to attend school for the full school
year, and those who at 15 years of age have not completed
the grammar school course must continue to attend until they
either complete it or arrive at the age of 17. Furthermore,
children past 15 years of age who have completed the grammar
school course but are not regularly and lawfully employed at
some useful occupation must attend a high school or a manual
training school until 17 years of age.
Funds for the support of the public schoob are derived from
various sources: (n the interest on the VsurfJus revenue"
($760,670), deposited with New Jersey by the Federal government
in 1836: (3) the income from the state school fund, consisting
largely of recdpts from the sale and rental of riparian bnds *; (3) a
state school tax; (4) a direct approprbtion by the legisbture to
supplement the school tax, so that the two combined will form a
sum equal to a tax of two and three-fourths milb on each dolbr of
taxable property; and (5) local taxes. At the dose of the fiscal
year 1908 the schod fund of the sute was $4,850.6o3*4i ; the
income for the year was $334,233-56 and the disbursements were
$373i095'7<^ Tne income from the state schod fund b divided
among the counties on the basis of the total number of days of
attendance of the public schod pupils; the Icfiisbtive appropriation,
however, b apportioned among the counties according to thdr
assessed property values. Each county also received 90% of the
sute school tax it has paid, the remainder forming a reserve fund
to be distributed among the counties at the discretion of the state
board. The state will duplicate any yearly sum between $350 and
$5000 which a school district may raise to maintain a school or
courses of manual training. In like manner, any schod that raises
$20 for a library will recdve the same amount from the state,
which will also contribute $10 each year thereafter for maintenance,
if the school raises a similar sum. The totaJ number d teachers
in the public schoob in 1908 was 10,279: the total schod enrollment
was 403.866, with an average daily attendance d 389,167; and the
average length d the schod term was nine months and two days.
For the benefit d veteran and invalid public school teachers there
is a " retirement fund," which owes its origin to voluntary con-
tributions by teachers in active service. The state has taken
official recognition d this fund and administers it on behalf of the
contributors through a board d trustees appointed by the ^vemor.
In addition to the regular public schools, the state maintains a
normal and a model school at Trenton, a normal school at Montclair
(opened 1908). the Farnum Preparatory School at Bewerly, a Manual
Training and Industrial School for Colored Youth at Bordentown,
and an agricultural college and experiment station, maintained in
connexion with Rutgers College, at New Brunswick. There are
industrial schoob in >Iewark, Hoboken and Trenton, for which the
state nude an appropriation of $20,000 in 1908. Among the
prominent institutions not receivins state aid are Princeton Uni-
versity, at Princeton; Rutgers College (excluding its agricultural
school), at New Brunswick; and the Stevens Institute d Techno-
IcK^, at Hoboken. Among the denominational institutions are the
Theological Seminary (Presbyterian) at Princeton; the Drew
Thedogical Seminary (Methodist Episcopal) at Madison; Seton
Hall College (Roman Catholic), at South Orange; St Peter's College
(Roman Catholic) at Jersey City; St Benedict's College (Roman
Cathdic) at Newark; the (Serman Theological Schod of Newark
* The sute's title to its riparian lands was established, after a
long controversy, in 1870 in the case of Stevens v. the Paterson Sf
Newark R.R. Co. (5 Vroom's Reports 533). Since that date, with
the exception d the period of Governor Abbett's second administra-
tion (1890-1893), the proceeds from the sale and rental d these
lands have been regularly applied to the school fund.
So8
NEW JERSEY
n>rcsbyterian) at Bloomfidd; and the Theological Seminary oC the
(Dutch) Reformed Church in America, at New Brunswick. There
are man;^ private academies and secondary schools, sectarian and
non-sectanan.
The state support^ the following charitable and correctional
institutions all under the inspection of a State Department of
Charities and Correction (i<)os) ; hospitals for the insane at Trenton
and Morris Plains; a training-school for feeble-minded children
(partly supported by the state) and a home for feeble>minded women
at Vindaixl; a sanatorium for tuberculous diseases at Glen Gardner;
a village for epileptics,* with a farm of 700 acres, near Skillman,
Somerset county: a atatc home (nSorm school) for boys near
iamcsburg, Middlesex county, and for girls in Ewing township, near
'renton; a state reformatory for criminals sixteen to thirty years of
age, near Rahway; a state prison at Trenton; a home for disabled
soldiers at Kearney,^ Hudson county; a home for disabled soldiers,
sailors and their wives at Vineland'; and a school for the deaf at
Trenton. There b no institution for the blind, but the state pays the
expenses of blind children who are sent from New Jersey to the New
York Sute School for the Blind. A State Board of Children's
Guardians, with an office in Jeraey City, cares for destitute children.
A convict parole law went into operation in 1891.
Finance.— 'The revenues for state and for local purposes are
derived from separate sources. The expenses of the state
government are met chiefly by special taxes on railway and
canal corporations, a franchise tax on the capitxd stock of other
corporations, a collateral inheritance tax and leases of riparian
lands. The counties and municipalities derive their revenues
chiefly from taxes on real and personal property. Real and
personal property is free from a state tax, except for school
purposes. The school tax is apportioned among the counties
in proportion to their taxable property.
A large part of the state's revenue comes from the tax on railways
and canals, which b levied on the property actually employed m
their operation. Any profxrty of railways other than the ;* main
stem " (i.e. the road-bra with the rsib and sleepers not over 100 ft.
t'n width),' that b employed in operating the road or canal b taxed
>y the state for local purposes. Counties and municipalities may
tax property within their jurisdiction belonging to railways but not
actually used for railway purposes. Domestic telegraph, tdephone,
express, cable, pariour- and sleeping-car. gas- and electric-l^hting,
oil and pipe line companies, and several classes of insurance com-
panies, are taxed on the amount of their gross receipts. Other
domestic corporations frc taxed on the amount of their cai^tal
stock. The rate of this tax decreases as the amount of capital
stock incroases, thus favouring large corporations. On all capital
stock up to $3/x)o,ooo, the rate b one-tenth of l %; on all amounts
between three and five million dollars, the rate is one-twentieth of
I %: and on all above five million dollars, thirty dollars per million,
or 3/1000 of I %. An inheritance tax is levied on all bcauests in excess
of 9500 to persons other than specially csKcpted classes; and in
1907 the receipts from the "collateral inheritance tax" were
$241480. County SMid municipal revenue are derived from the tax
on general property. The poll tax b restricted almost entirely to
municipalities, which devote the proceeds to roads and schools.
The fees received for issuing charters to corporations are another
source of revenue to the sute. Toward corporations the policy of
New Jersey has always been liberal; there is no limit fixed either
to capitalization or to bonded indebtedness; the tax rate, as already
indicated, b lower for large than for small corporations; and so
many large combinations of capital have been incorporated under
the laws of the state that it b sometimes called " the home of the
trusts." For the fiscal year 1907 the foes collected from corpora-
tions by the secretary ci state amounted to 1204,454, the receipts
from the tax on corporations other than railways amounted to
$3,584,^63-60, and the receipts from the tax on railway corporations
were $807,780.* It b the revenue from these sources that has
enabkxl New Jersey to dbpense almost entirely with the general
property tax for state purposes. The legal requirement that every
corporation chartered by the state must maintain its principal ofiice
there has given rise to the peculiar institution called the " oorooration
agency," a single office which serves as the " principal oAce " of
numbers of corporations. At the close of the nscal year 1907 the
state was free f nmi bonded indebtedness,* and had a balance on hand
of $1.^20,038 (much less than in 1906, because of the non-payment
of railway taxes, pending Utigatbn). In the state fund, the total
* Also receives Federal aid. * Idtm,
* Passenger stations and depot buildings were included as part of
the " main stem " until 1906, when their exclusion gave considerable
added revenue to the municipalities.
* The tax on railway corporations collected by the state for local
purposes and paid over to the kxal govcmments in 1907 amounted
to $581,794-
*The only sUte debt b state certificates for $116,000 issued to
the commissioners of the Agricultural College.
receipts for the year were $4,602,100, and the total
$5,366,813.
HisUry. — Bones and implements have been found in the
Quaternary graveb at Trenton, which have been held by some
authorities to prove the presence of Palaeolithic maa; but the
earliest inhabitants of New Jersey of whom there u any certain
record were the Lenni-Lennap^ or Delaware Indians, a branch
of the Algonquian family. They were most numerous in the
southern and central portions of the state, preferring the river
valleys; but their total number, perhaps, never exceeded a
thousand. Between them and the European settlers there were
seldom any manifestations of acute hostility, thou^ each race
feared and dbtrusted the other. Many Indians were enslaved,
and intermarriage between them and negro slaves became
common. During the i8th century the Indian title to the aofl
was rapidly extinguished, and at the same time the vices and
diseases of the stronger race were gradually reducing their
numbers. In 1758 an Indian reservation, said to have been the
first esublished within the present limiu of the United Sutes,
was esublished at Edgepelick, or Brotherton (now called Indian
MiUs) in Burlington county. The surviving aborigines remained
there until 1802, when they joined the Mohegans in New York
and migrated to Wisconsin and later to Indian Territory, now part
of the state of Oklahoma. For the extinction of all Indian titles
the legislature of New Jersey in 1832 appropriated $2000, attd
since that date almost every vestige of Indian occupation has
disappeared. *
The first authenticated visit of a European to what is now
New Jersey was made under French authority by Giovanni da
Verrasano, a Florentine navigator, who in the spring of 1524
sailed within Sandy Hook and dropped anchor in the waters ol
upper New York Bay. In the following year Estevan Gomea, a
Portuguese sailor in the service of the emperor Charles V., in his
reputed voyage southward from Labrador, b said to have made
note of the Hudson and Delaware rivers. It b very probable,
also, that French traders soon afterward penetrated the region
along the lower Hudson. Voyages to thb region for ezploratkni,
trade and settlement, however, may be said to have reidly began.
with the year 1609, when Henry Hudson explored the regMm
between Sandy Hook and Raritan Bay and sailed up the rivet
which now bears his name. After this voyage came Dutch
Uaders, who established themselves on Manhattan Island and
soon spread across the Hudson river into what are now Hudson
and Bergen counties. In 16x4 Comelb Jacobsen Mey explored
the lower Delaware, and two years later Comelis Hendricksen
more thoroughly explored thb stream. In 1623 the first party
of permanent bomeseekers arrived at New Amsterdam, and a
portion of these formed a settlement on the eastern bank of
the Delaware and built Fort Nassau near the site of the preacnt
Gloucester City. In'i63x Samuel Godyn and Samuel Blommaext
secured a patent from Peter Minuit, the director of New Nethcr-
land, authorizing them to plant a settlement near Cape May,
but the effort was soon abandoned. A trading hut built at
Paulus ilook in 1633 was the beginning of the present Jersey
City. On the western bank of the Hudson the trading post of
Hobocanhackingh, on the site of the present dty of Hobokcn,
was established at an eariy date. From these places and from
New Amsterdam the Dutch spread into the Raritan Valley.
During the rule of Governor William Kief t, the Indians, disturbed
by the encroachments of the settlers, assumed a hostile attitude.
The actual occasion of the Indian outbreak was the massacre
of a number of Tappan Indians in 1643 by soldiers acting under
Kief t's orders. From the Connecticut to the Raritan the savages
rose in arms, laid waste the farms, massacred the settleis and
compelled those who escaped to take refuge on Manhattan
Island. The Dutch engaged the services of about fifty Eagltth-
men under Captain John Underbill, a hero of the Pequot War,
and in 1644 the Indians were defeated in several cngagenents,
but a general peace with them was not established smtil the
30th of August X645.
In the meantime colonbts of another nationality had set
foot on the shores of the lower Delaware. . To f onnd a colony ia
NEW JERSEY
the new world was long the desire of Gustavus Adolphus of
Sweden, but incessant European wan prevented the etublish-
ment of any settlement until after his death. In 1638 fifty
colonists landed on the western bank of the Delaware and built
Fort Christina on the site of the modem Wilmington. Five
yean later, on the eastern bank a triangular fort, called Elfsborg,
was constructed near the present Salem. But the Swedish rule
was short-lived, as in 165$ the settlements surrendered to Peter
Stuyvesant and passed under the control of the Dutch. Upon the
subsequent history of New Jeney the attempts of Holland and
Sweden at colonization had very little influence. The Dutch and
Swedes between the Delaware and the Hudson were mostly
traders, and therefore did not make many permanent settle>
ments or establish forms of government.
By the English of New England and Virginia the Dutch
and Swedes were regarded as intrudcn, and were repeatedly
warned against trespassing on English soil.^ As early as 1634 a
patent had been issued to Sir Edmund Plowden, appointing
him governor over New Albion, a tract of land including the
present sutes of New Jersey, Delaware, Maryland and Penn-
sylvania. In spite of great efforts, however. Sir Edmund failed
to plant a colony.' In 1634 a party of English from Virginia,
having ascended the Delaware and occupied Fort Nassau,
which the Dutch had abandoned, were promptly captured by
the Dutch, uken to New Amsterdam, and thence sent home,
arriving just in time to prevent the departure of a second English
expedition up the DeUwaxe. In 1641 English colonisu from New
Haven migrated southward and planted a settlement on the
eastern bank of the Delaware river, declaring it to be a part of
the New Haven jurisdiaion. In the following year Governor
Kieft, with the assistance of the Swedes, arrested the English
and sent them back to New Haven.
Many yean elapsed before an English sovereigti made any
effort to oust the Dutch from the dominions he claimed by
virtue of the discovery of the Cabots. On the xath of March
1664 Charles II. bestowed upon his brother James, duke of York,
all the lands between the Connecticut river and the eastern side
of Delaware Bay, as well as all the islands between Cape Cod
and the Hudson river. An expedition was sent from England in
May, under the command of Richard Nicolls, and in the following
August the English flag floated over New Amsterdam^ In
October Sir Robert Carr took possession of the settlements
on the Delaware, and terminated the rule of the Dutch. The
few inhabitants of what is now New Jersey acquiesced in the new
order. While the expedition commanded by Nicolls was still at
sea, the duke of York, by deeds of lease and release, transferred
to Lord John Berkeley, baron of Stratton, and Sir George
Carteret (jq.v.), all that part of his new possessions extending
eastward from the Delaware Bay and river to the Atlantic
Ocean and the Hudson river, and northward from Cape May to a
line drawn from the northernmost branch of the Delaware,
" which is 41* 40' hit.," to the Hudson river in 41** N. hit. To
this tract the name of Nova Caaarea, or New Jersey, was given,
as the same name had been given in a patent to Carteret issued
in 1650, to ** a certain ishind and adjacent islets" near Virginia,
in America, which were never settled— in hoiiour of Carteret,
who governed jthe isle of Jeney in 1643-1651 and there enter-
tained Prince Charles during his exile from England, the
> As cariy as 1613, Captain Samuel Argall. on his way to Vtmnia,
after brdlking up some Jesuit settlements at Port Royal, and Nf ount
Desert, passed through the Narrows near the mouth of the Hudson,
and finding a group of Dutch traders, made them haul down their
flag and replace it with that of England. In the spring of 1620
Thomas Dermer, an English ship captain, on his way from Monhcean
to Virginia, visited Manhattan Island and told the Dutch traders
that they would not be allowed to remain. In 1627 Governor
William Bradfofd of Plymouth jirotested by letter to the Dutch
against their occupancy, and thu warning from the Pilgrims was
iraeatcd at least twice.
•As bte as 1784, Charles Vario, an Englishman who had
nurcfaaaed one-thiid of the grant from the heirs of Sat Edmund
Plowden, came to New Jersey and sought to substantiate his
claim. Failing in a suit in chancery to obuin redness, he returned
to England, axKl nothing further was heard of the claimants to
New/Ubioo.
509
grant conferred upon Berkeley and Carteret all the territorial
rights which the royal charter had conferred upon the duke of
York; but whether or not the rights of government went with
these soon became a vexed question. In order to attract immi-
grants, the proprieton in February 1665 published their " Con-
cession and Agreement," by which they made provision for a
governor, a governor's council, and an assembly chosen by the
freemen and having the power to levy taxes. Special inducements
in the way of land granu were offered to persons embarking
with the fint governor. In the meantime Governor NicoUs
of New York, ignorant of the grant to Berkeley and Carteret,
had approved certain Indian sales of land to settlen within New
Jersey, and had confirmed their titles to tracU in what later
became Elizabethtown, Middletown and Shrewsbury. In this
way he unconsciously opened the way for future trouble.
MoiMver, when he had learned that the duke had parted with
New Jersey he convinced him that it was 4 great loss, and in the
effort to save what was possible, Staten Island was taken from
the proprieton on the plea that one arm of the Hudson flowed
along its western border.-
In August 1665 Philip Carteret, a relative of Sir George, arrived
in the province as iu fint governor. In May x668 he convoked
the fint assembly at Elizabethtown. At the next session, in
the following November, the towns of Shrewsbury and Middle-
town declared that they held their grants from Governor NicoUs,
and that they wen consequently exempt from any quit-rents
the proprieton might claim. They refused to pay their share of
the public expensespand their deputies, on refusing to take the
oath of allegiance and fidelity, were expelled from the assembly.
The disaffection soon spread and led to the so-called " disorgan-
izing" assembly in 1673, which went so far as to choose James
Carteret, a hwdgrave of Carolina and presumably a natural
son of Sir George, as " President." Philip Carteret returned
to England and laid the case before the proprieton; they
ordered President Carteret to continue on his way to Carolina
and confirmed as governor John Berry, whom Governor Carteret
had left behind as deputy. The duke of York declared that the
grants made by Nicolls were null and void; the king enjoined
obedience to the proprietors, and qtiiet was restored. Another
change was impending, however, and in August 1673, whoi a
Dutch, fleet appeared off Staten Ishuid, New Jersey for a second
time became a part of New Netberland. The settled region was
caUed " Achter KoU." or " Back Bay," after Newark Bay,
whose waten, lying behind the bay of New York, had to be
crossed in order to reach Elizabethtown. The period of Dutch
rule was short, and by the treaty of Westminster, of the 9th
of February 1674, the territory was restored to England. The
crown lawyen decided that the rights of the proprieton of New
York and New Jersey had been extinguished by the conquest,
and that by treaty the lands had been reconveyed, not to the
proprieton, but to the king. On the X3th of June 1674 Charles
II. accordingly wrote a letter confirming the title and power of
Carteret in the eastern half of New Jersey. No similar grant
was made to Berkeley, as on the i8th of March he had sold his
interest- in the province to John Fenwicke, sometime major in
the Parliamenury army and later a member of the Society of
Friends, and Edward Byllynge (d. 1687), a Quaker merchant.'
On the agth of June the duke of York received a new patent
similar to that of 1664. and he at once (on the 28th and 29th of
July) confirmed Carteret in all his rights in that portion of New
Jersey N. of a line drawn from Bamegat Creek to " Rankokus
Kill "— « stream a little S. of the site of Burlington— which was
considerably more than one-half of the province. The duke of
York commissioned Sir Edmund Andros as governor of his
dominions, including " all ye land from ye West side of Conneai-
cut River to ye East side of Delaware Bay." Sir George Carteret
again sent over his kinsman Philip Carteret to be governor of
the eastern part of New Jersey, and the two govemon arrived
in October 1674 hi the same ship. A disagreement arose i» to
* It has been supposed that Fenwicke and Byllynge intended to
establish in America a retreat for those who desired religious and
political freedom.
the respective interests of Fenwicke and Byllynge in the western
portion of the province, and th^ chose William Penn, a new
member of the Society of Friends, as arbitrator. To Byllynge
Penn awarded nine-tenths of the territory and to Fenwicke
one-tenth. Financial embarrassments a short time afterward
caused Byllynge to assign his shares in trust for his creditors
to three Quakers, William Penn, Gawen Lawrie and Nicholas
Lucas. Later they acquired control of Fenwicke's share also.
In 1675 Fenwicke with his family and a company of settlers
reached the Delaware in the ship " Griffith " from London, and
on the eastern shore they formed a settlement to which they gave
the name of Salem. This was the first permanent English
settlement in this part of New Jersey. Refusing to recognize
FenWicke*s jurisdiction, Governor Androsof New York attempted
to secure his peaceful recognition of the duke's authority, and,
failing in this, he sent a military force into this district in
December 1676 and made Fenwicke a prisoner. In January,
however, he was released on his pfomise not to act in a pubUc
capacity until he should receive further authority. Meanwhile
the trustees of Byllynge were seeking a division of the province
more to their advantage and, Sir George Carteret having been
persuaded by the duke of York to surrender his grant of July
1674, the so-called " quintipartite deed " was executed on the
1st of July 1676. This instrument defined the interests of
Carteret, Penn, Lawrie, Lucas and Byllynge, by fixing a line of
partition from Little Egg Harbor to a point on the Delaware
river, in 4X* 46^ N. lat., and by assigning tht; province east of
this line (East Jersey) to Carteret and the province west of this
line (West Jersey), about five-eighths of the whole, to the (Quaker
associates. The Quakers' title to West Jersey, however, still bore
the cloud resulting from the Dutch conquest, and the duke of
York had desired to recover all of his original grant to Berkeley
and Carteret ever since Governor NicoUs had protested against it.
But at this time his own right to the crown of England was
threatened with the Exclusion Bill, and under these conditions
instead of pressing his case against the Quakers he not only
permitted it to be decided against him but in August 1680
confirmed their title by a new deed.
A very liberal frame of government for West Jersey, drafted
presumably by William Penn, and entitled " the Concessions and
Agreements of the Proprietors, Freeholders and Inhabitants of
West Jersey in America," was adopted in March. 1677. This
vested the principal powers of government in an assembly of one
hundred members, who were to be chosen annually and to be
subject to instructions from their constituents. In the intervals
between sessions of the assembly, affairs were to be managed by
ten commissioners chosen by that body. Religious toleration
was assured. In August 1677 the ship " Kent " arrived in the
Delaware, with 330 Quakers from London and Yorkshire. These
founded a settlement, which became the modem Burlington,
and in the next few months several hundred more colonists
arrived. But the new colony was never actually governed
under "the Concessions and Agreements"; for from the
beginning until the first assembly was called in November x68x
its affairs were managed by commissioners named by the pro-
prietors and when in 1680 the duke of York confirmed the title
to the land to Byllynge and his associates he conveyed the right
to govern to Byll3mge alone. Although he was one of the signers
of " the Concessions and Agreements " Byllynge now com-
missioned Samuel Jennings as governor of the province, and the
other proprietors acquiesced, appointing Byllynge governor and
permitting Jennings to serve as his deputy. Jennings immediately
called the first assembly, and this body passed a number of
fundamental laws which provided for a governor and council,
but were in other respects much like the clauses relaling^to
government in " the Concessions and Agreements." When, as
if to test his authority, Byllynge, in Z6S1-1683, removed Jennings
who had been a popular governor, the assembly, by the advice
of William Penn, passed a scries of resolutions in the form of a
protest, and in 1684 two agents were sent to England to negotiate
with Byllynge. There the dispute was finally submitted for
arbitration to George Fox and other Quakers, and they decided
NEW JERSEY
that, as the government of the province was legally vested ia
Byllynge by the duke's conveyance to him, he had the right
to name the deputy governor. Fenwicke, after hb release by
Andros, endeavoured to re-establish a government at Salem with
himself as " Lord and Chief Proprietor " of West Jersey, but the
duke's officers further contested his claims and in 1683 Penn
effected a peaceful settlement with him.
In East Jersey, after the return of Governor Carteret, there
was a period of quiet, until the death of Sir George Carteret in
1680 gave the zealous Andros another chance to further the
supposed interests of his ducal master. Claiming jurisdiction
over New Jersey by the terms of his commission, he issued a
proclamation in March 1680 ordering Philip Carteret and his
** pretended " officers to cease exercising jurisdiction within
the duke's dominions unless he could show warrant. To this
Carteret made a spirited reply, and on the 30th of April a detach-
ment of soldiers dragged the governor of East Jersey from his
bed and carried him prisoner to New York. Here he was confined
for four weeks, and was released only on his promise not to
exercise any authority until the matter could be referred to
England for adjudication. When the assembly of East Jersey
met in June, Andros appeared before it as governor and recom-
mended such measures as he deemed advisable, but the d^Mitics
refused to pass them. In EngUnd, too, his conduct was dis-
avowed, and he was called home to answer charges that had been
preferred against him. Phib'p Carteret reassumed the duties
of his office, but his administration, now that Andros was no
longer feared, was again marked by much friction with the
assembly. Sir George Carteret had bequeathed his province
to eight trustees, who were to administer it for the benefit of
his creditors, and for the next two years the government was
conducted in the name of his widow and executriK, Lady
Elizabeth. Early in 1682, after several unsuccessful attempts
to effect a sale by other means, the province was offered for sale
at public auction, and was purchased by William Penn and
eleven associates for £3400. Later each of these twelve sold one^
half of his share to another associate, thus making twenty-four
proprietors; and on the 14th of March the duke of York con-
firmed the sale, and gave them all the powers neccs8ai}r for
governing the province. Robert Barclay, one of the proprietors,
was chosen governor for life, with the privilege of performing
his duties by deputy, and as his deputy he sent over Thomas
Rudyard. In 2683 Rudyard was succeeded by Gawen Lawrie,
who brought over with him a curious frame of government
entitled " the Fundamental Constitutions." This instrument,
which was designed to replace the Concessions, provided for the
government of the province by a governor chosen by the pro-
prietors, a common council consisting of the proprietors or ihetr
proxies together with 12 freemen, and a great council consisting
of the proprietors or their proxies together with 144 freemen
chosen by a mixed system of elections and the casting of lots.
But the new system was to apply only to those who, in return
for the greater privileges which it was alleged to ensure, would
agree to a resurvey of their lands, arrange to pay quit-rents and
provide for the permanent support of the government, and as
Governor Lawrie found the colonists generally unwilling to make
the exchange on the proposed terms, he discreetly refrained from
any attempt to put the Fundamental Constitutions in operation
and thereby avoided the confusioix which must have resulted
from two sets of laws. The government of the twenty-four
proprietors, however, was liberal. Recognizing the necessity
of some one in the province with full power *' to do all things
that may contribute to the good and advancement of the same/'
they directed the appointment of the American Board of Pro-
prietors — a body of men identified with the province, who with
the deputy-governor were to look after the proprietary interests
in such matters as the approval of legislation and the granting
of lands, and thereby prevent the delay caused by the transmis-
sion of such matters to England for approval. In x686 another
effort was made to. put the Fundamental Constitutions ia force,
but when the deputies and the council rejected the instrument*
the proprietors did not force the matter. In 1686 Perth Amboy,
NEW JERSEY
the newly created port of East Jersey, became its seat of govern-
ment.
Alter hjs accession to the throne in 1685, James 11. showed an
unyielding determination to annul the privileges of the colonies,
and to unite New York, New Jersey and the New England
colom'es under a sin^e government. In order, therefore, to
save their rights in the soil, the proprietors of East and West
Jersey offered to surrender their claims to jurisdiction, and
to this arrangement the king consented. Andros, previously
appointed viceroy of New England, thereupon received a new
commission extending his authority over New York and the
Jerseys, and in August x688 be formally annexed these provinces
to the Dominion of New England. The seizure of Andros by the
people of Boston in April 1689, following the news of the revolt
in England against James II., gave the Jersey proprietors an
opportunity to resume their rights, but the proprietary govern-
ments regained their former footing very slowly. The pro-
prietors were widely separated— some being in America, some
in England and others in Scotland — and unity of action was
impracticable. For three years there was little or no government
in the Jerseys, beyond the measures taken by local officers for
preserving the peace.
In 1692 an important change occurred in the administrative
system through the appointment of Andrew Hamilton (d. 1703)
as governor of both East and West Jersey. In 1697 a faction
opposed to Hamilton secured his removal and the appointment
of their partisan, Jeremiah Basse. The opposition in the two
colonies to Basse became so formidable that he was removed
in 1699 and Hamilton was reappointed. Certain disaffected
elements thereupon refused to recognize his authority, on the
ground that his appointment had not recdved the required
approval of the crown, and for a time the condition of the
provinces bordered on anarchy. These disorders, and especially
complaints against the Jerseys as centres of illegal trade, were
brought to the attention of King William and his lawyers
contended that as only the king could convey powers of govern-
ment those exercised by the Jersey proprietors, derived as they
were from the duke of York, were without sufficient warrant.
Moreover, the inhabitants sent petitions to England, praying
that they might be placed under the direct control of the crown.
The proprietors of East Jersey had already offered to surrender
their jurisdiction, in return for certain concessions by the royal
government, but no action had been taken. In X70X the pro-
prietors of both provinces made another proposal, which was
accepted, and in April 1702 all rights of jurisdiction were trans-
ferred to the crown, while the rights to the soil remained in the
proprietors. The provinces of East and West Jersey were then
united under a government similar to that of the other royal
provinces. Until 1738 the governor of New York was also
governor of New Jersey; after that date each colony had its
own governor. The legislature met alternately at Burlington
and Perth Amboy, until 1790, when Trenton was selected as the
capital of the state.
The next four decades were years of development disturbed,
however, by friction between the assembly and the royal
governors, and by bitter disputes, accompanied by mudi rioting,
with the proprietors concerning land-titles (1744-1749). Inde-
pendence of the 'absentee landlords was again daiimed by virtue
of the grants made by NicoUs nearly a century before. Agri-
culture at this time was the main pursuit. The climate was
more temperate and the soil more fertile than that of New
England; but there were similar small farms and no marked
tendencies towards the plantation system of the southern colonies.
Slavery had been introduced by the Dutch and Swedes, and
from the time of the earliest Eng^sh occupation had been legally
recognized. East Jersey had a fugitive slave law as early as 1 67 5.
With the exception of laying an import duty no legislative
effort was made— nor is it Ukely that any would have been
allowed by the crown— to restrict Uie importation of slaves during
the oolonia] period. In addition to African and Indian slaves
there was the dass known as ** redemptioners," or term slaves,
ooasiBting of indented servants^ who bound themsdves to their
5"
masters before leavmg the mother country, and " free willers,"
who allowed themsdves to be sold after reaching America, in
order to reimburse the ship captain for the cost of thdr passage.
Between East and West Jersey certain political and religious
differences developed. The former, settled largdy by people
from New England and Long Island, was dominated by Puritans;
the hitter by Quakers. In East Jersey, as in New En^and,
the township became a vigorous dement of local government;
in West Jersey the county became the unit. Important events
in the period of royal government were the preaching of George
Whitcfield in 1739 and the following years, and the chartering
of the College of New Jersey (now Princeton Um'versity) in 1746,
and of Queen's (now Rutgers) College in 1766. The colony
gave many proofs of its loyalty to the mother country: it
furnished three companies of troops for Admiral Vernon's
unfortunate expedition against Cartagena in 1741; in King
George's War it raised £2000 for suppUes, furnished troops for
the capture of Louisburg and sent over six hundred men to
Albany; and in the French and Indian (or Seven Years') War
its militia participated in the capture of both Quebec and
Havana. Against Engknd the colony had fewer grievances
than did some of its more commercial ndghbours, but the Stamp
Act and the'subsequent efforts to tax tea aroused great opposi-
tion. In 1774 occurred the " Greenwich Tea Parly."*
The last colonial assembly of New Jersey met in November
1775. From the 36th of May to the and of July 1776 the second
provincial congress met at Burlington, Trenton and New Bruns-
wick and for a time became the supreme governing power. By
its orders the royal governor, William Franklin (the natt^ son
of Benjamin Franklin) was arrested and deported to Connecticut,
where he remained a prisoner for two years, until exchanged and
taken to New York under British protection. Following the
recommendation of the Continental Congre^ that the colonics
should create independent governments, the provindal congress
also drafted a provincial constitution, which, without being
submitted to the people, was published on the 3rd of July 1776;
it contained the stipulation that "if a recondliation between
Great Britain and these colonies should take place, and the latter
be taken again under the protection of the crown of Britain, this
charter shall be null and void— otherwise to remain firm and
inviolable." On the aoth of September 1777 it was amended by
the New Jersey legislature, the words "state" and "slates"
being substituted for the words "colony" (or "province")
and "colonies." The state furnished a full quota for the
Continental army, but the divided sentiment of the people is
shown by the fact that six battalions of loyalists were also
organized. Tories were active in New Jersey throughout the
struggle; among them were bands known as " Pine Robbers,"
who hid in the pines or along the dimes by day and made their
raids at m'ght. In the state were fought some of the most
important engagements of the war. When Washington, in the
autumn of 1776, was no longer able to hold the lower Hudson
he retreated across New Jersey to the Delaware near Trenton and
seizing every boat for niiles up the river he placed his dispirited
troops on the opposite side and left the pursuing army no means
of crossing. With about 2500 men he recrossed the Delaware
on the night of the 25th of December, surprised three regiments
of Hessians at Trenton the next morning, and took xooo prisoners
and 1000 stands of arms. In a series of movements following
up this success he outgeneraled the British commander, Lord
Coroirallis, and on the 3rd of January 1776, defeated a detach-
ment of his army at Princeton {q.v.). The American army then
went into winter quarters at Morristown, while a part of the
British army wintered at New Brunswick. To protect the
* Greenwich then had some importance as a port on Cohanscy
Creek on the lower Delaware. In the summer of 1774 the captain of
the ship " Greyhound," bound for Philadelphia with a careo of tea.
on account of the state of opinion in that city, put in at Greenwich
and stored his tea there in a cellar It remained undistuibcd till
the night of the aand of November, when a band of about 40 men
dressed as Indians, in uniution of the Boston party, broke into the
cellar and made a bonfire of the tea. All attempts to punish the
offenders were futile.
512
inhabitants of the Raritan Valley from British foraging parties
General Benjamin Lincoln with 500 men was by Washington's
orders stationed at Bound Brook, but on the xjth of April 1777
Lincoln was surprised by a force of about 4000 men under
Comwallis, and although he escaped with small loss it was only by
remarkably rapid movements. When the British had gained
possession of Philadelphia, in September 2777, their communica-
tion between that city and tne ocean through the Lower Delaware
was obstructed on the New Jersey side by Fort Mercer, com-
manded by Cobnel Christopher Greene, at Red Bank; three
battalions of Hessians under Cok>ilel Karl Emil Kurt von Donop
attacked the fort on the 2 and of October, but they were repulsed
with heavy loss. The fort was abandoned later, however. As
the British army under General Clinton was retreating, in June
1778, from Philadelphia to New York, the American army
engaged it in the battle of Monmouth (June 28, 1778); the
result was indecisive, but that the British were not badly defeated
was ascribed to the conduct of General Charles Lee. Before
daylight on the 19th of August 27 79 was approaching, Major
Henry Lee with a force of about 400 men surprised the British
garrison at Paulua Hook, where Jersey City now stands, and,
although sustaining a loss of ao men, killed 50 of the garrison and
took about 160 prisoners. In 1779-1780 Morristown was again
Washington's headquarters. The Congress of the Confederation
met in Princeton, in Nassau Hall, which still stands, from June
to November 1783.
After the war New Jersey found its commercial existence
threatened by New York and Philadelphia, and it was a feeling of
weakness from this cause rather than any lack of state pride
that caused the state to join in the movements for a closer
Federal Union. In 1786 New Jersey sent delegates to the
Annapolis Convention, >idiich was the forerunner of the Federal
Convention at Philadelphia in the following year. In the latter
body, on the 15th of June, one of the New Jersey delegates,
William Paterson (1745-1806), presented what was called the
" New Jersey plan " of union, representing the wishes of the
smaller sutes, which objected to represenution in a national
Congress being based on wealth or on population. This merely
federal plan, reported from a Conference attended by the delegates
from Connecticut, New York and Delaware, as well as those
from New Jersey (and by Luther Martin of Maryland), consisted
of nine resolutions; the first was that " the Articles of Confedera-
tion ought to be so revised, corrected and enlarged as to render
the federal Constitution adequate to the exigencies of govern-
ment and the preservation of the Union"; and the actual
" plan " was for a single legislative body, in which each state
should be represented by one member, and which should elect
the supreme court and have power to remove the executive
(a Council), to lay taxes and import duties, to control commerce,
and even, if necessary, to niake requisitions for funds from the
states. Madison opposed the plan, on the ground that it would
not prevent violations by the states of treaties and of laws
of nations. On the first resolution only there was a definite
vote; on the 19th of June it was voted to postpone the considera-
tion of this resolution and to report the resolutions (the Virginia
plan) formerly agreed upon by the committee of the whole.
The New Jersey plan left its impress in the provision of the
Constitution (approved in the Convention on the 7th of July)
for equal representation in the national Senate. The Federal
Constitution was ratified by a unanimous vote in the state
convention which met at Trenton on the x8th of December
1787.
The state's own constitution, which had been adopted in
1776 and amended in 1777, retained, like other sute constitu-
tions framed during the War of Independence, many features
of colonial government ill-adapted to a stale increasingly demo-
cratic. The basis of representation, each county electing three
members to the assembly and 'one member to the legislative
council, soon became antiquated. The property qualifications
were, for members of the council, " one thousand pounds pro-
clamation money, of real and personal estate, in the same
county," and, for members of the assembly, "five hundred
NEW JERSEY
pounds proclamation money, in real and personal estate, in the
same county. " These and the property qiialifications for suffrage,
which was granted to " all inhabitanU of this sUte, of full a^,
who are worth fifty pounds proclamation money, dear estate in
the same," &c., were soon considered undemocratic; and the.
democratic tendency of certain election officers may be seen from
their construing the words " all inhabitants of full age " to in-
clude women, and from their permitting women to vote. The
governor was chosen by the joint vote of the council and assembly;
he was president of the council, with a casting vote; he was
chancellor, captain-general and commander-in-chief of the
militia; he had three members of the legislature to act as a
privy-coundl; and he, with the council (of which seven formed
a quorum), constituted " the Court of Appeals in the last resort
in all causes of law, as heretofore," which, in addition, had " the
power of granting pardons to criminals, after condemnation, in
all cases of treason, felony or other offences."
In 1838 the oppositbn to the governor's extenave powers under
the constitution was greatly increased in the " Broad Seal " or
" Great Seal " War. After a closely contested dectton in which six
members of Congress were chosen on a general ticket, although there
was an apparent Democratic majority of about one hundred votes
(in a total of 57,000}. two county clerks rejected as irregular sufBdent
returns from townships to elect five Whig candidates to whom the
state board of canvassers (mostly Whigs and headed by the Whig
governor. William Pennington) gave commissions under the broad
seal of the state. Excluding thoe five members from New Jersey
the House of Representatives contained 119 Democrats and 118
Whigs, so that the choice of a Whig speaker could be secured only
by the seating of the five Whigs from New Jersey rather than their
Demo cr atic rivals. It was decided that only m ember s whose
scats were not contested should vote for speaker, and Robert M. T.
Hunter, of Virginia, a Democrat and a compromise candidate, was
elected to the position; and on the 28th of February l8m the
Democratic candidates were admitted to their seats, to which a
congressional committee, reporting afterwarda, declared them
enutlcd.*
Agitation for constitutional reform resulted in a constitutional
convention, which met at Trenton from the 14th of May to the
29th of June 1844 and drafted a new frame of government,
introdudng a number of radical changes. This instnimeat was
ratified at the polls on the Z3th of August. The election of the
governor was taken from the legislature and given to the people;
the powers of gavemment were distributed among legislative,
executive and judidal departments; represenution In the
assembly was based on population; and the property qualifica-
tion for membership in the legislature and for the saStngjt was
abolished.
The constitution of 1844 declared that " All men are by nature
free and independent, and have certain unalienable xighta, among
which are those of enjoying and defending life and liboty . . . and
of pursuing and obtaining safety and happiness." A-atmilar clause
in the constitution of Massachusetts haid been interpreted by the
courts as an abolition of sbvcry, and an effort was made to have
the same ruling applied in New Jersey, where the institution of
slavery still enstea. The courts, however, declared that the dause
in the constitution of New Jersey was a " general propoaitaon," not
applying " to man in his private, industrial or domestic capacity."
An attempt at abolition had previoudy been made in 1804 by aa
act declanng that every chikl bom of a alave should be free, bat
should remain the servant of its mother's owner undl twenty-five
years of age if a male or twenty^ne vears of age if a female. The
owner of the mother, however, misfit abandon the child after a
year, and it then became a public charge. Thb last providoa pro-
duced such a heavy drain on the treasury Tor the support of aba n donrd
negro children that in x8ii the statute was repealed. In 1846 an
act was passed dengnating slavca as apprentkxs bound to service
until discharged by thdr owners, and provkling that children of
^ The ekction to the U.S. Senate in 1865 of John Potter Stockton
(1826-1900), a great-grandson of Richard Stockton, a signer of the
Declaration of Independence, created hardly leas esdtement than
the Broad Seal War. The state legislature which elected htm
senator dk! ao by a plurality vote, having previoualy passed a
resolution changing the vote reouisite to choose a aenator from a
majority to a plurality vote. He took his seat in the Senate and
hb election was upheld by the Senate committee on the judiciary,
whose report was adopted (26 March 1666) by a vote of aa to at.
his own vote carrying the motion: but. because of the objectMNi of
Charles Sumner, be withdrew hb vote on the STth of Mardi, and
was thereupon unseated by a voce of 23 to 31.
neb ipprentkes should be free at birth, but wtte to be lu ppor t ed
by the masters of their parents for six years. There were oonse-
Quently a few vestiges oi the slavery system in New Jenev until
the adoptioa of the Thirteenth iVmendment to the Federal Con-
stitution
Toward the political questions that disturbed the Araericaii
people immediately before the Civil War the attitude of the state
was conservative. In 1852 the Free-soil candidate for the pre-
sidency received only 350 votes in New Jersey; and in 1856 the
Democratic candidate received a plurality of 18,605 votes, even
though William L. Dayton, a dtiren of the state, was the Repub-
lican nominee for the^ vice-presidency. In i860 three of the
state's electoral votes were given to Douglas and four io Lincoln.
During the Civil War New Jersey furnished 89,305 men for the
U-s»n cause and incurred extraordinary expenditures to the
anx>unt of $2,894,385. The state readily consented to the
Thirteenth and Fourteenth Amendments to the Federal Con-
stitution, but in x868 withdrew its consent to the btter. The
Fifteenth Amendment wss rejected by one legislature, but was
accepted by its successor, in which the Republican party had
obtained A majorify.
Industrially the early part of the xgth century was marked
in New Jersey by the constlnction of bridges and turnpikes,
the utilization of water power for manufactures, and the intro-
duction of steam motive power upon the navigable waters. The
second war with England interrupted this material progress,
and at its beginning was so unpopular, especially with the
Quakers, that the Federalists carried the elections in Uie autumn
of 181 2. But the attempt of this party to retain control by a
" gerrymandering " process was unsuccessful. The Democrats
were triumphant in 1813, and the Federalist as well as the
Democratic administration responded with aid for the defence of
New York and Philadelphia. The state also contributed several
hundred men to the service of the United States. Material
progress in New Jersey after the war is indicated by the con-
struction of the Morris (1834-1836) and the Delaware & Raritan
(1836-Z838) canals, and the completion of its- first railway,
the Camden & Amboy, in 1834.
The years following the Civil War were marked by great in-
dustrial development. The ntimerous projects, good and bad,
that were inaugurated in 1866-1875, and the various kinds of
laws and charters conferring special privileges that were secured,
led to the constitutional prohibition of spedal legislation already
mentioned. lii this same period there was a bitter railway war.
The Delaware & Raritan Canal Company and the Camden &
Amboy Railroad Company, both chartered in 2830 and both
monopolies,* had been practically consolidated in 2831; in 1836
these joint companies gained control of the Philadelphia &
Trenton railway; in 1867 these " United New Jersey Railroad
ft Canal Companies" consolidated with the New Jersey
Railroad & Transportation Company (which was openmi in
1836 and oontzoUed the important railway link between New
Brunswick and Jersey City), and profits were to be divided
equally between the four companies; and in 1871 these entire
properties were leased for 999 years.to the Pennsylvania RaOroad
Company. This combination threatened to niotiopolizie trafiic,
and it was opposed by the Central Railroad of New. Jersey,
the Delaware, Lackawanna & Western, and a branch of the
North Pennsylvania (from Jenkintown to Ytirdley; sometimes
called the " national " or " air-line ")i 'uid by the general public;
and in 1873 the sute passed a general railway law giving other
railways than the United New Jersey holdings of the Penn-
* In 1864 a bin was introduced in the Federal House of Repre-
sentatives making the Camden & Atlantic (now the Atlantic City)
railway uid the Raritan & Delaware Bay (ix>w a part of the Central
of New Jersey) a post route between New York and Philadelphia
and autnorizing tnese railways to carry passengers and freight
between New York and Philadelphia. Thereupon the governor and
lenslature of New Jcrwy protested that such a measure was an
iniringonent of the reserved rights of the state, unce the state had
coQtractcd with the Camden & Amboy not to construct nor to
autboriae othen to construct within a spedfied time any other
railway across the state to be used for carrying p assen gers or freight
between New York and Philadelphia.
NEW JERSEY
513
sylvania the li^t to coBuect New York and Philadelphia. In
1876 the V national " line was extended to Bound Brook '(as
the Delaware & Bound Brook) and this road, the North Penn-
sylvania & Central Railroad of New Jersey, were operated under
a tripartite agreement as a throu^ line between New York
and PhiUdclphia; but In 1879 these three lines were leased for
990 years to the Phihuielphia & Reading railway. The state
itself then becalne engaged in a struggle with the railways in
order to secure from them their full portion of taxes, as the
property of indlviduab was then taxed many times as heavily
as that of railways. In 1884 the state gained the victory by
securing the passage of a law taxing the franchises of railway
corporations.
A reform movement in politics, called the "New Idea,"
and led by Everett Colby (b. x874)» then a Republican member
of the Assembly and in 1906-1908 a state senator, began In 1904;
itkdid much to secure the passage of acts limiting public service
franchises to so years (unless extended to 40 years by the voters
of the municipality concerned), the increase of taxes on railways,
the increase of franchise tax rates by x|% each year up to 5%,
the adoption of direct primary elections, and the modification of
the existing promoters' liability law.
Before xSoo the sUte was dommated by the Federalist party;
from that date until 1896 it was generally controlled by the Demo-
crau, and from 1896 to 291 x by the Republicans. '
The governors of New Jersey have been as fdlows:—
GOVBIMORS: UNDBX THB PaopaxBTOu
Philip Carteret "i665-i67»
John Berry 1672-1673
Anthony Colve^ 1673-1674
Coptnwrs tj Bast Jersty and their DcptUks,
Philip Carteret 1674-1682
Robert Barclay 1682-1688
Thomas Rud^rd Deputy . 1683-1683
Gawen Lawne Deputy 1683-1686
Lord Neill Campbell . Deputy . . 1686
Andrew Hamilton Deputy 1686-1688
Edmund Andros 1688-1689
Andrew Hamilton 1692-1697
Jeremiah Basse X697-1699
Andrew Hamilton 169^1703
• Cavernars ej Wta Jtnty ami Uitir Deputies.
Edward Byllynge 1680-1687
Samuel Jenmngs . Deputy 1681-1684
Thomas Olive Deputy . 1684-1685
John Skene . Deputy 1685-1687
Daniel Coze 1687-1688
Edward Hunloke . Deputy 1687
Edmund Andros 1688-1689
Andrew Hamilton 1693-1697
Jeremiah Basse 1697-1699
Andrew Hamilton 1699-1703
UNDsa THB Royal Govbkniibnt
Caoenun 0/ New York and New Jersey,
Edward Hyde, Lord Combury .... tjov-tTtiS
John, Lord Lovelace 1708-1709
Richard Ingoldsby, Lieut.<<jovemor 1 709-1 710
Robert Hunter 1710-1710
William Burnet . 1730-1738
John Montgomerie 1 738-1731
Lewis Moms,* Pres. Council .... X731-1733
William Coslyy 1733-1736
John Anderw>n,' Pres. Council
ohn Hamilton,' Pres. Council .
.7^f -
1738
Caeenurs 0/ New Jersey etUy.
Lewis Morris
John Hamilton. Pres. Council .
John Reading, Pres. Council.
Jonathan Belcher
Thomas Pownall. Lieut.-Govemor .
John Reading, Pies. Council . ^. . ^
Francis Bernard .• 1758-1760
•Thomas Boone . 1760-1761
Joiiiah Hardy 1761-1763
William Fianklin 1763-1776
' Governor-general of New Nctherland.
* Jurisdiction only over New Jersey.
1738-1746
1746-1747
1747
1747-1757
1757
1757-1758
5H
GOVBKNORS or TBB StaTB
Willunn Livingston 177&-1790 FedetaKat
WilUam Patmoo , , . 1 790-1 793 ...
Rictiiird I fowtEl , , . . 1793-1801 „
To^ph BLLKjT^fi.dd ^ . 1801-1802 Dem.-Repub.
John Lambert (Acting} . 1802-1803 „
JoK'ph Bkxtm^cld . . 1803-1812 „
Aarrin Ogdcii .... 1811-1813 Federalist
William Saticlfufd Penning ion . 18 13-18 15 DeiiL-Repub.
Mdhkjri Dkkt'fsflfi , . 1815-1817 „
Isoac HaUictl Witlhm^n . . 1817-1839 „
Cam-t Dorset Will (LkxUned) . 1819 „
Pcicr Oumont Vroom . 1829-1832 Demooat
SlhiucI Lcwia Scuthard . 183^-1833 Whig
E:ii4» P. Sctlcy .... 1S33
Peifif DMmont Vroom . lijj-JiJjd Democrat
Philemon Dicklcison . . l^jt-lS^? „
Wlltiam [\'niiinj£tQn . . iftJ7-iJti43 Whig
Daniel Hainea .... 1843-1^44 Democrat
Chdrlea C. Strattoii . . . 1S45-JM Whig
Daniel Kainca .... i&tS-Jl^si Democrat
Qwrxe Fr;]nk[m Fon . . 1851-1654 „
Rodman McCauW>^ Price . . i8iS4-i>tS7 .»
Willkm August UB Nc well . . T857-JH60 Republican
Charles Smith Olden . . . i860- J ^j ,»
iocl P4f)a?f , . . . iMi3-iH« Democrat
Iditiud L4Wficficc Ward . . ]S66-iHi69 RefHiblican
Theoc^ore Frtlmghuyi^a Raoddph iS&(^l871 Democrat
iocl Parker . , . . . 187?" 1873 „
ctscpb Dt.f9i.tt B«Jlc . .1875^1878 t,
ttittgt: Brinton NfcCldLan . rS/B-iaSi „
Gcot-gc C Til i^ Ludlow . , JI8S1-1884 „
Leon Ahbett .... J884-18S7 „
Robert Stockton Green . . iSJi^-lSgft „
Leon Abbe tt . . tS^O-lSq^j; „
Georjie Theodore Werti . 1 893 -1 896 „
John ^^llliam Grigsi . . [8^6-!^ RepubUcan
Foster MacGDwaiiVoorhtKS
(AclmK) . , . . 1898
David Q. Watkins . . . 1898-1899 „
Foster MarrSijwan VoorhjC« . 1899-1902 „
Franklin Murphy . 1902-1905 „
Edward Camper Stokes 1905-I908 „
lohn Franklin Fort . . 190^1911 „
Woodrow WilK»n . . 191 1- Democrat
Bibliography.— For descriptive material tee bibliographies in
BuiUtins filo. 177 and 301 of the United Sutes Geological Survey;
the Annmtl Reports and especially the Pinal Report of the New
Jersey^ Geological Survey; and the Annual Reports ef the New Jersey
State Museum, the New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Sutjon,
and the New Jersey State board of Agriculture.
History. — ^The most important sources are: Documents Retating
to the Colonial History of the State of New Jersey (Archives of the
Sute of New Jersey, 1st series), edited by W. A. Whitehead, F. W.
Ricardo and W. Nelson (26 vols.. Newark, 1880-1903): Documents
RelaUng to the Revolutionary History of the State of New Jersey
(Archives of the State of New Jers^, and series: a vols., Trenton,
1901-1903) : and Acts ef the General Assembly of New Jersey from
t70S-t76i, reprinted by A. Learning and j. Spicer (Somerville,
For the period of the Dutch rule, see E. B. O'Callaghan's History
of New Netheriand (New York, 1846) ; and John Romeyn Brodhead^
Historyjf the StaU of New Yorh (2nd vol.. New York, 1853, 1871);
E. P. Tanner, The Prorinee of New Jersey (New York. 1908), the
most thorough study of the period from 1664 to 17^8; Samuel
Smith's History of the Colony ef Nova Caesarea, or New Jersey
(R-i-fV- tftn. T76^: ?nr! tii., Trm*r>r •«— ^ *t5l1 orr; of the best
i,,,i..-mdn^ yi ii>^ , ^ru.rili..; l-MvHii, .,-u.; |K-fiiVL^i.Ti.^ v,l ! . , . , I k OU SCCOUnt
or its cnpKju* OEtratt* f rom tht ftourc^fs, itwini? of vhn h are no longef
accessibli:; «*» also* WillUiri A. Whitehead '* " 1 h« Enelish in
East and West Jer»ey^ 1664-16^9 '* On vol si- -^r I'ltin Winsor's
Narraiiv^ and CniiCAl Hiitisfy oj Ativtka}^ Av monographic
contributions are Au^Un Scott' a In^vence 'roprietors tn,
Fsunding tks Siaie of Ntw J^rs^y { Ba I ti mor?, 1 • i. 5. Cocrfey's
Slady of Slavery in Nev Jirsty {Baltimore, Other useful
contributions are A. D. MelUclC ^iifry tif aif 1; or. Life in
Nfw Jersey in the jSik Century (Som.cr\'ilIe, N y, 1889), full
Grf interesting det^Ls; F% B. L^ and others, ■■■ y Ota Colony
and as a Siate (4 voUl^ with an addiuonal bio^.. volume. New
York, iVt^t rather unervenly proport toned, .<' curate as to
detaili; W. j. Mills, Historic Houses qf Nrs Jersey ' PUladelphia,
1901]! : WlUiam Nelson^ The New Jerier Coast in Titree Centuries
(2 vokp New York, iqas): Isaac S Mulford, Civ.I and PoliUcaL
kia^ ef New Jersey (Philxdelphis, 1651): W. A. Whitehead.
Easl loTMy nnAer ike Proprietary Guxmmenis (New Jcrxy Historical
Sodety Cmeetions, vol. i., Newark, t875): W. S. StTvlcer, Cjfficial
Kepster of the Oncers and Men of Afcw Jersey in flic KevolttHonary
War (Trenton. 1872); W. E. Sockctt. l^odern BaHiAS 'ef Trenton
(Trenton* (895). a pdJUca) hiitory oE New Jcncy Crom 1868 to
NEW JERUSALEM CHURCH
1804, dealing especially with the railway controversies; John E
Sullnlrell. Historical and Genealogical Miscellany (2 vols.. New York.
1903-1906), conuining data relating to the settkment and setileri
of New York and New Jersey; R. S. Field, The Provincial CourU
of New Jersey I L. Q. C. Elmer, The Constitution and Government ef
New Jersey (vols. lii. and vii. of New Jersey Historical Society
Collections^ Newark, 1849, 1872); and David Murray, History ef
Education in New Jersey (No. 2V of Circulars of Information issued
by the United States Bureau of Education. Washington. 1899).
NEW JERUSALEM CHURCH, or New Church, the com-
munity founded by the followers of Emmanuel Swedenborg
(f.v.). Swedenborg himself took no steps to found & church, but
having given a new ioterpretation of Scripture, it was inevitable
that those who accepted his doctrine should separate themscK-es
and organize a society in accordance therewith. Those who
received them fully during Swedenborg's lifetime were few
and scattered, but courageously un^iertook the task of dissemina-
tion, and gave themselves to translating and distributing their
master's writings. Two Anglican clergymen were conspicuous
in this work: Thomas Hartley (d. 1784), rector of Winmick, and
John Qowes (1743-1831), vicar of St John's, Manchester.
Hartley translated Heaven and Hell (1778) and True Christian
Rdigum (1781); Clowes, who taught New Church doctrise
in (the existing churches and was opposed to the forming of new
organizations, translated 17 volumes, including the Arcana
CoeUslia, and published over 50 volumes, of exposition and
defence. Through his influence Lancashire became the strong-
hold of the Swedenborgians, and to-day includes a third of the
congregations and more than half the members of the Nev
Church in the United Kingdom.
In 1782 a society for publishing Swedenborg's writings was
formed in Manchester, and in December 1783 a little company
of sympathizers with similar aims met in London and founded
"The Theosophical Society," among the members of which
were John Flaxman the sculptor, WilL'am Sharpe the engraver,
and F. H. Barthilemon the composer. In the eariy days most of
thein worshipped at the Female Orphan Asylum, St George's,
whose chaplain, Rey. Jacob Duche, like Clowes at Manchester,
preached the doctrines from his own pulpit. In 1785 and 1787*
J. W. Salmon and R. Mather condujcted an opeh-air missionary
tour in the Midlands and the North with some success. Five
prominent Wesleyan preachers adopted the new teaching and
were cut off from their connexion, a step which. led, in spite of
remonstrance from Clowes and others, to the formal organization
of the New Jerusalem Church on the 7th of May x 787. For some
months the members met in private houses, but in January 178S
began worship in a church in Great Eastcheap with a litargy
specially prepared by the Rev. James Hindmarsh and Isaac
Hawkins. " The Theosophical Society " was now dissolved.
In April X789 a General Conference of British Swedenborgians
was held in Great Eastcheap Church, followed by another and
by the publication of a journal, the New Jerusalem Megaanc,
in X790. Since 1815 conferences have been held every year.
A weekly paper, the Morning Light, is published, as well as
monthly magazines for adults (the New Church Magazine) and
young folk. The liturgy (containing five services for Morning
and Evening, together with the order of Baptism, Hoty
Supper, Marriage, &c) was prepared in 1828, revised and ex-
tended in 1875; the hymn book of 1823 was revised and
enlarged in x88o.
In the provinces the first church was at Binnin^iam (1791).
followed by one at Manchester and another at Liverpool (17^)-
The Accrington church, the largest in Great Britiin, was founded
in x8o2. Many of the early converts to the New Church were
among the most fervent advocates of the abolition t>f slavery,
one was the medical officer of the first batch of convicts sent to
Botany Bay; from the house of another, William COokworthy
of Plymouth, Captain Cook sailed on his last voyage. Others
were pioneers of elementary education, establishing free day
schools long before they were thought of by the state.
In x8is the conference took up the question of home missiooary
work, and iu agents were able to found many branches of the
church. In x8f 3 the Manchester and Salford (now the North of
NEW KENSINGTON— NEW LONDON
515
England) Bfissioiuuy Society was founded, chiefly to provide
prncheis for the amaller churches in its area; in 1857 a National
Missionary Institution was founded and endowed, to which
most of the local ones have been affiliated. Other denominational
agencies have been concerned with the printing- and circulation
of Swedenborgian literature, a training college for the ministry
(founded in 1853), and a Ministers' Aid Fund (1854), and an
Orphanage (x88x). The centenary of the New Church as a
spiritual system was celebrated in 1857, as an external organisa-
tion in 1883. A few Swedenborgians still hold to the non-
separating policy, but more from force of circumstances than from
deliberate principle. The constitution of the New Church is of
the Independent .Congregational type; the conference may
advise and counsel, but cannot compel the obedience of the
societies. The returns for X909 showed 45 ministers, 8 recog-
nized leaders, 10 recognized missionaries, 70 societies, 6665
registered members, 7907 Sunday scholars. There are also five
or six small societies not connectni with the conference.
i •■:,' i\.^^ Cfiitrch fn E^rspf:. — ]n bwcdcn tht Philanthropic
Enirjfrtic Society wa* rormrd by C. F. r^orde^nskiold in 171^6 to
collsxt dDCLim?nt9 about Swedenbon^ and to publish his wriiirigs.
The ixiinxJuctioo of alchemy and mesmerisni ted lo iti dii«:l.iiion
in J 7 §9, but iti work wa* ct^ntinucd by the loctfty ** Pro fbk ct
cKjniirf," whrch existed froTii 1796 to iflJO. For luiny ycm; ihe
werhsoTSwtMiIcrvbori; jnd hii folio wen were proicnbed, and rt-i.i It^itre
ofiUi vriEiniii finc^d or deprived of oifux, but in iStj^^ when rtli^i-us
BlOiy hdd made prop rcM, the c^uw wa^ AgoAn taken up; in 1 -.^5
tie Hciety g\ " Conftiiors of the New Church*' wa* formirt jn
Slocldiolfn^ and since t877 acrvicM Kave been. rt^lArly held- Ihere
aikba^chunih in Gothenbursp and lecture^ am ip.vcq from timr to
tiiffie in moit of ihc town* ol Swtden. In NorA'ay th^rr 1= r^,, ^s:*^w
Quudi or^nkation; \n Denmark a churth *« fotjn ' n-
hae!« 10 1871* In Gcrmatiy Prelate Ortingcr of ry
Hnnilatcd many of Sw^&nborgV writiflss bfiitfcen i"... 6,
but the ensit name is tliat df Jmmanud Tstcl (d. iSM), ULrji-ui. 01
Ttibiai^ii, vhf> not oft] y edited, tMrtsUted and published, h>.A in
tl^fl fuunckd a " Uniori of the New Church in Germany and Sm 1 i -cr-
luid '* irttlch beM quarterly meetings* Then? 15 a thurrh in. Bcrliii,
1b|L otherwise iLclivity in Oenruny ha9 taken Bhj,pe in the GertTuitn
S'^Ddenbori! faciei y with headquarters at Stuttgart. 1 n Switivrtand,
on the contrtLry, there h an orf^niied body of the New Church;
dAiDc Hf-vice being held in the Society at Ztlrich and by eirrlcs at
Eemc, ]-leri^u and^NesilaU' The Zurich nosior U 3 inemlxr of the
AFPcrican Con vent ion, and ha* oV'erBi]fht alio ot the Acj^tmn
so: iietic* at Vienna and Trie*te, Jn Hunsary there ai^e kxlcijc^ at
Hiidi Pt?th and Gyorkony, In Ffarnrc '.hcr^ wttt rarly Pwxdivn-
f i.r.'j,!- .,f rjc.Ji :jn'S karnin^, anci p:: ' ■- ' '■ ■ ■ " "d
^ ■■ ;■■-. y <:-ji jSjS 1. F. I is
instituted public New Church worehtp, which was carried on at his
house for thirty years. Sunday worship b now held in the New
Church Temple on the Rue Thouin. In Italy (Rome), Holland
(The Hague). Belgium (Antwerp and Bruges), there are small
societies, and nearly every European country has some known
adherents.
In America, — About 1784 James Glen, a London Scot, delivered
lectures *' For the Sentimentalists " on the new doctrine in Phila-
delphia and Boston and circulated some of Swedenborg's worl».
Francis Bailey, state printer of Pennsylvania, was attractra by them
and became active in their promulgation. During the next ten years
a number of prominent men gave their support to the teaching,
vhich gradually spread inland and southward. The first society for
worship was formed in Baltimore in 1702 (reorganized 1798), though
a short-lived one had preceded it at Halifax, N.S., in 1791. Other
churches grew up in Philadelphia, Cincinnati, Boston and New
York, and the General Convention, which meets annually, was
formed at Philadelphia in 1817. In 1907 there were loa mmisters
and 103 societies with a membership of 6560. Of these, 4 societies
and 1^0 members are in Canada, while the German Synod counts for
11 societies. and %^s members.
In Australia, vc, — ^The formation of societies in Australia bmn
at Adelaide in 1&L4. Melbourne and Sydney followed in •1054,
Brisbane in 1865, Rodborough. Vict., in 1878. There is a circle at
Perth. New Zealand has a church at Auckland (1883) and scattered
members in the south island. An Australasian conference met at
Melbourne in 1 8^1 and has continued to meet in alternate years.
There is a society at Mauritius, and correspondents in various parts
of South and West Africa, India, Japan, the West Indies and South
America.
See L. P. Mercer. Tkt New Jerusalem in ihe World's Retigious
Congresses of jSqj ; Minutes <^ the General Conference of the New
Chunk (annual); Journal of Ike Annual Sessum of ike General
CotfMMhim of Ike New Jerusalem in the United States of America.
(A-J.G.) ]
MEW KBII8IN0T0N, a borough of Westmoreland county.
Pennsylvania, U.S.A., on the AUc^^cny river, x8 m. N.£. of
PitUburg. Pop. (1900) 466s (104a foreign-bom and 86 ne-
groes) ; (19x0) 7707. It is served by the Penn^lvania railroad
and by electric railways to neighbouring towns. There are a
variety of manufactures. The borough was founded In 1891
and was incorporated in the following year.
HEWLANDS, JOHN ALEXANDER REINA (i83»-x898).
English chemist, was bom in 1838. He was one of the first, if
not quite the first, to propound the conception of periodicity
among the chemical elements. His earliest contribution to the
question took the form of a letter published in the Chemical News
in February X863. In the succeeding year he showed, in the
same journal, that if the elements be arranged in the order of their
atomic weights, those having consecutive numbers frequently
either belong to the same group or occupy similar positions in
different groups, and he pointed out that each eighth element
starting from a given one is in this arrangement a kind of re-
petition of the first, like the eighth xu>te of an octave in music.
The Law of Octaves thus enunciated was at first ignored or
treated with ridicule as a fantastic notion unworthy of serious
consideration, but the idea, subsequently ekborated by D. I.
Mendel£eff and other workers into the Periodic Law, has taken
its place as one of the most important generalizations in modem
chemical theory. NewUuids, who was of Italian extraction on
his mother's side, and foui^t as a volunteer in the cause of
Italian freedom under Garibaldi in x86o, died in London on the
39th of July 1898. He collected his various papers on the
atomicity of the elements in a little volume on the Discotery <rf
the Per iodic Law published in London in 1884.
NEW U>NDON, a city, port of entry, and one of the coimty-
seats of New London county, Connecticut, U.S.A., coextensive
with the township of New London, in the S.E. part of the sUte,
on the Thames river, about 3 m. from its entrance into Long
Ishmd Sound. Pop. (X890) X3>757; (1900) x 7,548* of whom
3743 were foreign-bom; (x9xd census) 19,659. It is served
by the New York, New Haven & Hartford, and the New London
Northem Oeased by the Central Vermont) railways, by electric
railway to Norwich, Westerly, Groton, Stonington and East
Ljrme, by a daily line of passenger steamboaU to New York City,
and by two lines of freight steamers, and in the summer months
by daily steamboats to Sag Harbor and Greenport, Long Island,
and Watch Hill and Block Island, Rhode Island. New London's
harbour is the best on the Sotind. The city is the headquarters of
a United States artillery district, embracing Fort H. G. Wright
on Fisher's Islatad, New York, Fort Michie on Gull Island, New
York, Fort Terry on Plum Ish&nd, New York, and Fort Mansfield
on Napatree Point, Rhode Ishmd— fortifications which command
the eastem entrance to Long Island Soimd; and it is the head-
quarters of the Third District of the U.S. Engineers and of the
Third District of the Lighthouse Department. The harbour was
formeriy defended by two forts, both now obsolete— Fort
Trumbull on the right bank of the Thames, and Fort Griswold
on the left bank, in the township of Groton (pop. X900, 5962).
The dty is built on a declivity facing the south-east; from the
higher points' there are excellent views of Long Ishud Sound
and the surrounding country. New London is a summer resort,
and is a station of the New York Yacht Club; the boat races
between Harvard and Yale universities are annually rowed on
the river near the dty. Among the places of interest are the
Town Mill, built in 1650 by John Winthrop, Jr., in co-operation
with the town; the Hempstead Mansion, built by John Hemp-
stead about 1678; the old cemetery, north-east of the dty, laid
out in X653; a school house in which Nathan Hale taught; and
a court house built in 1785. There is a public library (about
30,000 volumes), and the New London County Historical Society
(incorporated 1870) has an historical library. There are two
endowed high schools, the Bulkelcy School for boys and the
Williams Memorial Institute (1891) for girls, and an endowed
Manual Training and Industrial School (1872), all offering free
instmction. In the 18th century New London had a large trade
in lumber, flour and food supplies with the West Indies, Gibraltar
5i6
NEWLYN— NEWMAN
and the Barbary Sutet; but this trtde dediaed after the War of
i8xa, and the whaling and sealing industries, once veiy lucrative,
have also detlined in value. The imports in 1906 were vklued
at $54f873 and the exports at $60,522; in 1909 their respective
values were $10,870 and $10,295. Manufacturing is the prindpal
industry; among the products are silk goods, cotton gins,
printing presses and foundry and marhine shop products. The
total value of faaory products was $4,709,628 in 1905, an increase
of 11-6% since X9oa
New London was founded in 1646 by John Winthtop, the
younger. It was known by its Indian name " Nameaug " until
1658, when the General Court of Connecticut approved the
wish of the settlers to adopt its present name from London,
England, the river Monhegin at the same time becoming the
Thames. During the War of Independence it was a rendezvous
for Aknerican privateers. In 1776 the first naval expedition
authorized by Congress was organized in its harbour, and there
in the next three years twenty privateers were fitted out. On
the 6th of September 1 781 , 800 British troops and Loyalists under
Goieral Benedict Arnold (who was bom in New London county)
raided New London, destroyed much private property, and at
Fort Griswold killed 84 American soldiers, many of them after
their surrender. The massacre is commemorated by an obelisk,
134 ft. high, on Groton Heights. The dty wss incorporated in
Z784. In 1798 there was an epidemic of yellow fever. From
the 7th of November 18x2 until the dose of the second war
with Great Britain the harbour was blockaded by a British
fleet.
See F. M. Caulkins's History of New London (new cd.< New London.
1900) : and the publications of the New Londoi) County Historical
Society (New London).
NBWLTlft a village in the St Ives parliamentary division of
Cornwall, England, on the shore of Mount's Bay, x m. S.W. of
Penzance. It is a small fishing port, with narrow paved lanes
and old-fashioned cottages. Near the parish church of St Peter
stands an andent cross of granite, discovered in a fidd dose by.
The harbour, one oithe safest for small craft in the west country,
is shdtered by two long and massive stone piers. A more
andent pier, originally construaed in the reign of Henry VI.,
was renewed in- that of James I. Tin mining and smelting have
been largdy carried on in the neighbourhood,*and several galleries
wereworked far under the sea. The prindpal modem industry,
however, is fishing, especially for pilchard. The picturesque
appearance of the village, with its quays and little harbour, and
the grandeur of the cliffs and moorland scenery towards Land's
End, make Newlyn an attractive spot. Between x88o and 1890
an artistic coterie grew up here, the leaders of which were Edwin
Harris, Walter Langley, Fred Hall, Frank Bramley, T. C. Gotch,
Mr and Mrs Stanhope Forbes, Chevalier Taybr and H. S. Tuke.
The earlier artisU at Newlyn were said to have sdected it as thdr
centre, because a greynesa in the atmosphere hdped their
depiction of subtleties in tone, part of thdr creed being subordina-
tion of oobur to tonc'gradation. In later times, the dement
of a common ideal tended to disappear, but the interest of the
" Newlyn school '* attracted a regular art-colony, who in various
ways assimilated and expressed the incturesque influences of
the place (see Paiktinc: Recent British). There is a permapent
Art Gallery, containinsf examples of the work of the Newlyn
artists. Newlyn ward in the urban district of Paul (pop. 6332)
had in 190X a population of 3749.
NEW MADRID, a dty and the county-seat of New Madrid
county, Missouri, U.S.A., on the right bank of the Mississippi
river, about 35 m. S. by W. of Cairo, UL Pop. (1900) X4S9;
(19x0) X882. It is served by the St Louis South-western railway
and by river packets. The dty is a shipping point for a ridi
grain, cotton, livestock and lumber regioiL Among its manu-
factures are lumber, sUves, and hoops. The munidpality owns
its water-works. Owing to the encroachments of the Mississippi
river, the site of the first permanent settlement of New Madrid is
said to lie now nbout i^ m. from the E. bank of the river, in
Kentucky. This settlement was made in 1788, on an elaborately
laid out town site, and was named New Madrid by its founder,
Colond George Morgaa (1742-18x0),* who, kte in' 1787, had
recdved a giant of a large tract of land on the right bank of the
Mississippi river, bdow the mouth of the Ohio, from Don Diego
de Gardoqui, Spanish ihinister to the United Sutes. The tract
lay within the province of " Louisiana," and the grant to Morgan
was a part of Gardoqui's plan to aimex to that province the
western American settlements, Morgan being required to estab-
lish thereon a large number of emigrants, whom he secured from
New Jersey, Canada and elsewhere. (}ovemoi EsUvan Miro
of Louisiaiu, however, disapproved of the grant, on the ground
that it would cause the province to be overrun by Americans;
the settlers became restive under the restraints imposed upon
them; Morgan himself Idt; and in December x8tx and January
x8x2 a series of severe earthquake shocks caused a general
emigration. New Madrid was occupied by Confederate troops
under (General Gideon J. Pillow, on the 28th of July x86i, and
after the surrender of Fort Donelson (February x6, 1862) the
troops previously at Columbus, forming the Confederate left flank,
were withdrawn to New Madrid and Island No. xo (in the
Mississippi about xo m. S.). There were Confederate batteries on
the left bank of the Mississippi opposite Island No. xo, and along
the same bank from a pdnt opposite New Madrid to Tlptonville,
Tennessee. Behind these batteries were Reelfoot Lake and over-
flowed lands. Retreat by land was thus virtually impossible.
Eariy in March, Major-General John Pope and Commodore A.H.
Foote proceeded against these positions; New Madrid, then in
command of General John P. McGown, was evacuated on the
X4th; (Admiral) Henry Walke (1808-X896), commanding the
" Caronddet," ran past the batteries of Island No. xo and the
.shore batteries on the 4tb of April, and Lieut.-Commandcr
Egbert Thompson, commanding the " Pittsburgh," on the 7th;
meanwhile the Federals under the direction of Cobnd Josiah W.
Bissell (b. x8x8), of the engineer corps, had, with great difficulty,
constructed an artificial channd to New Madrid across the
peninsula (swamp land) formed by a great loop of the Mississippi;
troops were conveyed by transports through this channd bdow
the island, Federal batteries having been established on the ri^t
bank of the river; the retreat of the Confederates down stream
was effectually Uocked; they evacuated the island on April
7th, and on the 8th the garrison and the forces stationed in the
shore batteries, a total of about 7000, under General W. W.
Mackall (who had succeeded (General McGown on the 51st of
March) was surrendered at Tiptonville. The island was sub-
sequently WB^ed away, a new one being formed in the vidnity.
NEWMAN, FRANCIS WILUAM (1805-X897), EngUsh scholar
and miscellaneous writer, younger brother of Cardinal Newman,
was bom in London on the 27th of June x8os. Like his brother,
he was educated at Ealing, and subsequently at Oxford, where
he had a brilliant career, obtaining a double first dass in X826.
He was dected fdlow of Balliol in the same year. Consdentious
scruples respecting the ceremony of infant baptism led him to
resign his fellowship in 1830, and he went to Baghdad as assistant
in the mission of the Rev. A. N. Groves. In 1833 he returned to
England to procure additional support for the mission, but
rumours of unsoundness in his views on the doctrine of eternal
punishment had preceded him, and finding himself generally
looked upon with suspidon, he gave up the vocation of missionary
to become classical tutor in an unsectarian college at Bristol.
His letters written home during the period of his mission were
^Uected and published in 1856, and form an interesting little
volume. Newman's views matured rapidly, and in 1840 be
became professor of Latin in Manchester New College, the
celebrated Unitarian seminary long esublished at York, and
the parent of Manchester College, Oxford. In X846 he quitted
this appointment to become professor in University CoUege,
London, where he remained until 1869. During all this period
* Mofgan had been made Indian agent at Fort Pitt (Pittabars)
in 1776, and was commissioned a colonel in the Continental Army
in 1777. In 1806 he was visited at his home, near PittsbuiiK> bv
Aaron Burr, who told him something about his famous '* conspifac^-
scheme in the West, which Morgan reported to Jefferson — " the vtrr
first intiroatioo I had of the pbc," Jefferson afterward wrote to
Morgan.
NEWMAN, CARDINAL
he was assiduously carrying on his studies in mathematics and'
oriental languages, but wrote little until 1847, when he published
anonymously a History of tke Hebrew Monarcky^ intended to
introduce the resulu of Gennan investigation in this department
of Bibb'cal criticism. In 1849 appeared The Soul, her Sorrows
aid As^alioHs, and in 1850, Phases of Faith, or Passages from
the History of my Creed— tht former a tender but searching
analysis of the relations of the spirit of man with the Creator;
the latter a religious autobiography detailing the author's passage
from Calvinism to pure theism. It is on these two books that
Professor Newman's celebrity will principally rest; having in
both to describe his personal experience, his intense earnestness
has kept him free from the eccentricity which marred most of his
other writings, excepthig his contributions to mathematical
research and oriental philology. There was, indeed, scarcely
a crotchet, except " spiritualism," of which he was not at one
time or another the advocate. His versatih'ty was amazing: he
wrote on logic, political economy, English reforms, Austrian
politics, Roman history, diet, grammar, the most abstruse
departments of mathematics, Arabic, the emendation of Greek
texts, and Uuiguages as out of the way as the Berber and as
obsolete as the dialect of the Irvine inscriptions. In treating all
these subjects he showed signal ability, but, wherever the theme
allowed, an incurable crotchetiness; and in his numerous metrical
translations from the classics, especially his version of the Iliad,
he betrayed an insensibility to the ridiculous which would almost
have justified the irreverent criticism of Matthew Arnold, had
this been conveyed in more seemly fashion. His miscellaneous
essays, some of much value, were collected in several volumes
before his death: his last publication. Contributions chiefly to
the Early History of Cardinal Newman (1891), was generally
condemned as deficient in fraternal feeling. He was far from
possessing his brother's subtlety of reasoning, but he impresses
1^ a transparent sinarity and singleness of mind not always dis-
played by the more celebrated writer; his style is too individual
to be taken as a model, but is admirable for its simplicity and
clearness. His character is vividly drawn by Carlyle in his life
of Sterling, of whose son Newman 'was guardian: "a man of
fine attainments, of the sharpest-cutting and most restlessly
advancing intellect and of the mildest pious enthusiasm."
It was his great misfortune that this enthusiasm should have been
correlated, as is not imfrequently the case, with an entire in-
sensibility to the humorous side of things. After his retirement
from University College, Professor Newman continued to live
for some years in London, subsequently removing to Clifton, and
eventually to Weston-super-Mare, where he died on the 7th of
October 1897. He had been blind for five years before his death,
but retained his faculties to the last. He was twice married.
See T. G. Sieveking. Memoir and Letters ef Francis W. Newman
(19 09). (R- G.)
HEWHAN, JOHN HENRT (1801-1890), English Cardinal,
was bom in London on the 31st of February z8oi, the eldest
son of John Newman, banker, of the firm of Ramsbottom,
Newman and Co. The family was understood to be of Dutch
extraction, and the name itself, spelt " Newmann " in an earlier
generation, further suggests Hebrew origin. His mother,
Jemima Fourdrinicr, was of a Huguenot famUy, long established
in London as engravers and paper manufacturers. John Henry
was the eldest of six children. The second son, Charles Robert,
a man of ability but of impracticable temper, a professed atheist
and a reclute, died in 1884. The youngest son, Francis William
(9.9.); was for many years professor of Latin in University College,
London. Two of the three daughters, Harriett Elizabeth and
Jemima Charlotte, married brothers, Thomas and John Mozley;
ind Anne Mozley, a daughter of the latter, edited in 189a New-
man's Anglican Life and Correspondence, having been entrusted
by him in 1885 with an autobiography written in the third
person to form the basb of a narrative of the first thirty years
of his life. The third daughter, Mary Sophia, died unmarried in
1828.
At the age of seven Newman was sent to a private school
conducted by Dr Nicholas at Ealing, where he was distinguished
517
by diligence and good conduct, as abo by a certain shyness and
aloofness, taking no part in the school games. He speaks of
himself as having been " very superstitious " in these early years.
He took great delight in reading the Bible, and also the ncveb
of Scott, then hi course of publication. At the age of fifteen,
during his last year at school, he was '* converted," an incident
that throughout life remained to him " more certain than that
he had hands or feet." It was in the autumn of x8i6 that he
thus feu under the mfluence of a ddfinite creed, and received
into his intellect impressions of dogma never afterwards effaced.
The tone of his mind was at this date evangelical and Calvinistic,
and he held that the pope was anti-ChrisL Blatriculating at
Trinity College, Oxford, X4th December x8i6, he went into
residence there in June the following year, and in x8i8 he gained
a scholarship of £60, tenable for nine years. But for this he
would have been unable to remain at the university, as in 1819
his father's bank suspended payment. In that yeaf his name
was entered at Lincoln's Inn. Anxiety to do well in the final
schools produced the opposite result; he broke down in the
examination, and so graduated with thurd-dass honours in i8ai.
Desiring to remain in Oxford, he took private pupils and read for
a fellowship at Oriel, then " the acknowledged centre of Oxford
intellectualism." To his intense relief and delight he was
elected on the xath of April 1833. *£. B. Puaey was elected a
fellow of the same society in 1833.
On Trinity Sunday, xjth June 1834, Newman was ordained,
and became, at Puaey's suggestion, curate of St Clement's,
Oxford. Here for two years he was busily engaged in parochial
work, but he found time to write articles on " ApoUonius of
Tyana," on " Cicero " and on " Miracles " for the Encyclopaedia
Metropolitana, In xSas, at Whately's request, he became
vice-principal of St Alban's Hall, but this post he held for one
year only. To his association with Whately at this time he
attributed much of his " mental improvement " and a partial
conquest of his shyness. He assisted Whately m his popular
work oil logic, and from him he gained his first definite idea of
the Christian Church. He broke with him in X837 on the occasion
of the re-election of Peel for the University, Newman opposing
this on personal grounds. In x836 he became tutor of Oriel,
and the same year R. H. Froude, described by Newman as " one
of the acutest, cleverest and deepest men " he ever met, was
elected fellow. The two formed a high ideal of the tutorial office
as clerical and pastoral rather than secular. In 1827 he was a
preacher at Whitehall. The year following Newman supported,
and secured the election of Hawkins as provost of Oriel in pre-
ference to Keble, a choice which he later defended or apologized
for as having in effect produced the Oxford Movement with all
its consequences. In the same year he was appointed vicar of
St Mary's, to which the chapelry of Littlemore was attached, and
Pusey was made regius professor of Hebrew. 'At this date,
though still nominally associated with the Evangelicals,
Newman's views were gradually assuming a higher ecclesiastical
tone, and while local secretary of the Church Missionary Society
he circulated an anonymous letter suggesting a method by which
Churchmen might practically oust Nonconformists from all
control of the society. This resulted in his being dismissed from
the post, 8th March X830; and three months later he withdrew
from the Bible Society, thus completing his severance from the
Low Church party. In 1831-1832 he was select preacher before
the University. In 1832, his difference with Hawkins as to the
" substantially religious nature " of a college tutorship becoming
acute, he resigned that post, and in December went with R. H.
Froude, on account of the latter's health, for a tour in South
Europe. On board the mail steamship " Hermes " they visited
Gibraltar, Malta and the Ionian Islands, and subsequently
Sicily, Naples and Rome, where Newman made the acquaintance
of Dr Wiseman. In a letter home he described Rome as " the
most wonderful place on earth," but the Roman Catholic religion
as " polytheistic, degrading and idolatrous." It was during the
course of this tour that he wrote most of the short poems which
a year later were printed in the Lyra Apostolica. From Rome
Newman returned to Sicily alone, and was dangerously ill with
5i8
NEWMAN, CARDINAL
fever at Leonforte, recovering from it with the conviction that be
had a work to do in Kngland.
In June r8^ he left Palermo for Marseilles in an orange boat,
which waa becalmed in the Strait of Bonifacio, and here he wrote
the verses, " Lead, kindly Light," which later became popular as
a hymn. He was at home again in Oxford on the 9th of July,
and on the 14th Keble preached at St Mary's an assize
sermon on "National Apostasy," which Newman afterwards
regarded as the inauguration of the Oxford Movement. In the
words of Dean Church, it was " Keble who inspired, Froude
who gave the'impetus and Newman who took up the work ";
but the first organization of it was due to H. J. Rose, editor of the
British MagaxiHet who has been styled " the Cambridge originator
of the Oxford Movement." It was in his rectory house at Had-
leigh, Suffolk, that a meeting of High Church clergymen was held,
asth to 29th of July (Newman was not present), at which it was
resolved to fight for " the apostolical succession and the integrity
of the Prayer-Book." A few weeks later Newman started,
apparently on his own initiative, the Tracts for the Times t from
which the movement was subsequently named " Tractarian."
Its aim was to secure for the Church of England a definite basis
of doctrine and discipline, in case either of disestablishment or
of a determination of High Churchmen to quit the establishment,
an eventuality that was thought not impossible in view of the
States' recent high-handed dealings with the sister established
Church of Ireland. The teaching of the tracts was supplemented
by Newman's Sunday afternoon sermons at St Mary's, the
influence of which, especially over the junior members of the
university, was increasingly marked during a period of eight
years. In 1835 Pusey joined the movement, which, so far as
concerned ritual observances, was later called " Puseyite ";
and in 1836 its supporters secured further coherence by their
united opposition to the appointment of Hampden as regius
professor of divinity. His Bampton Lectures (in the preparation
of which Blanco White had assisted him) were suspected of heresy,
and this suspicion was accentuated by a pamphlet put forth by
N£wman, Elucidations of Dr Hampden's Theological Statements.
At this date Newman became editor of the British Critic, and
he also gave courses of lectures in a side-chapel of St Mary's
in defence of the via media of the Anglican Church as between
Romanism and popular Protestantism. His influence in Oxford
was supreme about the year 1839, when, however, his study of
the monophysite heresy first raised in his mind a doubt as to
whether the Anglican position was really tenable on those prin-
ciples of ecclesiastical authority which he had accepted; and
this doubt returned when he read, in Wiseman's article in the
Dublin Review on " The Anglican Claim," the words of St
Augustine against the Donatists, " secnrus judical orbis ler-
rarum" words which suggested a simpler authoritative rule than
that of the teaching of antiquity. He continued his work,
however, as a High Anglican controversialist until he had
published, in 1841, Tract po, the last of the series, in which he
put forth, as a kind of proof charge, to test the tcnability of all
Catholic doctrine within the Church of England, a detailed
examination of the XXXIX. Articles, suggesting that their
negations were not directed against the authorized creed of
Roman Catholics, but only against popular errors and exaggera-
tions. This theory, though not altogether new, aroused much
indignation in Oxford, and A. C. Tait, afterwards archbishop of
Canterbury), with three other senior tutors, denounced it as
"suggesting and opening a way by which men might violate
their solemn engagements to the university." The alarm was
shared by the heads of houses and by others in authority; and,
at the request of the bishop of Oxford, the publication of the
Tracts came to an end. At this date Newman also resigned the
editorship of the British Critic, and was thenceforth, as he himself
later described it, "on his deathbed as regards membership
with the Anglican Church." He now recognized that the
position of Anglicans was similar to that of the semi-Arians in
the Arian controversy; and the arrangement made at this time
that an Anglican bishopric should be established in Jerusalem,
the appointment to lie alternately with the British and Prussian
governments, was to him further evidence of the non-apostohcal
character of the Church of England. In 184a he withdrew to
Littlemore, and lived there under monastic conditions with a
small band of followers, their life being one of great physical
austerity as well as of anxiety and suspense. To his disciples
there he assigned the task of writing lives of the English saiots.
while his own time was largely devoted to the completion of an
essay on the development of Christian doctrine, by which principle
he sought to reconcile himself to the elaborated creed and the
practical system of the Roman Church. In February 1843 be
published, as an advertisement in the Oxford Conservative Journal,
an anonymous but otherwise formal retractation of all the hard
things he had said against Rome; and in September, after the
secession of one of the inmates of the house, he preached his last
Anglican sermon at Littlemore and resigned the living of St
Mary's. But still an interval of two years elapsed before he was
formally received into the Roman Catholic Church (9th October
1845) by Father Dominic, an Italian Passionist. In February
1846 he left Oxford for Oscott, where Bishop Wiseman, then
vicar-apostolic of the Midland district, resided; and in October
he proceeded to Rome, where he was ordained priest and was
given the degree of D.D. by the pope. At the close of 1847 he
returned to England as an Oratorian, and resided first at ^lary-
vale (near Oscott); then at St Wilfrid's College. Cheadle; then
at St Ann's, Alcester Street, Birmingham; and finally at £dg-
baston, where spacious premises were built for the community,
and where (except for four years in Ireland) he lived a secluded
life for nearly forty years. Before the house at Edgbaston was
occupied he had established the London Oratory, with Father
Faber as its superior, and there (in King William Street, Strand)
he delivered a course of lectures on " The Present Position of
Catholics in England," in the fifth of which he protested against
the anti-Catholic utterances of Dr Achilli, an ex-Dominican friar,
whom he accused in detail of numerous acts of immorality.
Popular Protestant feeling ran very high at the time, partly in
consequence of the recent establishment of a Roman Catholic
diocesan hierarchy by Pius IX., and criminal proceedings
against Newman for libel resulted in an acknowledged gross
miscarriage of justice. He was found guilty, and was sentenced
to pay a fine of £100, while his expenses as defendant amounted
to about £14,000, a sum that was at once raised by public
subscription, a surplus being spent on the purchase of Rednall,
a small property picturesquely situated on the Lickey Hills,
with a chapel and cemetery, where Newman now lies buried.
In 1854, at the request of the Irish bishops, Newman went to
Dublin as rector of the newly-established Catholic university
there. But practical organization was not among his gifts, and
the bishops became jealous of his influence, so that after four
years he retired, the best outcome of his stay there being a volume
of lectures entitled Idea of a University, containing some of his
most effective writing. In 1858 he projected a branch house
of the Oratory at Oxford; but this was opposed by Manning and
others, as likely to induce Catholics to send their sons to that
university, and the scheme was abandoned. In 1859 he estab-
lished, in connexion with the Birmingham Oratory, a school for
the education of the sons of gentlemen on lines similar to those of
the English public schools, an important work in which he never
ceased to take the greatest interest. But all this time (since
1841) Newman had been under a cloud, so far as concerned the
great mass of cultivated Englishmen, and he was now awaiting
an opportunity to vindicate his career; and in 1862 he began
to prepare autobiographical and other memoranda for the
purpose. The occasion came when, in January 1864, Charles
Kingsley, reviewing Froude's History of England in iiacmiUans
Magazine, incidentally asserted that " Father Newman informs
us that truth for its own sake need not be. and on the whole
ought not to be, a virtue of the Roman clergy." After some
preliminary sparring between the two— Newman's pamphlet,
" Mr Kingsley and Dr Newman: a Correspondence on the Qacs-
tion whether Dr Newman teaches that Truth b no Virtue.**
published in 1864 and not reprinted, is unsurpassed in the Eoj^ixsh
language for the vigour of its satire: the anger displayed wa>
NEWMAN, CARDINAL
S19
later, in a letter to Sir William Cope, admitted to have been
largely feigned— Newman publishf^ in bi-monthly parts his
Apologia pro vita sua, a religions autobiography of unsurpassed
interest, the simple confidential tone of which " revolutionised
the popular estimate of its author," establishing the strength and
sincerity of the convictions which had led him into the Roman
Catholic Church. Kingsley's accusation indeed, in so far as it
concerned the Roman clergy generally, was not precisely dealt
with; only a passing sentence, in an appendix on lying and
equivocation, maintained that English Catholic priests are as
truthful as English Catholic laymen; but of the author's own
personal rectitude no room for doubt was left.
In 1870 he put forth his Grammar of Assent, the most closely
reasoned of his works, in which the case for religious belief is
maintained by arguments differing somewhat from those com-
monly used by Roman Catholic theologians; and in 1877, in
the republication of his AngUcan works, he added to the two
volumes containing his defence of the via media a long preface
and numerous notes in which he criticized and replied to sundry
anti-Catholic arguments of his own in the original issues. At
the time of the Vatican Council (1869-2870) he was known
to be opposed to the definition of Papal infallibility, and in a
private letter to his bishop (Ullathorne), surreptitiously published,
he denounced the " insolent and aggressive faction " that had
pushed the matter forward. But he made no sign of disapproval
when the doctrine was defined, and subsequently, in a letter
nominally addressed to the duke of Norfolk on the occasion of
Mr Gladstone's accusing the Roman Church of having " equally
repudiated modern thought and ancient history," Newman
affirmed that he had always believed the doctrine, and had only
feared the deterrent effect of its definition on conversions on
account of acknowledged historical difficulties. In this letter,
and especially in the postscript to the second edition of it,
Newman finally silenced all cavillers as to his not being really
at ease within the Roman Church. In 1878 his old college
(Trinity), to his great deh'ght, elected him an honorary fellow,
and he revisited Oxford after an interval of thirtjr-two years.
At the same date died Pope Pius IX., who had long mistrusted
him; and Leo XIII. was encouraged by the duke of Norfolk
and other distinguished Roman Catholic laymen to make
Newman a cardinal, the distinction being a marked one, because
he was a simple priest and not resident in Rome. The offer
was made in Eebruary 1879, <^n<S the announcement of it was
received with universal applause throughout the English-speaking
worid. The "creation" took place on 12th May, with the
title of St George in Velabro, Newman taking occasion while in
Rome to insist on the lifelong consistency of his opposition to
" liberalism in religion." After an illness that excited appre-
hension he returned to England, and thenceforward resided at
the Oratory until his death, i ith.August 1890, making occasional
visits to London, and chiefly to his old friend, R. W. Church,
dean of St Paul's, who as proctor had vetoed the condemnation
of Tract ^ in 1841. As cardinal Newman published nothing
beyond a preface to a work by A. W. Hutton on the An^ican
Ministry (1879) and an article on Biblical critidsm in the Nine-
Ucnth Century (February 1884).
Newman's influence as controversialist and preacher (f.e.as
reader of his written sermons, for he was never a speaker) was
very great. For the Roman Church his conversion secured
great prestige and the dissipation of many prejudices. Within it
his influence was mainly in the direction, of a broader spirit and
of a recognition of the important part pkyed by development
both in doctrine and in Church government. And although he
never called himself a mystic, he showed that in his jud^ent
s{»ritual truth is apprehended by direct intuition, as an ante-
cedent necessity to the professedly purely rational basis of the
Roman Catholic creed. Within the Anglican Church, and even
within the more strictly Protestant Churches, his influence was
greater, but in a different direction, viz. in showing the necessity
of dogma and the indispensableness of the austere, ascetic,
chastened and graver side of the Christian religion. If his
teaching as to the Church was less widely followed, it was because
of doubu as to the thoroughness of his knowledge of history
and as to his freedom from bias as a critic. Some hundreds of
clergymen, influenced by the movement of which for ten or
twelve years he was the acknowledged leader, made their sub-
mission to the Church of Rome; but a very much larger number,
who also came under Its influence, failed to learn from him that
belief in the Church involves belief in the pope. The natural
tendency of his mind Is often (and correctly) spoken of as sceptical
He held that, apart from an interior and unreasoned conviction,
there is no cogent proof of the existence of God; and in Tract 8$
he dealt with the diflliculties of the Creed and of the canon of
Scripture, with the apparent implication that they are insur-
mountable unless overridden by the authority of an infallible
Church. In his own case these views did not lead to scepticism,
because he had always possessed the necessary interior con-
viction; and in writing Trad 8$ his only doubt would have been
where the true Church is to be found. But, so far as the rest of
the world is concerned, his teaching amounts to this: that the
man who has not this interior conviction has no choice but to '
remain an agnostic, while the man who has it is bound sooner
or hter to become a Roman Cathob'c.
He was a man of magnetic personality, with an Intense belief
in the significance of his own career; and his character may be
described as feminine, both in its strength and in iu weakness.
As a poet he had inspiration and genuine power. Some of his
short and earlier poems, in spite of a characteristic element
of fierceness and intolerance in one or two cases, are described
by R. H. Hutton as *' unequalled for grandeur of outline, purity
of taste and radiance of total effect "; while his ktest and
longest, " The Dream of Gerontius," is generally recognized as
the happiest effort to represent the tmseen world that has been
made since the time of Dante. His prose style, especially in his
Catholic days, b fresh and vigorous, and is attractive to many
who do not sympathise with his conclusions, from the apparent
candour with which difficulties are admitted and grappled with,
while in his private correspondence there is a charm that places it
at the head of that branch of EngUsh literature. He was t6o
sensitive and self-conscious to be altogether successful as a
leader of men, and too impetuous to take part in public affairs;
but he had many of the gifts that go to make a first-rate journalist,
for, " with all his love for and his profound study of antiquity,
there was something about him that was conspicuously modem."
Nevertheless, with the sdentific and critical literature of the
years 1850-1890 he was barely acquainted, and he knew no
German. There are a few passages in his writings in which he
seems to show some sympathy with a broader theology. Thus he
admitted that there was " something true and divinely revealed
in every religion." He held that " freedom from symbols and
articles is abstractedly the highest state of ChrisUan communion,"
but was " the peculiar privilege of the primitive Church." And
even in 1877 he allowed that " in a religion that embraces large
and separate classes of adherents there always is of necessity
to a certain extent an exoteric and an esoteric doctrine." These
admissions, together with his elucidation of the idea of doctrinal
development and his eloquent assertion of the supremacy of
conscience, have led some critics to hold that, in spite of all his
protests to the contrary, he was himself somewhat of a Liberal.
But it is certain that he exphiined to his own satisfaction and
accepted every item of the Roman Catholic creed, even going
beyond it, as in holding the pope to be infallible in canonization;
and while expressing his preference for English as compared with
Itab'an devotional forms, he was himself one of the first to
introduce such into England, together with the ritual peculiarities
of the local Roman Church. The motto that he adopted for
use with the arms emblazoned for him as cardinal — Cor ad cor
loquitur, and that which he directed to be engraved on his
memorial tablet at Edgbaston — Ex umbris et imaginibus in
veriiatem—togfitha seem to disclose as much as can be disclosed
of the secret of a h'fe which, both to contemporaries and to
later students, has been one; of almost fascinating interest,
at once devout and inquiring, affectionate and yet sternly
self-restrained.
520
NEWMARCH— NEW MEXICO
Ther^ is at Oiford a bust of Newman by Woolner. His
portrait by Oukss is at the Birmingham Oratory, and his portrait
by Millais is in the possession of the duke of Norfolk, a replica
being at the London Oratory. Outside the latter building, and
facing the Brompton Road, there is a marble statue of Newman
ascardinaL (A. W. Hu.)
The chief authorities for Newman** life are his Apologia and the
Letters and Correspondence, edited by Miss Mozley, above referred
to. The letters and memoranda dealing with the yean 18^^-1890
were entrusted by Newman to the Rev. W. Neville as literary
executor. Works by R. W. Church. J. B. Mozley. T. Mozley and
Wilfrid Ward should also be consulted, as well as an apprecuition
by R. H. Hutton. Advene criticism will be found in the writings
of Dr E. A. Abbott («.{. The Anglican Career 0/ Cardinal Nermnan,
2 vols. London, 1892), while some minor traits and foibles were
noted by A. W. Hutton in the Expositor (September. October and
November 1890). See also P. Inuxeau-Dannn. La Renaissanei
ceUholique: Newman et le momement d'Oi^ord (P^ris. 1899): Lucie
Filix-Faure, Newntan, savie et see entores {ib. 1901); MacRae. Die
religidse Cewissheit bei John Henry Newman Uena. 1898): Grappe,
John Henry Newman, Essai de.psychologie reJigieuse (Paris, 1903);
William Barry. Newman (London. 1903); Lady Blennerhassett,
J. H. Kardinal Newman (Beriin. 1904): Br&mond. Newman. Le
dheloppement du dopne ehritien (Paris. 19OS; 4th ed., 1906), Psy-
chologie delafoi (iS, 1906), and Euot de oiographie psychologique
{ib, 1906).
NEWHARCH, WILLIAM (X820-X882), English economist and
statistician, was bom at Thirsk, Yorkshire, on the 38th of January
1820. He settled in London in 1846 as an official of the Agra
Bank, but resigned in 1851 on his appointment as secretary of
the Globe Insurance Company. This post he held till 1862. when
he became chief officer in the banking-house of Glyn, Mills & Co.,
in whose employ he remained until i88x. Notwithstanding the
continuous pressure of an active business life he found time to
contribute largely many valuable articles to the magazines and
newspapers,. and took an active part in the proceedings of the
Royal Sutistical Society (of which he was one of the honorary
secretaries, editor of its journal, and in 186^1871 president)
and the Political Economy Club. He was also elected a fellow of
the Royal Society. His extensive knowledge of banking was
displayed in the evidence which he gave before the select com-
mittee on the Bank Acts in 1857. He collaborated with Thomas
Tooke in the two final volumes of his History of Prices and was
responsible for the greater part of the work in those volumes.
For nineteen years he wrote an admirable survey of -the com-
mercial history of the year in the Economist, He died at Torquay
on the 23rd of March 1882. After his death his friends founded,
in perpetuation of his memory, a Newmarch Lectureship in
economic science and statistics at University College, London.
NEWHARKET, a market town in the Newmarket parlia-
menury division of Cambridgeshire, England, 13) m. £. by N.
of Cambridge on the Bury branch of the Great Eastern railway.
Pop. (1901) 10,688. A part of the town is in Suffolk, and the
urban district is in the administrative county of West Suffolk.
Newmarket has been celebrated for its horse-races from the time
of James L, though at that time there was more of coursing and
hawking than horse-racing. Charles I. instituted the first cup-
race here. For the use of Charles II., during his visits to the
races, a palace, no longer extant, was built on the site of the lodge
of James I. There are numerous residences belonging to patrons
of the turf, together with subles, and racing and training
esublishments. The racecourse, which lies south-west of the
town, has a full extent of 4 m.. but is divided into various lengths
to suit the different races. The course intersects the soKialled
Devil's Ditch or Dyke (sometimes also known as St Edmund's
Dyke), an earthwork consisting of a ditch and mound stretching
almost straight for s m- from Reach to Wood Ditton. It is 12 ft.
wide at the top, 18 ft. above the level of the country, and 30 ft.
above the bottom of the ditch, with a slope of so ft- on the
south-west side and 26 ft. on the north-east. It formed part of
the boundary between the kingdoms of East Anglia and Merda,
but is doubtless of much earlier origin. Roman remains have
been found in the neighbourhood.
NEW MECKLENBURG (Ger. Neu-Mecklenbwg, fonneriy New
Ireiandt native Tomhara), an island of the Bismarck Archipelago,
N.E. of New Gmnca in the Padfic Ocean, about 3* S., 152*' E.,
in the administration of German New Guinea.- It is about
240 m. long but seldom over x 5 wide. From St George 's Channel
at the south, separating it from New Pomerania, it sweeps north
and then north-west, being divided from New Hanover at the
other extremity by Byron Strait. It is mountaixwus throughout,
having an extreme elevation of about 6500 ft. in the north,
where the prevalent formations are sandstone and limestone,
whereas in the south they are granite, porphyry and basalt
There b a white population of about forty; the natives are
Papuans of a less fine type than the natives of New Pomerania.
and rather resemble the Solomon islanders. Jacob Lemaire and
Willem Comelis Schouten sighted New Mecklenburg in x6i6.
but it was only recognized as part of an island separate from New
Guinea by William Dampier in X700, and as separate from New
Po mera nia in 1767 by Philip Carteret.
NEW MEXICO, a south-western sute- of the United States,
lying between 31^ 20' and 37* N. lat., and X03* and 109^ 2'
W. long. It is bounded N. by Colorado; £. by Oklahoma and
Texas; S. by Texas and Mexico; and W. by Arizona. It has
an extreme length N. and S. of 400 m., an extreme width E. and
W. of 358 m., and a total area of 122,634 sq. m., of which 131
sq. m. are water-surface.
Physiography. — New Mexico is a region of mountains and
high plateaus. Broadly speaking, its surface is a vast tableland
tilted toward the S. and £., and broken by parallel ranges of
mountains whose trend is most frequently N. and S. About
midway between the western boundary and the Rio Grande
passes the Continental Divide, which separates the waters
entering the Gulf of Mexico from those that flow into the Gull
of California. In the region E. of the Continental Divide, which
embraces about three-fourths of the surface of the state,
the general south-eastern slope is very marked. Thus, at Santa
F6, in the north central part of the state, the elevation is
7013 ft.; at Raton, in the N.E., 6400 ft.; at Las Cruces, in the
extreme S.. 3570 ft; and at Red Bluff, in the extreme S.E.,
2876 ft.
The Rocky Mountain system enters New Me»co near the centre
of the northern boundary; its main ridge, lying E. of the Rio
Grande, extends as far S. as the dty of Santa F£. It forms the
water-parting between the upper waters of the Canadian river and
the Rio Grande, and contains many of the loftiest peaks in New
Mexico, among them being Truchas 113,275 ft.). Costilla (12.634 ft)
and Baldy (12,623 ft.). On the E. this ridge is bounded by the ref ion
of the Great Plains, the dissected topography of which is chatactcr-
ized by many broad valleys intervening. W. of the Rb Ciande lies
a series of lower ranges, also a part of the Rocky Mountain system,
whose western slopes mem almost imperceptibly with the Plateau
Region. The San Juan. Gallinas and Nacimiento ranges are amoAg
the most notable in this group. South of the Rocky Mountains Iks
the so<alled Basin Regbn. m which isolated, but homettmes lofty
and masuve. mountains, the result in many instances of a series of
numerous parallel faults, rise from level plains like islands from the
sea and enclose the valleys with bare walls of grey and brown rock.
These valley fdains. from 10 m. to 20 m. wide and sometimes too o.
lone, sloping gradually toward their centres, are* usually covered
with detritus from the neighbouring mountains, and seldom have
a distinct drainage outlet. The Spaniards called them " bolsons **
(purses), a term that geologists have retained. In many of these
bolsons are ephemeral lakes, in which the waters collect during the
rainy season and stand for several months. These waters are fre-
quently impregnated with alkali or salt, and on evaporating leave
upon the bled of the lake a thin'encrustatbn of snowy whiteness.
Such beds, locally known as " alkali flats." are especially numerous
in Valencia, Socorro. Dona Ana and Otero counties, and a numbrr
of them furnish all the salt needed by the cattle ranges in their
vicinity. East of the San Andreas Range, in the south central part
of New Mexico, lies the basin of the extinct Lake Otero, in which
are found the remarkable ** white sands,** consisting of dunes of
almost pure granular gypsum and covering the area of 300 sq. n.
In this region many species of reptiles and insects are almou petfcctlv
white~-an interesting example of protective cobratbn. Both E.
and W. of the centnd portbn of the Basin Region the botsbo plah«
soon lose their distinctive character, the valleys become wider acd
broader and the mountains less lofty and more isolated. East of the
Pecos and S. of the Canadian riven lies the great arid tableland knova
as the Staked Plains (Uano Estacado).a vast stretch of barren wastes,
with almost nothing to break the monotony of its landscape. This
is a pan of the Great Plains and a continuation of the high ptains
regbn of Tcxaa. The Plateau Region includes roost of the area N.
NEW MEXICO
oftheGilarivcrand W. of theRAoGiBiide. Hcie vokanic activity
and powerful eroriou have combined to produce a leries of icmarkabK
aooc effects. The eastern border of this area is formed by tlie
vslky of the Rio Grande and the western foot-hills of the Rocky
Mountains; the southern boundary overlooks the Gila river; and on
the N. and W. the plateau continues into Cokxado, Utah and Arizona.
Near its soutlieni and eastern borders are many lava flows and
extinct vokauuc mountains, one of the most imposins of those in
New Mexico bein^ the Mt. Taylor vokano (11,389 it.), whkh is
larroanded by lava tables and soma of the most wonderful volcank
buttes in the world. In other portiona of New Mexioo there is
also much evidence of former vofcaok aaivity. A conspkuoua
feature of the New Mexican landscape is the mesa, a flat-topped hill
created by differential erosion and projecting above the surrounding
country hke a table. A notable example is the mesa of Acoma, in
Valencaa county, capped with volcanic rocks; upon its sumnit,
about 350 ft. above the plain, b the Indian pueblo of Acoma.
The average elevation x4 New Mexico is 5700 ft,, with 40,200
sq. m. between 3000 and 5000 ft.; 56,680 sq. m. between 5000 and
7000 ft; »,wo aq. m. between 7000 and 9000 ft; and aooo aq. m.
above 9000 ft.
For a resioD with such a small amount of nJnfall the riven are
numcnus. but none of the streams is naviaable, and in many of them
daring the dry season ^and in some of them because of broken
stratification) the water m places disappears entirely beneath the
sandy bed, and after flowing, unden^und for some distance, breaks
out afresh farther on as a river, nvulet or sfwing. The most im-
portant stream is the Rio Grande, which, rising in southern Colorado.
eaters New Mexico through deep canyons near the centre of the
oorthem boundary and continues southward across the entire state.
Duriof its course it changoi from a mountain stream in the N.
to a siuggiah river turpd with sand in the S. In the lowlands it
loses much of iu v(rfume through evaporation and absorption by
the sands, and through irrigation, and in iu lower course in New
Mexioo its bed is fret^uently dry. In the flood season it usually
leaves its banks and mundates the lowlands^ spreading over the
sands a rich deposit of silt; and on account of this cMuacteristic
it is sometimes called *' the Nile of New Mexico.'* The stream next
in importance b the Pecos river, whkh rises in Mora county and
flows southward into Texas, where it joins the Rio Grande. It has
the aune geiteral characteristics as the Jatter river^ being a mountain
stream near its source, and after leaving the hwhlands be^Mning
siumah and losing much of its water. Along the lower course many
undnground streams from the mountains break out as q)rittgs' and
empty into the Pecos. The Canadian river drains the eastern sk»e
of the Rock/ Mountains and flows in a general south-easterly
direction through Texas into Oklahoma, where it empties into the
Arkanas. Most of its course in New Mexico lies through a canyon.
The westward-flowing streama— the San Juan, Rio Pueroo of the
West, Zufti. Rio San Francisco and Gila— are of only slight im-
portance, though their flow is perennial. In the vall^ there are
many small streams whose waters never reach the ocean, but
disappear by seepage or evapioration.
Fauna end Flora. — Of native animals the spedes are numerous,
but their numbers are small. Bison no lonnr roam the plains, and
the elk has been driven out; but among the hrger mammals still
to be found in certain districts are the deer, prong-horn (in small
numbers), puma, coyotei timber wolf, lynx (Lynx rujus and Lynx
Cnadeuns) and the black and gnxAy bear. Badgers, hares and
rabbits are found everywhere, and prairie-dogs are so numerous in
some phces as to be considered a nuisance. There are numerous
qwdes of aquatic birds. From time to time upon the Rio Grande
may be seen ducks, wild geese, swans, cranes, herons and gulls.
Eagles are often seen, and in the arid ana elevated regions crows and
Gamble's quail, bob-white, grouse, English
pheasants and wild turkeys are the most important game birds, and
the moddog-bird is common throughout south-western New Mexico.
Among the venomous reptiles ana insects are the rattlesnake, the
Gila monster iffdoderma suspeaum), a poisonous Uzard, and the
tarantula {MygaU Hpntmi\^ which, however, are common only in
certain ^aoes and attertam seasons. ■ .
New Me»co has such a great range of elevations that all four of
the zones of v^etatioo into whkdi the South-West has been divided
socortfing to altitude are found within its limits; namdy, the xone
of cactus, yucca and agave (3000-3500 ft.), where grass is scanty;
the aone of greasewood and sage-brush (3500-4900 ft.), where there
is tittle grass, and die cactus species are less numerous; the sone of
the cedar (4900-6800 ft); and the xone of the^mne and fir (6800-
lojoo ft.), in which grass is more abundant. The total woodland
area has been estimated at 23,700 aq. m., or a little more than 19%
of the land area. Only the higher ranges and pbteaus are timbered,
and even there the forests are not dense. The lower stopes are
usually covered with the scrub oak* juniper and piffon; but some
mountains, espedally those along the eastern bolder of the Rio
Grande Valley, are absolutely treeless. The principal forest areas
are upon the southern end of the San Juan Range, upon the Sangre
de Cristo Range and in Socorro county, W. of the Rio Grande.
The chief varieties of timber are the red nr, Engelmann's spruce and
veOow pine. Up to 1910 the Federal government had created
eleven forest reservations in New Mexioo, embracing an area of
xo.971,711 aicrea. In the alleys the only trees nati '.
are the willow and cottonwood, found along the watc 1
beyond the range of farrigatioo vegetatkm is limited to (
with ssfe-bnish and greasewood in the N. and cact \
in the S.
OiiMte.— As the winds thai reach New Mexico ha^
cated whik crossing the plains of Texas or the mou t
N.W., the climate is characterised by a lack of humiditj
soil quickly absorbs the sun's heat and also quickly r (
that there is great daily variation in the temperatui '■
humidity, high altitudes and southern latitude all com i
the climate oJubrious and emecially benefkial to pen <
with pulmonary disorders. The highest te mperature c '
was 110* F. at Roswell; the kiwest, -23* at Aztec i 1
where mountain and plain meet, the mean annual te 1
"; the mean for the winter is 31* and for the somn 1
hifl^iest and lowest temperatures ever recorded were 1
ft and -13*. At Fort Bayard, in the S.W-t tiae mean :
or the year is M*; the mean for the winter is 39*, witfc
jccordea of -1*7 the mean for the summer is 7a . with 1
recorded of I03\ At MesiUa Park, in the fewer Rk> Gri
the mean aimtul temperature is 60*; for the wmter it is
minimum of i*, and for the summer 77*, with a maxim 1
In all parts of New Mexico except the N.W. there u a 8(
season, which beginaeariy in July and lasts for a month <]
the rain coming in the form of short afternoon thui
About a third <? the precipitation occurs during July a
but after August the monthly predpttatkm b steadily
March, in which month only about 3 % of the annual ran
For all of New Mexico the mean precipitation b al
ranging from 9 in. in the k>wer Ru> Grande Valley to 35
mountain ranges at elevations of xo,ooo ft. and over. In
there are usually about two snows a year and these quickly
but on the mountain peaks and in the canyons the snow a
to great depths and forms a steady source of watcr-8U(
rivers. It is the melting of the snows <m the Rocky M01
not the rainy season, that produces the floods of the Rio <
Sails. — ^Tne prevailing type of soil on the higher landi
loam, underlaid with day or day kxun, whkh stores ix
the typical soil of the basins. Along the river valley
limited areas of fine lediment, and here with irrigatioi
dn be grown without the use of fertilizers. In the ^
drainage b poor^ esjpedally in the S., the soils contau
alkali; but m the highlands most of thb has been dii
carried away by the rains, and the soib are well adapted
grounds.
XfHcaiterir.^Because of the small amount of rainfall,
is confined chiefly to the river valley^ In 1900 only 4
land surface was included in farms, and less than '27
classed as improved farm land. The total acreage, ho
from 787,88a in 1890 to 5.130,878 in 1900, an^ increase
Between 1850 and 1880 there was very little increase ii
The amount of improved bnd, though showing an absol
between 1880 and 1900, declined rebtively to thetouls
from ^7*6 % in 1880 to 6'4 % in 1900. At the same time
size oT farms (not indudmg farms with an area of less t
which reported an annual Income of less than S500) inc
I34>0 acres in 1880 to 433*6 acres in 1900. This decreas<
portion of improved acreage and increase in the averagi
farms b due to the increased use of lands for grazin
As regards tenure, 90-6% of the farms in 1900 were c
owners, ^'2 % by cash tenants, and 7*a % by share
thb year 39*6% of the farms derived their pripicipal i
hay and grain, 33*3% from live stock, j$*5% from dai
3'5% from vcsetables, a*8% from fruits. The most
crop, as a result of irrigation, b alfalfa, which b growi
requires littie attention, and improves the soil, wheat,
and oats are the leading cereal crops; and S. of the
Santa F6 'vegetables and deciduous fruits flourish wher
supply b ample. A Uttle cotton has been grown near
the Pecos Valley, and in 1909 sugar beets were introdw
Albuquerque and cantaloupes in the southern Rio Gn
Fruit, especially the Bartlett pear, b very successful,
value of farm property fai I9W> was $53>767>824t and 1
the live stock, $31.737400. The value of the farm prod
was 11,^7.974* in 1889 11,784,834. and hi 1899
In 1909 the values of the pnndpal farm products (acco
Keof Book ef tka US, Department of Agriadtitre) wen
hay, l5,339<ooo; wheat, $1,175,009; Indian corn,
oats, $634,000; and potatoes, $86,000. The values of
classes of five stock on the xst of January 1910 wen
■heep, $13,714,000; milch cows, $1,135,000; other
$15,677,000; horses, $6,351,000; mules, $6m,<
$373/)00. Stock-raising b the most Important indusj
growing of sheep for woo) takes a leading place. The hill
covered with the nutritious grama grass form excel
grounds, whkh are most extensive in Bernalillo, Gua
Arriba, San Migud, Union and Valenda counties. Ii
(according to an estimate of the National Associal
Manufacturen) New Mexico contained 3,600,000 Oxtcf
522
NEW MEXICO
number in any state or Territory except Montana and Wyomii^;
and in April I909 there were 3,300.000 sheep of shearing age in
New Mexico, but this number was less than that in Monuna or
Wyoming at that time.
Except in a few mountain valleys in the N., agriculture was long
entirely dependent upon irrigation, which has been practised in
New Mexico by the Pueblo Indians since prehistoric times. In 1899
the total irrigated area outside of Indian reservations amounted to
203.893 »c«* (67*2% of all improved land)— an increase of i33-3%
in the preceding decade. Of the total land in crops in that year
89-3 % was irrigated. After the passa^ of the Federal Reclamation
Act in 1003, a number of extensive irrigation works in New Mexico
were underuken by the Federal government. The Carlsbad reservoir
and diverting dam in Eddy county and the Rio Hondo canals and
reservoir in Chaves county were completed in 1907 and are capable
of supplyinf; water to tracts of 30.000 and 10.000 acres respectively.
In IQ08 an irrigation reservoir in McKinley county for the use of the
Zufli Indians and the Leasbui^g project (Dcn.i Ana re :: " -00
acres) were completed. The Rio Grande bi ■ i l , t w a - pj j n r,f mi 1 ■ J07
for the storage of the flood waters of the Ki** *^rj,ndt ni^r Engle New
Mexico, in ocder to reclaim about 155.000 ac c o-i of knd in N l^w M (t stco
and Tex • • •• . .- . . . . .
acre-feel
16th of , .,
Other systems contemplated by the governciic-m w^rc the Lai Ve^as
project for reclaiming 10,000 acres near La^ Vc^^na, tlic Vnon Lake
^ject for reclaimii^ 60,000 acres in the TeccM Valley, and the La
nata Valley prcnect for irrigating about 4d,lhxi acres in tKc norih-
western part of New Mexico, 35 m. a.W. oi Eturan|;o« Colorado. A
special irrigation commission was appointe tin iii^j,^nd\n 1^3 the
legislature created the office of Temtorial ir r i ^; j i ion cn^i ncc r. I rnVa-
tion by private companies is of some import.n 1 ^ v , csptct a El y i n. i hr San
J uan Valley, the Rio Grande Valley and the I Woi V a IJ cy. I n 1 909 it
was estimated that about ^joo.ooo acres wer . i [ r iga led . Dry [a rm i ng
has proved a great success in New Mexico, a-; eli^f whe rcr in Enc Souih-
West, especially since 190O; and in 1901 it yra^ estimated tliiat
3,000,000 acres were cultivated without irrigation.
Manufactures. — As New Mexico is primarily a mining and stock-
raising region, its manufacturing industries are of comparatively
small importance. The value of the nunufactured products in
1880 was $1,384,846; in 1890 $1,516,19$; and in 1900 $5,605,795,
anincreaseinthe latter decade of 369-7%. In 1^ there were 199
esublishments under the factory system (an increase of 14*4%
over the number in 1900); the amount of capital invested was
- - - - ' "factory" pnxlucta was $5,705,880
( value of the " factory " ptroducts in
.^_,. ^ in 1905 were the construction of cars
and general railway shop and repair work by steam railway companies
(value of produa, $3,509,84^), the manufacture of lumber and timber
products (value $1,315,364) and of flour and grist mill products
(value $388,134), and the printing and publishing of newspapers and
periodicals (value $379,858). In 1900 the nunufactures of Albu-
querque, Sanu Ft and Socorro were valued at 39*4% of the total
value of New Mexico's products.
Minerals.— The existence of valuable mineral depostU was early
known to the Spaniards. There was some production of gold by the
Mexicans, but the silver mining was unimporunt until 1881. when
the Lake Valley silver mines in Sierra county began to yield. Be-
tween that year and 1884 the coining value of the silver produa
increased from $375,000 to $3.ooo,ooa After 1885 there was a
gradual decline in the output, whose bullion value in 1908 was
1350,986. The produaion of gold has shown a somewhat similar
movement; the output in 1881 was valued at $185,000; in 1889.
at $1,000,000, and in 1908 at $39«.757- The leading gold- and
silver-producing counties are Socorro. Grant, Sierra and Dona Ana.
Only silver a mined in the last-named county. 0)Dper has been mined
for many years, and in 1906 and IQ08 constituted New Mexico s most
valuable metallic product, the value of the yield in these years being
$1,356,533 and $658,858 respccUvely. Neariy all the product comes
from Grant county, and in 1008 neariy 98% of the output was from
Grant and Otero counties. In 1905-1908 the decrease in output was
large. In the same years there was an increase in the output of
sine, whkh in 1906 was valued at $67,710 and in 1908 at $168,096.
Most of the xinc comes from Socorro county, where the mines of the
Magdalena District in IQ08 yielded 93% of the entire product-
A small amount of lead u produced incidentally to the mining 01
line, being derived from mued lead and rinc ores. Far the most
imporunt mineral product, however, is coal, which is found m all
forms— lignite to anthracite — and in widely distnbuted areas.
The chief centres of production arc the Raton field, in Colfax county;
the Durango-Gallup field, in McKinley and Rio Arrito counties:
the Whitcoaks field, in Uncoln county: and the Los Cenllos and
Tcjon areas, in Sanu Fk county. Much of the coal u auitable for
coke of which a considerable amount is manufactured. The value
of the coal product in tow was $1,500,330: in 1004, $1,904,499:
and in 1908, $3,368,753. Iron ores are widely distnbuted, but have
notbeen^lnrefoped; graphite is mined in Colfax county; mi« in
Taos county, and to a small extent in Rio Amba county : iMrWe is
quarried in Otero county and sandstone in Bernalillo, Colfax and
San Miguel counties. Gypsum beds are widely distributed, and the
supply is inexhaustible, but their great distance from centres of 000-
sumption has prevented their proifitable working. In New Mexico
are found turquoises and a few garnets; it leems probable that
turquoises were mined by the Aztecs. The largest of tne old Spanish
turquoise mines in the CeriUos District, 18 m. S. of Santa F^ furnished
a turquoise product between 1890 ahd 1900 valued at more than
$2,000,000. Other mines are in Grant and Otero counties. The
New Mexican garnets are found* in McKinley county. The output
of precious stones in 1903 was valued at $51,100, in 1908 at $72,100.
Transportation. — ^Thetoul railway mileage on the 3 1 st of December
1908 was 3,918-02, more than twice as much as that of 1890.
The length oif railway per inhabitant in New Mexico in 1907 was
about five times as great as that for the whole country, but the
amount of line per square mile of territory was only about one-third
as great as the average for the United Sutes. New Mexi<5o is
traversed by two transcontinental lines, the Atchison, Topeka ft
Santa F6, from Chicago to San Frandaco and the Southern ndfic,
from New Orleans to San Francisco. The main line of the fanner
enters New Mexico near Raton, extends S.W. to Albuquerque and
thence westward into Arizona. A southward extension taps the
Southern Pacific at £1 Paso^ Texas, and Deming, New Mexico, and
there are numerous shorter branches. This system also controk the
Pecos Valley & North-Eastern railway, which serves the south-
western part of New Mexico. The Southern Pacific cro o s es New
Mexico ivestward from EI Paso, Texas. The western division -of
the El Paso & South-Westem system, connecting El Paso and
Benson, Arizona, crosses New Mexico just N. 01 the Mcxicaa
boundary. Its eastern division (including the El Paso'& North-
Eastern, the El Paso & Rock Island, the Aiamogordo & Sacramento
Mountain and the Dawson railways) connects with the Clwafo,
Rock Island & Pacific at Tucumcari; thus forming a connecting
link between that system and the Southern Pacific. The Sanu Ft
Central, extending southward from Sanu Fi to Torrance, b a con-
necting link between the Atchison, Topeka & Sanu F€ and the EI
Paso ft South-Westem systems. Branches of the Denver ft Rio
Grande serve the northern paru of New Mexico.
Population. — ^Thc population of New Mexico constsU of
three distinct classes— Indians; Spanish- Americans, locaDj
known as " Mexicans "; and the English-speaking class called,
in distinction from the others, " Americans." Of the Indians
there arc two types, both of the Athapascan family; in one are
the Pueblos, and in the other the Navahos, in the N.W. part of
the state, and their near kinsmen, the Apaches, to the south.
The Pueblo Indians live in adobe houses, are quiet and usually
self-sustaining, and have been converted to the forms of Christi-
anity. They bad irrigated farms and dwelt in six-storey com*
munal houses long before the advent of the white man. By the
treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo, in 1848, the United States govern-
ment recognixed them as dtixens. They lived in 19 villages of
pueblos, the largest of which, Zufii, is more properly called a
reservation, as it has been enlarged from time to time by grants
from the Federel government. The 18 pueblos and the Zufii
reservation contained in 1900 a population of 8137, and a total
areA of 14x7 sq. m. The pueblos are held under Spanish grants
which were confirmed by the United Sutes. The terraced
architecture of the villages is very remarkable. Originally the
Pueblo Indians lived in many-storeyed communal houses, built
sometimes of stone, sometimes of adobe, and occasionally
chiselled into the sides of a stone difif, as best suited the con-
venience of the builders. At present there b a tendency among
them to copy the one-storey huU of the Mexicans. Taos (pop.
in.x90o, 4x9) b one 9f the most imposing of the pueblos,'consisting
of two six-storeyed pyramidal tenements, separated by a brook.
Zufii (pop. 1535) has a ^ve-storeyed dwelling sorrounded
by detached huts; Acoma (pop. 49a hi 1900; 566 in 1903),
standing on a cliff 357 ft. high (Acoma means " people of the
white rock " and AlCO, the Indian name for the pueblo, means
" white rock *'), contains three bk>cks of three>storeyed terraced
buildings,' and Laguna also contains some three-storeyed
1 About 3 m. N.E. of Acoma stands the Enchanted Mesa (Mesa
EncanUda; Katximo in Keresan), rising 4^ ft. above the piaia.
and being 3050 ft. long and too to 350 ft. wide. Upon its somnut.
according to Indbn tradition, once stood the village of Acoma.
but while the inhabitanu were tending their crops in the plains a
powerful earth movement threw down the rocky ladder by which
alone the summit could hie reached. According to the story, three
women had been left in the village and these perished. The Mesa
was first climbed by white men in 1896 by Prof. WilCam Libber
(b. 1855). of Prroceton Univenity; it was climbed again in 1897
by a party led by F. W. Hodge; and pottery and stooe ' — "
I were found here.
NEW MEXICO
523
dweflmf^ bat tlie Lagana tribe, nambering, 1077 in 1900 and
1384 in 1905, now live mostly in their fonner summer villages
oa the plain. Tbe other Indians live on reservations, of which
thexe are three: the Mescalero Apache reservation, in Otero
coonty, containing 554 Indians in 1900; the Jicarilla Apache
reservation, in Rio Axriba county, with a population of 829;
and the Navaho reservation, in Utah, Ariaooa and New Mezioo,
whidi contains in that part of it situated in New Mezioo a
population of 2480.
The inhabitants of Spanish descent have been only slightly
afBimilstfd and cling tenaciously to their racial peculiarities.
As a rule, they live in low adobe houses built around a court,
and are poor and ignoiant, but hospitable. They are more
Americanized in the Rio Grande VallQr than among the-moun-
tains, where English is rarely spoken. Many of them have
intermarried with the Indians, creating the class of half-breeds
known as " Mestizos." Although the proportion of Spanish-
American and Indian inhabitants is steadily decreasing with the
amval of Immigrants from other parts of the United States, it
was nevertheless computed by the New Mexican authorities to be
^boat 63% in 1904. About one-tenth of the Spanish-American
and Indian population habitually use the English language.
The total population of New Mexico in 1870 was 91,874;
io 1S80, 119,56s; in 1890, 153,593; in X9<»* xpS^Jxo, and
in 1910, according to the U.S. census, the' figure was 337,30X.
Of the native white population in 1900, 17,917 were of foreign
paxentage. Of the foreign-bom element 6649, or about one-half,
wcte Mexicans, 1360 were Germans and the rest chiefly English,
Irish, Canadians, Italians, Scotch and Austrians. The chief
dti^ were Albuquerque (6338), Santa T€ (5603), Las Vegas
(355a) and Raton (3540). Far the greater portion of the popula-
tion (in 1906, 56*3% of the estimated population) are communi-
cants of the Roman Catholic Church, which had in 1906 121,558
members, the total communicants of all denominations in that
year numbering 137,009. Among Protestants there were 6560
Metbodisu, 3935 Presbyterians and 2331 Baptists.
AdmiMistraiioH. — ^The executive officers until 191 x were a
governor and a Territorial secretary appointed by the President
of the United States, and a treasurer, auditor, superintendent of
public instruction, adjutant-general, commissioner of public
lands and other administrative officials appointed by the
governor. The legislative department included a council of
13 members and a House of Representatives of 24 menkbers,
chosen by popular vote. The sessions were biennial and limited
to 60 days. All laws passed by the Assembly and approved by the
governor bad to be submitted to the Federal Congress for its ap-
proval. The Territory was represented in Congress by a delegate,
chosen by popular vote, with the right to spttk in the national
legislature but not to vote. The judicial department included
a supreme court, district courts, probate courts and local justices
of the peace. The supreme court consisted of a chief justice and
six associate justices appointed by the President. There were
seven judicial districts, each with a court presided over by a
justice of the supreme court. Each county had a probate court,
and each precinct a justice of the peace.
For the purposes of local government New Mexiod is divided
into 36 counties, each being governed by a board of county
oommissioncrs, chosen by the people. Each county is divided by
the commissioners into precincts. Municipal corporations with
a population of 3000 and over are dties, and are governed through
a mayor and board of aldermen; those with a population of
between 1500 and 3000 are towns, and are governed through a
mayor and trustees.
A rather unuiual institution within New Mexico is the mounted
ptrfice, who Duinbcred 11 in 1907, whoae work was almost entirely
m tbe cattle country, and who had authority to patrol the entire
Territory and to make arrests or to preserve order wherever their
u i escnce was needed, unhampered by the restrictions limiting the
jurifldictioo of local police.
A homestead not exceeding $1000 in value, and held by a husband
and wife or by a widow or widower with an unmarried daughter or
an unmarried minor son, may be held exempt from seizure and sale
by legal process. The exemption may be claimed by either the
hu^ond or tbe wife, but may not be grsated if each owns a home>
stead: and it does not extend to judgmenu rendered agauist the
debtor on account of a mortgage, non-payment of the purchase
money or supplies and labour for buiMiag and repairs.
In 1907 the legislature passed a nuBcal measure, making the pen-
alty for operating games of chance six months' imprisonment in the
county-jail, and, at the discretion of the court, a fine of not less
than fioo and not more than fsoo; this law went into effect on
the 1st of January 1908. Gambling had formerly been licensed —
the gambling-house keeper paying f 300 per annum for each gaming
Ubie or apparatus, this sum going to the district and county school
funds.
Revenues for the support oC the government are derived chiefly
from the genersl property tax. There are also special corporation
taxes oa car companies, express companies and foreign corporations
producing, refining or selling petroleum or coal oil; and a ^rstem of
licence<bargcs or business taxes. A poll tax is levied by tbe state
for school purposes and may also be levied by munidpafities. The
county and the municipal tax rates are limited respecuvely to 5 and
10 mills on the dollar. A special tax not excecdmg 3 nulls on the
dollar may be levied on all taxable property for achool purposes,
and tbe proceeds apportioned among the school districts according
to the number of school children, tne proceeds of the poll tax are
distributed in the counties in whkh the tax is collected. Each
school district may supplement the aid from the sute by laying special
to lacn township
ina-
district may supplement the aid from the stai
. and the Federal government has granted
4 sq. m. of public hmd to aid in the support of the sdioola
granu amounting in 1907 to 1,343,080 acres had also been made for
the benefit of
charitable and correctional
institutions, and for irrigation purposes. At the close of the fiscal
year ending on the 31st of May 1908, New Mexico showed ex-
penditures of 873 1 .373*8 1, reoripts ol l75a.o8o*94 and a balance in
the treasury of I378,6s3-6x The bonded debt, amounting on the
3 1 St of May 1008 to 8788.000^ was incurred partly in meeting
temporary <Mfidts in the treasury and partly in the construction of
public buildings.
Education.— At the head of the public school system u a Board of
Education of seven members^ including the governor and the super-
intendent of public instruction: this Board apportums the school
fund among tne counties, selects the text-books and prep ar e s the
examinations for teachers. The superintendent of public instruction
exercises a general supervision over the schools of New Mexioa
There b also a superintendent of schools for each county., and the
counties are divided into school districts, each having three directors,
who disburse the school funds and have the care of the school
property. In incorporated dtics and towns these functions are dls-
chaiged by kxal boards of education. The school age is from five to
twenty-one years, and for children be t ween the ages of seven and
fourteen school attendance for three mionths in each year is com-
pulsory. The total enrollment for tbe vear ending tbe 1st of August
1906 was 39.377, with ah average dauy attendance of 35,174; the
average len|ith of the school year was 5 months and 19 days. The
use oiEngliah in the schoolroom b required by law; New Mexico has
adopted a uniform system of text-books.
Toe state supports the University of New Mexko at Albu-
querque; a College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts' (established
1889, opened 1890) at Mesilla Park, 40 m. from El PSso; a Normal
School at Silver City (pop. 1900, 3735; county-scat of Grant
county); a Normal University at Las Vegas; a School of Mines (at
Socorro; pop. 1900. 1513; county-seat of Socorro county), which
was founoea in 1889, was organized and c«)cned in 1805 when it
received from Congress 50,000 acres of bnd, has in its library the
private library of John W. Powell, formerly director of the U.S.
Geological Survey, and owns the Torrance Mine at the foot of
Socorro Mountain, 3 m. from the college campus; and a Military
Institute at Roswell (pop. 1900,- 3006; county-aeat of Chaves
county). Indbn day schools are maintained by the Federal
government at Albuquerque, Tkarilla, Santa F£ and Zufti.
The state maintains an insane asylum at Las Vejgas, a deaf
and dumb asylum and penitentiary at Santa F6, an institute for
the blind at Almagordo, a reform school at El Rtto and a miners'
hospital at Raton. For many years the legislature has also contri-
buted to the support of a number of private hospitab and charitable
institutions.
History. — ^Tothe ezbtence of an Old- World myth New Mexico
owes its eariy exploration by the Spaniards.. Eariy in the
i6th century it was believed that in the New World would be
found the fabled dties and creatures of which Europeans had
heard for centuries. There was a story that in the 8th century
a bishop of Lbbon, to escape from the Arabs, had fled to islands
in the West, where he and his followers had founded seven cities;
and when the Indians in Mexico related to the Spamsh explorers
a bit of their folk-lore, to the effect that they had issued from
seven caves, the imaginative white men soon identified these
caves with the famous Seven Qties. In 1536 came Cabexa
^Thb college abo receives Federal aid: toojooo acrte of pubUc
bnd were voted to it in 1898.
524
NEW MEXICO
de Vaca into Mexico after eight yean of wandering across the
continent and related to his countrymen the stories he had
heard of wonderful cities of stone in the north. He had not
seen the cities himself, nor had he, as is frequently asserted,
gone as far north as the present New Mexico, but his reports
tended to confirm previous rumours and led the viceroy, Don
Antonio de Mendoza, to send Fray Marcos de Niza, a Franciscan
friar, on a small and inexpensive expedition of discovery.
Fray Marcos (q.t.) was the first European to enter the limits of
what is now New Mexico. A glimpse of the terraced houses of an
Indian village— now identified as Zufii— convinced him that he
had seen one of the Seven Cities, and he hastened back with the
good news. The stories that he told grew in their passage from
mouth to mouth until the Spaniards believed that in the north
were cities " vexy rich, having silversmiths, and that the women
wore strings of gold bttds and the men girdles of gold." Full of
missionary zeal, and desirous that settlements should be planted
in the new region in order that the heathen might be converted.
Fray Marcos did little to refute these exaggerations. The con-
quest of the Seven Cities was determined upon, and a band of
adventurers, led by Francisco Vasquez de Coronado (g.vOtSet out-
in 1539.. Following the route of Fray Marcos de Niza, Coronado
reached the first of the alleged dties, and to- his great disappoint-
ment found only an Indian pueblo. An exploring party sent
Eastward reached Acoma, and then proceeded to Tiguex on the
Rio Grande, and finally to the Pecos river. The main body of
Coronado's expeditioti remained in New Mexico on the Rio
Grande while he pushed on to the fabled land of Quivfra,* only
to.meet with another disappointment.
Forty years elapsed before the Spaniards again entered New
Mexico. In 1581 Fray Augustin Rodriguez, another Franciscan,
expbred the valley of the Rio Grande, and in 1582-1583 Antonio
Espejo made extended expbrations to the E. and W. of this
stream. It was about this time, apparently, that the Spaniards
in Mexico adopted the term New Mexico to designate the land
to the north; -^Rodriguez had called the country San. Felipe,
and Espejo had named it Nueva Andaluda. Between 1583 and
1595 several attempts at .the conquest and occupation of New
Mexico were made, but for various reasons they were unsuccessful
In the spring of 1598 Don Juan de OfUte entered New Mexico
with about 400 colonists, and choosing the pueblo of San Juan
(30 m. N.W. of the modem Santa F£) as a temporary dwelling-
place, made preparations for building a town at the junction of
the Rio Chama and the Rio Grande, to be known as San Francisco.
In the following year the new settlement was renamed San
Gabriel. Some years later a second settlement was made at
Santa f€, which has ever since been the seat of government of
New Mexico. Although the Frandscan missionaries by 1617 had
built seven churches and had baptized 14,000 Indians, there were
in this year only 48 soldiers and settlers in the province. The
zeal of the friars in stampingoutthereligiousritesof the natives,
the severe penalties inflicted for non-observance of the rules of
the Church, and the heavy tribute in kind demanded by the
Spanish authorities, aroused feelings of resentment in the Pueblo
Indians and led' in z68o to a general revolt, headed by a native
named Pop6. . Over 400 Spaniards were massacred, and the
remnant, after enduring a siege in Santa F£, fled southward
to a mission near the present £1 Paso. For a decade the natives
enjoyed their independence, destroying nearly all vestiges of
Spanish occupation, and venting their wrath particularly upon the
churches. After several attempts at reconquest had /ailed, Don
Diego de Vargas marched up the Rio Grande in 1692, and
largely 'by moral suasion secured the surrender of Santa F6,
then held by the Indians. Dunng the next four years the sub>
mission of* all the pueblos was secured, and the permanency of
'Although the Qui vfra story was fabricated by an Indian captive
and its fraudulent character was fully exposed by Coronado in i^i,
ignorant American treasure-seekers still search for this mythical
region. By a strange perversion of names the deserted stone pueblo
of Tabir&t S. of Albuquerque in the vicinity of the Manzano Moun-
tains, has received the appellation of ''^Gran Quivfra," thereby
causing many deluded persons to make a vain search among its
ruins lor treasure.
European occupatioa was assured. The history of New Mexico
in the i8th century was uneventful, being chiefly a story of petty
disagreements among the pueblos, and occasional forays of the
more warlike tribes, the Navahos, Apaches and Comancfaes.
During the Mexican War of Independence (i8ii-2x) New
Mexico was tranquil and little disturbed by events farther south;
but when, near the close of the year X821, the news of independ-
ence arrived it was received with enthusiasm.. Under the Mexican
republic New Mexico was called a province till 1824, when it was
united with Chihuahua and DUrango to form the E^tado Interao
del Norte. Several months later, however, it was separated from
these two provinces and became a Territory; in 1836 it was
officially designated as a department, and remained as such until
ceded to the United States by the treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo,
in 1848. Its government during this period was only slightly
changied from what it had been under Spain. •
Of great importance to New Mexico during the first half of the
X9th century was the development of iu trade with the United
States. American traders had occasionally ventured as far as
Santa Fi before the independence of Mexico, but they were
frequently expelled and their goods confiscated by the Spanish
authorities. After 1822 trading expeditions became laq^ and
more numerous. From Missouri caravans of pack animals, and
later wagon trains, set out in May of each year on the 800 m.
journey to Santa F£, along the route later followed in its general
lines by the Atchison, Topeka & SanU F€ railway. The value
of the products carried by these trains increased from $15,000
in X822 to $450,000 in 1843. On their return trip the wagoos
often brought loads of wool, fur and blankets.
In Z841 the republic of Texas, claiming that its western
boundary, was the Rio Grande, sent a force of 300 men to New
Mexico to enforce these daims. Tlie Texans readied the frontier
in a starved and exhausted condition, were made prisoners by the
New Mexican militia, and were sent to Mexico, where after a short
term of confinement they were released.
In 1846 the Congress of the United Sutes declared that war
existed with Mexico, and on the 3rd of June ^tigadier-Geoend
Stephen W. Kearny was ordoed to undertake the conquest of
New Mexico and California and to " establish temporary dvil
governments therein." Kearny readied Las Vegas on the x 5th
of August, assured the people of protection if they remained
peaceable, and three days later entered Santa F£ without opposi-
tion. Here he organized a dvil government and compiled a code
of laws, some of which are still in force, thus exceeding his
instructions and ignoring the territorial daims of Texas, oat
of which had grown the war. After Kearny's departure for
California and CoL Alexander William Doniphan's (1808-1887)
setting out (Dec. 1846) on his heroic expedition to join Gen.
Wool at Chihuahua, some of .the inhabitants revested, and in
January 1847 .assassinated the governor, Charles Bent, and a
number of Americans and Mexicans who had taken ofiice under
the new regime. The insurrection was quickly suppressed, but
the dtizens soon grew tired of a military government, and in
X848 and again in 1849 petitioned Congress for a government
" purdy dvil in character." In 1850 a convention met in Santa
FJ and drafted a state constitution prohibiting slavery; this
constitution was ratified, and state offidals were chosen to act
under it. The governor by military appointment, Colond John
Munroe (1796-X861), refused to surrender his jurisdictioD in
favour of the state officials until authorized to do so by
Congress, and for a time there was much writing of prohunds-
mentos by the military and the quasi-state offidals. But finaDy a
regular Territorial form of government, provided by Congress by
an act of the X3th of December X850 (a part of the Compromise
of 1850), was formally inaugurated on the 3rd of March X85X.
As originally constituted, the Territory induded, besides most
of its present area, neariy all of what is now Ariaona, and a small
portion of the present Colorado. By the terms of the Compromise
Measures of 1850 Texas surrendered all claims to the portioo of
New Mexico E. of the Rio Grande, and was rnmbursed for this
loss of territory by the Federal Government. The Gadsden
Purchase (see Gaosoen, James), condudcd on the 30th ol
NEW MEXICO
525
December 1853, and prodaimed by President Pierce on the 301I1
of June 1854, aidded to the Territory an area of 45,S35 t^- m*t
and dianged the southern boundary W. of the Rio Grande so
that from the Rio Grande the new boundary ran due W. on the
parallel of 31* 4/ N. lat. for xoo m., then due S. to the parallel
of 31*" 30' N. lat., then due W. on that parallel to its intersection
with the xixth meridian of longitude west of Greenwich, from
that point of intersection in a straight line to the Colorado
river, 20 m. bebw its junction with the Gila, and thence up the
middle of the Colorado river to the boundary line between
Mexico and California. In 186 x a portion of north-eastern New
Mexico was taken to form part of Colorado; and in 1863 all
of the area W. of the xoQth meridian was organized as the
separate Territory of Arizona.
By the Compromtae of 1850 the question whether New Mexico
■bould have slavery was kit to the decision of the inhabitants.
Only a few African slaves were ever brDu^ht into the Territory,
and these were usually the property of civil and military officers.
There were two classes of toe population, however, whose status
was pract i cally that of slaves; namely, Indian captives and peons.
Before slavery was prohibited in the Territorv by Act of Congress
in 1862, Indian captives were regulariy bought and sold, a traffic
sanctioned by custom and not prohibited oy law. Peons were
persons held in servitude on account of debt, and the peonage
system was sanctioned both by the custom of the Mexican provinces
and by the laws of the Territory. An act of 1851 fortnde servants
from leaving masters to whom they were indebted, and in i8m
sheriffs were authorized in some instances to dispose of the debtor s
labour to the highest bidder. Peona|;e remained a lecalized in-
Aitntion until 1867, when it was prohibited by an act of Congress.
At the outbreak of the Civil War the inhabitants were generally
apathetic; but when the Confederates invaded New Mexico
they proved loyal to the Union.* In February 1862 General
H. H. Sibley, commanding a force of about 3800 Tezans, marched
into New Mexico, fought a successful engagement at Valverde,
on the Rio Grande, against Union forces imder Colonel, later
General, Edward R. S. Canby, and occupied Albuquerque and
Santa ¥€. The Union troops were reinforced from Cobrado,
however, and after a series of skirmishes the Confederates were
compeOed to retreat to Texas, leaving behind about half their
original number in killed, wounded and missing. New Mexico
fuxnished to the Union army between 5000 and 6000 men.
The period following the American occupation of New Mexico
was marked by constant depredations of the Indians, chiefly the
Navahos, Apaches and a few Utes, their main object being
plxmder. While the troops were occupied with the Confederate
invaders the Indians had a free hand, but in 1863 an energetic
campaign was begun by General James H. Carieton against the
Navahos, who were subdued and placed on a reservation on the
Pecos river, and later removed to the north-western part of the
Territory. There they grew peaceful and prosperous, acquiring
large flocks of sheep and gaining a reputation as makers of
blankets. The Apache Indians, the most savage of all, were
l^aced on reservations somewhat later, but for many years bands
of their warrioxs would escape and make raids into New Mexico,
Arizona and Mexico. The most notable of the later outbreaks
were those fai 1879-1880 and in 1885-1886 respectively of the
Apache chicfo Victorio and Geronimo {e. 1834-1909).
When the United States acquired possession of New Mexico, the
best portions of the Territory were held in private ownership under
Spanidi and Mexican grants, which were confirmed by the treaty of
Guadalupe-Hidalgo. To determine the validity 01 these claims,
which had been complicated by transfers and- subdivisions, and to
fix their boundaries, which were often ve^ vaguely described,
proved a very formidable undertaking; and the slow process 01
confirmation greatly retarded the development of the Territory.
There was but little material progress before the advent of the hul-
way. The Atchison, Topeka& Santa F6 railway reached Albu-
querque in 1880, and the Southern Pacific railway effected a junction
with It at Deming in 1881, thus connecting the Territory with the
eastern and western coasts of the United Sutes. With the railway
came capital and the development of mines, great cattle ranges and
Immigrants from the states, however, rarely
> According to the historian H. H. Bancroft, the loyalty to the
Umon cause resulted " largely from the fact that the Comederate
invasion came from Texas, the old hatred of the Texans being the
s tr ongest popular feeling of the natives, far outweighing their de-
votkm to either the North or the South."
settled beyond the aone of the railway, and in the remote rural
regions the process of Americanizatioo was stow.
After the Civil War numerous attempts were made to seciure
the admission of New Mexico into the Union as a state. In 1872
a state constitution was drafted, and it was proposed for a time
to call the new state Lincoln, but the movement came to nothing.
In 1889 another constitution was drafted, but it was rejected
when submitted to a popular vote. On the 6th of November
1906 the question of the joint admission of New Mexico and
Arizona as a single state bouring the name of the btter Territory
was submitted to a vote of their citizens. The vote of New Mexico
was favourable (26,195 to I4»735)> hut the measure was defeated
in Arizona. In June 1910 the President approved an enabling
act providing for the admission of Arizona and New Mexico as
separate sUtes.
The govemon of New Mexico since iu independence from Spain
have been as follows:
Undbs tux Mexican Rbpvblic '
Francisco Javier Chavez 1822
Antonio Vizcarra 1822-1823
Francisco Javier Chavez (acting) 1823
Bartolom^ Vaca 1823-1825
Antonio Narbona 1825-1827
Manuel Armijo 1827-1828
Antonio Vizcarra (acting) 1828
Jos£ Antonio Chaves 1828-1831
Santiago Abreu 1831-1833
Francisco Sarracino 1833-1833
luan Rafael Ortiz (acting) 1834
Mariano Chavez (acting) 1833
Albino Perez 1835-1837
Jos£ Gonzalez, revolutioaary governor or pre-
tendant 1837-1838
...I A — •!- 1838-1846
Manuel Armijo
Manuel Armijo
Antonio Sandoval (actii^)
Mariano Martinez de Lejanza (acting)
fos£ Chaves (acting)
Juan Bautisu Vigily Aland (actii«)
1841
1844-1845
Undxk thx Unrrxo Statbs
Catemors by Military Appaimtmni.
Charles Bent i84fr-i847«
Donaciaoo Vigil 1847-1848
foha Marshall Washington .... 1848-1849*
John Munroe 1849-1851*
GoMmors by PresiitnUal Appoinimaii.
James S. Calhoun 1851-1832
E. V. Sumner (Military Commander^ acting) 1852
John Greiner (becretary, acting) 1852
William Carr Lane 1852-1853
David Merriwether 1853-1857
Abraham Rencher 1857-1861
Henry Connelly X861-1865
V. E. M. Amy (Secretary, acting) .
186S-1866
1866-18
W.
Robert B. Mitchell . 1866-1869
William A. Pile 1869-1871
Marsh Gidding 1871-1875
William G. Ritch (Secretary, acting) 1875
Samuel B. Axtell 1875-1878
LewU Wallace 1878-1881
Lionel A. Sheldon 1881-1885
Edmund G. Ross 1885-1889
L. Bradford Prince 1889-1893
William T. Thornton 1893-1897
Miguel A. Otero 1897-1906
Herbert J. Hagcrman 1906-1907
J. W. Raynolds (Secretary, acting as governor) 1907
George Curry 1907-1909
William J. Mills 1909-
}■,■:..• ■'^.■.. y , . - F'or pjnrrai dtsniptivi; rn^tpriiT ice bifeJio-
gns<iiM"^ In I'rb. Gcolfigtc;!! Survry, PullciiriK 177 ^nd ^at^ ind ih^
offi' i.i] rcporii o\ ihc U.S. Kovfftimtnt dt^^rtnu^iits: iI*o CtkArlc^
F. L.'yTimi!^ Thf Land of Fm/j Titmpo (New York^ ii**>7)j Samuel
W. '"■'■ricn?, Thr Ancunt O'froM . . . or, Tkrte Yinrs H ArizonH-
and .Vrj' Mfxko (Ihnttin, iSoO; W. H, H, Davj&, ElGriniP, tw^ jflfrw
Mi^io^<i»d h<f Pf<>pi< (New Vorkt 1857); M, Fro»t iirtd A. F, Wa^ltf r
The Lfind of Suns^iftt (Santa F*^ 1904)1 V, U, SuUivnn* " \rrigitictn
in New ^t«M:o *' (Washinirton, 1909). Enftrimtni Stati^ni BuU^Hitt
215 H and F, A, Jcne^ A^ny Mtxiio AfiVj and AfiWroij (Sanu F*.
190 .1 1 KHfeiry: 1^- TT. tjancroft, A '■i^na^nd ^^rv Afe TVfli^n
"""li 'piJtTr the rr;^i>LTtic umW jSjt tht |f;flveFni:.ir wm olEcwIIy «s)g-
natol >'^ifj* potiiii^'. alttr ihit djte ai ^^htmadAty
1 A^^^^uiatcd dunng the Muk^n revolt 4>fK the 19tb of Jfunuary
1847
' Governor as Commander of the Department.
526
NEW MILLS— NEW ORLEANS
Fmncisca, iBfig); A^ F- Bandfljer^ C^rtinbuiioni to iht tftticry of
the Sattih'Weft^tt potiian of iht UttiUd Statei, being vol. v., Arnencan
Kries, of the Pa|,icr» ot tb& Artliaeicilfigii^ In&iitute of America
fCambridg^i tJl>i)o>; Ccorvc Ph Wimhip, ^^ Thic CoroiudQ ElKpcdi-
tfOflt" Iji the FoutigfttJh AkhuoI Report of the BartaM of Eiknoiogy
(W«hJ|igti;n(i, tS^tiJ; W. H- H. Davis, The Spamiih Conqutit of New
Matkit CpQylcstowo, Pi , 1B69>; ?. St G. Coolie, The dmqutil of
Nno Mentha and Cjiiforma (N'e;w YotEc, 187^) ; WJIiim E. Ccniiittly,
Doniphan* s Efpedtii^a and (he Cumatst of ffeie Mexico and Out-
fornia (TopclEii, Kan.. T907J: L, Bradford frinti?, Hiaorical Stekkes
of New Mexiitf (New Yorfc. iSSj); H, O. Udd, The Sii>ry oT New
Mexico (Tknton. 1891); Helen Hiine^ th^itfry cf AW Mexico
{New York. tSgi]: Henry In man. The Oid Santa Fi Traii (New
York, lSg7); Publtcatloni of the Ulstorical Society oF New Mexico,
and CuDftT de VilLi}iEr4, lliitcfria de la Nurm Affike; rHmpresa
par tl iitueo N^iciifiuil, con nn ap^ndtfc dc dvfvmrntffs y if^^ujiwios
{3 viih.^ Mexku^ L9OD). voL L being a irprint of ihe epic poem
ptihlishcd in ifiiu by VUbgr^, a com pan ton of Onate in his c^pcuiilon
to New Mexico.
NEW MILLS, an urban district in the High Peak parlia-
mentary division of Derbyshire, England, at the confluence of the
rivers Goyt and Kinder, on the border of Cheshire, 13 m.
S.E. of Manchester, on the Midland and the London & North-
western railways. Pop. (1901) 7773. Its ancient name was
Bowden Middle Cale. The name of New Mills was given to it
from a corn-mill erected on the Kinder in the hamlet of Ollersett,
and is specially applied to the group of factories which have
grown up round it Formerly paper and doth were the staple
industries of the district, but the inhabiUnts of the various
hamlets are now occupied chiefly in iron and brass foundries,
cotton mills and print-works. A short branch of the Midland
railway leads to the town of Hayfield (pop. 2614).
NEWMILNS, a manufacturing town and police burgh of
Ayrshire, Scotland. Pop. (1901) 4467. It » situated 7i m.
E. of Kilmarnock by the Glasgow and South- Western railway.
It was made a burgh of barony in 1490 by James IV., the charter
being confirmed in 1566 by Sir Matthew Campbell, the laird of
Loudoun, in which parish the town is situated. Muslin- and
lace-curtain making and the manufacture of mosquito-nets are
the chief industries. Nearly a m. E. lies Darvel (pop. 3070), a
police burgh and manufacturing town, with a station on the
Glasgow and South- Western railway; its chief manufactures
are those of lace curtains, muslins and carpets. Two miles E.
rises Loudoun Hill (103d ft.) where Robert Bruce defeated the
English in 1307, and about a mile farther E. is the cairn raised
to commemorate one of Wallace's victories.
NEW ORLEANS, a dty of Louisiana, U.S.A., situated almost
wholly on the left bank of the Mississippi, 107 m. from its mouth,
in that portion of the state which constitutes the river's larger
delta, and lying between Lake Pontchartrain (to the north and
west) and Lake Borgne (to the east and south); its latitude
b about 30^, nearly the same as that of Cairo, Egypt. Pop.
(1910) 339,075. The city lay originally at the angle of a deep
three-sided bend in the river. Into this hollow it gradually
spread, the curving river front, some 9 m. long, serving as its
harbour; and hence its old appellation, th« Crescent City.
Long ago, however, the dty filled the pocket of the bend, and
spreading farther along the river, now has the form of an " S."
Directly north, and stiU about 3 m. distant from the parts of the
dty proper that have advanced farthest toward it, lies Lake
Pontchartrain (about 40 ra. long and 20 m. wide). Lake and
river are parallel to one another for many miles; the dty lies
on the narrow alluvial strip between. The total area induded
within the munidpal limits is 196-25 sq. m., but the dty proper
covers about 40 sq. m. The brger limits are coextensive with
those of the parish of Orleans, and indude the districtof Algiers,
on the right bank of the Mississippi.
The river at New Orleans varies from 1500 to 3000 it. in width,
and its broad channel often stretches almost from shore to shore,
with a depth varying frequently at short intervals from 40 ft.
to more than 200 ft. Around the margins a line of wharves
and shipping extends for miles on each shore. Including the
suburbs of Westwego, Gretna, &c., on the right bank of the
stream, there is a river frontage of more than 20 m. Gretna,
the seat of Jefferson parish, McDonoghville, in Jefferson parish.
and Algiers, or West New Orleans, a part of the dty. are in-
dustrial suburbs on the west bank of the Mississippi, connected
with the east bank by a steam ferry and with one another by
electric railway. At Algiers are ndlway terminals and repair
shops of the Southerp Pacific and the Texas & Pacific; and the
United Sutes Naval Sution here, which was built in 1894
(though land was bought for it in 1849), and has a large sttti
floating dry dock, is the only fresh-water station south of Ports-
mouth, Virginia, and is equipped to make all repairs.
The dty site is almost perfectly level; there is an exceedingly
slight slope from the river toward the tidal morasses that border
Lake Pontchartrain. The elevation of the dty plain is only
10 ft above the sea, and its lower parts are as much as xo-12 ft
below the Mississippi at high flood water. About 6 m. of heav)-
" levees " or dykesr— in some parts rising clear above the dty
plain, but backed by filled-in areas graded down from the shores
where the traffic of the water-front is concentrated — protea
it from the waters. The speed of the current reaches, in times
of high water, a rate of 5 m. an hour. Along the immediate
front of the prindpal commercial quarter, this current, losing
some of its force by change of direction, deposits its aDuvium in
such quantities as to produce a constant encroachment of the
shore upon the harbour. At its widest part this new land or
batture, with wharves, streets and warehouses following eagerly
after it, has advanced some 1500 ft beyond the water-line oithe
middle of the 18th century.
The climate is not marked by extremes of absolute heat or
cold. Only once in thirty-seven years (187 1-1907) did the
thermometer register as high as 103^ F.. and on only a few da>'S
did it registei: above 96**; in February 1899 the temperature
was 7^ but it rarely falb bdow 33*. The average annual
rainfall b about 58 in.
Canal Street, the centre of retail trade and street life, bounds
on the south-west near the river the Vicux Carri — the old rect-
angle within the waUs of the original city, bounded by the river.
Canal, Rampart and Esplanade streets— and separates the
picturesque, peaceful French (or Latin) (garter of the north-
east from the bustling business and dignified residence districts
of the American Quarter, or New City, on the south-west In
the latter St Charles Avenue and Prytania Street have tiie finest
residences, and in the former Esplanade Avenue. Just bebw
Canal Street, in the oldest part of the American Quarter, are
many of the most important or imposing buildings of the dty,
and some of the places most intimately associated with its history.
Here are the St Charles Hotd (1894), the third of that name 00
the present site, all famous hostelries, and the first (1838-1851)
one of the earliest of the great hoteb of the country; and Lafayette
Square, surrounded by the City Hall (built in 1850 in the style
of aniom'c temple), the new Post Oflioe, two handsome churches,
St Patrick's and the First Presbyterian, Odd Fellows' Hall
and other buildings. In the square are sutues o( Henry Clay
(by Joel T. Hart) and Franklin (by Hiram Powers), and a
monument to John McDonogh (1898); and in the vidnity are
the Howard Memorial Library (1887; a memorial to Charies T.
Howard), which was the last work of H. H. Richardson, a native
of Loubiana, and the Confederate Memorial Hall (presented to
the dty by F. T. Howard) with Confederate relics. Two blocks
away in Marguerite Place b a statue erected (1884) by the women
of the city to Margaret Haughery (d. 1882), the " Orphan's Friend,"
a noble woman of humble birth and drcumstances, who devoted
a toilful but successful life to charities. In Lee Circle b a monu-
ment to Robert E. Lee, and facing it b the New Orleans Publk
Library building (1908). Just off Canal Street, at Caronddet
and Gravier Street, b the Cotton Exchange (1883-1883), and in
Magazine Street the Produce Exchange, llie large ofiSce buildings
are on Canal, Carondelet, Common and Gravier streets; txaopg
them may be mentioned the Maison Blanche, the Hennen
Building, theTulaneNewcomb Building and the Canal Louisiana
Bank and Trust Company Building. On Camp Street, between
Gravier and Poydras, are the office buildings of the Picaymm and
the Times- Democraiion Caronddet and Gravier are the wholesale
cotton houses; on Poydras and Tchoupitoulas are the wbolesak
NEW ORLEANS
527
groooy booies; and on North Peten and Custom House sticets
the sugar and rice industries are concentrated. Little of history
or tradition is associated with the American Quarter, with the
exception of the former site (before 1900) of the Clay sUtue in
Canal Street where Royal Street and St Charles Avenue begin,
which was the scene of popular meetings in the Italian troubles
of 1 891; here. In liberty Place, a triangle at the intersection
of Cual, North Peters and Tchoupitoulas streets, on the scene
of the fight of the 14th of September 1874 between conservative
dtizens and the radical authorities of the state, is a granite
memorial called the Liberty Monument. The Customs House,
long renowned for its " marble room," is in the old city, just off
Canal Street. The comer-stone was laid by Henry Clay in 1 847.
Hie Boston (1845) and Pickwick (1857) are the best known of the
general social clubs, and the Harmony (1862) of the Jewish clubs.
It is the French Quarter in which the histoiy, poetry and
romance of New Orleans are indissoluUy united. The memory
of French dominion is retained in the titles, and in the foreign
aspect as well, of Toulouse, Orleans, Du Maine, Conti, Bourbon,
Dauphin^ and Chartres streets; while even more distinctly
the Spaniard has superimposed his impress on stuccoed wall
and iron bttice, huge locks and hinges, arches and gratings,
balconies, jalousies, inner courts with parterres, urns and basins
with fountains, and statues half hid in roses and vines. There
are streets named from its Spanish governors: Unzaga, Calves,
Miro, Salcedo, Casa Calvo, Carondelet and the baron Caron-
delet's Baronne. The moated and palisaded boundaries of early
days are indicated by the wide, tree-planted and grassy avenues
named respectively from the Canal, the Rampart and the
Esplanade that once lay along their course; the original
" commons" outside the walls are commemorated in Common
Street; and the old parade ground in the midst of the early
town's river front, now laid off in flower-beds, white-shelled
walks and shaven shrubbery, and known as Jackson Square,
still retains its older name of the Place d'Armes. With this
quaint, sunny and dusty old square is associated nearly every
important event in Louisiana's colonial history. This was the
place puNique,2ssodsL\ed with traffic, gossip, military miister and
official acts of state. On one side is the cathedral of St Louis,
first built in 1718, burned in 1788, rebuilt in 1792-1794, and
largely rebuilt again in 1850. Flanking the cathedral on one
side stands the c^aboose {Calabotaf 1810), and on the other the
Cabildo — so named from the municipal council that sat here
under Spanish rule, when it was the government house and palace
of justice. Both buildings are to-day used as law courts. The
Cabildo is a dignified two-storey structure of adobe and shell-
lime, built in 179s; an incongruous mansard roof was added in
1850. On the 30th of November 1805, in the council hall, the
city keys were banded back to the representatives of the French
government and the people of Louisiana were absolved from
their allegiance to the Spanish king; and here, only twenty days
afterward, with similar ceremonies, the keys of the city passed
from the hands of the French colonial prefect to those of the
commissioners for the United States. In the old Place d'Armes
a bronze equestrian statue (1846) of Andrew Jackson. by Clark
Mills is a remembrance of the ceremonies attending Jackson's
triumphal entry into the city after the battle of New Orleans in
1815. In 1825 Lafayette was lodged in the Cabildo as the city's
guest.
The appearance of the square was greatly changed in 1849,
when the Baroness de Pontalba, in whose estate it was then
comprised, cut down the antient elms that shaded it and laid
it out in Its present style of a French garden. She also is re-
sponsible for the low brick '' Pontalba Mansions " on the north
and south sides of the square. The Babel of Tongues in the
French Market (1813), on the site of an older market, immediately
below Jackson Square, and at the " Picayune Tier " just adjacent,
is an interesting feature of the city. Near the Cathedral, in
Orleans Street , is the convent of the Holy Family, a brick building
housing a negro sisterhood founded in 1835, and formerly the
scene of New Orleans's famous ^' quadroon balls." The arcfai-
episcopal palace (1730), said to be the oldest building of the
Mississippi Valley, is part of the unchanged original Ursuline
convent; it was used as the State Capitol in 183X, and then it
was the residence, and since 1899 has been the administrative
office of the archbishop, and houses a colonial museum with the
ecclesiastical records. The French Opera House (i860) was the
successor of various French theatres built after z8o8. The
carnival balls are given here. New Orieans was by far the earliest
of American dties to have an annual opera season.
The x8th-century fortifications about the old dty were
destroyed about 1804. The United Sutes Branch Mint (1838)
occupies the site of Fort St Charles (destroyed 1826), where
Jackson reviewed his troops as they marched to Chalmette.
Just outside the Vieux Carri is Beauregard Square, formerly
known as Congo Square, because in early days the slaves were
wont to gather here for their barbaric dances. The Hotel St
Louis (1836), rebuilt in 1884 as the Hotel Royal, was the seat
of the Republican reconstruction governments of governors
KcUogg add Packard, and theprison fortressof both, respectively
in 1874 and 1877, when the whites rose against Republican rule;
its rotunda was also once a famous slave mart. Many other
spots in the Latin (Quarter are of scarcely less interest than those
mentioned, not excluding those which were made famous by
the romances of G. W. Cable, and whose only title to historic
consideration is that which his imagination has given them.
City Park (216*6 acres, partly water), lying between the city
and the lake, is notable in the local duelling annals of earlier days.
Audubon Park (249 acres) was once the sugar plantation of
£ticnne de Bor£, who first successfully made granulated sugar
in X795~i796; earlier experiments had been made in 1791 by
Antonio Mendes, from whom de Bor6, who established the sugar
industry, bought a pbntation in St Bernard Parish. The park
was bought by the city for $x8o,ooo in X87X, but was little
improved until X884, when the Cotton Centeniiial Exposition was
held here. It contains to-day a state Sugar Experiment Station,
in which a part of their work in course is done by the students in
the Audubon Sugar School of the State University at Baton
Rouge, and Horticultural Hall, the only one of the Exposition
buildings now standing, with a display of tropical trees and
plants; opposite Audubon Park is the campus of Tulane
University. West End is a suburban resort and residential
district on Lake Pontchartrain.
A noted feature of New Orleans is its cemeteries. Owing to
the undrained condition of the subsoil, burials are made entirely
above ground, in tombs of stuccoed brick and of granite and
marble. Some of these are very elegant and costly, and many of
the burial-grounds, with their long alleys of these tombs of diverse
designs, deeply shaded by avenues of cedars and magiwlias,
possess a severe but emphatic beauty. Jews and the poor bury
their dead underground in shallow graves. The oldest cemetery,
St Louis No. X, contains the graves of many persons notable
in history. St Roch's Campo Santo has a wonder-working shrine,
and is the most picturesque of tbe old burying-grounds. Metairie,
on the site of an old race track, is the finest of the new. It con-
tains a monument* to the Army of the Tennessee and its com-
mander, Albert Sidney Johnston, with an equestrian statue of
Johnston by Alexander Doyle, and a monument to the Army of
Northern Virginia surmounted by a statue of General T. J.
Jackson. In Greenwood Cemetery is the first monument erected
to Confederate dead, given by the women of New Orleans.
At Chalmette (on the Mississippi, about 5 m. E. of Canal Street),
where the battle of New Orleans was fought in 18x5, there is a
National Cemetery, in which some x 2,000 Union soldiers in the
Civil War are buried.
Population, — The population in X900* was 287,104, New
* In the burial vault of this tomb, with the bodies of many other
soldiers, are the remains of General P. G. T. Beauregard, who was
bom near New Orleans.
' At the earlier censuses the population of tbe city was as follows:
17,242 in 18 ro (when it was the sixth city in population in the
United States); 27,176 in 1820 (when, as in 1830 and 1850. it was
the fifth city); 46,082 in 1830; not reported separately in 1840;
116,375 in 1850: 168.675 in i860; 191418 in 1870; 216,090 in
1880; and 242,039 in 1890.
528
NEW ORLEANS
Orleans ranking twelfth among the cities of the United Sutes;
in 1910 it was 339i07S- Of the 1900 total, 256,779 were native-
bom, and 30,325 were foreign-bom, including 8733 Germans,
5866 Italians, 5398 Irish, 4428 French and 1262 English; and
there were 77Ji4 negroes. In 1900 the population of foreign
parentage was 108,010, of whom 78,269 had foreign fathers and
foreign mothers, 27,259 being of German, 15,465 of Irish, 10,694 of
Italian, 93<7 of French and 1882 of English parentage. The Latin
element that came in colonial times induded Frenchmen, French-
Canadians, colonists from the French and Spanish West Indies,
Canary Islanders (whose descendants are still known as IsUMcs),
and French refugees from Acadia in 1765 and the years following,
and from Santo Domingo at the end of the i8th century. The
earliest French immigrants were largely Bretons and Normans,
and various Creole words in common use (such as bangueUe for
" side-walk ") still recall these radal beginnings. The creoAcs
of New Orleans and the surrounding ddu are a handsome,
graceful, intelligent race, of a deddedly Gallic type, though
softened in features, speech and carriage. Their dialect has been
formed from the French entirely by sound, has no established
orthography, and is of much philological interest. Until very
recent 3eears the Latin races, though fusing somewhat among
themselves, mixed little in blood with the Anglo-American. The
Spaniards when in power at the end of the 1 8th century were
notably different from the French in their liberalism in this
respect. In sodal life and standards the French Creoles w^re
very conservative-, the old styles of dress, i.g. of the bte xSth
century— wigs, silk stockings and knee-breeches— lingered later
among them, probably, than in any other part of the country.
But before the pressure of Anglo-American immigration, capital,
enterprise and education, this Creole civilization has slowly
3rielded ground, at but fairly beginning to amalgamate with the
social system of the American nation. But the Creole has
stamped his influence upon wellnigh every aspect in the life
of the city that has broadened out so widely on every side of his
antique town. Its cuisine, its speech, its " continental " Latin
Sundays, its opera, its carnival, its general fashions and manners,
its intolerance of all sorts of rigour, its whole outward tone and
bearing, testify to this patent Latin impress. A comparatively
recent addition to the Latin element in the dty has been through
Italian immigration.
The coloured population, notwithstanding the presence among
it of that noted quadroon class which enjoyed a certain legal
freedom for generations before the Civil War, has not greatly
improved since the date of emandpation. Cathdidsm is naturally
eztremdy strong in New Orleans. So alio are the Baptist and
Methodist churches.
Cantnals.—The famous carnival dispUys of New Orleans
are partidpated in very largely by the " Americain," i^, the
Anglo-American; but they mark one of the victories of the
Latin-American over NorUi-American tastes, and probably owe
mainly to the " Americain " their pretentious dignity and to
the Creole their more legitimate harlequin frivolity. Out of the
simple idea of masked revelry in the open streets, as borrowed
from Italian dties, the American bent for organization appears
to have developed, by a natural growth, the costly fashion of
gorgeous torch-lighted processions of elaboratdy equipped
masques in tableaux drawn on immense cars by teams of
caparisoned mules, and combining to illustrate in a synunetrical
whole some theme chosen from the great faiths or literatures or
from history. Legends, fairy-tales, mythologies and theologies,
literature from Homer to Shakespeare, science and pure fantasy
are drawn upon for these ornate representations, which are
accompanied by all the picturesque licence of street life char-
acteristic of carnival times in other dties. They have no rival
in America, and for glitter, colour and elaborateness are by many
esteemed the most splendid carnival cdebrations of the world.
The first carnival parade (as distinguished from the Mardi Gras
cdebration) was hdd in 2827 by masked students recently
returned from Paris. In 1837 and 1839 the first processions
with " floats " were hdd in New Orleans. The regular annual
pageants, almost \minterrupted save during the Qvil War, date
trom 1S57, when the " Mystic Kre^we of ComuSj" the oldest of
the camJvaL [irgaDixntJoiis, was formed^ sLtniiir otganisationa,
secret sodetics or dub$ arc the " Twelfth Knight Hcveim "
(1S70), " Rei " and " Knights of Momui ** (both 187^, when
the carnival waj reviewed by the Graod Duke AJeiis of Russia),
the " Krewe ol ProLeu^ " (iSS?), and the ** Krcwe of Nereus "
(tSgs). Balls, proce&sipfi^i ^nd «iher festivities ore now ^read
ovcf n considerable period^ culminating jq those of Shrove
Tuesday {MarJi Gra), JJunng this lime the fetiviiies quite
eugro^ public atieniion, ajid tnany thousands of iriiitois from all
paru of America fire yeirhf aUractrd to the diy^
Ci}4triiabl< /nj/tiB/idwj;.--Th(» large Charity Hospital (1716) and the
Richard Mil][L:en ME^rnoml Hospital {at CJiildn;n are typported by
the itaie. The Touro Infinnary (1*54^ coniroUed by die Hebrew
Bcncvoletit AitsdcUnbn; founded by Judah Touro (1775-1854; a
Jew of Dutch deacem, son of Isaac Toumol Newport, RhoiW IsUnd).
includn a free clinic open to the needy of all faiths Otlit r hospitals
arc; the LIS. Mariui: Ho&pital Ci8ii5K tht HOicI Dseu ^859) axid
the St Joseph's Maternity Hospital 1I1S63), both under (he Sasten
of Charity 1 ihc Sar^h Goodrich Hospital U&9&\ Methrjdist Epis-
copal); and the Eve, ELar. Nose and Throat Hoifnul {liA^ ; private).
The Povdras Asylum, on Magazine Scfcct, was fouiKled m 1817 by
Jkihen Paytlras (i74fr-iS24). a successful trader and dclr^^ce from
Orkani Tcmtmy to the Federal ConjjfCsa in i §09-1,^1 1 ; tlie present
build ins wa.* erected in iS:j6; ;he asylum, which la for orphans,
J* contjroltcd by Presbyterian. truBtec*, alilicnij^h it *i», during
Payijnis's life, under the chargt o( Sisters o( Charity* St Vincent's
InUrti Asylum ^tti^S), or " M5:f£afet'» Baby House, U in chMrge ct
Sisters ol Chanty. Other otTiMnaEcs and children's homes are:
the Ns^w Orleans Femik Orphan Asylum (184^) und St Eluabeth's
Industrial School 0345), tjnder the Sisters of Charity i in Ursuline
Orphanace (17^9); the Immaculate Conception GirU' Asyljin (1851)
and St ftlary's Catholic Orphan Boya' As>liim fiS:js, under the
Sisters Marianites of the Holy Cro^); the St Alphonsui Orphan
Asvlum (iS;S) and St Vincent s Home for Newsboy j, (il^ji), under
the Sister* of Mercy; the Mount Carmel Orphan Asyluo) (1869).
under the Sifters of Mount Carmel : the Sacred Jleart Orphan Asyluxn
{iB94) fcir firU, under the Mi&^onary Sisters of the Sacred Heart;
St JLiicph'ii Orphan Asvlum {iJi6j), under the Sifters ol Nothc Dame;
a Proit-stant Orohans' Home (iSgj); a. Jewish Orphans' Hocne
(1855) ; the ChJEdren's Home of the Prcitestatit Episcorw^l Church
(ifl59) ; the Ev.tniicllcal Lutheran Bethlehem Orphan Asylum (1881):
the German Protc&tant Orphan Ai'.ylum (iS6i&}; the Fn^edmen's
Orphan Asylum (Baptist): andp unck-r private and non-^^tarian
control, the Asyluni for Destitute Orphan Boys (1&J4) and the
Colored Industrial Home and School (igoj). The J. D. Fink
Fund and the Finic Home (1874) or A^lum <for f^iotertant
widons and tlieir children} art the gilt of an fccentrie, vboK offer
of man-] ace had been nlukd by one prcfeiring not to Bvutf at all,
and wha fcirt»adc that aay <^ tn^^^l should enter the asylum. Other
homes for adult* arti the SoMier&' Home of Louisiana for Con-
federate Veterans; two Homes for the Aged (1S69 and t9Sst), both
ucider the LittleSisteriOlthe Poor: the Faith Home (tiSS; mptia)
for old coloured women [ the German Protestant Ekthafty Hone
!|S^) and the German Protectant Home for the A^cd add Infim
1 887) : the J uIju^ Wets Home for Aged and I n firm (1899). ovder the
Hebrew Benevolent Aisociation; and, all under private corpora-
tion a» the Maison Hospitalii^re ONgj)^ for df^ed women, tbe New
Orii^rLi Hotne far Incurables {i&93,) and St Anna's Asylum (1850)
for destitute women and their cliildren. Temporary hofocs arc:
the Convefll of the Good Shepherd (U*59), vnder the^sten d the
Good Shepherd, and a Memorial Home fiBaO: both for wayward
women ) ; 4 Home for Homeless Women ( i&SR), and the Nr* Orienns
Conv-alcxcnt Home (1^5). KingsJey House is modelled .ilicr Hull
House in Chicago, The Lauislma Retreat, a private asylum for the
insane, is in New Orleans, and there i\io is a state House pf LMentkm.
iEJucaJlicn.— The public schools give equal opportuniiie?^ to whites
and bLacka, but the whites take dedd^ly greater advantase ct
them; a Ur^e number even ol the whitei «till tnakc pnctxaUy
no U5C of either public or parochial schooU The raees are kept
teparate; the ai tempt wpa miicle to mix attendance in ifi^CK bat the
whites compelled iis aSindonment. To a bequest of John XlcDonosh
rT77fl-iB5o)H whcKsc life is one of the TOmatiees and tbe katons d
New Orleani,^ the city owes already some thirty Kchool buildtnca.
The Home Institute i 1 883) provides free night ^chooltng for hundreds
of students, and simitar work is done on a larger scak by public
ni^hl bchooli- Of the adult mate popubiLton in tg^ 13 4 % were
illiterate (could flot write), seven- tenths of the illiterates being
negroes, of whom t he illiterate* coastit uted 36 ^/t-
There are VsiriouB higher insiitutiorij of learnioe in ihe dty.
Tulane Tniveriity of Louisiana wa> fiamed after its bend actor Pad
Tulii ne (1 Bo I - 1 88 ?>* a mercha nl of New Orleans, who save 1 1 ,^050.000
in I S82-1 8B7 to a Board of Trustees for the education ol '* the white
y u HR per^npTt in the city" The univrrdty was established, under
See Witliam Allan's Life and Work of John McDmegk (Baltiicort.
NEW ORLEANS
529
its pRseot Mme, in 1884, the former univernty of Louisiana (1834)
being mersed in it; it gives free tuition in the academic department
to one student from each senatorial and each representative district
or par&h in the state, and iu income-producmg property, up to
Ssjooojooo, u exempted from taxation by the state. In 19o8-iqo>9
Tulane Univenity had 192 instructors and 32^6 students; and it
included a Graduate Department, a College of Arts and Sciences
(1884), a College of Technology with 157 students. Extension Courses
with 148 students, the H. Sophie Ncwcomb Memorial College for
Girls (1886; endowed in memory of her only daughter by Josctrfiine
Louise, wife of Warren Newcomb, a sugar merchant of the city),
with 388 students in the college and 102 in Ncwcomb High School,
a Teachers' College, a Law Department (1847). a Medical Depart-
ment (1834) with 648 students, a Department of Pharmacy and a
Summer School with 860 students. The College of the Immaculate
Conception (Jesuit, 1847) is an important school. Higher schools for
the negroes include Leland University (1870; Baptist); with college
courses, preparatoi^ courses (there are several Baptist secondary
schools amliated with the university), normal and manual training
departments, a school of music, a theological school, a woman s
Christian Workers' Class and a night school; Straight University
(1870; ConEiegational), with kindergarten, primarv. high school and
industrial (fepartmcnts; New Orleans University (187A; Methodist)
and Southern University (1883). The last is supported by the state.
Libraries.^The public, society and school libraries in the city in
1909, many being very small, aggregated 301,000 volumes. 227,000
being in five colWctions. A central library building and three branch
buildings, costing $275,000, were prt-scnted to the city by Andrew
Carnegie. The Howard Memorial Library (1887) is an important
reference library, peculiariy rich in books on the history of Louisiana.
The Louisiana Historical Society (1836) and the Athcn^ Louisian-
naise (1876) may also be mentioned : the latter has for its purpose
the conservation and cultivation of the French language. The Union
Franchaise (1872) supplements with educational and charitable
activities the general bond of fraternity oflfercd by it to the French
population. In New Orkans there is a State Museum, devoted to
the history, institutions and resources of the state.
Newnpqpers.—Amont the okler newspapers are LAheiUe (1827)
and the Pieayutu (1837). which is one of the most famous and in-
fluential papers of the South, and was founded by George Wilkins
KeodaU (1809-1867), a native of New Hampshire, who organised
a special military correspondence for his paper during the Mexican
War, probably the earliest instance of such service in the United
States. The Timts-D«mocrat (1863) is counted among the ablest
and most energetk papers of the South. De Bow's Camwurcial
Rai€W (pMblished in New Orleans 1846-1864). founded and edited
by James D. B. De Bow (1820-1867). was in its day one of the most
important periodkals of the country, and remains a valuable re-
pository of information on conditions in the South before the war.
Commere*.—lX, was its potential commercial value, as indicated
by iu geographical position, that in 1803, when New Orleans was
only a small, poor and remote Franco-Spanish-American port,
led to its purchase by the United States. But various causes
operated to impede the dty's growth: the invention of railway
transit, the development of the carrying trade on the Great
Lakes, the bars at the mouth of the Mississippi, over which few
large ships could pass, the scourge of yellow fever, the pro-
vincialism and the lethargy of an isolated and indolent dviliza-
tioo. Slavery kept away free labour, and the plantation
system fostered that " improvidence and that feudal self-com-
placency which looked with indolent contempt upon public
co-operative measures" (G. W. Cable). However, in i860 the
exports, imports and domestic receipts of New Orleans aggre-
gated $324/xx>,ooo. As a result of the Civil War the commerce
of New Orleans experienced an early paralysis; the port was
soon blockaded by the United States navy; the city fell into
the hands of the Federal forces (ist May 1863); its commerce
with the interior was practically annihilated until after 1865,
and from the depression of the years following the war the city
did not fully recover for a quarter of a century. Only after
1880 did its total commerce again equal that of x86a It was
almost solely as the dispenser of the products of the greatest
agricultural valley in the world that New Orleans grew from a
little frontier town to the dimensions of a great city. This trade
is still dominant in the city's commerce. In the season that
follows the harvest of the South and West, the levee, the wharves
and the contiguous strceu are gorged with the raw sUples of
the regk>ns that lie about the Mississippi and its greater and
)fj »^ tributaries— sugar, molasses, rice, tobacco, Indian com,
pork, suves, wheat, oats, flour and, above all else, from one-
fourth to one-third the country's entire supply of cotton. All
other movcmeot is subsidiary or insignificant.
By iQoo the drawbacks which have be^ enumerated had been
practically eliminated, and uncertainty as to the investment of
capital had been removed. The southward tendency in railway
traffic favours the city. Deep water to the ocean was secured by
a system of jetties at the South Pass mouth of the Mississippi,
built by James B. Eads in 1875-1879; but in time this ceased
to maintain an adequate depth of water, and (after the report
in 1900 of a board c^ engineers) in 1902 Congress began appro-
priations for an improvement of the South-west Pass^ by
opening a channel 1000 ft. wide and at least 35 ft. deep. Many
lines of steamers give direct connexion with the West Indies,
Central America, Europe, New York and also with Japan (for
the shipment of raw cotton via Suez). Ocean steamers, loaded
in Urge part by devators, now besr away the exports for which
a swarm of sailing-ships of much lighter draft and average
freight -room once made long stays at the city's wharves. Pas-
senger traffic on the riven has practically vanished, and the
shrunken fleet of river steamers (only 15 in 1907) are devoted to
the carrying of slow freights and the towing of b&rges on the
rivers and bayous of the lower Mississippi Valley."
The total value of all merchandise exported in the «x customs
years 1902-1903 to 1907-1908 averaged $154*757.1 10 vcariy. and the
imports $37,319,254. For the ten years 1890-1899 the correspond-
ing averages were $95,956,618 and $I5,924,«94. Bank clearings
increased in the ten customs years preceding 1906-1907 from
$447,673,946 to $1,027,798,476 (bank clearings were $956,154,504
and $786,067,353 respectively for the calendar years 1907 and 1908).
There has been an extraordinary increase of exports since 1900, and
imports from Central America have similarly increased. Cotton
represents roughly two-thirds of the \'alue of all exports. As a
cotton port New Orleans in 1908 was second only to Galveston,
which had only recently surpassed it ; and more than half of the raw
cotton exports of the country passed through these two ports.
The Board of Trade has maintained a cotton-inspection department
since 1 884, and its statistics are sundard on the cotton cfx>p. O>tton
exports in the four seasons 1903-1904 to 1906-1907 avcraeed
1,001,199468 lb, valued at $104,108,824. Wheat and flour, Indian
corn, lumber and tobacco are especially noteworthy articla of the
export, and bananas and coffee of the import, trade. Importations
of coffee have more than quintupled since 1900; the coffee comes
for the most part from Bnuil and grain wholly from American fiekls.
The imports of bananas, for which New Orleans b the leading port
of the country, more than doubled in the same period, and increased
more than eight'fold in the twenty-five years following 1882
(1,200,000 to 10,200.000 bunches).
Railway traffic has grown immensely, and port facilities have
been vastly improved in recent years. A belt railway owned by the
Bcity
all railways' are equally and cheaply served
which couki not enter the city or na'
and new railways.
ive access to the water front
because of the impossibility of securing individual trackaget can now
enter on the municipal belt. Of privately owned railway terminals
in 1908 those of the Illinois Central system had ncariy 200 m. of
track; the Stuyvesant Docks of the railway have 15 m. of track, a
wharf almost I m. long, immense warehouses and grain elevators.
The New Oricans Terminal Company constructed at Chalmette
» The South-west Pass, originally the usual entrance, could not
be entered by vessels drawing more than 16 ft. ; the Eads ietties,
aided by dredging, provided through the South Pass (500 ft. broad)
a channel 180 ft. wide and 25 to 28 ft. deep. South-west Pass has
is nearly 20 m. long and has an average width ot about 2\ffi ft.;
the deep channel through it is more than looo ft. wide. The jetties,
4 ro. long on one side and 3 ro. on the other, are 6000 ft. apart at
their head and 3600 ft. at the sea line. They are built on willow
mats (foundation mats 200X150X2 ft.) in wooden frames, sunk
with stone and surmounted above the water by a concrete wall.
• The value of the river commerce was about $8,000,000 in 18 16
and $i32,ooo,ooo in 1840. The fir&t steamboat descended the Misbis-
sippi to New Orleans (from Pittsburg) in 181 1, and the first steam-
boat trip up the river was made in 1 8 17. The halcyon period of nvcr
steamer traffic was from 1840 to i860. The luxury of the passcn«r
boats then on the Mississippi and the immense volume of the freight-
ing traffic are things of the past since the advent of the railwav era.
The best time ever made (1870) from New Ortoans to St Louis
(1278 m.) was 3 days, 21 hours and 25 minutes. The races of these
river boats were prominent news items in the papers of America
and even in those of Europe, and they have been recorded in more
than one page of literature. Steam packets replaced sailing vesseU
in the ocean trade about 1845.
la
53©
NEW ORLEANS
(1908) iplendid termiiuls. Including an immeiiie dip in the river
(1500X300 ft., excavated to give 30 ft. of water below zero sauce)
capable of accommodating nine vessels at dock simultaneously,
and arranged with remarkable conveniences for the loading of grain.
Stecl<oncrete warehouKS and elevators surround the slip. The
greater induMrial establishments of the cit)r cluster about the
terminals. New Orleans is terved by eleven railways, including the
Illinois Central. Southern Pacific. Texas & Pacific and Louisville &
Nashville systems. The New Orleans & North-eastern crosses Lake
Pontchartrain over a trestle bri<l^ 7 m. long (originally 35 ro.
before end filling).
Within the city are two canals, now of little importance, because
too shallow except for local trade: the Carondclct or Old Basin
canal, built in 1798, is 3'S m. long, 55-^5 ft. wide and 7 ft. deep,
and goes via Bayou St John to Lake Pontchartrain: and the New
Basin Canal, built in 1837 by the New Orleans Canal & Banking
Company, and state property since 1866. is 6*7 m. k>ng. 100 ft. wide
and 8 ft. deep, and alao connects with Lake Pontchartrain. Neither
of these canals connects with the Mississfppi river as do the foltowing
privately owned canals: the Lake Borgnc Canal, from a point 10 m.
bck>w the city to Lake Borgne. 7 m. long. 80 ft. wide, 7 ft. deep,
shortening the water disunce between Mobile and New Ork>ans by
60 m. ; and the Barat^ria & Lafourche Company Canal (7 m. long.
4s ft. wide and 6 ft. deep) and Harvey's Canal (5-35 m. kmg. 70 ft.
wide and 6 ft. deep), both connecting with the Bayou Teche region.
Manufactures. — Manufacturing has greatly developed since 1890.
The value of products increased 1467% from 1880 to 1890. and in
the followinK decade the increase of wages paid, cost of materials
used and value of product were respectively 7-6. 53*3 and 31*5 %-
In 190S the value of the factory product was 184,604.006, 45*4%
of the value of the total factory product of the state, and an increase
of 47'3% since 1900; during this same period capital increased
36*6%. the average number of wage-earners 8*9 %, the amount of
wages ao'5% and the cost of materials, used 93*3%. The sucar
and molasses industry is the most important, with a product value
of 134,908.61a in 1905; New Orleans ranked second to Philadelphia
among the cities of the country in the value of this product, that of
New Orleans being 12'6 % of the total value of tke country's product.
At New Orleans is a sugar refinery said to be the largest in the i^orkl.
Of the manufactures from products of the state the most noteworthy
are rice (value of product cleaned and polished in 1905. 14.881,95a),
bags other than paper (I4.076.a26), cotton-seed oil and cake
(83.698,509). malt liquors (S2.170.714). tobacco (S1408.883). lumber
and timber products (li. 644.339) and planine mill products
(1 1. 105,497) and cotton goods (81,081.951). Other Important
manufactures are foundry and machine-shop products (S3.085.337),
men's ck>thing (Si. 979.308). coffee and spice roasted and ground
(1 1. 638.363) and steam railway cars constructed and repaired
(It .637.435). New Orleans is the chief centre of the country for the
manufacture of cotton-seed products and for rice milling. Oyster
canning is a recent and rapidly {^rowing industry. There are also
furniture esUblishmeBts, paper mills and cotton ck>th mills.
Government.— Mumdpal government is organized under a
charter framed by the state legislature in 1896, and amended
by acts of 1898 and 1900. The seven municipal districts corre-
spond to seven independent faubourgs successively annexed.
A mayor and various other executive officers and a legislative
unicameral council are elected for four years. The mayor and
the heads of departments consult as a "cabinet." Various
boards— of civil service, public debt, education, health, police,
fire, drainage, water and sewerage and state commissioners of
the port— control many of the most important interests of the
city. The mayor, through his office and his appointive powers,
exercises great influence in a number of these. In 2896 New
Orleans followed the example of New York and Chicago in sub-
jecting its civil service to a competitive merit system and to
rules of a dvil service board. The poUce board a non-partisan.
The board of education is composed of seventeen members, each
elected by one of the seventeen wards of the city. In addition
to the dty board of health, a sute board acts with municipal
authority, and (since April 1907) the United States government
maintains the maritime quarantine of the Mississippi.^ The
commissioners of the port are officials of the state. Owing to
the complete dominance of the Democratic party, all reform
movements in politics must come from within that organization.
Reform organizations have been intermittently powerful since
1888, and among their achievements for good were the beginning
of the great drainage and sewerage improvements and the
adoption of the charter of 1896. The present government of
the city compares very favourably with systems tried in the past.*
» The charter of 1805 organized the old ciU (the Vieux Carri)
and the faubourgs as distinct iDunicipalitics with almost wholly
In X909 the total assessed valuation of property was $331^73^62,
of which $1541604,325 was realty and the remainder personalty.
The bonded debt on the 30th of June 1909 was $53,531/140 and
the floating debt at the end of 1908 was $1,364,030.
From 1890 to 1900 the expenditures for permanent woriES (indnd-
in^ sewerage, lighting, paving, levees, improvements in conoexkMi
with street and steam railways, docks, &c.) aggre^ted S30,ooo.ooa
Almost all the public services, nevcrthekna, were in 1909 in private
hands. Eleanc traction was introduced in 1891-1895, and the
street railwajrs were consolidated in 1903 under one management.
In 1869 the city bought, and nine yeare later sold again, the water-
works; munkripal ownership and control, under a sewerage and
water board, was acain undertaken in 1900. In 1900 arraagemcnu
were made to transfer the extensive markets from private kaaees to
direct municipal control, and in May 1901 the wharves of the dty
passed from pri\ate to municipal controL* The muniripal bat
railway was constructed in 1905-1907.
Until 1900 there were no sewers, open gutters serving their purpose.
It is remarkable that the city twice granted franchises to pnwte
parties for the construction of a sewerage system, but without
result. The low and extremely level character of the city site, of
whkh neariy one-third is at or IktIow the level of the Guff, the re-
currence of back-water floods from Lake Pontchartrain and the
tremendous rains of the region have made the engineering problems
involved very difficult. In 1896 a Drainage Commission (merged in
1900 in a Sewerage and Water Board) devised a plan involving the
sale of street railway franchises to pay for the installation of drainage
canals and pumps, and in 1899 tne people voted a 3-mill tax over
a3 yean assuring a bond issue of 1 13.000.000 to pay for sewerage,
drainage and water works to be owned by the municipality and to be
controlled by a Sewerage and Water Board. Work was begun 00
the sewerage system in 1903 and on the water works in 1905. In
1906 the Icgisuiture authorized the issue of municipal bonds for
$8,000,000 to be expended on this work. Up to 1909 the drainage
system had cost about $6,000,000 and the sewerage system about
$5,000,000: and 310 m. of sewers and nine sewerage pumping
stations discharged sewage into the Mississippi below the centre of
the city. Garbage is used to fill in swamps and abandoned canals.
The new water-supply is secured from the river and is filtered by
mechanical predpitation and other means. By 1909 about «x> m.
of water-mains had been laid. $7,000,000 had been expended Tor the
water-system, and filtering plants had been esublished with a
capadty of 50,000,000 gallons a day. In August 1905 a dty ordin-
ance rec|uired the screening of aerial cisterns, formerly characteristic
of the dty, which were breeding-places of the yelk>w fever ^egomyia,
and soon afterwards the state legislature authorized the Sewerage
and Water Board to require the removal of all such dstems. About
two-thirds of the street surface in 1899 was still unpaved; the first
improvements in paving be$an in 1890.
As regards hygienic conditions much too has been done in recent
years. New Orleans was long notorious for unhealthiness. YeHow
fever first appeared in 1769. and there were about thirty epidemics
from 1769 to 1878. Though the first board of heahh and first
quarantine system date back to 1821, from 1787 to 1853 the average
death-rate was 59*63 per 1000; never did it fall below 35*00, which
was the rate in 1837. In 1813. a cholera year, it rose to 148; in
i853-i854-i855,the great yellow-fever years. complicated in 1854-
1855 by cholera, it was 103, 73 and 73. During these three yean
there were more than 3j(.ooo deaths. The millesimal morulity in
18SI-1855 and succeeding quinquennial periods to 1880 was as
follows: 70, 45, 40, 39. 34-S and 33*5. The rate reported by the
national census of 1900 was 38*9, the highest of any of the large
separate governments: they issued paper money independently, for
example. The charter of 1836 was also an extreme sutcmcnt of
local self-government; the municipalities were practicaDy inde-
pendent, although then* was a common mayor and a general coundL
of .the entire city meeting once annually. This organization was in
large part due to the hostility of the Creoles to the Americans. The
charter of i8u formed a consoTidated city. That of 1856 added to
and amended its predecessor. That of 1870 was very notable aa
an attempt to secure a business-like and uroplificd administratioa.
A mayor and seven " administrators." elected on a general ticket
and constituting Individually the different administrative depart-
ments, formed collectively a coundl with legislative powers. All
sesnons of the council were public, and liberties of suggestion were
freely accorded to the dtizens. Tried in better times, and as a move-
ment for reform sprung from the people and not due primarily to an
external impulse, this system might have been permanent and iiii|;bt
have exercised great influence on other dties. The early 'seventies
were marked by a great widening of the dty*s corporate limits.
In 1883 another charter went back to the ordinary American plan
of elective district coundlk>re chosen for the legisbtive branch.
and executive ofiicen chosen on a general ticket. The latter held
seats in the council and could debate but not vote. This is the
present system.
* They were leased to a private company in 1891*1901. bet the
lease was unprofitable and was disadvantageous to trade. Fraa
1901 to 1908 wharfage and harixnir dues were reduced 35 to 8$ %.
NEW ORLEANS
531
f of .the United Sutes.* This high death-rate is often attri-
bated in great part to the large negro population, among whom the
mortality in 1900 was 43*1 per 1000 ; but the negro population
largely comprise* that labouring element whose faulty proviston for
health and sickness in every large city swells the d^th-rate. A
light yellow-fever epidemic occurred in 1897-189(^1899. after nine-
teen years of immunity, and a more serious one in 1905. when the
United States Marine Hospital Service for a time took control of
the city's sanitation and attempted to exterminate the SUgomyia
mosquito. The city Board of Health has done much to secure pure
food for the people, and has exercised efiident oversight of com-
municable diseases, including yelbw fever. In movements for the
betterment of the citv — in commerce, sanitation, public works and
general enterprise— a leading part has been taken by an organization
of citizens known as the New Orleans Progressive Union, whose
charter and by-laws prohibit its participation in political and religious
Hisiifry.'-'Sew Oricans was founded in 1718 by Jean Baptiste.
Lemoyne, Sieur de Bienville, and was named in honour of
the then Regent of France.* The priesKhronider Charlevoix
described it in 1731 as a place of a hundred wretched hovels in
a malarious wet thicket of willows and dwarf palmettos, infested
by serpents and alligators; he seems to have been the first,
however, to predict for it an imperial future. In 1722 New
Orleans was made the capital of the vast province of Louisiana
(9.V.). Much of the population in early days was of the wildest
and. in part, of the most undesirable charactei^-deported
galley-slaves, trappers, gold-hunters and city scourings; and
the governors' letters are full of complaints regarding the riff-
xaff sent as soldiers as late as Kerlerec's administration (1753-
1763). In 1788 a fire destroyed a large part of the city. In
X 795-1 796 the sugar industry was first put upon a firm basis,
llie last twenty years of the i8th century were especially char-
acterized by the growth of commerce on the Mississippi, and the
development of those international interests, commercial and
political, of which New Orleans was the centre. The year 1803
is memorable for the actual transfer (at New Orleans) of Louis-
iana to France, and the establishment of American dominion.
At this time the city had about 10,000 inhabitants, mostly French
Creoles and their slaves. The next dozen years were marked by
the beginnings of self-government in city and state; by the
excitement attending the Aaron Burr conspiracy (in the course
of which, in 1806-1807, General James Wilkinson practically
put New Orleans under martial law); by the immigration from
Cuba of French planters; and by the American War of 181 2.
In 1815 New Orleans was attacked by a conjunct expedition
of British naval and military forces from Halifax, N.S., and other
points. The American government managed to obtain early
information of the enterprise and prepared to meet it with forces
(regular and militia) under Maj.-Gen. Andrew Jackson. The
British advance was made by way of Lake Borgne, and the
tn)ops landed at a fisherman's village on the 23rd of December
18x4, Major-Ceneral Sir £. Pakenham taking command there
on the 25th. An immediate advance on the still insufficiently
prepared, defences of the Americans might have led to the
capture of the city, but this was not attempted, and both sides
remained inactive for some time awaiting reinforcements. At
last in the early morning of the 8th of January 181 5 (after the
Treaty of Ghent had been signed) a direct attack was made on
the now strongly entrenched line of the defenders at Chalmette,
near the Mississippi river. It failed disastrously with a loss of
2000 out of 9000 British troops engaged, among the dead being
Pakenham and Major-General Gibbs. The expedition was soon
afterwards abandoned and the troops embarked for England.
From this time to the outbreak of the American Civil War the
dty annals are almost wholly commercial. Hopeful activity
^ But the death-rate of New Orleans was not so high as that of
some smaller Southern cities, Richmond (29-7)> Savannah (34*3) or
Charleston (37-5), for example. According to Mortality Stalistics,
1905 (Washington, 1907), the death-rate in New Oricans m 1905 was
33-7. and the annual average between 1900 and 1904 was 23-1.
* Two of the lakes in the vicinityr commemorate respcctivelv Louis
Phelypeaux. Count Pontchartrain, minister and chancellor of
France, and Jean Frederic Phelypeaux. Count Maurepas, minister
and secreury of state; a third is really a landlocked inlet of the sea,
and its name (Lake Borgne) has reference to its " incompk;te " or
• defective " character.
and great deveIot>ment characterized especially the decade
1830-1840. The introduction of gas (about 1830); the building
of the New Orleans and Pontchartrain railway (1820-1830), one
of the earliest in the United States; the introduction of the first
steam cotton press (1832), and the beginning of the public school
system (1840) marked these yean; foreign exports more than
doubled in the period 1831-1833. Travellers in this decade have
left pictures of the animation of the river trade — more congested
in those days of river boats and steamers and ocean-sailing craft
than to-day; of the institution of slavery, the quadroon balls,
the medley of Latin tongues, the disorder and carousals of the
river-men and adventurers that filled the city. Altogether there
was much of the wildness of a frontier town, and a seemingly
boundless promise of prosperity. The crisis of 1837, indeed, was
severely felt, but did not greatly retard the city's advancement,
which continued unchecked until the Civil War. In 1849
Baton Rouge replaced New Orleans as the capital of the state.
In 1850 telegraphic communication was established with St
Louis and New York; in -1851 the New Oricans & Jackson
railway, the first railway outlet northward, now part of the
Illinois Central, and in 2854 the western outlet, now the Southern
Pacific, were begun.
The political and commercial importance of New Orleans,
as well as its strategic position, marked it out as the objective
of a Union expedition soon after the opening of the Civil War.
Captain D. G. Farragut (q.v.) was selected by the Union govern-
ment for the command of the Western GuU squadron in January
1862. The four heavy ships of the squadron (none of them
armoured) were with many difliculties^brought up to the head of
the jMtfses, and around them assembled nineteen smaller vessels
(mostly gunboats) and a flotilla of twenty mortar-boats under
Comminder D. D. Porter (q.v.). The main defences of the
Mississippi consisted of the two permanent forts Jackson and St
Philip. These were of masonry and brick construction, armed
with heavy rifled gtms as well as smooth-bores, and placed on
either bank so as to command long reaches of the river and the
surrounding flats. In addition, the Confederates had some im-
provised ironclads and gunboats, large and small. On the i6th
of April, after elaborate reconnaissances, the Union fleet steamed
up into position below the forts, and on the i8th the mortar-boats
opened fire. Their shells fell with great accuracy, and although
one of the boats was sunk and two disabled, fort Jackson was
seriously damaged. But the defences were by no means crippled
even after a second bombardment on the 19th, and a formidable
obstacle to the advance of the Union main fleet was a boom
between the forts designed to detain the ships under close fire
should they attempt to run past. At that time the eternal duel
of ship versus fort seemed to have been settled in favour of the
latter, and it was well for the Union government that it had
placed its ablest and most resolute officer at the head of the
squadron. Gunboats were repeatedly sent up at night to
endeavour to destroy the boom, and the bombardment went on,
disabling only a few guns but keeping the gunners of fort Jackson
under cover. At last the gunboats " Pinola " and " Itasca " ran
in and broke a gap in the boom, and at 2 a.m. on the 24th the
fleet weighed, Farragut in the corvette " Hartford " leading.
After a severe conflict at close quarters, with the forts and with
the ironclads and fire rafts of the defence, almost all the Union fleet
(except the mortar-boats) forced its way past. At noon on the
2Sth Farragut anchored in front of New Orleans; forts Jackson and
St Philip, isolated and continuously bombarded by the mortar-
boats, surrendered on the 28th; and soon afterwards the military
portion of the expedition occupied the city. The commander.
General B. F. Butler, subjected New Oricans to a rigorous
martial law so tactlessly administered as greatly to intensify the
hostility of South and North, but his administration was in many
respects beneficial to the city, which was kept both orderly
and healthy. Towards the end of the war General N.P. Banks
held the command at New Orleans.
Throughout the years of the Civil War and the Reconstruction
period the history of the dty is inseparable from that of the state.
All the constitutional conventions were held here, the seat of
532
NEW PHILADELPHIA— NEWPORT
government Again wis here (in 1864-1882) and New Orleans
was the centre of dispute and organization in the struggle
between the races for the control of government. Notable events
of that struggle in city history were : the street riot of the 30th of
July 1866, at the time of the meeting of the radical constitutional
convention; and the "revolution" of the 14th of September
1874, when the White League worsted the Republican metro-
politan police in pitched battle and forced the temporary flight
of the Kellogg government. The latter was reinstated in power
by the United States troops, and by the same power the Democrats
were frustrated in January 1875, after they had wrested from
the Republicans the organization of the state legislature. Never-
theless, the " revolution " of 1874 is generally regarded as the
independence day of Reconstruction, although not until President
Hayes withdrew the troops in 1877 and the Packard government
fell did the Democrats actually hold control of the state and city.
The financial condition of the city when the whites gained control
was very bad. The tax-rate had risen in 1873 to 3%. Thedty
defaulted in 1874 on the interest of its bonded debt, later re-
fundingthis ($12,000,000 in 1875) at a lower rate, so as to decrease
the annual charge from $1,416,000 to $307,500. Among events
in the decade 1880-1890 were the World's Industrial and Cotton
Centennial Exposition of x884-'x88s (celebrating the centennial
of the cotton industry of the country), and the introduction of
electric lighting (x886); in the decade 1890-1900 the intro-
duction of electric transit, the latest charter and the improve-
ments.in public works already detailed. The lynching of Italian
subjects by a mob in 1891^ caused serioiis international com-
plications.
Among the many floods from which the city has suffered those
of 1849 and 1882 were the most destructive.
Bibliography. — For description sec the Hisloriatl Sketch Book
and Guide to New Orleans . . . compiled by seoeral leading writers of
the New Orleans Press (New York, 1885): B. M. Norman. New
Orleans and Environs (New Orleans. 1845): Grace King, New
Orleans, the Place and the People (New York, 1895); and the novclB
and magazine writings of G. W. Cable. The Picayune publishes a
guide, frequently revised. For administration. Manual of the City
of New Orleans (periodical); W. W. Howe, " Municipal ftistonr of
New Orleans," in Johns Hopkins University Studies, scries vii.. No. 4
(Baltimore, 1889); for accounts of the worst of the yellow-fever
epidemics, W. L. Robison's Diary of a Samaritan, by a member of the
Howard Association of New OrUans (New York, 1860) ; Report of the
Sanitary Commission of New Orleans on the Epidemic Yellow Fever of
t8s3 (New Orleans. 1854); and for much miscellaneous information,
loth Census of the United States (1880), Social Statistics of CUies.
History and Present Condition of New Orleans ,.,byC.B, Waring
and C. W. CabU (Washington, 1881).
IfEW PHILADELPHIA, a city and the county-seat of Tuscar-
awas county, Ohio, U.S.A., on the Tuscarawas River and near the
Ohio canal, about 75 m. S. by E. of Cleveland. Pop. (1890) 44s6i
(1900) 6213 (554 foreign-bom); (1910) 8542. It is served by the
Baltimore & Ohio (the Cleveland, Lorain & Wheeling Division),
and the Pennsylvania (Cleveland & Pittsburgh Division) railways,
and by an inter-urban electric system. The dty has a level site
in the midst of a good agricultural country, which abounds in
coal and fire-clay. In the public square is a soldiers' monument,
and the city has a public library and a park. Its principal
manufactures axe steel, enamelled ware, clay goods, brooms,
flour and carriages. The first settlement in the vicinity was made
in May 1772, when Moravian Indian converts migrated from
Pennsylvania (Friedcnshtltten, Bradford county, and Fricden-
sladt, Lawrence county) to Schoenbrunn, called by the Indians
Welhik-Tuppeek, a spring (now dry) a little south of the present
New Philadelphia. Under David Zcisberger (17 2 1-1808) and
1 In October 1890 the chief of police was assassinated, and before
he died charged the crime to Italians. He had been active in pro-
cccdtngs against certain Italians accuvd of crime, and his death was
popularly attributed to the Mafia. Nineteen Sicilians were indicted,
and of nine put on trial six were acquitted and three escaped convic-
tion on the ground of a mis-trial. On the lAth of March 1891 a mob.
broke into the jail and lynched eleven of the accused. The Italian
government demanded that the lynchers should be punished, entered
claims for indemnity in the case of the three Sicilians who had been
lulian subjects, and. failing to secure as prompt an answer as it
desired, withdrew its ambassador from Washington. In 1892 the
United Sutes paid an indemnity of $25,000 to Italy.
Johann Gottlieb Emestus Heckewelder (i 743-1 823) other
missionary villages were planted at Gnadenhfitten (October X772)t
Lichtenau (1776) and Salem (1780), all in the present county
of Tuscarawas. After the massacre of Christian Indians at
Gnadenhtttten in 1782 the Indians removed to Michigan and
in 1791 to Fairfield, Ontario; in 1798 some of them returned to
Tuscarawas county and settled Goshen, where Zeisberger is
btiried. New Philadelphia was laid out in 1804 and was named
by its founder, John Knisely, after Philadelphia in Pennsylvania;
it was incorporated as a village in 1815, and was first chartered
as a city in 1896.
See Ohio Archaeological and Historical Quarterly tor April 1909
(Columbus, Ohio) for several articles on the early settlonent by
Moravian Indiansi
NEW PLYMOUTH, a municipality and seaport on the west coast
of North Island, New Zealand, capital of the provincial district
of Taranaki, 258 m. N.N.W. of Wellington by rail. Pop. (1906)
5 141. The town slopes to the ocean, with a background of forest
surmounted by the snow-dad volcanic cone of Mount Egmont
(8270 ft.). The district is not unjustly termed "^the garden of
New Zealand." It is highly fertile, cereals and fruits growing
well; and dairy products are extensively exported. In the town
are leather-works, timber-works and flour-mills, with freezing-
works for export dairy produce. The settlement was founded in
1841 by the Plymouth Company under the aus|Moes of the
New Zealand Company, and chiefly consisted of emigrants from
Devonshire and Cornwall. On the seashore in the nei^bourbood
are extensive deposits of ironsand.
NEW POMBRANU (Ger. Net^-Pommern, formerly Ntm
Britain^ native BiVora), an island of the Bismarck ArchipeUi^,
N.E. of New Guinea in the Pacific Ocean, about 6* S., iso** £.,
in the administration of German New Guinea. It is crescent-
shaped, about 330 m. long, and, except where the Willauincx
Peninsula projects northward, nowhere more than 60 m. wide.
The north-eastern extremity consists of the broad, irregular
Gaaelle Peninsula, joined to the main mass by a narrow neck.
The total area is about 9500 sq. m. The island is in great part
unexplored. The coasts are in some parts precipitous; in
others the mountains recede inland, and the coast is flat aiKl
bordered by coral reefs. The formation appears otherwise to be
volcam'c, and there are some active craters. The greatest
elevation occurs towards the west— about 6500 ft. There is a
rich tropical vegetation, and a number of considerable streams
water the island. The chief centre is HcrbcrtshShe at the north
of the Gazelle Peninsula; it b the seat of the governor of German
New Guinea (see New Guinea).
The natives are Melanesians, resembling their Papuan kinsatkcn ol
eastern New Guinea, and are a powerful wcH-forincd race. Their
villages arc clean and well kept. Unlike their Papuan relatives, the
islanders are unskilled in carving and pottery, but are clever fanners
and fishermen, constructing ingenious fishing weirs. Tbey have a
fixed monetary system consisting of strings of cowries. They per-
form complicated surgical operations with an obsidian knife or a
shark's tooth. The common dead are buried or exposed to sharks
on the reefs; bodies of chiefs are exposed in the fork of a tree.
Justice is executed, and taboos, feasts, taxes, &c., armn^ by a
mysterious disguised figure, the duk-duk. The population is divided
into two exogamous classes. The children belong to the class of the
mother, and when the father dies go to her village for support, the
land and fruit trees in each district being divided between the two
cbsses. There are several dialects, the construction resembling
Fijian, as in the pronominal suflixes in singular, triad and plural;
the numerals, however, are Polynesian in character.
NEWPORT, a market town and rouu'cipal borou^, the
chief town of the Isle of Wight, England. Pop. (1901) 10,911.
It is situated near the centre of the island, at the head of the
navigation of the Medina River, 5 m. S. from its mouth at Coves.
It is the chief centre of the railway system of the island. The
church of St Thomas of Canterbury, rebuilt in 1854 in the
Decorated style, contains many interesting old monuments;
and one by Marochetti to the princess Elizabeth, daughter of
Charles I., erected by Queen Victoria. The guildhall, erected in
1816 from the designs of Nash, includes the town-ball in tbe
upper story with the market-place below. There are n corn
exchange and museum. The grammar school (the scene e(
NEWPORT
533
ncsottations between Charles I. and the pariiaineBt) was founded
in i6ia, and there is a blue-coat school for girb founded in
1761. The Albany barracks and Parkhurst prison lie north of
the town. A considerable trade is carried on in timber, malt,
wheat and flour. The town is governed by a mayor, 6 aldermen
and 18 councilloiB. Area 504 acres.
It is supposed that Newport (Neuport) was a Roman teitle-
ment, then known as Medina. There are no traces of Saxon
occupation, and no evidence that Newport became a borough
before the reign of Henry II., though it was probably used
before that time as a port of entrance for the ancient capital of
Carisbrooke. The first charter was granted by Richard de
Redvers between 1177 and 1184, freeing the burgesses from
toUs throughout the island, from hundred suiu, and from being
imi^leaded without the walls, and giving them permission to
choose their own reeve — privileges for which they paid 18 marks
yearly. These grants, repeated and extended by the countess
Isabd de Fortibus, were confirmed in 134Q by Edward III. and
afterwards by successive kings, Henry VII. in 1489 granting
in addition the petty customs within all ports and creeks of the
island. The borough was incorporated by James I. in 1607,
and a second charter of incorporation granted by Charles I.
in i6j7 is that by which Newport was governed until 1835. It
was represented in parliament in 1295, but no return was made
from that time until 1584, from which date it regularly sent two
members. In 1867 the number was reduced to one, and in 1885
its representation was merged in that of the island. A fair was
formerly held on Whit-Monday and the two following days, and
on the three Saturdays nearest Whitsuntide, known as '* Bargain
Saturdays," there was a hiring fair for servants. There is now
no fair. The Saturday market dates from 11 84, and there b a
Wednesday cattle market. Owing to its facilities for trade,
Newport early superseded Carisbrooke as the capital of the
island. Its prosperity in medieval times depended upon its
harbour dues and its oyster beds in the river Medina.
NEWPORT, a municipal and county borough, contributory
parliamentary borough, seaport and market town in the Mon-
mouth parliamentary division of boroughs, Monmouthshire,
England, pn the Usk, 5 m. from its confluence with the Severn,
and 133! m. W. of London by the Great Western railway.
Pop. (1891) 54.707; (1901) 67,270. It lies chiefly on the right
(west) bank of the river, and on the E., N. and W. it is sheltered
by a line of lofty hills. The old parish church of St WooUos
stands finely on Stow Hill. Originally it consisted only of the
present nave, a fine specimen of grand though unadorned
Norman architecture; but a massive square tower (of the time
of Henry III.) and a chancel were subsequently added; a large
western Early English lady-chapel is interposed between the
nave and the tower. The old castle, built about 1 130 by Robert,
eari of Gloucester, was greatly altered in the late Perpendicular
period. The remains include two towers and the river frontage.
The old Dominican monastery is entirely rebuilt and occupied as
a private residence; but there are a few fragments of a house of
White Friars. The principal public buildings are the spacious
Victoria Hall, the Albert Hall, the town-hall, county council
oflSos, market-house', ciistom-house, and museum and art
gailery. Newport owes a rapid increase in importance to its
situation on a deep and spacious tidal river, which renders it a
convenient outlet for the trade of a rich mineral district. It
has extensive docks and wharves, to which large steamers have
access at all tides. Three docks, the Alexandra, South and Old
Docks, had together a water area of about 60 acres, besides
the Alexandra graving dock and dry docks. But additional
accommodation was found necessary. In 1905 the Alexandra
Docks and Railway company let the contract for the extension
of the docks by 50 acres of water area, and the scheme was
enlarged later so as to afford an additional area of 86 acres in all.
The new works, added to the old Alexandra Dock, give a total
deep-water area of over 130 acres. The first part to be
completed (48, acres) was filled in the autumn of 1907. The
river is croued by a transporter bridge, opened in 1906. and
bavinff a span of 645 ft. and a clear headway from high water
of X77 ft., with a travelling truck worked by electricity. Iron
ore, pig iron, timber and grain are among the chief imports,
whUe coal and iron goods are exported. Besides the Great
Western railway, Newport is served by the London and North-
western, the Rh3rmney, and the Brecon & Merthyr systems.
The town possesses large iron foundries and engineering works,
and among other industries are the manufacture of wagons and
wheels, nails, bolts and wire, shipbuilding and the making of
railway plant, chemical manures and agricultural implements.
There are also large breweries, glass and pottery works, and an
extensive cattle market. Newport gives name to a Roman
Catholic bishopric, but the cathedral church is at Belmont near
Hereford. With Monmouth and Usk, Newport returns one
member to parliament. In 1889 Maindee, a populous suburb
on the left bank of the Usk, was incorporated with Newport,
and constitutes one of its five wards. The town is governed by
a masror, 10 aldermen and 30 councillors. Area 4431 acres.
Newport, an ancient mesne borough and castle, occupied an
important position on the Welsh marches. The town, which is
not mentioned in Domesday, grew up round the castle built
early in the x ath century. Giraldus Cambrensis, writing in 1 187,
calls it Ifffvns Burgus, probably to distinguish it from Caerleon,
whose prosperity declined as that of Newport increased. The
first lord was Robert Fitx Hamon, who died in i X07, and from
him the lordship passed to the earls of Gloucester and Stafford
and the dukes of Buckingham. Hugh le Despenser, who held
the lordship for a short time, obtained in X3a3 a charter of
liberties for the burgesses, granting them freedom from toll
throughout England, Ireland and Aquitaine. The earl of
Stafford granted a further charter in 1385, confirmed by his
grandson in i437> which gave the burgesses the right of self-
government and of a merchant gild. On the attainder of the
duke of Buckingham in X483 the lordship bpsed to the crown,
of whom it, was held in the x6th and 17th centuries by the
PembrokeSf'and in the X9th by the Beauforts. The town was
incorporated by charter of James I. in 1624 under the title of
" Mayor and Bailiffs." Thu charter was confirmed by Charles II.
in 1 68s uid holds force at the present day. By the act of
1535-1536 Newport b entitled as an ancient borough to take
part In the election of a member for Monmouth town. The
commercial importance of the town dates only from the second
half of the X9th century, the Old Dock being partially formed in
X843, while the Alexandra was opened in 1875. In x8ox the
population of the town was only 1135. In X385 the borough
obtained a market lasting fifteen days from the vigil of St
Lawrence (August xo). The charter of 1624 granted two fairs,
one on the feast of the Ascension, and a second (still held) on
St Leonard's day (November 6). Newport was the scene of a
serious Chartist riot in 1839.
NEWPORT, a nmrket town in the Newport parliamentary
division of Shropshire, England, 145 m. N.W. from London
on the Stafford-Shrewsbury joint line of the London & North-
western and Great Western railways, and on the Shrewsbury
canal. Pop. of urban dbtrict (1901) 3241. The church of St
Nicholas b Early Englbh and Perpendicular. There b an
ancient market cross, greatly decayed. Newport possesses a
literary Institute, and a free grammar school founded in 1665.
Four miles S. are the beautiful ruins of LilleshaU abbey, including
a fine Norman west door and part of the front, considerable
remains of the church besides, and traces of domestic buildings.
The abbey was founded in ii4St under charter from King
Stephen, by Richard de Baumes or Beimels, dean of St Alkmund,
Shrewsbury, for Augustinian canons, who were brought from
Dorchester Abbey, Oxfordshire. Ironstone, coal and Umestone
are worked in the parish.
Newport b not mentioned in the Domesday Survey, but
at the time of the Conquest formed part of the manor of Edg-
mond, which William I. gave with the rest of the county of
Shropshire to Roger, earl of Shrewsbury. Henry I. b supposed
to have founded the borough, at first called New Borough, after
the manor had come into his hands through the forfeiture of
Robert de Bdesme. The dte was probably chosen partly on
534
NEWPORT
account of the fisheries, which are mentioned in the Domesday
Survey, one of the chief services of the buiisesses being that of
taking fish to the king's court wherever it might be. This
custom was continued after Henry III. had granted the borough^
with the manor of Edgmoud, to Hcniy de Audley, but in the
middle of the xjtfa century James, son of Henry de Audley,
granted that the burgesses need not take the fish anywhere
except within the county of Shropshire. The burgesses must
have received certain privileges from Henry L, since Henry II.
in an undated charter granted them all the liberties, rights and
customs which they had in the time of Henry I. This probably
included a gild merchant which is mentioned in the Quo Warranto
Rolls as one of the privileges claimed by the burgesses. Con-
firmation charters were granted by Edward I. in 1287 and
Edward IL in 131 x, while the town was incorporated in 1551
by Edward VI. whose charter was confirmed by James I. in
1604. The governing body consisted of a high steward, deputy
steward, two water-bailiffs and 28 burgesses, but the corporation
was abolished by the Municipal Corporation Act of 1883, and a
Local Board was formed, which, under the Local Government
Act, ga/e pUce in 1894 to an urban district council.
See Edward Jones, Historical Records of Newport^ co. Salop;
Shropshire Archaeol. and Natural History Society, vols. viii. and ix.
(1885-1886); Victoria County History^ Shropshire.
NEWPORT, a dty of Campbell county, Kentucky, U.S.A.,
on the Ohio River opposite Cincinnati, Ohio, and at the mouth
of the Licking River opposite Covington, Ky. Pop. (1900)
28,301, of whom 4081 were foreign-bom and 424 were negroes;
(19x0 census) 30,309. It is served by the Louisville & Nash-
ville, and the Chesapeake & Ohio railways, and by electric lines
to Covington, Cincinnati, Bellevue, Fort Thomas and Dayton.
With Cincinnati and Covington it is connected by bridges. In
the highlands, about 3 m. back of the city, is Fort Thomas, a
United States military post, established in 1888 to supersede
Newport Barracks (1804), in the dty, which were abandoned
in 1894. Newport is essentially a residential suburb of Cin-
cinnati, but it is also industrially important. In 1905 the value
of the factory product was $5,231,0841 Newport ranking third
among thie manufacturing centres of the state. Newport was
settled late in the x8th century, was laid out in 1791, was incor-
porated as a town in 1795, and. was chartered as a city in 1834.
NEWPORT, a dty, a port of entry and the county-seat of
Newport county, Rhode Island, U.S.A., occupying the southern
portion of the island of Rhode Island at the entrance to Narra-
gansett Bay, about 30 m. S. by E. of Providence, about 71 m.
S. by W. of Boston and about 165 m. E.N.E. of New York.
Pop. (1905 state census) 25,039, of whom 61 11 were foreign-
bom, 2590 bdng bom in Ireland; (19x0 U.S. census) 27,149.
It is served by the Newport & Wickford Railroad and Steam-
boat Line, which connects with the New York, New Haven &
Hartford railway at Wickford Junction; by ferry to Bristol,
and by steamboats to Providence, Fall River and New York.
The broken water-front o£ the island, about 17 m. long, is
partly rocky and partly made up of sandy beaches. From
the harbour on the south-west the land rises to a gently rolling
plateau with maximum elevations of about 250 ft. The climate
is notably mild and equable throughout the greater part of the
year. In the newer parts of the city there are many magnificent
estates of summer residents; and in the "Old Town," the
greater part of which is dose to the harbour, and extending up
the hillside, are many x8th-century houses and Thames Street,
its principal business thoroughfare, only 20 ft. wide. Near
the northern end of Thames Street, Washington Square or the
Parade, connects with Broadway, which extends northward
and is the prindpal thoroughfare through a large residential
district of the permanent inhabitants. From the Parade, also,
Touro Street extends eastward to the upper end of Bellevue
Avenue, the principal street, which extends southward to the
ocean.' There Bellevue Avenue connects with the southern
end of the Cliff Walk, which for about 3 m. winds along the
cliffs on the eastem coast of the island. North of the walk is
the smooth, hard Easton's Beach^ frequented for sea-bathing.
South oi the Cliff Walk is Bailey's Beach, a private bathing-
beach; at its western end is the Spouting Rock, through an
opening in which the water, during violent south-east gales, has
been thrown to a height of about 50 ft. Ocean Drive, about
9 m. long, endreles the south-westera peninsula. Beyond
Easton's Beach, in the town of Middletown, is Sachuest, or
Second, Beach, with a heavier suri, and here is a fissure in the
rocks, 150 ft. long and 50 ft. deep, and 8-14 ft. wide, known as
Purgatory. North of Sachuest Beach are the picturesque
Paradise Rocks and the Hanging Rocks.
At the head of the Parade stands the old State House (used
when Newport was one of the capitals of Rhode Island); it
was completed about 1743, was used as a hospital during the
War of Independence, and is now the seat of the county court.
In the vidnity are the City Hall and a monument to Otivcr
Hazard Perry. Fronting on Touro Street is a synagogue, erected
in 1762-X763, and said to be the oldest in the United Sutes;
one of the eariy rabbis was Isaac Touro, a Jew of Dutch biith,
whose name is borne by a street and a park in Newport; Near
the corner of Touro Street and Bellevue Avenue is the Hebrew
cemetery. Of chief historic interest along Bellevue AveBuc
are Touro Park and Redwood Library. In the park is the
historic old Stone Mill or " Round Tower," which Longfellov,
in accordance with the contention of certain members of the
Sodety of Danish Antiquarians, ascribes, in his Shdeton in
Armour, to the Norsemen, but which Benedict Arnold (1615-
1678), governor of Rhode IsUnd, repeatedly mentions in his
will as " my Stone-built Wind-Mill." Opposite the park stsnds
the William Ellery Channing Memorial Church; and in the park
are monuments to Channing and to Matthew Calbraith Perry.
The Channing House on Mary Street, built in 1751, is now used
for a Children's Home. The Redwood Library grew out of the
Philosophical Sodety, esUblished in 1730, which Bishop (then
Dean) Berkeley possibly helped to found during his residence
here in 1729--173X; the Library was incorporated in 1747.
bdng named in honour of Abraham Redwood (c, 1709-1788),
a wealthy Friend who early contributed £500 toward supplying
it with books; the building, was completed in 1750. In Berkeley
Avenue, north of Paradise Road, is Whitehall, whiph Berkeley
built for his home in 1729 and which was restored in 190a The
first newspaper of Newport was published in 1732 by James
Franklin, a brother of Benjamin Franklin, and in 1758 James
Franklin's son, also named James, founded the present Newport
Mercury.
Newport b best known as a fashionable resort during the
summer and autumn; there are annual horse and dog shows,
and fox-hunting is one of the amusements. The har^Hir is a
rendezvous for radng- and pleasure-yachts. On Bellevue Avenue
is the country club, the Casino. Among the great elates with
magnificent ^ cottages " here are those of Mrs Cornelius Vaoder-
bilt, Wm. B. Leeds. Mrs O. H. P. Belmont (the " Marble PaUce."
built for W. K. Vanderbilt), Mrs Ogden Goelet, Mrs Itobert
Goelet, Perry Belmont, and J. J. Astor--all on the Cliff Walk.
Newport has an iimer and an outer harbour; the inner is
landlocked, i m. long and I m. wide, but is not deep eiM>n^
to admit vessels drawing more than 15 ft. of water; the outer
admiu the largest vessds and is a rduge for foreign and ooastwisr
commerce. The whole harbour is protected at its cntn^
by Fort Adams, at the mouth of the inner harbour. Fort WetfaeriS
on Conanicut Island, and Fort Greble on Dutch Island. The
Lime Rock Lighthouse was for many years in charge of Mis Ida
Lewis Wilson (b. 1841), famous for the many lives she saved.
On Goat Island, which partly endoses the inner harbour, is
Fort Walcott, with a United States torpedo station and torpedo
factory, and on Coasters Harbor Island, farther north, are a
United States Naval Training Station and a War College. Along
the western border of the outer harbour is Conaiucut Island, on
which is the towii of Jamestown (pop. in 1905, 1337), with the
Conanicut Yacht Club and other attractions for summer visiton.
Newport has little fordgn trade. ■ There is, however, cooskleraUe
coastwise trade in fish, coal and general merchandise, and in
X905 the total tonnage of the port amounted to 1,770,816 torn.
NEWPORT NEWS— NEW ROCHELLE
535
Fishing ban industry of some importance. The value of the dty's
factory products decreased from $1,575,^92 in 1900 to $1,347,104
in 1905.
Newport is governed under a charter of 1906, which is unique
as an instrument for the government of a city, and aims to restore
in a noeasure the salient features of township government. Most
of the powers usually vested in a town meeting are here vested
in a representative council of 195 members^— 39 IfroAi each of 5
wards. A candidate for councilman must secure the signature of
at least 30 electors in his ward before his name can be placed on
the ballot. A mayor, one alderman from each ward, and a school
committee are elected in much the same manner: a candidate
for mayor must have his election paper signed by at least 250
qualified electors, and an alderman or member of the school
committee by at least 100. All other important officers are
appointed by the council. The mayor and aldermen are foi' the
most part executive officials corresponding to the selectmen of
a town.
Newport was founded by Nicholas Easton (1593-1675),
William Coddington (i 601-1678), John Coggcsball, John Clarke
(1609-1676), William Brenton (d. 1674), William Dyer, Thomas
Haxard, Henry Bull (1609-1693) and Jferemy Gierke (d. 1652),
who, as Antinomians, were driven from Massachusetts Bay,
and in 1638 settled %t Pocasset (later Portsmouth, in the northern
partoftheislandof Rhode Island; pop. in 1905, 2371). Asradical
tendencies prevailed in Pocasset they removed, and in 1639 settled
Newport at the southern end of the island (called Aquidneck
until 1644), which they had bought from the Indians. Most of
the founders are commemorated by place-names in the city; in
the Coddington Burying-Ground are the tombs of Governor
William Coddington, Governor Henry Bull, and Governor
Nicholas Easton; and in the Coggeshall Burying-Ground John
Coggeshall was buried. At the beginning an independent
government by judge and elders was established (Newport and
Portsmouth being united in 1640), but in 1647 the town was
united with Providence, Portsmouth and Warwick in -the forma-
tion of Rhode Island according to the Williams (or, as it is
comnnonly called, the Warwick) charter of 1644. During 1651-
1654 Newport and Portsmouth were temporarily separated
from the other two towns. About 1640 a Baptist Church was
founded, which is probably the oldest in the United States
except the Baptist congregation in Providence; here, too, at
nearly the same time, one of the first free schools in America was
opened. In 1656 English Friends settled here. Between 1739
and 1760 great fortunes were amassed by the "Triangular
Trade,*' which consisted in the exchange in Africa of rum for
slaves, the exchange in the Barbadoes of slaves for sugar and
molasses, and the exchange in Newport of sugar and molasses for
rum. The destruction here on the 17th of May 1769 of the
British revenue sloop " Liberty," formerly the property of John
Hancock, was one of the first acts of violence leading up to the
War of American Independence. The foreign trade of Newport,
which in 1770 was greater than that of New York, was destroyed
by the War of Independence. During the war the town was in the
possession of the British from December 1776 to the 25th of
October 1779; a plan to recover it in 1778 by a land force under
General John Sullivan, co-operating with the French fleet under
Count d'Estaing, came to nothing. Soon after the evacuation of
the British, French troops, under Comte de Rochambeau,
arrived and remained until near the end of the war, and Newport
was a Stat ion of the French fleet in 1 78^ 1781. The Sayer house,
which was the headquarters of Richard Prescott (1725-1788),
the British general; the Vernon house, which was the head-
quarters of Rochambeau, and the Gibbs house, which was for
a short time occupied by Major-General Nathanael Greene, are
still standing.
Newport was chartered as a city in 1784, but in 1787 it sur-
rendered its charter and returned to government by town meeting.
It was rechartcred as a city in 1853; the charter of this year
was much amended in 1875 and in 1906 was superseded by
another. Until 1900, when Providence became the sole capital,
Newport was one of the seats of government of Rhode Island.
See Mrs J. K. \a.ft RensMlaer. Nemfort, Our Social Capital (Phila-
delphij. t()oj) ; Stissn C. Woolsey. " Newport, the Isle of Peace." in
L. F, tVwclI t Ihiii^ie Towns of New England (New York, 1898):
G. C. M4*ban. Rtrntniscenui of Newport (Newport, 1884); W. A.
Grrrntr j^nd ot hcr». The Providence Plantations for Two Hunted and
Fifty Ytan ^rrov^tfince, 1886); C. T. Brooks,. Ccmfroper^ touckini
the oiA SiBttf Mill (Nimrport, i8si); R. M. Bayles (ed.). History 0/
Ntiuport Cifuniy (Ntw York, 1888); E. Peterson, History ^ Rhode
Jslamd (t.f . A^ukJjict k) (New York, 1853).
MEWPORT HEWS, a dty and port of entry of Warwick
county, Virginia, U.S.A., on the James River and Hampton
Roads, 14 m. N. by W. of Norfolk and 75 m. S.E. of Richmond;
it is situated on what is known as the Virginia Peninsula. Pop.
(1890) 4449; (1900) 29,635, of whom 1614 were foreign-bom
and 6798 were negroes; (19x0 census) 20,205. Newport
News is served by the Chesapeake & Ohio railway, of which it is
a terminus; by river boats to Richmond and Petersburg^ Va.;
by coastwise steamship lines to Washington, D.C., Baltimore,
Philadelphia, New York, Boston and Providence; by foreign
steamship lines to London, Glasgow, Liverpool, Dublin, Belfast,
Rotterdam, Hamburg and other ports; and by electric lines to
Old Point Comfort, Norfolk and Portsmouth. A public park
extending from the James to the heart of the dty, a deep,
spadous and well-protected harbour, a large shipbuilding yard
with three immense dry docks, and two brge grain elevators of
2,000,000 bushels capadty, are among the most prominent
features; at the shipbuilding yard various United States battle-
shipi. induding the " Kearsarge;" "Kentucky," "Illinois,"
" Missouri," " Louisiana," " Minnesota," " Virginia " and
" West Virginia," were constructed, as well as cruisers, gun-boats,
merchant vessels, ferry-boats and submarines. The dty's
export of grain and its coastwise trade in coal are espedally
large. Among the manufactures are shoes, tobacco, medidnes
and knit goods. The value of the factory products in 1905 was
$9,053,906, being 52*5% more than in 1900. Both in 1900 and
in 1905 Newport News ranked second to Richmond among the
cities of the state in the value of factory products. The first
settlement on the site of Newport News was made in 1621 by
planters brought from Ireland by Daniel Ckwkin, the father
of Daniel Gookin (161 2-1687) of Massachusetts, who sdected
the site on the advice of Sir William Newce and his brotl^er
Captain Newce. The present dty dates only from 1882, when
it was laid out in consequence of the extension of the Chesapeake
& Ohio railway to the coast here; it was incorporated in 1896.
The name is said to be in honour of Christopher Newport and Sir
William Newce.
NEWPORT PAGNELL, a market town in the Buckingham
parliamentary division of Buckinghamshire, England, 56 m.
N.W. by N. of London, on a branch of the London & North-
western railway, and at the junction of the river Ouzel with
the Ouse. Pop. of urban district (1901) 4028. The church of
St Paul and St Peter has Eariy English portions, including fine
north and south porches. An inscription on the tomb of Thomas
Abbott Hamilton in the churchyard is by the poet Cowper, who
lived in the neighbouring town of 01ncy(9.v.). The almshouse
called Qaecn Anne's Hospital is named from Anne of Denmark,
queen Of James I., who reconstituted a foundation of the time of
Edward I., dedicated to St John the Baptist and St John the
Evangelist.
NEWQUAT, a seaport and watering-pbce, in the St Austell
pariiamentary division of Cornwall, England, 14 m. N. of Truro,
on a branch of the Great Western railway. Pop. of urban dist rict
( 1 901 ) 293 5. It is finely situated on the north coast , on Newquay
Bay, which b shdtered to the west by Towan Head. The cliff
scenery b grand, and there b a fine sandy beach along the
northward sweep of the coast in Watergate Bay. The harbour,
artificially constructed, and equipped with a jetty and piers,
admits vesseb of 250 tons. The chief exports are iron and other
ores, china clay, granite, fish and grain. The imports are coal,
salt and manures.
NEW ROCHELLE, a dty of Westchester county, in southern
New York, U.S.A., on Long Island Sound, i6i m. from the Grand
Central SUlion, New York City. Pop. (1890) 9057, (1900)
536
NEW ROSS— NEW SIBERIA ARCHIPELAGO
14,720, of whom 4435 were foreign-born and '777 negroes; (1910
census) 38,867. It is served by the New York, New Haven &
Hartford Railroad, and by electric railways to New York City
and neighbouring places. The dty is primarily a residentiid
suburb of New York City, and has some fine colonial residences,
and several beautiful residential parks, notably Rochelle,
Neptune, and Beechmont Parks. Its large foreign-bom popula-
tion is comparatively recent and comparatively isolated. Among
the prominent buildings of the dty are a public library, the high
school, a theatre (ownni by the Knights of Columbus), a Masonic
Temple, the City Bank and several churches, of which the moat
notable, perhaps, are the Baptist, Methodist, and St Gabriel's
(Roman Catholic), which is the gift of members of the Iselin
family, to whose interest in yachting is due in part the prominence
of the New Rochelle and Larchmont Yacht Clubs. The Ursuline
College of St Angela (1904) and the Merrill School (1906), both for
girb, are in New Rochelle. The prindpal building of the first
is Leland Castle, built in 1858-1860 by Simon Ldand and finely
decorated with frescoes and coloured marbles. A People's
Forum, growing out of the work of the People's Institute of
New York City, was esublished here in 1903-1904. In the road
between New Rochelle and White Plains is the monument to
Thomas Paine, provided for in his will, on the farm which was
confiscated from a Tory by the state and was given to him at the
end of the American War of Independence. On the Sound,
in Hudson Park, is a monument commemorating the landing-
place of the first Huguenot settlers. Immediately S. of
New Rochelle, in the Sound, is Glen Island, an amusement
resort; belonging to the Glen Island group, E. of Pelham
Manor, is Travers Island, with the out-of-town clubhouse and
grounds of the New York Athletic Club. On David's Island,
i| m. S.W. of New Rochelle, is Fort Slocum, a United States
Army post. The suburban villages of Larchmont and Pelham
(and Pelham Manor) lie respectively N.E. and W. of New
Rochelle. The important industries are the manufacture of
scales and of other instruments of precision, and printing and
publishing— the Knickerbocker Press of G..P. Putnam's Sons,
New York, is here. The site of New Rochelle is part of a purchase
by Thomas Pell in 1654 and of a grant to him by Richard Nicolk
in 1666; it was sold in 1689 to Jacob Leisler. The first settle-
ment of importance was made in 1688 by Huguenots, some of
whom were natives of La Rochelle. New Rochelle was incor-
porated as a village in 1847, and as a city in 1899.
See R. and C. W. Bolton. liistory of the Stveral Towns, Manors
and Patents of WesUJUster County (New York, 1881), and J. Thomas
Scharf's tfutory of WesUkester County (2 vols., Philadelphia, 1886).
NBW ROSS, a market-town of Co. Wexford, Irebnd, on the
acclivity of a hill on the £. bank of the Barrow, a m. below its
junction with the Nore, 102 m. S.S.W. of Dublin by the Dublin
& South-Eastem railway. Pop. (1901) 5847. The Barrow
is crossed by an iron bridge with a swivel pillar in the centre
on wUch a portion of the bridge is turned to admit the passage
of vessels. Vessels of 600 tons can lie alongside the quays. The
inland water communications reach to Dublin by means of the
Barrow and the Grand Canal. The Nore is navigable to Inistioge.
New Ross has breweries and tan-yards, a salmon fishery, and a
brisk export trade in agricultural produce. The urban district of
New Ross indudes Rosbercon, on the opposite side of the Barrow.
It is stated that St Alban built the abbey of Rossmactreoin,
which gave rise to an ancient dty formerly called Rossglas. A
Dominican foundation of the 13th century has left some remains
in Rosbercon. According to Camden, New Ross was founded by
Isabella, daughter of Strongbow and wife of William Marshal,
afterwards earl of Pembroke. A charter was granted to it by
Roger Bigod in the reign of Edward I., which was extended by
James I. and James II. From 1374 it returned two members
to parliament, but at the Union in x8oo the number was reduced
to one, and the town ceased to be a parliamenUry borough in
1885. In 1 269 it was surrounded by walls. The fortresses were
dismantled by Cromwell, but some remains are extant.
NBWRT, a seaport, market town and parliamentary borough
(returning one member) of Co. Down, Ireland, on the Newxy
water and Newry canal at the extreme head of Carlingford Lough.
Pop. (1901) 12,405. It is 73 m. N. of Dublin by the Great
Northern railway. A railway owned by the London & North-
western company connects Newry with the deep-water harbour
at Greenore; and there is an electric railway to Bestbrook
in Co. Armagh. The western part, called Ballybot, is con-
nected with the eastern part, or old town, by four bridges over
the canal and four over the tidal water. The situation of the
town is striking, the Newry Mountains and Slieve Gullion on
the west, and the Mourne Mountains on the east, endosini; the
narrow valley in which it lies. Newry is one of the most
important ports of the province of Ulster, and in connexion with
several sub-ports farther down the river is the outlet for the
trade of a very extensive distria. The port admits vessels
of 2000 tons to Victoria Docks, 3 mi. from the town, but vesseb
drawing 1 5 f t. can go up the ship canal to the Albert Basin, 3 m.
from the sea. The prindpal exports are grain, eggs, cattle, linen
cloth and flax, and the imports include timber, groceries and coal.
In the neighbourhood granite of a fine quality is quarried, and
the town possesses rope and sail works, breweries, distilleries,
flour-mills and tanneries. It is governed by an urban distria
coundl. In 1175 &n abbey was founded here by Maurice
M'Loughlin, king of Ireland^ The abbey was converted in iS43
into a collegiate church for secular priests, and was dissolved by
Edw^d VI., who granted it to Sir Nicholas Bagenal, marshal of
Ireland. Bagenal made it his private residence, and laid the
foundations of its prosperity. In 1689 Newry was set on fire by
the duke of Berwick when in retreat before Schomberg. Charters
were granted to the town by James I. and James II. By the
charter of James I. it sent two members to parliament, but at the
Union in 1800 it was restrided to one member. Until 1898 a
portion of Newry was situated in Co. Armagh. A mile N.E. of
the town is a notable rath or enclosure, taking iu name of
Crown rath from traditional sin^e encounters between native
princes in contention for the sovereignty.
NEW SIBERIA ARCHIPELAGO, a group of islands situated
off the Arctic coast of Siberia, from 73** to 76** 6' N., and 13s* 20'
to 148** E. The name is loosely applied, covering dther the
northern group only of these islands, for which the name of New
Siberia Archipelago, or of Anjou Islands, ought property to be
reserved, or the southern group as well, which ought to maintain
its name of Lyakhov Islands. Some confusion prevails also as
to whether the islands Bennett, Henrietta and Jeannettc, dis-
covered by the " Jeannette " expedition, ought to be indudcd in
the same archipelago, or described separately as the Jeannette
Islands. The first of these three belongs geographiolly, and
probably geologically, to New Siberia Archipelago, from which
it is only 97 m. disunt. As to Henrietta and Jeannette Islands,
situated 200 m. N.E. of New Siberia IsUnd, in 157** to 159** E,
they can hardly be included in the New Siberia Archipelago.
There seems, moreover, to be land. due north of Kotelnyi Island
in 78^ N., first sighted by Sannikov and described as Sannikov
Land. It was also seen by Barotn ToIL
The New Siheria or Anjou Islands conast, beginning from the
west, of Kotelnyi, the largest (i 16 m. long, 100 m. wide). havins the
•nuill island Byelkovskiy near its western shore; Thaddcus (Fad-
d£evskiy). in the twiddle ; and New Siberia (Novaya Stbir), in the
east (90 m. long, 40 ro. wide). Kotelnyi is the highest and most
massive of the four, reaching a maximum altitude of laoo ft. in the
Malakatyo-tras mountain. Its north-east portion connsts of Upper
Silurian coral limestones (Llandovery division), containing a rich
fossil fauna and representing a scries of folds running north-north-
west. The same Silurian deposits are widely spread on (he mainland
as far as Olenck. The western portion of Kotelnyi is built up of
Middle Devonian limestones and dates, folded the same way. of which
the fossil fauna is similar to that of the Urals. Triassic shtcs appear
in the south-east. Diabases pierce to Devonian rocks, and olivine
rocks appear as dykes amidst the Triassic deposits. The Malakatyn-
tras is also made up of volcanic rocks. The eastern portkm of the
island, named Bunge's Land, is thkkly covered with Poit-Tcrtianr
deposits. Thaddcus Island has a lone promontory, Anjoo. protrud-
ing north-westwards. New Siberia Island attains altrtudes of 200
to 300 ft. in its western portion. A range of hills. compoMO oi
Tertiary deposits, and named Hedenstrdm s Mountains, runs ak)r$
its south-western coast, and the same rocks form a promontory
protruding northwards. The Kxalled Wo6d Mountains, which
NEW SOUTH WALES
537
were sii|>po8ed to be accumulatioBS of floating wood, are denudations
ol Miocene depositft conuinin^ layen of brown coal with full stems
of trees. These Tertiary deposits are characteriicd by a rich fauna;
fully developed leaves of poplars, numerous fruits of the mammoth
tree, needles of several conifers, &c., being found in them, thus
testifying to a climate once very much warmer. The only repre-
sentative of tree vegetation now is a dwarf willow i in. high.
The Lvakhev Islands consist of the Bolshoy (Large), or Blixhniy
(Nearest), which is separated by Laptev Strait. 27 m. wide, from
Svyatoy Nos of Siberia; Malyi (Small), or Dalniy (Farthest), to
the north-west of Btiahniy; and three smaller islands— Stolbovyi
(Pillars), Serocnovskiy and Vasilevskiy— to the west of Malyi.
Dr Bunge found Bolshoy to consist ol granite protruding from be-
neath non-fossiliferous deposits; while the promontory of Svyatoy
Nos consists of basalt hills, 1400 ft. high. Along the southern coast
of Bolshov Baron Toll found immense layers of fossil ice. 70 ft.
thick, evidently relics from the Ice Age, covered by an upper layer
of Post-Tertiary deposits containing numbers of perfectly well-
preserved mammoth remains, rhinoceros, Ovibes, and bones of
the horse, reindeer, American stag, antelope, saita and even the
tiger. The proof that these animals lived and fee in this latitude
(73* 3cf N)., at a time when the islands were not yet separated from
the continent, is given by the relics of forest vegetation which are
found in the same deposits. A stem of Alnus fnUicosa, 90 ft. high,
was found with all its roots and even fruits.
Basalts and Tertiary brown coal deposits enter into the com-
position of the southern extremity of Bennett Island, and the
mountains of Sannikov Land, seen by Toll, have the aspect of
basaltic " table mountains."
The climate of these islands is very severe. In x886 the winter
ended only in June, to begin anew in Augtist (21st May, -5 •8'*
F.; i6th October, ~34-6"). The highest summer temperature
was 50**. Flocks of geese and other birds come to the islands
from the north (Bunge and Toll), asaiso the gull Lestrispomarina,
which feeds chiefly on the lemming. The lemmings are very
numerous, and in certain years undertake migrations to the
mainland and back. Reindeer, followed by wolves, come also
every year to the islands; the polar fox and polar bear, both
feeding on the lemmings, are numerous. Hunters come in
numbers to the Lyakhovs, which must have been long known
to Arctic hunters.
A Yakutsk Cossack, named Vaghin, wintered on Bolshoy
in 17x2, but it was a merchant, Lyakhov, who first described
the two greater islands of this group in 1770, and three years
later readied on sledges the largest island of the New Siberia
group, which he named Kotclnyi. The Lyakhovs were mapped
in X 777. J. Sannikov, with a party of hunters, discovered in
1805- 1 808 Stolbovyi, Thaddeus and New Siberia Islands, and
a merchant, Byelkov, the Byelkovskyi Islands. He sighted
the land to the north of Kotelnyi and the land to the north
of New Siberia (now Bennett Island). A Russian officer named
Hedenstrfim, accompanied by Sannikov, explored the archi-
pelago and published a map of it in x8xt. Lieutenant Anjou
visited it in i82x~x823. A scientific expedition under Dr
Alexander Bunge (including Baron Eduard Toll) explored it in
1885-1886. Baron Toll revisited it in 1893 with Lieutenant
Shileiko, and again in xgoo with F. G. Seeberg. Papers were
found on Bennett Island showing that he left it for the south in
November 1902, but he never returned home, and two relief
parties in X903 failed to find traces of him.
AUTHoaiTias.— The works of Hedenstr6m, Ferdinand von
Wrangell. and Anjou, Bunge and Toll in Beiirdge zur Kenntniss des
russiuken Reicks, 3te Folsc. Bd. iti. (1887). Baron Toll in Memoirs
iZapiski) of the St Petersburg Aeademjf of Sciences, 7th series. voL
xxxvii. (1889), xliii. (1899), and 8th senes, vol. ix. (1899), with maps.
J. Schmalhaosen, " Terti&re Pflanren." in same Memoirs, 7th series,
vol. xxxvii. (1890) ; Geographical Journal^ pastim, (P. A. K.)
HEW SOUTH WALES, a state of the Australian Common-
w^th. The name was given by Captain Cook, in his exploratory
voyage in 1770, to the southern portion of the eastern coast of
Australia, from some imagined resemblance of its coast-line to
that of South Wales. The name was afterwards extended to
the eastern half of Australia, but now designates a much more
restricted area. New South Wales is bounded by the Pacific
Ocean on the E., by Queensland on the N., by South Australia
on the W. and by Victoria on the S. It lies between 28^ and
3S* S. Ut., and X4X* and X54'* E. long. The coast-h'ne, which
is about 700 m. in length, extends from Cape Howe (37* 30^
at the south-eastern comer of Australia to Point Danger in
28* 7' S. The colony is approximately rectangular in form,
with an average depth from the coast of 650 m. and an average
width from north to south of 500 m. The superficial area is
estimated at 3x0,700 sq. m., or about one-tenth of the whole of
Australia.
Physical Conjiguration.— The surface of the state is divided
naturally into three distinct zones, each widely differing in general
character and physical aspect, and dearly defined by the Great
Dividing Range running from north to south. The tableland,
which forms the summit of the range, comprises one of the three
zones and separates the other zones, viz. the cpastal region, and
the great plain district of the interior. The main range follows
the line of the coast, varying from 30 to X40 m. distant, being
nearest at the south and receding the farthest at the sources
of the Goulbum river, the main tributary of the Hunter. The
crest of this range is, in some places, narrow; in others it spreads
out into a wide tableland. The eastern slopes are, as a rule,
rugged and precipitous, but the western versant falls gently
to plains. The highest part of the Dividing Range is in the
south-eastern portions of the state, on the borders of Victoria.
Here some of the peaks rise to a height of over 7000 ft.; one of
these, Mount Kosciusco, the highest peak in Australia, attains
an elevation of 73 28 ft. The tableland varies greatly in elevation,
but nowhere does it fall below xsoo ft., and in places it reaches
an average of 5000 ft. The great plain district, lying west of the
tableland, is part of a vast basin which comprises portions of
(^eensland. South Australia and Victoria, as well as of New
South Wales. The great plains are traversed by a few rivers,
whose long and uncertain courses carry their waters to the river
Murray, which empties itself into the Southern Ocean through
the state of South Australia, and during X250 m. of its course
forms the boundary between the states of New South Wales
and Victoria. The Murray has a very tortuous course, as may
be judged from the fact that the measurement along the joint
boundary of New South Wales and Victoria is only 460 m. in a
straight line, the river course being X250. The chief tributaries
of the Murray are the Darling and the Murrumbidgce, which is
joined by the Lachlan. The Murray and the Murrumbidgce are
permanent streams, but the Darling occasionally ceases to run
in part of its course, and for a thousand miles above its junction
with the Murray it receives no tributary. In its upper course
the Darling receives numerous tributaries. Those on the right
bank all come from Queensland and bring down enormous
volumes of water in flood time; on the left bNUik the most im-
portant tributaries are the Gwydir, Namoi, Castlereagh, Bogan
and Macquarie. Here and there along the course of the western
rivers are found lagoons, sometimes of considerable dimensions.
These are commonly called lakes, but are in reality shallow
depressions receiving water from the overflow of the riven in
times of flood, and in return feeding them when the floods have
subsided.
The coastal belt differs greatly from the other divisions of
the state. The main range gives rise to numerous rivers flowing
eastward to the South Pacific. Almost everywhere between the
main range and the sea the country is hilly and serrated, more
particulariy in the southern portions of the state. In the Illa-
warra district, 50 m. south of Sydney, the mountains skirt the
very edge of the coast, but farther north there is a wider coast-
land, with greater stretches of country available for tillage and
pasture.
Along the sea-board are twenty-two well-defined headlands
or'capes and about a score of bays or ixilets, to mark which for
navigators there are thirty-four lighthouses. There are four
very fine natural harbours, viz. Jervis Bay, Port Jackson,
Broken Bay and Port Stephens, and several others of minor im-
portance. Port Jackson, on which is situated the dty of Sydney,
is one of the six greatest ports of the British empire. The
port second of commerdal importance to Sydney is Newcastle,
at the mouth of the Hunter river, which is the great coal-shipping
port of the colony. Secondary harbours, available for coasting
steamers, south of Sydney are at Port Hacking, Wollongong.
538
NEW SOUTH WALES
Kiama, Shoalhaven, BatenuLn's Bay, UUaduUa, Merimbula,
and Twofold Bay. North of Sydney the secondary porU are
at the mouths of the Hawkesbury, Manning, Hastings, Madeay,
Nambucca, Bellingen, Clarence, Richmond and Tweed rivers.
The rivers of the sea-board are as just enumerated, the only other
of importance being the Hunter. The Richmond drains an area
of 2400 sq. m. and is navigable for 60 m. The Clarence is a fine
stream draining an area of 8000 sq. m.; it has a course of
340 m. navigable for 67 m. The Madeay drains an area of 4800
sq. m., and empties at Trial Bay after a course of 200 m., of
which 20 m. are navigable. The Hastings and Manning are both
important rivers. The Hunter is one of the chief rivers of the
sute and embouches at Port Hunter or Newcastle Harbour after
a course of 200 m. It drains an area of 11,000 sq. m., more than
twice the area of the Thames basin. Less commerdally important
than the Hunter, the Hawkesbury is neverthdcss a fine stream;
it has a course of 330 m., of which 70 m. are navigable. South
of Sydney the rivers are of less importance; the prindpal is the
Shoalhaven, 260 m. long, draining an area of 3300 sq. m.
ClimaU.— The three geographical regions above described
constitute three distinct climatic divisions. The coastal region,
28** to 37^ S. lat., shows a difference between the average summer
and winter temperatures of only 24* Fahrenheit. Sydney, which
is situated midway between the extreme points of the state
(33^ 51' S.), has a mean temperature of 63*, the mean summer
temperature bdng 71* and that of winter 54% showing a mean
range of 17*; the highest temperature in the shade experienced
at Sydney in 1896 was xo8-5*, and the lowest 35*9. The coastal
district has an area of 38,000 sq. m., over which there is an
average rainfall of 4 2 in. The rainfall is greatest at the sea-board,
diminishing inland; the fall also diminisihcs from north to south.
Sydney has an average fall of 50 in., while the Clarence Heads,
in the north, has 58 in., and Eden, in the south, 35*5 in. The
tableland is a distinct climatic region. On the high southern
plateau, at an elevation of 4640 ft., stands the town of Riandra,
with a mean summer temperature of 56-4* and winter of 32*5^
Cooma, in the centre of the Monaro plains, at an elevation of
2637 ft., has a mean summer temperature of 65*9* and winter,
41*7'^; its summers are therefore as mild as those of London
or Paris, while its winters are much less severe. On the New
England tableland, under latitude 30* S., the yearly average
temperature is 56*5^, the mean summer 67*7^ and the mean
winter 44*3** The tablelands cover an area of 85,000 sq. m.
and have an average rainfall of 32*6 in.; there is, however, a
small area in the southern portion where an average fall of 64 in.
is experienced. In the western division, or great plains, severe
heat is experienced throughout the summer, and on occasional
days the thermometer in the shade ranges above xoo* Fahrenheit,
but it is a dry heat and more easily borne than a muck less degree
of temperature at the sea-board. The mean summer temperature
ranges between 75^ at Deniliquin in the south and 84* at Bourke.
The mean range in winter is between 48^ ^nd 54*5** and, accom-
panied as this is with dear skies, the season is very refreshing.
West of the tableland the amount of rainfall decreases as the
distance from the Pacific increases, and in a large area west of
the Darling the average annual rainfall does not exceed xo in.
For the whole western division, embracing an area of x88,ooo
sq. m., the average rainfall is x9-8 in. (T. A. C.)
Geology.— fitm South Wales conaisu geologically as well as eeo-
graphically of three main divinons which traverse the state from
north to south. The highlands of eastern Australia form the middle
belt of the sUte. to the east of which are the low coastal districts
and to the west the wide western plains. The highlands of New
South Wales consist, geographically, of a series of ublelands, now
in the condition of dissected peneplains; geologically, they are
built of a foundation of Archean and folded Lower Palaeozoic rocks,
covoed in places by sheets of more horizontal Upper Palaeozoic
and Mesozoic rocks; these deposiu occur along the edge of the
highlands, and are widely distributed on the floor of the coastal
districts. They have been lowered to this level by a mooodinal fold,
which has brought down the MesOzoic rocks, so that they extend
eastward to the coast, where they dip beneath the sea. The western
plains contain isolated ridges of the old Archean and Lower PahMO-
xoic rocks; but in the main, they consist of plains of Cretaceous
beds covered by Cainozoic drifts. The stratified rocks in the high-
lands strike north and south, as if they had been crumpled into folds.
in Lppct falarofoic limes, by prctsure from cast ta west. The weak
orco-a in the cru« cduwd by the ^att>i movtMnc-riis nfcn invaded by
grcai masses of Devonian {^ranueii, They altcjcd ihc Lower PaU«o-
toic rocki on ihtif cd[;c>u, and wltc oikc thoiiglii; 10 have converted
^*Ulc nTCAi of Lower l^alacnmic focka into tchhn and gneisses.
nIo§t of ih«c foliated rocks, however, arc doubile^ of i^hcan age.
The hkghbnij rocks no duubt onrc extended along ihc whole length
cF the &iiatc from north to lAuth; but they are now crossed by a
band of Upper Pabeozolc AcdimcnEi. which ea.|cnd up to the valley
of The Hunter river and teiviratcr the Blut Moufi tains and the
SoLnhrrn Highland 1 of New South Wales from ihc New Eofland
lablcland to the nofth.
Ihc oldest rocks in New South Whiles are ftferrablc 50 the Archean
I . -ii:m, and consifrt of enei&^H^ and schists, IncluditiK the fUuco*
I 1 ine~«:hifts in the New EEij;bnd tabkland, and homUende-
sch i &is of Be n ho r»g. The ArchiL\i n roc ks a re com pji : i : ively sfMndy
exposed in New bouih Wales. They mtcr the st:i;u from the south,
biing coniinyou» with the Archean block of narth-L.L>tcm Victoria.
They occupy a br^e arcni in the western diitricT'. 'A New South
Walct, wht;re a jirojection from the Archcaa jLiuiu of central
Au£tr;il]^ eto*sc3i into the etaic from South Au^tnlia; it is best
tvpoicd In the Barrier Ranges around Broken HiLL Cambrian rocks
have not vet been discovtTod in Nfw ^knjth VVales: but Fittman
has reeotJi-d an Af^noitus. from Nlandurttma, near Orange. The
roi: l;i oi the Ordovicsan s^'stem, though widely dlatn bated, have not
froi
alis.nva Ux'n separated from the Silumn rocks.
::h they oftca
clustk- rcwmble llthologiLally. The occurrence of i.i^F Jovician rocks
Wis first cstabliibed by Dun ai Tomin^leyn 33, m. b,W. of DMbbo.
whtfc he discovered R rap [oliit 5 That he identified as Ciiwuuoj^ptus
and DiccUagrap>iui. Other eraptgljici hjve been found near Orange,
and at Lsrtd burst, near Cart oar. The fossitiferous horizon is of
Up[Kr Ordovician see. The extent of theOrdovician will probably
be increased by addiiion o! areas, *hich cannot \tt be acparatcd
from the Silurian. The Silurian system is the best-known con-
stituent of the Lottcr PaLipOJoic loundatlon of New South Waks.
The rock 9 eonblit ol unds^ionirj, quartiites, slates and shales, asso-
ciated \^ it h lent ieular mai^ifs of lirne&tonr. The typtc >l Silurian rocks
are richly foi^^ilikraus, the ihatsrs containing tnl- lues, the sand-
stones many brachtopod^ and ihe hmn'stones 4 nth ctcal and br>t>-
aoa n fa u na. There are a li.0 bird^ of 1: h c rt . w hich a re I .\ r^y composed
cf r ad tola r ia. Ci ve a ha ve been d i -^jsol vi^ i n t he 11 m r-M -'oes by under-
ground fitfcam*: the Jenolan cavers in the Clue Mountains and
those of Yarrangohllty and the Goulburn district are the moat famous.
The slates of the Silurian have been bent into fold it, and saddle reefs
occur aloftB ihc axis of the fdliK a a at Hargnivi:!. Numerous
quartz reeCl occur both in the Silurian and Ordovkian rocks. In
the« rtef* the chief mineral is gold. Some schists, attributed to
the Silurian, but pcs-^Uy dder, conuin platinum; and aaaoctated
with the IjmeitoTioi art bed* of coppt-r.
The rocks of the Devonian svsietn rest tinconformably upon the
Sl1uri;in; but Himt beds of whuh the a^e is *ttll uncertain are
c^llinl Devano-^iiluri.in. The Devonian beds are wrM developed in
tht Blue Mountains, where the lower DevoniaTi $ci^ifrivntsat Mount
Limbic are eMlmjud (o be lo.ooo ft. in thickn^ They area-
trnsUxk developed along the Con river and al r - the slopes of
Ktount Canobbss They art^ alsfl developed in ^hc New South Wales
1 uhland?, to the south-east of Goultiurft, Some o( the best -known
Closures are in the ranges Mrhirh rist above the western plains.
sut h as the Rnnkln Karigc on the Darling and the Kukopara Kange
t ' the north of the Murrurnbidfff. The Devonian r-.ksat Yalwai
Z'-Q sharply folded and are associated vtith a «rlci. .1 rhyolites and
la-ic lavas. The lower part of this scriei is prot^jUJy Lower De-
>orLi3n; and It is covered by shales and volfamt rocks belongins
t" the Upper Devonian- In the extreme iouih-cist of New South
Uales. at the head of the Genoa rlve^^ are sandstones with^rdhostf-
ftfii kmLitii, which arc an cxiension of the Lower Devonian beds
ci Victoria: while fanhtf to the east^ at Eden and Twofold Bay.
art^ Ujirtrr Devonian Kindiionev
The Devonlzin avstem is acparatcd from the Carboniferous by an
intrrvsl durinu which there ^erc powerful earth movements: they
pro<liirK| a loftv inountain fhaiti, ronnlrnff north and south across
New South Wifes, Thcr highbnds are the worn down stumps of
this mountain line, tn Lower Carboniferoo* tlnrrej these mountams
wen? snow-capped^ and the valleys on ihcir flanks *crc occupied by
glaricrs.
The Lower Carl>oniferou* beds are rep(re«f>red by congknnerates
and sindston^ with ftome shales and limestones. The sandstones
are characietued by Lepidodrndrtm (Brrijerta) Q^iUdt. ^ It is aa»-
ciated with l>rtJs of Lava and volcanic aj.h, «Jme of which contain
c pper ores, G rani te* and era n od ioritcs werr int fudcd at this period
ifiio the older rocks, and altered the ad/acent Devonian bedis into
sljtes and quarleitri, and formed [»Dld-quartl; veins, whkh have
bctn worked in the Dev&nian rock.h ai Yalft-al. The Lower Carboni-
ferous rocks also occur in the Blue Mouf^iain^ ilong the Cox riwr
and Capcriee river; and a northern continuation occurs along the
western slope of the New England tableland h from the Macintyre
rivi:r to the Qutf-n'^laod toedcr.
Th<* I'pP*^'^ Carl soniferous rocks are most important irom their
rich »eam» of coal. They occupy from 24,000 to j3.O0O sq. m-
which are best exposed in the Hunter river and sround Newcastle.
538
NEW SOUTH WALES
Kiama, Shoalhaven, BatenuLn's Bay, UUadulla, Merimbula,
and Twofold Bay. North of Sydney the secondary porU are
at the mouths of the Hawkcsbury, Manning, Hastings, Madeay,
Nambucca, Bellingen, Clarence, Richmond and Tweed rivers.
The rivers of the sea-board are as just enumerated, the only other
of importance being the Hunter. The Richmond drains an area
of 2400 sq. m. and is navigable for 60 m. The Clarence is a fine
stream draining an area of 8000 sq. m.; it has a course of
340 m. navigable for 67 m. The Madeay drains an area of 4800
sq. m., and empties at Trial Bay after a course of 300 m., of
which 30 m. are navigable. The Hastings and Manning are both
important rivers. The Hunter is one of the chief rivers of the
state and embouches at Port Hunter or Newcastle Harbour after
a course of 200 m. It drains an area of 1 1 ,000 sq. m., more than
twice the area of the Thames basin. Less commercially important
than the Hunter, the Hawkesbuxy is nevertheless a fine stream;
it has a course of 330 m., of which 70 m. are navigable. South
of Sydney the rivers are of less importance; the principal is the
Shoalhaven, 260 m. long, draining an area of 3300 sq. m.
C/tma/«.— The three geographical regions above described
constitute three distinct climatic divisions. The coastal region,
28* to 37* S. lat., shows a difference between the average summer
and winter temperatures of only 24^ Fahrenheit. Sydney, which
is situated midway between the extreme points of the state
isi^ 51' S.), has a mean temperature of 63*, the mean summer
temperature being 71^ and that of winter 54^ showing a mean
range of 17*; the highest temperature in the shade experienced
at Sydney in 1896 was xo8•5^ and the lowest 35-9. The coastal
district has an area of 38,000 sq. m., over which there is an
average rainfall of 42 in. The rainfall is greatest at the sea-board,
diminishing inland; the fall also diminishes from north to south.
Sydney has an average fall of 50 in., while the Clarence Heads,
in the north, has 58 in., and Eden, in the south, 35*5 in. The
tableland is a distinct climatic region. On the high southern
plateau, at an elevation of 4640 ft., stands the town of Riandra,
with a mean summer temperature of 56-4^ and winter of 32•s^
Cooma, in the centre of the Monaro plains, at an elevation of
2637 ft., has a mean summer temperature of 65*9^ and winter,
41 '7*^; its summers are therefore as mild as those of London
or Paris, while its winters are much less severe. On the New
England tableland, under latitude 30* S., the yearly average
temperature is 56*5^, the mean summer 67*7^ and the mean
winter 44*3^* The tablelands cover an area of 85,000 sq. m.
and have an average rainfall of 32-6 in.; there is, however, a
small area in the southern portion where an average fall of 64 in.
is experienced. In the western division, or great plains, severe
heat is experienced throughout the summer, and on occasional
days the thermometer in the shade ranges above xoo** Fahrenheit,
but it is a dry heat and more easily borne than a much less degree
of temperature at the sea-board. The mean summer temperature
ranges between 75^ at Deniliquin in the south and 84* at Bourke.
The mean range in winter is between 48^ ^nd 54'5^> and, accom-
panied as this is with clear skies, the season is vay refreshing.
West of the tableland the amount of rainfall decreases as the
distance from the Pacific increases, and in a large area west of
the Darling the average annual rainfall does not exceed xo in.
For the whole western division, embracing an area of x 88,000
sq. m., the average rainfall is X9*8 in. (T. A. C.)
Ctolofy. — New South Wales conaisu geologically as well as eeo-
graphicaJly of three main diviaons which traverse the state from
north to south. The highlands of eastern Australia form the middle
belt of the sute. to the east of whkh are the low coastal districts
and to the west the wide western plains. The highlands of New
South Wales condst, geographically, of a series of tablelands, now
dissected peneplains; geologically, they are
built of a foundation of Archean and folded Lower_Palaeoioic rocks.
in the condition 01 <
covoed in places by sheets of more horizontal Upper Palaeozoic
and Mesozoic rocks; these deixMtts occur along the edge of the
highlands, and are widely distributed on the floor of the coastal
districts. They have been lowered to this level by a monoclinal fold,
which has brought down the MesOzoic rocks, so that they extend
eastward to the cosst. where they dip beneath the sea. The western
plains contain isolated ridges of the old Archean and Lower Palaeo-
zoic rocks; but In the main, they conust of plains of Cretaceous
beds covered by Cainozoic drifts. The stratified rocks in the hish-
Umds strike north and south, as if they had been crumpled into folds.
in Upper Palaeozoic times, by pressure from cast to west. The weak
areas m the crust caused by the earth movements were invaded by
great masses of Devonian granites. They altered the Lower FaUeo-
zoic rocks on their edges, and were once thought to have converted
wide areas of Lower Pabcozoic rocks into schists and gneisses.
Most of these foliated rocks, however, are doubtless of Archean age.
The highland rocks no doubt once extended akmg the whole length
of the state from north to south; but they are now crossed by a
band of Upper Palaeozoic sediments, which extend up to the valley
of the Hunter river and separate the Blue Mountains and the
Southern Highlands of New South Wak» from the New England
tableland to the north.
The oldest rocks in New South Wales are referrable to the Archean
system, and consist of gneisses and schists, including the glauco-
phane-sch»ts in the New England tabkUnd. and hornblende-
schists of Bcrthong. The Archean rocks are comparatively sparsely
exposed in New South Wales. They enter the sute from the south,
being continuous with the Archean block of north-eastern Victoria.
They occupy a large area in the western districts of New South
Wales, where a projection from the Archean plateau of c^tral
Australia crosses into the state from South Australia; it is best
exposed in the Barrier Ranges around Broken Hill. Cambrian rocks
have not vet been discovered in New South Wak»: but Pittman
has recorded an Af^stus from Mandurama, near Orange. The
rocks of the Ordovician system, though widely distributed, have not
ahv,iv<5 been vpiir.^^ J fn^n the Silurian rocks, which they often
cU^-vly fcrfmllL' !. : The occurrence of Ordovician rocks
waii first c^iaLlbl'rj uy I >ufi at Tomingley. rj m. S.W. of Dubbo.
wherr he dl^»covcrcd grapiolitcs that he identibcd as CUmacopaphu
and DiciiUpaptuf. Other gmptolites have been found near Orange.
and at Lyndhur^t, near Caixoar. The fosailiferous horizon is of
Upp^r OrdovicUn &sc. The extent of the Ordovician will probably
be tncrcawd by addition of areas, which cannot yet be separated
from tht Silurian. The Siturian system is the best-known con-
stituent o( the Lower Pa Neozoic foundation of New South Wah».
The roc^» tutishi ot sdnd^tancs. quartzites, dates and shales, asso-
ciatcd^viThkniicubrma »cs of limestone. The typical Silurian rocks
are ikh]y tt>^i\ikro\n, the shales containing tnl(A>ites, the sand-
stone many brochiopods. and the limestones a rich coral and bt^-o-
zoa n f J u n4. 1 hv nc a re dl » beds of chert, which are largely composed
of ra dj oUiia, Ca vt» have been dissolved in the limestones by under-
gruund Atrrams; ihc JenoUin caves in the Blue Mountains and
those of Ydrraneobilly and ihc Goulbum district are the mostfanKNis.
The ^iCi of tfiET ^ilurj^n hAvc been bent into folds, and saddle reefs
occaf fltong thi: axii o( the folds, as at Hargraves. Numerous
Quartz TQth occur boih in thie Silurian and Ordovician rocks, la
tWH* reefs the chief miners! is gold. Some schists, attributed to
the Silurian^ but poi^ibly older, contain platinum; and associated
wiih ihc iimcsione* are bed* of copper.
The roc It B of the I>evcni3n svstem rest unconformably upon the
Silurian ; but some b«ls of which the age is still uncertain are
callicti Drrvono-Sifuri.in. The Devonian beds are well developed in
the Blu^ ^!_u^.L:.u-3, where the lower Devonian sediments at Mount
Lambie are estimated to be 10.000 ft. in thickness. They are ex-
tensively developed along the Cox river and along the dopes of
Mount Canoblas. They are also developed in the New South Wales
highlands, to the south-east of Goulburn. Some of the best-known
exposures are in the ranges which rise above the western plains,
such as the Rankin Range on the Darling and the Kokopara Range
to the north of the Murrumbidgce. The Devonian rocks at Valval
are sharply folded and are associated with a series of rhvolites and
basic lavas. The lower part of this series is probably Lower De-
vonian: and it is covered by shales and volcanic rocks bdongiiw
to the Upper Devonian. In the extreme touth-east of New South
Wales, at the head of the Genoa river, are sandstones with Arckaeo-
pleris howiUi, which arc an extension of the Lower Devonian beds
of Victoria: while farther to the east, at Eden and Twofold Bay.
are Upper Devonian sandstones.
The Devonian ^stem is separated from the Carboniferous by an
interval, during which there were powerful earth 'movements; they
produced a lofty mountain chain, running north and south acroos
New South Wales. The highlands are the worn down stumps of
this mountain line. In Lower Carboniferous times these mountains
were snow-caj^xd, and the valleys on their flanks were occupied by
glaciers.
The Lower Carboniferous beds are represented by congkMneratea
and sandstones with some shales and limestones. The sandstones
are characterized by Lepidodendrtm {Btrgeria) australe. It b asso-
ciated with beds of lava and volcanic ash. some of which contain
copper ores. Granites and granodiorites were intruded at this period
into the older rocks, and altered the adjacent Devonian beds into
dates and quartzites, and formed gold-quartz veins, which have
been worked in the Devonian rocks at Valwal. The Lower Carboni-
ferous rocks also occur in the Blue Mounuins. ak>ng the Cox river
and Capertce river; and a northern continuation occurs ak>og the
western slope of the New England ubfoland, from the Macintyre
river to the Queensland border.
The Upper Carboniferous rocks are most important Irani their
rich seams of conL They occupy from 34.000 to aa,ooo sq. m..
which are best exposed in the Hunter river and around Newcastle.
46*
I Ounbourbw' o 7 9Booc«ti
NEW SOUTH WALES
Scale, 1:6,000,000
English Miles
o 20 40
State Capital
Rallutaya . ..
14b* ^ JLooffitude Ease 148
NEW SOUTH WALES
539
Farther louth they difappcar beneath the Mctoioic tandstones,
from which they aEatn rue along the coast around Lake Illawarra
and near the moutn of the Shoalhaven river. The Coal Measures
have been reached under Sydney, by a deep bore at Balmatn, which
pierced a seam of coal 10 ft. thick, at the depth of 3917 ft. The Coal
Measurea are classified by Professor T. W. David as lollowa:^'
Ft.
i: Upper or Newcastle Coat Measures, containing
an aggregate of about 100 ft. pf coal . lilSO
2. Dcmpscy Scries; freshwater beds, containing
no productive coal. This scries thins out
completely in certain directions . 3,000
3. Middle, or Tomago, or East Mattland Coal
Measures, containing an aggregate of about
40 ft. of coal 570
4. Upper Marine Series; specially characterized by
the predominance of Productus brackythaerus 5,000
5. Lower or Greta Coal Measures, containing an
aggregate of about 30 ft. of coal . .130
6. Lower Marine Series; specially characterized by
the predominance of Eurydesma cordata 4*800
13.650
Gcobgically, perhaps, the most interesting rocks in the Carbon-
iferous are the glacial conglomerates, containing ice-scratched,
erratic blocks. Some of the bouklers are encrusted by marine
organisms and must have been dropped by icebergs in the sea. The
northern limit of the glacial beds is in dispute; thev have been
described as far north as Ashford. The Carboniferous oeds contain
numerous sheets and flows of basalt and andesite. A syenite massif
of this age occurs at Mittagong; and Icucite has been discovered in
Carboniferous basalts by David.
The Mesozoic rocks of New South Wales begin with the Narrabeen
Shales: (hey are covered by the Hawkcsbury Sandstones, which arc
well exposed around Sydney; and they in turn are covered by the
Wianamatta Shales. The Triassk age of the Hawkcsbury Sand-
stone is suDportcd by the evidence of the fossil fish ; though, accord-
ing to Dr bmith Woodward, they may perhaps be Rhaetic. But the
fossil planU of which the chief are Taeniopteris dainlreei and Thinn-
feidia odontopUroides are regarded by Seward as Lower Jurassic.
At Talbraaar there is a bed containing Jurassic fish, which rests in an
erosion hoUow in the Hawkcsbury Sandstone. The Talbragar beds,
then, may be represcnutive of the Jurassic; and the underiying
Hawkesbury Sandstone may be Upper Triassk. The Cretaceous
system b widely developed in the western part of the sute, where it
is represented by two divisions. The Rolling Downs formation is
regarded as Lower Cretaceous. It consists of a thick series of shales
containing marine fossils. It is covered in places bv tablelands and
ridges of the Desert Sandstone, the remnants of a sheet which
doubtless once covered the whole of the Western Plains. The chief
economic product of the Desert Sandstone w opal, which occurs in it
at White Cliffs and Wilcannia. The opal beds contain Cretaceous
fossils such as Cimdiosaurus. An occurrence of Upper CreUceous
beds occurs in the coastal district at Nimbin on the Richmond nver.
The Cainozoic rocks are best developed in the western districts, as
the silts of the Dariing and Murray plains. They include some
Miocene, or perhaps Oligocene marine sands, formed in the northern
nirt of an inland sea, which occupied the basin of the Lower Murray.
The most significant point in the distribution of the marine Cainozoic
rocks in New South Wales is their complete absence from the coastal
districts; this fact indicates that while the Middle Cainozoic mannc
beds of Victoria and New Guinea were being deposited, Australia
extended far eastward into the Tasman Sea. The Cainozoic series of
New South Waks contains many interesting volcank rocks, including
Icucite-basalts, nepheline-baaalu and sodalitc-basalts. In a basic
neck of this period at Invcrcll. there are eclogite boulders, conuining
diamonds in situ; and it is doubtkss from these basic vokanic necks
that the diamonds of the New England tableland have been derived.
The vokank rocks occur on the tableland of New South Wales, and
contribute much to the fertility of their soils. , ^, ^
The most important mineralin New South Waks is coal, of which
the state has probably a larger available supply than any other
country in the southern hemisphere. The coal-fiekls occupy 34.000
•q. ra. The coal Is present in such vast amount as to offer the
possibility of very economical working of the abundant iron ores of
Australia. Kerosene shak occurs in the Blue Mountains to the west
of Sydney, in the Upper Carboniferous rocks. Gold is widely
distnbuted through the hiahUnds. It was first recorded by James
McBrien in 1823, as occumng in grains in the sands of the Fish nver,
between Rydal and Bathurst; and though further dwxyvenes were
made, they were, kept secret as far as possible. The firet discovery
o( goW in mining quantities was made by Har^ves in 1851, at the
junction of Lewis Ponds and SummerhilVCreek, in what was calkd the
Ophir Diggings, near Bathurst. The gold mines are very numerous
and widely scattered, but individually they arc mostly small and of
no great aepth. The total value of the gold raised since 1850 is over
£50,ooo,ooa The output of alluvial gold is now increased by the
employment of dredges. The gold-quartz veins are mainly in the
OraovKian and Silurian rocks; but some also occur in the Devonian,
and there are impregnations of gold in tufas of Devonian age. Deep
leads beneath the basalts occur at Kiandra.
The silver-kad mines of New South Wales are famous owins to the
Importance of Broken Hill. The mines there occur in gneiss and
schists, whkh are probably of Archean age; the lode has in places
been worked for a uridth of over 300 ft. The zinc ores associated
with the silvei^kad long lay unutilized, as the probkm of their
separatkm from the associated rhodonite has only recently been
overcome. Tin b worked in the rivers of the New England tableland
as at Vegetabk Creek. The chief copper field b at Cobar in the
north-western plains. Bismuth, platinum» molybdenum and anti-
mony are obtained in small quantities.
The geokgy of New South Wales has been described in the Mono*
graphs. Memoirs and Records of the Geological Survey, which in the
fullness and high scientific character form the most valuable contri-
butkn to Australasian geology. Pittman's map of the sute in two
sheets, on the scak of 16 m. to the inch, was issued by the Survey in
1893. The economk geology has been admirably summarized in a
work by E. F. Pittman. The Mineral Resonrus of New South Woks
(1901). Numerous seological memoirs have appeared in the Rep.
AustraL Assoc, for the Advancemeni of Science, the Joum. R. Soc.
N.S. WaUs and the Proc. of the Ltnnaean Soc. N.S. WaUs, A
systematk account of the minerals has been publbhed by A.
Livcrsidge, The Minerals of New South WaUs (1888), and to him is
due a valuabk chemical study of the meteorites and gold nuggets.
Contributkns on the palaeontology of New South Wales are con-
tained in the Rec. AustraL Museum, Sydney. A bibliography of the
has been issued by W. S. Dun, Rec. Ceoi. Surv.
economici ^ ^
N.S. Wales, voL vi., 1899. and of the Cretaceous geology, also by
W. S Dun, in Joum, of Proc, Royal Soc. N.S. Wales, 1903, vol.
xxxvii. pp. 140-153. 0- W. G.)
Artesian Water. — Before actual boring proved that the belwf was
well founded, it had kng been sckntifically demonstrated that water
would probably be obtained in the Cretaceous formatkn which
underlies the whok of the north-west of New South Wales; and it is
probabk that the artesian water-bearing basin extends much
farther south than was previously supposed. It may, indeed, be yet
found to extend approximately along the course of the Lower
Dariing. Artewan water is also obtainabk in other than Cretaceous
rocks. This b shown by pabeontological evidence; and some of the
most successful bores, such as those at Coonamble, Moree, Gil Gil
and Euroka, have pkrccd rocks of Triassk age, corresponding with
the Ipswich Coal Measures.
Population. — ^The population on the ist of July 1906 was
1,504,700, viz. 799,360 males and 705,440 females. Tlie total
includes 105,000 Chinese and 7500 aborigines and half-castes.
Since i860 New South Wales had added more largely to its
population than any of the other Australian states. In i860
the population was 348*546; in 1890 the number was i,i3x,86o.
From 1890 to 1901 the population increased 938,083, or at the
rate of ax* 2%. By far the largest part of the increase is due
to excess of births over deaths, for out of the increase of over
1,000,000 since x86o, only 350,000 was due to immigration. In
1905 there were 39,572 births and 14,980 deaths; these figures
are equal to 26-78 and io-i3 per thousand respectively. The
birth-rate has fallen very much, especially since 1899. In 1861-
1865 it was 42*71 per 1000; in 1896-1899 it was 37'93, and in
1906 it bad fallen still further to 26*78. The marriage rate for
1905 was 7*40 per thousand, and the persons married 14*80
per thousand. The mean for 20 years was 7-39. The chief
cities are Sydney and suburbs, population in 1906, 535,000;
Newcastle and suburbs, 56,000; Broken Hill, 30,000; in 1901,
Parramatta, 12,568; Goulbum, 10,610; and Maitland (East
and West), 10,085. There are nine other towns with between
5000 and xo,ooo Inhabitants each.
Rdigion. — ^The proportions of the leading denominatkns in looi
werc:---Church of bngbnd, 46*6%; Roman Catholk, 36*0;
Presbyterian, 9*9; Weskyan and other Methodists. 10*3; Congre-
gationalist. i*o: Baptist, i«3: Jews, 0*5: others. 3-6. Sydney is
the seat of Anglican. and Roman Catholic archbishoprics; the
Anglican archbishop b also primate of Australb and Tasmanb.
Education.— TYm state has in its employ ^35 mak and 3^24
female teachers, and maintains 3901 schoK^ The bw requires that
all children over ux years and under fourteen years shall attend
school, and in 1904, 330.000 children of these ages, as well as 39.000
others below or beyond the school ages, were receiving instruction,
making a total of 359.000. Of this number 311,000 were in state
schools and 48.000 in private schools. The majority of the private
schools are controlkd by one or other of the religious bodies. The
Roman Catholic Church has 361 schools, with 1835 teachers and an
attendance of 33.000 pupils. The total expenditure of the state on
public instruction, scknce and art during tne year ended ^oth June
1906 was £91 1 .000. During the calendar year 1906 a sum 01 £840,000
was expended on primary instruction. The foes from pupib
540
NEW SOUTH WALES
amounted to £83,000, making the actual coat of primary instruction
£758.000. There are a university and a technical college in Sydney.
Finance. — The revenue of the sutc is derived from four main
sources, vu, taxation; sale and lease of lands; earnings of railways,
tramways and other services; and share of surplus revenue returned
by the commonwealth. During 1906 the income derived under
each of these heads was: from taxation £1.297,776; from lands
£1.739.887; from railways and other services £5.856.836: from
commonwealth £3.743.770; these with miscellaneous collections to
the amount of £655.833 made up a toul revenue of £13,383.083.
The direct taxation is represented by a tax of one penny in the
pound on the unimproved value of land, sixpence in the pound on
the annual income derived in the state from all sources, except the
use and occupation of land and improvements thereon. There are
also various stamp duties. The land revenue is derived partly from
the alienation of the public estate, either absolutely or under con-
ditions, but mainly from the occupation of the pubhc lands. There
is also a small revenue from mining lands, timber licences, &c. The
state still holds 146 million acres out of a total of 196 miUion acres,
L...^ .i:>i_.A..^ .w^..^ m^ ^:ii:^ . «ri.. ; f. • i ■ r
having alienated about 50 million acres. The principal heads of eX'
penditure were: interest and charges on public debt. £3.391.059^
public instruction, £911.177: working expenses of railways and
tramways, £3.954.777: other services working exoenses, £308,343;
other services, £3,900,736. The public debt in 1900 was £85,6^1,734.
equal to £56, lis. per inhabitant; the great proportion of this debt
has been incurred for works that are revenue producing, only about
£11.000.000 was not so expended. Of the total debt in IQ03 about
£66.000,000 was held in London. The net return from puSlic works
in excess of expenditure in 1906 amounted to nearly 3l % on the
whole public debt, and the interest paid averages 3'6%.
Adminislraiion. — The political constitution of New South
Wales is that of a self-governing British colony, and rests on the
provisions of the Constitution Act. The governor is appointed
by the crown, the term of office being generally for five yean,
and the salary £5000. The governor is the official medium of
communication between the colonial government and the
secretary for the colonies, but at the same time the colony
maintains its own agent-general in London, who not only sees to
all its commercial business but communicates with the colonial
office. The powers of the state parliament have been since
190X restricted by the transfer of certain powers to the common-
wealth of Australia. In the legislative assembly there are 90
members. The prindple adopted in distributing the representa-
tion b that of equal electoral districts, modified in practice by a
preference given to the distant and rural constituencies at the
cost of the metropolitan electorates. The suffrage qualification
is a residence of twelve months and the attainment of the age
of 31 years. Women are entitled to the franchise: there are
the usual restrictions in regard to the pauper and criminal
classes. An elector has only one vote, which is attached to the
district in which he resides. Members of the Legislative Assembly
are allowed a salary of £300 a year. There were in 1906 about
700,000 electors. Each electonl district returns one member.
The Legislative Gmndl consists of persons nominated for life
by the governor, acting on the advice of the Executive Coundl;
the number of members is not fixed by law but in 1906 it was 55.
Parliaments are triennial. Local government was extended in
X905 and 1906 to the whole state, excepting the sparsely popu-
lated western division; formerly it was confined to an area of
about 3800 sq. m. There are altogether about 55,000 m. of
road communications, but not more than 15,000 m. are property
formed. The various local bodies arc municipalities or shires,
the former is the term applied to closely peopled areas of small
extent endowed with complete local government, and the latter
is the designation of the more extensive districts, thinly peopled,
to which a less complete system of local government has been
granted.
Federal Capital.—ln 1908 the Seat of Government Act pro-
vided that the federal territory and capital of Australia should
be in the Yass-Canbcrra district of New South Wales, and that
the territory should have an area of not less than 900 sq. m. and
easy access to the sea. In 1909 a Board appointed to consider
the several possible sites within this district reported in favour
of Canberra, on the Molonglo river, near Queanbeyan, as the
site for the new dty, and the basins of the Molonglo, Queanbeyan
and Cotter rivers were indicated as suitable to form the federal
territory. Jervis Bay was recommended as offering a site for a
port for the territory. BiUs were pasted in 1909 by the legis-
lative assembly of New South Wales and by the federal parlia-
ment, transferring this territory to the federation.
i4fmii//Mrr.— New South Wales might be described as essentially
a pastoral country, and the cultivation of the soil has always bc«n
secondary to stock-raising. But the predominance of the pastoral
industry is not by any means so marked as it was even as Ute as the
last deoide of the loth century. The want of progress in agriculture
was not to be ascribed to defects of climate or soil, but chiefly to
the great distance of Australia from the markets of the world. This
difficulty has, for the roost part, been removed by the establishment
of numerous important lines of steamers trading between Australia
and Europe, and recent years have therefore seen consideimble
exoansion in all forms of agriculture.
in 1883 the area of land under cultivation was 733.583 acre*.
which is slightly less than i acre per inhabitant. In 1900 the total
area under cultivation was 3,^^9.639 acres, and in 1906 it had riacn
to 3.838,081 acres, which is a little short of 3 acres per inhabitant.
The area devoted to each of the principal crops was as folkws: —
Acres.
Wheat 1,919400
Main 189.000
Oats 38,500
Sugar Cane 31,500
Hay 43f .000
Vines 8,100
The average yield per acre of crops may be set down as follows 7—
Bushels.
Wheat 10-5
Maixe 30
Oats 33
Sugar Cane .... 30 tons, cane
Hay I ton
Wine I85galk>n8
The total value of production in the year 1906 may be set dofim
at £6,543,000, which works out at £3, 6s. id. per acre.
Although the coastal districts arc still important, as the cran
yielding tne largest returns per acre arc grown there, as regards tne
total area under crop these districts are of much less imports
compared with the wnole state than formerly.
Tne area under crop on the coast districts is about 330,000 a ,
00 the tablelands 375.000 acres; on the western sk>pes, i.ioo.ooo
acres; the Riverina district. 750.000 acres; the western plains.
chiefljr in the central portion, 370.000 acres; and less than 30.000
acres in the western division, which comprises nearly half the total
area of the sute. The soil in that part of the country is. for the most
Krt, suitable for cultivation, and there are larvc areas of rich land.
t the rainfall is too light and irregular Tor the purpose of
agriculture.
There were 76,000 occupiers of rural holdings in 1905, and the
area occupied by them, exclusive of lands k^asM from the state, is
48.081,000 acres. The great majority, 80% in 190^. of occtt|>icrs
are freehoklcrs; the practice of renting farm lands is not foDo^Rred
to any considerable extent, except in the dairying lands on the coast
district. New South Wales took up its portion amongst wheat*
exporting countries in looo; the bullc of the grain exported goes to
the United Kingdom. Hay crops and maiic rank next in importance
to wheat. The cultivation of fruit is receiving increased attention,
but the growing of sugar cane and tobacco and the |»roductioo of
wine, until recently so promiang, are. if not declining, at least
stationary, in spite of the suitability of the soil of many districts
for these crops.
Crating and Dairying.— The grazing industry still holds a chief
place amongst the productive industries of the state. In 1906 the
number of horses was 507.000; of sheep, 40.000.000; of cattle.
3.340.000; and swtnc, 311,000. There were considerable losses of
sheep in 1903 owing to the drought of that year, but the flocks in
1906 were of better quality than at any previous period and Uttle
short of the number of 1898. The vast maioritv of the dwep are
of the merino breed, but there are about a million long-woirfled sheep
and between two and three miUion cross-bred. Dairying made very
great strides in the ten years preceding 1906, and ranks as one of
the great industries of the state. There were 644.000 dairy cows in
IQ06, and the numbers arc increasing year by year. The production
of wool was 300.000,000 lb. as in the grease; tallow. 493.000 cwt.;
butter, 500,000 cwt. ; cheese, 42.000 cwt. ; and bacon and hams,
110.000 cwt.
Mining. — ^Thc mining industry has made great strides. In 1905
there were about 38,000 men engaged in the various mines, besides
3300 employed in smelting. Of these. 10,700 were employed an gold-
mining; in coal-mining there were 14.100; nlver. 7100: tin, 3750.
and copper, 185a The value of mining machinefy may be apptxud-
mately set down at £3,900,000. The folkiwing summary thow
the value of the various minerals won in 1905. It is impossible to
separate the values of silver and lead contained in the ore obtained
at Broken Hill; the two metals are therefore shown together.
NEW SOUTH WALES
541
Minerals.
Quantity.
Value.
Metallic-
Gold OS. fine
saver
Silver, lead and ore ... ton
L«d.p«.&c.
Zinc spelter and conccntiatcs .,
Tin ingou and ore .... „
Copper ingots and ore . . „
Bismuth
Wolfram
Scheeltte
Molybdenite
Platintfm ...... os.
Coal ton
Coke
Kemeneshale ....
Alunitc
Ljmestonedux
Ironstone flux
Marble
Sundry minerals
274.267
417.520
441.447
210
103.532
1.957
11
6,632.138
X62.96I
38.226
2,702
'J:1S!
'6J54
£i,i65.0M
52,196
2441.856
2,657
221.155
236.110
527403
5.221
20.763
7.361
10,122
'n
2.003461
100.306
2J.247
6.750
9.519
4.525
2420
3.745
59.000
2.919
Total . . .
£6.897.081
The value of gold won varies from year to year, but from 189410
1906 in only two years did it fall below £1.000.000. Atxmt one-
fourth of the gold won is alluvial. The yield 01 gold from quaru
mines was in 1904 11 dwt. 14 grs. per ton. which was somewhat
below the average for the previous ten years. The Broken Hill
silver hxie is the largest as yet discovered: it varies in width from
10 ft. to 200 ft., and may be traced for several miles. The Broken
Hill Proprietary Company owns the principal mine, and at Port
Pirie in the neighbouring colony of South Australia erected a com-
plete smelting i^nt; the problem of the recovery of the zinc con-
tents of the ore haying been satisfactorily solved, the company
made extensve additions to the plant already erected, and in 1906
the manufacture of spielter was undertaken. From the commence-
ment of mining; operations on a large scale in 1885 to the end of 1905
the value of silver and lead ore won was £40,000,000. The pro-
duction of tin rapidly declined after 1881, when the value of ore
raised was £569.000: the production vanes both with the price
and the occurrence of rain, but the principal cause of the decreased
moduction was the exhaustion of the shallow deposits of stream tin,
from which most of the ore was obtained. The principal dcponts of
copper are in the central parts between the Macquane, Bogan and
Darling rivers. The copper lodes ot New South Wales contain ores
of a much higher grade than those of many well-known mines
worked at a profit in other parts of the world, and. with a fair price
for copper, tfo production largely increases. Iron is widely diffused,
principally in the form of magnetite, brown haematite, limonite
and bog iron. Coal mining is carried on in three districts. In the
northern or Hunter river district there were 6% collieries, employing
10,500 men, and the quantity of coal raised was in 1904 about
4,ioo./00O tons: in the southern district there were fifteen collieries,
employing 3100 men and rai«ng i ,600,000 tons of coaL The western
or mountain collieries were seventeen in number, employing 540 men
and raisins about 418,000 tons. About 52 % of the coal obtained
is exported. Kerosene shale (torbanite) is abundant and b system-
atically worked.
MoMufacturing. — ^There are a large and rapidly ihcrearfng number
of manufactories, but in 1905 only about 350 employed more than
SO bands. The following gives a statement of factory empbyment
lor deven years: —
Year.
No. of
Esublish-
meats.
Hands
Emptoyed,
Value of
Plant and
Machinery.
1895
1900
1905
2723
3077
3700
48.030
60.779
72.175
£5.255.000
5,708,000
7.920,000
About 5*3% of the males and 10*6% of the females employed
are under sixteen years; the total number of male employees in 1905
was 56,117, and of females, 16.058. About two-thirds of the hands
are employed in Sydney and the adjacent district. The total value
of the articles produced in manufactories, and the increased value
of materials after undergoing treatment, was £30.028.000 in 1905,
of which £17,500.000 represented value of materials used and
£600^000 the value of fuel: the total wages paid was £5,200.000.
Gmrsmtcs.— During 1905, 2725 vessels entered New South Wales
porta from plaocs outside the stiite; their tonnage was 4.697.500;
the value of goods imported was £29424,008; and the value of
exporto was iU6.757/x». The average value of imports per in-
habitant was uo and of exports £24, 17s. The bulk of the trade is
carried on with the other Australian states; in 1905 tlue value of
such trade was, imports, £14.938.8^5. and exports. £12.263472;
the British trade is also considerable, the imports direct from Great
Britain bein|( valued at £8.602.288 and the exports £10,222422.
With all British countries the trade was, imports. £25.989,399. and
exports, £25.994.563. New South Wales maintains a large trade
with foreign countries aggregating £3434.609 imports and
£10.762439 exports. France. Germany. Belgium and the United
States are the principal foreign oountxiea with which the state
trades.
Wool is the staple export; and represents, in most years, one-third
the value of the exports. Gold coin and bullion form one of the
principal items in the export list, but only a small portion of the
export is of local production, the balance being Queensland and
New Zealand gold sent to Sydney for coinage. The course of trade
from 1880 to 1905 was as folbws: —
Year.
Exports.
1880
1885
1890
1895
1900
1905
£14.176.063
23.737461
22,615.004
15.992415
27.561,071
29424.008
£15.682,802
16,750,107
22.045.937
28!i64'.5io
36.757.002
The principal articles of export in 1905 were: Wool. £13446.260;
gold. £3.053.331; rilver and concentrates, £2407.142; kad.
£1.072.858; butter, £817.820; coal, £1,56^.602; copper, £1,280,599;
breadstuff s, £1 .345.589. leather and skins, £1. 559.033: meats.
£761,215: tellow, £464.330 ; timber, £353.265; tin. £4S,049.
Banktng.— The banks of issue number thirteen; their paid-up
capital amounts to £13.918.000 and the capital and reserves to
£i9.3>9.ooo, but of this sum only about £9,000.000 is used in the
state. On the jioth of June 1906 the coin and bullion in reserve
amounted to £8.192.000 and the note circulation to £1462.000.
The banks had on deposit £23.325.730 bearing interest and
£15.773.883 not bearing interest, representing a toUlof £39.100.000.
The savings banks had on their books at the ck}se of 1905 about
355.714 depositors, with £13,500.000 to their credit. This repre-
sents £9, IS. 6d. per inhabitant. The total deposits in all banks
therefore amounted to £52.600,000. The progress from i860 to
1905 was as follows: —
Year.
Amount on
Deposit.
In^&nT
i860
1890
1900
1905
£5,721,208
l9!95838o
43.390.141
43.135.000
52,600.000
£. s. d.
16 8 3
14 2 6
26 13 8
3813 6
31 17
34 17 6
Postal and Telegraph Service. — ^The postal business of 1905 was
represented by the carriage of 102,292.888 Icttere and postcards,
44.599.104 newspapera and 23,077,094 parcels and books; the
tcle|nrams despatched numbered 3.837.962. To transact the postal
business of the country, mail conveyances travelled 12,000.000 m.
The income of the postal and telegraph department in 1905 was
^1.065,618 and the expenditure £933.121. out there were some
Items of expenditure not included in the sum named, such as Interest
charges, &c., and cost of new buildings. ^The administration of the
post office b under the commonwealth government
Railways. — The railways are almost entirely in the hands of the
state, for out oi 3471 m. open in 1906 the state owned 3^ m.
The capital expended on the state lines open for tramc was
£43.626,000, of which sum £7400,000 was expended on rolling
stock and equipment and £36,226,000 on construction of roads,
sutions and permanent ways. The net earnings amounted in 1906
to £1.926407. which represents a return of 4*41 % upon the capiul
invested. The state pays, on an avera8;e. 3*69% tor the, money
borrowed to construct the lines, and there is therefore a considerable
surplus to the advantage of the revenue. The year 1906 was, how-
ever, a very excellent one as regards railway working, the operations
showing an average loss oiabout a
quarter
(T. A. C.)
of the ten previous yean
ofi%.
History
New South Wales was discovered by Captaui Cook on board
the " Endeavour," on aoth April 1770. After he had observed
the transit of Venus at Tahiti, he drnimnavigated
New Zealand and went in search of the eastern coast
of the great continent whose western shores had long
been known to the Dutch. He sighted the Australian c«>ast at
Barlr
542
NEW SOUTH WALES
Gippsland« VictorU, near Cape Evenud, which he named Point
Hiciu, and sailed along the east coast of Australia as far north
as Botany Bay, where he landed, and claimed possession of the
continent on behalf of King George III. • He then continued his
voyage along the east coast of Australia, and returned to England
by way of Torres Strait and the Indian Ocean. The favourable
reports made by Captain Cook of the country around Botany
Bay induced the British government to found a penal settlement
on the south-eastern part of what was then known as New
Holland. An expedition, consisting of H.M.S. " Sinus" of 20
guns, the armed trader ** Supply," three store-ships and six
transp(»ts, left England on xyth May 1787, and after touching at
Tenerife, Rio de Janeiro, and the Cape of Good Hope, arrived at
Botany Bay on the aoth of January 1788, under the conunand of
Captain Arthur PhiUip, R.N., with Captain John Hunter, R.N.,
as second. The persons on board the fleet included 564 male
and 19a female convicts, and a detachment of marines, consisting
of Major Ross, commandant, x6 officers, 24 non-commissioned
officers, an adjutant and quartermaster, x6o privates and 40
women. There were in addition five medical men and a few
mechanics. The live stock consisted of one bull and four cows,
a stallion and three mares, some sheep, goats, pigs and a large
number of fowls. The expedition was well provided with seeds
of all descriptions.
The shores of Botany Bay were found to be unsuitable for
residence or cultivation, and Captain Phillip transferred the
people under his command to Port Jackson, half a
, dozen miles away, near the site of the present city of
Sydney. For some years the histoiy of the infant
settlement was that of a large gaol; the attonpts
made to till the soil at Farm Cove near Sydney and near Parra-
matta were only partially successftd, and upon several occasions
the residents of the encampment suffered much privation. But
by degrees the difficulties inseparable from the foundation of a
remote colony were surmounted, several additional convict-
ships landed their living freight on the shores of Port Jackson,
and in 1793 an emigrant-ship arrived with free settlers, who
were furnished with provisions and presented with free grants
of land. By the end of the 1 8th century the inhabitants of Sydney
and its neighbourhood numbered 5000. Immediately after the
arrival of the first fleet, surveys of the adjacent coast were made;
the existence of a strait between Australia and Tasmania was
discovered by Surgeon Bass; and before the retirement of
Governor King in x8o6 Australia had been circumnavigated
and the principal features of its coast-line accurately surveyed
by Captain Flinders, R.N. The explorations huidward were,
however, not so successful, and for many years the Blue Moun-
tains, which rise a few miles back from Sydney, formed an im-
penetrable barrier to the progress of colonisation. Penal
establishments were formed at Newcastle in New South Wales,
at Hobart and Launceston in Tasmania, and an unsuccessful
attempt was nuule to colonize Port Phillip. The most note-
worthy incident in the first decade of the 19th century was the
forcible deportation by the officers of the New South Wales
Corps, a regiment raised in England for service in the colony, of
the governor. Captain Bligh, R.N., the naval officer idenUfied
with the mutiny of the " Bounty." For some time the govern-
ment was administered by the senior officer of the New South
Wales Corps, but ifi 1809 he was succeeded by Captain
Macquarie, who retained the governorship for eleven years.
During the regime of this able administrator New South Wales
was transformed from a penal settlement to a colony. Before
Cfl^teto the arrival of Macquarie schools and churches had
Mac been erected, a newspaper, the Sydney GautU and
qmaHf'a jfew Smith WaUs Advertiser, had been started, and
{[^J?™*^ attempts had been made to acclimatize the drama.
But he was the first governor to open up the country.
He constructed permanent buildings at Sydney and Parramatta,
formed roads and built bridges in the districts along the coast,
and commenced a track across the Blue Mountains, which had
been aossed in 18x3 by Wentworth and others, thus opening
up the rich interior to the inhabitants of Sydney. It was during
Captain Macquarie's administration that the first banking in-
stitution, the Bank of New South Wales, was founded. Xbe
final fall of Napoleon in 1815 gave the people of the United
Kingdom leisure to think about their possessions at the Anti>
podes; and in 18x7 free settlers commenced to arrive in coi&>
siderable numbers, attracted by the success of Captain John
M'Arthur, an officer in the New South Wales Regiment, wfko
had demonstrated that the soil, grass and climate were 'well
adapted for the growth of merino wool But althouj^ tlie
free settlers prospered, and were enabled to purchase land on
veiy easy terms, they were dissatisfied with the administrataoo
of justice, which was in the hands of a judge-advocate "yi^J-ril
by militaiy oflkers, and with the absence of a free press ajKl
representative institutions. They also demanded pennissioa
to occupy the vast phiins of the interior, without bavins to
obtain by purchase or by grant the fee-simple of the lands upon
which their sheep and cattle grazed. These demands Were
urged during the governorships of Sir Thomas Brisbane azkI
Goieral Darling; but they were not finally conceded, togetlaer
with perfect religious equality, until the regime of Sir Richaxvl
Bourke, which lasted from X83X to X837. At the ^^
latter date the population had increased to 76,793, mw.**
of whom 25,254 males and 2557 females were or had .
been convicts. Settlement had progressed at a rapid rate.
Parramatta, Richmond and Windsor had indeed been fouisded
within the first decade of the colony's existence; Newcastle,
Maitland and Moipeth, near the coast to the north of Sydney,
had been begun during the earlier yeais of the X9th century-
but the towns of the interior, Goulbum, Bathurst and otbers,
were not commenced till about 1835, in which year the site of
Melbourne was first occupied by Batman and Fawkner. Tlie
explorations which followed the passage of the Blue Mountains
opened up a large portion of south-eastern Australia. Van
Diemen's Land was declared a separate colony in X825, West
Australia in 1829, South Australia in X836 and New Zealand
in 1839; so that before X840 the original area of New Soutb
Wales, which at first included the mainland of Australia an<l
the islands in the South Pacific, had been greatly reduced. In
X840 the press was free in every part of Australia, trial by jury
had been introduced, and every colony possessed a legislatvire.
although in none of them except New South Wales had tbe
prindi^e of representation been introduced, and in that colony
only to a very limited extent. The policy of granting land
without payment, originally in force in New South Walo, liad
been abandonbd in favour of sales of the public lands by aoctioia
at the upset price of twenty shillings per acre; and the system
of squatting licences, under which colonists were allowvd to
occupy the waste lands on payment of a small annual Uoeaee,
had been conceded. In X851, when separate autonomy ^ras
granted to Victoria, New South Wales had a population off
187,243, the annual imports were £2,078438, the exports
£>>399iS8o, the revenue was £575,794. and the colony contained
X3 2,437 horses, x,738,965 cattle and x3,o59,324 sheep.
Gold was discovered at Summerhill Creek, near Bathuxst.
in February 1851, by Edward Hammond Hargraves; and at
the end of June the first shipment, valued at £3500. left Sydney.
This discovery made an important change in the position oC the
colony, and transportation, which had been discontinued during
the previous year, was finally abolished. The first mail steamer
arrived in August X852, and in 1853 a branch of the Royal
Mint was established at Sydney. The New Constitution Ril],
passed during the same year by the local legislature, provided
for two deliberative chambers, the assembly to be elected and
the council nominated, and for the responsibility of the execn*
tive to the legislature, llie Sydney University, founded in
X850, was enlarged in X854, and the first railway in
New South Wales, from Sydney to Parramatta, com-
menced in X850, was opened in 1855. In the same
year the Imperial parliament passed the New Con-
stitution Act; and in June 1856 the first responsible
government in Australia was formed, during the govemor->
ship of Sir William Denison, by Mr Stuart Alexander Donaldsoa.
NEW SOUTH WALES
543
The first admimstration lasted only for a few weeks, and
it was some years before constitutional government worked
smoothly. Tlie powers of the new parliament were utilised
for extending representative institutions. Vote by balbt was
introduced; the number of members in the assembly was
increased to 80, and the franchise was granted to every adult
male after six months' residence in any electoral area. Mean-
while the material progress of the colony was unchecked. A
census taken at the end of 1857 showed that the population
of Sydney was, including the suburbs, 81,327. Telegraphic
communication was established between Sydney, Melbourne,
Adelaide and Tasmania in 1859; and during the same year
the Moreton Bay district was separated from New South Wales
and was constituted the colony of Queensland.
During the regime of Sir John Young, afterwards Lord Lisgar,
who succeeded Sir William Denison in x86i, several important
SirJotm events occurred. The land policy of previous govem-
y^m^a ments was entirely revised, and the Land Bill, framed
Mormrmor* by Sir John Robertson, introduced the principle of
**^ deferred payments for the purchase of crown lands,
and made residence and cultivation, rather than a sufficient
price, the object to be sought by the crown in alienating the
public estate. This measure, passed with great difficulty and
by bringing considerable pressure to bear upon the nominated
cottndl, was the outcome of a lengthened agitation throughout
the Australian colonies, and was followed by similar legi^tion
in all of them. It was during the governorship of Sir John
Young that the distinction between the descendants of convicts
and the descendants of free settlers, hitherto maintained with
great strictness, was finally abandoned. In 1862 the agitation
against the Chinese assumed importance, and the attitude of
the miners at Lambing Flat was so threatening that a large
force, military and police, was despatched to that goldfield in
order to protect the Chinamen from ill-treatment by the miners.
At this time, the only drawback to the general progress and
prosperity of the country was the recrudescence of bushranging,
or robbery under arms, in the country districts. This crime,
originally confined to runaway convicts, was now committed
by young men bom in the colony, familiar with its mountains
and forests, who were good horsemen and excellent shots. It
was not until a large number of lives had been sacrificed, and
many bushrangers brought to the scaffold, that the offence was
thoroughly stamped out in New South Wales, only to reappear
some years afterwards in Victoria under somewhat simibr
conditions.
The earl of Belmore became governor in x868, and it was
during his first year of office that H.R.H. the duke of Edinburgh
visited the colony in command of the " Galatea." An attempt
made upon his life, during a picnic at Clontarf, caused great
excitement throughout Australia, and his assailant, a man named
OTarrell, was hanged. A measure which virtually made
primary education free, compulsory and unsectarian came into
operation. A census taken in 1871 showed that the population
was 503,981; the revenue, £2,908,155; the expenditure,
£3.006,576; the imports, £9,609,508; and the exports,
£1 1)245^33. Sir Hercules Robinson, afterwards Lord Rosmead,
was sworn in as governor in 1872. During his rule, which lasted
till 1879, the Fiji Islands were annexed; telegraphic communica-
tion with England and mail communication with the United
States were established; and the long series of political struggles,
which prevented any administration from remaining in office
long enough to develop its policy, was brought to an end by a
coalition between Sir Henry Parkes and Sir John Robertson.
Lord Augustus Loftus became governor in 1879, ui time to
inaugurate the first International Exhibition ever held in
Australia. The census taken during the following year gave the
population of the colony as 7S»»468, of whom 4"ii49 '^w*
males and 340,3 19 females. The railway to Melbourne was com-
pleted in x88o; and in 1883 valuable deposits of silver were
discovered at Broken Hid. In 1885 the Hon. W. B. Dalley, who
was acting Premier during the absence through ill-health of
Sir Alexander Stuart, made to the British government the offer
of a contingent of the armed forces of New South Wales to aid the
Imperial troops in the Sudan. The offer was accepted; the
contingent left Sydney in March 1885, on board the
" Iberia " and " Australasian," and for the first time ;
a British colony sent its armed forces outside its own
boundaries to fight on behalf of the mother-country.
In July of the same year Dr Moran, the Roman Catholic arch-
bishop of Sydney, became the first Australasian cardinal. Lord
Carrington, who was appointed governor in 1888, opened the
railway to Queensland, and during the same year the centenary
of the colony was celebrated. The agitation against the Chinese, .
always more or less existent, became intense, and the govern-
ment forcibly prevented the Chinese passengers of four ships
from landing, and passed laws which practically prohibit the
immigration of Chinese.
In 1889 the premier. Sir Henry Parkes, gave in his adhesion to
the movement for Australasian federation, and New South Wales
was represented at the first conference hdd at Melbourne in the
beginning of 1890. Lord Jersey assumed office on the xsth of
January 1891, and a few weeks afterwards the conference to
consider the question of federating the Australian colonies was
held at Sydney, and the great strike, which at one time had
threatened to paralyse the trade of the colony, came to an end.
A board of arbitration and conciliation to hear and determine
labour questions and disputes was formed, and by later legisla-
tion its powers have been strengthened. (For the labour
legislation of the state, see Acstsaua.) A census taken on the
5th of April 1891 showed that the population was 1,134,207,
of whom the aborigines numbered 7705 and the Chinese 12,781.
In X893 a financial crisis resulted in the suspension of ten banks;
but with two exceptions they were reconstructed, and by the
following year the effects of the depression had passed away.
Federation was not so popular in New South Wales as in the
neighbouring colonies, and no progress was made between 189X
and X894, idthough Sir Henry Parkes, who was at that time
in opposition, brought the question before the legislature. The
Rt. Hon. Sir William Duff, who followed Lord Jersey as governor,
died at Sydney in 1 895, and was succeeded by Lord Hampden. In
X896 a conference of Australian premiers was held at Sydney to
consider the question of federation. The then Premier, Mr Reid,
wasrather lukewarm, as he considered that the free-trade policy
of New South Wales would be overridden by its ^^
protectionist neighbours and its metropolitan position ^[JJJj^
interfered with. But his hand was to a great extent aiifciaftea-
forced by a People's Federation Convention held at
Bathurst, and in the early portion of X897 delegates from New
South Wales met those from all the other colonies, except
Queensland, at Adelaide, and drafted the constitution, which
with some few modifications eventually became law. The
visit of the Australian premiers to England on the occasion of
Queen Victoria's Diamond Jubilee gave an additional impetus
to federation, and in September 1897 the convention reassembled
in Sydney and discussed the modifications in the constitution
which had been suggested in the local parliaments. In January
X898 the bill was finally agreed to and submitted to a popular
referendum of the inhabitants of each colony. Those of Victoria,
South Australia and Tasmania agreed to the measure; but
the majority in New South Wales, 5458, was not sufficient to
carry the bill. The local parliament subsequently suggested
certain amendments, one of them being that Sydney shopld be
the federal capital. The general election returned a majority
pledged to federation, and after some opposition to the federal
Bill by the legislative council it was again referred to the
electors of the cok)ny and agreed to by them, xo7,42o votes being
recorded in its favour, and 82,74X against it. One pf the provisions
of the bill as finally carried was that the federal metropolis,
although in New South Wales, should be more than xoo m. from
Sydney. The Enabling Bill passed through all its stages in the
British parliament during the summer of 1900, all the Australian
colonies assenting to its provisions; and on the xst of January
X90X Lord Hopetoun, the governor-general of Australia, and the
federal ministry, of which the premier, Mr Barton, and Sir
54+
NEWSPAPERS
[GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
WOIiun Lyne, Home Secretary, represented New South Wales,
were sworn in at Sydney ami<!bt great rejoicings. Large con-
tingents of troops from New South Wales were sent to South
Africa during 1899 and 1900. (G. C. L.)
NEWSPAPERS. The word "newspaper," as now employed,
covers so wide a field that it is difficult, if not impossible, to give
it a precise definition. By the English " Newspaper Libel and
Registration Act " of 1 881 it is defined as " any paper containing
public news-, intelligence or occurrences, or any remarks or
observations therein printed for sale, and published periodicaUy
or in parts or numbers at intervals not exceeding twenty-aix
days "; and the British Post Office defines a newspaper as " any
publication " — to summarize the wording—" printed and pub-
lished in numbers at intervals of not more than seven days,
consisting wholly (M* in part of political or other news, or of
articles relating thereto or to other current topics, with or without
advertisements." In ordinary practice, the " newspapers,"
as distinguished from other periodicals (q.v.), mean the daily
or (at most) weekly publications which are principally concerned
with reporting and commenting upon general current events.
For the laws regulating the conduct and contents of newspapers
see Pkess Laws and allied articles. The two real essentials of
a " newspaper " are that it contains " news," and is issued at
regular intervals. But the course of history has involved
considerable changes both in the mode of issue and in the con-
ception of what " news " is. For purposes of modem usage we
have to distinguish historically between the product of a printing-
press which is manifolded by that means, and a mere manuscript
sheet which is only capable of being copied by hand. " News"
again varies both according to the appetite and according to its
method of collection and presentation. A distinction ought
perhaps to be made between literary and pictorial news, but this
is almost impossible in practice.
X. General CoNSiDESAnoNS
So far as very early forms of what we now recognize as corre-
sponding to a " newspaper " are concerned^ involving public
reports of news, the Roman Ada Diuma and the Chinese Peking
Gazette may be mentioned here, if only on account of their
historical interest. The Acta Ditima (" Daily Events "} in
ancient Rome (lasting to the fall of the Western Empire), were
short announcements containing official intelligence of battles,
elections, games, fires, religious rites, &c., and were compiled by
the actuarii officers appointed for the purpose; they were kept
as public records, and were also posted up in the forum or other
places in Rome, and were sometimes copied for despatch to the
provinces. Juvenal speaks of a Roman lady passing her morning
in reading the paper, so that it appears that private copies were
in vogue. In China the Peking Caaette, as foreigners call it,
containing imperial rescripts and official news, has appeared
regularly ever since the days of the Tang dynasty (a.d. 6ift-90s).
Even older than it, as is alleged, is the noonthly Peking News
(Tsing-Pao) — ^now in appearance an octavo book of 24 pages in
a yellow covei^-which, according to M. Huart, French (Consul
at Canton, was founded early in the 6th century. But it is not
of any real moment to do more than refer to such publications
as these, which have little in common with the ideas of Western
civilization. The " newspaper " in its modem acceptation can
only be properly dated from the time when in Western Europe
the invention of printing made a multiplication of copies a
commercial possibility in any satisfactory sense.
On the point of terminology, Mr J. B. W. Williams, in his
History of Bngfisk Journalism to tke Foundation of the GaaeUe
(1908), the first scholarly account of the early evolution of the
Press in England, describes the (h^ord GoMette of 1665 (the
orii^nal of the London GatetU) as the first English " newspaper "
in the predse sense, *.«. a "paper "of news;* for it was a half-
sheet in folio, two pages, and not a " pamphlet " as previous
periodicals of news had been. A pamphlet iq.v.) was one or more
* For the oariiert known use of the term " newspaper '* he dtes
a letter in 1670 to Charles Perrot. second editor of the GaeetU: " I
wanted your newet paper Monday last past."
unbound sheets of paper folded in quarto, and these earlier
periodicals were called " news books." The term " news skeet"
again, had implied, up to that time, a written letter of new»--a
" newsletter " as it came afterwards to be called. But it is
hardly necessary to insist here on the distinctioa betw e en a
" news book " and a " newspaper," interesting as it is to note
that the English inclusion of newspapers among " books " for
the purpose of the law of copyright is strictly justified by the
original nomenclature. The " newsbook " made what Is for
modem purposes the essential advance upon either the written
" newsletter " or the isolated printed announcement of some
event, in being both printed and also issued in a series at regular
and continuous intervals. Yet both these forms of publicatica
were in the direct ancestry of the newspaper. The writing of
" letters of news " or " letters of intelligence " was a regular
profession before the printed newspaper was introduced, and
lasted as such for some time afterwards, having indeed the
advantage of being outside the necessity of obtaining a licence,
which hampered the printed publication; and the profession of
" scrivener " naturally suggested that of the later type of
journalist. Of what used, again, to be called a " relation," m.
a statement of an isolated piece of news, there are various printed
examples as early as during the latter part of the xsth ooituiy.
For instance, an official manifesto of Archbishop Dietrkh of
Cologne was printed at Mainz in 1462. A French pamphlet
giving an account of the surrender of Granada to Ferdinand
and Isabella — " le premier jour de Janvier demi&cment paaa£ "—
appeared in 1493.
Precisely at what point, and in what instance, it can be said
that a continuous series of news>pafflphlets started, which can
therefore be called the earliest newspaper, is hard to dcdde,
upon the materials now available. But it was on the continent
of Europe, and not in England; and probably in the Nether-
lands. We have, for instance, pamphleto in the British Museum,
which contain news>items and suggest periodical publication,
though they are not actually known to form copies of a regular
series. A Newe Zeytung; Die ScUact des turkiscken Keysers,
£rc., dates from 1 526; another Newe Zeytung, still more varied in
its contents, contains a letter from Winchester dated July 14,
1554. In Germany alone about 800 examples of sudi news-
pamphlets dating earlier than 1610 are known. The effect of
the Cologne Mercurius GaUobeigicus (zs94) on English porvcyon
of " relations " is dealt with below (under United Kimidom);
but this was rather a book than a newspaper. The earliest plainly
periodical publication containing " news of the day " was. how-
ever, the German Frankfurter Journal, a weekly started by
Egenolph Emroel in 1615. The Antwerp Nieuwe Tifdingktn
followed in x6x6; and in 163s the history of English newspapers
begins with the Weekly Newts published in London by Archer and
Boiime. From this point we are on firmer ground, and the
evolution of the modem Press in the different countries, as traced
below, can be continuously followed. It is worth noting that
a link in the history of journalism with the Roman Ada Diuma
is provided by the Venetian government written gatetti (from
which comes our " gazette ") of the i6th century, oflidal bulletins
or leaflets dealing with public affairs, which were avowedly based
on the ancient Roman model Italy indeed originated not only
the title " gazette " (probably derived from the Gr. Ydfo, i^
treasury 6i news), but also that of " coranto " (Fr. courant; also
early fngljf'gfH as " current," i^e. a " running " relation), both of
which are familiar in the history of the English and foreign Press.
The ait and business of journalism, as now tmdeistood—
taking " journalism " here in the sense of the production of the
literary contents of anewspaper, and not the production
and distribution of the printed sheet itself— is a I^ "
combination of the mere reoording or reporting of news
and of its presentation in such a way, and with such CMnment,
as to Influence the minds of readers in some particular direction.
The history of the " leading article " as a great factor in the
shaping of public opinion b^ns with Swift, Defoe, Bolingbroke
and Pulteney, in the many English newspapers, from the Remew
and the Examiner to the Cr^tsmau, by which was wa^ed the
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS)
NEWSPAPERS
54-5
keen political «lrife of the years 1704-1740. There is no counter-
part to it in France until the Revolution of 1789, nor in Germany
until 1796 or 1798. It was a Frenchman who wrote—" Suffer
yt>urseif to be blamed, imprisoned, condemned; suffer yourself
even to be hanged; but publish your opinions. It is not a right ;
it is a duty." It was in England that the course so pithily
described was actually taken, in the face of fine, imprisonment
and pillory, at a time when in France the public had to depend
upon foreign journals illicitly circulated, when its own chief
writers resorted to clandestine presses, to paltry disguiises, and
to very poor subterfuges to escape the responsibilities of avowed
authorship, and when in Germany there was no political publicity
worthy to be named. When the Mercure de France (1672},
after a long period of mediocrity, came into the hands of men of
large intellectual faculty, they had the most cogent reasons for
exerting their powers upon topics of literature rather than upon
themes of politics. True political journalism dates in France
only from the French Revolution (see, for instance, Mallet du
Pan), and it then had a very brief existence. It occupied a
cluster of writers, some of whom left an enduring mark upon
French literature. A term of high aspiration was followed
quickly by a much longer term of frantic licence and of literary
infamy. Then came the long rule of a despotic censorship; and
c>'clcs of licence followed by cycles of repression. In 1870 indeed
the democratic government at Bordeaux issued against journals
of high aims and of unspotted integrity, but opposed to its
pretensions, edicts as arbitrary as the worst acts in that kind of
Napoleon I., and unparalleled in the whole course of the govern-
ment of Napoleon III.
In all the other countries of Europe political journalism, in
any characteristic sense, was the creation of the xgth century —
somewhat earlier in the century in northern Europe, somewhat
later in southern. The Ordinarie Posi-Tidende of Stockholm
dates indeed from 1643, but until recent times it was a mere
news-letter. Denmark had no sort of joiumal worth remark
until the foundation in 1749 of the Berlingske Tidtndf, and that
too attained to no political rank. The GaxeUe {Viedomosti) of
St Petersburg— the patriarch of Russian newspapers — dating
from the 16th of December 170a, is a government organ, and
nearly synchronizes with the Boston News-Lelicr (1704), the first
successful attempt at a newspaper in the British colonies in
America. Journalism in Italy begins with the Diario di Roma
in 17 16, but in politics the Italian press remained a nullity for
all practical purposes until nearly the middle of the X9th century,
when the newspapers of Sardinia, at the impulse of Cavour,
began to foreshadow the approach of the influential Itab'an
press of a later day. In Spain no rudiments of a newspaper press
can be .found until the i8th century; the Gacda de Madrid
started about 1726. As late as in 1826 an inquisitive American
traveller recorded his inability to lay his hands, during his
Peninsular tour, upon more than two Spanish newspapers.
While originally the newspaper depended entirely on its own
reporters and correspondents for news, and still largely does so,
the widening of the field of modem journalism is hugely due to
collective enterprise, by which outside organizations known as
" news agendes " send a common service of news to all papers
which arrange to take it. The first of the great collecting and
distributing news agencies, Reuter's Agency, was founded by
Julius Reuter, a Prussian government-messenger, who was
impressed by the common interest roused by the revolutionary
movements of 1848. In 1849 he established a news-transmitting
agency in Paris, with all the appliances that were then available.
Between Brussels and Aix-larChapelle he formed a pigeon-
asvice, oonnectiog it with Paris and with Berlin by telegraph.
A% the wires eztcmded, he quickly followed them with agency-
offices in many ports of the continent. He then went to London,
where bis progress was for a moment held in check. Mr Walter
of The Times listened very courteously to his proposals, but
(on that first occasion) ended their interview by saying, " We
generally find that we can do our own business better than
anybody else can." He went to the office of the Morning
AdveriUer, which had then the next largest circuUtion to that
of Tke Times y and had better success. He entered into an agree-
ment with that and afterwards with other London joumab,
including Tke Times, and also with many commercial corporations
and firms* The newspapers, of course, continued to employ
their own organizations and to extend them, but they found
great advantage in the use of Reuter's telegrams as supple-
mentary. Within a few years the business is said to have yielded
the founder some £25.000 a year, and in 1865 it was transferred
to a limited company. In later years this type of news-agency
operating all over the worid was repeated by others, and also
by agencies operating mainly or exclusively only in one country.
It is no longer possible nowadays to confine the meaning of
" journalism " merely to the work of those who write for the
Press. Propcriy it may be said to include the whole intellectual
work comprised in the production of a newspaper; and although
the designation of " journalist " is generally applied only to
editors and to writers, and would not be extended at all to the
purely mechanical staff^the compositors, foundry-ftien and
machinists— nor even to the proof-readen, whose sphere is
analogous rather to the sub-editorial than to the mechanical
departments, the modem tendency has nevertheless been, not
only to install mere reporting (q.v.) in a place of high importance,
but to give increased weight in journalism to those who occupy
what may be called the " managerial " offices, the business side
of making a paper pay having itself developed into an art on
its own account. To be a great " journalist " was once, but is
hardly now, the same as being a great " pubb'dst." The publicist
proper is he who delivers his views on public affairs in the Press;
but the excellence of his articles may nevertheless be consistent
with the journal being a disastrous failure, and his reputation
as a journalist is then but poor. The great joumaUst is he who
makes the paper with which he is connected a success; and in
days of competition the elements necessary for obtaining and
keeping a hold on the public are so diverse, and the factors bear-
ing on the financial success, the business side, of the paper are
so many, that the organization of victory frequently depends
on other considerations than those of its intrinsic literary
excellence or sagacity of opinion, even if it caimot be wholly
independent of these. The modem newspaper, moreover, depends
for its financial success no longer primarily on its receipts from
drcttlation, but on its receipts from advertisements; and though
these can only ultimately be secured on the basis of circulation
(the number of people who buy and read the paper), the establish-
ment of the paper as the organ of a large body of readers for
whose custom it is desirable to advertise often involves other
capacities than those of the great publicist; and even in so far
as the circulation depends on the attractiveness of its " news,"
the direction given to the supply of news may be managerial
rather than editorial. Thus, in the division of labour, the editorial
functions, formeriy supreme and all-embracing, because the
excellence of the contents of the paper made its success, have
gradually, by a fissiparous process, yielded some of their authority
to the managerial functions, and these have grown into an in-
dependence which — since editorial possibilities ultimately depend
on financial resources— has given increased importance in
journalism to the business side.
It must suffice here to say therefore that the work of journalism
may be broadly divided into its editorial and managerial sides.
And apart from exceptional casts of a working proprietor who
is both editor and manager, or of a managing-editor, or of a great
manager who exercises editorial functions, or a great editor
who exercises managerial functioDS, the ordinary course is to
keep them fairly distinct. The managerial side involves the
business work of a paper, including the obtaining of advertise-
ments and all the operations directly connected with producing
it and making it pay as a commercial enterprise. The editorial
side is engaged— however much managerial exigencies may
dictate its policy— in providing the "reading matter" which
forms its contents, other than such as is of the nature of advertis-
ing. The editorial staff includes editors and assistant-editors,
sub^itors (in Great Britain a term usually restricted in daily
journalism to those engaged in the "news" departmentsX
5+6
NEWSPAPERS
[GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
leader-writers, critics, reporteis (more narrowly considered part
of the " sub-editorial " staff). &c. The actual owner of the paper,
the proprietor, may or may not take part in either side, but in
law his authority is delegated to those who produce it. The older
ideas of journalistic management survive in making the editor,
publisher and printer, but curiously not the " manager," liable
in a writ for libel, contempt of court, &c., together with the
proprietor in English law. But no satisfactory legal definition
of ** editor/' still less of " manager," is possible, since their
positions and powers vary according to circumstances.
So far as the general relations of the staff of a paper with its pro-
prietor are concerned, we may briefly note that engagements arc
contracts for personal service; they will not therefore oe specifically
enforced, and the rcmedjr for injury is dismissal or action for damages ;
and they must be in writing and stamped, to be evidence in law, if
for a year or longer. The raitor is the agent of the proprietor, and
binds him for acts within the scope of editorial authority (which
includes the insertion of any matter in the paper). Being an agent
he can have no power as against the proprietor, but unreasonable
intericrence on the lattcr's part may entitle an editor to an action
for breach of contract or for damage to his professional reputation :
while gross misconduct on the part of an editor might similarly
entitle the proprietor to damages. Letters, manuscripts, &c., come
into the editor's hands as agent for his proprietor, f nd are the
tatter's property. Uninvited contributors send htm arturlet at their
own risk, but the sending to them of a type-set proof has been held .
to be evidence of acceptance. Apart from special terms, the editor
b entitled to ** edit " such articles, i.e. use them wholly or in part,
or alter them *. he has a free hand to do so in the case of anonymous
articles; in the case of signed articles it is clearly his duty to keep
them free from libel or illegality, but the right to edit is limited
in so far as his alterations might attribute to the writer anjrthing
which would give the latter a cuum for damages. Though the highest
function of an editor is embodied in the etymology of the wora (a
" bringer forth " or producer), as one who acts as the literary
midwife in the literary setting forth of ideas, it is probably his use of
the proverbial blue-pencil, altering or deleting, which is generally
associated with the word " to edit. Each aspect, however, of edi-
torial work has its own importance— the organization and inspiration
on the one hand, the moulding into shape on the other. And good "
editing is necessarily relative, depending to a certain extent on the
character of the paper which it is intend<^ to produce.
See Press Laws, Libel, Copyright, &c. ; and generally, for law,
Fisher and Strachan, Law of the Press (and ed., 1898).
The history of the Newspaper Press is told for various countries
of importance under their respective sections below. The
practical devdopment of the modem new^>aper is indeed due
to a union of causes, largely mechanical, that may well be termed
marvellous. A machine (see Pkintinc) that, from a web of
paper 3 or 4 m. long, can, in one hour, print, fold, cut and ddiver
many thousand perfected broadsheets, is, however, not so great
a marvel as is the organizing skill which collects information
by conversation, post or telegraph, from all over the world,
and then distributes these communications in cheap printed
copies regularly every day to an enormous public, sifted, arranged
and commented upon, in the course of a few hours. But for a
high ideal of public responsibility and duty, conjoined with high
culture and with great ** staying-power," in the editorial rooms,
all these marvels of ingenuity— which now combine to develop
public opinion on great public interests, and to guide it— would
be nothing better than a vast mechanism for making money out
of man's natural aptitude to spend his time either in telling or
in hearing some new thing. A newspaper, after all, is essentially
a business, conducted by its proprietors for gain. That the
commercial motive is a danger to honest journals is obvious,
were it not indeed that here as elsewhere honesty is in the long
run the best commercial policy.
The example of American joumalisnn has so greatly affected
the developments in England and other countries since about
rAftoflb* '^' ^^^ ^^ ^ important to realize the conditions
maetof under which, in the United States, the newer type
^aMTtes of journalism aiose.^ In substance very much the
^ jjl]***' same causes produced very much the same effects,
though at a slower rate, in England; but British
conservatism operated here as elsewhere. Several circumstances
combined in the last quarter of the 19th century to oromote
'I'he account which follows is reproduced from Mr Whitelaw
Reid's article in the loth edition of the Etuy. BriL
great changes in the condition and character of Ammnn
newspapers, (i) Paper was enormously cheapened. Before and
during the Civil War it cost large New York newspapers at
times 33 cents per lb for even a poor quality. In 1864 it cost
16 cents in February, and ran up a cent every month tiU in mid-
summer it touched ti and 22 cents. As late as 1873 it was still
sold at from 12 to 13 cents. As new materials were found and
machiner}* was improved, the price slowly declined. When the
manufacture from wood-pulp was made commercially successful,
the profits tempted great investments of new capital; bigger
mills were built, competition became keen, and new inventions
cheapened the various processes. Thus in New York in- 187s
the average price for the year for fair " news " paper was 8- 53
cents per lb; in 1880, 6-92; in 1885, 5*16; and in 1890, 3-38.
At last, about 1897, large contracts for a good average quality,
delivered at the press-room, were made in New York at as low
a figure as i'5 cents per lb. Subsequently advances in raw
materials, one or two dry seasons which curtailed the water-
power, and combinations resulting from over-competition, caised
some reaction. Yet it could still be said in 1900 that prudent
publishers could buy for $1 as much paper as would have cost
them $3 twenty years earlier, or $10 about 1875. (2) Printing
machinery for great newspaper offices was transformed. Instead
of the old cylinder presses fed by hand, with the product then
folded and counted by hand, machines came into common use
to print, fold, cut, paste and count and deliver in bundles,
ready either for the carrier or the mail, at rates of speed formeriy
not dreamed of. The size of the paper could be increased or
diminished at will, as late news might require, within an hoiir
of the time when it must be in the hands of its readers. Instead
of cutting down other news to make room for something late and
important, more pages were added, and this steadily increased
the tendency to larger papers. Devices were also fotmd for
printing the same sheet in different colours at the same rate of
speed; and in this way startling headlines were made more
startling in red ink, or a piece of news for which special attentioQ
was desired was made so glaring that no one could help seeing
it. (3) Hand-setting (for great newspapers) was practically
abolished. Instead of the slow gathering of sin^e types by
hand separate lines were now produced and cast by machines,
capable when pushed to their utmost capacity of doing each
the work of five average compositors. Thus between x88o and
1900 there were reductions in the cost— (i) of the raw material
for the manufacture of newspapers from two-thirds to three-
fourths; (2) of printing, at least as much; and (3) of com-
position, at least one-hidf , while the facilities in each departnaent
for a greater product within a given time were enormously
increased. The obvious business tendency of these changes was
either a reduction in price or an increase of size, or both.
Electricity became the only news-carrier. New ocean cables
broke down the high rates charged at the outset. The American
news appetite, growing by what it fed on, soon demanded fat
fuller cablegrams of European news; and the wan in which
Great Britain and the United States were involved accelerated
the movement. The establishment of a strong telegraph com>
pany, capable of efficient competition with the one which
practically controlled the inland service in x88o, likewise
cheapened domestic news by telegraph and increased iu volume.
The companies presently recognized their interest in encouragiiig
rival news assodatbns, and so getting double work for the
wires, while promoting the establishment of new papers. Wild
competition between news agencies was thus encouraged (even
in the cases of some already known to be bankrupt) to tbe
extent of credits of a qtiarter or half a million dollars on tele-
graphic tolls. The rapid spread of long-distance telephone lines
further contributed to this tendency to make the whole oontinent
a whispering gallery for the press. Every great paper had both
telegraph and telephone wires run directly into iU ncwaroom.
Photography and etching were added to the office equipment.
Various " process " methods were found, by which the popular
desu« for a picture to make the news dearer could be gratified.
Drawing! were reproduced succevfully in stcreotjrpe pUtet for
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS]
NEWSPAPERS
547
the fastest rotary presses. The field of poHtical caricature had
heretofore belonged exclusively to the weekly papers, but the
great dailies now seized upon it, and command^ the service of
the cleverest caricaturists. Newspapers found a way to put the
*' half-tone " etching of a photograph, such as had heretofore
been printed only on slow flat presses, bodily into the stereotype
plate for the great quadruple and octuple presses; and there-
after portraits and photographs of important groups on notable
occasions began to appear, embodied in the text describing the
cKTCurrenccs, a few hours after the camera had been turned on
them, in papers printed at the rate of thirty and forty thousand
an hour. In this development of illustrated daily journalism
America rapidly went far beyond other countries.
News agencies multiplied and gave cheaper service. The
New York Associated Press had been the chief agency for the
whole country. It admitted new customers with great caution,
and its refusal to admit was almost prohibitory, while its with-
drawal of news from established papers was practically fatal.
It was owned by the leading New York journals. Their dis-
agreements led to the success of a rival, the United Press. The
New York Associated Press finally dissolved, most of the New
York members became connected with the United Press, and
many of their Western and Southern clients organized the
Associated Press of Illinois, more nearly on a mutual plan. The
United Press finally failed, and most of its New York members
went into the Associated Press of Illinois, which in turn was
forced into plans for reorganization by decisions of Illinois
courts against its rules for confining its services to its own
members. One result of these successive changes was to en-
courage new papers by making it easy for them to secure a
comprehensive news service, and thus to threaten the value of
the old papers. Another was the struggle to increase the volume
of the service, leading to reports of multitudes of occurrences
formerly left without notice in the great news centres, and ex-
tensio;! of agencies into the remotest hamlets, and less scrupulous
care in the consideration and preparation of the reports filed at
many points for transmission. News syndicates for special
purpoees also developed, as well as small news associations,
sometimes with a service sufficient for the wants of many
papers. The almost official authenticity which the public
formerly attributed to an Associated Press despatch measurably
declined; and the dailies found more difficulty in sifting and
deciding upon the news that came to them, and incurred more
individual responsibility for what they printed.
The great accumulation of private fortunes also changed the
newspapers. ^MiUionaires came to think it advantageous to
own newspapers, openly or secretly, which could be conducted
without reference to direct profits, for the sake primarily of
political, social or business considerations. To secure large
circulations for such enterprises they were wilh'ng to sell the
paper for long periods at much below the cost of manufacture,
and to spend money for news and writers more lavishly than
the legitimate business of established journals would allow.
Great business corporations seeking for favourable or fearing
adverse legislation sometimes made secret newspaper investments
for the same purpose.
These various new conditions, affecting the newspaper press
of the United States with ever-increasing force, gradually
changed the average character of the papers and their effect
upon their readers. A large circulation became the only evidence
of success and the only way to make the sale of a newspaper
below cost ultimately a source of profit. A disposition to lower
the character in order to catch the largest audience naturally
followed. Criminal news was reported more fully than formerly,
with more piquant details. Competitors outdid each other in
the effort to treat all news with unprecedented sensationalism.
The lowest possible price was regarded as essential to the largest
possible circulation, and so a favourite price even for large
newspapers became one cent to the public, and consequently
only half a cent to the publishers, whose business was practically
all at wholesale with dealers and news coropam'es. The feeling
l}t»t the most must be given for the money prompted also the
great increase in size, only made possible by the reductions in
paper, composition, presswork, &c., ah-eady noted. Yet mere
quantity and mere sensation after a time palled on the jaded
appetite, and the spice of intense personality became necessary.
As most people like to see their names in print, and can bear
criticism of their neighbours with composure, these two chords
of human nature were incessantly played upon.
The principal feature in the development of modem news-
papers is the importance attached to obtaining, and prominently
displaying, "news" of all sorts, and incidentally cMsnc
there has been a considerable change of view as to what urittka
sort of news should be given prominence. Sport and
finance are treated at greater length and more popu-
larly; and, partly owing to the largely increased
number of papers and consequent greater competition, partly
to a desire to appeal to the larger pubUc, which is now able to
read and ready to buy reading-matter, there has been a tendency
to follow the tastes of the vast number of people who can read
at all rather than of those to whom reading means a very
high standard of literary and intellectual enjoyment. This has
involved a more popular form of presenting news, not only in
a less literary style and by the presentation of " tit-bits " of
information with an appeal to cruder sentiments, but also in a
more liberal use of headlines and of similar devices for catching
the eye of the reader. ** Personal journalism," i.e. paragraphs
about the private life or personal appearance of individual!} —
either men or women— of note or notoriety in society or public
affairs, has become far more marked; and in this respect, as
in many others, encouragement has been given to a spirit of
inquisitiveness, and also to a widespread inclination either to
flatter or be oneself flattered, the latter desire being indeed con-
spicuously prevalent in these "democratic days" even among
the classes which once affected to despise such publicity.
The modem impulse, culminating in England in the last
decade of the xgth century in what was then called the "New
Journalism," was a direct product of American conditions and
ways of life, but in Great Britain it was also the result of the
democratic movement produced by the Education Act of 1870
and the Reform Act of 1885; and it affected more or less all
countries which came within the influence of free institutions.
The most generally adopted American innovation (for, though
not known before even in England, it was practically a new
thing as carried out in American newspapers) was the " inter-
view " (the report In dialogue form of a conversation with some
prominent person, whose views were thus elicited by a reporter),
which during the early 'nineties was taken up in varying degrees
by English newspapers; it was "cheap copy"— the word
" copy " covering in journaUstic slang any matter in the shape
of an article — and could easily be made both informing and
interesting; and " interviewing " caused a large increase in the
journalistic profession, notably among women. The rage for the
" interview " again declined in vogue outside American journalism
in proportion as people of importance became less ready to talk
for publication — or for nothing.
From the highest class of paper downwards, however, real
news— and especially early news— has been more and more
sought after, and all the force of organization both within
individual newspaper offices and outside them in the shape of
news agencies, has been applied to the purpose of obtaining
early news and publishing it as quickly as possible. In this
matter the Press has certainly been helped most materially
not only by the advance in telegraphic facilities (see Reporting)
but by all the other new rapid methods of production in Type-
setting (see Typography) and Press-work (see Printing) which
have been the feature of the modem period. The vastly increased
amount of telegraphic work now done has perhaps not been all
pure gain to the best sort of journalism. It has to some extent
weakened the effect of the considered article, and led to hasty
conclusions and precipitate publication, with results that
sometimes cannot be compensated for by any later contradiction
or modification. In some cases a reaction ensued. Take for
instance the case of war correspondence. The prestige of the
548
NEWSPAPERS
(GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
" war correspondent " became at one time enormous, and his
evolution from the days of H. Crabb Robinson, who wrote to
The Times from Spain in 1807-1809, has been traced by busy
pens with all the precision of a special interest in history.
Certainly nothing finer in active English journalism was ever
done than in W. H. Russell's letters to The Times from the
Crimea, or the work of Archibald Forbes and others in the Franco-
Pnissian War; but more recently, although first-rate abilities
have been forthcoming, the news agencies, often favoured by the
military Press censor, have generally been ahead of the " specials,"
and the individual work that might have been done for isolated
papers has been much hampered by rcstriaions. This is due
partly to the increased competition, partly to military jealousy
and officialism, partly to the vital importance of secrecy in
modern warfare: but the result has been to a considerable
extent to reduce the value of the "war correspondent" as
compared with what was done in the Press in the days of Russell
and Forbes. A letter arriving weeks after the telegraphic
account, however meagre, is largely shorn of its interest. Given
a brilliant foreign correspondent, the form of letters sent home
from abroad on general subjects is still, no doubt, very effective.
But the telegram is necessarily the backbone of the news service
of the daily paper. The Press, be it added, is frequently able to
acquaint the public with what b going on while a government
itself is still uninformed. The work of officials and statesmen
is admittedly increased and sometimes embarrassed by the
new strain imposed upon them in consequence, but the public
are on the whole wcU served by their emancipation from the
obscurity of purely official intelligence and by the obligation
of straightforward dealing imposed upon governments, which,
in their nature are apt to be secretive.
Conneaed with the increased attention given to news is the
greater vogue of the newspaper "poster" or contents-bill,
which is exhibited in the streets. The poster has acquired
commercial importance for indicating the possession of some
special news without revealing its whole nature, and the tendency
has been to have fewer lines and fewer words in larger type, in
order to catch the eye more Impressively. Rotary machines for
printing these posters enable them to be turned out with greater
rapidity; and in the case especially of evening papers it is
possible at any time during the afternoon, should important news
arrive, to issue a new poster and thus secure a large street sale
by the insertion of a few words only in the " stop press " or
" fudge " without the necessity of changes in the plates. The
catch-penny style of the poster has transferred itself also to the
newspaper itself, in the shape of the " scare " headlines. And
there has been a tendency for the news to be so " displayed "•
in the headlines as to make any further reading unnecessary.
Apart from the publication of "news" and reports, and
occasional original articles of a descriptive and miscellaneous
character, the chief function of a newspaper is criticism, whether
of politics or other topics of the moment, or of the drama, art,
music, books, sport or finance. As regards sport, the comments
of the various newspapers are mainly descriptive; but a prominent
feature in the United Kingdom has been the attention paid to
" tipping " probable winners on the Turf, and the insertion of
betting news. The publication of the " odds " some time before
a race, and of starting-prices, undoubtedly helped to foster the
increase of this form of gambling, as was pointed out in the
report of the Select Committee on Gambling in England in 1902,
but the efforts to induce the English newspapers to keep such
matter out of their columns have not had much success. The
Daily News (London) in 1902 started on a new proprietorship
under Mr Cadbury with a declared policy of not referring to horse-
racing or betting; but when its principal proprietors in 1909
became largely concerned also in the Star and Morning Leader,
they were apparently content to reUin the " tipster " elements
which bulked large in them, and this inconsistency aroused
considerable comment. The sporting interest {i.e. the desire
to know results of racing and cricket, &c.) Urgely inflates the
circulation of most of the London and provincial halfpenny
evening papers.
Between about 1870 and 1880 the English newspapers began to
pay increased attention to literary and artistic critidsm; and
gradually the daily Press, which formerly applied itsdf mainly
to recording news, and to political, social and financial subjects,
became a formidable rival in this sphere to the weekly reviews
and the monthly and quarterly magazines. Books are "re-
viewed " in the Press partly for literary reasons, partly as a
quid pro quo for publishers' advertisements; and the de^ for
" something to quote," irrespectively of the responsible nature
of the criticism, became in the early 'nineties a mania with
publishers, who in general appear to have considered that their
sales depended upon their catching a public which would be
satisfied by seeing in the advertisement that such and such a book
was pronounced by such and such a paper to be " indispensable
to any gentleman's library." Unfortunately the enormous
output of books made it impossible for editors to have them all
reviewed, and equally impossible for them to be certain d
discriminating properly between those which were really worth
reviewing or not. The result has been that the work of book-
reviewing in the newspapers is often hastily and pooily or veiy
spasmodically done. But there have been some honoarabk
exceptions. The " Literary Supplement " (since 1901) to
The Times is the most ambitious attempt made by any daily
paper to deal seriously with literature. The DaUy Ckromde
started a " literary page " in 1891, and it was imitated in varying
degrees by other English papers. The Scotsman and some other
provincial papers have also for some time devoted much space
to excellent literary criticism. The "literary supplement"
has also been developed to excellent effect in some journals
in the United Sutes, such as the New York rtiN«f , what this
feature was indeed originally started. As a form, of serious
criticism, however, the review has, in the general newspapeis of
later years, taken a lower pkce than must be desirable, partly
owing to the cause named, partly to a tendency among reviewers
either to indiscriminate praise or to irresponsible irrelevance,
partly to a suspicion of " log-rolling "; and to a large extent
it has become the practice merely to ^treat the appearance oi
new books as so much news, to be chronicled, with or without
extracts, according as the subject makes good " copy," like any
other event of the day.
The modem tendency, resulting from the enormous amount
of newspaper production, has been to make journalism less
literary and at the same time literature more journalistic
Either as reviewers, leader-writers or editors, many of the
principal " men of letters " have worked for longer or shorter
periods as writers for some newspaper or other, and much of
the published literature of the time has appeared originaQy is
the columns of the newspapers, in the form of essays, poems,
short stories or novels (in serial form). Publication in this
shape has many advantages for an author besides that of ad-
ditional remuneration; it offers an opportunity for a new writer
to try his wings, and it helps to introduce him at once to a large
public. Moreover, the newspapers read by the educated classes
profit by the superior cbss of journalist represented by writen
of a literary turn. But the increased popularity of the news-
paper, and the close tie between it and the literary world, have
on the whole impressed a journalistic stamp upon much of the
literature of the day. However popular at the moment a writer
may be, the infection with journalistic methods — white rightly
employed by journalists, as such, in dealing with contemporary
events and for strictly contemporary purposes— b apt to be
responsible for something wanting in his work, the loss of whicb
deprives him of the permanent literary or sdenlific rank to
which he might otherwise aspire.
The new point of departure for the more popular style of
English journalism (apart from the influence of Americas
models) is really to be found in the publication of Sir George
(then Mr) Newncs's Tit-Bits in 1881. This penny weekly
paper, with its appeal to the masses, who liked to read snippets
of information brightly put together, showed what enormou*
profits were to be made by this style of enterprise; and the
multiplication of journals of this dcscrv>tion— notably Mr
GENERAL CONSIDERATION^
NEWSPAPERS
549
Alfred Hannsworth's (Lord Northdiffe's) Answers (1888) and
Mr C. Arthur Pearson's Pearson's WeeUy (1890)— had a further
influence on public taste, so that even the dasaea above that
which pxiniArily enjoyed these publications were affected in
the same direction. A new note was thus introduced into
English daily journalism in England. Whereas before 2885
the chief feature in London jourmdism, outside The Times and
other great morning papers, had been the literary brilliance
of the Saturday Rniew and its evening paper analogues, the
Pall Mall and St James*s GasOtes, in the early 'nineties came
a crare for " aauality." Mr T. P. O'Connor, with his vivid
pen (first in the Star, then in the Sunday Sun and elsewhere),
set the pace for a crowd of imitators; the successful establish-
ment of the Daily Mail in 1896, with its system -of compressing
the news of the day briefly and pointedly into short paragraphs,
while at the same time catering for all tastes and employing
first-rate correspondents and reporters to supply it with special
information, gave a distinct shake-up to the older traditions
of daily journalism. The old tendency had been to rely for
success either on writers of exceptional knowledge or capacity,
men who were essentially amateurs, or on a dass of professional
journalists who at all events had a literary tradition behind them.
A different sort of amateur now arose, and a different sort of
professionaL Even when an attempt was made to provide for
a literary public, success came to be generally sought by popular
rather than by literary methods. The literary pubUc in the
proper sense of the word is inevitably a small one, and the greater
part of the Press deals with literature on lines more suited to
a larger and less refined dientHe. It may be daimed, no doubt,
that the best sort of journalism shows a high, and sometimes
the highest, literary standard, but the fact remains that for the
bulk of modem journalism its conductors realize only too well
that their business is to appeal to the masses, and to a standard
of education and taste which falls far short of anything that can
be called intellectuaL
It is often said that the leading artides or " editorials,"
expressing the attitude of the paper towards important subjects
of the day, have lost their importance, but this is only a half-
truth. Allowance bdng made for changes in literary style,
the actual amount of good writing in this department in the
great organs of opinion— well-informed, scholarly and indsive —
may justly be considered equal to anything done in what are
sometimes considered its palmy days.' On the other hand,
it is undoubtedly the case that in the newer type of newspaper,
which appeals rather on the score of its tit-bits of news and
rapid readableness to a more casual and less serious public, the
whole raison d^itre of the old-fashioned leading artide has
disappeared, and its place is taken by a few brief notes, merdy
indicating the attitude of the paper, and not seeking to discuss
any subject comprehensively at all. The ** leader " is to some
extent a form of newspaper routine, but on the whole it is a
routine which has proved its value by experience. The con-
tinuous high standard of tone, maintained by so many great
journals, depends more largely than is sometimes realized on
the regtilar industry and skill of those whose business it is to
discuss the latest devebpments of affairs every day or every week
in a manner which gives reasonable men something fresh to think
about, or interprets for them the thoughts which are only
vaguely floating in their minds. The liberty of the Press enables
every sort of view, right or wrong, to be discussed in this
prominent form, and thus every aspect of a question is brought
out in public, to be accepted or rejected according to the weight
of evidence and of argument.
The same end is assisted by the devotion of so much space
to " letters to the editor." It is sometimes said that in England
the London Times owes its position largdy to the fact that if
any individual grievance is fdt it is generally ventilated by a
letter to Tke Times. Whatever may be the organization of the
• It must be remem b ered that the style of public speeches has also
altered. Nobody thinks ^f quoting, the claactca nowadays in the
House of Commons. A more buainess-like 'orm of speech is adopted
in public life, and the Press reflects this change.
Press for reporting the news of the day, the resources of no
newspaper staff are great enough to cover an area of information
as large as that represented by its readers; and the value of
the outlet for opinion and information afforded by the corre-
spondence columns cannot be overstated.
Most people probably read more papers than is compatible
with a healthy mental digestion, but the Press, as such, has
to-day an enormous— and none the less real because subtle —
influence; and this is largdy due to the reputation maintained
by its higher represenutives. While, individually, the great
papers widd considerable influence, due partly to real sagadty
and authority, partly to the psychological effect produced by
mere print or by rdterated sUtement, collectivdy the Tnss
now represents the Public, and expresses popular opinion more
directly than any represenUtive assembly. The multiplication
of *' Press-cutting agendes," and of such essentiaUy " newsy "
publications as Who's Who (the English form of which originated
with Mr Douglas SUiden in 1897) and simikr biographical
reference books— all tending to increase the publidty of modem
life — ^has contributed materially to the pervading influence of
journalism in everyday life and the constant dependence of
sodety in most of its manifestations on the activity of the
" Fourth Esute." (H. Ch.)
From the introduction of low rates for tdegraphy and from
the increase of mechanical methods of production, and of the
desire to read and the growth of advertising (see
Advertisement), the modem low-priced newspaper ^1^!^'
has resulted. But it is by no means a recent devdop- ptf^n,
ment merdy. In France, Theophrastus Renaudot's
Gazette de Paris (1631) was started at the price of six centimes.
In England we find the first mention of inexpensive news-sheets
towards the dose of the xyth century, when a number of half-
penny and farthing Posts sprang into existence, and appeared
at more or less irregular intervals. These consisted of small
leaflets, containing a few items of news— sometimes accompanied
by advertisementsr-and were commonly sold in the streets by
hawkers. The rise in cost was really due to artifidal causes.
The increase of these newspapers, and especially the growing
practice of inserting advertisements, led the legidature to con-
template a stamp tax of a penny pa sheet on cJl news publica-
tions. As a protest, a curious pamphlet — of which a copy is
preserved in the British Museum — ^was issued in 1701, and it
sheds an interesting light upon this early phase of cheap journal-
ism. The pamphlet is entitled Reasons humbly ojffered to the
Parliament on behalf of several persons concerned in the paper-
mahingf printing and publishing of the halfpenny newspapers.
It states that five master printers were engaged in the trade,
which used 20,000 reams of paper per annum. The journals
are described in the following terms: "The said newspapers
have been always a whole sheet and a half, and sold for one
halfpenny to the poorer sort of people, who are purchasers of
it by reason of its cheapness, to divert themsdves, and also to
allure herewith their young children and entice them to reading;
and should a duty of three halfpence be laid on these mean news-
papers (which, by reason of the coarseness of the paper, the
generality of gentlemen are above conversing with), it would
utterly extinguish and suppress the same." The pamphlet goes
on to say that hundreds of families, induding a considerable
number of blind people, were supported by selling the half-
penny journals in the streets.
In 1712 a tax of a halfpenny per sheet was imposed, and the
cheap newspapers at once ceased to exist. This tax on the press
was increased from time to time, till in 181 5 it stood at fourpence
per sheet. The usual price of newspapers was then sevenpence
a copy. From these facts it seems highly probable that, had not
the stamp tax been imposed, the halfpenny paper would soon
have become the normal type, and would have continued so to
this day. In 1734 a committee of the House of Commons sat
to consider the action of certain printers who were evading the
stamp tax by publishing cheap newspapers under the guise of
pamphlets. They found that there were then two Halfpenny
Posts published in London, one by Read of Whitefriars. and the
S50
NEWSPAPERS
[GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
other by Pirker of Sdisbuiy Street. Tlieve ipere alto three
weekly papers issued at a halfpenny a tepy. The tax, after
several reductions, was finally repealed on isth June 1855, and
a rush of cheap papers immediately followed. A penny became
the usual price for London daily papers, with the exception of
The Times, and halfpenny papers soon became common.
The growth of the cheap newspaper has since been practically
a simultaneous one throughout the dvilixed world. This hu
been notably the case in the United States, France and Great
Britain. The general tendency in newspaper production, as in
all other branches of industry, has in recent times been towards
the lowering of prices while maintaining excellence of quality,
experience having proved the advantage of large sales with a
small margin of profit over a limited circulation with a higher rate
of profit. The development—and indeed the possibility— -of
the cheap daily paper was due to a number of causes operating
together during the latter half of the 19th century. Among
these, the first place must undoubtedly be given to the cheapening
of paper, through the introduction of wood pulp and the perfect-
ing of the machinery used in the manufacture. From 1875 to
1885 paper cheapened rapidly, and it has been estimated that
the introduction of wood pulp trebled the drculation.of news-
papers in England. Keen competition in the paper trade also
did much to lower prices. At the same time the prime cost of
ne?npaper production was increased by the introduction of
improved machinery into the printing office. The growth of
advertisements must also be taken into account in considering
the evolution of the halfpenny journal. The income from this
source alone made it possible to embark upon journalistic enter-
prises which would otherwise have been simply to court disaster.
The popular journal of the present day does not, however,
owe its existence and success merely to questions of diminished
cost and improved methods of production. A change has come
over the public mind. The modem reader likes h^ news in a
brief, handy form, so that he can see at a glance the main facts
without the task of reading through wordy articles. This is
espeaally the case with the man of business, who desires to master
the news of the past twenty-four hours as he travels to his office
in the morning. It is to economize time rather than money
that the modem reader would often prefer a halfpenny paper;
while the man of leisure, who likes to peruse leading articles
and full descriptive accounts, finds what he needs in the more
highly priced journals. The halfpenny paper in England has not
had to contend with the opposition that the penny newspaper
met from iu threepenny contemporaries in the 'fifties and 'sixties.
This is largely due to the fact that in most cases the contributors,
paper, printing and general arrangement of the cheaper journal
do not leave much room for critidsm. Mr G. A. Sala once com-
plained that the reporters of the older papers objected to work
side by side with him when he represented the first penny London
daily (the Daily Telegraph), through fear of losing caste, but
this does not now apply, for in the United Kingdom, France and
the United States the cheap journals, owing to their vast circula-
tion, are able to offer the best r»tes of remuneration, and can
thus command the services of some of the best men in all the
various departments of journalism. (N.)
Another aspect of the newspaper which may here be considered
is the introduction of pictorial illustrations (see also Illustsa-
tion). The earliest attempts at popular illustration
j^^li^ of ne?n events took the form in England of " broad-
sides." One broadside dated 1587 recounted the
Valiant Exploits of Sir Francis Drahe; another dated 1607
gave an account of A wonderful flood in Somersetshire and
Norfolh. The scries of mtirder broadsides which lasted almost
to our own time commenced in 16x3 with one that gave an account
of the murder of Mr William Storre, a clergyman of Market
Rasen, in Lincokishire, by Francis Cartwright. Early in the
reign of Charles I. there appeared a broadside which described
a fall of meteors in Berkshire. A little latex^-in i683--the
WeeUy News came out with the picture of an island which was
supposed to have risen from the sea on the French coast. The
execution of Strafford in 1641 was made the tubjea of a picture
pamphlet that Is to be seen in the British Museum, and in 1641
the first attempt to portray the House of Commons appeared
in A Perfea Diumall of the Passages in Parliament. In 1643
a pamphlet was published, called The Bloody Prinee; or a
Declaration of the Most Cruel Practices of Prince Rupert and Ike
rest of the Cavaliers infighting against Cod and the True Ministers
of His Church. This contains a woodcut representation of
Prince Rupert on his charger, one of the first attempts at pro-
viding the public with a portrait of a contemporary celebrity.
Soon after this there appeared a journal, entitled Mercurha
Cificus, which frequently gave illustrations, and, allowing for
the WeeUy News with iU one attempt at an illustration ^bove
mentioned, must be counted the fint illustrated paper. Ma-
curius CivicuSt however, only gave portraits; it published
Chariea L and his queen. Prince Rupert, Sir Thomas Faiifaz
and all the leading men on both sides in the Civil War. Perhaps
the most interesting illustration of the next four years was that
contained in a tract intended to evoke sympathy for the con-
quered and captured king. It represented Charies in Carisbrooke
Castle in 1648. There were many later attempts to depict the
tragedy of Charles I.'s execution, and several woodcuts present
to us also the execution of the regicides after Charles II. came to
the throne. A broadside of the reign of the second Charles
shows the Frost Fair on the Thames in 2683, and with a broad-
side describing Great Britain*s Lamentations, or the Funeral
Obsequies of that most incomparable Protestant Princess — (^neen
Mary, the wife of William III., in 1695— we dose the illustrated
journalism of the x 7th century.
Curiously enough, the x8th century, so rich in jountslistic
enterprise and initiative so far as the printed page was concerned,
did less than the previous century to illustrate news. In 1731,
however, in the Cruh Street Journal, there appeared the first
illustration of the Lord Mayor's procession. In X740 another
journal, the Daily Post, gave an illustration of Admiral Vernon s
attack on Porto Bello. The narrative was introduced by the
editor with the information that the letter that he is printing
is from a friend who witnessed the conflict between the English
and the Spaniards. The writer of the letter, who must be put
on record as the father of war correspondents, signed himseH
"William Richardson."
There were some interesting efforts to illustrate magazines
about this time. In the Gentleman* s Magasine for X746 there
was a lengthy account of the famous rising of 174$, And a map
was given of the country round Carlisle, showing the route cf
the Scottish rebels; and in the same volume there was a portrait
of the duke of Cumberiand. In 1747 the Gentleman's gave a
bird's-eye view of tUe dty of Genoa, illustrating the account e :
the insurrection there, and so on year by year there jrere further
pictures. In X7si an obituary notice was illustrated by •
portrait of a certain Edward Bright of Maldon, Essex. M/
Bright died at the age of thirty, and his interest to the public
was that he weighed 43} stones. There were a number of maga-
zines besides the Gentleman's that came out about this time and
continued well into the next century. In the Thespian Mageane
for X793, for example, there is an.illttstration of a new theatre
at Binningham. Then there were the En^ish Magatine^ the
Macaroni Magazine, the Monstrous Magatine. Every one of
these contained illustrations on copper, more or less topical.
William Clement, the proprietor of the Observer, the first
number of which was published in X79X, was the first real
pioneer of illustrated journalism, although his ideab fdl short
in this particular, that he was never prepared to face the illostra-
tion of news systematically; he only attempted to iUnstnte
events when there was a great crisis in public affairs. In x8iS
Abraham Thornton, who was tried for murder, appealed to the
wager of battle, which after long arguments before judges was
proved to be still in accordance with statute law, and he escaped
hanging in consequence. Thornton's portrait appeared in the
Observer. Clement owned for some time Belt's Life and the
Morning Chronicle. All his journals contained occasional
topical illustrations. The Observer's illustration of the house
where the Cato Street oonqilratois met it really soffidently
GENERAL CONSIDERATION^
NEWSPAPERS
551
daborate for a journal of to-day, and in x8io it gave its readers
** A Faitliful Reproduction of the Interior of the House of Lords
as prepared for the Trial of Her Most Gracious Majesty Queen
Caroline." In zSai it published an interior of the House of
Commons with the members in their places. The Observer
of 3 and July xSaz — the Coronation number co n tained four
engravings. Of the George IV. Coronation number Mr Clement
aold 60,000 copies, but even that was nothing to the popularity
that this journisl secured by its illustrations of the once famous
murder of Mr Weare and the trial of the murderer ThurteU.
The Observer in 1838 gave a piaure of the Coronation of Queen
Victoria. In 1841 there was a fire at the Tower of London,
when the armouiy was destroyed. The Observer published
three illustrations of the fire; it further published an emblematic
engraving on the birth of the prince of Wales, and issued a large
page engraving of the christening ceremony in the following
January. Thus it had in it all the elements of pictorial journalism
as we know it to-day.
The weekly lUustraled London News was, however, the first
illustrated newspaper by virtue of its regularity. It was the
first illustrated paper, because all the illustrations to which we
have referred as appearing in the Observer and other publications
were irregular. They came at intervals; they were quite sub-
ordinate to the letterpress of the paper; they were given only
occasionally in times of excitement, with a view to promoting
some little extra sale. That they did not really achieve the
result hoped for to any great extent may be gauged by the fact
that from 2842 to 1847 the Observer published scarcely any
illustrations at all, and in the meantime the Illustrated London
News had taken an assured place as a journal devoted mainly
to the illustration of news week by week. That is why its first
publication marked an epoch in journalism. The cssual illustra-
tion of other journals still went on: the Weekly CkromcUt for
example, still published a number of pictures; the Sunday
Times, also a very old paper, iUustrated in these early days
many topical subjects. In 1834, indeed, it pictured the ruins
of the House of Commons, when that building was burned down.
A paper started in 1837 called the Magnet gave illustrations,
one of them of the removal from St Helena and delivery of the
remains of the emperor Napoleon to the prince de JoinvUle
in 1840.
The first number of the Illustrated London News appeared on
X4th May 1842. Ito founder was Herbert Ingram (x8ix-i86o),
who was bom in Boston, Lincolnshire, and started life amid
the most humble surroundings, what education he ever received
having been secured at the free school of his native towiL
Apprenticed at fourteen to a printer in Hull, he hter settled in
Nottingham as a printer and newsagent in a small way. It
was during his career as a newsvendor at Nottingham that he
was seized with the belief that it was possible to produce a paper
entirely devoted to illustration of news. In the first number of
the Illustrated London News, however, there was not a single
picture that was drawn from actual sight, the factor which is
the most essential element of the illustrated journalism of to-day.
Sir John Gilbert (18X7-X897), the artist, has sUted that not one
of the events depicted by him— a sUte ball at which the queen
and the prince consort appeared, the queen with the young
prince of Wales in her arms, and other incidental Olustrationa—
was taken from life.
The IUustrated London News had not been long in existence
before there were many imiUtors, in America Harper's Weekly ,
in France Vlllustration and in Germany Ober Land und Meer,
and from that day there has been constant development, the
lUustratod ZeUung of Leipzig being perhaps the most striking.
In America the use of illustrations in the daily papers has become
a regular feature, culminating in the bulky Sunday editions of
the principal journals; and the practice of presenting the news
in pictorial form has increased continuously even in England.
In xoxo three London daily newspapers were principally devoted
to illustration— the Daily Graphic, the DaUy Mirror and the
Daily Sketch, while most of the penny and halfpenny journals
indoded some form of pictorial matter.^ This change was due
to the ever-increasing cheapening and ever-growing celerity of
manufacture of what are known as half-tone blocks. It was in
X890 that the application of photography to illustrated journalism
began in En^and, and by xpxo it had grown to enormous
dimensions, but the first newspaper photographs (mainly
portraits) had to be engraved on wood, although the use of half-
tone came in well-nigh sunultaneously. Up to X890 illustrated
journalism wss in the hands of the artists, and the artists were
in the hands of the wood engravers, who reproduced their work
sometimes effectively— often inefficiently. But in the course of
twenty years the wood engraver had been utterly superseded so far
as illustrated journalism was concerned. The further develop-
ments of journalism seemed likely to be entirely in the direction of
coloured reproductions, block-making and machinery for facili-
tating their production having made particularly rapid strides.
It b almost impossible by any statistical detail to give an idea of
the advances made by the newspaper press as a whole:
but an oudine of the general results for 1828, x866 and
X882, together with a fourth, as given in the loth edition
of this encyclopaedia for 1900, may have its utility.
The earhest summary is that of Adrien Balbi. It was published in
the Rente encydopUique for 1828 (vol. L pp. 593-603)^ along with
much matter of more than merely statistical interest. The numbers
of newspapers published in different countries at that date are given
as follows: France, 400; United Kingdom, 483: Austria, about 80;
Prussia, 288; rest of the Germanic Confederation. 305: Nether-
lands, 150; Spain, x6; Portugal and the Azores, 17; l>ettmark,
Sweden and Norway, x6i ; Russia and Poland, 84. The respective
moportions of journals to populations were — for Pnisaa i to 41,500,
Gorma sUtes x to 45.300, United Kingdom x to 46,000, France i
to 64,000, Switzerland x to 66,000, Austria x to 400,000, Russia x to
565,000. Europe had in all 2x42 newspapers, Amsrica 978, Asia 27.
Africa 12 and Oceania 9; total 3168. Of these, 1378 were published
in English-speaking countries (800 of them in the United States),
having a population of 154 millions, and 1790 in other countries,
with a population of 583 millions.
The second summary (1886) is that given by Eugene Hatin m
an appendix to his valuable BOduMtwe de la presse pModifue.
His enumeration of newspapers is as follows: France, 1640; Umted
Kingdom, X260; Prussia. 700; Italy, 500; Austria-Hungary, 365;
Switzerland, 300; Belgium. 275; Holland, 225: Russia. 200:
Spain, 200; Sweden and Norway, x«0: Denmark, xoo; United
Sutes, 4000. Here the proportions of papers to population are-
Switzerland and United States x to 7000, Belgium x to X7.000,
France and the United Kingdom I to 20,000, Prussia i to 30.000^
Spain X to 75,000, Austria x to xoo,ooo, Russia x to 300,000. HaUn
assigns to Europe a total of 7000, to America 5000 and to the rest of
theworld 250, making in all X2,^
summary is taken from that of Henry Hubbard, pub
Newspaper Directory ef the World (New Haven. Con
2). Its scope embraces a considerable number of seria
Thet
lished in his i ^-^ ^ -, .- ^ , . ,
necticut, 1882). Its scope embraces a considerable number of serial
publications which cannot be classed as newspapers. Still Hubbard s
figures, which were collected (chiefly by the American consuls and
consular agents in all paru of the worid) about 1880, cannot be
disre^uded. The following are his general resulu:—
Daily
Newspapers.
OUier
Publications.
fsr: :
Africa. . .
N.America .
S.America .
Australasia .
Total . .
2403
154
"M
208
94
4020
xo,730
337
9M
427
471
2X,746
The following summary for xooo, given in the loth edition of the
Ency. Brit., and compiled by G. F. Barwick and Donet Ecclcs. of
the British Museum, included everything in the nature of a news-
paper, as distina from periodicals.
Tetals of Newspapers, igoo.
Great Britain and
land
United States
France
Germany .
Austria
Sweden
Denmark
Ire-
2,902
•15.904
• ^^^
. 3.«78
• 393
. 171
213
145
Iceland and Faroe. Islands 3
Norway 132
Belgium
Holland .
Luxemburg
Russia
Italy . .
Spam . .
Portugal .
S wiun -land
Greece
Rumania .
Servia
390
312
12
280
^H
338
Jl
600
47
47
24
552
Bulgaria . . . .
Montenegro . . .
Turkey . . . .
Peraia . . . .
Syria
India
Ceylon . . . .
China . . . .
Siam
Stnlu Settlements .
Cochin China. . .
NEWSPAPERS
IBRITISH
fesn
J Indies . . .
South Africa . .
WeM Africa .
Central Africa, &c. ,
Egypt . . . .
Canada . . . .
15
600
10
40
5
la
4
ISO
39
109
10
76
ai
74a
Central and West Indies
South American Republics
Australasia —
New South Wales.
Queensland . .
South Australia
Victoria . .
West Australia
Tasmania . .
New Zealand-
Wellington .
Auckland .
Hawkes Bay
Canterbury
Sundry . .
129
340
aa7
109
44
310
18
18
a8
29
17
II
U
Total.
3i.<»6
3. BunsH Newspapers
UniUd Kingdom.^
The fknt regular English journalists may be identified with
the writers of manuscript " news-letters," originally the depend-
ants of great men, each employed in keeping his own master
or patron well-informed, during nis absence from court, of ail
that happened there. The duty grew at length into a calling.
The writer had his periodical subscription list, and instead of
writing a single letter wrote as many letters as he had customers.
Then one more enterprising than the rest established an " in-
telligence office," with a staff of clerks, such as Ben Jonson's
Cymbal depicU from the life in The Staple cf News, acted in
1625, which is the best-known dramatic notice of the' news-sheets.
" This is the outer room where my clerks sit,
And keep their sides, the n^ster in the midst;
The examiner, he sits private there within;
And here I have mv several rolls and files
Of news by the alphabet, and all put up /
Under their »— **- " '
Of the eariier news-letters good examples may be seen in the
Pastan LeUers, and in the Sydney Papers. Of those of later
date specimens will be found in Knowler's Letters and
2^ Despatches of Strafford, and other well-known books.
%ng^ Still later examples may be seen amongst the papers
collected by the historian Thomas Carte, preserved in
the Bodleian Library at Oxford. Of these, several series were
addressed to the first duke of Ormond, partly by correspondents
in England andlreland, partly by correspondents in Paris; others
were addressed to successive earls of Huntingdon; others, again,
to various members of the Wharton family. And similar valuable
collections are to be seen in the library of the British Museum, and
in the Record Office in London. In Edinburgh the Advocates'
Library possesses a series of the i6th century, written by Richard
Scudamore to Sir Philip Hoby during his embassy to Vienna.
The MS. news-letters— some of them proceeding from writers
of marked ability who hiid access to official information, and
were able to write with greater freedom and independence
of tone than the compilers of the printed news— held their
ground, although within narrowing limits, until nearly the
middle of the 18th century. The distinction between the news-
letter and the newspaper is pointed out in the preceding section.
It was at one time believed that the earliest regular English
newspaper was an English Mercurie of 1588, to which Grarge
Chalmers, the political writer and antiquarian, referred
""^ in his Lije of Ruddiman (i 794) as being (with others of
the same date) in the British Museum. The falsehood
of this supposition, which was long accepted on
Chalmers's authority, was, however, pointed out by Thomas
Watts, of the British Museum, in 1839, in a volume with the
title Letter to Antonio Paniai on the Reputed earliest printed
Newspaper, and again in 2850, in an article in the Genileman*s
liagatine (n.s. xzxiiL 485-491). The documents in question are
(1) a MS. imnumbered issue of the English Mercurie, dated
" Whitehall, July a6th, 1588 "; (a) a printed, copy, No. so, of
* In the foUowing aooount of early British newspapers certain
portionsof the article by E. Edwards in the 9th cd. of the £»fy. Brit.
have been incorporated.
July 23, X588; (3) a printed copy of No. 51; (4) a printed copy
of No. 54, of November 24, 1588; (5) and three other MS. copies.
These were included in a collection bequeathed to the Museum
of Dr Birch (1766), and are incontestably i8th-centuxy forgeh^
The handwriting of the spurious MSS. vras identified by a letter
among Dr Birch's correspondence as that of Philip Yoike,
afterwards and Lord Hardwicke, and there were trifling correc-
tions in Dr Birch's handwriting, showing that he was a party
with Yorke, the author, to the mystification. No information
is forthcoming as to the object of it, but it is worth mentioning
that Yorke and his brother also published a clever /ev ^esprit
called The Athenian Letters, purporting to be a transcript from
a Spanish translation of letters written by a Persian agent during
the Peloponnesian War; so that it may be inferred that this
sort of thing recommended itself to Yorke, and not necessarily
for any deception.
Various English pamphlets, as well as French, Italian and
German, occur in the i6th century with such titles as Newes from
Spaine, and the like. In the eariy years of the 17th century
they became very numerous; the Charles Bumey collection in
the British Museum u particulariy valuable for tlJs eariy period,
the newsbooks and newspapers in it commencing with a ** rela-
tion" of 1603. In 1614 we find Burton (the author of the
Anatomy of Melancholy) pointing a sarcasm against the non-
reading habits of " the major part " by adding, " if they read a
book at any time ... 'tis an English chronicle. Sir Huon of
Bordeaux, Amadis de Gaul, &c., a play-book, or some pamphUt
of news." But up to 1641, owing to the fact that to print
domestic news was barred by the royal prerogative, the English
periodicals which are to be considered as strictly the forcnmoers
of the regular newspaper were only translations or adaptations
of foreign periodicals containing news of what was going on
abroad.
There b in the British Museum a Mercurius Calhbd^cms\
Site rerum in Gallia et Bdgic potissimum, Hispania quo^ue^
Italia, Anglia, Germania, Polonia, Vicinisqme Lods ab anno /5M
usque ad Martium anni praesehtis 1594 gestarum, mmcius,
Opusculum in Sex libris qui totidem annos complectuntur, dstismm
auctore D. M. Jansonio Doccomensi Frisio. EdiHo altera.
Ceioniae Agrippinae. A pud Godefridum Kempensesn. Anno
MDXCIV. This production of Janson's at Cologne isafairiy
thick octavo book, giving a Latin chronicle of events from 7587
to Z594, and is really a sort of annual register. It was continued
down to 1635. The Mercurius Caltobelgicus is chiefly interesting
because, by 'circulating in England, it started the idea of a
periodical supplying foreign news, and apparently became to
English contemporaries a type of the newfangled news-sum-
maries.* In 1614 there was published in London a little square
book (4S pp.), by Robert Booth, A Relation of all matters passed
. . . since March last to the present J614, translated according tt
the originall of Mercurius Calldfdgicus, which has the running
title Mercurius Gallobelgicus his relation since March last. From
a repetition of such " relations " at irregular intervals, to the
periodical publication of news-books with a common title Ins
numbered series, was a natural development. Thus on the lit
of June 1619 Ralph Rounthwaite entered at Sutioners' HaU
A Relation of all matters done in Bohemia, Austria, PoUnd,
Sletia, France, &c., that is worthy of rdaiing, since the anit^
March 1618 (1619 N.S.) until the 4th of May.* Again at the
beginning of November 1621 Bartholomew Downes and another
entered in like manner The certaine and true newes from all parts
of Germany and Poland, to this present 20 of October 1621.* No
copy of either of these papers is now known to exist. Nor is any
copy known of the Couranl or WeeUy Newes from foreign parts
of October 9, 1621— ''taken out of the High Dutch,"— men-
tioned by John Nichols.* But in May 1622 we arrive at a regular
weekly newspaper which may still be seen in the British Mttseoo.
* The title Mercurius or Mercury^-as representing the m e m agg
of the gods—thus became a common one for English periodicals.
* Registers of the Sutioners' Company, as printed fay Edward
Arber. lii. 303.
* Ihid. iv. 23. • Literary Antedates, iv. 38.
BRITISH)
NEWSPAPERS
553
The Stationen' Registers contain an entry on May i8th of A
Citrrani of generaU newes. Dated in t4tM May last] no copy of
this issue is preserved, but what is presumably the next number
is to be found in the Bumey collection. It is entitled " The
ajrd of May— The Wtekdy Newes from Italy, Germany, brc,
London, printed by J. D. for Nicholas Bourne and Thomas
Archer." On many subsequent numbers the name of Nathaniel
Butter appears in connexion sometimes with Bourne and some*
times with Archer; so that there was probably an eventual
partnership in the new undertaking. Archer is known as a
publisher of " relations" since 1603; he died in 1634. Butter
had publisbed Newes from Spaine in 161 x, and he continued to be
a publisher of news until 164 1. if not later ,^ and died in 1664.
For details of the history of the development of the ncw»-book
down to 1641, and thence to the starting of the London CaseUe in
1665. reference should be made to Mr J. B. Williams's History of
Em^isk Journalism (1908), already referred to. Mr Williams, by
his study of the materiab preserved in the British Museum in the
Bumey and Thomason ' coAections, has considerably modified many
3f the previously accepted views as to the aAIiation and authorship
of these early tnglish periodicals. The leading facts can only be
summarized nere.
The Weekely Newes (1622), though the first English " Corsnto,"
had no regular title connecting one number with the rest; it was
simply the news of the week, and so described. The first period-
ical with a title was a Uercurius firitonnicuf published by Archer
(1635; the earliest copy in existence being No. 16, April 7th),
which probably lasted till the end of 1627. But the activity of
the Coranto-makers was checked by the Star Chamber edict in
1632 against the printing of news from foreign parts. The next
step in the evolution of the newspaper was due to the abolition
of the Star Chamber in 1641, and the consequent freeing of the
Press; and at last we come to the English periodical with
domestic news. In November 1641 begins Tke Head of seoerall
proceedings in the present' parliament (outside title) or Diurnal
Occurrences (inside title), the latter being the title under which
it was soon known as a weekly; and on Jan. 31st 1642 appeared
A Perfect Diurnal of tke Passages in Parliament. These were
printed for William Cooke, and were written apparently by
Samuel Pecke, '* the first of the patriarchs of English domestic
journalism " (WUliams). It is unnecessary here to mention
every domestic journal which played its part in the verbal
warfare in the Great Rebellion. The weekly Diurnals were
soon copied by other booksellers. At first they were naturally
00 tbe side of the parliament. In January 1643, however,
appeared at (Mord the first Royalist diurnal, named
Merewrius Aulicus (continued till September 1645, and soon
succeeded by Mercurius Academicus), which struck a higher
literary note; its chief writer was Sir John Birkenhead.
Mercmrius Cioicus, the first regularly illustrated periodical in
London, .was started by the parliamentarian Richard CoUings
on May nth, 1643 (continued to December 1646); CoUings
had alM started earlier in the year the Kingdome's Weekly
lutdligpicer, which lasted till October 1649. In September
1645 appeared another Puritan opponent of M. Aulicus in
the Mercurius Britanicus (sic) of Captain Thomas Audlcy,
which temporarily ceased publication on September gth, 1644,
only to be revived on September 30th by Marchamont (or
Marchmont) Nedham, a writer who plays a prominent part in
the joamaliim of this period, and to be continued till May i8th
1646.
In January 1647 was started the Perfect Occurrences by Henry
Walker ('* Luke Haminey "), who was not only a great journalist
' Ic is to him that a passage in FleUher's Fair Maid of tke Inn
(Act iv. Sc 2) obviously refers (written in 1635) : " It shall be the
ghost <k some lying stationer. A spirit shall look as if butter would
not mdt in h» mouth; a new Mercurius Gallo-Bclgicus." The
quotation also illustrates the contemporary regard paid to the
Uercurius GoUobdvcus.
* George Thomason (d. 1666) was a London booksdkr who m
1641 bq^ collecting contemporary pamphlets. &c. His collection
was nltimately bought by George (If. and presented to the British
Museum in 1762. A catalogue was completed in 1908, with intro-
duction by Dr G. K. Fortcscue. There is also a caulogue of early
Eiwlish newspapers in the Bibliotheca Lindesiana, PoUectionsand NoUs
So. 5. of Lord Crawford (1901).
on the paHiamentary side but is important as having originated
the introduction of advertisements into the news-books. Later
in the year a number of new Royalist Mercuries came into the
field from which Aulicus and Academicus had now withdrawn:
the first was Mercuricus Mdcnckolicus (until 1649), and the
most important were Mercurius Pragmaticus (Sept. 1647 to
May 1650) and Mercuricus EUncHcus (Nov. 1647 to Nov. 1649).
M. Pragmaticus vras not, as has been stated, originated by
Marchamont Nedham (who about this time turned his coat
and became Royalist), but in 1648^x649 he was its writer until
he again turned parliamentarian; "history," says Mr Williams,
'* has no personage so shamelessly cynical as Marchamont Nedham,
with his powerful pen and his political convictions ever ready
to be enlisted on the side of the highest bidder; he even wrote
for Charles II. in later years." Against the unlicensed Royalist
Mercuries in London, where the people were on the king's side,
the parliament waged active war, but some of them managed to
come out, although writer after writer was imprisoned, until
the middle of 165a Meanwhile from October 1649 to June
1650, by a new act of parliament, the licensed press itself was
entiiely suppressed, and in 1649 two official journals were issued,
A Brief Relation (up to Oaober 1650) and Seterall Proceedings
MS ParliametU (till September 1655), a third licensed periodical,
A Perfea DiumaU (till September 1655), being added later in
the year, and a fourth, Mercurius Politicus (of which Milton was
tbe editor for a year or so and Marchamont Nedham one of the
principal writers), starting on June 13th, 1650 (continuing till
April 12th, 1660). After the middle of 1650 there was a revival
of some of the older licensed news-books; but the Weekly
Intelligence of tke Commonwealth (July 1650 to September 1655),
by R. CoUings, was the only important newcomer up to September
1655, when Cromwell suppressed all such publications with the
exception of Mercurius Politicus and the PuUick Inlelligetuer
(October 1655 to April 1660), both being official and conducted
by Marchamont Nedham.
Till Cromwell's death (Sept. 3rd. 1658) Nedham reigned alone
in the press, but with the Rump he fell into disgrace, and in
1659 a rival appeared in Henry Muddiman (a great writer also
of '* news-letters "), whose Parliamentary Intelligencer, renamed
the King4om's Intelligencer (till August 1663), was supported
by General Monck. Ncdham's journalistic career came finally
to an end (he died in 1678) at the hand of Monck's ooundl of
state in April 1660. The following announcement was published
in the Parliamentary Intelligencer: "Whereas Marchmont
Nedham, the author of the weekly news-books called Mercurius
Politicus and the PuUique Intelligencer is, by order of the council
of sute, discharged from writing or publishing any publique
inteUigence; the reader is desired to Uke notice that, by order
of the said council, Giles Dury and Henry Muddiman are
authorized henceforth to write and publish the said intelligence,
the one upon the Thursday and the other upon the Monday,
which they do intend to set out under the titles of the Parlia-
mentary Intelligencer and of Mercurius Publicus." This arrange-
ment with Muddiman lasted till 1663, when he was supplanted
by Sir Roger L'Estrange, who was appointed " surveyor of the
Press." On him was conferred by royal grant— and, as it
proved, for only a short period—" all the sole privilege of writing,
printing, and publishing all narratives, advertisements, merctiries,
intelligencers, diurnals and other books of public inteUigence;
. . with power to search for and seize the unUcensed and treason-
able schismatical and scandalous books and papers." L'Estrange
disconrinucd Mercurius Politicus and Kingdom's Intelligencer
and substituted two papers, the Intelligencer (Aug. xst) and
the Newes (Sept. 3rd> at a halfpenny, the former on Mondays
and the latter on Thursdays; they were continued tiU January
29th, 1666, but from the beginning of 1664 the Intelligencer
was made consecutive with the Newes, numbered and paged as
one.
We come now to the origin of the famous London Gazette,
Muddiman, obliged to devote himself solely to his news-letters,
was associated with Joseph WiUiamaon (under-secreUry and
afterwards secretary of sUte), who was for a time L'Estrange's
554
NEWSPAPERS
(BRITISH
assisUnt in the compilation ol the IfOtttigenecr} Muddiman
organized for himself a far-spread foreign correspondence, and
carried on the business of a news-letter writer on a larger scale
__ than had till then been known. Presently L'Estrange,
whose monopoly of printing was highly unpopular,
found his own sources of information much abridged,
while Williamson, for his own ambitious purposes,
entered into a complicated intrigue (analysed in detail by Williams,
op. cU. pp. 190 scq.) for getting the whole business into his
hands, with Muddiman as his tool and with Muddiman's ch'cnts
as his customers. To L'Est range's application for renewed
assistance Williamson replied that he could not give it, but
would procure for him a salary of £xoo a year if he would give
up his right in the news-book.* The InUUigeneer appealed
(Oct. 1665) to Lord Arlington, and pathetically assured htm
that the charge for "entertaining spies for information was
£500 in the first year."* But L'Estrange boasted that he had
" doubled " the size and price of the book,* and had brought
the profit from £200 to £400 or £500 a year.* The appeal was
in vain. At that time the great plague had driven the court to
Oxford. The first number of the bi-weekly 0:^ord CaxetU.
licensed by Arlington and written by Muddiman, was published
on the 1 6th November 1665. It was a " paper " of news, of the
same size and shape as Muddiman's news-letters. With the
publication of the 34th number (Monday, February 5th, 1665-
1666 O.S.) the Oxford Gazette became the London CazeUe. After
the a 5th ndmber Muddiman, who saw that he was not safe in
Williamson's hands, seceded. Williamson had the general
control of the Gazette, and for a considerable time Charles
Perrot, a member of Oriel College, was the acting editor.*
L'Estrange was soon driven out of the field, being solaced, on
his personal appeal to the king, with a charge of £100 a year on
the news-books (henceforth " taken into the secretaries' oflSce ")
and a further £200 out of secret service money for his place as
surveyor of the press. Muddiman, meanwhile, attached himself
to the other secretary of state, Sir W. Morice, and he was
authorized to issue an opposition official paper, which appeared
as Current Intelligence (June 4- Aug. 20, 1666); and though the
Great Fire, which burnt out all the London printers, resulted in
the reappearance, after a week's interval, of the Gazette alone,
Muddiman's unrivalled organization of news-letters remained;
and they continued, till his death in 1693, to be the more popular
source of information. The Gazette, however, now remained
for some time the only " newspaper " in the strict sense already
mentioned. For several years it was regularly translated into
French by one Moranville. During the Stuart reigns generally
its contents were very meagre, although in the reign of Anne
some improvement is already visible. More than a century after
the establishment of the Gazette, we find Secretary Lord Wey-
mouth addressing a circular' to the several secretaries of legation
and the British consuls abroad, Inwhichhesays," The writerof the
Gazette has represented that the reputation of that paper is greatly
lessened, and the sale diminished, from the small portion of foreign
news with which it is supplied." He desires that each of them
will send regularly all such articles of foreign intelligence as may
appear proper for that paper, " taking particular care — as the
Gazette is the only paper of authority printed in this country —
never to send anything concerning the authenticity of which there
is the smallest doubt." From such humble beginnings has arisen
the great repertory of State Papers, now so valuable to the writers
and to the students of English history. The London Gazette has
appeared twice a week (on Tuesday and Friday) in a continuous
series ever since * The editorship is a government appointment.
' This help aeenu to have been given at the request of the secretary
of sute. Lord Arlington (then Sir H. Bennet), in 1665; State Papers,
Domestic, Charles II., hcxix. 112, 113.
* State Papers, Domestic, Charles II., cxsodv. 103 (Rolls House).
'Ibid, 117.
* In 1664 he had halved them, so that this really only means he
had now restored the original uze.
* SlaU Papers, Domestic, Charles II., cxxxv. 24.
•Anthony Wood, Athenae Oxomenses, " Perrot"
' Calendar 0/ Homo-Ofice Papers, zy6o^iy6Q, p. 483 (1879).
* A complete set is now of extreme rarity.
We come now to the Revolution. The very day after the
departure of James II. was marked by the appearance of thr«e
newspapers— The Universal Intelligence, the English Cowreid
and the London Courant. Within a few days more these were
followed by the London Mercury, the Orange Gazette, the London
Intelligence, the Harlem Currant and others. The Licensing Aa,
which was in force at the date of the Revolution, expired is
1692, but was continued for a year, after which it finaOy ceased.
On the appearance of a paragraph in the Flying Post of xst AprO
1697, which appeared to the House of Commons to aitack the
credit of the Exchequer Bills, leave was given to bring in a bill
'* to prevent writing, printing or publishing of any news wiiboat
licence "; but the bill was thrown out in an eariy stage of iu
progress. That Flying Post which gave occaabn to this attempt
was also noticeable for a new method of printing, which it thus
announced to its customers—*' If any gentleman has a mind
to oblige his country friend or correspondent with this accouot
of public affairs, he can have it for twopence . . on a shcrt
of fine paper, half of which being left blank, he may thcreoo
write his own affairs, or the material news of the day"
In 1696 Edward Lloyd — the virtual founder of the famous
" Lloyd's " of commerce — started a thrice-a-week paper, Lloyd's
News, which had but a brief existence in its first shape, but
was the precursor of the Lloyd's List of the present day. Na
76 of the original paper contained a paragraph referring to the
House of Lords, for the appearance of which a public apokgy
must; the publisher was told, be made. He preferrtxl to dis-
continue his publication (February 1697). Nearly thirty years
afterwards he in part revived it, under the title of Uoyd^s Usf—
published at first weekly, afterwards twice a week.* This dates
from 1726. It is now published daily.
It was in the rdgn of Queen Anne that the English newspaper
press first became really eminent for the amount <rf intcUectual
power and of versatile talent which was employed
upon it. It was also in that reign that the press was SUtm
first fettered by the newspaper stamp. The accession ^j^-
of Anne was quickly followed by the appearance of
the first successful London daily newspaper, the Daily Courezt
(zith of March x 702-1 703). Seven years eariier, in 1695, the
Postboy had been started as a daily paper (actually the first
in London), but only four numbers appeared. The Conrotit
was published and edited by the learned printer Samuel Buckley,
who explained to the public that " the author has taken care
to be duly furnished with all that comes from abroad, in any
language. . . . AJt the beginning of each article be will quoU
the foreign paper from which it is taken, that the public, seeing
from what country a piece of news comes, with the allowance
of that government, may be better able to judge of the credibility
and fairness of the relation. Nor will he take upon himself
to give any comments, . . . supposing other people to have
sense enough to make reflexions for themselves." Then came,
in rapid succession, a crowd of new competitors for public
favoiur, of less frequent publication. The first number of rae
of these, the Country Cenileman*s Courant (1706), was given
away gratuitously, and made & q)edal daim to public favour
on the ground that " here the reader is not only diverted with
a faithful register of the most remarkable and momentary [ix
momentous] transactions at home and abroad, . . . but also
with a geographical description of the most material places
mentionol in every article of news, whereby he is freed the
trouble of looking into maps."
On the X9th of February 1704, whilst still imprisoned in
Newgate for a political offence, Defoe {q.9.) began his famous
paper, the Review. At the outset it was puUiished
weekly, afterwards twice, and at length three times
a week. It continued substantially in its first form
until July 39, 17x3; and a complete set is of extreme rarity.
From the first page to the last it is characterized by the manly
Martin, History of Uoyd^s, 66-77 and io7-X2a The
ipers in the British Museum ooatatas only
• Frederick Martin, History of Lloyds, 66-2
great collection of 1 ..-»...
great collection 01 newspapers in the Bntisli Museum ooatatas oojy
one number of Lloyd^s News; but sixty-nine numbers may be seen in
the Bodleian Library. Of the List, abo, no complete series b kao«s
to exist; that in the library of Lloyd's begins with X740.
BurrisBi
NEWSPAPERS
555
boldness aad pernstent tenacity with which the almost unaided
author utters and defends his opinions on public affairs against
a host of able and bitter assailants. Some of the numbers were
written during travel, some in Edinburgh. But the Review
appeared regularly. When interrupted by the pressure of the
Stamp Aa (which came into force on the ist of August 1712),
the writer modified the form of his paper, and began a new
series (August 3, 1713, to June xz, 1713). In those eariy and
monthly supplements of his paper which he entitled " Advice
from the Scuidalous Club,*' and set apart for the discussion of
questions of literature and manners, and sometimes of topics
of a graver kind, Defoe to some extent anticipated Richard
Steele's TatUr (1709) and Steele and Addison's Spectator {tjii).
In 1705 he severed those supplements from his chief newspaper,
and published them twice a week as the Little Review. But
they soon ceased to appear. It may here be added that in May
1716 Defoe began a new monthly paper under an old title,
Mcrcurius PolUicuSt ..." by a lover of old England." This
journal continued to appear until September 1730. The year
1710 was marked by the appearance of the Examiner^ or Re-
marks upon Papers and Occurrences (No. i, August 3), of which
thirteen numbers appeared by the co-operation of Bolingbroke,
Prior, Freind and King before it was placed under the sole control
of Swift. The Whig Examiner, avowedly intended " to censure
the writings of othezs, and to give all persons a rehearing who
bad suffered under any unjust sentence of the Examiner"
followed on the ist September, and the Medley three weeks
afterwards.
This increasing popularity and influence of the newspaper
pfiess could not fail to be distasteful to the government of the
day. Prosecutions were multiplied, but with small
2J^J success. At length some busy projector hit upon
ua. ^^^ expedient of a newspaper tax. The paper which
seems to contain the first germ of the plan is still
preserved amongst the treasury papers. It is anonymous and
undated, but probably belongs to the year 17x1. "There are
published weekly," says the writer, " about 44,000 newspapers,
vix. Daily CouratU^ London Post, English Post, London Gazette,
Postman, Postboy, Flying Post, Review and Observalor."^ The
duty eventually imposed (X712) was a halfpenny on papers
of half a sheet or less, and a penny on such as ranged from half
a sheet to a single sheet (10 Anne, c. xix. $ loz). The first results
of the tax cannot be more succinctly or more vividly described
than in the following characteristic passage of Swift's Journal
to Sutia (August 7, 1 71 3): "Do you know that Grub Street
is dead and gone last week? No more ghosts or murders now
for love or money. I plied it close the last fortnight, and pub-
lished at least seven papers of my own, besides some of other
people's; but now every single half-sheet pays a halfpenny
to the queen. The Observator is fallen; the Medleys are jumbled
together with the Flying Post; the Examiner is deadly sick;
the Spectator keeps up, and doubles its price — I know not how
long it will hold. Have you seen the red stamp the papers are
marked with? Methinks the stamping is worth a halfpenny."
Swift's doubt as to the ability of the Spectator to hold out
against the tax was justified by its discontinuance in December
171 2, Steele starting the Guardian in 17x3, which only ran for
six months. But the impost which was thus fruitful in mischief,
by suppressing much good Uterature, wholly .failed in keeping
out bad. Some of the worst journals that were already in
exbtence kept their ground, and the number of such ere long
increased.* An enumeration of the London papers of 17 14
comprises the Daily Courant, the Examiner, \\kt British Merchant,
the Lffoer, the Patriot, the Monitor, the Flying Post, the Postboy,
MercatoTt the Weekly Pacquet and Dunton's Ghost. Another
enumcratwn m 1733 includes the Daily Courant, the Craftsman,
Fog's Journal, Mist's Journal, the London Journal, the Free
> " A Proposition to Increase the Revenue of the Stamp-Office,"
Redington. Calendar of Treasury Papers, i7o8''i7i4, p. 235. The
■tamp-offioe dated from 1694. when the eariicst duties on paper and
parcDment were enacted.
* See the Bumey collection of newspapers in the British Museum;
and Nidiols. LUorary AneedoUs of iko Eighteenth Century, tv. 33-97.
Briton, the Grub Street Journal, the Weekly Register, the Uni-
versal Spectator, the Auditor, the Weekly Miscellany, the London
Crier, Read's Journal, Oedipus or the Postrtan Ranountcd, the
St James's Post, the London Evening Post and the London
Daily Post, which afterwards became better known as the Public
Advertiser. Part of this increase may fairiy be ascribed to
political corruption. In X743 the committee of the House of
Commons appointed to inquire into the political conduct of the
earl of Orford reported to the House that during the lost ten
years of the Walpole ministry there was paid, out of public
money, no " less a sum than £50,077, x8s. to authors and printers
of newspapers, such as the Free Briton, Daily Courant, Gazetteer
and other political papers."* But some part of the payment
may well have been mode for advertisements. Towards the
middle of the century the provisions and the penalties of the
Stamp Act were made more stringent. Yet the number of
newspapers continued to rise. Dr Johnson, who in
X750 started his twopenny bi-weekly Rambler, and ^, ,
in 1758 his weekly Idler, writing in the latter bears ^^ff^. '
testimony to the,still growing thirst for news: " Jour-
nals are dail>' inaltlpUcd, without increase of knowledge. The
tale of the morning paper is told in the evening, and the narra-
tives of the evening arc bought again in the morning. These
repetitions, indeed, waste time, but they do not shorten it. The
most eager peruser of news is tired before he has completed his
labour; and many a man who enters the coffee-house in his
nightgown and sUppers is called away to his shop or his dinner
before he has well considered the state of Europe." Five years
before (<.e. in 1753) the aggregate number of copies of news-
papers annually sold in England, on an average of three years,
amounted to 7,411,757. In 1760 it had risen to 9,464,790,
and in 1767 to 11,300,980. In X776 the number of newspapers
published in London atone had increased to fifty-three.
When Johnson wrote his sarcastic strictures on the newspapers
that were the contemporaries and, in a sense, the rivals of the
Idler, the ncwswriters had fallen below the standard of an
earlier day. A generation before the newspaper was often much
more of a political organ than of an industrial venture. All of
the many enterprises of Defoe in this field of journalism united
indeed both characteristics. But if he was a keen tradesman,
he was also a passionate politician. And. not a few of his fellow-
workers in that field were conspicuous as statesmen no less
than as journalists. Even less than twenty years before the
appearance of Johnson's remarks, men of the mental CAlibre
of Henry Fielding were still to be found amongst the editors
and writers of newspapers. The task had fallen to a different
class of men in 1 750.
The hbtory of newspapers during the long reign of George
III. is a history of the struggle for freedom of speech in the face
of repeated criminal prosecutions, in which individual
writers and editors were defeated and severely punished , ^"'Jl— ,
while the Press itself derived new strength from the SEmT*'
protracted' conflict, and turned ignominious penalties
into signal triumphs. From the days of Wilkes's North Briton
onwards (see Wilkes, John: it was started in 1761), every
conspicuous newspaper prosecution gave tenfold currency to
the doctrines that were assailed. In the earlier part of this
period men who were mere traders in politics— whose motives
were obviously base and their lives contemptible — became for
a time powers in the state, able to brave king, legislature and
law courts, by virtue of the simple truth that a free people must
have a free press. One of the minor incidents of the North
Briton excitement (Wilkes's prosecution in 1763) led indirectly
to valuable results with reference to the much-vexed question of
parliamentary reporting. During the discussions respecting
the Middlesex election, Almon, a bookseller, collected from
members of the House of Commons some particulars of the
debates, and published them in the London Evening Post. The
success which attended these reports induced the proprietors
of the St James's Chronicle to employ a reporter to collect notes
* " Fourth Report of the Committee of Secrecy." &c., in Hansard's
Parliamentary History, xii. 614.
556
NEWSPAPERS
IBRmSH
Itl'B
niga.
in the lobby and at the coffee-houses. This repeated infraction
of the privilege of secret iegislation led to the memorable proceed-
ings of the House of Commons in 1771, with their fierce debates,
angry resolutions and arbitrary imprisonments— all resulting,
at length, in that tadt concession of publicity of discussion which
in the main, with brief occasional exceptions, has ever since
prevailed.
Evening journalism in England started originally with supple-
mental editions of the morning papers, giving the latest foreign
war news. In July 1695, when William III. was
fighting France in the Netherlands, a " Postscript to
the Pacquet-boat from Holland to Flanders " was
published with special advices from the seat of war;
and from that time there were frequent afternoon issues 0/
morning journals, giving war news. In August 1706 a " Six at
Night " evening paper was started in London. The first London
evening paper of any importance, however, was the Courier
(1792), which during the latter part of the Napoleonic War, with
Mackintosh, Coleridge and Wordsworth among its contributors,
became one of the chief papers of the day. It was edited suc-
cessively by Daniel Stuart, William Mudford, Eugcnius Roche,
John Gait, James Stuart and Laman Blanchard. In 1837 a
twenty-fourth share in the paper sold for 5000 guineas, but it
gradually decUned and came to an end in 1843, when it was
incorporated by the Globe (still existing).
The principal metropolitan newspapers at different periods
of George III.'s reign were the Public Advertiser, the Morning
j^pjjp„ Postf the Morning Chronicle, the Morning Herald
fnaaia and finally The Times. Of these the Morning Post
and The Times, still existing, arc dealt with later. Of
the three which eventually ceased to exist, the first
was known in 1726 as the London Daily Post and
General Advertiser. In 1738 the first part of this title was
dropped, and in 1752 General Advertiser was altered into Public
Advertiser, a name which the letters of Junius made so famous.
Many of these had appeared before the smallest perceptible
effect was produced on the circulation of the paper; but when
the "Letter to the King" came out (19th December 1769,
almost a year from the beginning of the scries) it caused an
addition of 1750 copies to the ordinary impression. The effect
of subsequent letters was variable; but when Junius ceased to
write the monthly sale of the paper had risen to. 83,950. This
was in December 2771. Seven years earlier the monthly sale
had been but 47.515. It now became so valuable a property
that shares in it were sold, according to John Nichols, "as
regularly as those of the New River Company.*' But the
fortunes of the Advertiser decUncd almost as rapidly as they had
risen. It continued to appear until 1798, and then expired,
being amalgamated with the commercial paper called the Public
Ledger (dating from 1759)* Actions for libel were brought
against the paper by Edmund Burke in 1784, and by William
Pitt in 1785, and in both suits damages were given.
The Morning Chronicle was begun in 1769. William Woodfall
was its printer, reporter and editor, and continued to conduct
it until 1789. James Perry succeeded him as editor, and so
continued, with an interval during which the editorship was in
the hands of Mr Sergeant Spankie, until his death in 1821.
Perry's editorial functions were occasionally discharged in
Newgate in consequence of repeated prosecutions for political
libel. In 1819 the daily sale reached nearly 4000. It was sold
in 1833 to Mr Clement, the purchase-money amounting to
£42,000. Mr Clement held it for about eleven years, and then
sold it to Sir John Easthope for £x6,ooo. It was then, and
until 1843. edited by John Black, who numbered amongst
his staff Albany Fonblanque, Charles Dickens and John Payne
Collier, the circulation being about 6000. The paper continued
to be distinguished by much literary ability, but not by com-
mercial prosperity. In 1849 (the circulation having fallen to
3000) it became the joint property of the duke of Newcastle, Mr
W. E. Gladstone and some of their political friends; and by
them, in 1854. it was sold to Mr Sergeant Glover. From 1848
to 1854 Doug^ Cook (afterwards of the Saturday Review) was
editor. At length the lf0f«iMifCArM»efo ended in the Bankruptcy
Court, after an existence of more than ninety years. The
Morning Herald was founded and first edited by Henry Bate
(Sir Henry Bate Dudley) in X78X, and came to an end at the
ck>se of 1869; for some time it was a popular Tory paper, and
from 1835 to 1845 had a circulation of about 6000.
The development of the Press was enormously assisted by
the gradual abolition of the " taxes on knowledge,'* and aho
by the introduction of a cheap postal system. In ^t„nnbn
1756 an additional halfpenny was added to the tax •#<■«*«
of 1712. In 1765 and in 1773 various restrictive ^J^^ ^^
regulations were imposed. In 1789 the three-halfpence ''^'^
was increased to twopence, in 1798 to twopence-halfpenny,
in 1804 to threepence-halfpenny, and in 181 5 to fourpence.
less a discount of 30%. Penalties of all kinds were abo
increased, and obstructive regulations were inultiq>Ucd. In
the course of the struggle between this constantly fnh^nr^
taxation and the irrepressible desire for cheap newspapers, more
than seven hundred prosecutions for puUishing unstamped
journals were instituted, and more than five hundred wete
imprisoned, sometimes for considerable periods. As the proeecu-
tions multiph'ed, and the penaldes became more serious, Poor
Man^s Guardians, Democrats, Destructives and their congeoen
multiplied also, and their revolutionary tendencies increased
in a still greater ratio. Blasphemy was added to sedition.
Penny and halfpenny journals were established which dealt
exclusively with narratives of gross vice and crime, and which
vied with each other in every kind of artifice to make vice and
crime attractive. Between the years 1831 and 1835 many
scores of unstamped newspapers made their appearance. Iht
political tone of most of them was fiercely revolutionary. Prose-
cution followed prosecution; but all failed to suppress the
obnoxious publications.
To Bulwer Lytton, the novelist and politician (Baron Lytton),
and subsequently to Milner Gibson and Richard Cobden, is
chiefly due the credit of grappling with this question in the
House of Commons in a manner which secured first the rcductkm
of the tax to a penny on the 15th of September 1836, and then
its total aboh'tion at last in 1855. The measure for the final
abolition of the stamp tax- was substantially prepared by W. E
Gladstone during his chancellorship of the exchequer in 1854,
but was carried by his successor in 1855. The number of news-
papers established from the early part of 1855, when the repeal
of the duty had become a certainty, and continuing in existence
at the beginning of 1857, amounted to 107; 36 were metropofa'tan
and ^i provincial. Of the latter, the majority belonged to
towns which possessed no newspaper whatever under the Stamp
Acts, and the price of nearly one-third of them was but a penny.
In some cases, however, a portion of these new cheap papcn
of 1857 was printed in London, usually with pictorial illustrattons,
and to this was added a local supplement containing the new« oi
the district.
Amongst the eariiest results of the change in newspaper law
made in 1855 was the establishment in quick succession of a
scries oi penny metropolitan local papers, chiefly suburban, of
a kind very different from their unstamped forerunners. They
spread rapidly, and attained considerable success, chiefly as
advertising sheets, and as sometimes the organs, more often
the critics, of the local vestries and other administrations. One
of them, the Clerkenwell News and Daily Chronicle, so prospered
in the commercial sense, being crowded with advertisements,
that it sold for £30,000, and was then transformed into the
London Daily Chronicle (28th May 1877). Another cmispicuous
result cif the legislation of 1855 was an enormous increase in the
number and influence of what are known as "class papers"
and professional and trade papers. The duties on paper itscU
were finally abolished in 1861.
" Taxes on knowledge " having thus been abolished, the
later developments in newspaper history are mainly connected
with the increase in number, due largely to the spread of educa-
tion, the improvements in machinery and distribution and la
collection of news, the constant adaptation to the new demands
BRITISH]
NEWSPAPERS
557
ol a wider public, and the progress in the art of advertising
as applied to the Press. The following sections on the more
important newspapers in London and the Provinces fill in the
remaining details of the history of the British Press, so far
as they are substantially important or interesting. Much that
is in iu nature ephemeral or trivial is necessarily passed
oVtr.
Modem London Newspapers.
The liomint Post (oldest of existing London daily papers) dates
from 1772. For lome years it was ui the hands 01 Henry Bate
(Sir Henry Bate Dudley), and it atuined lome degree (rf
temporary popularity, though of no very enviable sort.
In 170^ the entire copyright, with house and printing
materials, was lold for £600 to Peter and Daniel Stuart, who quickly
raised the position of the Post by enlisting Sir James Mackintosh
and the poet Coleridge in its service, and also by giving unremitting
attention to advertisements and to the copious supply of incidental
news and amusing paragraphs. There has been much controversy
about the share which Coleridge had in elevating the Post from
obscurity to eminence. That he greatly promoted this result there
can be 00 doubt. His famous " Character of Pitt," published in
1800, was especially successful, ahd created a demand for the par-
ticular number in which it appeared that lasted for weeks, a tning
almost without precedent. Coleridge wrote for this paper from 1795
until 1803, and during that period its circulation m ordinary rose
from 350 copies, on the average, to 4500. Whatever the amount of
rhetorical hyperbole in Fox's saying-^recorded as spoken in the
House of Commons — " Mr Colendge's essays in the Morning Post
led to the rupture of the treaty of Amiens," it is none the less a
striking testimony, not only to Coleridge's powers as a publicist,
but to the position which the newspaper press had won. in spite of
innumerable obstacles at that time. The list of his fellow-workers
in the Post is a most brilliant and varied one. Bcsidei Mackintosh.
Southey and Arthur Young, it included a galaxy of poets. Many of
the lyncs of Moore, many of the social verses of Mackworth Praed,
•ome of the noblest sonnets of Wordsworth, were first published in
the columns of the PosL And the story of the paper, in its early
days, had tragic a* wfH a- ^•^t\r ^p,«vies. In consequence oif
offence taken at ^^.i.c -J ,'^.- ^\i\J.:-. il.-t editor and proprietor,
Nicholas Byrne (who succeeiJed U^riii^k Stuart), was assaulted and
murdered whilst tit tine in hia ofhcc.
Up to about l&so the history of th^ htoming Post offers little
to record; with the Morninr Chromdi ,]rid Morning Herald, and
having a smaller circulation iRan either of 1 bem. it was being rapidly
eclipcra in LondoiL iciufnali*.m hv The Tr- . t (see bek>w). and in 1847
only sold some tl ' vily in debt to Messrs J.
anoT. B. Crompt'iL, s:ii. jiijM r n: .. rs, it had been taken over
by them : and in that year the management was entrusted to Peter
Borthwicic (1804-180), a Scotsman who. after graduation both at
Edinbufigh and Cambridge, had taken to politics m the Conservative
interest and had sat in parliament for Evesham from 1835 to 1838
and from 1841 to 18^7. when he was almost ruined by fighting an
election petition in wnich he was unseated. Peter Borthwick took
the task of reviving the paper seriously in hand, and in a few years
wau already improving iu position when he fell ill and died ; and he
was succeeded m 1852 by his son Algernon Borthwick. afterwards
Lord Glenesk (1830-1908). The later history of the paper is prim-
arily connected with us practical re-establishment ana successful
coadtict under the latter. Algernon Borthwick had been its Paris
correspondent from 1850, and had shown social gifts and journalistic
acumen of great promise. When he became managing editor in
1853 he devoted himself with such energy to the work tlut in seven
years the debt on the business had been paid off. He gave the paper
a strong political colour, Conservative. Imperialist and Protectionist :
and in the 'fifties and 'sixties Borthwick was a keen supportef of
Lord Palmerston. After the death of Mr Crompton. his nephew,
Mr Rideout. the principal surviving partner in the paper manu-
facturing firm, was so impressed with Borthwick's success that he
vested the entire control of the paper in him for life; and on Mr
Ridcout's death in 1877, Borthwicic was enabled, by the help of
his friend Andrew Montague, to buy the property and become sole
proprietor. The Morning Post had now become, largely through
fikMTthwiclc's own social qualities, the principal organ of the fashion-
able world; but in 1881 he took what was then considered the
hazardous step of reducing its price from threepence to a penny,
and appealing no longer to the " threepennv public " with The
Timtes out to a wider dient^e with the Dauy Tetej^rapk and Standard.
The result was a ten-fold increase in circulation and a financial
success exceeding all anticipations. Borthwick himself, who was
knighted in 1880. and was created a baronet in 1887, had entered
parliament in 1880 for Evesham, and from 188^ to 1895 *^^ for South
Kensington, being finally raised to the peerage in 1895. His political
gifts naturally increased the influence of the paper; he supported
the *' Tory democracy " and was an active worker for the Primrose
League, oil which he was three times chancellor; and the Morning
Post, under his control, became one of the great organs of opinion
00 the Conservative side. From 1880 onurards he devolval the
cdicoml d utiles on others, at first Sir Wtlliam Kaidman, and i ben
s«ccai&iv*t3y Mf A, K. Moore, Mr Algtmon L<icker. Mr J^mes Nkol
Dunn [fmni 1897 lo l9«$J after »arii» whtor oJ the Manckethsr
C^uTUr) and Mr r^t^ian Ware; un^Uir them the literary fitandiird of
the paper *a» kept ^t a hi^h Itvel. and cgtisiani impravrmcntfl wrere
introdurird; and the &taff mcluded a number of well- known writrr»,
notably Mr S|>cncpr Wilkinson (b. 1S53), who in 1909 wasappoimcd
professor of military tiistory at OsforU, J-'rom 1R97 lill his death in
1905, at the age of thirty-two, Lord GWne&k'? son, OUvtrr Borthwick.
had much to do with the managerial tide. On Lord Oenc^k't oun
de^th on the a4th November I90S, ihc proprietorship p;i«^ to the
try^tec-4 of his onty fturviving cbildi a daughter, who in j*9j had
raarrieii the ?th tarl tii( hursts
Tki Timei*- i$ usuAJEyd^ted from the ttc of January (788, but
was rt-ally itarierf by John Walter on the lit of January 17135, under
the tiEh: lA Tke /^ndctt Daily UniTcrsal Rrfiiter^ peirni^ wri-
logs£rap>hiialiy. C)n its teaching its 94uth issue its name ****•
waiL-lungtci. ThctiijigQgfsphicor "word-printing" ^
had iifxn iri Vented by 4 printer named Ifenry Jjohnsoii several year
before, and found 4 warm advocate in John Waber,, who eitpciiinded
its peculbriticv *it grc^t length in No. 510 of his pAiily Umvtnoi
Regttit^. En a later nun>ber he stated, very amu&ijigly^ his rea^^ns
for ac)t>piirig the altcted title, which the enterprise and ability of his
succeitoti fkt WaJ-TE*, John) made ^vorld- famous^ Within two
yt^n John Walter had bis share in the Georgian persecutions ckf the
press, by tuccciiuve sentences to three linej and to three several
imnriaonnicntt In Newgate, chiefly for havmg stated that the prince
of Wales and the dkikei of York and Clarence had mi miscondueted
themselves " as to incur the just disapprobation of bia Majesty."
In 1603 the rnanagem+'n; was trantferrcd (totrther with the joint
proprietorship of the journaU to his son, John Walt "r {3}, by whom
It was carried on with extnordin^rj^ ernTwy and consummate ability,
and at the lanie time wiiK marked independ*-rcc. To Lord Sid-
mouth's Rovernment be gave a general but indcpcnoent support.
That of Pitt he opposed. e5)H.ri:i I ty on the ouejilIonB of the Catamaran
expedition and trie malvir&itions ci l-ord SlelvilLe. This oppoaiticHt
waa resented by depriving the elder Walter of the printing for the
cuitoms department, by the withdrawial of government adk>ertJH'
mcnts from The Tima^ and also, it ia said, by the sy«<ttinatii: deten-
tion at the outporti of the foreign intFlligmr? addre»xd to hs editor.
John Walter the Second, however, was strong and rcaolute enough
to brase the government. He organiied a tH-tter system ol news
tran^mifsion than had ever before exii^Ecd. He introduced Steam-
piiniins (lttt4J and repeatedly improved its mechanism ^«ee PrJnt-
JH'. :■; md although modern machines m.iy nuw^ seem to thrust into
in'iL;i illtance a press of which it was at first iinnounced as a notable
triumph that " no less ih^n I too sheets are impressed in one hour,"
vet the assertion was none the less true that The Times dL aQth
November 1814 " presented to the public the practical result of the
greatest improvement connected with printing since the discovery
of the art itself." The effort to secure for The Times the best attain-
able literary talent in all departments kept at least an equal pace
with those which were directed towards the improvement <M its
mechanical resources. And thus it came to pass that a circulation
which did not, even in 1815. exceed on the average 5000 copies
became, in 183^, 10.000; in 1840, 18,500; in 1844, 33.000; in 1851.
40,000; and in 1854, 51,648. In the year last named the average
circulation of the other London dailies was — Morning Advertiser,
7644; Datiy News, 4160; Morning Herald, 3712; Morning Chronicle,
3800; Momint Post, 3667; *o that the supremacy of The Times can
readily be understood.
Sir John Stoddart. afterwards governor of Malta, edited The Times
for several years prior to 1 8 16. He was succeeded by Thomas Barnes,
who for many years wrote largely in the paper. When his health
began to fail the largest share of the editorial work came into the
hands of Capuin Edward Sterlinsr— the contributor about a quarter
of a century earlier of a noteworthy series of political letters signed
" Vetus," the Paris correspondent of The Times in 18 14 and subse-
quent eventful years, and afterwards for many years the most
conspicuous among its leader-writers.* From 1 841 to 1877 **** *^hief
editor was John Thadeus Dclane, who had his brother-in-Uw G. W.
Dasent for assisUnt-editor. and another brother-in-law, Mowbray
Morris, as business manager. By the time of the second John
Walter's death (18^7) the substantial monopoly of The Times in
London journalism had been established; and under the proprietor-
ship of the third John Walter the result of the labour of Delane as
editor, and of the brilliant staff of contributors whom he directed,
among whom Henry Reeve wascmispicuous as regards foreign affairs.
* See the centenary number of January 2. 1888: the pamphlet by
S. V. Makower. issued by The Ttmes in 1904, " The History of The
Times "; and the article by Hugh Chishofm on ** The Times, 1785-
1908 " in the National Review (May 1908).
» See Life of John Sterling, by Carlyle, who says of him at thb time :
" The emphatic, big-voiced, always influential and often strongly
unreasonable Times newspaper was the express emblem of Edward
Sterling. He. more than any other man. . . . was The Times, and
thundered through it. to the shakine of the. spheres." The nick-
name of " The Thunderer," for The 7(inei,came in vogue in hisday.
5S8
NEWSPAPERS
was to turn the ** favourite broadsheet ** of the English public into
the " leading journal of the world." When Delane retired, he was
succeeded as editor by Thomas Chenery, and on his death in 1884
by Geofge Earle Buckle (b. 1854). At the beginning of 1908 con-
siderable changes took place in the proprietorial side of The Times,
which was converted into a company, with Mr A. F. Walter (chief
proprietor since 1 891) as chairman and Mr C. Moberly Bell (b. 1847;
manager since 1890) as managine director; the financial control
passing into the hands of Lord Northcliffe.
In the history of The Times Its influence oh the mechanical ^'i'it' of
newspaper work was very great. The increasing circulatl>H) o( The
Times between the years 1840 and 1850 made an improvem<; n 1 i n the
printing-presses necessary, as sometimes the publication co is L. I n.jc be
completra before the afternoon. To meet tnis want the ^X|if<lL^>kth
vertical press was introduced in 1848 and the American Hri.> i<m-
fceder press in 1858. Meanwhile the idea of stereotyping i^oui ihe
movable types had been making steady progress. Abou tar
1856, however, a Swiss named Della^^na introduced to 2U i-^.ies
Kroning's idea of casting from papier-mAch^ instead of plaster,
and was allowed to experiment in The Times office. After a time
the invention was so much improved that matrices of pages could be
taken and the stereotype plates fixed bodily on the pnnting machine
in place of the movable type. This cleared the way for the intro-
duction of the famous Walter press. Hitherto only one set of
" formes " could be used, as the type was set up once only— one side
of the paper being worked on one machine and the sheets then taken
to another machmc to be " perfected." Stereotyping enabled the
formes to be multiplied to any extent, as several pUtes could be cast
from one matrix. Mr MacDonald, the manager of The Times, had
devoted himaclf for several years to the production of a press which
could print papers on both sides in one operation fsora a large reel
of paper, the web of paper being cut into the required size after print-
ire, instead of each sheet being laid on " by a man and then printed.
.After ytars of experiment the Walter press was introduced mto the
Times machine-room in 1869, and the question of printing great
PMmbers in a short time was solved. Each press turned out 12,000
sheets per hour, and it was therefore only a question of multiplying
the stereo plates and presses to obtain any number of printed papers
by a certain time. Meanwhile Messrs Hoe had set about producing
something even quicker and better than the Walter press. They
succeeded in accomplishing this by multiplying the reels of paper on
each press, and also adding folders and stitchers. The result was the
production of over 36,000 sheets per hour from each machine. These
presses were adopted by The Times in 1895.
In 1868 the question of composing machines for the quicker
setting-up of Jtype was taken up by The Times. A German named
Kastenbcin had an invention wnicn he brought to the notice of The
Times, and arrangements were made for him to continue his ex-
periments in The Times office. In a couple of years a machine was
made, which was worked and improved until in 1874 several machines
were ready to set up a portion of the paper; but it was not until
1879 that the arrangements were sufficiently advanced to make
certain that they could do all that was wanted from them. The
introduction of composing machines, and the necessary alterations
in the office arrangements which followed, led to some trouble
among the compositors, which in 1880 culminated in a partial strike;
but a part of the staff remaining loyal, the printer was able by extra
effort to produce the pai>cr at the proper time on the morning
following the strike. Various improvements were made, until one
machine was able to set up as many as 208 lines of The Times in one
hour, equal to 16,688 separate types. A system of telephoning the
parliamentary report from the House of Commons direct to the com-
positor was begun in 1885, and was continued until the House decided
to rise at midnight, which enabled the more economical method of
composing direct from the " copy " to be resumed.
Ever since the introduction of the composing machines the business
had been much hampered by the question 01 " distribution " — that
is, the breaking-up and sorting of the types after use. Kastenbein
had invented a rli-tn'Mi-rin^ rracMirr:- rn -i-r-— : .- •-'- r. — poking
machine, but it ■■r..vr-,i t,> ],r un-^-iirrActan'r V-vri'-'ii^ j-yMtmi'i wi:re
tried at The Ti'nri ryKict. but iot msny ycari the work of ihe
composing maclincs wa^ to wme ts^tcnt trippM by the distribu-
tion difficulty, r hi» hid bwn rcciTgniErd bv_ Mr Frrdcrick VVkks
(d. 1910), the invj; citor o( tht Wkkt UoUry Typc-C4*tii>ft fifnthine.
who for many yc ir^ jtad bf*cn work! fie at a machine *hlch would
cast new type so rjuickly and » chi-Apiy as to da a*ay mlh the old
system of distribijiian and suMitutc n«w type every day* fn 1999
his machine wai. practically ptrlcctt and Toe Times entered into a
contract with him to supply any fjuantity of new type tvefv day.
The difficult que 1.1 ion di di^tribuliofi was I bus surmouuttflt and
ntSniied
composition by m.^ichlnra pbcnj on a saHsfactnry twj*iT9,
Thus during tin ■ Un h,:\\ r.liW ir>rh rcnTurv -JL- Timri.
totake thelead in iii'u- : rs-
paper, just as it h«d in mc uUv ycuis prcvcuing. ihe ihrce most
important advances during the later period were practically worked
out at The Times office — namely, fast-printing presses, stereotyping
and machine composing, and without these it is safe to tay that the
cheap newsoaper of the present day could not exist. Further in-
dications 01 the enterprise of The Times in taking up journalistic
novelties may also be seen in its organising a wireless telegraphy
[BRITISH
service, with a special steamer, in the Far East, at the opening of the
Russo-Japanese War.
The pnce at which The Times has been sold has been changed at
various dates: in 1796 to 4}d., I7;m to 6d., 1809 to 64d.,i8i5to7d.
1836 to 5d., 1855 to 4d., 1861 (Oct. 1) to 3cl., and in 1904 (ftiU
remaining at %d.) it started a method of payment by tubacriptiofl
which gave subscribers an advanuge in one form or another and this
in reality reduced the price further. In IQ05 this advantage took
the form of the price (3d.) covering a subscription to The Tima
Book Club, a orculating library and book-shop 00 novel lines
(see BooKSELUNc and Publisuing).
The first number of the paper contained 57 brief advertiseraents.
but as it grew in repute and in size its advertising revenue became
very large, and with the growth of this revenue came fori pasM
the means of spending more money on the contents. As far back as
1861 a single issue had contained 105 columns of advertisements,
and another 98. Prior to l88d the paper had only on two occasions
consisted of 24 pages in a single issue. Between that year and 1902
more than 80 separate issues of this sixe were published, many of
them containing over 80 columns of advertisements. Of two issues,
one conuining the news of the death and the other the account of
the funeral of Queen Victoria, 140,000 copies were printed. Frao
that time issues of 20 pages and over became an orainary matter:
and on May 24 ,1909 (Empire Day), The Times signalised the occasion
by brinnng out a huge supplement of 7a pages full of articles on
Imperial topics.
The Times has long stood in a class by itself among newspapers,
owing to its abundance of trustworthy news, its high literary standard
and its command of the ablest writers, who, however, are geocrally
anonymous in its columns. It has always claimed to be a natkMul
rather than a party organ. It was Uberal in iu politics in the
Reform days, but became more and more Conservative and Im-
perialist when the Unionist and anti-Home Rule era set in. On the
conversion of Mr Gladstone to Home Rule, The Times was. indeed,
largely instrumental in forming the Liberal-Unionist party. In ttx
course of its vigorous campaign against Irish Nationalism it published
as part of its case a series of articles on " ParnelUsm and Crime,"
incIudiM what were alleged to befacsimiie reproductions of letten
from Mr Pamell showiM hb complicity with the Phoenix Park
murders. The history 01 this episode, and of the appointment of
the Special Comraisuon of investigation by the govemment. is tokl
under Pa rnell. One of the strongest features dTThe T^imes has bees
always its foreign correspondence.
Among leading incidents in the history of The Times a few may be
more particularly mentioned. In 1840 the Paris correspondent of
the paper (Mr O'Reilly) obtained information respecting a gigantic
scheme of forgery which had been planned in France, together with
particulare 01 the examination at Antwerp of a minor agent in the
conspiracy, who had been there, almost by chance, arrested. AH
that he could collect on the subject, including the names of thr
chief conspirators, was published by The Times on the a6<h of May
in that year, under the heading " Extraordinary and Extensi\T
Forgery and Swindling Conspiracy on the Continent (fVivaie
Correspondence)." The project contemplated the almost simultane-
ous presentation at the chief banking-houses throughout the Con-
tinent of forged letters of credit, purporting to be tnose of Glyn &
Company, to a very large amount ; and its failure appears to nave
been in a great degree owing to the exertions made, and the re-
sponsibility assumed, by The Times. One of the persons implicated
brought an action for libel against the paper, which was tried at
Croydon in August 1841, with a verdict for the fAzintifS, tme forest
damages. A subscription towards dcfrayinff the heavy expenses
(amounting to more than £5000) which The Times had incurred vas
speedily opened, but the proprietors declined to profit by it: and
the sum whkh had been raised was devoted to the foundation of
two " Times scholarships," in connexion with Christ's Hospiul sod
the City of London School. Three years afterwards the Tima
rendered noble public service in a different direction. It used its
vast pn-er with vigour— at the expense of materially checkiiw the
gr'>wth[?l it> '>^'. rk. I.J verttsement fund — by denouncing the fraudulent
schemes whi^h underlay the "railway mania" of 1845. The
Patncll a flair hri .U ready been mentioned. And more recently the
*' book war," ari^in|{ out of the attack by the combined mjbltshen
on The Ttrnts Book Club in 1906, was prosecuted by The Times
wtth gtt4il vigour, until in 1908 it came quietly to an end.
Vd,rigu» ftifjunct^ to The Titnes. issued by its proprietors, have
stilt to be rncnii'tned. The Mail, published three tiroes a week
at the pnce of 3^l per number, gives a summary of two days' issue
of Thf 7iittC5. Thi Times Weekly Edition (begun in 1877) u pob-
liihed every Friday at 2d., and gives an epitome of The Times tor
the ^ix da>"«. The Lam Reports (begun in 1884) are conducted by a
spcrlil ^r.^rl ,4 Ttnits law reporters. Commercial Cases deals with
ca ial nature. Issues is a useful balf-yeariy com-
pilation of all the company announcements and demands for new
capital, taken from the advertisement columns of The Times.
In 1897 FAe Times sUrted a weekly literary organ under the title
of Literature. In 1901, however, a weekly literary supplement to
The Times was issued instead, and Literature ouacd into the hsndi
of the proprietor of the Academy, with which paper it was incor
porated. The " Literary Supplement." which appears each ThorMky
BRITISH]
NEWSPAPERS
559
(at first on Friday*), it printed in a different form, and separately
paged. In 1904 a " Financial and Commercial Supplement " (at
tint 00 Mondays, and later on Fridays) was added; in 1905 an
" Ensineerine Supplement" (Wednesdays), and in 1910 a "Woman's
Supplement.
The publishing department of The Times- also invaded several
new fields of enterprise. The Times Atlas was first published in
1895, and thb publication was supplemented by that of The Times
(previously Longmans') Gnutteer. A much larger amd more im-
portant venture was the issue in 1898 of a reprint of the ninth
edition of the Encyclopaedia Britanniea at less than half the original
price, on a new system of terms (known as The Times system) that
enabled the purchaser to receive the whole work at once and to pay
for it by a scries of eoual monthly payments. This was followea by
a similar sale of the Century Dictionary and of a reprint of the first
fifty yesirs of Punch ; and deven new volumes of the Encydopaedia
Bniannica, supplementing the ninth edition, and forming with it
the tenth edition, were issued by The Times in 1903 on similar
* terms (see Encyclopabdia).
In i89« The rtm«f.jthrough its Vienna correspondent, purchased
from Dr Moritz Busch the MS. and entire copyright of his journals.
containing a very minute record of his intimate relations with
Bismarck. It was stipulated in the contract that these were not to
be published until after the death of the pri nee. That event occurred
on the 30th July 1898. and on the X3th September of the same year
The Times published through Messrs Macmtllan (in 3 vols.) Bismarch:
Some Secret Pans of his History, by Dr Moritz Busch.
The Times History of the War in South Africa arose out of a desire
to preserve in a more readable form the excellent work done by the
numerous Times correspondents in South Africa. When originally
projected in the early days of looo it was hoped that the war would
be of abort duration, and that the history of it could be rapidly com-
pleted. The lencrth of the war naturally upset all these calculations,
and eventually the nxth and last volume was only issued in 1909.
For a long period after the establishment of The Times, no effort
to found a new doily London morning newspaper was ever con-
spicuously Successful. Among unfruitful attempts were — (1) the
/few Times, started by Dr (afterwards Sir John) btoddart, upon his
departure from Printine-House Square; (3) the Representative
(1834). established by John Murray, under circumstances which
seemed at the outset exceptionally promising; (3) the Constitutional,
begun in 1836 and carried on for eight months by a joint-stock
company, exceptionally favoured in having for editor and sub-
editor Laman Blanchard and Thornton Hunt, with a staff of con-
tributora which included Thackeray. Douglas Jerrold and Bulwcr;
(4) the Ifeming Star^ founded in 1856, and kept afloat until 1870,
when it was merged in the Daily News; (5) in 1867, the Day, lor
six weeks only; (6) in 1873 the Hour, for three years; (7) in 1878,
the Daily Express,^ whkh soon failed.
A measure of greater success followed the establishment (1794)
of the Morning Advertiser, under special drcumstances. It was the
„ -^^ joint-stock venture of a large society of licensed victuallers,
^wAd' amonest whom subscription to the paper was the condi-
^^L^gftw tion oT memberehip. For nearly sixty years its circulation
lay almost entirely in public-houses and coffee-houses, but
amongst them it sold nearly 5000 copies daily, and it yielded a steady
profit of about £6000 a year. Then, by the ability and enterprise
of an experienced editor. Tames Grant (1802-1879), it was within
four years raised to a circulation of nearly 8000, and to an aggregate
profit of £13.000 a year. In 1891 its price was reduced from three-
pcnre to a penny.
The history of the DaHy News, founded in 1846, has been told by
Mr Justin McCarthy and Sir John R. Robinson in a volume of
*' political and social re tr ospec t " published in 1896 on
the occaMon of its jubilee. It could boast of having
continuously been the chamixon of Liberal ideas and
principles— of what (so long as Mr Gladstone lived) miffht be called
official Liberalism at home and of libertjr abroad. It became a
penny paper in 1868. Its only rival in the history of Liberal journal-
ism in London for many years was the Morning Star, which in 1870
it absorbed. Notably, it led British public opinion in foreign affairs
as champion of the North in the American Civil War, of the cause
of Italy, of the emandpation of Bulgaria from the Turk and of
Armenia. Its early editors were Charles Dickens (21st January*
Marrh 1846). John Fonter (March-October 1846). E. E. Crowe
" ' F. K. " ' " ~
(i847-i8<i).
Walker 858-1869).
Hunt (1851-1854}. W. Weir (1854-1858), T.
, ^ ,. In 1868 the pnce was reduced to a penny,
and it came under the management of Mr (afterwards Sir) John R.
Robinson (1838-1903). who only retired in 1901. Its later editors
included (1868-1886) Mr F. H. Hill (the brilliant author of Political
Portraits), and sufaoequently Sir John Robinwn, as managing
editor, in conjunction with Mr P. W. Claydcn (1827-1902), the
author of Life ef Samuel Roars, England under the Coalition and
other able works, as political and literary editor, down to 1896,
and Mr E. T. Cook from 1896 to 1901. Mr Cook, during the negotia-
tions with the Boer government in 1899. strongly supported Sir
Alfred Milner; and urider him the Daily News, as an exponent of
Lord Rosebery's Liberal Imperialism, gave no countenance to the
pro-Boer views of some of the more active members of the Liberal
party. In 1901, however, the proprietary changed, and Mr George '
Cadbury became chief owner of the paper. Mr E. T. Cook, who
had shown brilliant ability as a publicist, but whose views on the
Boer War were not shared by the new proprietor, retired, subae-
guently joining the suff of the Dai7v Chronicle; the journal then
became an organ of the anti-imperialist section ojf the Liberal party.
Mr A. G. Gardiner became editor in 1902; and in 1904 considerable
changes were made in the style (rf the paper, which was reduced in
price to a halfpenny. The influence of Mr Cadbury, and of the
group of Quaker familk»— largely associated with the manufacture
of cocoa — who followed his example in promoting the publication
of Liberal and Free Trade newspapers, kdin later years to somewhat
violent attacks from political opponents on the socalled " Cocoa
Press," with the DaUy News at its head.
The first number of the Daily Tdeg^aph was published on 39th
June 1855, as a twopenny newspaper. Its proprietor was Colonel
Sleigh. This gentleman soon found himself in pecuniary „ -j-,
straits, and in satisfaction of the debt for the printing rS^T
of the paper it was transferred to Mr Joseph Moses Levy """T. ..
in the following September. On 17th September Mr Levy ^'^^^
published it as a four-paged penny journal, the first penny newspaper
produced in London. His son, afterwards Sir tdward Lawson
(b. 1833), who was created Baron Burnham in 1904, immediately
entered the office, and after a short time became editor, a post
which he only abandoned in 1885, when he became managing
proprietor and sole director. From the outset Mr Levy gathered
round him a suff of high literary skill and reputation. Among the
first were Thornton Hunt, Geoffrey Prowse, Ceorgc Hooper and Sir
Edwin Arnold. E. L. Blanchanf was among the earliest of the
dramatk: critics, and Alexander Harper the City editor. Later
there came George Augustus Sala {g.v.), then one of Charles Dickens's
young men; Clement Scott (1841-1904), at one time a clerk in the
War Office; and Edward Dicey (b. 1832), then fresh from Cambridge.
The Hon. Frank Lawley turned to journalism from official life; and
amone the most remarkable of the early contributors to the paper
was r. P. Benjamin, the great Anglo- American lawyer. h7 D.
Trailf was a leader-writer for well-nigh a quarter ot a century.
i. M. Le Sage (b. 1837), for many years the managing editor, began
is connexion with the paper under Mr Levy. Others prominently
associated with the paper have been W. L Courtney (b. 1850),
a distinguished man of letters who, after several years of work as
tutor at New College. Oxford, joined the staff in 1890, and in 1894
also became editor of the Fortnightly Review ; E. B. Iwan-Moller
(d. 1910) and I. L. Garvin (from 1899), afterwards (1904) editor of
the Observer. After 1 890 Mr H. W. L. Lawson. Lord Burnham's eldest
son and heir, assisted his father in the seneral control of the paper.
The Daily Telegraph may be said to nave led the way in London
journalism in capturing a lafge and important reading-public from
the monopoly 01 The Times. It becams the great organ of the
middle classes, and was distinguished for its enterprise in many
fields. In June 1871 the Telegraph despatched Oorge Smith to
carry out a series 01 archaeological researches in Nineveh, which
resulted in the discovery of the missing fraemcnts of the cuneiform
account of the Deluge, and many other inscriptions. J n co-operation
with the New Yorh Herald it equipped H. M. Stanley's second great
expedition to Central Africa ( 1875-iP— ^ * - -^^ ^^ * '
feat with *hlch the name of the i "
the exploration of Kilimanjaro (ifl , ^, _, . __ , ,
Harry Johnston, whose account of bis work appeared in the DaUy
Telegraph during 1885. And Mr Lionel Decle's march from the
Cape to Cairo, in 1899 and 1900, was also undertalren under the
auspices of the paper. The Tdegra^ raised many large funds for
public purposes. Almost the first was the subset iption for the
rclief of the sufferers by the cotton famine in Lancashire, in the
winter of 1862-1863; the fund in aid of the starving and impoverished
people of Paris at the close of the siege in 1871 ; the prince <A Wales's
Hospital Fund in commemoration of the Jubilee of 1897; and the
Shilling Fund for the soldiers' widows and orphans in connexion
with the Boer War. An undertaking of a more festive kind was the
ffite ^ven to 30.000 London school children in Hyde Park on the
occasion of Queen Victoria's Jubilee in 1887.
In politics the Daily Telefraph was consistently Liberal up to
1878, when it opposed Mr Gladstone's foreign poucy as explained
in his Midlothian speeches. After 1886 it represented Unionist
opinions. Among spedal feats of which it can beast was the first
news brought to England of the conclusion dL peace after the Franco-
Orman War.
Prior to 1874 the DaUy Telegraph was printed by eight- and ten-
feeder machines, through which eveiy sheet had to be passed twice
to complete the impression. Under these conditions it was necessary
to start printing one side of the paper as early as ten or eleven o'clock.
The handicap which this imposed on the satisfactory production of
a newspaper was removed by the introduction of Hoe s web machines
at the end of 1874. No further change took place until 1891, when
they were superseded by others built by the same makers capable of
printing a 12-page paper at the rate crt about 24,000 an hour, cut,
folded, delivered and counted in quires. In 1896 they were modified
so as to be suitable for turning out an 8-, 10-, 12-. 14- or 16-page
Eper. Up to 1894 the setting of type had been done entirely by
nd, but m that year the linotype, after an experimental trial, v/as
introduced on a lafge scale.
Torn uerata n equippeo n. m. Stanley s secona great
Central Africa (iSTS-i^Jl)' Another. geographical
h the name of the Daily Teletraph is associated was
I of Kilimanjaro (1884-1885) by Mr (afterwards Sir)
s6o
NEWSPAPERS
The Staitdard was cstablbhed as an evening paper in the Tory
interest (as the express oiigan of the opjponents of the measure for
r*« removing Roman Catholic disabiNties) in 1827, its first
-itmntimni tditoT bcing Stanley Lees Giffard, father of the first earl
''■■■■^ of HaUbury, who had Alaric Watts and Dr William
Maginn, famous as one of the originatore of Fraser's Matanntt as
his chief helpers. In th« course c» two or three years it became a
pecuniary, as it had from the first been a political, success, and
gradually ousted the Courier, which was for a time conducted by
William Mudford, whose son half a century later became the most
distinguished editor of the Standard. In course of time the latter
became the property of Mr Charles Baldwin, whose father was
f>roprietor of the Morning Herald, and when the father died the son
ound himself in possession of both a morning and an evening Journal.
In his hands neither of them prospered, although the Standard
retained a large circulation and constantly printed early and accurate
political information. At length, midwav in the 'fifties, both papers
were purchased by Mr James Tohnstone, Mr John Maxwell, the pub'
lisher, beiI^[ for a time associated with him in the ownership. Mr
Johnstone realixed that he had before him a great opportunity, and
at once set to work to grasp it. He brought out the Standard as a
morning paper (39th June 1857), increaseaits siae from four to eight
pages, and reduced the price iroro fourpence to twopence. One of
the roost curious features of the early numbers was a novel by
William Howard Russell. The evenins edition was continued. In
February 18^8 Mr Johnstone again rcauced the price, this time to
a penny. When tnat step was taken the Standard announced
that iu politics were " enlightened amelioration and progress," but
that it was " bound to no party "; and to those independent lines
it in the main adhered. In the course of four or five years it became
a financial success, and then began to attract to itself many brilliant
pens, one of its contributors in the 'sixties. Lord Robert Cecil,
being destined to become^ illustrious as marquess of Salisbury.
Lord Robert was an occasional leader-writer, whose contributions
were confined almost entirely to political subjects. It was at this
time that the Standard laid the foundation 01 the great reputation
for early and deuiled foreign news which it has ever since enjoyed.
During the American Civil War it obtained the services of a repre-
sentative signing himself " Manhattan," whose vivid and forcible
letters from the battlefield arrested attention from the beginning.
As the campaign progressed, these full, picturesque and accurate
accounts of the most terrible struggle of modern times were looked
for with eager interest. There were no " special cables " to discount
the poienant curiosity of the reader, and the potpcr reached a circu-
lation tar beyond anything hitherto known. The distinction thus
acouired was maintained during the Prussian-Austrian War of 1866,
and greatly increased by the letters and telegrams describing the
triumphs and disasters of the campaign of 1 870. I n the early 'sixties
the staff had been reinforced by the engagement of Mr William
Heseltine Mudford. In the miost of his work as a parliamentary
reporter, he was sent as special correspondent to Jamaica in 1865
to report upon the trouble which involved the recall of Governor
Eyre; a further period in the gallery of the House of Commons
followed, and in 1873 Mr Mudford became business manager. Mr
Johnstone's first editor was Captain Hamber, who afterwards
seceded to the short-lived Hour, with whom had been associated
Mr David Morier Evans as manager. He was succeeded by the
owner's eldest son, to whom Mr (afterwards Sir) John Gorst was
joined in a consultative capacity. In 1876 Mr Mudford became
editor, still, however, retaining managerial control. Mr Johnstone,
the proprietor to whose energy and perspicacity the paper owed so
mucn, died in 1878, and under his will Mr Mudford was appointed
editor and manager for life, or until resignation. Already a great
property, the Standard in Mr Mudford's hands entered upon a very
•uccesslul period. He had for his first assistant-editor Mr Gilbert
Venables, who was succeeded after a short term by Mr Geoive
Byron Curtis, previously one of the leader-writers, who thus held the
position through nearly the whole of Mr Mudford's long editorship.
The staff at this time comprised many men, and some women,
whose names are distinguished in letters as well as in journalism.
Mr Alfred Ausdn, Mr T. H. S. Escott, Miss Frances Power Cobbe
and Professor Palmer were all writing for the paper at the same time.
To them must be added, among others, Mr E. D. J. Wilson, the
brilliant political leader-writer (afterwards of The Times), Mr Percy
Greg, son of " Cassandra " Greg, Mr T. E. Kebbel and Dr Robert
Brown, who wrote copiously upon scientific and miscellaneous
subjects. Foremost among the war correspondents were Mr G. A.
Henty, who represented the paper on many a stricken field ; Mr John
A. Cameron, who was killed at Abu KIca; and Mr William Maxwell.
1 n January 1000 Mr Mudford retired, and was succeeded in the editor-
ship by Mr G. Byron Curtis (d. 1907), Mr S. H. Jeycs, whose con-
nexion with the paper had begun in 1891. becoming assistant-editor.
In November 1904 the Standard, which had at that time taken rather
a strong line in deprecating the tariff reform movement within the
Unionist party, was sold to Mr C. Arthur Pearson (proprietor of the
Daily Express, see below), who was chairman of the Tariff Reform
League, and condderable changes were made in the paper, Mr H. A.
Gwynne becoming editor. In 1910 Mr Pearson, owing to ill-health,
transferred his interests in the proprietary company he had formed
in 1904 to Mr Davison Dalziel.
fBRlTISH
The Daily Chronicle arose, as already mentioned, out of the local
Clerkenweit New, the latter paper having been purchased by Mr
Edward Uoyd in 187^, and converted into "an Imperial
morning paper" on independent Liberal lines. Under
the editorship of Mr R. Whelan Boyle the Daily Chronicle
soon took rank among the other London daily journals, the only
traces of its original character being shown in the attention paid to
metropolitan affairs and the appearance of numerous small advertise^
ments. The independent tone of the journal was conspkootss in its
treatment of the Home Rule question. At first deprecating the
system of combined agitation and outrage with which the term vras
synonymous, the Daily Chronicle, under the editorship o( Mr A. E.
Fletcher (1890-1895), ceased to be a Unionist journal, and sunpactcd
Mr Gladstone's Bill of 1893. Another insUncc was afforded in the
course of the Boer War. During the negotiations and the early
stages of the campaign, the Daily Chronicle, which was then edited
by Mr H. W. Massingham (b. i860), strove for peace by supfxirting
tfie Boer side against the dipk>macy of Mr Chambcrfain. MT
Massingham 's policy was, however, not to the liking of the pxi>-
prictors, and he retired from the editorship towards the end ol
1899. Mr W. J. Fisher succeeding him as editor. In 1904 Mr Robert
Donald became editor, and the price was reduced to a halfpenny.
Mr Massingham during his editorship, ably seconded by Mr (after-
wards Sir) Henry Norman (b. 1858). had lary;ely incrcasea the interest
of the paper, particularly^ on its literary side. A new impetus had
been given in this direction in 1891, when a " literary page *' was
started, conducted at first by Mr J. A. Manson. and after 1893 by
Mr Massingham, when he became assistant-editor under Mr Fletcher.
The Chronule had taken a leading part in many public movements
since 1877. It was conspicuous in its advocacy of the cause of the
men in tne London dock strike of 1889: and in the areat minii^
dispute for a " living wage." which was brought to a close by Lord
Roscbery in November 1893, raised over £13.000 for the reltdf com-
mittees. Much attention was given to the theosophical discussioB
of 1891 and to the exposure otthe adventurer " De RouKctnont **
after he had appeared before the British Association at Bristol ia
1808. The Chronicle took an active part in the n^otiations which
lea to the Venezuelan Arbitration Treaty of 1897; it energe tk alty
pleaded the cause of the Armenians and Cretans during the maasacres
of 1896. and it encouraged the Greeks in the war with Turkey in
1807. Its foreign policy was, however, more distinguished by good-
will than by discretion— and notably in the latter instance. The
Chronicle also worked strenuously for the Progressive cause in LondcMi
in rrgard to the County Council, Borough Councils and the School
Board. Its new successes included the first announcement ot the
revolution in eastern Rumelia (1885); the first circumstantial
account of the death of Prince Rudolph (1889); Nansen's own
narrative of his expedition towards the North Pole; Sir Mania
Conway's journey across Spitzbergen in 1896: and the first ascent
of Aconcagua in 1897.
In 1890 the illustrated morning daily paper, the Daily Crapkie,
was founded by W. L. Thomas (1830-1901) as an offshoot
from the weekly illustrated Graphic, and soon came into
favour.
In 1906 a new Liberal momirw daily was started by Mr Frankfin
Thomason in the shape of the Tribune, edited by Mr W. Hill, who
retired after a few months, with Mr L. T. Hobnouse as
political editor. Later Mr Pryor became managing
editor, but at the beginning of 1908, after heavy losses, the publicataoa
was stopped.
Two momintr papers, at the popular price of halfpenny, appeared
in the spring of 1892. the Morning and the Morning Leader, They
raced for priority of publication, the former winning by ^ ,.
a day. The Morning Leader, under the same manage- |"'^--^
mcnt as the (evening) Star, continued to flourish, but the
Morning had but a brief dreer.
The halfpenny Daily Mail was originated by Mr Alfred Charles
Harmswortn (b. 1865), who was subseouently created a baronet
( 1 904) and in 1 905 a peer as Baron Northcliffe ; it appeared s^^
in 1 896, on the same day as Sir G. Newnes's penny Courier ^^
(which only lasted a few weeks). I n theevolutbn of English
journalism the foundation of the DaUy Mail carried still farther the
work begun by the Daily Telegraph in cariksr days. It was the ftrsi
halfpenny morning newspaper to place at the disposal of its readers
a news service competing with that of any of the hisher^prircd
newspapers, and soon took an increasingly important |mice &n the
Press. At the opening of the aoth century it claimed a rcgutar
circulation of about a million copies daily (and had occaakmaBy
sold as many as 1,500.000 copies of a single issue), and it was pro-
duced simultaneously in London and Manchester, the whole of the
contents being telegraphed nightly. In May 1904 it began publish*
ing a continental edition in Paris. The sensational success of the
Daily Mail, which first made Lord Northcliffe one of the dooainaat
personalities in English journalism, was due, not to individual
writers, hut to a consistent policy 61 catering for a modem nubfie
and serving them with lively news and artkrles. and constant chaage
of interest. Its large circulation, and resultiiw advcrtinng revenue,
gave it an influence which in politics was usedon the Unioatst side:
but the readers of the Daily Mail went to it, not for politics, but for
news, brightly and briefly displayed. Its triumph represented the
BRITISHI
NEWSPAPERS
S6i
«Kee» of a boMoeM orgiiiiadoa, b wfakli iidhridinl views on affain
plaved a oomparativdy minor part.
The halfpenny Daily Exprust founded I
(b. 1 866) on the Uaee of t& DaUy Mail,
•ooa woo a laiige cUentMe. _
editor (from 1904) it worked itrenuouily for Tariff Reform.
The DadN Mknr, etarted by Mr uarmeworth as a
teo'e penny daily in 1904, faQed to attract in ita original form
waa qaicUy chanfed into a halfpenny aenerd daily, lelying as
a novelty on the presentation 01 news by photographic
pictures of current events. This new feature soon ob-
tained for it a large drcolation under the enterpriang
. ent of Mr KennedyJones(b. 1865), who was already known
for his successful conduct of the ihsm'f rhm and his share in the
• oftheXMyifail.
Tbe GM$ (foondsd Tan. let., 18Q3), the oldest of existing London
' ipers. owed its orinn to the desire of the bookadlen or
publtshen of the day for an advertising medium, at a
moment when the Mornimi Post gave them the cold
A syndicate of ouW * ^
the BriHsk Pnss (which
of pul
hado
syndicate of
*nss (which had only i
Past, and the CMe as a rival to the CnifMr (see above), wfakdi, like
only a short career), to combat the
Baooo. After swallowing up some other journals, in 1823 it 1
the property and title of the TrattOer, controlled by Colonel Torrens,
who in the reorasnisation became prindp^propnetor and brought
over Walter Coulson as the editor. lohn Wilaon succeeded as editor
in x834« efficiently seconded by Mr Moran; Thomas Love Peacock
and K. H. Bariiam (" Ingoldsby ") being famous contributors
s. For some time the GlaU was the principal Whig
(afterwards Deouty Judge Advocate Sir James)
daring his resime. For some time the GZoAs was the principal Whig
on^n, and Mr (afterwards Deouty Judge Advocate Sir James)
0^>owd iU political inspirer. Mahony ('^Father Prout ") was iu
" ' ^^ In 1843 the CrarMT was incorporated, but a
fortunes of the paper, and Colonel Torrens's
death in 1864, brought about a reoreaaintioo in 1866, when a small
Conservative syndicate. indudingjSr Stafford Northoote, bought it
'* s Gtoto into a Conservative organ. In 1868 the
Paris cucresuoodent. ___ __-^
gradual decune in the fortunes of the
ami otmverted tbe .
pink colour since associated with the paper was started. In i860
Its price (originally sixpence) was lowered to a penny. Mr W. T.
Madse (bw 1845), whose vigorov'* rr*-- nt mnji aftwwards so
valuable, and who in 1881 stai^ -^ '._.<.. .'if Ar!i;5trong dbe
Peo^f a ptXMilar Sundny journal ior the mA&ifc^, ioiiKtl the paper
in 1866: and ^ter brief penods of rditor^hip by Mc^rs W^^tcomb,
R. H. Psttersoo, H. N. Bamett aod Marsv^Ktd Tuckur (ta6d). in
1871 Captain George C. H. ArmMrt^ng ^816-1907^ wha in itoa
was cmted a baronet, 'was put in contTul; be ixilicd ihc paper (or
»e years, and then it became bii property. The cdkoruil chair
I fiUed in succession by Mr PonKinby Ogh^ %U Akcmcn Locker
Jl), and the proprietor's son and hat Lieut ^ G^ t. Armitrcjag,
. (1895), until in June 1907, after Sir G. ArmiitmnR'i death, the
paper wassiM toMr Hildebnind H^muivirpftli. The ^/^'^ " Turn-
— •* (misodlaneous articles, tuming ovu from the first to ihe
^^l
page) began in 1871, anrj tw-tamc famrpirn ftnr x-aricfy and
humour. The jocukr" By the W" tic
feature, was started in i&Si, and ■:J^.^ muLh u> .Mr liuy lu>uiisMa
and Mr C. L. Graves. In the history of the Glebe one of the best-
knosm incidents b its publication of tbe Salisbury-Schuvaloff
treaty of 1878. It was the lint London daily to use the linotype
composing-machine (189a).
A new period of evoning loumalism, charscteristk of the bter
i^ century, opened with the founding of the Pall Mall GautU.
a^^Mmm Tncnwt number (at twopc n ce j was issued on 7th February
"gr 186) from Salisbuxy Street, Strand. Mr George Smith,
"■" of toe publishing firm of Smith and Elder, wa( iu firet
protxietor; Mr Frederick Greenwood (9.V.). its lint editor, took the
i4«l»-/8£o6ni for his model; the paper was intended to realise
Thackeray's picture (In PcnMums) of one " written by gentlemen for
gentlemen." Its political attitude was to be independent, and
mudi space was to be given to literature and non-poUtical matter.
It had brilliant supporters, such as Sir J. Fitxjames Stephen as writer
of leading artides (replaoed to a certain extent, after 1869, by ^
Henr^ Maine), R. H. Huttoo, Matthew James Higgins (** Jacob
Ommum "), James Hannay, and George Henry Lewes, with George
Eliot. Anthony TroUope, Cnaries Reade. and Thomas Hughes as occa-
sional cootributon; but the paper failed to attrsct the general public
until, in the following year^.Mr Greenwood's brother, James, furnished
it with three articles on **A Night in a Workhouse: by an Amateur
CasuaL'* A morning edition had already been tried and dropped,
and so was a distinct morning paper attempted in 1870. In 1867
new premises were taken in NorthumberlandTStreet, Strand. Three
yean later the Pall Mall GaattU was the first to announce the sur-
render of Napoleon III. at Sedan. Matthew Arnold contributed his
famous ** Arminius " letten (" Friendship's Garland ") in 1871, and
Rkfaaid Jcfferics contributed " The Gamekeeper at Home ** m 1876
and onirards. Mr G reen wo o d made the paper unflinchingly Con-
sorvative and strongly adherent to Lord Beaconsfield's loreign
«^icy. In 1880, however, Mr Smith handed Over the Pall Mall
Caaette to has son-in-law, Mr Henry Yates Thompson, who turned
it into a UbersI joumaL Mr Greenwood thm retired trosa the
editorship and shortly afterwards start c^l ibe Si Jamet^M GaaOtt t
Mr John (afterwards Viscount) Morle> tH?£ime i:ditof ol the Pm
Mall, with Mr W. T..Stead (b. 1849) ai^ ,i-*LsLint-cditor. The prke
was reduced in 1883' to one penny. Many oi the old contnbuton
remained, and they were reinforced l<v kubcrx Louia Btvvuuoa,
' some ** Letten from Davos," Tn >fe»wr TyndJAJt, Professor
fames Psyn and Mra Humphry \\\rd. when Mr MocW
journalism for politics in iS-^j. he wn^^ nuccccdoJ by B^
W. T. Stead (g.s.), with Bfr Alfred MUn .r, aftcnt^a^s Lord Mil Per,
as Us assistant. Adopting an advent lifou^ potiQ', ^f r Sti^ im-
ported the " interview " urom America , and a restart of GeMrai
Uordon's opinion was believed to have licen the cau^e of hi» iU-Utcd
to Khartum. A series of artid^^ called " The Tnjth ftbout
the Navy " (1884) had consktersble innavjice in cauAie^ Uw Ad-
miralty to lay down more ships next y<ar. But Mr Still's career
as the editor came to an end in 1880. in c <>Ei^»equence ul hla publiihivg
a series of articles called "The Maiden Tnbutecif Modem Babylon^
purporting to further the Criminal L;iw Ameodment BfU. Mr
Stead had made a feature of reprints c.itlod " entrap "; aiul, edited
by Mr Charks Morley, the PaU Mall BhJi^ft Ivcumt ^n iUu^uatcd
weekly. Mr Stead was replaoed in 18^; Lv E. l\ C^jL, uJl'< h.j.4
become aaristant-editor in succession to Milner. The PaU Mail
GaatiU was now steadily Liberal and a strong advocate of Irish
Home Rule. Gn its staff were Edmund Garrett (a gifted writer who
became editor of the Capt Times in South Africa, and died pre-
maturely in I907)« F. C. GouM the caricaturist, and J- Alfred Spender
(b. i86a). Mr Cook resigned in i8{^, on the sale 01 the paper to Mr
William Waldorf Astor, the Amencan millionaire, who turned it
again into a Conservative organ, and also changed iu shape, abandon-
ing the old small pages for a larger sheet; and he and nis assisunt
Mr Spender continued the Liberalism of the PaU MaU ih the West-
mimsltr Caaitte (see below). Mr Henry Cost, M. P., was appointed
editor, with Mr E. B. Iwan-MUller as assistant-editor. ' Mr Cust
(b. 1861), who was Lord Brownlow's heir, and came fresh to editorship
with enthusiasms acquired from his experiences in pariiament and
in society, made tbe columns of the PaU MaU very lively for the
next couple of years. It became well known for its " booms." and
its "smartness" generally. Some papen contributed to it by
Sir Charles Dilke and Mr Spenser Wilkinson resulted in the esUblish-
ment of the Na^ Leuue in 18^ The paper had. too, the first
news of Mr Gladstone^ reugnation and the appointment of Losd
Rosebery to succeed him. But though the PaU MaU under Mr Cust
had outMone all its competitors, its independence of those business
oonnderations which ultimately appeal to most proprietora haixily
represen ted a durable state of affaire; and eventually the relations
be t we en proprietor and editor became strained. In February 1896
Mr Cust and Mr Iwan-MOller were succeeded respectively by Sir
Douglas Strai^t and Mr Lloyd Sanders, the latter of whom retired
in 1903. ^Douglas Straight (b. 1844) had been in eariy days a
well-known London barrister, and from 1879 to 1893 was a judge in
India. Sir Douglas Straight remained editor till the end of 1908,
when he was su^eeded by Mr Higginbottom.
Founded in 1880 by Mr H. Hucks Gibbs (afterwards Lord Alden-
ham), for Mr Frederick Greenwood to edit when he had left the
PaU MaU, the St James's Caaette represented the more
intellectual and literary side of Tory journalism in op-
position to the new Liberalism of Mr Greenwood's former ^i,„^^
organ; it was in fact meant to carry on the idea of tbe
original PaU MaU as Mr Greenwood had concaved it, and was
(like it) more of a daily review than a chronicle of news. In 1888
the paper having then been lold to Mr E. Steinkopff, Mr Greenwood
retired and was succeeded as editor (1888-1807) by Mr Sidney Low,
subsequently author of The Ceeemance of Entland and other able
woHcs, who had as his chief assistant-editore Mr S. H, J eyes (till
i8oi),andMrHughChisholm(i8o>-i897),the latter sucreeaing him as
editor (1897-1900). In those days mere news was not considered
the important feature; or rather, original and sagacious views were
identified with a sort of novelty such a paper could best promulgate.
The St James's was for many yeare conspicuous for its literary
character, and for the number 01 distinguished literary men who
wrote for it, some of whom first became known to the public by
means of its columns. Its interest in newspaper history is really
that of a paper which appealed to and influenced a comparatively
small circle of cultured readers, a " superior " function more and
more difficult to reconcile with bunness considerations. It was
one of the earliest supporten of the Imperialist movement, and
between 1895 and 1899 was the chief advocate in the Press of
resistance to the foreign bounties on sugar which were ruining the
West Indies, thus riving an early impetus to the movement for
Tariff Reform and Colonial Preference. During the years immedi-
ately following 189a, when the PaU MaU CcuUe again became
Conservative, the competition between Conservative evening papen
became acute, because the Gobe and Eoening Standard were also
penny Conservative ioumals; and it was increasingly difficult to
carry on the 51 Jameses on iu old lines so as to secure a profit to the
proprietor; by degrees modifications were nude in the general
character of the paper, with a view to its containing more news
and less purdy literary matter. But it retained its original shape;
with sixteen (after 1897, twenty) small pages, a form which the
TheSt
562
NEWSPAPERS
IBRmSH
Pgg JUtU abindoned la ite. GfaduallythMecliaiiget took effect.
In 1900 Mr Theodore Andrea Cook, who had been namtant-editor
ainoe 1898, became editor for a brief period, and subeoquently Mr
Ronakl MacNeiU (till 1903) acted in thb capacity, with Mr W. O.
Rom as manager. Meanwhile the St Ja$mu» BwdiU, which up to
1803 had been a weekly edition o( the Goactte, was turned mto an
independent illustmtea weekly,
^^ edited from the lame oIBct by
Mr J. Penderel-Brodhurst (afterwards editor of the GMordiam), who
had been on the editorial staff since 1888: and it continued to be
published till 1899. In 190^ the 51 /aiN««'« was soki to Mr C. Arthur
Pearson, who in 1905, having boiurht the morning Stamdardt amal-
gamated the 51 Jamts's with the EMmnt StoMdard,
The Enmint Standofd had been founded in 1837 (tee un^er the
Skmdard above), and when it was amalgamated with
the Si Jatmes's GautU hi 190^, the two titles covered a
new paper, in a new form, as the penny Eatmng Standard
amd St Jamu's uaaette.
When the PaU Mall Gaaette was soU to Mr Astor in 189a and
converted into a Conservative organ, Mr E. T. Cook, the editor, and
T^ ' °*<^ ^ ^ *^^t resigned, and in 1893 they came together
™ "'•^ again on the Westmuuler CautU, newly started for the
"y"^-^"" tHj.,. ,^ 1/. -.;; G. ::. »aes (who had made a fortune out
**"*"** oi iU'b%tj and oihtr pH)pulaJr papers) as a penny Liberal
rvcning paper. \t was printed vxi green paper, but the novelty of
thii iDon were off. The piiipcr v^'^s conducted on the Unes of the old
BfiM. Maii, and iE had the advantnj^^e of a brilliant political cartoonist
in P. Carruthcra Gould. In 1 S95 Mr Cook was appointed editor of
rjTAlf
the Daiiy Ncwi, and hit pUccr wa ^ ablv filled by Mr J. Alfred Si
whirhad been his assifUiit-cditor. Mr Gould (who was knighted in
t9oA)bi^ hia dilef si^itan t . Ap^ut from Sir r . C. Gould's cartoons,
the IIVtAiniMttr faccsjne conepkuoMs in London evening journalism
for its htEti standard of judicitjui political and literary criticism.
It gradually became I he diicf origin of Liberal thought in London.
One of its early htcmry Euccesen I was the original publication of
Mr Anthony Hopr's DoUy Di^a^iUS, and it continued to maintain,
more than, any other i-vp.<ning iki^inST, the older literary and political
traditioa of the " gentleisanly journalism" out of which it had
sprung. In 1908 a change of proprietorship took place, the paper
being soki by Sir G. Newnes (d. 1910) to Mr (afterwards Sir) Alfred
Mond, but without affecting the penonmd or polky of the paper.
The first modem EngUsh evening newspaper to be issued at a half-
penny was the London Eoening News — afterwards known as the Day.
KmMimmmmw ^^ ^^^ stSTted iu 1 855, but 80on failed to meet expenses
^*^y and disappeared from the scene. In 1868 appeared the
London Echo, published by Henry Cassell. It had for its
£__^ ^:..— ..-.:i .€)-j^ ^, (afterwards Sir) Arthur Arnold
for Salford (1880-1886) and chairman
first editor, until 1875. Mr (afterwards Sir) Arthur Arnold
, 1833-1902). afterwards M.P. for Salford (1880-1886) and chairman
of the London County Council (185)5-1896), who was well known
both as a writer and traveller and as loundtf of the Free Land Leu;ue
(1885). Baron Albert Grant (1830-1899), the |»oneer of modem
mammoth company-promoting,* afterwards took the Echo in hand
and wasted a fortune over it; and eventually it was owned for some
years by Mr Passmore Edwards, coming to an end in 190^ The
Evening News was begun at a halfpenny m 1881 as a Liberal organ,
but was shortly afterwards bought bv a Conservative syndicate.
It saw stormy times, and at the end of tnirteen years it had absorbed
£298,000 and was heavily in debt. Its shares could then be purchased
lor threepence or fourpence each. In August 1894 it was
by Messrs Harmsworth for £25,000. and under Mr Kennedy Jom
management devck>ped into a highly successful property. Cm 17th
January 1888 the first number of the Star aopeared, undo-theeditor-
shipof MrT. P. O'Connor (b. i848),asahairpenny evening newspaper
in support of Mr. GUdstone's policy. When Kir O'Connor left the
giper, Mr H. W. Masungham became its editor, and subsequently Mr
raest Parke. In 1909 the Star was acquired by a new proprietor-
ship in which Messrs Cadbury and the Daily News had an important
share. From the first it was conspicuous for its advanced attitude
in politk», and also for excellent literary criticism. In 1893 MrT. P.
O'Connor founded the 5iifi. whk:h eventually passed into the hands
of a succession of proprietors and came to an end in October 1006.
As regsrds the purely sporting press in London, Sportmg lAfe,
started in 1859, became a daily in 1883. and m 1886
incorporated the old BeWs Life, The daily 5Aof<mMii.
the leading paper, was founded in 186^. The financial
daily press is a modem creation and has taken many
shapes: the Financier was the first regular daily, but in
1884 the Financial News, under Mr H. H. Maries, made its appear-
* Albert Grant, who took that name though hb father's was
Gottheimer, was given the title of baron by King \^or Emmanuel
of ItaJy in 1868 for his services in connexion with the Milan picture
gallery. He made a larve fortune by company-promoting, and in
1 865 became M . P. f or Kidderminster. He became a prominent public
charactte in London. In 1873 he built Kenangton House, a vast
roanrion close to Kensington Palace, whkh in 1883 was demolished
and the site seised by his creditors. In 1874 he bought up Lekxster
Square, converted it into a public garden, and presented it to the
Metropolitan Board of Works. But soon afterwards he failed, and
from 1876 to his death he constantly .figured in the law-oourta at the
suit of nis creditors.
ante, and in 1888 the FiMiiaa/ TlifMfr and these becaoK the leadiaf
papers of their class.
The London wetlcly pre»a (lee abo under PcriodkaU) hau il^j% «i
worn a motley garb. Wc-e Uy publica uurt (acilitati^-i the indj viduattcy
of a journal, both aa rtrupccii iu cdlLor^hip and a» rtr^pccti
the class of readers \a whkh it more o^peci^Ily addrc»ca
itself. From the day a vA Qanitrl Defoe th<:re havt alitayi
been newqiapers bearintc ^^^ unittlstakable tinprcsA d sm
individual and powurf uL mind. Cobbott't Wtrkl^ iUpiief
affords perhaps as striking an illu^fation uf joumaliiiQi a its |
ness and in it* nu-annn^ as could be iovmd
entire annals. And Cobbctt's pf*r ha* h^d
some of which, praEitinf^ by tlie marvcitouj mechankal apf»ti-
ances of the prtstnt iday< have att;iinr<| a far wider pcrpuUr
influence than waa pciisciMrd by iht Wttkly Re^itUf in it* mo*t
prosperous days.
The history of the weekly reviews practically begins with the
Examiner, which was founded in 1808 and had a long career as one
of the most prominent organs of the Liberals, ending in 1881. That
its literary reputation was great resulted naturally from a 1
of such Mitors as Leigh Hunt. Albany Fonblanque. John Forster
and Henry Morlcy. This was succeeded in January 1817 by the
foundation of the Literary Casette, the proprietor of which was Henry
Colbum and the first etUtor William jerdan. Jerdan su c cee d td in
inducing; Crabbe and Campbell to contribute to it. and among tboee
who assisted him were Bulwer Lytton, Barry Cornwall and Mrs
Hemans. The Literary Gaeette came to an end in 1862. At the end
of 1820 Theodore Hook founded John Bull, which for a time had
extraordinary pofnilarity; to it he contributed the most brilliaiit
of his jeux aesfrU,
Epodis in the development of this form of literature were marked
by the foundation of the Athenaeum by Tames Silk Buckingham in
January 1828 and by that of the Spectator by Robert Stephen Khitoul
later in the same year.
The Spectator was edited for thirty years by Robert RintouL In
1858 the latter sold the paper to Mr Scott, who retired, *
from the editorship after a few months; and for a time the
5^eclalof was in low water. In 1861 it passed into the hands
of R. H. Hutton iq.v.) and Meredith Townsend, and under
them became a successful exponent of moderate Liberalism
and thoughtful criticism, particularly in the discussion of
religious problems, such as were uppermost in the days of the Bfcta-
physical Society. The high character and literary reputation of the
Spectator were already esublished when, in 1897, it passed into the
hands of Mr J. St Loe Strachey (b. i860), but under him it became
a more powerful organ, if only because it more than maintained its
position while the other weekly papers declined. Unionist in politics
since 1 886, the Spectator after 1903 was the leading organ of FreeTcade
Unionists who opposed tariff reform, until the progress of f>«-^»^m
and the extravaeance of Mr Lloyd-George's budget in 1909 caused
it to accept the full policy of the Unionist party in pre f erence to the
dangers of socialistic radicalism. No paper in London, it mny weU
be said, has earned higher respect than the Spectator, or carried more
weight in its criticisms, both on politics and on literature. This has
not been on account of any special brilliance of the pyrotechnic
order, but because of continuous sobriety and good sense aiaKl
unimpeachable good faith.
The 5aiiffday Review, on the other hand, is important historically
rather for the orilUance of its " palmy days." First publiahed on
the 3rd of November 1855, it was founded by A. T. B. Bereafonl
Hope ( 1 820-1 887), a brother-in-law of Lord Salisbury, M.P. for
Maidstone and for Cambridge University, and a prominent chuich-
man and art patron ; with lohn Douglas Cook (i 808-1 868) as editor.
Mr Hope was the son of James Hope (1770-1831), author of Xs&r-
ins'. and it was reputed that Douglas C^k was " Anastmthu **
Hope and antagonism to Mr Gladstone did much to bring it round
to a pronounced Conservative view. Most, though not all, of ita
eariy staff had already worked under Mr Cook, when he waa editor
of the Morning Chronicle (from 1848 to 1854). In its literary com-
ment it gave much space to articles of pure criticism and schobrshin.
and almost every writer of contemporary note on the Tory tkSt
contributed to its columns. But the oMtter which did most to £ive
it its peculiar character was found in its outnoken or even sensational
•• middles "— " The Frisky Matron," " The Giri of the Period "
(by Mrs Lynn Linton), '* The Birch b the Boudoir," Ac The
editorship remained in the hands of Mr Cook till his deadi in 186S.
In 1861 a secession from the Saturday lasting till 1863. led to the
temporary brilliance of the London Keview (1860-1868), started by
Charles Mackay. Douglas Cook was succeeded by PhnipHarwood
(1809-1887), who had followed him from the Morning C krtmid t
and under whom Mr Andrew Lang became a contributor, with od»ers
of note. Mr Harwood retired in 1883. and was succeeded by his
former assistant Mr Walter Herries Pollock, under whom the fmpet
underwent some modifications in form to meet changes in the pauic
taste; Mr G. Saintsbury and Mr H. D. Traill were then prominetit
members of the staff, and Mr Frederick Green w ood wrote for the
paper till be started the Anti-Jacobin, In 1804 the Saturday F
BRITISH]
NEWSPAPERS
563
vms sold by the hdn of Mr Bereaford Hope to Mr Lewis Edmunds,
from whose hands it soon passed to Mr Frank Harris. In 1899 the
Cper was sold to Lord Hardwkke and came under the editorship of
r Harold Hodge, who remained in this position when, after Lord
Hardwicke'a death in 1905, it passed into the hands of Mr Gervase
Becket.
The Saturday Rniew and Speclator, as the exponents of brilliant
Toryism and serious Liberalism, had the field practically to them-
aelvrs for some years; but when in 1886 the 5^ecioiof followed the
Liberal Unionists in opposing Home Rule for Ireland, and ceased to
support Mr Gladstone, the result was the addition to London joumal-
bm of the Radical Speaker (1898); and in 1898 the threepenny
Outlook (altered in price in 1905 to sixpence) was started, to present
more particulariy the growing interesU of the Colonies and the
Empire, a side f unher developed in 1905 and 1906 under the editor-
ship of Mr J. L. Garvin (b. 1868) in its advocacy of Mr Chamberlain's
policy of a preferential tariff, when the Spectator became aggressively
Free Trade. In December 1906 the Outlook was sold by its pro-
prietor. Mr C. S. Goldman, to Lord Iveagh. and Mr Garvin resigned
the editorship. In 1907 the Speaker was incorporated with the
Nation, a new Radical weekly, edited by H. W. Massmgham. Several
ambitious new weeklies meanwhile started, and some passed away
before the end of the century, such as the Realm, the British Review
and the Reoiem of the Week. The most brilliant of all these, which
also lasted the longest, was the Saas (soon renamed the Naiiomal\
Observer (1888-1897). edited at first by W. E. Henley (9.0.), and
subsequently by J. E. Vincent (d. 1909). Mr Henley, assisted by Mr
Charles Whibley. collected a band of clever young writers, who
fonned almost a school " of litcranr journalism, and many of whom
mm their spun in literature by tneir contributions to this paper.
The PiM (1900) under Mr D. C. Lathbury was another brilliant
attempt, but it failed to pay its way and hardly lasted for three years.
Afloong purely literary weeklies the Athenaeum found a rival in the
Academy, founded in October 1869 bv Dr Appleton and edited by
him. I^ter, under the editorship of J. S. Cotton, it was famous
fcM- its signed reviews and scholarly character; but the small circle
to whom pure literature appealed made financial success difficult.
In 1896 the Academy was bought by Mr Morgan Richards, and for
some years was edited by Mr Lewis Hind, amalgamating Literature
|(a weekly which had been started by The Ttmes) in looi; and
fittbsequently under changed proprietors it was successively edited
hy Mr Tetgnmouth Shore and Mr Anderson Graham. In April
1907 it was bought from Sir G. Newnes by Sir Edward Tennant,
and' subsequently passed under the control of Lord Alfred
Douglas, who in 1910 parted with it to a new proprietary.
The publication of Sunday editions of the daily papers has not
fooad toe same favour in England as in the United States. In 1899
a Sunday Dailv Mail and a Sunday Daily .Tde^jraph
appeared simultaneously; but public opimon was so
violent against seven-day journalism that both were
withdrawn. The oldest of the Sunday papera, the Observer (i79i)i
was conducted by one editor, Mr Doxat, tor more than fifty years.
It was one of the first papers to contain illustrations. In later yeara
Mr Edward Dkxy was a noUble editor. In lOps the (76«m«r passed
into the hands 01 Lord NorthdiiTc, his first editor being Mr Austin
Harrison, a son of Frederic Harrison. In 1907 Mr J. L. Garvin
became editor, and under him the old influence of the Observer
revived.
Jley^s WeeUy Newspaper started as uk unstamped illustrated
journal at'a penny in September 1842. In 184^ it was enlarged in
size, and the price raised to threepence. Curious mgcnuity was shown
in advertising it by all sorts of expedients. Amongst others, all the
* i its proprietor could lay his hands on were embossed, by a
' constructed machine, with the title and price of the new
^ The Times drew attention to this defacement of the coin
of the realm, and so gave it a better advertisement still. From
a weekly saJe of 3A.000 in 1848 it rose to 170,000 in 1861. In antici-
pation of the abohtion of the paper duty, the price was then reduced
to a penny, and its circulation continued to increase. In later years
ft bad an able editor in MrT. Catling. Reynolds's Weekly Newspaper,
an extieroe Radkal paper with a large circulation, dates from May
185a Other Sumlay papers came later into existence — the People
ItMi), the Sunday (afterwards Weekly) Sun (1891), the Sunday
deverly <
joumaL
Special (1897)— ^^ which in 1904 was amalgamated the Sunday
Times (1822). The Referee (1877). a paper with a strong sporting
and thestrical interest, is famous tor the humorous contributions by
'" (G. R. Sims) and the pungency of its miscellaneous
Times (1
ind thea
'Dagooct
Of the London illustrated weekly papen the oldest, the lUustrated
"* n News, was founded in 1842; the Graphic in 1869; while the
Pictorial World, whkh lasted for some years, bnan in 1874*
In 1891 Black and Wkite was started; and m 18^2 the
Sketch, edited by Mr Clement Shorter (also then editor of
the Illustrated London News), introduced a lighter vein.
Mr Shorter gave up the editorship of these two weeklies in 1901.
and became editor of a new illustrated weekly, the Sphere, with the
proprietnrship of which came also to be associated the Tatler.
Another new illustrated weekly of a high class. Country Life lUus-
iraUd, beean in 1897.
The " Socictv " weeklies. Truth (1877). Vanity Fair (1868)— with
a separate cartoon as a special feature, famous for the artistic work
of Pellegrini. Leslie Ward and others— and the World „ ^^^^^.^
(1874). brought a new " note " into regular journalism, _^722L
Mr Edmund Yates's success with the World largely con- "^T*"^
tributing to the increase of the personal style which he "■'■■™'"
did so much to introduce; and Truth made its proprietor, the
politician Mr Henry Laboudiere, one of the most prominent men of
the day, not so much for its amressive Radkalism as for its vigorous
exposures of all sorts of public charlatanry.
Among other weeklies, important ones are such eodesiastical
as the Guardian (1846), the Record (1828), the Chnrch Times
, the Tablet (1840), Ckristian World (1857), Methodist Times
^. ; the medkal papers, the Lancet (1823) and British Medical
Journal ; the financial pafyers, the Economut (1843) and Statist
(1878); and the sreat sporting and country-house paper, the Field
(1853).
Among humorous papers Punch (1840) stands first (see Cari-
cature,) of whKh (1895) Mr M. H. Spiehnann published 9.History;
Fun f 186^1901), Mr Harry Fumiss's Lika Joho (1894, „
only for a few months), Judy (1867), Moonshine (1879) """'•"""
and Pick^mo-up (1888), have also catered for popular ^f^
gaiety.
The introduction of women into English journalism in any laige
degree was one of the new departures ol the last quarter of the 19th
century. It was indeed no new thing for women to write _.
for the Pkcss. Harriet Martineau was, in her day, one of the
mindpal members of theZ>at/yiV«wxstaff,andMissFnncea
Power Cobbe (i822-i905)the advocate oifanti- vivisection- ■*»
ism, was an active journalist. Miss Flora Shaw G^dy Logard), as
writer of colonial topics for The Times, or Mra Crawford, as raris
correspondent of the Daily News, are other notable instances of the
prominence of women's work in the same spheres with the ablest
men. But such cases as these were exceptional, in which something
|n the nature of a personal mission and a peculuir aptitude save the
impulse. Joumahsm as a profession for women came, however,
to be widdy resorted to, partly through its obvious recommendation
in a day when women's education required an alternative outlet,
for those who had to earn their living, to that of the teaching pro-
fession; partly, and port passu, through the immense increase in
women readera and the immensely increased publicity given in news-
papere to mattera of primarily feminine interest. In 1880 the only
*' ladies' paper " of any importance was the Queefi, a weeldy whicn
dates from 1861. But subsequently a considerable number of new
weeklies entered the field: notabfy the Lady's Pictorial (1880);
the Lady (1885); Womasi (1889): the Gentlewoman (1890), which
owed iu success to the vigorous management (rf Mr J. S. Wood;
Madame (1895); and the Ladies' Field (1898). New monthlies also
appeared, in the Englishwoman, the Ladies' Realm and the Woman
at Home. The sphere of action of the lady journalist was soon
by no means confined to the " ladies' papen," or to the writing
of columns on dress or cook^ for such general journals as found
it useful to cultivate feminine readers; women invaded every other
fidd of journalism, especially the laige new field of " interviewine "
and fashionable gossip. The increase in women-writera generafly,
novelists, dramatists, poets, reacted on their connexion witb journal-
ism; the increased "respectability" of journalism made it easier
for them to work sule by side with men; and gradually nobody
thought the introduction of women into this sphere anything out of
the common; a lady journalist, in fact, was much less remarkable
than a lady doctor. '
British Prorincial Press.
England tind ITa/sr.— Though the real development of English
provincial journalism, as a power coordinate with that of London,
only dates from the abolition of the stamp duty in 1855, many country
newspapers before that time had been marked by literaiy ability
and originality of character. The history of the provincial press of
England begins in 1690 with the weekly Worcester Postman (now
Berrow's Woruster JourmU). The Stamford Mercury (iG^si earliest
known 171 2; long known as Lincoln, Rutland and Stamford Mer-
cury);,, Norwich Postman^ (1706): Nottingham Courant (1710),
afterwards renamed Journal ; Newcastle Courant (1711); Liverpool
Courant (1712; shortlived); Hereford Journal (1713); Salisbury
Postman (j7J<); Bristol Fatx Farte/s Journal (171$; merged into
the Bristol Ttmes in 1735*); the Canterbury Kentish Post (1717;
afterwards Kentish GaMette); Leeds Mercury (17 17); Exeter Mercury,
Protestant Mercury,' and Postmaster or Loyal Mercury (all 1718*);
York Mercury (1718), and Manckester Weekly Journal (1719), came
* The Norwich Postinan, a small quarto of meagre contents, was
published at a penny, but its proprietor notified that " a halfpenny
IS not refused 'I Within a few yean Norwich also had its Courant
(1712) and Weekly Mercury or Protestant's Packet (1720).
■ Amalgamated with the Bristol Mirror (1773) in 1865 to form the
Daily Brutal Times and Mirror.
■Exeter was then fiercely political. These three newspapen
commented so freely on proceeoings in parliafnerit that their edtton
were summoned to appear at bar {Journal of the House of Commons.
xix. 30, 43, If 18). The incident is curious as showing that each
represented a rival MS. news-letter writer in London.
5^4
NEWSPAPERS
rddy afterwards; and other eariy papen mth mentioniiig were
SaUshiiry Journal (1729); Mofuketter GaatUe (1730-1760);
MancktsUr Mercury (1763-1830); the eariieat Binningham
paper, Ari^s GoMeUe <i74i): the CamMdgt CkromtU (1744);
and the (hSord Journal (1753)* Liverpool also boasted 01 the
iMtrpool AdoerUser (1756) and Cart's Central AdaerHser (1765-
1870). Of the above the Leeds Mercury (1717) became an in-
creasingly important provincial orsan. It was originally puUished
weekly, and its price was three-halfpence. In 1729 it was reduced
to four pages 01^ larger size, and sold, with a stamp, at twopencew
From 1755 to 1766 iu publication was suspended, but was resumed
in January 1767, under the management of James Bowle]^, ^riio
continued to conduct it for twenty-«even yean, and raised it to a
circulation of 3000. Its price at this time was fourpenoe. The
increase oi the stamp duty in 1797 altered its price to sixpence,
and the circulation sank from 3000 to 800. It was purchased ia
i8ot' bv Edward Baines, who fint began the insertion of " leaders,"
and whose family left an impress not only on journalism but on
literature in the North of England. It took him three vears to
obtain a circulation of 1500; but the Mercury afterwards made
rapid progress. When the Stamp Tax was removed, its price was
reduced to a penny, and in 1901 to a halfpenny. For many years it
admitted neither racing nor theatrical new to its columns, and it
had a powerful moral and political influence in I Lancashire and
Yorkshire.
The abolition of the duty on advertisements in i8«, of the
stamp duty in 1855, and of the paper duty in .1861, opened the way
for a cheap press, and within ten yean of the abdition of the paper
duty penny morning newspapers had taken up commandittg posi-
tions in Eldinburght Glasgow, Dundee and Aberdeen; in Liver^
pool, Manchester, Leeds, Bradford, Newcastle and Sheffield; in
Birmingham and Nottingham; in Bristol, Cardiff and Plymouth ;
and across St George's Channel in Dublin, Cork, Belfast and Water-
fwd. As time went on, and increasiiM;Iy after the 'seventies, pro-
vincial evening jxipcrs begpin to multiply. But any real importance
as organs oi o^nion was still confined to only a few of the great penny
provincial dailies, notably the Yorkshire PosL Manchester Cuardian,
Birmingham Post (1857), Sheffield Teletraph (associated with Sir
W. Leng), Liverpool DaUy Post, Leeds Mercury and Western Morning
News; others too numerous to mention here were at the same time
cradling journalists who were to become famous in a larger sphere,
such as the Darlinpon Northern Echo, on wfakh Mr W. T. Stead made
his ddbut, while Mr Joseph Cowen for some years made the Newcastle
Daily Chronicle a powerful force.-
The provincial loumals began a» strictly local ocgana. But even
in 1870 it was beginning to be universally perceived that, though the
influence ef a newspaper depends upon the sagacity, sound judgment
ancLcourage of the editor, its success as a business enterprise rests
mamly with the business manager. Managers demanded leas local-
ism, a wider range of news, prompter and fuller reports of all im-
portant events, longer p^liaroentary reports, parliamentary
sketches, verbatim reports of speeches by statesmen of the first rank.
In the eariy 'seventies such a thing as a full telegraphic report in a
provincial morning newspaper of parliamentary prooeedinKS, or of
a speech by a leading statesman, was almost unheard of. The Press
Association had been in existence a short time, but had not then
covered the country with its organization. Renter's foragn news
service very briefly reported importallit events. Leading articles were
written during the day. Between 1870 and 1880 a complete revolu-
tion was effected, as the result of the social and educational changes.
Leader-writers began to discuss the latest topics. Newspapers that
had been content to fill their columns with local news and clippings
from London and distant provincial papers put such matter aside.
Telegraphic news crushed it out. In February 1870 the govern-
ment took over the tel^raph system. The advantage of the change
was immediately felt by newspapers and their readers. Leading
English and Irish newspapers, following Scotland's lesid. began to
open offices in London, where Fleet Street soon began to be an open
directory to the provincial press — English, Scottish and Irish. The
Scottish and the leading Irish newspapers of necessity, the wealthiest
and most enterprising English papers for convenience and advantage,
cngagfed special wires. Others that were near enough to London to
do so secured London news and advertisements oy railway, and
completed their news supply by a liberal use. of the telegraph.
Commerdal news, both home and foreign, especially American, was
expanded. The Press Association sprrad its news-collecting organ-
ization over the whole country, and was.stimulated to activity by the
rising opposition of the Central News. AU this energy had ita
counterpart in the business side of the press. Rapid " perfecting "
printing machines were introduced, and ne ws p a per managers found
themselves in possession of newspapers full 01 the latest news, and
procurable in practically unlinuted quantities. By the use 01
iNpedal trains and other ocganizations, circulation increased apace.
The development of news agencies, and their aniversal employment,
tended to produce sameness in the provincial press. From this fate
the more enterprising journals saved themselves by special London
letters, pariiamentaiy sketches and other special contributions.
In 1881 the reporters gallery in the House of Commons was opened
to some provincial newqiapers. and these accordingly enjoyeo new
B lor qiecial effort and distinction. A more important matteri
(BRITISH
however, waa the bombardment of Afexandria and the subsequent
Egyptian War. The leading provincial newspapers had alrieady
emanripatfid themselves from localism, and in general news and
criticism had risen almost, if not quite, to the aversoe level off the
first-dass London journals^ Now they were to step aoroad into the
field of war. Sini^y or in syndicates, or by arrangement with Lotidoo
journals, the leading provincial nrwspapers sent out war corre-
spondents, and were able to record the history of events as promptly
and fully as the m e tro politan press. The first syndicate to send cut
war correspondents was formed by the Gasffm News, the Leaerpoel
DaUy PotL Manchester Courier, Birmingham Caaetle and Western
Morning Nems, who despatched two oorreqxmdenta to Egypt* aod
the new departure was attended with complete sooceaa. The
Central News also sent out war correspondenu to Egypt sum! the
Sudan. During the South African War (1899-1902) the PRas
Association, in conjunction with Renter's Agency, employeKf corre-
spondents, as well as the Central News. The leading pnyviodal
newspapers, however, all formed indicates amongst themad-ves to
secure war tetqtrams, and in many cases made arrangements for the
simultaneous publication of the letters and telegrams of leading
London journals. This system of securing simuluneous puUicatioii,
in provincial newspapers, of ^Mxial contributions to London momins
newspapers was afterwards still further extended, and articles a
exceptional interest that ha\-e been specially prepared for Ljondoo
journals may now be found on the same day in som4 of the leading
provincial newspapers.
By the beginning of 1880 the country had fallen upon a period of
low prices, and extra expenditure upon war telegrams and on an
improved su|^ply of general news was to a ooosidterable extent
balanced by the reduced cost of paper. A list compiled at the cooh
menoement of looa gave the names of dghty-aeven halfpenny daily
oewnapers published in Endish provincial towns, a conasderahfe
number of these being mormng joumalit. Of tbese^ sixty-two had
been issued since 1870, those baling earlier dates of origin beu^ in
most cases sheets which f ormeriy •were issued at a penny or more,
but had subsequently reduced their prices. (X the sixty-two tlttt
were issued since 1870, twenty-aeven appeared between 1871 and
1883, nineteen between 1883 and 1803 and sixteen bet wts iu la^t
and 1902. Under the stimulus of ateapoem the news ibfcti was
enlarged. More advertisements, more news, more varied ooatri-
butions, filled up the additional qmce. The cost of c om poai ti oa
increased, and, though circulation and revenue increased ahow there
was some danger to the margin of profit. Again inventioa caLineto
the rescue. In the 'eighties some of the leading provincial newapapera
began to use type-setting machines. In this forward step the
provinces were far ahead of the London papers, excepting Tlh* Tmwx.
The Soutkport DaUy iVnsy— since dead— led the way by introdacii«
six Hattersley machines, and soon afterwards type-setting nuu^anerr
became th^ rule in the provincial press. In the devdopcneot of
provincial papers, one factor of ^lecial importance must be noted.
the desire tor news about ^all branches of^sport. In 1870 apoctiK
' emtsraoed
meant horse-radn^ and little more. By degrees ..
athleticism in all its brandies, and progressive newsoapesB
looked to for information pn football, hockey, golf, cncket,
tennis, yachting, boating, cycling, wrettling, coursing, huntiog;. pokk
runninff, bowlsr billiards, chess, ftc, quite as much as for notices ot
luacal and dramatic pof ormanoes, and of other forms of
. performances, ___^—
and amusement. The ordinary provincial press, and its half penny
cvemng representatives, largely depend cm the attractioii of the
sporting news; and a number 01 qxcial local papers have alao been
started to cater for this public
S cou a nd . — ^The first n e w sp ap er purporting by ita title to be
Scottish (the ScUch Intettiitncer,^7Xh September 1&13) pad the first
newqiapera actually printed in Sootlanid {Mercurius QiUcets and
Mercunus Petiticus, published at Ldth in 1651 and 16^) were of
Eni^ish manufacture— the first being intended to commonicnte
more particularly the affairs of Scotland to the Lo ad oss e i a , tbe
others to keep Cromwdl's army wdl acquainted with the London
news. The rq)rinting of the PoliUcus was transferred to Edinbrniglx
in November 1654, and it continued to appear (under the aheied
title Mercurius PiMicus subsequently to April 1660) natil tke
beginning of 1663. Meanwhile an attempt by lliomas Syflnriit. to
estaUish a really Scottish newspaper, Mercurius Caledtmims, bad
failed after the appearance of ten numbers, the first of wbich bad
been published at Edinburgh on the 8th of January 1660. It was
not until March 1699 that a Scottish newspaper was fimly 4
lishM, under the tide of the Edinburgh GoMeUe, by James Wi
a printer of eminent skill in his art.* Before- the chiae of tbe
* This was followed by the Scekh Dene, the first number off 1 .
Is dated " September go to October so, 164.5," and by the Traiifit
Mercury (Na i. October 5, 1643). In 1648 a Merturiu» Scuiiems and
a Mercunus Quedemns were published in London. Tbe Scatek I}m&
was the only one of these which attained a lengthened ^existcnoa.
• Watson was the printer and editor, bat theperaoa linrnaoJ wm
James JlonaMsop, merchant in Edinbarffh ("Act in fa<«on of
James Donaldson for printing the GaaeUe'' Mardk I0.i«99. pabfiabed
j/»iff<m7a«fr. a. 333 so.). Amot,rnbkfl«Msr7
B as the second of E<finbargh newsnapera^
IfamwtM Cahd^umt and tbe fiamttu u
in MisceUanyeftka
ol Bdiuburg*
intervemng
BRmsiq
NEWSPAPERS
565
year the GaadU was tnuuferred to John Reid, by whoae Camily it
foQ^ cootiAued to be printed. In February 1705 Watson started the
Bdtmbmrth Omrant, of which he only puoUabed fifty-five numbers.
He states it to be his plan to give " most of the remarkable foreign
news from their prints, and also the home news (rom the ports of this
kingdom . . . now altogether neglected." The Courant appeared
thnce a week. Upon complaint being made to the privy council
concerning an advertisement inserted alter the transfer of the paper
to Adam Boi^, the new printer presented a supplication to the
council in which he expressed his willingness " that in all time
coming no inland news or advertisements shall be pot into the
Couramt^ but at the sight and alk>waacc of the clerks of council."
In 1 7 10 the town council authorized Mr Daniel Defoe to print the
Edimntrik Courant in the place of the deceased Adam Boig. Four
years earlier (1706) the indefatigable pioneer of the Scottish press,
James Watson, had begun the Scots Courant, which he continued to
print until after the year 1718. To these papers were added in
October 1708 the Edtnburgk Flying Post and m August 1709 the
Scots Postman, Five years later this paper appears to have been
incorporated with the Edinburgh Casette, The Catedonian Mercury
began April a8, 1720. At one period it was published thrice and
afterwards twice a week. Its first proprietor was William Rolland,
an advocate, and its first editor Thomas Ruddiman. The property
Essed to Ruddiman on Rolland's death in 1739, and remained m his
xiily until 1772. It is curious to notice that in his initiatory
number of April 1730. Rolland claimed a right to identify his
Mercury with that ol 1660. This journal, he said in his preface to the
public, is the oldest [existing] in Great pritain." And his successor
of the year i860 followed suit by celebrating the " second centenary "
of the Caledonian Mercury. He broueht out a facsimile of No. i of
Mercurius CaUdonius (JsMuaryr 1660}, in its eight pages of small
ouarto, curiously contrasting with the great double sheet of the day.
But sixty years is a long period of suspended animation, and the
connexion of the two newspapers cannot be proved to be more than
nominal. The Caledonian Mercury was the nrst of Scottish Journals
to give conspicuous place to literature — foreign as well as Scottish.
la the '45 one of its editors. Thomas Ruddiman, junior, virtually
sacrificed his life.^ and the other, James Grant, went into exile, for
the expression of conscientious political opinion. Its publication
ceased after an existence of more than one hundred and forty
years.
Notwithsunding the positive assertion* that the Edinburgh
Courant and the Edinburgh Evening Courant " were entirely different
journals, and never had any connexion whatever with each other,"
a substantial identity may be asserted upon better grounds than
those for which identity used to be claimed for the Caledonian
Mercury with Mercurius Caledonius. The grant by the town council
of Edinburgh in December 1718 of a licence to James M'Ewan to
print an Evening Courant three times a week appears to have been
really a revival, in altered form, of the original Courant, repeatedly
r ef e r r ed to -in csrlier, but not much earlier, records of tnc same
corporation. So revived, the Evening Courant was the first Scottish
paper to give foreign intelligence from original sources, instead of
repeatm^ the advices sent to London. In 1780 David Ramsay
became its proprietor. Under his manaKemcnt it is said to have
attained the largest Scottish circulation of its day. It was then of
neutral politics. Subsequently, returning to its original title, and
appearing as a daily morning pafier, it ranked for long as the senior
CMT^o of the Conservative party in Scotland, but at last the compe-
tition oftneSco/fmos caused its disappearance, and after amalsamat-
ing with the Glasgow News or the Scottish News in 1886, it expired in
1888.
The Edinburgh Wukly Journal began in 174^. but it only attained
celebrity when, almost seventy years afterwards, it became the joint
property of Sir Walter Scott and of James Ballantyne. Scott wrote
m Its columns many characteristic articles. Ballantyne edited it
until hb death in 1833. and was succeeded in the editorship by
Thomas Moir. The paper was discontinued about 1840. The
Edinbmrth Evening News started in 1873.
Th« Scotsman, the leading Scottish newspaper, was established
as a twicc-a-week paper in January i8i7 and became a daily in Tune
185^. It ranked as the chief onran of the Liberal party in Scotland,
until the Home Rule split in i88i6, when it became Unionist. It was
founded by William Ritchie, in conjunction with Charles Nfaclaren.
For a short period it was edited by J. R. M'Culloch, the eminent
political economist. He was succeeded by Maclaren, who edited the
paper until 1845. and he in turn in 18^8 by Alexander Russel (1814-
1876), who (with Mr Law as manager) continued to conduct it with
Kingdom's Intdligencer. But this was a London newspaper, dating
from 1 66a, which may occasionally have been reprinted in Scotland;
no such copies, however, are now known to exist. In like manner
the Sealtisk Mercury, No. I, May 8, 1693. appears to have been a
London newspaper oased upon Scottish news-letters, although in an
article written in 1848. in the Scottish Journal of Topography, vol. it.
p. 305. it is mentioned as an Edinburgh newspaper.
» During an imprisonment of six weeks in the Tolbooth of Edin-
burgh Ins health suffered so severely that he died very shortly after
his release.
* Crajit. History of tht Newspaper Press (1873). lii. 413.
srest ability until 1876. In* 1859 the first of Hoe's rotary machines
brought into 5icorland was erected for the Se<asman. The Scotsman
soon devek>ped into a great newspaper, strong both on its literary
ude and also in gathering news; and it was circulated all over
Scotland, its publishing ofnces being opened in Glasgow, which was
a better centre for distributing in the west, and in Perth for the
north. At last under Charles A. Cooper it succeeded in killing all
its rivals in Edinburgh. In 1885 the Scotsman issued an evening
The North British Advertiser was founded in 1836. The Witness
began in 1840 as the avowed omn of what speedily became the
Free Church party in Scotland. In its first prospectus it calls itself
the (M Whig. The paper appeared twice a week, and its editor, H ugh
Miller, very soon made it famous. In the course of less than sixteen
years he wrote about a thousand articles and papers, conspicuous for
liteiary ability, still more so for a wide range ot acquirement and of
original thought, most of all for deep conscientiousness. It survived
its first editor's death (1855) only a few years.
In Glasgow the Glasgow Herald was founded in 1783. When the
Scotsman extended its activities to Glassow, the Herald opened an
office in Edinburgh ; and it took an acUve part in breaking down
the old kxalism of Scottish papers. In later years it became a
powerful organ. The North British Daily Mail was established in
April 1847. George Troup, its first editor, made it specially famous
for the organizing skill with which he brought his intelligence at an
unprecedented rate of speed from Carlisle, the nearest point then
connected with London by railway.* The Glasgow Evening News
was started in 1870.
The Aberdeen Journal was founded as a weekly paper in 1748 and
became a daily in 1876. In 1879 it issued an evening edition. The
Aberdeen Daily Free Press, originally a weekly, dates from 1853.
In 1 88 1 it issued an evenine paper in connexion with itself. The
Dundee Advertiser, established in 1801, towards the latter part of the .
century extended its sphere of influence much on the lines of the
Scotsman and Glasgow Herald. It issued the Evening Telegraph in
1877. In 1859 the Dundee Courier, a halfpenny paper, had begun.
It may be added that a very large number 01 the men who have
distinguished themselves by their ubours on the great newspapers
of London, and several who rank as founders of these, began their
career and have left their mark on the newspapers of Scotland.
Ireland. — In 1641 appeared a sheet called warranted Tidings from
Ireland, but this, with Ireland's True Diurnal (1643). Mercurius
Hibernicus (1644), the Irish Courant (1600), were all of them London
newspapers containing Irish news. Tne real newspaper press of
Ireland began with the Dublin NewS'Leiter of 1685. Five years later
appeared the Dublin Intelligencer (No. i, September 30, 1690).
Both of these were shortlived. Pue s Occurrences followed in 1700
and lasted for more than fifty years, as the pioneer of the daily
press of Ireland. In 17 10 or in 171 1 (there is some doubt as to the
date of the earliest number) the Dublin GauUe began to appear,
the official organ of the vice-regal government. Falkener's Journal
was established in 1738. EsdaiU's News-Letter began in 1744, took
the title of Saunders s News-Letter in 1754 (when it appeared three
times a week), and became a daily newspaper in 1777.
In the Nationalist pre^s the famous Freeman's Journal has long
been prominent amongst the Dublin papers. It was established
as a daily paper by a committee of the first society of "United
Irishmen " in 1763, and its first editor was Dr Lucas. Flood and
Grattan were at one time numbered amongst its contributors,
although the latter, at a subsequent period, is reported to have
exclaimed in his place in the Irish parliament, " The Freeman's
Journal is a liar ... a public, pitiful liar." In 1870 it brought out
the Etfening Telegrabh. In 1891 the dissensions among the Irish
Nationalists led to the establishment of the Parnellite Dublin Daily
Independent and Evening Herald. In 1897 the Nation, formerly a
weekly, was brought out as a daily. On the Unionist side the
principal Irish paper is the Dublin Irish Times (1859).
Waterford j^sscsscd a newspaper as early as 1739, entitled the
Water ford FlytngPost. It professed to contain " the most material
news both foreign and domestic," was printed on common writing
paper and published twice a week at the price of a halfpenny. The
Waterford Chronicle was started in 1766.
The Belfast News-Letter was started in 1737: the Belfast Evening
Telegraph in 1870; the Belfast Northern Whig in 1834.
British Dominions beyond the Sea,
It is unnecessary here to give all the statistics for the British
Colonial press, which has enormously developed in modem times.
So far as its early history is concerned, it may be noted that Keimer's
Gazette was started in Barbadoes in 1731 and Granada followed with
a newspaper of its own in 1743. In Canada the Halifax Gatette was
established in 1751 and the MorUreal Gautte in 1765. The first
Australasian paper was the Sydney Gazette and New South Wales
Advertiser (1803-1843), the Derwent Star, in Van Dieman's Land
(Tasmania), starting in 1810. In modern days all the Briti>h
dominions beyond the sea have produced important and vrell-con-
ducted papers. The Canadian press has naturally had certain
marked affinities with the American ; but the Globe in Toronto, as
* See N<^€S assd Queries, 5th series, vii. 45, viii. 305.
566
NEWSPAPERS
the orsan of the Liberal party, has played a kadtng part in Canadian
history. In Auttralia the Sydney BuUetin, the Sydney Morning
Herald (1831— daily since 1840}, Sydney Daily TeUtra^, Melbourne
Argus (1846) and Melbourne Age C1854). with the evening Melbourne
Herald, have been the most important. In South Africa the Cape
Times (1876) has been the principal paper, but some of the Transvaal
English papers have exercised great influence in the disturbed
political conditions since about i8q^.
India. — For a considerable period under the rule of the East India
Company the Indian press was very unimportant both in character
and influence. It was permitted to shape its courae and to gain
a position as it could, under the potent checks of the deporution
power and the libel law, without any direct censorship, nor was it
found difficult to inflict exemplary punishment on the writers of
" offensive paraRraphs."
Prior to Lord WcUesley's administration the most considerable
newspapers published at Calcutta were the World, the Bengal Journal,
the Hurkaru. the Calcutta Gazette (the organ of the Bengal govern*
mcnt), the Telegraph, the Calcutta Courier, the Asiatic uirror and
the Indian Caaette. Mr Duane. the editor of the World, was sent to
Europe in 1701 for " an inflammatory address to the army." as was
Mr Charles Maclean, four years afterwards for animadverting in
the Telegraph on the official conduct of a local magistrate.
The Calcutta Englishman dates from 1 82 1 . Lord Wcllesley was the
first governor-general who created a censorship (April t799)> Hb
pressH»>de was abolished bj^ the marquis of Hastings in 1818. The
power of transporting obnoxious editors to Europe of course remained.
Perhaps the most conspicuous instance of its exercise was the re-
moval of the editor of the Calcutta Journal (Silk Buckingham),
which occurred immediately after Lord Hastings's departure from
India and during the government of his temporary successor, Mr
{ohn Adan. Buckingham's departure was followed closely (14th
rlarch 1833) by a new licensing act, far exceeding in stringency that
of Lord VVellesley. and (^th April 1823) by an elaborate " Reffulatton
for preventing the Establishment of Printing-Presses without Lkence,
and for restraining under certain circumstances the Circulation of
Printed Books and Papers." The first application of it was to
suppress the Calcutta Journal,
In the course of the elaborate inquitv into the administration of
India which occupied both Houses 01 Parliament in 1832, prior
to the renewal of the Company's charter, it was suted that there
were, besides 5 native journals, 6 European newspapers: three
daily, the Bengal Hurkaru, John BuU and the Indian Cautte;
one published twice a week, the Government Gazette; and two
weekly the Bengal Herald and the Oriental Observer, At this
period every paper was published under a licence, revocable at
pleasure, with or without previous inquiry or notice. At Madras,
on the other hand, the press remained unaer ri^id restriction. The
Madras censorship was removed whilst the parliamentary inquiry of
iB\2 was still pending.
One question only, and that but for a brief interval, disturbed
Lord William Bcntinck's love of free discussion. The too famous
" Half-Batta " measure led him to think that a resolute persistence
in an unwise policy by the home government aeainst the known
convictions of the men actually at the helm in India and an un-
fettered press were two things that could scarcely co-exist. It was
3n this occasion that Sir Charles Metcalfe recorded his minute
of September 1830, the reasoning of which fully justifies the assertion
— " 1 have, for my own part, always advocated the liberty of the
press, believing its benefits to outweigh its mischiefs; and I continue
of the same opinion." This opinion was amply carried out in the
memorable law (drafted by Macaulay and enacted by Metcalfe as
govemor-nneral in 1835), which totally abr6gated the licensing
system. It left all men at liberty to express their sentiments on
f>ublic affairs, under the legal and moral responsibilities of ordinary
ife, and remained in force until the outbreak of the mutiny of
1857.
In 1853 Garctn de Tassy, when opening at Paris his annual course
of lectures on the Hindustani language, enumerated and save some
interesting details concerning twenty-seven journals (of all sorts) in
Hindustani. In i860 he made mention of seventeen additional ones.
Of course the circulation and the literary merits of all of them were
relatively small. One, however, he said, had reached a sale of
4000 copies.^
In 1857 Lord Canning's law, like that of 1823. on which it was
closely modelled, absolutely prohibited the keeping or using of
printing-presses, types or other materials for printing, in any part
of the territories m the possession and under the government of
the East Indian Company, except with the previous sanction and
licence of government, and also gave full powers for the seizure and
prohibition from circulation of all books and papers, whether
printed within the Indian territories or elsewhere. ,
In 1878 an act was passed, which long remained in force, regulating
the vernacular press of India: " Printers or publishers of journals in
Oriental languages must, upon demand by tne due officer, give bond
not to print or publish in such newspapers anything likely to excite
* The Hurkaru and the Indian Gautie were long afterwards com-
bined under the new leading title. Indian Daily News (with the old
name appended).
(AMERICAN
feelings of dtaaffectbo to the government .or antipathy between
Krrsona of different castes or religions, or for purposes of extortion.
otification oi warning b to be made in the official gaaette if these
regulatwns be infringed (whether there be bond or not) : 00 repeti«
tion. a warrant b to issue for seizure of plant, &c.; if a deposit have
been made, forfeiture b to ensue. Provision b made ifot to exact
a deposit if there be an agreement to submit to a government officer
proofs before publication." After the dbtuibances.of 1908-1909
further ami more stringent regulatbns were made.
The Indian Daily J/trror (1863) was the first Indian daily in English
edited by natives. The total number of ioumab of all kinds pub-
lished within all the territories of Briti^ India was reported by the
American consular staff in 1882 as 373. with an estimated average
aggregate circulation per issue of 288,300 copies.. Of these. ^, with
an aggregate circulation of 56.650 copies, were published b Cal«
cutu ; 60. with an aegregate circulation of 51.776 copies, at Boobsy.
In J900 it appeared from the official tables tnat there were about
600 ne«rspaper>i, so called, published in the Indian empire, of which
about one-third, mostly dailies, were in the Indian vernaculars.
Calcutta had 15 dailies {Calcutta Englishman, &c.); Bombay a
(Bombay Gazette) ; Madras 4 (Madras Mail); Rangoon 3 (Ranfoon
Titnes); Allahabad 2 (Pioneer); Lahore 2 iCtsU and Military
Gazette).
AuTKORiTtBS.— For Ute developments, see Mitchell's, Sell's and
Willing'* Press Directories^ For historical information: I. B. W.
Williams, HisL of British Journalism to the Foundation of the Gazette
(1908); H. R. Fox- Bourne, English Newspapers (1877); *'Thc
Newspaper Press." Quarterly Renew, cl. 498-537 (October, 1880);
Hatton, Journalistic London (1882): Pebody's JSnf/uk Jourmoliin
(1882); Progress of British Newspapers in the igth Century (1901;
published by Simpkin, Marshall & Co.) : Andrews. History «/ Briiuk
Journalism (2 vols., i860): Hunt. The Fourth Estate; Grant. Tht
Newspaper Press (3 vols.. 1871-1873); Plummer. "The British
Newspaper Press." Companion to the Almanac (1876): Nichols,
IMerary Anecdotes of the Eighteenth Century, iv. 33-97. (H. Cb.)
3. Newspapers ov the United States*
Massackusells. '-BoaioQ was the first city of America that
possessed a local newspaper; but the earliest attempt in that
direction, made in 1689, and a second attempt, under the title
PuUick Occurrences, which followed in September 1690, were
both suppressed by the government of Massachusetts. Nearly
fourteen years afterwards (April 24, 1704), the first number of
the Boston News-Letter was " printed by B. Green, and sold by
Nicholas Boone." Its proprietor and editor — so far as it can fax
said to have had an editor, for extracts from the London papers
were its staple contents — was John Campbell, postmaster of the
town. In 1 7 19 he enlarged hb paper, in order, as be told his
readers, *' to make the news newer and more acceptable; . . .
whereby that which seem'd old in the former half-sheets becomes
new now by the sheet. . . . This time twelvemonth we were
thirteen months behind with the foreign news beyond Great
Britain,' and now less than five months; so that ... we have
retrieved about eight months since January last*'; and be
encourages hb subscribers with the assurance that if they «'ill
continue steady " until January next, life permitted, they will
be accommodated with all the news of Europe . . . that are
needful to be known in these parts." But Campbell's new plans
were soon dbturbed by the loss of hb office, and the commence*
mcnt of a new journal by his successor in the postmastership,
William B,rooker, entitled the Boston GaseUe " publbbed by
authority" (No. x, 21st December 1719)- The old journalist
had a bitter controversy with his rival, but at the end of the year
1732 relinquished hb concern in the paper to Benjamin Green,
who carried it on, with highci aims and greater success, until his
death, at the close of 1733, being then succeeded by hb son-iA-
law, John Draper, who published it until December 1763. By
Richard Draper, who followed hb father, the title was altered
to Massachusetts Gazette and Boston News-Letter; and the
maintenance of the British rule against the rising spirit of
independence uniformly characterized hb editorship and that
of his widow (to whom, at a subsequent period, a pension was
' For the general conditions producing the nKxiem type of
American newspaper, see the first section of this article. In the
following account of American and foreign newspapers, the historical
material in the 9th and loth editions of the Ency. Brit, has bees
utilized and in parts repeated.
* In other words, the attention of the Boatonbn politicbas was
engrossed on the siege of Belgrade, when their contempocaries in the
mother countiy were intent on the destruction of the Spanish fleet
on the coast of Sicily.
AMERICAN]
NEWSPAPERS
567
granted by the British government). It was the only paper
printed in Boston during the siege, and ceased to appear when the
British troops were compelled to evacuate the city.
The Boston CageUet founded in 27x9, had James Franklin,
dder brother of the celebrated Benjamin Franklin, as its first
printer. It lasted until the end of 1754, its editorship usually
/•hanging with the change of the postmasters. On the X7th
August 1721 James Franklin started the New En^nd CowarU,
the publication of which ceased in 1727; and t«o years later
Benjamin Franklin purchased the Pennsylvania Gautte, which
be continued weekly until 1765.
To the Boston Gazette and the Courant succeeded the New
Eng^nd WuUy Journal (20th March 1727; incoq;>orated with
the Boston Gazette in 1741), and the Weekly ReAearsal (2tth
September 1731), which became the Boston Eiening Post (August
X 735)> ^^ under that title was for a time the most popular of the
Boston newspapers. It aimed at neutrality in politics, and there-
fore did not survive the exdting events of the spring of 1775.
Several minor papers followed, which may be passed over without
notice. A new Boston Gazette, which began in April 1 755 (merged
in 1836 in the Centind), is of more interest. For a long time it
was the main organ of the poptUar party against England, and
expounded their policy with great ability, and in a dignified
temper. Otis, John Adams, Samuel Adams and Joseph Warren
were amongst its writers. It was strongly Republican after the
adoption of the constitution, especially opposing its old con-
tributor John Adams.
The Massachusetts Spy (1770), under the indefatigable editor-
ship of the American historian of printing, Isaiah Thomas,
did yeoman's service in this struggle, although of a different
kind from that of the Boston Gazette. The latter spoke chiefly
to the thinkers and natural leaders of the people. The Spy was
a light and active skirmisher who engaged his antagonists
wherever he met them, and frequently carried the war into the
enemy's country. In July 1774, during the operation of the
Boston Port Act, and soon after the landing of four British
regiments, it adopted Franklin's odd device, representing Great
Britain as a dragon, and the colonies as a snake divided into
nine parU with the motto, " join or die." But Boston grew too
hot for the patriotic printer, and he had to remove to Worcester
on the day of the battle of Lexington. Here the paper continued
to be published (as the Worcester Spy) until 1786,— the lack of the
stirring revolutionary matter being occasionally supplied by the
republication in its columns of entire books, such as Robertson's
America and Gordon's History of the Revolution. This journal,
like so many more, was for a time killed by a tax. The stamp
duty imposed in March 1786, though amounting to but two-
thii^ of a penny, and very speedily repealed, led to its suspension
until April 1788, when the weekly Massachusetts Spy was revived,
lasting till 1848. A morning edition, the Worcester Spy, was
started in 1845 and continued to be published till May 1904.
The Boston Centinel was another memorable newspaper. It
was founded in 1784 as the Massachusetts Centinel and the
Reptddican Journal, a semi-weekly; in 1790 becoming the
Columbian Centinel. For many years it was edited by Major
B. RusacU (1761-1845), a man who combined real ability with
moderation of temper and singular modesty and disinterested-
ness. He printed the Acts of Congress for a very long time
without charge, but the government eventually gave him £1400
in recognition of his work. The Centinel had good foreign news,
and Russdl was intimate with Louis Philippe and Talleyrand
when they were in Boston. In 1830 it absorbed the Palladium
(founded in 1793 as the Massachusetts Mercury, and renamed
in 1801 the Massachusetts Mercury and New England Palladium),
and in 1836 the Boston Gazette, but in 1840 was merged in the
Boston Advertiser. The Boston Daily Advertiser was founded in
18x3, and in 1832 absorbed the Patriot, which in 1819 was started
ant of a nucleus chiefly composed of the New Eng^nd Chronicle
(1776).
William Lloyd Garrison's once well-known Liberator was
fooixtod at Boston on New Year's Day 1831 For a time its
editor was also writer, compositor and pressman. In December
of that year the legislature of Georgia offered a reward of 5000
dollars to any one who would cause him to be apprehended and
brought to trial He continued the paper till 1865 and lived to
witness the abolition of negro slavery. In X827 Garrison also
edited in Boston the National Philanthropist, the first American
total abstinence paper.
Among modern Boston papers the most important are the
Evening Transcript (1830), Herald (1836), Daily Advertiser (1813),
Gobe (1872), Boston American (1904) and Post (1831).
Of Massachusetu papers outside Boston the most important
still in existence in 1910 was the morning Springfield Republican
(weekly, 1824; daily, 1844), established by Samuel Bowles,
father of Samuel Bowles (1826-1878), its most famous editor.
The Evening Salem Gazette, orinnally a weekly (1768). was a
famous paper during the War of Independence and in the period
immediately after. The Hampshire Gazette of Northampton,
Masaachusetts, founded in September 1786 in the interests of the
Administration at the time of Shaya's Rebellion, started iu daily
edition in 1890. The weekly Gazette OTid Courier (1841), was a
consolidation of the Grunileld Gazette (1792) and the Courier (1838).
The Salem Register and Mercury continues the Salem Register (1800)
and the Mercury, which was published in Salem as early as 1768,
but not continuously. The Haverhill Evening Gautte dates from
1798. In Pittsficld is published the Berkshire County Eagle, a weekly
established in 1789, with an cvenine edition, the Berkshire Evening
Eagle (1893). The Newburypoit Herald (evening 1880; morning
1892) continues the title of an earlier paper (1797) owned by Ephraim
W. Allen and William S. Allen.
At the commencement of the struggle for independence in 1775
Massachusetts possessed 7 newspapers, New Hampshire i (the New
Hampshire Gautte), Rhode Islai^d a, and Connecticut 3. — makine 13
in all for the New England colonies. Pennsylvania had 8, of which
the eariicst in date was the American Weekly Mercury (No. i, aand
December 1719) : and New York but 3, the oldest of them being the
New York OozetU (1725). Up to that period (1725) Boston and
Philadelphia were the only towns possessing a newspaper throughout
America. In the middle and southern cok>nies there were, in 1775,
in the aggregate. 10 journals, of which Maryland, Vimnia and North
Carolina possessed each 3, South Carolina 3 and Georgia i. The
tctal number of the An^lo-American papers was 34, and all of them
were of weekly publication.
New Hampshire. — The New Hampshire Gazette (1756; daily
edition since 1852), published at Portsmouth, was the " father "
of the New England press. The Cheshire Republican (1793) and
New Hampshire Sentinel (1799; evening edition since X890) are
still published at Keene.
Vermont.— The earliest paper established in Vermont was
the Green Mountain Postboy, first published in April 1781. The
oldest important paper in Vermont is the Rutland Herald
(established in 1794 as a weekly; daily edition since 1861).
The Vermont Journal of Windsor, Vermont, was established in
1783.
Maine. — ^The first pspers of any importance published in
Maine were the Portland Advertiser (evening, 1785), of which
James G. Blaine was editor in x 857-1 860; and the Eastern
Argus of Portland (September 1803). The latter was established
by Nathaniel Willis (1780-1870), the father of N. P. Willis.
Willis was converted in Portland by Edward Payson and about
x8o8 he left the paper. In X816-1826 he established in Boston
the Recorder, which is supposed to have been the first American
religious paper. In 1827 Willis established the Youth's Com-
panion, the most popular American juvenile paper. The Eastern
Argus was edited in X820-1824 by Seba Smith (1818-1868),
who established in 1829 the Portland Courier, which he edited
until 1837 and to which he contributed the sketches republished
in 1833 as Life and Letters of Major Jack Dawning.
Connecticut.— The Connecticut Courant of Hartford was
established in October 1764 as a weekly; in 1893 there appeared
a semi-weekly Issue, and its daUy issue, the Hartford Courant,
first appeared in 1837. The paper was a strong supporter of the
administrations of Washington and Adams. Probably the best
known of its editors is Joseph R. Hawley. Charles Dudley
Warner was long a member of the staff. The Hartford Times
(semi- weekly 181 7; daily, 1841) has always been a prominent
paper. Its principal early editors were Gideon Wells in 1826-
1836 (in 1861-1869 he was United States secretary of the navy),
and John Milton Niles (1787-1856), who was United Suies
S68
NEWSPAPERS
{AMERICAN
senator in 1835-1839 and 1843-1849 and was postmaster-general
of the United States in 184^1841.
Next to the CourarU, the oldest paper still published in Con-
necticut is the New Haven Journal^ established as a weekly in
1766 (the weekly edition is now styled the Connecticut Herald),
which first appeared as a daily in 1834 as the Morning Journal
and Courier. The New London Casette (1763), which in 1773
became the Connecticut Gazette, ceased publication in 1844.
Another Gazette was established in New London for a time,
but is no longer published and was in no way connected with the
earlier paper. The Danbury News (weekly, 1870, when The
Times and Jefersonian were consolidated; daily, 1883) is known
for the humorotis sketches contributed by its proprietor James
Montgomery Bailey (1841-1894). The Republican Farmer
(weekly) was established in 1790 in Danbuzy and in 1810 removed
to Bridgeport; the Evening Farmer was first published in 1855.
The Norwich Courier (weekly, 1796) has a daily edition, the
Bulletin (1858).
Rhode Island. — ^The oldest paper now published in Rhode
Island is the Newport Mercury (weekly; 1758), which, like most
of the other New Enghmd patriot sheets, was suppressed in 1765;
it was established by James Franklin, a nephew of Benjamin
Franklin.
Pennsylvania, — The Aurora (1790) was the most notable of
the early Philadelphia papers, next to Franklin's Gazette. It
was founded by Franklin's grandson, Benjamin Franklin Bachc,
who in 2784 had started the American Daily Advertiser, the first
American daUy. Bache and his successor William Duane (who
edited the paper till 1822) bitterly attacked Washington, Adams
and Hamilton; and the Aurora after 1793 was practically the
organ of Jefferson, but ceased to be of importance after the
national capital was removed from Philadelphia. From 1791
to X793 the principal Anti-Federalist paper was the National
Gazette, edited by Philip Freneau, whom Jefferson brought to
Philadelphia. As opposed to these there was the United States
Gazette, founded in New York in 1789, but removed to Phila-
delphia in Z790, which represented Alexander Hamilton. This
journal afterwards (1826-1847) was an important Whig organ,
under the editorship of Joseph Ripley Chandler (179 2-1 880).
In 1847 it was consolidated with the North American (1830),
which still survives in Philadelphia, having in its progress also
absorbed the Pennsylvania Gazette (1729-1845), for a time owned
by Benjamin Franklin, the Pennsylvania' Packet (founded 1771)
and other papers.
Other important Philadelphia papers still in existence are,
the Public Ledger (1836), founded as a one-cent paper, purchased
in 1864 by George W. Childs, who increased the price from
6} to xo cents a week; the Philadelphia Evening Bulletin, which
consolidated the American Sentinel (1815) and the Evening
Bulletin (1847); and the Press (1857), edited from x88o to 1908
by Charles Emory Smith (1842-1908), United Sutcs Minister
to Russia in X890-X892, and postmaster-general of the United
States in X898-1902.
Benjamin Lundy edited in Philadelphia in X836-1838 the
National Enquirer (anti-slavery), which became the Pennsylvania
Freeman and in 1 838-1840 was edited by John G. Whittier.
Outside of Philadelphia the oldest papers of importance in Penn-
sylvania are the Pittsburgh Gazette, first published in 1786 and
probably the first newspaper published west of the AUeghanics,
which in 1906 was consolidated with the Times (1879) to form the
CazclU Times', and the PiUsburgh Post (i7?2; daily, 18^2), one of
the few influential Democratic papers published in Pennsylvania ; the
Pittsburgh Dispatch iiB±6) is a morning paper. Other papers
founded before 1801 (and still published) in Pennsylvania are: the
Franklin Repository of Chambersburg (weekly, 1790; daily, 188O,
of which A. k. McOure was proprietor and editor in 1850-1856; the
Reading Adler (weekly, 1796), the oldest existing German newsijaper
in the country; the Intelligencer of Lancaster (i799). ^'ih which
the Journal (1794) was combined in 1839; the Westmoreland
Democrat of Grecnsburg (weekly, 1799); the Herald of Norristown
(weekly, 1799; daily, 1848).
Maryland. — The earliest journal of Maryland was WiUiam
Parks's Maryland Gazette, of Annapolis, begun in 1727, when in all
America it had but six existing predecessors. Discontinued in
1736, it was revived in 1739 by Jonas Green and lasted till 1839.
The oldest paper now published in Baltimore is the American,
the successor of the Maryland Journal and Baltinufre Advertiser
founded in August 1773; on the 2xst September 1814 it pub-
lished " The Star Spangled Banner." The Baltimore Sun was
started in x 83 7.
New Jersey.— Hevr Jersey had no reaUy established newspaper
before the Revolution, although the first number of an intended
journal was published in 1765, tmder the title of the Constitu-
tional Gazette, containing matters interesting to Liberty, but no viu
repugnant to Royalty. The earliest regular paper was the Nae
Jersey Cofeffe, • which began in December 1777 at Burlington
(soon removing to Trenton), and ceased publication in X786.
A Slate Gazette (weekly), now published in Trenton, dates from
1792 (daily, 1846) ; Trenton's largest paper is the Times (evening;
X882). The Sentinel of Freedom, a Newark weekly, was first
published in X796; its daily edition, the Star, dates from
1832. Newark's largest paper is the Evening News (1883).
The New Brunswick Times was first published as a weddy in
X792; a daily edition was added in 1849.
Virginia. — ^Virginia, notwithstanding its illustrious [ve-
cedency — the province of Raleigh, the cradle of Washington-
possessed neither newspaper nor printing oflice until 1736, so
that (as respects one-h^ at least of the wish) there was once a
prospect that the devout aspiration of Sir William Berkeley
might be realized. " Thank God," said this Virginian governor
in X67X, " we have neither free school nor printing press, and I
hope may not have for a hundred years to come." The earUest
journal established in the state was the Virginia Gazette,
commenced in 1736. It was still published at^ Williamsburg in
X766, when a second paper of the same name was estabUsbed
there. This second paper, backed by Thomas Jefferson, was
afterwards called the American Advertiser and then the Com-
mercial Advertiser, and stopped in X822. The Richmond En-
quirer, which started in x8o8, succeeding the Examiner, early
attained a leading position as a Democratic organ; it was
discontinued in x88o. The Alexandria Gazette (x8x6) is still
published.
Washington, D.C. — The first "administration organ" (1^.
expressing the political views of the administration, but n(^
officially a government paper), was the National Intelligencer
(1800); this position it held until 1829, when it became an
opposition paper. In Jackson's administration the United
Stales Telegraph, which had been purchased in 1826 by Duff
Green, became the " administration organ "; but in 1830
it was supplanted by the Globe. The United States Tdegrapk,
which had supported Calhoun, remained his organ untQ
X835, strongly favouring slavery and opposing the abolition
press. The Globe after December 1830 was conducted by
Francis Preston Blair the elder and John C. Rives (1795-1864);
it opposed Nullification, Secession, and the Southern wing of the
Democratic party. In X84X the National Intdligencer became
the administration organ; it was succeeded in the same >'car
by a new paper, the Daily Madisonian, President Tyler's organ,
and in X845 the Union became the organ of President Polk.
To the Union in X845 the Globe sold out, but only as a
party organ. In 1846 to 1871 the Globe was the publisher of
the Congressional debates. , President Taylor's organ during his
administration was the newly established Republican. During
President Fillmore's presidency the National InteOigenccr,
which was a Webster- Whig organ, returned to power, and during
Pierce's administration the Union was again the administratioD
organ, with the Evening Star (X853) a dose sccoikI. In
Buchanan's administration the influence of the Union continued.
During the Civil War most of these papers died off, except the
Star and the National ItUdligencer, which in 1870 removed to
New York, where it stayed as a semi-weekly for some time.
The Washington Post, now the leading paper, was founded in
X877. The National Era, the organ of the American and Foreign
Anti-Slavery Society, first published in Washington in 1844
(the Cincinnati Philanthropist was merged with it in 1847) by
Gamaliel Bailey, is known principally because Unde Tom's
Cabin ran in its columns as a serial in iSsx-xSsa.^ ANm
AMERICAN]
NEWSPAPERS
569
Naiumal Era (1870), was conducted in Washington by Frederick
Douglass and his son&.
New York.— The New York CazeUe (which started in New York
City on the 16th of October 1725) was followed by the Weekly
Journal (No. x, 5th November 1733), still memorable for thie
prosecution for sedition which it entailed on its printer, John
Peter Zenger, and for the masterly defence of the accused by
Andrew Hamilton. "The trial of Zenger/' said (jouvemcur
Morris, " was the germ of American freedom." Gaines's New
York Mercury was published from 1752 to 1783. James Riving-
ton (1724-1802) in 1773 published the New York Gazetteer as a
loyalist sheet, but his press was destroyed in 1775 and he went
to England; in 1777 he returned and published Rimngfon's
Neur York Loyal Gazette (semi- weekly), renamed first the Royal
Caxeiie and then Rinnan's New York Gazette and Universal
Advertiser, which came to an end in 1783. The semi-weekly
Independent Journal was one of the papers of New York City in
which, between October 27th, 1787, and April and, 1788, the
Federalist essays were published; in 1788 it became part of the
New York Gazette, and then in 1840 was consolidated with the
Journal of Commerce. The first daily newspaper published in
the city or state of New York was the New York Journal and
Register, commenced in 1788. In 1802 the Morning Ckroniclc,
edited by Peter Irving (1771-1838), a brother of Washington
Irving, was established as Aaron Burr's organ; in 1805 it was
merged in the Poughkeepsie Journal. Another political paper
was the Minerva (1793), under Noah Webster, which had a semi-
weekly edition, the Herald. These in 1797 became the Com-
mercial Advertiser and New York Spectator respectively. The
former (surviving as the Globe and Commerical Advertiser) was
edited in 1820-1844 by W. L. Stone and in 1867 by Thiurlow
Weed.
In 1810 the aggregate number of papers published within the
state was 66, of which 14 belonged to New York City. Ten years
later the city press included 8 daily journals, with an aggregate
daily circulation of 10,800 copies. No one paper circulated more
than 2000, and but two— the Evening Post (1801) and the Com-
tnercial Advertiser (1797) — attained that number.
The New York Evening Pos( was at first strongly Federalist
and practically an organ of Alexander Hamilton, who with John
Jay assisted in founding it. Its first editor was William Coleman
(i 766-1829). In the years immecUately following 1819 John
Rodman Drake contributed to the Post the " Croaker " pieces,
in which FitzGreene Halleck joined. William Cullen Bryant
began to write for the Post in 1826, and became its editor-in-chief
in 1828. John Bigelow, Parke Godwin, Carl Schurz, Horace
\!Miite, E. L. Godkin, editor from 1881 to 1901, and Henry
ViSard, are the important names in its history. Rollo Ogden
became editor in 1903. Closely connected with the Post is
the weekly Nation, long edited by E. L. Godkin {q.v.). The
Post was strongly Federalist until the War of 181 2; it opposed
the Hartford Convention; until 1S60 it was consistently
Democratic; it supported Lincoln in i860 and in 1864 and
Grant in 1868; in later years it was an advocate of free trade
and of dvil service leform. There were earlier Evening Posts
in 1746-1747 and in 1794.
The cheap (two-cent) press of America (the previous price
having usuaily been six cents) began in New York in the shape
of the Morning Post (ist January 1833), which only lasted a few
weeks; the r^ pioneer was the Daily Sun (No. i, 23rd
September 1833), written, edited, set up, and worked off by
Benjamin Henry Day, a journeyman printer. It sold at one
cent till the Civil War, when it charged two cents, the price
remaining at that figure. The New York Sun was acquired in
1868 by Charles Anderson Dana (q.v.), who made it a powerful
organ, and under his successor William M. Laffan (184&-1909)
it remained one of the great dailies.
The New York Herald followed in May 1835, founded and
edited by James Gordon Bennett (q.v.), and his efforts and those
of his son gave it an enormous commercial success.
The New York Tribune was established in 1841 by Horace
Greeley iqjv.), who remained its editor and one of its proprietors
until his death, shortly after his defeat for the presidency in
1872. He was succeeded as editor and proprietor by Whitelaw
Reid (b. 1837), who had joined the staff in 1868 and afterwards
became U.S. Ambassador in London. Directed by two such
men the Tribune became a powerful organ.
The New York Times, which was to rank with the Tribune
and Sun among the best modern American daily papers, Was
established by Henry J. Raymond (9. v.) in September 1851; and,
though absent at times in the discharge of Us duties as Heut.-
governor of New York and member of Congress, he continued
its editor and chief proprietor until his death in June 1869.
At the end of the century, under the control of Mr Adolph S.
Ochs (b. 1858), it was prominent in American journalism for the
excellence of its news service and literary character.
The New York World was founded in i860 as a highly moral
and religious sheet, which immediately failed and had to be
reorganized. In 186 1 the Morning Courier and the Enquirer
were mer;;cd into it. In 1864 it and the Journal of Commerce
were suppressed for several days by the Federal authorities
because each had been tricked into publishing a forged presidential
proclamation of a draft and of a general fast day. In 1869 it
became the sole property of Manton Marble (b. 1834), who
retired from its editorship in 1875; in 1876 it was sold to a
syndicate and came under the control of Jay Gould; in 1883 it
was purchased by Joseph Pulitzer (b. 1847), and its modern
activity began. It worked hard for Grovcr Cleveland, especially
in his first campaign, and opposed W. J. Bryan and his policies.
The journals owned by W. R. Hearst (b. 1863) all over America
represent perhaps more conspicuously than any others the
popular developments which at the end of the 19th century
were associated with the nickname of the " Yellow Press."
His pai>ers in New York in 1910 were the American (originally
Journal', morning except Sunday); the Evening Journal, the
American and Journal (Sunday) and Das Morgen Journal.
Starting in the 'nineties as proprietor of the San Francisco
Examiner, Mr Hearst had a large fortune to enable him to carry
out his ideas of a thoroughgoing democratic journalism, appealing
particularly to the less literate masses and supplying all sorts
of sensational news. The da^ prejudice often underlying the
policy of his papers was bitterly criticized and resented by sober
American opinion, but their passionate appeal to the masses,
combined with their audacious and lively presentation of news,
gave Mr Hearst nevertheless a position of considerable power;
and no secret was made of his ambition to reach the highest
political positions, both in New York itself and in the Republic.
Dangerous as his social influence was considered by important
sections of the community, and unsuccessful as he remained up
to 1910 in obtaining municipal office or presidential nomination,
it remained the fact that, in the type of journalism so indefatigably
conducted under him, he represented a serious force in American
social and political life, and his journalistic methods were a
remarkable outcome of the conditions of a modern free press
in a democratic country, where a large public exists for the
consumption of the sort of newspaper fare which he was ready
to provide.
The New York Press (1887) is a morning Republican paper of
the strictest party type.
An important commercial paper of long standing in New York
is the Journal of Commerce and Commercial Bulletin, founded
in 1827 as the Journal of Commerce by Arthur Tappan (1786-
1865) and his brother Lewis Tappan (1788-1873), and in 1893
consolidated with the Commercial Bulletin (1865). The Journal
of Commerce in 1829-1830 was the first American paper to send
out news schooners which intercepted packet ships which brought
news especially of the French Revolution of 1830. Arthur
Tappan, who was one of the founders of Oberlin College, estab-
lished in 1833 the Emancipator, an abolitionist paper, of which
in 1833-1837 Eli2ur Wright (1804-1885), and in 1837-1840
Joshua Leavitt (1794-1873), were editors. Leavitt took the
paper to Boston. It was the weekly organ of the American
Anti-Slavery Society.
The New.>york Evening Mail (1833), for a time the Mail
570
NEWSPAPERS
and Express, was bought in 1888 and reorganized by Elliott
Fitch Shepard (1833-1893). The Express was established in
1836 with the help of Willis Hall (180Z-1868), a prominent
Whig lawyer and politician, by James Brooks (18 10-1873),
who had formerly been on the Portland Advertiser and in 1832
had written (for the Advertiser) the first regular Washington
correspondence. His brother Erastus (18x5-1886) was joint
owner of the Express in 1836-1877. James Brooks wrote several
books of travel and was involved in the scandal of the Credit
Mobilier.
Of the New York newspapera not in Emj^Hj-S the most impnnnnt
are the following. The Staats-ZeUunt (cvvrLing^ 1834} Is pLibliihi:xl
by a comnany of which in 1909 Herman Kidder (b. 1S51) wis
president, having since 1890 been treasurvr and manager. Riddcr,
a prominent German Democrat and Romaii Caiholic, DatabllU>f4 in
1886 the Catholic News, a weekly with a \».rp:f- cinruhii^Ti, f^'m-^ Vty
his son Henry Ridder. The Zeitung (mon ■ • : r ^' '■ ' -
ing. 1879). and Reime (Sundays) are other Ocrnutn pupvr* pu[#li3iiv^
by one company. Mr Hearst's Das Motgen Journal dates from
1890. A Socialist Labour paper— daily Volks Zeitung and weekly
Vortcwrrlj— was established in 1878. The Jewish Datly News and
(weekly) Jewish CautU (1874) in Yiddish and English have large
circuLitions; so have the Jewish Morning Journal (1901; Abend
Post, 1899, and weekly, Jewish Journal, 1809); the Jewish Herald
(evening) and Volksadvocat (weekly), both editions, 1887: and
Forward (evening, 1897). The Courrier des Etats-Unis (1828)
fublishes small daily, Sunday and weekly editions. There are four
tatian dailies, the more important being L'Araldo Jtaliano (1894)
and // Progresso I talo- Americano (1879). The Atlantis (evening,
1894) is a Greek daily. The Listy (1875) and Hlas Lidu (1886) arc
Bohemian dailies; the Narodni List (1898) is a Croatian daily; the
Cadic American (190^), Irish Nationalist (1888), Irish-American
(1849) and Irish World are Irish weeklies printed in English; the
Amerikai Magyar Nebsaoa (1897) is a Hungarian daily, also pub-
lished in Cleveland , Ohio; the Glas Naroda (1893) is a small Slavonic
daily.
Among the New York weekly publications must be mentioned
Harper's Weekly, founded in 1856; George 'William Curtis was
first connected with it in 1857, and after 1864 was its political
editor. Under Curtis it was a powerful advocate of civil service
reform, and its campaigns asainst Tammany were made famous by
the cartoons of Thomas Nast. During the Civil War Harpers
Weekly published Nast's sketches in the field. Frank Leslie's
lUustraUd Newspa^ (now Leslie's Weekly) was founded in 1855
by Frank Leslie (1821-1880). whose ability as a wood-engraver was
the basis of its success. Nast was employed by Leslie in 1854 and
subsequent years, and was sent to England to sketch the Heenan-
Sayers fight. With Harper's and Leslie's Weeklies ranks Collier's
Weekly, established in 1888 by Peter Fenelon Collier (d. 1909)-
The following arc newsfapers of Brooklyn. The Eagle (evening.
1 841), of which Walt Whitman was editor in 1846- 1847, came in
1885 under the editorship of St Clair McKclway (b. 1845), editor in
1 878-1 885 of the Albany Artus. The Times (evening, 1848), like the
Fjxgle, makes a specialty of the news of Long Island. Brooklyner
Freie Presse (evcnmg, 1864). The Standard Union (evening, 1864).
The Citisen (evening, 1886).
Outside of New York City the most important papers in the
political history of the state have been those of Albany. The
Albany Argus, established in 1813 (daily, 1824), was the organ of
the famous Albany Regency. The Evening Journal of Albanv was
established in 1830 by Thurlow Weed, who controlled it for 35
years. After 1865 it became the property of Samuel Wilkeson (1817-
1889), and in 1889 William Barnes. Jr., became its editor. The Argus
and the Journal held alternately the valuable state printing. A
factional fieht in the Democratic party over the printing resulted
in the establishment of the Atlas in 1843; in 1858 this was con-
solidated with the Argus,
In Buffalo the oldest paper b the Commercial, the successor of
the Buffalo Gaze/te (1811, weekly), which in 1818 became the Niagara
Patriot and in 1820 the Buffalo Patriot, and in 1834 the Buffalo
Patriot and Commercial Advertiser. The daily issue tx^an in 1835 as
the Commercial Advertiser; the weekly was still called oy the earlier
name. The weekly ceased publication in 1909. In 1890 the daily
became the Commercial. The first daily in Buffalo was the Courier
(1828), controlled in 1909 by W. J. Conncrs. The Evening Times
(1885) was in 1909 edited by Norman Mack, who was m 1908
treasurer of the Democratic National Committee.
In Rochester are the Democrat and Chronicle (morning and
weekly; Democrat, 1826; Chronicle, k868); Post-Express (evening,
1858); Herald (morning. 1870); and Union and Advertiser (evening,
1826). It was in Rochester that Myron Holly (177^1841), who had
formerly edited the Lyons (N.Y.) Countryman (anti-masonic), edited
the Freeman, an anti-slavery paper; and here in 1847-1860
Frederick Douglass edited the North Star, called Frederick Douglass's
Paper after 1855.
In Syracuse arc the Eoenint Herald (1877) and the Post-Standard
(morning. Standard, 1829. and Post, 1894, consolidated in 1899).
(AMERICAN
to the
In Troy are the Record (morning and evening.
Post, 1812), the Times (daily, 1851: weekly. 1856). the Eocmng
Standard (1877). and the Northern Budget (weekly only, 1797).
The Utica Herald-Despatch and Daily CautU is the successor of
the Whitestown GatetU (i793): the Daily CautU first appeared in
i8a3; the Morning Herald (1847) was consolidated with it in 1867:
and in 1900 it was purchased by the owners of the Eummg Despatch
(1898).
In Catskill, Greene county. New York, was established in August
1792 by Mackay Croswell the Packet, which in May 1804 was suc-
ceeded by the Recorder, which in 1909 was still published as a weekly,
the largest in the county. Mackay Croswell's son Edwin Croswdl
(1797-1871) left tht Recorder in 1823 and in 1824 became editor of
the Albany Argus; Croswell was state printer m 1 824-1 840 and
I 844-1 847.
Other papers (mostly with small circubtions) in New York suie
founded before 1801 are: the GatetU of Hudson (weddy. 1785;
daily. Evening Register, 1866): the Register of Ncwburgh (1796;
now a daily only); the Washington County Post of Cambndsc
(weekly only. 1798): the Journal o{ Ballston Spa (weekly. 1798;
Ballslon Daily Journal, 1894; Republican) ; and the GaaetU dL Owego
(weekly only, 1800).
OAio.— The Repository (weekly, 18x5; daily, 1878), formerly
the Ohio Repository, oi Canton, is one of the oldest papers in
Ohio. The Western Hemisphere of Columbus was purchased
in 1836 by Samuel Medary (1801-1864), who changed its name
to the Ohio Statesman; Medary— the "old wheel horse of
Democracy," who is said to have originated the cry of *' Flfiy-
four, forty, or fight! " — was a friend of Stephen A. Doug^ and
governor of Minnesota in 1857-1858 and of Kansas in 185&-
1860; S. S. Cox was editor of the Statesman in 1853-1854.
The Weekly Caxette of Cincinnati (founded in 1793 as the
Ccntinel; in 1804-1815 called the Liberty Hall; in x8r5-i883
the Cincinnati GasetU), and the Commercial Tribune (morning;
formed in 1896 by the consolidation of the Commtrcial Gazette
and Triburte), are published by the same firm. In 1825-1840
Charles Hammond (17 79-1841), an anti-slavery leader, was
editor of the CasetU. The Commercial was made by Murat
Halstead (1829-1908), a prominent Republican politician, and
writer of several " campaign lives " of Republican presidential
candidates, who was the first editor in the Middle West to get
news freely by telegraph. The Cincinnati Enquirer (morning,
1842) became a great power in Ohio politics under the ownership
(after 1852) of Washington McLean and his son John R. McLean.
The Post (1880), the Times-Star {Times 1836), the VolksUaU
(1836), the Volksfreund (daily 1850; weekly 1852), and the
Freie Presse (1874) are the other large dailies of Cincinnati.
In Cincinnati James G. Bimey established in 1835 the Philan-
thropist, an anti-slavery paper, which Gamaliel Bailey edited
in 1837-1847.
The Cleveland Leader (Republican, 1847) was bought in 1853
by Edwin Cowles (1825-1890) and Joseph Medill (after 185s
of the Chicago Tribun^. Cowles became sole owner in 1854;
he was an anti-slavery Whig and one of the founders of the
Republican party in the state. The Leader of 1853 ^"^^ ^ co*^
solidation of the Cleveland Forest City, a Whig paper founded
in 1849 by Joseph Medill and imited in 1852 with the Fret
Democrat. Like the Chicago Tribune it was in 2909 oontroUed
by Medill's grandson, Medill McCormick (b. 1877), a son-in-liw
of M. A. Hanna. The Press of Cleveland (evening, independent)
was established in 1878 by James Edmund Scripps (1835-1906);
with Milton A. McRae (b. 1858) he formed the Scripps-McRae
Press Association of Cleveland and the Scripps-McRae League,
which included the Cincinnati Post, the St Louis Star-CkrcKide,
the Cleveland Press, the Kentucky Post of Covington, the
Columbus Citiun, and the Times, the News-Bee and Times-
Bee of Toledo. Scripps and McRae organised the Publishen'
Press Association of New York, a rival of the Associated Press.
Scripps in his later years was a benefactor of the dty of Detrmt.
where he had established (1873) the Evening News. Tlie OeveUnd
Plain-Dealer (morning, 1841) is a well-known paper; in its
columns appeared the first " Artemus Ward " sketches, oootri-
buted by Charles Farrar Browne (1834-2867), who in x86i went
to New York to edit the short-lived humorous Vanity Fair.
The Waechter und Anseiger {Waeckter 2852; Anteiger 1872) b
published in Cleveland.
AMERICAN]
NEWSPAPERS
571
The laiger papers of Columbus are the Okio^StaU Journal
(morning, zSix), the Pras-Post (evening, 1827), the Citizen
(evening, 1899), and the Express und WatboU (weekly, 1880;
Sunday, 1878; daily, 1890— the different editions being under
different names). The News of Springfield has a weekly edition,
the Wukly Republic^ which was founded in 181 7. The TcUio
Blade (daily, 1848; weekly, 1835) before and during the Civil
War contained the attacks on slavery and on political abuses
written by "Petroleum V. Nasby," i^. David Ross Locke
(1833-X888). The first of these letters (signed " Rev. Petroleum
Vesuvious Nasby") appeared in the Jeffersonian of Findlay,
Ohio, in i860, when he was its editor. He had edited small
papers in Plymouth and Mansfield (O.) before his connexion
with the Blade; in 1871 be became managing editor of the
Evening Mail of New York City. Will Carleton (b. 1845) was
a member of the Blade's staff, and contributed to the Blade
his first "ballads." The News-Bee (evening) of Toledo was
formed by the consolidation in 1903 of the Times (1846), News
(x888) and Bee (1894), and has a morning edition called the Times
and a Sunday edition called the Times-Bee. The Zanesville
Courier (Republican; daily, 1846) has a weekly edition dating
from X809 (originally the Muskingum Messenger).
Among the smaller newspaper s of Ohio the folbwing are more than
100 yean old: the Western Star of Lebanon (weekly, 1806); the
Okio Patriot of Lisbon (weekly, 1808: daily and semi-weekly, 1898);
and the Journal of Dayton (morning, 1808).
Illinois.— The first newspaper in Illinois was the Illinois
Herald (1814; succeeded in 181 5 by the Illinois Intelligencer)
of Kaskaskia (then the scat of government); it removed to
Vandalia, which then became the capital, in 1820; it became
the Vandalia Whig and Illinois Intelligencer in 1832; and it
ceased publication about 1839, when Springfield became the
capitaL
The principal papers in Illinois are naturally those of Chicago.
The Chicago Tribune (morm'ng; 1847) succeeded The Gem of
the Prairie (1844), and a weekly edition was for a time continued
under that name. In August 1848 John Locke Scripps (1818-
x866) bought a third interest in the Tribune and became its
managing editor. In 1852 he sold it to a syndicate of Whig
politicians. A part (in 1855) and eventually the whole (in 1874)
was bought by Joseph Medill (1823-1899). Horace White
(b. 1834) was a reporter on the Tribune in 1856, and was its
editor amd one of its proprietors in 1864-1874; from 1883 to
1905 he was editor-in-chief of the New York Evening Post.
In 1858 the Daily Democratic Press^ which J. L. Scripps had
established in 1852 with William Bross, was consolidated with
the Tribune as the Press and Tribune; 'va i860 the name became
the Tribune again; the Tribune Company was incorporated
in 1861, with J. L. Scripps as its president. The first newq>aper
published in Chicago, the Democrat (November 1833), was
merged with the Daily Tribune in 1861. The Inter-Ocean
(morning; 1872), under the editorship (from 1897) of George
Wheeler Hinman (b. 1863), has made a specialty of foreign
affairs. The Netos (evening ; x 8 7 5) was founded and developed by
Melville £. Stone (b. 2848) as a one-cent evening paper. After
1883 Eugene Field contributed to this paper his column " Sharps
and Flats," including much verse. In 1888 Victor Fremont
Lawson (b. 1850), who had been associated with Stone, acquired
the paper. The Record (morning ; .1 88 1 ) , started by Lawson, was
consolidated in 1901 with the Herald (1881) as the Record-Herald.
The £vmtfif>Po5l dates from 1889. In 1900 W. R. Hearst estab-
lished in Chicago two papers, Hearst's Evening American and the
Examiner (the name assumed fn 1902 for his morning American).
The Chicago German papers include the Freie Presse (evening
and weekly; 1871), the Staals-Zeitung (daily, 1847, weekly —
Westen und Dakeim — 1845; evening edition, the Abend Presse)
and Abendpost (1899). The Skandinaven (semi-weekly, 1866;
daily, 187 1) is an important Norwegian-Danish paper; and
there are large Bohemian and Polish dailies.
In Springfield, the state capital, there are two party journals,
the Hhnois Slate Journal (Republican: semi-weekly, 1831; daily,
1848) and the Illinois StaU Register (Democratic; weekly. 1836;
dafly, 1848).
Mickigan.—The Detroit Free Press (morning. 1835: with a weekly
agricultural edition. Farm and Live Stock Journal, 1831) was
particularly known in 1869-1891 for the humorous sketches of
Charles Bertrand Lewis (b. 1842). who wrote under the pseudonym
" M. Quad." The News (morning. 1873) was established by J, E.
Scripps (1835--1906).
Musoun.- -The oldest paper is the Repubttc o! St Louis, formerly
the Republican, (oundtd as a weekly m July 1808, by Joseph
Charless, an Irishman who hid worked on the Kentucky CazeUe
in Le»n|{ton; it was called first the Missouri Casette, then (1809)
the Louisiana GazetU, then (1813) the Missouri Casette again, and
then (1822) the Missouri Republican, and in 1886-1888 the St Louis
Republican I the present name was adopted in 1888. Its first
daily issue was in September i8a6 and the first Sunday issue in
1848. • The Republican was originally a Jeffersonian Democratic
Biper; it oppcwed Thos. H. Benton; it supported Wm. Henry
arrison in 1840. and became a Whig organ; and from 1856 was a
Democratic paper. A cause celhbre was the trial in 1830 for the
impeachment of Judge James H. Peck of the U.S. District Court
for Missouri, who had suqjended from practice for 18 months and
had imprisoned for 24 hours an attorney, Luke Edward Lawless,
who had criticized in the Republican Judge Peck's decision in a
Spanish land grant case, which was adverse to Lawless, attorney
for the plaintiff. William Wirt, appeared for Peck, and he was
acquitted. Since 1837 thepape^'has been almost continuously the
property of the Knapp and Paschall families. In 187 1 the Repub-
lican purcha^ a Walter press from The Times of London; it
introduced stereotyping in i860, probably before any other news-
ptprr. The C'r'-r-Pr^^"-! rn.-rr=— F^- |^' in, 1852) of Sc
L<.ii^ i-Mly \ . if wds »ld for
S^-i'iUJO- In :it i.rmis. Fn j?3i-i.?iij iLiLj II] I', i-ovfjoy published
thi' (Jfrn^fttf, ^rinuirily a rciigious paper, whkh bccau» of locml
opy—yii'mn to its attacks on &Livcry he retnuvirij in July 1836 lo
Ale on, UK, where tie wai killed by a mab^
The PtfU-Dispoich (fs^nin^, iS^O "* a Crtflwilidfltlon made iit
1878 by it* pnopjictoT josfph PuLtK^r. PulUtc^rs first newspaper
cxf^rritfiH! wai in !fl68 as a, rc-jiottcr op the Wfjttuhe Post (mnrning,
18.17 h al St Louts, vs'bich hiis an uvtniiiE ctlitkm, ihe Anseigrr^ a
Sui.il.ijr' edttioTip MiMii^ippi BtaeUct, aorTii ^tmi-wcekly and weekly
cd:ut/!i. Angler dei Weilcns* Carl Schurz was editor of ibc Weit-
licke FoH in \^j* Aaotber Centuui oewtpapcr inStLoub ts
Avitfik^ (mornitijjs 1871).
The two principal osilics of Kansas City arc the Sinr (even lug,
18S0-1HSU i*'ith a mofninc cdliion, the Time^, ta.38, and a Weekly
Star, iHi/ii"}, founded by William R. Nelson {b. 1841 J ; mnd the Jovrnal
(morning, tSj^; with a weekly editiofij. The i^etpi-prin {Npbs^
iSjfl; Pren. igo2 ; cvening^J n the principal paper of S-t Jowpfi,
Natih Cflre/ina.— The Qbierwr ivnxki^ , 1817; daily, 1896) of
Fayetteville. The News aitrf ObstnxT (daily; Af<*teJ, 1S72; Obtrrwr^
1876) and Nertk CaroimiaH (wctktv, 1893) of Raleigh.
S6itlh Cofoiiitar—Thc iV«ri and Cmtfkf of Ch-irleiton (Cojiwr*
established iSoj by Loring Andrews, d. 1^5, ol H me ham, Mas^;
JVewj, i6fjs; consolidoicdr iS7jV. Thtr CUy Cazttle ol Chark^Kton
(foundiKl in [7S3 a& the Suvih Carotina Wcrkly GozaSUj waa cdil^
by W. C. Si mm 5 in J^2fl-i S33, but then tailed, after bravely a ttc fit pt-
ing to oppose Nullification, and wao niiully puichddctl Uy the Courter.
The State of Columbia (1891) is one of the most influential papers in
the South.
Alabama. — ^The News (evening, 1887) and Age-Herald (morning,
18B7) of Birmingham. TheAf^curvof Huntsville(weckly. 1816; daily,
1885). The Register of Mobile (weekly, 1821). The Advertiser of
Montgomery (1828). The Morning Times of Selma (weekly edition.
1825).
Georgia.— The Constitution of AtlanU (daily, 1868; weekly. 1870):
Henry W. Grady (1851-1889), the orator, was its editor and pro-
prietor-in-part from 1880 until his death; Joel Chandler Harris was
an editor (1890-1901) and contributed the Uncle Remus sketches:
Frank Lebby Stanton (b. 1857) is well known as a contributor of
humorous paragraphs and excellent verse. The Journal of Atlanta
(1883: semi-wecklv, 1885); its proprietor in 1887-1898 was Hoke
Smith (b. 1855), U.S. Secretary of the Interior in 1893-1896. and
governor of Georgia in 1907-1909. The Chronicle of Augusta (1785.
semi- weekly; now semi- weekly and, ance 1837, daily); originally
the Augusta Chronicle and Gazette of the State, in 1821 it became the
Augusta Chronicle and Georgia Gasette (then Advertiser)', in 183^.
the Augusta Chronicle; in 1837, when it incorporated the Staters
Rights Sentinel — edited for about a dozen years by Judge Augustus
Baldwin Longstreet (1790-1870), son of the inventor William
Longstreet. and author of Georgia Scenes (1840) — the Daily Chronicle
and Sentinel; in 1877, after merging with the Constitutionalist
(founded before 1800). the Chronicle and Constitutionalist; James
R. Randall (1839-1908), author of " Maryland, my Maryland." was
senior editor of the Chronicle for some time, having been connected
with the Constitutionalist after 1 866. The Enquirer-Sun of Columbus
(weekly. 1828; daily. 1858). The Telegraph of Macon (semi-weekly.
1826: now daily also). The Union-Recorder of Milledgeville (the
Federal Union, 1829, and the Southern Recorder, 1819, united in
1872). The Tribune of Rome (1843). . The Morning News of
Savannah (1850).
572
NEWSPAPERS
(FRENCH
Louisiana.— The. Puayuns of New Orleans (daily, 1837; weekly.
1841). The Item (evening, 1877) of New Orleans. The Times-
Democrat (daily, 1863; semi-weekly, 1895) of New Orleans.
L'AheiUe de la NouveUe-Orleans (1827). The States (1880) of New
Orleans. On all these see Nbw Orlbans. De Bow's Commercial
Review appeared in New Orleans in 1846-1861, in Charleston and
Washington in i86i-i86d, and in New York in 1866-1870; it was
edited by James Dunwooay BrownsonDe Bow (1820-1867), formerly
( 1 844-1845) of the Southern Quarterly Rei/iew, professor (i 848-1 850)
of political economy in the University of Louisiana, director of the
state census in 1850-1853, and of the Federal census in 1853-1855.
The Review was intensely Southern in tone and is a most important
" source " for the economic history of the South; from it De Bow
extracted Industrial Resources of the Southern and Western States
(3 vols. New Orleans, 1 853-1 853;.
Florida.— The Florida Times union and Citizen (i86<(). with daily
and scmi-woekly editions; and the Metropolis (1887), both of
Jacksonvilk. llie Morning Tribune (weekly, 1870; daily, 1 891) of
Tampa.
Texas.— The StaUsman of Austin (1871). The Momint News of
Dallas, established in 1885 by Alfred H. Belo (1839-IQ01), who in 1875
bought the Galveston News (esublished 1842) and built up. these
two papers. The Post (1880) and the Chronicle and Herald (1901)
of Houston.
Tennessee. — ^The Journal and Tribune (Journal, 1839, and Tribune,
1816, consolidated in 1808) of Knoxville. The Commercial Appeal
(Appeal, 1840; Avalanche. 1857; Commercial, 1889; consolidated
in 1894); and the News Sctmitar (Evening Scimitar, 1880, and News,
190a. consolidated in 1904), both of Memphis. The Banner (1875),
and the American (1830), both oi Nashville. The first paper
published in the state was the Gazette (1791) of Rogcrsville, which
removed in 1818 to Knoxville, where it was published for a few years.
Kentuchy.— The Louisville Courier-Journal (Journal, 1830;
Courier, 1843; Democrat, 1844; consolidated 1868), edited by Henry
Watterson. who besan' his connexion with the Journal in 1867.
The Herald (1869) of Louisville. In Frankfort, the A rgus of Western
America was established in 1806; in 1816 Amos Kendall (1789-
1869) became part owner and co-editor, and under him the Argus was
a political power; it was succeeded in i8d0 by the Yeoman.
Indiana. — The first paper in Indianapolis was the Gaulle (Januaiy
1822), which in 1830 was consolidated with (and took the name of)
the Indiana Democrat; in 1840 it was reorganized as the Indiana
Sentinel', in 1851 it was first published as a daily; in 1865 its name
was changed to the Herald, and in 1868 again to the Indianapolis
Sentinel; in February 1905 it was bought by the News (v. infra).
The Indianapolis Journal (1823) ceased publication in 1904, but
was an important Republican sheet especially after 1878. when John
Chalfant New (183 1-1906) became its editor and proprietor; New
was a wealthy banker who was U.S. treasurer in 1875-1876, assistant
secretary of the treasury in 1883-1884. and for many years a member
(part of the time, treasurer) of the Republican National Committee.
The paper was also owned and edited by his son, Harry Stewart New
(b. i8s8), who was a member of the executive committee of the
Republican National Committee. The Indianapolis News (evening.
1869) and the Star (morning, 1903) arc the principal papers in the
city. The first paper published in the state was at Vincennes in
]M\y 1804 and called tne Western Suh\ it is still published (daily
edition since 1879).
Wisconsin. — ^Thc principal papers are those of Milwaukee r the
Evening Wisconsin (1847): the Sentinel (morning, 1837), edited in
1 845-1 861 by Rufus King (i 814-1876), who was U.S. minister to the
Pontifical States in 1863-1867, ana a brigadier of volunteers in the
Civil War; the News (evening, 1866); the Free Press (morning.
1901) ; the Cermania-Abend-Post (1872. with a large weekly edition),
and the Kuryer Polski (evening, 1888).
Minnesota. — ^The Journal (evening, 1878); the Tribune (morning,
evening and weekly, 1867); and the Tidende (daily, i88j; weekly,
1851 : Norwegian- Danish) are the principal papers of Minneapolis.
In St Paul the best-known paper is the Pioneer Press (founded in
X849; daily since 1854); the Minnesota Pioneer was the first paper
phyitcd in the state, and in 1855 it was consolidated witn the
Minnesota Democrat under the name of Pioneer and Democrat; in
1862 it became the St Paul Pioneer; and in 1875 after the St Paul
Press united with it it took the name of the Pioneer Press. The other
dailies are the Dispatch (evening, 1868); the News (evening, 1900)
and the Volks Zeitung (weekly. 1857; daily, 1877^.
Kansas. — ^The Emporia Gazette (evening, 1890) isoneof the notable
smaller city papers of the country; its reputation being due to its
editor and proprietor William Allen White (b. 1868). Other papers
of interest are the Leavenworth Times (morning and weekly, 1857):
in Topeka, the Capital (daily and semi-weekly, 1879); the
State Journal (evening and weekly. 1873), and the Herald (evening,
1901); and in Wichita, the Eagjle (morning, 1884, and weekly.
1872).
Nebraska. — The News (evening, I899), the World-Herald (morning
and evening, weeklj^ and semi-weekly, 1865), and the Omaha Bee
(morning and evening, 1871) are all of Omaha. The Bee was
established by Edward Rosewater (1841-1906); his son Victor
(b. 1 871) succeeding him in 1895 as managing editor. The Rose-
waters were prominent in the Republican party and headed the
oppomtion in the state to William Jennings Bryan, who was in 1894-
1 896 editor of the World-Herald. Bryan also founded at LincoUi the
Commoner, a weekly used by him in spreading his political views and
in advancing his candidacy for the presidency. The Lincoln dailies
arc the Nebraska State Journal (morning. 1870; Evening News,
1880; Weekly State Journal, 1868), the Star (evening. 1902); and
the evening Post (1806).
Iowa. — ^The Dcs NIoines papers are the Capital (evening, 1883). the
News (evening, 1881). and the Register and Leader (mormng. Leader,
1849, and Register, 1856, consolidated in 1902). At Burlington is the
Hawk Eye (morning. 18^9). to which Robert Jones Burdette (b.
1 844), associate editor in the 'seventies, contributed humorous squibs.
The Burlington Evening Gautte, originally the Wisconsin Temlerial
Gazette (1837), is one of the oldest papers in the sute.
Arkansas. — ^The Arkansas Gautte (Democratic; morning and
weekly) was first published at Arkansas Post in 18x9. then removed
to Little Rock.
Colorado.^At Denver are the Repubtican (morning and weekly.
1866); the Post (evening, 1893; weekly, 1901); and the Rocky
Mountain News (morning, 1859; evening. The Ti$nes, 1872; and a
weekly edition).
Artzona.— At Tombstone, the county-seat of Cochise county, is
the well-known Epitaph (1882), a Sunday edituMi of the Prospector
(daily, 1886).
Utah.— At Salt Lake City are the Deseret Evening News (daily and
and the Salt Lake Herald (daily and semi-weekly, 1870). The last
named was the principal — and for a time the onl^— Democratic
paper in Utah; in 1901 it was purchased by Senator W. A. Claik,
who sold it in August 1909 to Republican politkrians.
California.— At San Francisco are the Call (morning, 1856),
owned by John D. Spreckels (b. 1653), principal owner of the Oceanic
Steamship Company, and son of Claus Spreckels the " sugar-kiag ";
the Examiner (morning. 1865), founded by Senator George Hcant
(1820-1891), the inheritance of which started his' son. William
Randolph Hearst, in the newspaper business: the BuUeiin (morning.
1855); the Chronicle (morning, 1865; weekly, 1874): the £Kimi{
Post (1871 ; weekly edition, 1875), and the Caltforma Demohal
(morning, 18^3: consolidated in 1902 with the Abend Post; weekly
edition. California Staats-Zeitung, 1854). The Argonasa (1877) a
an able literary weekly.
. In Los Angeles the large dailies are the riiN»*(flMrBing. 1881;
weekly edition, Saturday Times and Weekly Mirror, 1873); the
Herald (morning, 1873); the Express (evening, 1871); the Riceii
(evening, i8o5);and W. R. Hearst's £«im»»«r (morning. 1903).
Oregon.— At Portland are the Morning Oregonian (1861; weeUy
edition, 1850) which has a great reputatkm on the Pacific Coast;
the Oregon Daily Journal (evening and semi-weekly; 1902); and the
Eoenint Telegram (1868).
Washiniiton.—At Seattle are the Post InUUigencer (momiog. t867)t
and the Times (evening and weekly, 1861).
4.^ Newspapess op France
The annals of French joumaUsm begin with the GauBt
(afterwards called Gazette de France), established by Th£o-
phraste Renaudot in 1631, under the patronage o' -_ .^^^
Richelieu, and with his active co-operation. Its price f!^^
was six centimes. Much of its earliest foreign news
came direct from the minister, and not sddom in his own hand
Louis XIIL took a keen, perhaps a somewhat childish, interest
in the progress of the infant Gazette, and was a frequent con-
tributor, now and then taking his little paragraphs to the printing
office himself, and seeing them put into type. Renaudot was
born at Loudun in 1584, studied medicine in Paris and at Mont-
pcllicr, established himself in the capital in 161 2, and soon became
conspicuous both within and beyond the limits of hb profession.
Endowed by nature with great energy and versatility, he seems
at an early period of his career to have attracted the attcDtkm
of the great cardinal, and to have obtained permission to establish
a sort of general agency office, under the designation of " Burtaa
d'Adresses et de Rencontre." An enterprise like this would,
perhaps, naturally suggest to such a mind as Rcnaudot's the
advantage of following it up by the foundation of a ncu-spapCT.
According to some French writers, however, the project was
formed by Pierre d'Hozier, the genealogist, who carried on an
extensive correspondence both at home and abroad, and was
thus in a position to give valuable help; according to othm
by Richelieu himself. Be this as it may, Renaudot put his hand
zealously to the work, and brought out his first weekly nurobcf
in May 1631. So much, at least, may be inferred from the ditc
(4th July 1631) of the sixth number, which was the fint deUi
FROiCH]
NEWSPAPERS
573
publication, the five preceding iramben being marked by
" aigpatures " onty^— A to £. Each number consists of a single
sheet (eight pages) in small quarto, and is divided into two
parts — ^the first simply entitled CazeUtf the second NotaeUes
ordinaires de divers endroUs, For this division the author
assigns two reasons— (i) that two persons may thus read his
journal at the same time, and (a) that it facilitates a division
of the subject-matter, the NauvdUs containing usually intel-
ligence from the northern and western countries, the CaeUe
from the southern and eastern. He commonly begins with
foreign and ends with home news, a method which was long and
generally followed, and which still obtains. Once a month he
published a supplement, under the title of Retatwn des nomdles
du mande, revues dans tout U mots. In October 1631 Renaudot
obtained letters patent to himself and his heirs, conferring the
exclusive privilege of printing and selling, where and how they
might please, " the gazettes, news and narratives of all that
has passed or may pass within and without the kingdom."
His assailants were numerous, but he steadily pursued his course,
and at his death in October 1653 left the CatetU to his sons in
flourishing circumstances. In 1753 the title Gaaette de Prarue
was first used. Under this designation it continued to appear
until the 24th August. 1 848. During the five days which followed
that date it was suspended; on the 30th it was resumed as Le
PeupU franQaiSf journal de Vappd d la nation^ and again modi-
fied on the X4th September to L'£toile de la Prance, Journal des
droits de tons. On the 25th October it became GaxeUe de Prance,
journal de Pappd d la nation; and under this title it continued.
Jean Loret's rhymed GoMctte (1650 to March,i665) will always
have interest in the eyes of students who care less for the
" dignity " of history than for the fidelity of itft local colour-
ing and the animation of its backgrounds. It were vain to
look there for any deep appreciation of the events of those
stormy times; but it abounds in vivid portraits of the men
and manners of the day. It paints rudely, yet to the life, the
Paris of Hhe Fronde, with all its effervescence and depression,
its versatility and fickleness, its cowardice and its courage.
Of the Mercure galant, estabUshed by Donneau de \iz€ in
1672, with Thonuis ComeiUe for its subheditor, it may be said
that it sought to combine the qualities of the Gazettes,
both grave and gay. Like the Gautte de Prance, it
contained the permitted state news and court circulars
of the day. Like Loret's Gasette, it amused its readers
with satirical verses, and with sketches of men and manners,
which, if not always true, were at least well invented. Reviews
and sermons, law pleas and street airs, the last reception at the
Academy and the last new fashion of the milliners, all found
their place. - Oe Viz6 carried on his enteiprise for more than
thirty years, and at his death (1710) it Was continued by Riviere
du Fresny. The. next editor, Lef^vre de-Fontenay, altered
the title to Nouveau Mercure, which in 1728 was altered to
Mercure de Prance, a designation retained, with slight modifica-
tioi^ until 1853. The Mercure passed through many hands
before it came into those of Panckoucke, at the eve of the Revolu-
tion. Amongst its more conspicuous writers, immediately before
this -change, had been Raynal and Marmontel. The latter,
indeed^ had for many years been its principal editor, and in his
Mimoireshas left us a very interesting record of the views and
aims which governed him in the performance of an arduous
task. He there narrates the curious fact that it was Madame
de Pompadour who contrived the plan of giving pensions to
eminent men of letters out of the profits «f the Mercure. To
one of Biarmontel's predecessors the *' privilege," or patent,
had been worth more than £1000 sterling anniuOy. This
revenae was now to be phared amongst several, and to become
a means of extending royal "patronage" of literature at a
cheap rate. It is to this pension scheme, top, that we owe the
Conies Moraux, Marmontel, who had long before lost his
" patent " by an act of high-minded generosity, continued to
share in the composition of the literary articles w'th Chamfort
and La Harpe, whilst Mallet du l^an, a far abler writer than
dther, became the most prominent of the political writers in
the Mercure, In 1789 he contributed a series of reiharkable
articles on the well-known book of de Lolme; and in the same
year he penned some comments on the *' Declaration of the
Rights of Man," very distasteful to violent men of all parties,
but which forcibly illustrate the pregnant truth they begin
with: " The gospel has given the simplest, the shortest and
the most comprehensive * Declaration of the Rights of Man,'
in saying, ' Do unto others as you would that they should do
unto you.' All politics hinge upon this."
In X 790 the sale of the Mercure rose very rapidly. It attained
for a time a circulation of 13,000 copies. Mirabeau styled
it in debate " the most able of the newspapers." Great pains
were taken in the collection of statistics and state papers, the
absence of which from the French newspaper press had helped
to depress its credit as compared with the i>olitical journalism
of England and to some extent of Germany. But, as the Revo-
lution marched on towards a destructive democracy. Mallet du
Pan evinced more and more unmistakably his rooted attach-
ment to a constitutional monarchy. And, like so many of his
compatriots, he soon found the tide too strong for him. The
political part of the Mercure (in 1791 its title was altered to
Mercure franfais) changed hands, and after the xoth August
1792 its publication was suspended.
All this time the Moniteur (Gazette nationale, ou le moniteur
universd), founded in X789, was under the same general manage-
ment. The first idea, indeed, of this famous official ^^
journal appears to have been Panckoucke's, but it mmH^ntk
did not firmly establish itself until be h^ purchased
the Journal de VassenMU nationale, and so secured the
best -report of the debates.' The Moniteur, however, kept
.step with the majority of the assembly, the Mercure with the
minority. So marked, a contrast between two journals, with
one proprietor, gave too favourable a leverage to the Republican
wits not to be turned to good account. Camille Desmoulins
depicted him as Janus— one face radiant at the blessings of
coming liberty, the other plunged in grief for the epoch that
was rapidly disappearing. .
When resumed, after a very brief interval, the Mercure
franfais became again Mercure de Prance— lii political im-
portance diminished, whilst its literary worth was enhanced.
During the later days of the Revolution, and tmder the imperial
rule, its roll of contributors included the names of Geoflroy,
Ginguen6, Morellet, Lacretelle, Fontanes and Chateaubriand.
The statesman last named brought upon the Mercure another
temi>orary suppression in June 1807 (at which date he was
its sole proprietor), by words jn true unison with the noblest
deed of. his chequered careei^-his retirement, namely, from
the imperial service on the day that the news of the execution
of the duke of Enghien reached him, being the day after he had
been appointed by Napoleon a minister plenipotentiary.
Thus it chanced that alike under the brilliant despotism of
Napoleon and under the crapulous malversation of Louis XV.
the management of the Mercure was revolutionized for protests
which conferred honour upon the journal no less than upon
the individual writers who made them. Resumed by other
hands, the Mercure continued to appear until January 1820,
when it was again suspended. In the following year it reappeared
as Le Mercure de Prance, au dix^nemihne siide, and in February
1853 it finally ceased.
The only other newspaper of a date anterior to the Revolution
which needs to be noti<^ here is the first French daily, the
Journal de Paris, which was started on New Year's
Day of 1777. It had but a feeble infancy, yet lived
till 18x9. Its tameness, however, did not save it froip
sharing in the " suspensions " of its predecessors. After the
Revolution such men as Garat, Condorcet and Regnaud de
St. Jean d'Angi&ly appear amongst its contributors, but those
of earlier date were obscure. Its period of highest prosperity
may be dated about 1792, when its circulation is £aid to have
exceeded 90/)oo.
The police adventures of the writers of the MS. news-letters,
or NoufdUs d la main, were still more numerous, andt ^ *^
574
NEWSPAPERS
[FRENCH
anR9'
nthy judge from the copious spedmens of these epistles which yet
survive, must also not unfrequcntly have arisen from lack of
official employment, rather than from substantial pro-
APMnw*« vocation. Madame Doublet de Persan, the widow of
f p^i f a member of the French board of trade, was a con-
spicuous purveyor of news of this sort. For nearly
forty years daily meetings were held in her bouse at which the
gossip and table-talk of the town were systematically (and
Utersilly) rtpstercd\ and weekly abstracts or epitomes were
sent into the country by post. Piron, Mirabaud, Falconet,
D'Argental and, above all, Bachaumont, were prominent
members of the "society," and each of them is said to have
had his assigned seat beneath his own poi trait. The lady's
valet-dc-chambre appears to have been editor ex officio; and
as he occasionally suffered imprisonment, when offensive news-
letters had been seized by the police, so responsible a duty was
doubtless "considered in the wages." News and anecdotes
of all kinds — political and literary, grave, gay or merely scandal-
ous—were all admitted into the NouvdUs d la main; and their
contents, during a long series of years, form the staple of those
Mimoirts secrets pour servir d Vkistoire de la ripiMiqve des
UUres which extend to thirty-six volumes, have been frequently
printed (at first with the false imprint " Londres: John Adam-
son, 1777-89 "), and are usually referred to by French writers
as the Mimoires de Bachaumont.
The journalism of the first Revolution has been the theme
of many bulky volumes, and only a very casual glance at this
part of our subject can be given to it here. When
■ ttf at least one half of the French people was in a ferment
of hope or of fear at the approaching convocation
of the states-general, most of the existing newspapers
were still in a state of torpor. Long paragraphs, for example,
about a terrible " wild beast of the Gevaudan " — whether wolf
or bear, or as yet nondescript, was uncertain— were still current
in the Paris journals at this momentous juncture. Mirabeau
was among the foremost to supply the popular want. His
Lettres d ses commetlants began on the and May 1789, and with
the twenty-first number became the Courrier de Provence.
Within a week Maret (afterwards duke of Bassano) followed
with the Bulletin des siances de PassembUe nationale, and
Lehodey with the Journal des Hats gtntraux. In June Brissot
de WarviUe began his Palnote franfais. Gorsas published the
first number of his Cowrier de Versailles in the following month,
from which also dates the famous periodical of Prudhomme,
Loustalot and Toumon, entitled Rholuiions de Paris, with
its characteristic motto — ^"Les grands ne nous paraissent
grands que parce que nous sommes & gcnoux; levons nousl "
In August 1789 Baudouin began the Journal des dibats (edited
jtearvai in X792 by Louvet) and Marat the Ann du Peuple
4MMbiM (which at first was called Ix PuUicisU parisien),
'Jl^^^ig^ The Moniteur mniversel (of which we have spoken
*" already) was first published on the 34th November,
although numbers were afterwards printed bearing date from
the sth May, the day on which the states-general first assembled.
Camille Desmoulins also commenced his Revolutions de France
et de Brabant in November 1789. The Ami du roi was first
published in June 1790, La Quolidienne in September 1792.
The Moniteur and Dibats survived, but most of these papers
expired either in the autumn of 1792 or with the fall of the party
of the Gironde in September 1793. In some of them the energy
for good and for evil of a whole Hfetiroe seems to be compressed
into the fuf^tive writings of a few months. Even the satirical
journals which combated the Revolution with shafts of ridicule
and wit, keen enough after their kind, but too light to do
much damage to men terribly in earnest, abound with matter
well deserving the attention of all students desirous of a thorough
knowledge of the period.
The consular government began^ its dealings with the press
by reducing the number of political papers to thirteen. At this
period the number of daily journals had been nineteen, and
their aggregate provincial circulation, apart from the Paris
s^Ci 49f3>3» an average of 3600 each. ^
Under Napoleon the Moniteur was the only political paper
that was really regarded with an eye of favour. Even as respects
the nation at large, the monstrous excesses into which the
Revolutionary press had plunged left an enduring stigma 00
the class. When Bertin acquired the Journal des dibats from
Baudouin, the printer, for 20,000 francs, he had to vanquish
popular indifference on the one hand, as well as imperial mistrust
on the other. The men he called to his aid were Geoffrey and
Fievfe; and by the brilliancy of their talents and the keenness
of his own judgment he converted the Dibats into a paper having
32,000 subscribers, and producing a profit of aoo,ooo francs
a year. When the imposition of a special censorship was
threatened in 1805, at the instance of Fouch^ a- remarkable
correspondence took place between Fievfe and Napoleon himself,
in the course of which the emperor wrote that the only means
of preserving a newspaper from suspension was " to avoid the
publication of any news unfavourable to the government, until
the truth of it is so well established that the publication becomes
needless." The censorship was avoided, but Fiev£e had to
become the responsible editor, and the title was altered to
Journal de Pempire— the imperial critic taking exception to
the word Dibats as " inconvenient." The old title was resumed
in August 181 5. The revolution of July did but enhance the
power and the profit of the paper. It has held its course since
with uniform dignity, as well as with splendid ability, and may
still be said, in the words which Lamartine applied to it in an
earlier day, to have " made itself part of French history."
Shortly before the Journal de Vempire became again the
Journal des dibats (in 181 5), a severance occurred amidst
both the writers and subscribers. It led to the foundation
of the Constitutionnel, which at first and for a short time bore
the title of L'lndipendauL The former became, for a time, the
organ of the royalists par excellence, the latter the leader of the
opposition. In 1824, however, both were in conflict with the
government of the day. At that date, in a secret report addressed
to the ministry, the aggregate circulation of the opposition
press of Paris was stated at 41,330,^ while that of the government
press amounted only to 14,344.'
The rapid rise of the Constilutionnd was due partly to the
great ability and influence of Jay, of £tienne, of B^rahgcr
and of Saint Albin (who had been secretary to Camot
in his ministry of 1815), all of whom co-operated in S^Slpj
its early editorship, and partly to its sympathy with
the popular reverence for the memory of Napoleon, as wcH
as to the vigorous share it took in the literary quarrel between
the classicists and romanticists. Its part in bringing about
the revolution of 1830 raised it to the zenith of its fortunes.
For a brief period it could boast of 23,000 subscribers at 80
francs a year. But the invasion of cheap newspapers, and that
temporary lack of enterprise which So often follows a brilliant
success, lowered it with still greater rapidity. When the author
of the Mimoires d*un bourgeois, Dr V6ron; purchased it, the
sale had sunk to 3000. V£ro'n gave xoo.ooo francs for the Jmf
errant of Sue, and the Sue fever- rewarded him for a while with
more than the old circulation. Afterwards the paper passed
under the editorship of C£sena, Granier de Cassagnac, and La
Guto>nnidre.
The cheap journalism of Paris began in 1836 (ist July) with
the journal of Girardin, La Presse, followed instantly by Lg
SiMe, under the management of DuUcq, to whom,
it is said— not incredibly— the original idea was really jjj^*"'
due. The first-named journal attained a circulation r ■ tOi »_
of 10,000 copies within three months of its commence-
ment of and soon doubled that number. The Siicle prospered
even more strikingly, and in a few years had reached a drcula*
tion (then without precedent in France) of 38,000 copies..
•The rapid growth of the newspaper press of Paris under
. 16.350: Journal des dtbaU, i%jaoo\
Le Courrier franfais, 2975; Journal de t
*£« Constitutionnel,
Quolidienne, 5800; Le
merce, 2380; L'Arislarque, 925.
■ * Journal de Paris. 4175: L'ttmle, 2749; GatttU de Frvnee, 2370;
If Moniteur, 2250; Le Drapeau blanc, 1900; Le Pilots 900.
rRENCHl
NEWSPAPERS
575
Louis-Phnippe will be best appreciated from the fact that,
whOe in 1828 the number of stamps issued was aS millions, in
1836, 1843, 1845 and 1846 the figures were 43, 61, 65 and 79
millions respectively. At the last-mentioned date the papers
with a circulation of upwards of io,coo were (besides the Moni-
icur, of which the circulation was chiefly official and gratuitous),
as follows: Le SUde, 31,000; La Presse and Le Constilutumndi
between 20,000 and 25,000; Journal da Dibats and U^poaue,
between 10,000 and 15,000.
If wc cast a retrospective elanoc at the general characteristics
(l) of the newspaper press of France, and (3) of the legislation con-
ocminK it, between the respective periods of the devaatatinK revolu-
tioo 01 17QI-1794 and the scarcely less destructive revolution of
X848, it will be found that the years 1819, 1838, 1830 (July), and 1835
(ScptCRibcr) mark epochs full of pregnant teaching upon our subject.
We pass over, as already sufficiently indicated, the newspaper
licence of the first-named years (i 793-1 794). carried to a pitch which
became a disgrace to civilization, and the stern Napoleonic censor-
ship which followed it — also carried to an excess, disfrraccful, not,
indeed, to civilization, but to the splendid intellect which had once
given utterance to the words, " Physical discovery ba grand faculty
ol the human mind, but literature is the mind itself."
The year 1819 is marked by a virtual cessation of the arbitrary
power of suppression lodged till then in the government, and by the
Mjbstitution of a graduated system of preliminary bonds and surety-
ships (*' cautionncments ") on the one hand, and of strict penalties for
convicted press-offences on the other. This initiatory amelioration
of 1819 became, in 1828, a measure of substantial yet regulated
freedom, which for two ycara worked, in the main, alike with equity
towards the just claims of journalism as a profession and with steady
development towards the public of its capabilities as a great factor in
the erowth of civilization. Those two years were followed by a
widely contrasted period of five years. That was a term of entire
liberty often ^ropiy abused, and fitly ending with the just and
necessary restrictions of September 1835. But that period of 1830-
1835 was also signalized by some nobk: attempts to use the powers
of the newspaper press for promoting the highest and the enduring
interests of France. Not least memorable amongst these was the
joint enterprise of Montalembert and Lamennais — sooni to be aided
by Lacordaire, — ^when^ .by the establishment (October 1830) of the
newspaper VAoenir, they claimed for the church of France " her
just part in the libcnics ac9uired by the country," and asserted for
the ^crcd symbols of Chnstianitv their lawful place, alike above
the tricolor and above the lilies. " Dieu et la liberty " was the motto
which Montalembert chose for his newspaper, as he had chosen it
long before for the guiding star of his youthful aspirations. L'Avenir
existed only for one year and one month. It came to its early end
from no lack of energy and patience in its writers, but in part from
that mission of the editors to Rome (November 1831) which,
at least for a time, necessitated the dtscontinuanoe of their ncws-
Eiper. Human regrets had higher than human consolations. " Our
bours " on L'Avenir, wrote Montalembert, with simfJc truth,
" dcddcd the attitude of Catholics in France and elsewhere, from the
time of the July revolution to the time of the second empire."
There were many other papers, at thb time and afterwards, which,
like L'Avenir, were, in their degree, organs of ideas, not speculations
of -trade. But they cannot be even enumerated here. No very
notable specially religious paper succeeded L'Avenir until the founda-
tion in 1043 — under widely different auspices, although twice at the
outset the editorship was ofTercd to Lacordaire--xtf L'Untvers
Rditieux. That journal was edited, at first, bv De Coux, then
by Louis Vcuillot; it underwent innumerable lawsuits, "warn-
ings," suppressions and interdicts, for causes very diverse. Several
prelates suppressed L* Univers Religieux in their respective dioceses,
amongst them the great bishop Dupanloup in that of Orleans (1853).
Napokon III. suppressed it in 1 861, permitted it to reappear as Le
Monde, and suspended it many times afterwards; but it survived
all its mi^ortuncs for a good many years. Le Monde had the curious
fate, at one time, of being conducted jointiv by the first editor of
VAvenir, Lamennais, arid by George Sand, who had previously
figured in the newspaper annals of France as co-foundress of
I/Ectaireur de Vlndre, a journal published at Orleans. The account
given by that brilliant writer of tier adventures in what was then to
her a new department of activity is an instructive one. With that
breadth of sympathy which was so characteristic of her, she strove
to interest all her friends (however varied in character, as in rank)
in t he enterprise. There is. perhaps, scarcely anything more amusing
in French journalistic annals than is her (contemporary) account 01
the first meeting of the shareholders — at which, she tells us, about
five hundred resolutions were moved for the guidance of the editor
at his desk.
The impulse dven to the growth of advertisements in the^ days
which followed July 1830, became, as the years rolled on, sufficiently
developed to induce the formation of a company — in which one of
the Laffittcs took part—to farm them.' at a yeariy rent of £12.000
' Or, to speak more precisely, to farm a certain conspicuous page
of each newspaper, in perpetuity.
steriine (aoo,ooo francs), so far (at first) as regarded the four leading
journals {Dibats, ConstUuiionnd, SiUU, Presse), to which were after-
wards added two others {Le Pays and La Patrie). The combina-
tion greatly embarrassed advertisers, first, since its great aim was to
force them either to advertise in all, whether addressing the classes
intended to be canvassed or not, or ebe to pay for each advertisement
in a ackicted newspaper the price of many proffered advertisements
in all the papen collectively, and. secondly, because by many lepcti'
tions in certain newspapen no additional publicity was really gained,
two or three of the favoured journals circulating for the main amongst
the same class of buycra. La France was then the newspaper of the
Conservative aristocracy of the nation; Le Monde and the Union
more especially addressed the cfeigy ; the Dibats and the Temps were
the imimals 01 the upper mercantile class, the SOcle and L'Opinion
of the lower or shopkccping class. A man who asked to advertise
briefly, in the Sikde, for example, alone, was charged a francs for tech
several insertion. If he went the round of the six, his advertisement
cost him only 75 centimes per journal, for ten successive insertions
in each of them, all round.
To a neat extent, the inundation of newspapen which folkmcd
the revolution of February 1848 was but a parody on the revolu-
tionaiy press of 1793. Most of them, of course, had very _ .
short fives. When Cavaignac took the helm he suppressed #£L
eleven journals, including La Presse and L'AsstmbUe
Nalionaie. The former had at this period a circubtion of nearly
70,000, and its proprietor, in a petition to the National Assembly,
declared that it gave subsistence to more than one thousand persons,
and was worth in the market at ksast i ,500,000 francs. In August the
system of sureties waa restored. On the 1 3th J u no 1 849 the president-
of the republic suspended Le Peuple, La Rfvoltaion Dhnocratiqne et
Sociale, La Vraie RijbnUiquet La Dhnocralie Pacifi^u, La Reforme
and La Tribune des Peufies. On July 16, 1850, the assembly passed
what is called the " Loi Tinguy ^ (from the name of the otherwise-
obscure deputy who proposed it), by which the author of every news-
paper article on any subject, pohtical, philosophical or rdieious,
was bound to affix his name to it, on penalty of a fine of 500 francs
for the first offence, and of 1000 francs for its repetition. Every
false or feigned signature was to be punished by a fine of 1000 francsu
" together with six months* imprisonment, both for the author and
the editor." The practical working of this law lay in the creation of
a new functionary in the more important newspaper offices, who was.
called " sccr6uire de la redaction," and was, in fact, the scapegoat
ex officio. The " Loi Tinguy," though now long repealed, has had a
permanent influence on French journalism in the continued preval-
ence of signed articles, and the consequent prominence of individual
writers as compared with the same class otwork in other countries.
In February 1852 all the press laws were incorporated, with incttsascd
stringency, into a " D6cret organique sur la presse." The stamp duty
for each sheet was fixed at 6 centimes, within certain dimensions,
and a pnroortional increase in case of excess.
In 1858 the order of the «x leading Parisian papera in point of
circulation was— (i) Siicle, (2) Presse, {;i)Constitutionnel, (4) Patrie^
(5) Dibats, (6) AssembUe Naiionale. The number of provincial
papen exceeded five hundred. " Newspapen, nowadays, wrote a
keenly observant publicist in that year, '* are almanacs, bulletins,
advertising mediums, rather than the guides and the centres of
opinion." In 1866 the change had become more marked still. The
monetary success of Girarclin's many commereial speculations in
this- branch of commerce greatly increased the number of Parisian
journals, whilst lowering the status of those of established rank.
The aggregate daily issue of the Parisian " dailies " had increased
to about 350,000 copies, but the evening paper, Le^ Petit Moniteur.
alone issued nearly 130,000 of these. Tne average cireulation of
Le Sihde had fallen from 55.000 to 45,000 copks; that of La Patrie
was reduced by one-half (32,000 to 16.000); that of Le Conslitu-
tionnel from 34,000 to 1^,000; of L'Opinion Nalionaie from 18,000
to 15,000; whilst the chief journal of all — with grand antecedents
and with a brilliant history of public service rendered — had for a
time descended, it is said, from 13,000 copies to 9000. And yet
almost over the whole of this very period the brilliant " Lundis "
of Sainte-Beuvc were making their punctual appearance in Le
Constitulionnel, to be presently continued in Le Moniteur and in
Le Temps', and writera like St Marc Girardin, Cuvillicr-Fkury, and
Pr6vost-Paradol were constantly writing in ihe Journal des DHiats.
Meanwhik, Villcmessant and his colleagues were making their
fortunes out of Le Fipiro (begun 1854, but a daily from 1866), and
helping to make frivolous petty paragraphs on matten of
literature almost everywhere take the place of able and well-ekibor-
atcd artick». Well might Albert Sorel say,» " Our trumpery news*
papen are the newspapeis that pay." In 1873 the circulation of Le
Petit Journal (founded 1863), tfie pioneer of the French halfpenny
press, was 212,^, and it went on rapidly increasing.
No incident in the newspaper history of this period made more
temporary noise than did the strange charges brought in 1867 against
the Dibats, the Sitcle and L'Opinion Rationale, by M. Kerveguen,
member for Toulon, in the French assembly. He charged them
' When conKiaring the French newspaper press as it stood in 1873
with that of Germany, in the Renu des deux Mondes, artide " La
Presse Allcmandc," vol. ii. of 1873, p. 715. '
576
NEWSPAPERS
(FRENCH
collectively with noelving bribes, both from the (ovdrnQient of
Prussia and from that of Italy— upon the faith, as it afterwards
appeared, of statemenu made by another newspaper, not of France
but of Belgium, Ln Finance, An elaborate inquiry, presided over
by M Berryer, pionounced the accusation to be absolutely ground-
less. Yet it was soon revived by Le Pays, in the shape of a specific
charge against an individual editor of Le Sikde—lA Varenne.
All uiat was eventually proved, in due course of law, was roerely*
the agency in Piuis of La Varenne for the Italan government, at
a time prior to the events of 1866.
In 1874 an elabonte returta riiowed that in thir^«five principal
towns ctt. France, comprising^ a population of 3.^60,000, their .re-
spective joumab had an aggregate weekly issue 012,800,000 copies.
In .1878 the total number of journals of all kinds published In
France was 2200. Of these 1 50 were political, strictly spealdng, -of ,
which Paris published 49. OlPftrisian journals other than political
there were 1 141 (Includmg 7i religious, lOd legal, 153 commeidal,
134 technological, 08 scientific and medical, 59 artistic). At that
date Le Figaro had a circulation of about 70,000, Le Petit Joumai
(at a halfpenny) one of about 650.000.
Theprinctpal Parisian newspapers in 1885 may be clasnfied thus—
(a) Organs of the Legitimists find of the Church of France;
Gazette de France, Le Monde, L'Uniont La IHfense, La CipUiiatiom,
L'Unieers.
(ft) Orleanist organs: Le Monitenr Unieersel, Le ConstUuHonnel,
Le Frangais (under the auspices of the Due de Broglie), Le SaUil.
(c) Bonapartist organ: Le Pays (edited at one time by La-
nartine)* ,
(4) Republican organs: Journal des Dibats, Le Ttm^ (founded
t86i, with the title of the earlier Temps of 1829-^1842), Le SUde,
Le XIX. Siide, Le Paix, La Jwtice, Paris, La RiptMiaue Franfaise
(founded in 1871 by Gambetta), Le Parlement (founded by Dufaure),
the Socialist La PetiU RipiMique (1875).
The law concerning the liberty of the press,' of July ^, 1881,
abolished suretyship tor newspapers, and transferred their regis^-
tion from the ministry of justice at Paris to the local representative
of the attomev-^ncral {k poMquet) in each town respectively. It
made the establtshmcnt of a newspaper virtually free, upon legal
deposit of two copies, and upon due registration of each newspaper
under the simple guarantee of a registered director, French by birth,
responsible in case of libel. And.it took away the former discretion-
ary power,, lodged in the home office, of intoidicting the circulation
in France of foreign journals. The home minister migh^ still pro-
hibit a single number of a newspaper; only the whoke council of
ministers, duly convened, could prohibit the circulation of a foreign-
newspaper absolutely.*
The newspapers of Paris, and ^milarly'of France, practically
doubled in number between 1880. and xgoo. In x88o there
Vere about 120 Paris newq)apers, in 1890 about
x6p, and in xqoo about 240. The total number of
^^Z^ newspapers, as distinguished from periodicals,^ pub-
lished in France during xgoo was in round numbers
2400. Of these, about 2x60 appeared in 540 provincial towns.
The history of the French press during the last twenty years
of the xQlh century followed very closely that of the countiy
itself, Boulangist and anti-BouIangist,. Dreyfusist or anti-
Dreyfusist, Republican or Nationalist; finally it became either
Moderate Republican or Radical-Socialist with a sprinkling
of Nationalist organs and a small minority of Royalist and
Bonapartist-sheetsi
At the head of the Moderate Republican organs were Le
Temps' &nd Le Joumai des Dibats among. the evening papers,
"* The history of French' journals published abroad is interesting.
The Annates politigues of Linguet— for a time of Linguet and Mallet
du Pan jointly — was, from about 1770 to about 1785, almost a
power in Europe, in its way. Mallet du Pan's own Mercure Brilan-
nique, during the eventful years 1708-1800. was brilliant, sagacious
«nd honest. When the pen literally fell from his dying hand — a
hand that had kept its integrity under the pains of exile and of bitter
poverty — that pen was taken up (for a short interval) by Malouct.
When Napoleon forcibly suppressed, a little later, the Courrier de
VEurope of the count of Montlosier, he offered the deprived editor a
pension, which was refused, until accompanied by the offer of a post
in which the able minister of Loub XVl. could still work for his
country.
English journalism in France was for long associated with
Galimani's Messenger, started by Giovanni Ahtonio Galignani (1757-
1822) in 1814, and turned into a daily just before his death. Its
palmy days were between 1814 and 1848. In 1895 it was turned into
the Daily Messenger, but provied a failure and was dropped in 1904;
it was really killed by the competition of the Paris edition of the
New York Herald. It had been preceded by Sampson Perry's Arzus
(1809). a Napoleonic organ. In May 1905 a new era of Englbh
joumalisn on the continent begSn by the institutkm of the. rsris
edition of the London DaUy MaU*.
and Le'Figttfo, £r J^Hhiai, Le Sikde, -Le PeHi Parisien and
Le Peli^ Journal Among the morning dailies* Le Figaro wss
until X90X under the editorship of M. F. de Rodajrs, and the
brilliant articles of M. J. Comply were one of the featuxcs of the
paper; but a dispute among the proprietors in xgox resulted
In the- dismissal of M. Corndly and the retirement of M. de
Rodayis. M. Jean Dupuy (a member of the Waldeck-Rousseau
government) was the proprietor and editor of Le Peiil Parisicn,
a popular organ almost rivalling Le Petit Joumai; the circula-
tion of the latter had, however, reached over one raillion and a
quarter copies daily*
Le Matin and L'&/a»r,. among the Moderate Republican
organs, gave less attention to the discussion of political questions
from the party point of view^han to the collection of nev?,
and they were followed by the Echo de Paris (1884)- Le Matin,
which also dates from 1884, was from its origin essentially
what is called in France a joumai d'informatumSf publishing
every morning a mass of telegraphic news from idl countries.
By an arrangement with the London Times, it gave every
day a translation of most of the telegrams published in that
newspaper.
In Apri) t90x the proprietorship of Le SOcle was changed,
in consequence of fJie lack of support given by Parisian readers
to thai journal as edited by M. Yves Guyot (formerly minister
of public works). The latter was a staunch free-trader, a
courageous defender of Captain Dreyfus, and an doquent
advocate of a good understanding between France and England;
he emphatically endorsed the British policy in South Africa,
and tried to explain it to his countrymen. The paper was,
however, bought in by a number of friends of M. Yves Guyot,
who remained as editor. The greatest opponent of Yves Guyot
from the economic point of view was Jules M61ine, also a former
minister, whose paper, La Ripublique, was the recognized organ
of Protectionism.
The Radical and Socialist ideas which in latter years made
such progress in France were very ably advocated by several
newspapers whose influence steadily grew, such as VAurore^
La Lanteme and VHumaniti (the organ of Jean Jaurts).
Such individual organs of opinion must also he mentioned as
L* Intransii^ant, the organ of Henri Rochefort, and M.
Clemenceau's organ, Le Bloc, in which he advocated the practicsl
application of all of the revolutionaryt republican principles,
pure and unadulterated, forming a whole (bloc), no part of which
could or ought to be sacrificed to temporary political necessities.
As an intermediate link between the Republican organs
of all shades and the various Monarchist newspapers, came
the so-called Nationalist press, an offshoot of or successor to
the Boulangist press of the preceding decade. As were the
Boulangists, so were the Nationalists, a sort of syndicaS des
micontents, their chief organs being La Patrie, edited by M.
Millevoye, and La Cocarde; these papers represented the views
of those who had vague hankerings after a different rigime and
a decided hostility towards the republican form of government.
There was a considerable diminution of influence in the
Monarchist press. LeSpleil, however, had a large circle of readers
among the Conservative bourgeoisie with Orleanist leaninj?.
Le Caulois remained a Royalist paper of somewhat doubtful
tendencies, the editor, M. Arthur Meyer, having incurred the
displeasure of the Pretender whose cause he defended. Of ifee
old. Legitimist press there remained, the old Gazette de France,
which was founded in 1631 and had still a diminishing band d
faithful readers. The organ of the religious (Roman Catholic)
associations in France, La Croix, founded in 1880, represented
the views of the French religiotis associations, and discussed all
questions from the point of view of Catholic interests. La
Croix was published in Paris, but had in the provinces one hundxed
and four local weekly supplements to the Paris edition, each
one taking its name from the parent joumai and adding to it
the name of the department or locality in which it was printed,
such as La Croix de PAllier, La Croix de Lyon.
. The French papers, of whatever party, took an increased
interest ^UHPg this period in foreign matters, and much improved
GERMAN!
NEWSPAPERS
577
their organization for collecting news. Some of them, in fact,
were almost exclusively news-sheets, and the journal dHnforma-
lions — Le Matin or V£clair, for instance— took its place beside
thtjounud properly so called, more perhaps as a rival than as a
complement. The natural result followed, and the more old-
tyi>c newspapers took steps to provide their readers with news
as well as with leading articles, current and literary topics,
society gossip, dramatic criticism and law reports. The most
remarkable as well as perhaps the earliest attempt to enlarge
the scope pi Parisian newspapers was made in 1893 by Georges
Patinot, editor of the Journal des Dibats. Instead of one edition,
that newspaper published two entirely distinct editions, a morning
one and an evening one. After some time the plucky attempt
had to be given up, and the Journal des Dibats became an
evening paper. The bold experiment made by the Journal
des Dibats (which celebrated its centenary in xSSg) led the other
newspapers to find a happy mean between a four-page paper
published twice a day and an eight-page paper on the pattern
of Engb'sh newspapers, and the result was that now most great
daily papers in Paris came out with six pages, the Figaro giving
the lead. As French newspapers increased in size they reduced
their price. Most six-page newspapers, with the exception of
La PigarOj were by 1902 sold at 5 centimes, and the price of
15 centimes, which used to be the rule, became the exception.
In 1902 60 Paris papers (daily and weekly) were sold at 5 centimes
and SI At xo centimes, whilst only xx cost 15 centimes. In x88o
only 23 were s-centime papers and 24 were xo-centime papers.
The American style of journalism came into vogue in Paris
ill the 'eighties, and "interviews" were frequent; but the
general tendency of Parisian editors was to adopt the English
compromise, and to eschew any extreme sensational methods.
Most of the important Parisian newspapers had their special
coTiespondents in the great capitals of Europe, London, Berlin,
St Petersburg, Vienna and Rome. Nothing perhaps was so
striking after 1890 as the demand of the French public for foreign
and colonial news, or the readiness of the papers to supply it
by means of special representatives independent of the news
agendes.
In home matters the French press made greater progress still
in the rapid and accurate collection of news, and in this respect
the provincial press showed more enterprise and more ability
than that of Paris. Its development was Remarkable, for whereas
in x88o the inhabitants of the departments had to await the
arrival of the Parisian papers for their news, they now had the
advantage of being supplied every morning with local newspapers
inferior to none of the best organs of Paris. Among the best
provincial papers may be mentioned La Cironde and La Petite
Cironde of Bordeaux, La DipUhe of Toulouse, Le Lyon Ri-
ptMicaiut V£cko du Nord of Lille, Le Journal de Rouen^ all
having a staff in Paris engaged in collecting news, reporting
parliamentary proceedings and law cases, telegraphed or tele-
phoned during the night and published early the next morning
in their respective localities. Being perfectly independent
of purely Parisian opinion or even bias, the decentralization of
the French provincial press became complete. The newspapers
of the large towns circulated not only in the city in which they
were printed but throughout the region of which it was the centre.
Thus the Dipicke of Toulouse, iKith its twelve editions daily,
-was read in the whole of the departments extending from the
Lot to the Pyrenees, whilst the Petite Cironde was found in all
south-western France. The influence of the provincial, as of the
Paris, press became so great that, as M. Av^ncl says in his book
on the French press, there came a tendency to resent its omni-
potence. The power of the newspaper in France differs from
that of the English newspaper, in that it seems to act more on
the government and the parliament than on public opinion.
The French newspapers have taken upon themselves, in many
cases, functions which belong more properly to the legislative
or to the judicial power than to the press, and the result has not
always been successful. The cause of this is that too many men
of talent with political ambition look upon journalism as " leading
to eveiything, providod 90^ gets out of it." and use it alternately
as an antechamber of parliament or of the cabinet, and a lounge
during their parliamentary or ministerial eclipses.
See generally Hatin, Histoire de la Presse en France (8 vols.. 1860-
1861); Gallois, Histoire des Journaux et Joumalisles de la Rivolulion
(2 voU.); "Journalism in France," Quarterly Review, Ixv. 4.22-468
(March, 1840); Henri Avcncl. La Presse fran^ise au vinglieme
sitcle (Paris, 1901).
5. Newspapers of Germany
Printed newspapers in Germany' begin with the Frankfurter
Journal, established in X615 by Egenolph Emmel, a bookseller
of Frankfort-on-Main. The following year saw the foundation
of the Frankfurter Oberpostamiszeitung — continued until the
year 1866 as Frankfurter Postteitung. Fulda appears to have been
the next German town to possess a newspaper, then Hildesheim
(1619) and Herford (1630). In the course of the century ahnost
all German cities of the first rank possessed their respective
journals. The earliest in Leipzig bears the date x66o. The
Rosto^ker Zeilung was founded in 1710. The Hamburgiscker
Correspondent (1714) was originally published under the name
of Holsteiniscke Zeitungs-Correspondenz, two years earlier, and
was almost the only German newspaper which really drew its
foreign news from " our own correspondent." Berlin had in the
x8th century two papers, those of Voss (the Vossische- Zeilung,
1722) and of J. K. P. Spcncr (i 749-1827; the Spencr'sche
Zeitung, or Berlinische Nachrichten, 1772). Some half-dozen
papers which glimmered in the surrounding darkness were the
reservoirs whence the rest replenished their little lamps. On the
whole, it may be said that the German newspapers were of very
small accoimt until after the outbreak of the French Revolution.
Meanwhile the MS. news-letters, as in earlier days, continued to
enjoy a large circulation in Germany. Many came from London.
The correspondence, for instance, known under the name ol
" Mary Pinearis " — that, apparently, of a French refugee
settled in London-r-had a great German circulation between
1725 and X735. Another scries was edited by the Cologne
gazetteer, Jean Ignace de Rod6rique, also a French refugee, and
remembered as the subject of a characteristic despatch from
Frederick II. of Prussia to his envoy in that city, enclosing 100
ducats to be expended in hiring a stout fellow with a cudgel to
give a beating to the gazetteer as the punishment of an offensive
paragraph.* The money, it seems, was earned, for Rod6rique
was weU-nigh killed. At Berlin itself, Franz Jlermann Ortgies
carried on a brisk trade in these news-letters (1728-1735),
until he too came under displeasure on account of them, was
kept in prison several months, and then exiled for life.' Nor,
indeed, can any journal of a high order be mentioned of prior
appearance to the AUgemeine Zeitung, founded at Leipzig by
the bookseller Cotta (at first under the title of Neueste Weltkunde)
in 1798. Posselt was its first editor, but his want of nerve — and
perhaps his weak health — hindered the application of his high
powers to political journalism. His articles, too, gave offence
to the Austrian court, and the paper had to change both its
title and its place of publication. It had been commenced at
Tubingen, and removed to Stuttgart; it was now transferred
to Ulm, and again to Augsburg. It was Cotta's aim to make this
the organ of statesmen and publicists, to reach the public through
the thinkers, to hold an even balance between the rival parties
of the day, and to provide a trustworthy magazine of materials
for the historians to come; and, in the course of time, his plan
was so worked out as to raise the AUgemeine Zeitung into European
fame. Cotta was also the founder, at various periods, of the
MorgenHatt, which became famous for its critical ability and
tact, of Vesperus, of Das Inland, of Nemesis, of the Oppositions-
blatt of Weimar (for a time edited by Bertuch), and even of the
Archives Parisiennes.
Whilst French influence was dominant in Germany, the
German papers were naturally little more than echoes of the
Parisian press. But amidst the excitements of the " war of
* Fr. Kapp, " Berliner gcschricbcne Zcitungcn," in Deutsche Rund-
schau, xxi. 107-122 f 1879), citing Droyscn. Zeihchr. f. preuss. Ccsch.
xiii. 1 1 . The story, as told by Drovscn. is an instructive commcntarv
on Carlylc's praise of Frederick's love of the liberty of the press. *
' Kapp. ut supra.
578
NEWSPAPERS
(GERMAN
liberation " a crowd of new Journals appeared. Niebubr started
a Preussisdur Correspondent; Gdrres — who in 1798 had founded
at Coblentz Das roihe Blatt, soon suppressed by the invadbg
French— undertook the Rheiniscker Mercur (January 1814 to
January x8i6), which was suppressed by the. Prussian govern-
ment , under Von Hardenbeig. This journal, during its initiatory
year, had the honour of being termed by Napoleon— perhaps
satirically — " the fifth power of Europe." Wetzel, somewhat
later, founded the Frdnkischtf Mercur ^ published at Bamberg,
and Friedrich Seybold the Neckandtung. Some of these journals
lasted but two or three years. Most of the survivors fell victims
to that resolution of the diet (20th September 18x9) which
subjected the newspaper press, even of countries where the
censorship had been formally abolished, to police superintendence
of a very stringent kind.
The aspirations for some measure of freedom which burst
forth again under the influences of 1830 led to the establishment
of such papers as Siebenpfeilfer's WesthoUt Lohbauer's Hoch-
wSchteTt Wirth's Deutsche Tribtate, Eisenmann's Bawrisches
VolksUatt, Der Freisinnige of Rotteck and Welcker, and many
more of much freer utterance than had been heard before in
Germany . This led, in the ordinary course, to new declarations in
the diet against the licence and revolutionary tendencies, of the
press, and to " regulations " of a kind which will be sufficiently
indicated by the mention of one, in virtue whereof no editor of
a suppressed journal could undertake another journal, during
the space of five years, within any part of Germany. It need
hardly be added that few of the newspapers of 1830 saw the
Christmas of 1833. Very gradually some of the older journals
— ^and amongst the number the patriarch of all, the Frank-
furter Obcrposlatntszeiiung — plucked up courage enough to speak
out a little; and some additional newspapers were again
attempted. Amongst th6se which acquired deserved influence
were Brockhaus's Deutsche AUgemeine Zeitung^ the advocate
of free trade and of a moderate liberalism, possessing a large
circulation in northern Germany (1837); the Deutsche Zeitung,
edited by Gervinus, at Heidelberg (July 1847); and the Dorf-
teitung, published at Hildburghausen. The stirring events of
1848 called forth in Germany, as in so many other countries, a
plentiful crop of political instructors of the people, many of
whom manifestly lacked even the capacity to learn, and vanished
almost as suddenly as they had appeared. But it is undeniable
that a marked improvement in the ability and energy of the
German political press may be dated from this period.
At the beginning of the 20th century the position and influence
of the German press were passing through a period of change.
The Germans had become a newspaper-reading people. Indeed,
with the remarkable growth of the commercial spirit in Germany
there had simultaneously been a change in the intellectual
attitude and habits of the mass of the nation. The German of
" the great period " of 1866 and 1870 derived his knowledge of
his own and other cotmtries to a very great extent from the more
or less intelligent study of books, pamphlets and magazines.
The busy German of the opening years of the 20th century had
become almost as much the slave of his newspaper as the average
American. Berlin in 1900 had 45 dailies, Leipzig 8, Munich xa,
Hamburg 11, Stuttgart 8, Strassburg 6. In the domains both
of home and of foreign politics the result was often a chaos of
crude opinions and impulses, the strata of which' were only
differentiated by certain permanent tendencies <^ German
political thought based upon tradition, class feeling, material
interests, or distinctions of religious creed. In these circum-
stances it was still possible for the government, as in the days of
Prince Bismarck and Dr Moritz Busch, to bring its superior
knowledge to bear upon the anarchy of public sentiment through
the medium of the inspired (or as it used to be called, the " rep-
tile ") press, but this operation had now to be performed with
greater delicacy and skill. The press had begun to feel its power.
It was at least able to drive a bargain with those who would
officially control it, and it was conscious in its relations with the
authorities that the advantage no longer rested exclusively on
the side of the Utter. It would be instructive to compare, with
the aid of Dr Busch's " Secret Pages " of the histoiy of Prince
Bismarck, the methods by which the first Chancdlor used to
create and control a movement of public opinion with the devices
by which, for instance, count von BQlow and his sabordinates
endeavoured to manage the press of a later day. The journalists
who placed themselves at the disposal of Prince Bismarck were
mostly treated as his menials; as he himself aaid, "Decent
people do not write for me." Count von BOlow's methods, and
to a certain extent those of his predecessor. Prince Hohenlohe,
moved on somewhat different lines. These methods mig^t be
characterized as the psychological treatment of the individual
journalist, the endeavour to appeal to his personal vanity or to
his legitimate ambition, and oxily in a minor degree to his lear
of the dossier, the public prosecutor, and the official boycott.
There was also a further development of Prince Bismarck's
system of acknowledgmg the existence of political and social
movements the origin of which was wholly or partially inde-
pendent. As in Bismarck's time, the tendencies c^ these move-
ments were carefully observed, and they were turned to accoiuit
where th^ seemed capable of subserving the main objects of
state policy. Thus at the opening of the century the pro-Boer
and agrarian movements were both employed in support of
German foreign and colonial policy, and of an dahorate scbeme
of naval construction; while the growth of the commercial
^irit on the one hand and the awakening of the lower middle
classes on the other, were pressed into the service of Wdt-pditik
and of its auxiliary— a system of protective tariffs. It required
no small skill to bring into line and to hold together the various
classes and interests from time to time arrayed in the press in
support of German foreign policy. The organs of the govern-
ment in the press were the sheep-dogs which held the flock
together.
The German journals of which forrigners hear most bdoog vizk
few exceptions to the daily Pfess of fieriin. There are^ however,
one or two provincial or non-Pruasian newspapers which from time
to time enjoy more careful inspiration from, tne government offices
than any of their Beriin contemporaries. There is, for example, the
Cologne GaseUe iKOlnische Zeitung, 1848), of which Prince Bismarck
once said that it was " worth an army coq^ on the Rhine." Ic b
difficult to trace all the channels by which infomution is convcy-cd
to an organ of this kind, but there have undoubtedly been times when
leading articles and entre-filets in the Rhenish organ were virtually os
actually written in the German Foreign Office. Indeed, the methods
of the institution which has been called the " Press Bureau." but
which in the realm of foreign policy at least represented no coocrete
organization, have been so numerous and varied that it would be
hopeless for any one except the most practised observer to trace thcir
manifestations. The advantage of a semi-official prcn, if it could be
manipulated with unvarying sucoess, is that it can easily he dts*
avowed when the suggestions, overtures or menaces of which it has
been the exponent have served theirtum or have become inexpedient.
Thus during the blockade of Manila in 1898 the Cologne GaaeOr gmvc
all the prominence of its first column and of leaded ty^ to an ankle
taken m>m the Marine Polilisehe Komspondene, which ptacticaily
warned the United States of the intention of Germanv to have a
share in the Pacific possessions of Spain if these should eventually
change hands. Some ten days later the authority of this menace was
explicitly disavowed by the North German Gaeette, which annmmced
that the Marine PolUiscke Korrespondene had never p o sscsaed a
semi-official character. The Cologne Gazette continued in the vest ci
Germany to serve the German government much as it did ia the
time of Prince Bismarck, although for prudential reasons its taapira-
tion became on the whole more intermittent than it was in the days
of the first Chancelk>r. The Hamhurgiscker Correspondent, the lead-
ing Hamburg journal, i^ayed a minor r61e of the same nature in the
chief Hanscatic port, whde the Hamburg^ NachridUen, celebrated
especially during the exile of Prince Bismarck and the dosior yean
of his life at Friedrichsnih as the receptacle of indiscreet revelatioes
and violent attacks upon his successors, almost lost all sirnificsnce
except as a local oigan of violent Anglophobia. The AUgjemmme
Zeitung of Munich, once famous throughout Europe as the Ang>^
burger AUgemeine Zeitung before its transference to the Bavarian
capital, became in the hands of new proprietora practically an ofgaa
of the imperial Chancelk>r. In Prince Bismarek s da^ the press
bureau of the Prussian Ministry of the Interior, and a sunilar orgaxH
ization in the Imperial Home Office, used to furnish hundreds 01 petty
local newspapers known as Kreis-bldtter with whole articles gratis, so
that the policy of the government might be advocated ia every nook
and corner of^the country. The numerous journals in which these
communications used to appear simultaneously and in an idcmiral
form were the government organs to which the Radical and Socialist
MISCELLANEOUS EUROPEAN]
opposition more particularly applied the term " Reptile Press."
Later this practice of wholesale inspiration was abandoned, but
there remained many channels, public and private, through which
almost every department of the government could communicate
informau'on and guidance to newsfiapers in all parts of Germany.
The Prussian Ministry of the Interior distributed to all and sundry
a news-letter known as the Btrliner KorrespotuUtUt professing only
to give statistics and information, and to correct erroneous sutements.
but also frequently containing articles advocating some proposal of
the govcrmnent or combating the argumcnu of iu opponents.
The Sad-Deuische Reichs-Korrespondens had a similar character, and
in 1902 served as an exponent of the policy and tactics of the imperial
Chancellor, count von BQlow. Almost every one of the political
parties has its KorrespondenM (or news-letter) supplying views rather
than news. These circular letters deal, in fact, with the policy of the
party with which they are associated, although they occasionally
also embody information which the party leaders in the Reichstag or
in the Prussian Diet have received from representatives of the
^vemment for their own guidance. They form the means of hold-
ing the parties together, and of inspiring them with common aims, as
they are reproduced throughout the country by all the party organs.
It was in the press of Berlin that the greatest changes tookpbce
towards the end of the 19th century. During the regime of Prince
Bismarck the North German CautU, and occasionally the Post,
used to keep Europe in a state of ner\x>us tension by fulminant ctrnt-
mtiniquis which tnc great Chancellor himwlf often dictated, or bv
what ne used to call jets of cdd water " {KaltwassentraU), which
were mostly directed against France or Russia. So far as France and
Russia are concerned, a much more pacific tone prevailed in Berlin
after the conclusion of the Dual Alliance, and it was upon Engbnd
that the press mainljr concemrated its attacks. The North German
Casette, which was originally established by a private individual, in
order " to place a blank sheet of paper at the disposal of Prince
Bismarck,'* became on the whole, a mere record of home news and
a summary of foreign intelligence bearing the semi-official stamp
ol Wolff's Telegraph Agency. It had doubtless been found that
the constant employment ot an organ so distinctly official as the
Norddeulfcke AUgemeins as a medium of expression for the views of
the government was apt to lead to indiscretions which committed
the authorities too deeply. Indeed, immediately before Prince
Bismarck's fall he had actually employed this journal in order to
attack the labour policy of the emperor. Official communications
still continued to appear in the North German Gazette, but mostly
cl»racteri2ed by a vagueness and awkwardness of style in striking
contrast to the force and point of Prince Bismarck's polemics. The
Imperial CauUe {fitkhsanwtiger), corresponding to the London
Gaaetlf, b purely a record of official intelligence, though on rare
occasions it publishes in the section marked Nicht Amtlich (non-
offirial), some dementi, some statement of policy or some official
document — a proceeding which always requires the express sanction
of the emperor.
The journals which in 1880 were most widely read in Berlin, and
which were best known abroad as the exponents of Berlin opinion.
were the Liberal or Radical Vossische Zeitung and Berliner TageblatI,
ahd the National Liberal National Zeitung. The Vossisrhe Zeitung,
the oklest of all the Berlin newspapers, written with a decree of
literary ability which justified its real title. Kfiniglkh triouigierte
Bertinuche Zeitung fUr Staals- und Gelekrtensachen, held its place.
The National Zeitune. howe>-er (founded in 1848 by Bemhard Wolff.
the originator of WoMf '» news agency), which represented as k>np as it
could those vestiges of old C>erman Liberalism which survived m the
National Liberal party, was compelled to come to an end on January
1st. 1905. The Kreuz Zeitung represented the " small but mighty
party " of the reactionary Conservatives and Agrarians in the Rtate,
and 61 the orthodox (Lutheran) Protestants in the Church. It was
the favourite journal of officers in the army, of the Conservative
gentry (Junker), as well as the medium through which people of
social standing preferred to announce births, marriages and deaths.
The Post contmued to be subiiidized by a small number of industrial
and rural magnates in the interests of the Reicksparlei. or Free
Conservative party, which for the most part subordinated its views
to those of the government. The Berliner Neueste Nachrichten, like
the Post, was a consistent advocate of the development of the Orman
navy and of a ^gorous Welt-polUik. The Boersen Zeitung and the
Boersen-Courier were orrans of the Berlin Stock Exchange; the
first of a National Liberal colour, and the other expressing the views
of the Moderate Radicals (Freisinnige Vereinigung) and oiopponents
of extreme protection. The Viruarts was the central organ of the
German Sorial-Democrats, who had established a considerable
number of other journals throughout Ormany. The clericals or
Centre party were represented by the Germania, less influential than
the other leading orsan of the Roman Catholic ''governing party,"
the KiAniscke Volks-xeitung. The Deutsche Tagesxeitung made
hself a name by its advocacy of the agrarian movement, while the
Freisinnigf Zeitung (foundeo, and to a great extent edited, by the
Radical leader Eugen Richter) represented the Radical point of view.
Among the provincial papers the Frankfurter Zeitung (Radical) was
distinfniished by the excellence of its news, especially on commereial
subjects. The Schlesiuke Zeitung (1752) a leading Conservative
organ, had continued to appear in Breslau «nce the days of Frederick
NEWSPAPERS
579
the Great. The Mag/iehurger Zeitung and the Hannooeruhe Courier
eive an independent or National Liberal support to the government.
The Weser Zeitung, published at Bremen, was an exponent of the
Liberalbm of the commereial classes, while the Strassourger Post was
one of the journals which enjoyed government inspiration, and
helped to maintain die Wackt am Rhein. A considerable number of
journals, published in the Polish language, advocated the Polish cause
in the eastern provinces of Prussia.
Great success attended a new departure in German journalism,
represented by newspapers like the Berlin Lokal-Anzeiger, describing
themselves as non-political. The Lokal-AnMeiger, founded by
August Scherl, who had gained his journalistic experience in America,
had a circulation in Germany comparable with that of the Petit
Journal in France, and it exnrdsed a very marked influence upon
public opinion in Berlin.
The external form and arrangement of German newspapers is
often puzzling at first sight to an English reader. There is an
absence of the striking headlines, which in English journals direct
attention to news of importance, and which in America almost swamp
the text. The outside i>age generally contains the editorial articles
and the news of most importance, while the intelligence received
immediately before going to press b placed in the lost column of the
Last sheet. The bulk of the paper can apparently be increased in-
definitely in accordance with the supply 01 news or literary matter,
or with the number of advertisements. The Vossische Zeitung on a
Sunday morning assumes, with its numerous supplementary sheets,
the dimensions of a thick Blue-book. The quantity of extraneous
matter, such as articles on literary, social and technical subjects, b
en-"^""n, and even the most serious political journab invariably
pi , novel in serial form, as^ well as numerous novelettes and
sk The local news in Berlin and other large cities b written
wi minuteness and the familiarity of style ofa village chronicle,
ar \ the impression that every one is occupied in observing the
dc his neighbour. The signed article is very much in vogue,
ar writers and salaried correspondents have at least a cypher or
in which they are distinguished. The greatest licence prevaib
in ing and discussing the afTairs of other countries, combined
wi iu keenest sensitiveness to foreign criticism of anything that
concerns Germany. The example of the government is followed in
advertising the products of German industry, while those of foreigners
are studiously depreciated.
6. Other European Countries
Austria-Hungary. — At the beginning of i&io the whole number of
Austro-German and Hungarian periodicals, of all sorts, was less than
100, only 22 being (after a fashion) political newspapers: and of
these nearly all drew their materials and their inspiration from the
official papers of Vienna (Wiener Zeitung and Oesterreichiscker
Beobackter), These two were all that appeared in the capital.
Agram, Pesth, Pressburg. Lemberg and Prague had also two each ;
but no other city had more than a single journal. In 1846 the
aggregate number of periodicals had grown to 155. of which ^6
were political, but political only in the character of mere conduit-
pipes for intelligence " approved of " by the government. In 1855
the number 01 political papers published tnroughout the entire
territory under Austrian government, the Italian provinces excepted,
was 60. The Neue Freie Presse, the chief Vienna daily, was founded
in 1864. In 1873, ten years after the virtual cessation of a very
strict censorship, the number of political journals, including all the
specifically administrative organs, as well local as general, was 267.
and that of mere advertising papers 42; in 1883 the former number
had increased to about 280, the latter to about 60. Vienna had in
1883 in all 18 daily newspapers, ten of which ranged in average
circulation from 14,000 to M^^x^o copies.
In the period from 1880 to 1888 the only notable paper founded in
Austria, was the Wiener Allgemeine Zeitung (1880). It appeared
three times daily, but in spite of the impetus communicated to its
start by the well-known " Frcilands " Apostle Theodor Hertzka, it
soon fell away, and eventually became simply a late evening paper,
known as the 6 Ukr AbendMatt. It was with the rise of the anti-
Semitic and Socialistic movements of 1888 onwards that the Vienna
daily press first began a fresh increase. The Deutsche Volksblatt
(anti-bemitic) was founded in i838. the Ostdeutscke Rundsckau
(Radical) in 1893, and the Reichsffost (theorgan of the Catholic section
of the Christian Socialist party) in 1894. The Labour movement led
to the development of tne Arbeiterzeitung^ from a weekly, when it
succeeded the Gleichheit in 1880. to a daily in 1895. It was therefore
the first Social Democratic daily of Austria. In 1893 the Neues
Wiener Journal was founded as a political neutral, and the old
Presse disappeared in 1894, its place being filled by the weekly
Reickswehr (militaiy), established in 1888. The French daily paper.
Le Petit Journal de Vienne, was founded in May 1899. In 1902
nineteen political dailies were published in Vienna.
In 1883 the Hungarian journals numbered 170; in iSm they were
returned as 764. Budapest, which in 1890 had 14 dailies and 10
weeklies, in 1900 had 21 and 3 respectively. The leading papers are
the Budapest K6gtdng, the Pester Lloyd and the Budapeste Hirlap.
Of the German provincial press the most highly developed b in the
German towns of Bohemia and in Prague, and the foundation of the
Deutsche Volkszeitung at Reichenberg in 1885 marks the date of
58o
NEWSPAPERS
[MISCELLANEOUS EUROPEAN
■cpji^tbn oi ctie DtuischforUchritUkke and Dtutscktolklicke parties,
while the Radical parly, which RtXi^iUy increased in Bohemia, was
first represented by the wttUy Deuneker Volksbote at Prague, and
aUo in 1S97 by the Untfcrjahikte d^Miche Worte, edited by Iro at
Eger. A pocuhar feature in Austnan journalism is the existence of
Gurman ocgatu tJ the Cz^h natiofuE movement, of which the repre-
KUtativc ia the Prajfue daily PoiiUk, foiindcd in 1862. In Silesia the
anti-Semitic fnis 5f Wwiicfe Fre^K was founded in 188 1 at Troppau,
anl whi.n ft changitd side* in i?B^j it wjs speedily retraced, 1 891, by
i! trortj-. In Mf.rsvij th^ representative papers of the
t h Cuiiicrvativei inJ Jv-iuj.-uL. w..re the Mir and the PcMor
respectively. The newspapers in Galicia, which increased steadily
after 1870, are both numerous and imporunt. The leading ones are
the Slovo PolskU in Lemberg and the Chs Naroda in Cracow. In
1900 there were 161 newspapers in Polish, as against 10 in 1848 and
50 in 1873. Of the lesser blavic nations, the Slovenians advanced the
most, the Skvenski List having started at the end of 1896. In
Illyrianjournaiism the chief newspapers founded after x88o were the
Crvena Hrvaiska (1891), and the Hrvatska Kruna (1891). An attempt
at unity amongst the Ruthenian factions in 1885 to 1887 produced the
Mir, while the Ruslan, a daily founded at Lembergui 1896, advo-
cated joint action by Poles and Ruthenians. The Bukowyna,
esublished in 188^, developed into the organ of " Young Ruthenia,"
and the Bukowinska Widomosiy, esublished in 1895, represented the
Old Ruthenians.
The Italian press in Austria was represented in 1900 chiefly by the
very popular daily Piccolo, published at Trieste: it had a formidable
rival in the MaUino, from 1 885 to 1898. The Fed« e Lavoro, published
at Roveredo, was the organ of the Catholic Labour party, and
LAmenire dd Lavoro, at Bozcn, that of the Socialists. In Dalmatia
the Corriere NationaU, founded in 1896 at Zara and afterwards
published at Trieste, was the organ of the autonomist Italians, while
// Daltnata continued to represent the National Liberals.
Belgium.— The Nieuwe Tijdin^hen of Antwerp, published by
Abraham Verhoeven, has been said to date virtually trom 1605, in
which year a " licence for the exclusive retailing of news " was ac-
corded to him by the archduke Albert and the archduchess Isabella.
But the claim is conjectural. No copy of any number anterior to 1616
is now known to exist. It seems probable that the Caxette Extra-
erdinaris PosUiJdinghen, published by Wilhelm Verdussen between
1637 and 1 644. IS a continuation of Verhoeven's paper. But. be this as
it may, that of Verdussen was certainly the foundation 01 the well-
known CauUe van Antwerpen, which continued to appear until 1827.
Bruges had its Nieuwe Tijdingken uyt versche^len Quartieren,
published (in black letter) by Nicholaes Breyghel. When this paper
was commenced is uncertain, but various numbers of it exist with
dates between 1637 and 1645. In one of these (26th July 1644)
a Brussdsche CauUe of the 24th of that month is quoted, apart from
which citation no Brussels paper is known of earlier date than 1649.
When the first number of Le Courier viriUMe des Pays-Bos made lU
appearance, the publisher (J«n Mommacrt) prefaced the first
number by an address to the reader, in which he says: " I have
long endeavoured to meet with somebody who would give emi^oy-
ment to my presses in defending truth against the falsehoods which
malignity and ignorance send daily abroad. I have at length found
what I sought, and shall now be able to tell you, weekly, the most
important things that are going on in the world." This paper
became afterwards the CaseUe de Bruxelles, then Caxette des Pays-
Bas; and, under the last-named title, it continued to appear until
1 79 1. The Annates Politigues of Linguet was one of the most re-
markable of the political journals of Brussels in the 1 8th century.
For a time the editor won the favour of the emperor Joseph II by
praising his reforms, and the Government subscnbed for 1200 copies
of his paper at two louis d'ors each a year; but here, as in almost
every other place of residence during his chequered career, Linguet
at leneth incurred fine and imprisonment. His journal was re-
peatedly suppressad, and as often resumed under many modifications
of title. It was continued in France, in Switzerland (at Lausanne),
and in England. At one time it was so popular that a printer in
Brussels regulariy and rapidly published a pirated edition of it.
For a brief period the publication was resumed at Brussels. Mallet
DuPan was. for a time, a collaborator in the editorship. Linguet
died by the guillotine in 1794. Le National was a famous paper for
a short period prior to the revolution of 183a Soon after its cessa-
tion — itspresses were destroyed by the populace on the 26th August
— the official journal, Le Moniteur Beige, was established. — the
ministry deeming it indispensable to the success of its great political
enterpnse that a journal should be created which might expound its
views, and act daily upon public opinion " ; and, on decree of the
regency, it was published accordingly.
The first newspaper published at Ghent. GaseUe van Cent, appeared
in 1667. Den Vaderlander, begun in October 1820. was. for a long
period, one of the most widely circulated of the Flemish journals.
In 1800 Brussels published 34 papers of various periodiaty. among
which the Moniteur Beige held the lead with a circulation of 90,000,
while Le National (revived in 1885) and L'Etoile (1869) circulated
21,000 and 5000 respectively. In 1900 there w^re 18 dailies and 14
weeklies, &c. Antwerp had 7 dailies in 1890 and i^oo; Ghent 7
dailies in 1890 and 6 in 1900; Licec 6 in 1890 and 5 in 190Q. The
halfpenny paper is well established.
Holland. — ^Tbe kingdom of the Netherlands has always been rich ia
newspapers, but they have usually had more weight coramerdally
than politically. Amsterdam in 1890 had 10 dailies, and in 1900 had
12 dailies {Algemeen HandelsUad, Nieuws van den Dag, &c.). In
1900 the Hague had 6 dailies {Daeblad, Vaderland, &c.) ; and Rotter-
dam had 5 dailies (Nieuwe Roiteriammer Courant^ &c.). The oldest
Dutch paper, the naarlemsche Courant, founded in 1656, u still one
of the leading journals.
Italy. — Tht Diario di Roma, although datir^ only from 17 16, may
claim to have been the patriarch of the Italian pros. It lasted for
nearly a century and a half. During its later years it was a daily
paper, with a weekly supplement having the somewhat whimsical
title Notiaie dd Ciomo. Next to this came the Cauetta UJiaaU di
Napoli. These and their congeners were published under a rkid
censorship until far into the 19th century, and exercised little influ-
ence of any kind. The first tentative movement towards a free press
may, perhaps, be dated from the effort to establish at Milan, in 1818,
under the editorship of Silvio Pellico, the ConcUiatore, in which
Simonde de Sismondi Gonfalonicri and Romagnoat were fellow-
writers. But the new journal was suppmsed in 1820. The first
really effectual effort had to wait for the lapse of nearly thirty years.
L'Opinione was first published in Turin (26th December 1847) after-
wards in Rome. It had, amongst its many editors, Giacomo Duxando
(a soldier of mark, and twice minister of foreign affairs), Mootcaenoio.
Giovini Bianchi and Giacomo Dina. The Florence Diritto, originally
founded at Turin, in 1851 , by Lorenzo Valerio, was edited successtvdy
by Macchi, Baigini and Gvinini, and as a radical organ attained
great influence. Counting journals of all kinds, there were published
in Italy in 1836 185 newspapers: in 1845. 200; in 1856, 311; in
1864. 450; in 1875, 479' In 1882 the *^ penodicals *' of all kinds
numbered 1454. and total number of political dailies was 149. In
1890 Rome published 13 dailies, and in 1900, 10 dailies. Theleadiag
Roman papers were the Fanfulla, representing the court and govern-
ment; tne Tr^mna (5 centimes), a Liberal paper founded ia 1883;
the organ of the Vatican, L'Osservatore Romano; and the popular
Messaggiero. II Secolo (1866) and the Corriere dOla Sera (1876) are
issued m>m Milan.
Russia, Poland and Fintand.-^The earliest raaette of Moscow
(Moskovskya Viedomosti) was issued by order of Peter the Great oa
the i6th December 1702, but no copy is known now to exist of earlier
date than the 2nd January following. The whole gazette of the y»r
1703 was Tcproduoed in facsimile by order of Baron de Kocff (the
imperial librarian at St PMersburg) in 18^, on occasioo of the
festival for the 3rd century of Moscow umvernty. The existiog
ViedomosH dates only from 1766. That of St Petersburg dates from
1718. The historian Karamzin established a short-lived Moscow
journal (Moskovski lAstok), and afterwards at St Petersburg the oDce
widely-known Russian Courrier de I'Europe (1802). The profits d
the successful Invalide Russe (Russki Invalid), established in i8is by
Pteraorovius, were devoted to the sufferers by the war with France.
Adding to the distinctively political journals those of miscellaneous
character, the whole nuitaber of newspapers published within the
Russian states — Poland and Finland excepted — in the year 1835
ras ia6; in 1858 that number had jgrown to 179, of which 82 w<
ublished in St Petersburg and 15 in Moscow; 132 were printed
Russian, 3 in Russian andin German, i in Russian and in Polish. 28
in (German, 8 in French, 3 in English, l in Polish, i in Lithuanian, i in
Italian. In 187^, under the more liberal rule nf Alexander II., the
number of pditical and miscellaneous journals had grown to 293,
and of these 105 were under the direct influence of the Government.
But. in truth, the period of relaxation of censorship, if strictly a-
»mined,'wiU be found to have lasted only from 1855 to l86yi,wlKn
repressive measures were aeain and frequently resorted tOw Poland in
1830 had a9 newspapers. Fifty years later the number was still less
than 70, 01 which 54 were in Polish, these numbers including Journals
of all kinds. Finland in i860 had 2A newspapers, half in Swedish,
half in Finnish. In 1863 the number had incrraaed to 32, in spite of
the zealous opposition c^ Count de Bef]^, the i^vcmor-general. to aU
discussion of political events and " subjects which do not concern the
people." He was very friendly to journals of gardening and cottage
economy, and to magazines of lient literature, and did not r^^ard
comic papers with anger provided they kept quite dear of politics.
The paper which was long the chief Finnish organ, Suomelar (founded
at Helsingfors in 1847). owed much of its popularity to the pains its
editors took with their correspondence. The Oulun Wukko-S amom^
(" Ulcaborg Daily News ") was for a conaderable period the nxxt
northerly newspaper of the worid, with the one exoeptiosi of the
little journal published at TromaO. in Norway.
In 1880 the whole number of newspapers printed within the
government of Finland was a6, while the total number of news-
papers and journals of all kinds published within the whole Russian
empire during the same year was 608. Of these. 417 were printed
in the Russian language, i^ of them being official or administmtrve
organs; 54 were printed m Polish, AO in German, 11 in I^rttisii,
10 in French, 7 in Esthonian, 3 in Lithuanian.
In 1890 St Petersburg had 6 dailies; and in 1900 there were t6
dailies (the St Petersburgtkya Viedomosti, the Novoya Vremja, the
Journal de St PHershourg, Ac). Moscow increased from 5 to 8
dailies (the Moskovskya viedomosti, &c.). The rest of Russia |
produced about 100 newspapers, of which ooe-tbird wctc <
NEWT
581
In Russian Poland about 11 papen, one-half being dailies, were
published at Warsaw in looo {Kurter Warsawski, Cauta PoUka^ &c.).
Spain and Portugal. — in Spain no newspaper of any kind existcxl
earlter than the 18th century, a Caceta ae Madrid starting about
1726 (an alleged tf^cHa in 1626 is a myth). Even during the early
years of the 19th century the capital contented itself with a
single journal, the Diario de Madrid. ^Thc Peninsular War and
the establishment of the Cortes gave the first impulse towards some-
thing which might be called political journalism, but the change from
total repression to absolute freedom was too sudden,{iot to be grossly
abused. The Diario de las Cortes, the Semanario Patriotico fpublished
at Cadla from 1808 to 181 1.) and the Aurora MaUorquina (published
at Palma in 1812-1813) were the first of the new papers that attained
importance. In 1814 the circulation or receipt in Spain of Englbh
newspapers was prohibited under penalty 01 ten years' imprison-
ment. Most of the native journals fell with the Cortes in 1823. In
the following year Ferdinand decreed the suppression of all the
journals except the then Diario and Gaceta of Madrid, the Chceia de
Bayona, and certain provincial papers which dealt exclusively with
ccmimercial or scientific subjects. At the close of his reign only three
or four papers were published in Madrid. Ten years afterwards
there were 40; but the number was far more noticeable than the
value. Spanish newspapers have been too often the mere stepping-
stones of political adventurers, and not tinfrequently the worst of
them appear to have served the turn more completely than the best.
Gonzales Bravo attained office mainly by the help of a paper of
notorious scurrility, — El Cuirigay. His press-law of 1867 introduced
a sort of indirect censorship, and a system of "warnings," rather
clandestine than avowed; and his former rivals met craft with
craft. The Universal and the Correo we^ successively the organs of
Jgs6 Salamanca. At the end of 1854 the political journals published
in Madrid numbered about 40, the most conspicuous being the now
d?funct Espafla and Ei Clamor Publico. In 1890 Madrid published
38 papers, of which 15 were dailies; but by iQOO^hey declined to 28,
of which 19 were dailies. The leading Spanish papers in 1900 were —
El Correo (1879), Monarchico-Liberal; La- EfWM, Conservative;
£/ Imparcial, Independent Liberal; La Justicia, an evening Re-
publican paper: El Liberal, numbering; among its contributors the
best writers without distinction of party; and El Paist the organ of
the Progressives.
Portugal in 1882 was credited with 170 journals of all kinds and
of various periodicity. Of this number 68 appeared in Lisbon. The
strictly political daily papers of Lisbon were 6 in number; those of
Opc«to 3. la 1890 Lisbon published il dailies; and in 1900, 19
dailies.
Sveden. — In Sweden the eariiest rcgttlar newspaper appears to
have been the Ordinarie Post-Tidende of Stockholm, first published
in 1645, and continued until 1680, then, after long suspension, re-
vived under the title Post' ock Inrikes-Ttdnint. Stockholm has also
its AftotMadet. The Post-Tidende was followed by the Svensk
Mercurius (1675-1683) and the Latin Relationes Curio sae (1682-
1701). In 1742 a Swedish newspaper in French (Gaxette Francaise de
Stockholm) was commenced, and was followed in 1772 by the Mercure
de SvHe. But the press in Sweden had small (wlitical influence until
1620. when the Argus was established by Johannsen. The strife
between " classicists " and " romanticists " spread itself in.Sweden,
as in France, from the field of literature into that of politics. Crusen-
stolpe's FidemeslandUadet and Hjerta's AftorMadel, founded in
1830, were long the most conspicuous of the Swedish journals, — the
former on the side of the royalists, the latter on that of the reformers.
Hjcrta's paper, in its best days, could boast of a circulation of 5000
copies; bat on the accession of King Oscar it ceased to appear as an
opposition organ. Almost every town in the provinces now has its
paper. In 1890 StockhcAm had- ^ dailies ana la weeklies, &c.;
duration was in .general very short, often only a few months
(Lundstadt, Sveriges Periodiska Literatur, u. 1896). A newspaper in
Finnish is published at Haparanda.
Denmark. — While Denmark published an Europdische Zeitung as
early as 1663 and the Danske Mercurius in 1666, the political influ-
ence of the preta is a newer thing in that country than even in
Sweden. Until i8;}0 Copenhagen had but two papers, and they filled
their columns with mild extracts from foreign journals. Real
activity in this direction dates from the establishment of the pro-
vincial states in 183^. The Berlingske Tidende dates from 1749. and
was at first publish«l in German. The F&drelandet in 1 848-1 840 was
in a glow ol zeal for Scandinavianism and " Young Denmark. ' In
1890 Copenhagen produced 8 dailies and 6 weeklies, &c. In 1900 it
had 12 dailies and 2 weeklies, while 121 papers appeared in sixty-
eight provincial towns.
Reykjavik {Iceland) published two weekly papers in 1890, and the
same number in 1900 (Tki6d6lfr and Isafola).
Norway. — The earliest Norwegian paper vras the Christiania
Inieiligentssedler, founded in 176^- Next to this came the Adresse-
cantors Efterretninger (1765), published at Bergen. Den Constilu-
tumelle absorbed an older paper, called Norske Rigstidende. The
Morgenblad was founded in 1819. In 1890 Christianu published 12
papers, of which only throe appeared daily ; in 1900 only 10 papers
were producedi but 8 of them were dailies. The Morgenbladet still
held its rank, and the Aftenposten had a large circubtion.
Switurland.^ln 1873 the total number of political and general
newspapers in Switzeiland was 230. In 1881 they numbered 342;
53 were of daily i"-i- -" -r-n- Lr^tj twice or lln'. > -t v "I, ..Iv ;
only vt-vrij uf \*l.L^j i, \ .(.^.luUly tonipcr-.i.L..,. >,■: .II, .., i^.- l,||
tht' day appiL-arL-<d ikt Kuriifhiitht in ihf canlon o( bt Gall, a» rarly as
January 1^7. The editor wns a German^ one Samuel DilLauiri, ^
Aug&burg. He varied hi^ titltr*, » ihit his monthly nirw^bogk^,
alE hough really coii^ecutiv'V, dti not wear the appearance of icrial
publications. Sometimes he called bis itsuc ifutoriifhe Rthtio,
somct \m^ Bcsckreibu Hg, somct imcs iliitorisiht Erza kiung. Sw i licr-
jand has stncc become renvirkabk for the number o! its nen'4|Mp«rs
in pmponion to its slxe. Aniosig the more important ni^y be
mi-^ntioned the Journal dt (knive and the GazcUe d£ Ltyusannt, bqih
MiTderate Liberal, and the CatKolwr C&urrier dt Qtmisvc^ La TrUfunt
dtGrnhx {\%'j%) is a K-aditig fiveHztniimc paper.
C>f<?cf.— The few newsj]«aprr$ that made their sudden appearance
in Gtiwcc during the war of liberation departed as hastily when King
Orho brought with liim a press-taw^ one of the proviso* ol which
demanded c^iution-money by actual deposit. The journal Saviour
was established, in 1*14. as 3 Covtrnment organ, and was woni
foLkiwtiJ by Aihma as the journal of the opposition. Ten years btcr
7 diatlrtctiv<^l>; political papers bad been cstablijiht-d, along with 13
journals of misrcKancous nature. In 1^77 there were, cf all sorts
81 lournaU, g{ which 77 appearL-d in Gntk, 2 irt Creek and Frt^ncb,
2 in FfL'nch only; 37 of these were pnntetj in Atbcn?^ 17 m the Ionian
Islands. In ifl^ Athens published 9 dailies and 4 W(^^WE^:s^ &c., and
in 1 900, to dail H.-5 a nd 2 wcf kliesH, The chitf paptTSH t ht A siy a nd the
Afropoiis, wert mainly political and on the LiberaUidc, as indeed
were nearly all the Athenian papers.
Turtf v.— During the embassy (17^S) of Vernifiac Saint -Maur,
en\'oy 01 the Frtnch republic, a French iournnl vi^s establihhed at
Pcra. Thti, pos.^bly, i« ihe pioneer of all Torkii^l tif *&papcrs.
Thirty years lattT (iB25> the Spcclatcttr di t'Orstnl wa^ fotindcd at
Smyrna, also by a FrL-nchman (Ak*xandcr Blacquet?). It wa;i aftrr-
wjirds published undi?r the litle? Courrier and Joitm^U de Smyrne*
In lilte manner, the Monit^Kr Otl^>mait. first of itrictly Constantino^
polUan journals, was fuundcd by the above-named Bbcquet in
1831. It soon changed its bnguage to Turkish, and was edited by
Franceschl. The second Smyrna newspaper^ Echo de I'Orimt,
established in 1838, was traiulk-rred to Constantinople in 1846. Bui
not one ol these papers hcii iufvivwi. In 1876 the total number of
journals of all kind* published In the capital wa? 7 J (namely ^ 30 in
FiL-nch, 16 in Turkish, 13 in Armcfii-mi 12 in Greek, it in as many
other tnnciie^). In 1^90 there were J<) ppcrs. In various bni^uages,
piji >■■ ]■:■ ' -' ['--■.-=- \ , iiio^t lA Tlirm d.il3k':f.: nirad In t<>oo the
nu... — ul i-ap<^i\:. dtt«.t-;,iw.J 10 t8. They appear^ in the following
languages: the Stamboul and 4 others in French, 3 in Turkish, i in
Turkish and Greek, 3 in Greek, 2 in Armenian, i in English and
French, and i each in Arabic, English, Italian and Persian. Smyrna
published 8 papers, mostly weeklies, in 1890, and the same number
in 1900. Owing to the number of Mahommedan fasts and feasts
Turkish newspapers are somewhat irregular in their appearance.
For the newspapers of other countries (e.g. Japan) or of important
towns, see under the separate topographical headings. (U. Ch.) .
NEWT (a corrupted form from " an ev?t " or " an cflFct," a
tenn of Anglo-Saxon origin, still used in many parts of England),
the name usually applied to the aquatic members of the family
Salamandridae whidi constitute the genus MolgCf formerly
known as Triton. But the name Triton^ applied to these
Batrachians by N. Laurenti (1768), has already been used by
Linnaeus {Sy sterna Naturae) for parts of the barnacle (Lepas
anatifera). B. Merem (1830) proposed to substitute for it the
name MolgCj said to be derived from the Gr. M6\yri% or "hldXyos,
" slow," in allusion to the movements of these animals on
land. The similar name Molck designates these Batrachians in
German.
The newts arc very closely related to the true Sakmanders,
Salamandra, from which they differ principally in the shape of
the tail, which is compressed, in relation to their aquatic habits
during a considerable part of the active period. Their aquatic
progression is effected principally by means of the tail, and during
the act of swimming the legs are turned backwards and folded
against the body and tail, so as to admit of. the smallest possible
degree of resistance.
A very marked sexual dimorphism prevails in most species
of this genus, the males being more brilliantly coloured than the
females and provided with a dorsal crest which attains its greatest
development during the breeding season, lasting through the
spring and the early summer. Later in the season the males
more or less completely lose their crests and other nuptial orna-
ments, and the two sexes are more alike; they, then retire on
58a
NEWTON, A.— NEWTON, SIR C. T.
land, concealing tbemsel^ tinder stdfaet, log» of wood, or in
boles in damp earth, but leaving their retreat at night or in wet
weather to aearch for earth-worms and slugs whidi constitute
their principal food. In the water they are very destructive of
tadpoles, insect Urvae and crustaceans.
A remarkable feature of the newts, which they share with the
other tailed Batrachians and the larvae of the frogs and toads,
is the great facUity with which they regenerate ]d parts, such
as the tail, limbs, and even the eye, a faculty which has
given rise to a great variety of experiments, from the days of
Charles Bonnet and Spallanzani to those of the present school
of Emtwickdungsmeckafdk.
Extraordinary as it may appear, considering the abundance of
these creatures and the attention they have received from naturalists,
it was only in 1880 that their mode of fecundation was correctly
ascertained, from observation of the common newt by the Italian
soologist F. Gaaco. The amorous games of the newts, to graphically
represented by M. Rusconi. had been repeatedly described, and Abbe
Spallanzani, as early as 1766, had ascertained tne impreenation to be
internal. The then current belief that the water served as a vehicle
to convey the spermatozoa to the female organs had received a blow
on Karl Thcodor von Sicbold's discovery of a receplaculum seminis in
the female, but no satisfactory explanation had been given of the
manner in which the spermatozoa reach these pouches. This
mystery Gasco succeeded in elucidating in his masterly paper
published in 1880, which has since been supplemented by his own
mvestigations on the axolotl, and those of E. Zeller, E. O. Jordan and
others on the European and American newts.
All who have kept newts in an aquarium have witnessed the curious
antks of the male placing himself before the female and rapidly
vibrating his folded uil, or bending his body in a semicircle, as if to
prevent ner from passing ahead c4 him. The male then 'emits, at
short intervals, in front of the female, several conkaA or bell-shaped
spermatophores (a gelatinous secretion from the ckiaca), adhering
to the around and crowned by a spherical mass of ^xrmatozoa,
which the female afterwards gathen in the lips of her cloaca either
by mere application or by holding the spermatophore between her
hind legs and pressing the mass of spermatozoa into the cloaca,
whence they ultimately find their way into the lower part of the
oviducts, where the eg^ are fecundated as they descend.
out life, the newt breeding in the branchiate condition, as often
happens in the axolotl. The fore limbs are developed before the
hind limbs.
The genus Molge has a wide distribution, extending over Europe,
north-west Africa, south-western Asia, eastern temperate Asia
fChina and. Japan) and North America as far south as southern
California and the Rio Grande del Norte. Twenty species are dis-
tinguished. The British species are the crested newt (M. cristata),
the common newt (If. vtUgaris) and the palmated newt {M. palmata).
The first is the largest, and measures 4 to 6 in. The skin is more or
less rugose, with granular warts, a strong fold extends across the
throat, and the male is provided with a very high dentate dorsal
crest whkh is interrupted over the sacral region ; the upper parts are
dark, with more or less distinct black qwts; the sides are speckled
with white, and the lower parts are yellow or orange, spotted or
marbled with black; a silvery stripe adorns the side otthe Uil in the
male. The common and the palmated newts are smallo*, a) to 4 in.
in length, and have a smooth skin. The dorsal crest of the male is
high and festooned in the former, low and straight-edg^ in the
latter: during the breeding season the feet of the common newt are
lobate like a grebe's, whilst they are webbed like a duck's in the
palmated newt, which is further distinguished in having the tail
truncate and terminating in a filament.
• It is a remarkable fact that, although related so closely and occur-
ring so frequently together in pools ofsmall extent, the common and
palmated newts are not known ever to produce hybrids, whilst the
crested newt, when coexisting (in some parts of France) with a
south-western ally, the beautiful Motge marmorata, to which it is by
no means more nearly akin than are the two above-named
no means mote neany axin man are tne two atxive-named species
to each other, regulariy gives rise to the form known as M. Uasii,
which has f ^ -- "^ • - *•
marmorata.
Eguiarly
proved
to be a cross between M, cristata and if!
Pnnapal references: G. A. Bouknger. Cataiegiu of Batrackia
Gradienhas. Caudata (1362); J. de Bedriaga. Lurch/aumi Europas,
II. l/fOflWtt (1897); F. Gasco. "Sviluppo del Tritone alpestJ*/*
nlS 1^**?; 9^^' "i^' S^^h ^ Zefier, " Befruchtung bei den
Urodelen." Z. Wus. Zool. xlix. (1890) and H. (1891); M. Rusconi,
^rnwr* «kr 5afaiiMnrfr«5 aqwUiquts {1^21)-, W. WolterstoriT, " Cher
Tnton blasit," Zool. Jahrh., Syst., xix. p. 647 (1904).
NEWTON, ALFRED (182^1907), English aoologist, was bom
at Geneva on the xith of June 1829. In 1854 he was elected
tiavdling feQow of Magdalene College, Cambridge, of which be
had been an underghuluate, and subsequently visited many paits
of the world, including Lapland, Iceland, Spitsbergen, the West
Indies and North America. In x866 he bteame the fint professor'
of zoology and comparative anatomy at Cambridge, a posiiioa
which he retained tiU his death. His services to ornithology and
zoogeography were recognised by the Royal Society in Z900,
when it awarded him a Royal medaL He wrote many books,
including Zoology of AncietU Europe (1862), Ootheca WoUeyama
(begun in 1864), Zoology (1872), and a Didionary of Birds (189^
1896). The last, still a standard work, was an ampiification o€
the numerous articles on birds which he contributed to the gtli
edition of the Encydopaedia Britanmca, and which with com-
paratively slight revision are retained in the present editioa. He
contributed many memoirs to scientific societies, and edited The
Ibis (1865-1870), the Zoological Record (1870-1872), and VarreWs
British Birds (1871-1882). He died at Cambridge on the ytb of
June 1907.
NEWTON, SIR CHARLES THOMAS (1816-1894), British
archaeologist, was bom on the x6th of September x8x6, at
Bredwardine in Herefordshire, and educated at Shrewsbury
School and Christ Church, Oxford. He entered the British
Museum in 1840 as an assistant in the Anti^iuitiea Department.
Antiquities, classical. Oriental and medieval, as well ss ethno-
graphical objects, were at the time included in one department,
which had no classical archaeologist among its officen. In
1852 Newton quitted the Museum to bea>me vice-consul at
Mitylene, with the object of exploring the coasts and islands
of Asia Minor. Aided by funds supplied by Lord Strstfofd de
Reddiffe, then British ambassador at Constantinople, he made
in 1852 and 1855 important discoveries of inscriptions at the
island of Calymnos, off the coast of Caria; and in 1856-1857
achieved the great archaeological exploit of his life by the
discovery of the remains of the mausoleum of Halicamassus,
one of Uie " seven wonders " of the ancient worid. He was
greatly assisted by Murdoch Smith, afterwards celebrated in
connexion with Fttsian telegraphs. The results were described
by Newton in his History of Discoveries at Halicamassus (1862-
1863), written in conjimction with R. P. PuUan, and in his
Travels and Discoveries i» the Levant (1865). These works
included particulars of other important discoveries, espedaOy
at Brsnchidae, where he disinterred the sutues which had
anciently lined the Sacred Way, and at Cnidos, where R. P.
PuUan, acting under his direction, found the colossal 1km now
in the British Museum.
In 1855 Newton declined the regius professorship of Gred: at
Oxford. In x86o he was made British consul at Rome, but had
scarcely entered upon the post when an opportum'ty presented
itself of reorganizing the amorphous department of antiquities
at the British Museum, which was divided into three and ulti-
mately four branches. The Greek and Roman section naturally
fell to Newton, who returned as Keeper, and held the office until
1885, declining the offer of the principal librarianship made to
him in 1878. The Mausoleum Room, to accomniodate tlK
treasures he had found in Asia Minor, was built under his super-
vision, but the most brilliant episode of his administration was
the acquisition of the Blacas and (^tellani gems and sculptures.
The Faraese and Pourtal^ collections were Sao acquired hy Ktm
He took a leading part id the foundation of the Society for the
Promotion of Hellenic Studies^ the British School at Athens^
and the Egypt Exploration Fund. He was Yates professor of
classical archaeology at University College, London, from z88o
to z888. His collected Essays on Art and Archae^ogy were
published in x886. When, on his retirement from the Museum*
his bust by Boehm, now placed in one of the sculpture gallcriess
was presented to him as a testimonial, he desired the unexpended
baknce to be given to the school at Athens. After his retirement
he was much occupied with the publication of the Greek xxiscrip'
tions in the British Museum, but his health faOed greatly in the
latter years of his life. He died at Margate on the aSth of
November 1894. He married in x86t the daughter of his
successor in the consulate at Rome, the painter Sevan, hersdf
a distinguished artist She died in 1866. (R. G.)
NEWTON, SIR ISAAC
583
N, SIR ISAAC (i64»-x737), English natural phOo-
sopher, was bora on the asth of December 1642 (o.s.)» at Wools-
thorpe, a hamlet in the parish of Colsterworth, Lincokshire,
about 6 m. from Grantham. His father (also Isaac Newton)
who farmed a small freehold property of his own, died before his
ton's birth, a few months after his marriage to Hannah Ayscough,
a daughter of James Ayscough of Market-Overton. When
Newton was little more than two years old his mother married
Barnabas Smith, rector of North Witham. Of this marriage
there was issue, Benjamin, Mary and Hannah Smith, and to their
children Sir Isaac Newton subsequently left the greater part
of his property. After having acquired the rudiments of educa-
tion at two small schools in hamlets dose to Woolsthorpe,
Newton was sent at the age of twelve to the grammar school of
Grantham. While attending Grantham school Newton lived
in the house of Mr Clark, an apothecary of that town. According
to his own confession he was far from industrious, and stood
very low in his class. An unprovoked attack from the boy next
above him led to a fight, in which Newton's pluck gave him the
victory. This success seems to have led him to greater exertions,
and he rose to be the head boy of the school. He displayed
very early a taste and an aptitude for mechanical contrivances.
He made windmills, water-decks, kites and dials, and he is said
to have invented a four-wheeled carriage which was to be moved
by the rider. In 1656 Mr Smith died, and Newton's mother
came back with her three children to Woolsthorpe. Newton
was then in his fifteenth year, and, as his mother in all probability
intended him to be a farmer, he was taken away from school He
was frequently sent on market days to Grantham with an old
and trusty servant, who made all the purchases, while Newton
spent his time among the books in Mr Clark's house. It soon
became apparent to Newton's relatives that they were making
a great mistake in attempting to turo him into a farmer,
and he was therefore sent back a^n to school at Grantham.
His mother's brother, William Ayscough, the rector of Burton
Goggles, the next parish, was a graduate of Trinity College,
Cambridge, and when he found that Newton's mind was wholly
devoted to mechanical and mathematical. problems, hc^ urged
upon Mn Smith the desirability of sending her son 'to his own
college. He was accordingly admitted a member of Trinity
Cc^ege on the 5th of June x66x, as a subsizar, and was matricu-
lated on the 8th of. July. We have scarcely any information
as to his attainments when he commenced residence, and very
Cttle as to his studies as an undergraduate. It is known that
whfle still at Woolsthorpe Sanderson's Logic had been read by
him to such purpose that his tutor at Trinity College excused
his attendance at a course of lectures on that subject. Newton
tells us himself that, when he had purchased a book on astrology
at Stourbridge fair, a fair hdd dose to Cambridge, he was unable,
on account of his ignorance of trigonometry, to understand a
figure of the heavens which was drawn in this book. He therdore
bought an English edition of Euclid with an index of propositions
at the end of it, and, having turned to two or three which he
thought likely to remove his difficulties, he found them so self-
evident that he put aside Euclid "as a trifling book," and
applied himself to the study of Dcscartes's Geometry. It is
reported that in his examination for a scholarship at Trinity,
to which he was elected on the 38th of April 1664, he was
examined /in Euclid by Dr Isaac Barrow, who formed a poor
opinion of his knowledge, and that in consequence Newton
was led to read the Elements again with care, and thereby to
form a more favourable estimate of Eudid's merits.
The study of Descartes's Geometry seems to have inspired
Newton with n love of the subject, and to have introduced him
to the higher mathematics. In a small commonplace book,
bearing on the seventh page the date of January 1663/1664,
there are several articles on angular sections, and the squaring
of curves and " crooked lin^ that may be squared," several
calculations about musical notes, geometrical propositions from
Francis ^eta and Frans van Schooten, annotations out of Wallis's
Aritkmelk of Infinities, together with observations on refraction,
on the grinding of " ^heooU ofaiCjS^uses," on the errors of lenses
and the method of rectifying them, and on the extraction of
all kinds of roots, particularly those "in affected powers."
And in this same commonplace book the following ent«y made by
Newton himself, many years afterwards, gives a further account
of the nature of his work during the period when he was an
undergraduate: —
" July 4, 1699. — By consulting an account of my expenses at
Carobndge, in the years 16^ and 1664, I find that in the year 1664
a little Mfore Christmas, I, being then Senior Sophister, bought
Schooten's MisaUanics and Cartes' Geometry (having read this
Geometry and Oughtred's Clams dean over hau a year before), and
borrowra Wallis's works, and by consequence made these annotations
out of Schooten and Waliis, in winter between the years 1664 and
1665. At such time 1 found the method of Infinite Series; and in
summer 1665, bdng forced from Cambridge by the plague, I com-
puted the area of the Hyperbola at Boothby, in Lincolnshire, to
two and fifty figures by the same method."
That Newton must have begun early to make cardul observa-
tions of natural phenomena is suffidently testified by the follow-
ing remarks about halos, which appear in his Optics, book IL
part iv. obs. 13: —
" The like Crowns appear sometimes about the moon; for in the
beginning of the Year 1664, February 19th, at night, I saw two
such Crowns about her. The Diameter of the first or innermost
was about three Degrees, and that of the second about five Degrees
and an half. Next about the moon was a Circle of white, and next
about that the inner Crown, which was of a bluish crecn within
next the white, and of a yellow and red without, and next about
these Colours were blue and green on the inside of the Outward
Crown, and red on the outside of it. At the same time there appear'd
a Halo about 22 Degrees 35' distant from the center of the moon.
It was elliptical, and its long Diameter was perpendicular to the
Horizon, verging below farthest from the moon."
In January 1665 Newton took the degree of B.A. The persons
appointed (in conjunction with the proctors, JohnSlade of
Catharine Hall, and Benjamin Fulleyn of Trinity College,
Newton's tutor) to examine the questionists were John Eachard
of Catharine Hall and Thomas Gipps of Trinity College. It
is a curious acddent that we have no information about the
respective meriu of the candidates for a degree in this year,
as the " ordo senioritatis " of the bachcbrs of arts for the year
is omitted in the " Grace Book."
It is supposed that it was in 1665 that the method of fluxions
nrst occurred to Newton's mind. There are several papers
still existing in Newton's handwriting bearing dates 1665 and
x666 in which the method is described, in some of which dotted
or dashed letters are used to represent fluxions, and in some of
which the method is explained without the use of dotted letters.
Both in 1665 and in x666 Trinity College was dismissed on
account of the plague. On each occasion it was agreed, 'as
appears by entries in the " Conclusion Book " of the college,
bearing dates August 7th, 1665, and June 3 and, x666, and signed
by the master of the college, Dr Pearson, that all fellows and
scholars who were dismissed on account of the pestilence be allowed
one month's commons. Newton must have left college before
August 1665, as his name does not appear in the list of those
who received extra commons on that occasion, and he tells us him-
self in the extract from his commonplace book already quoted
that he was " forced from Cambridge by the plague " in the
summer of that year. He was elected a fdlow of his college on
the xst of October 1667. There were nine vacandcs, one of which
was caused by the death of Abraham Cowley in the previous
summer, and the nine successful candidates were all of the same
academical standing. A few weeks after his election to a
fellowship Newton went to Lincolnshire, and did not return to
Cambridge till the February following^ On the x6th of March
x668 he took his degree of M.A.
During the years x666 to 1669 Newton's studies were of a
very varied kind. It is known that he purchased prisms and
lenses on two or three several occasions, and also chemicals
and a furnace, apparently for chemical experiments; but he
also employed part of his time on the theory of fluxions and other
branches of pure mathematics. He wrote a paper Analysis
per Equaiiones Numero Terminorum Infinitas, which he put, pro-
bably in June 1669, into the hands of Isaac Barrow (then
Lucasian professor of mathematics), at the same time giving him
584
NEWTON, SIR ISAAC
pcmission to communicate the contents to their comm6n friend
John Collins (1624-1683), a mathematician bf no mean order.
Barrow did this on the 51st of July 1669, but kept the name of
the author a secret, and merely told Collixis that he was a friend
staying at Cambridge, who had a powerful genius for such
matters. In a subsequent letter on the 3oth of August, Barrow
expressed his pleasure at hearing the favourable opinion which
Collins had formed of the paper, and added, " the name of the
author is Newton, a fellow of our college, and a young man,
who is only in his second year since he took the degree of master
of arts, and who, with an unparalleled genius (eximio quo est
acumine)f has made very great progress in this branch of mathe-
matics." Shortly afterwards Barrow resigned his chair, and was
instrumental in securing Newton's election as his successor.
Newton was elected Lucasian professor on the 29th of October
1669. It was his duty as professor to lecture at least once a week
in term time on some portion of geometry, arithmetic, astronomy,
geography, optics, statics, or some other mathematical subject,
and also for two hours in the week to allow an audience to any
student who might come to consult with the professor on any
difficulties he had met with. The subject which Newton chose
for his lectures was optics. The success which attended his
researches in optics must have been great, although the results
were known only through his own oral lectures, until he presented
an account of them to the Royal Society in the spring of 1673.
On the 2ist of December 1671 he was proposed as a candidate
for admission into the Royal Society by Dr Seth Ward, bishop
of Salisbury, and on the nth of January 1672 he was elcaed a
fellow of the Society. At the meeting at which Newton was
elected a description of a reflecting telescope which he had in-
vented was read, and " it was ordered that a letter should be
written by the secretary to Mr Newton to acquaint him of his
election into the Society, and to thank him for the communication
of his telescope, and to assure him that the Society would take
care that all right should be done him with respect to this
invention."
In his reply to the secretary, on the x8th of January 167a,
Newton writes: —
" I dcdrc that in your next letter you would inform me for what
time the society continue their weekly meetings; because, if they
continue them for any time, I am purjiosing them to be considered
of and examined an Account of a philosophical discovery, which
induced me to the making oi the said telescope, and which I doubt
not but will prove much more grateful than the communication of
that instrument being in my judgment the oddest if not the most
considerable detection which hath hitherto been made into the
operations of nature."
The promise here made was fulfilled in a communication
which Newton addressed to Henry Oldenburg, the secretary of
the Royal Society, on the 6th of February 1672, and which was
read before the society two days afterwards. The whole is
printed in No. 80 of the Philosophical Transactions.
After explaining his discovery of the composition of white light, he
proceeds : —
" When I understood this, I left off my aforesaid Glass works; for
I saw, that the perfection of Telescopes was hitherto limited, not so
much for want of glasses truly figured according to the prescriptions
of Optick Authors (which all men have hitherto imagined), as
because that Light itself is a Heteroeeneous mixture of differently
refrangiUe Rays. So that, were a glass so exactly figured as to
collect any one sort of rays into one point, it could not collect those
also into the same point, which having the same Incidence uoon the
same Medium are apt to suffer a different refraction. Nay, I
wondered, that seeing the difference of rcfrangibility was so great, as
I found it, Telescopes should arrive to that perfection they arc
now at."
He then points out why " the object-glass of any Telescope cannot
collect all the rays which come from one point of an object, so as to
make them convene at it» focus in less room than in a circular space,
whose diameter is the 50th part of the Diameter of its Aperture:
which is an irregularity some hundreds of times greater, than a
circularly figured Lens, of so small a section as the Object-glasses of
long Telescopes are, would cause by the unfitness of its figure, were
Light uniform." He adds: "This made me take reflections into
consideration, and finding them regular, so that the Angle of Reflec-
tion of all sorts of Rays was c<iuai to their Angle of Incidence; I
understood, that by their mediation Optick instruments might be
brought to any degree of perfection imaginable, provided a Re-
jecting substance could be found, which would, polish as finely as
Glass, and reflect as much light, as glass transmils^ and the art of
communicating to it a Parabolick figure be also attained. But these
seemed very great difficulties, and I have almost thought then
insuperable, when I further considered, that every irr^ularity io a
reflecting superficies makes the rays stray 5 or 6 tiroes more out of
their due course, than the like irregularities in a refracting one; so
that a much greater curiosity would be here requi^te, than in ^guring
glasses for Refraction.
" Amidst these thoughts I was forced from Cambridie by the
Iiitervenins Plague, and it was more than two years before I pro-
ceeded further. But then having thought on a tender way of po£sb-
ing, proper for metall, whereby, as I imagined, the figure also would
be corrected to the last; I began to try, what might be efffxted in
this kind, and by degrees so far perfected an Instrument (in the
essential paru of it like that I sent to London), by which 1 couU
discern Jupitere 4 Concomitants, and shewed them divers times to
two others of my acquaintance. I could also discern the Moon-like
phase of Venus, but not very distinctly, nor without some niceaess is
disposing the Instrument.
'' From that time I was interrupted till this bst Autumn, when I
made the other. And as that was sensibly better than the first
(especially for Day-Objects), so I doubt not. but they Viill be stiB
brought to a much greater perfection by their endeavours, who. as
you inform me, are taking care about it at London."
After a remark that mtcroecopes seem as capable of impeovemest
as tclesoopes, he adds: " I shall now proceed to acquaint >-ou with
another more notable difformity in its Rays, wherein the Origin «f
Colour is unfolded: Concerning wliich I shall lay down the Dotirine
first, and then, for its examination, give you an instance or two of the
Experiments, as a specimen of the rest. The Doctrine you viiH &ml
comprehended and illustrated in the following propoations:
" I. As the Rays of light differ in deerees of RcfrangitMUty, so
they also differ in their disposition to exhibit this or that particular
colour. Coloura are not Qualifications of Light, derived from RHrac-
tions, or Reflections of natural Bodies (as 'tis generally bdirved).
but original and connate properties, which in divers Rays aiv diven.
Some Rays are disposed to exhibit a red colour and no ottwr; some a
vellow and no other, some a green and no other, and so of the rest.
Nor are there only Rays proper and particular to the more cmii^ttt
coloura, but even to all their intermediate gradations..
" 2. To the same degree of Rcfrangibility ever bdoogs the saxtv
colour, and to the same colour ever belongs the same degree «f
Refrangibility. The least Refrdnpble Rays are all di^xMed to
exhibit a Red colour, and contrarily those luiys, which are di^xised
to exhibit a Red colour, are all the least Refrangible: So the m^u
refrangible Rays arc all disposed to exhibit a deep VioUl Cot»s^,
and contrarily those which are apt to exhibit sudi a violet cokwtr
are all the most Rcfrang;iblc
" And so to all the intermediate colours in a continoed secies
belong intermediate degrees of refrangibility. And this Anakiey
'twixt colours* and rcfrangibihty is very precise and strict; the
Rays always either exactly^ agroetng in both, or pn^xmiooany
disagreeing in both.
" 3. The species of colour, and degree of RcfrangibUity proper to
any particular sort of Rays, is not mutable by Refraction, nor by
Reflection from natural bodies, nor by any other cause, that I could
yet observe. When any one sort of Rays hath been well parted
from those of other kinds, it hath afterwards^ obstinately retained
its colour, notwithstanding my utmost endcavoura to change it. I
have refracted it with Prismes, and reflected it with Bodies, which
in Day-light were of other colours; I have intercepted it with the
coloured nlm of Air interceding two compresaed pUtes of glass
transmitted it through coloured Mediums, and through Mctfiuins
irradiated with other sorts of Rays, and diversly terminated it; aiMi
yet could .never produce any new colour out of it. It would by
contractirig or dilating become more brisk, or faint, and by tlMt lo^s
of many Rays, in some cases very obscure and dark; but I cocid
never see it changed in specie.
*' Yet seeming transmutations of Coloura may be made, where
there is any mixture of divera sorts of Rays. For in such mixturrv
the component coloura appear not, but, by their mutual alli>-ir^
each other constitute a mialing colour."
Further on, after some remarks on the subject of compoaad col«:rs.
he says: " I might add more instances of this nature, but I shaH
conclude with this general one, that the Coloura of all natural Bodies
have no other origin than this, that they are variously aaaUfi<i
to reflect one sort of light in greater plenty then another. Aitd th.«
I have experimented in a dark Room by illuminating those bcKJ-v-v
with uncompounded light of divera colours. For by that means aav
body may be made to appear of any colour. They have there s >
appropriate colour, but ever appear of the colour of the I^t cas:
upon them, but yet with this cTiffercncc, that they are most br^^k
and vivid in the. light of their own day-light colour. Jftcccs
appeareth thereof any colour indifferently, with which 'tis illustrated,
but yet most luminous in red, and so Bise appeareth indifferentl> ti
any colour with whk:h 'tis illustrated, but yet roost lamtnotts in
blew. And therefore mtntKtii rcflectcth Rays of any codbttr. Wt
most copiously those indued with red; and conseqnoatly vfai'«
illustrated with day-light, that is with all sorts of Rays promiscuoasiy
NEWTON, SIR ISAAC
585
blended, tliose qualified with red shall abound most in the reflected
l^t, and by their prevalence cause it to appear of that colour.
And for the same reason But, refleaing blew most copiously, shall
appear blew by the excess of those Rays in its ^reflected lignt; and
the like of other bodies. And that this is the intire and adequate
cause of their colours, is manifest, because they have no power to
change or alter the colours of any sort of Rays incident apart, but
{Hit on all colours indifferently, with which they are inlightened.
" Reviewing what I have written, I see the discourse it self will
lead to divcn Experiments sufl&cient for its examination r And
therefore I shall not trouble you further, than to describe one of
those, which I have already insinuated.
** In a darkened Room make a hole in the shut of a window whose
diameter may conveniently be about a third part of an inch, to
admit a convenient quantity of the Suns light : And there place a
dear and colourless Prisme, to refract the entring light towards the
further part of the Room, which, as I said, will thereby be diffused
into an oblong coloured Imag;e. Then place a Lens of about three foot
radius (suppose a broad Object-glass of a three foot Telescope), at
the distance of about four or five foot from thence, through which all
those colours may at once be transmitted, and made by its Refraction
to convene at a further distance of about tta or twelve feet. If at
that distance vou intercept this light with a sheet of white paper, you
will see the colours converted into whiteness asain by being mingled.
" But it is requisite, that the Prisme and Zens be placed strady.
and that the paper, on which the colours are cast be moved to and
fro; for, by such motion, you will not only find, at what distance
the whiteness is most perfect but also see, how the colours gradually
convene, and vanish mto whiteness, and afterwards having crossed
one ajiother in that place where they compound Whiteness, are again
dtsipated and severed, and in an inverted order retain the same
colours, which they had before they entered the composition. You
may also see, that, if any of the Colours at the Lens be intercepted,
the Whiteness will be chan«d into the other colours. And therefore,
that the composition of whiteness be perfect, care must be takep,
that none of the colours fall besides the Lens."
He concludes his communication with the words: "This, I
conceive, is enough for an Introduction to Experiments of this kind:
which if any of the R. Society shall be so curious as to prosecute, I
ohould be very glad to be informed with what success: That, if any
thins seem to be defective, or to thwart thu relation, I may have an
opportunity of giving further direction about it, or of acknowledging
my errors, if I nave committed any."
The publicatloD of these discoveries led to a series ot con-
troveisies which lasted for several years, in which Newton had
to contend with the eminent English natural philosopher Robert
Hooke; Lucas, mathematical professor at Li6ge; Linus, a physician
in Li^ge, and many othen. Some of his opponents denied the
truth of liis experiments, refusing to believe in the existence of the
spectrum. Others criticized the experiments, saying that the
length of the spectrum was never more than three and a half
times the breadth, whereas Newton found it to be five times
the breadth. It appears that Newton made the mistake of
supposing that all prisms would give a spectrum of exactly the
same lcng;th; the objections of his opponents led him to measure
carefully the lengths of spectra formed by prisms of different
angles and of different refractive indices; and it seems strange
that be was not led thereby to the discovery of the different
dispersive powers of different refractive substances.
Newton carried on the discussion with the objectors with great
courtesy and patience, but the amotmt of pain which these
perpetual discussions gave to his sensitive mind nuty be estimated
from the fact of his writing on the 18th of November 1676 to
Oldenburg: —
'* I promised to send you an answer to Mr Lucas this next Tuesday,
but I find I shall scarce finish what I have designed, so as to get a
copy taken of it by that time, and therefore I beg your patience a
wee1c'k>nger. I see I have made myself a slave to philosophy, but if
I get free of Mr Lucas's business, I will resolutefy bid adieu to it
eternally, excepting what I do for my private satisfaction, or leave
to come out after me; for I see a man must either resolve to put out
nothing new, or to become a slave to defend it."
It was a fortunate circumstance that these disputes did not so
thoroughly damp Newton's ardour as he at the time felt they
would. He subsequently published many papers in the Pkilo-
sopkiatl TransQctions on variotis parts of the science of optics,
and, although some of his views have been found to be erroneous,
and are now almost universally rejected, his investigations
led to discoveries which are of permanent value. He succeeded in
explaining the colour of thin and of thick plates, and the inflexion
of tight, and he wrote on double refraction, polarization and
binocular vision. He also invented a reflecting sextant for
observing the distance between the moon and the fixed stars,—
the same in every essential as the instrument which is still in
everyday use at sea under the name of Hadley's quadrant.
This discovery was communicated by him to Edmund Halle/
in 1700, but was not published, or communicated to the Royal
Society, till after Newton's death, when a description of it was
foimd among his papers.
In March 1673 Newton took a prominent part in a dispute in
the university. The public oratonhip fell vacant, and a contest
arose between the heads of the colleges and the members of the
senate as to the mode of electing to the office. The heads
claimed the right of nominating two persons, one of whom was
to be elected by the senate. The senate insisted that the proper
mode was by an open election. The duke of Buckingham, who
was the chancellor of the university, endeavoured to effect a
compromise which, he says, " I hope may for the present satisfy
both sides. I propose that the heads may for this time nominate
and the body comply, yet interposing (if they think fit) a pro«
testation concerning their plea that this election may not here-
after pass for a decisive precedent in prejudice of their claim,"
and, " whereas I understand that the whole university has
chiefly consideration for Dr Henry Faman of St John's and Mr
Craven of Trinity College, I do recommend them both to be
nominated." The heads, however, nominated Dr Paman and
Ralph Sanderson of St John's, and the next day one hundred and
twenty*one members of the senate recorded their votes for
Craven and ninety-eight for Paman. On the morning of the
election a protest in which Nevrton's name appeared was read, and
entered in the Regent House. But the vice-chancellor admitted
Paman the same morning, and so ended the first contest of a
non-scientific character in which Newton took part.
On the 8tb of March 1673 Newton wrote to Oldenburg, the
secretary of the Royal Society:
" ^r, I desire that you will procure that I may be put out from
beti^ any longer Fellow of the Royal Society: for though I honour
that Dody, yet since I see I shall neither profit them, nor (by reason
of this distance) can partake of the advanti^ of their assemblies, I
desire to withdraw."
Oldenburg must have replied to this by an offer to apply to the
Society to excuse Newton the weekly payments, as in a letter of
Newton's to Oldenburg, dated the ajrd of June 1673, he says,
" For your proffer about my quarteriy payments, I thank you,
but I would not have you trouble yourself to get them excused,
if you have not done it already." Nothing further seems to have
been done in the matter until the aSth of January 1675, when
Oldenburg informed " the Society that Mr Newton is now in such
circumstances that he desires to be excused from the weekly
payments." Upon this " it was agreed to by the council that he
be dispensed with, as several others are." On the 1 8th of February
1675 Newton was formally admitted into the Society. The
most probable explanation of the cause why Newton wished to be
excused from these pasrments is to be found in the faa that, as
he was not in holy orders, his tellowship at Trinity College would
lapse in the autumn of 167 5. It is true that the loss to his income
which this woi4d have caused was obviated by a patent from
the crown in April 1675, allowing him as Lucasian professor
to retain his fellowship without the obligation of taking holy
orders. This must have relieved Newton's mind from a great deal
of anxiety about pecuniary matters, as we find him in November
1676 subscribing £40 towards the building of the new library of
Trinity College.
It is suppcoed that it was at Woolsthorpe in the summer of
x666 that Newton's thoughts were directed to the subject of
gravity. Voltaire is the authority for the well-known anecdote
about the apple. He had his information from Newton's
favourite niece Catharine Barton, who married Conduitt, a
fellow of the Royal Society, and one of Newton's intimate
friends. How much truth there is in what is a plausible and a
favourite story can never be known, but it is certain that tradition
marjied a tree as that from which the apple fell, till 1820, when,
owing to decay, the tree was cut down and iu wood carefully
preserved.
586
NEWTON, SIR ISAAC
Johann Kepler had proved by an elaborate series of meastire-
menta that each planet revolves in an elliptical orbit round the
sun, whose centre occupies one of the fod of the orbit, that the
radius vector of each planet drawn from the sun describes equal
areas in equal times, and that the squares of the periodic times
of the pl&nets are in the same proportion as the cubes of their
mean (Ustances from the sun. The fact that heavy bodies have
always a tendency to fall to the earth, no matter at what height
they are placed above the earth's surface, seems to have led
Newton to conjecture that it was possible that the same tendency
to fall to the euth was the cause by which the moon was retained
in its orbit round the earth. Newton, by calculating from
Kepler's laws, and supposing. the orbiu of the planets to be
circles round the sun in the centre, had already proved that the
force of the sun acting upon the different planets must vary
as the inverse square of the distances of the planets from the sun.
He therefore was led to inquire whether, if the earth's attraction
extended to the moon, the force at that distance would be of the
exact magnitude necessary to retain the moon in its orbit. He
found that the moon by her motion in her orbit was deflected from
the tangent in every minute of time through a space of thirteen
feet. But by observing the distance through which a body
would fall in one second of time at the earth's surface, and by
calculating from that on the supposition of the force diminishing
in the ratio of the inverse square of the distance, he found that the
earth's attraction at the distance of the moon would draw a
body through 15 ft. in x min. Newton regarded the discrepancy
between the results as a proof of the inaccuracy of his conjecture,
and " laid aside at that time any further thoughts of this matter."
But in 1679 a controversy between Hooke and Newton, about
the form of the path of a body falling from a height, taking
the motion of the earth round its axis into consideration, led
Newton again to revert to his former conjectures on the moon.
The measure of the earth, which had hitherto been accepted by
geographers and navigators, was based on the very rough
estimate that the length of a degree of latitude of the earth's
surface measured along a meridian was 60 m. More accurate
estimates had been made by R. Norwood and W. Snell, and more
recently by P. Picard. At a meeting of the Royal Society on the
nth of January 1672, Oldenburg the secretary read a letter from
Paris describing the method followed by Picard in measuring a
degree, and specifically stating the precise length that he
calculated it to be. It is probable that Newton had become
acquainted with this measurement of Picard's, and that he was
therefore led to make use of it when his thoughts were redirected
to the subject. This estimate of the earth's magnitude, giving
69-x, m. to z", made the two results, the discrepancy between
which Newton had regarded as a disproof of his conjecture, to
agree so exactly that he now regarded his conjecture as fully
established.
In January 16S4 Sir Christopher Wren, Halley and Hooke
were led to discuss the law of gravity, and, although probably
they all agreed in the truth of the law. of the inverse square,
yet this truth was not looked upon as established. It appears
that Hooke professed to have a solution of the problem of the
path of a body moving round a centre of force attracting as the
inverse square of the distance; but Halley, finding, after a
delay of some months, that Hooke " had not been so good as
his word " in showing his solution to Wren, started in the month
of August 1684 for Cambridge to consult Newton on the subject.
Without mentioning the speculations which had been made,
he asked Newton what would be the curve described by a planet
round the sun on the assumption that the sun's force diminished
as the square of the distance. Newton replied promptly, "an
ellipse," and on being questioned by Halley as to the reason
for his answer he replied, " Why, I have calculated it." He
could not, however, put his hand upon his calculation, but he
promised to send it to Halley. After the latter had left Cam-
bridge, Newton set to work to reproduce the calculation. After
making a mistake and producing a different result he corrected
bis work and obtained his former result.
In the following November Newton redeemed hit promise
to Halley by sending him, by the hand of Mr Paget, one of
the fellows of his own college, and at that time matheniatical
master of Christ's Hospital, a copy of his demonstratioa; aiSd
very soon afterwards Halley paid another visit to Cambridge
to confer with Newton about the problem; and on his return
to London on the loth of December 1684, he informed the
Royal Sodety " that he had lately seen Mr Newton at Cam-
bridge, who had showed him a curious treatise De lisim,'*
which at Halley's desire he promised to send to the Society to
be entered upon their register. " Mr Halley was desired to put
Mr Newton in mind of h^ promise for the securing this invention
to himself, till such time as he could be at leisure to publish
it," and Paget was desired to join with Halley in urging Newtoa
to do so. By the middle of February Newton had sent his paper
to Aston, one of the secretaries of the Society, and in a letter
to Aston dated the 23rd of February 1685, we find Newton thank-
ing him for " having entered on the register his notions about
motion." This treatise De Motu was the germ of the PrincipU,
and was obviously meant to be a short account of what that
work was intended to embrace. It occupies twenty-four octavo
pages, and consists of four theorems and seven problems, some
of which are identical with some of the most important pro-
positions of the second and third sections of the first book <d
the PHncipia.
The years 1685 and z686 will ever be memorable in the hiAory
of science. It was in them that Newton composed almost the
whole of his great work. During this period Newton had a very
extensive correspondence with John Flamsteed, who was then
the astroiK>mer-royaL Many of the letters are lost, bat it is
clear from one of Newton's, dated the 19th of September 1685,
that he had received many useful communications from Flam*
steed, and especially regarding Saturn, " whose orbit, as defined
by Kepler," Newton " found too little for the sesquialtcraie
proportions." In the other letters written in 1685 and 1686
he applies to Flamsteed for information respecting the oibiis
of the satellites of Jupiter and Saturn, respecting the rise and
fall of the spring and neap tides at the solstices and the equin-
oxes, respecting the flattening of Jupiter at the poles (which,
if certain, he says, would conduce much to the stating the reasons
of the precession of the equinoxes), and respecting the difference
between the observed places of Saturn and those computed
from Kepler's tables about the time of his conjunction with
Jupiter. On thb last point the information supplied by Flam-
steied was peculiariy gratifying to Newton; and it is obvioiis
from the language of this part of his letter that he had still
doubts of the universal application of the sesquialteral pro-
portion. " Your information," he says, " about the errois o(
Kepler's tables for Jupiter and Saturn has eased me of several
scruples. I was apt to suspect there might be some cause or
other unknown to me which might disturb the sesquLalieial
proportions, for the influences of the planets one upon another
seemed not great enough, though I imagined Jupiter's influence
greater than your numbers determine it. It would add to my
satisfaction if you would be pleased to let me know the ktsg
dikmeters of the orbits of Jupiter and Saturn, assigned by
yourself and Mr Halley in your new tables, that I may see bow
the sesquialteral proportion fills the heavens, together with
adbther small proportion which must be allowed for."
Upon Newton's return from Lincolnshire in the begimiiBg
of April 1685, he seems to have devoted himself to the prepara-
tion of his work. In the spring he had determined the attrac-
tions of masses, and thus completed the law of universal gravi-
tation. In the summer he had finished the second book of the
PHncipia, the first book being the treatise De J/tfte, whkh
he had enlarged and completed. Excepting in the oorrespuod-
ence with Flamsteed we hear nothing more of the preparatioB
of the PHncipia until the aist of April x686, when HaUcy read
to the Royal Society his Discourse ameeming Craivity and its
Properties, in which he states ''that his worthy aftmtxymaa
Mr Isaac Newton has an incomparable treatise of motioo afanoat
ready for the press," and that the law of the inverse square
" is the principle on which Mr Newton has made out all the
NEWTON, SIR ISAAC
587
phenomena of the celestial motions so easily and natuiaDy,
that iu tnith is past dispute." At the next meeting of the
Society, on the aSth. of April, " Dr Vincent presented to the
Sodety a manuscript treatise entitled PkiU»opkia§ Naturalis
PrUuipia Matkemalica^ and dedicated to the Sodety by Mr
Isaac Newton." Although this manuscript contained only the
first book, yet such was the confidence the Sodety placed in the
author that an order was given " that a letter of thanks be
written to Mr Newton; and that the printing of his book be
referred to the consideration of the council; and that in the
meantime the book be put into the hands of Mr Halley, to
make a report thereof to the council." Although there could
be no doubt as to the intention of this report, yet no step was
taken towards the publication of the work. At the next meeting
of the Sodety, on the 19th of May, some dissatisfaction seems
to have been expressed at the delay, as it was ordered " that Mr
Newton's work should be printed forthwith in quarto, and that
a letter should be written to him to signify the Sodety's resolu-
tions, and to desire his opinion as to the print, volume, cuts
and so forth." Three days afterwards HaUey communicated
the resolution to Newton, and stated to him that the printing
was to be at the charge of the Sodety. At the next meeting
of the council, on the and of June, it was again ordered *' that
Mr Newton's book be printed," but, instead of sanctioning
the resolution of the general meeting to print it at thdr charge,
they added " that Mr Halley undertake the btisiness of k)oking
after it, and printing it at his own charge, which he engaged
to do."
In order to explain to Newton the cause of the dday, Halley in
his letter of the aand of May alleges that it arose from " the
president's attendance on the king, and the absence of the vice-
I»esidcnts, whom the good weather had drawn out of town";
but there is reason to believe that this was not the true cause, and
that the unwillingness of the council to undertake the publication
arose from the state of the finances of the Sodety. Halley
certainly deserves the gratitude of posterity for undertaking
the publication of the work at a very considerable pecuniary
risk to himself. In the same letter Halley found it necessary to
inform Newton of Hookc's conduct when the manuscript of the
Principia was presented to the Sodety. Sir John Hoakyns was
in the chair when Dr Vincent presented the manuscript, and
pasMsd a high encomium on the novelty and dignity of the subject.
Hooke was offended because Sir John did not mention what he
had told him of his own discovery. Halley only communicated
to Newton the fact " that Hooke had some pretensions to the
invention of the rule for the decrease of gravity bdng redprocally
as the squares of the distances from the centre," acknowledging
at the same time that, though Newton had the notion from him,
** yet the demonstration of the curves generated thereby belonged
wholly to Newton." " How much of this," Halley adds, " is
so, you know best, so likewise what you have to do in this matter;
oiUy Mr Hooke seems to expect you should make some mention
of him in the preface, which 'tis possible you may see reason to
prefia. I must beg your pardon that 'tis I that send you this
ungrateful account; but I thought it my duty to let you know
it, so that you might act accordingly, being in myself fully satisfied
that nothing but the sreatest candour imaginable is to be ex-
pected from a person who has of all men the least need to borrow
reputation."
In thus appeah'ng to Newton's candour, Halley obviously
wished that some acknowledgment of Hooke should be made.
He knew indeed that before Newton had announced the inverse
law Hooke and Wren and himself had spoken of it and discussed
it, and therefore justice demanded that, though none of them
had given a demonstration of the law, Hooke especially should
receive credit for having maintained it as a truth of which he
was seeking the demonstration. On the aoth of June x686
Newton wrote to Halley the following letter: —
" Sir, — In order to let you know the caae between Mr Hooke and
me. I give you an account of what passed between us in our letters,
■o far as I oouM remember; for 'tis long since they were writ, and
I do not know that 1 have seen them since. I am almost confident by
ctrcumstancet, that Sir Chr. Wren knew the duplicate proportion
when I gave him a vint; and then Mr Hooke (by his book Comeia
written afterwards) will prove the last of us three that knew it. I
intended in this letter to let you understand the case fully; but it
bdng a frivolous buaincas, I shall content myself to give you the
heads of it in short, vis. that 1 never extended the duplicate pro-
portion tower than to the superficies of the earth, and before a certain
demonstration I found the last vear, have suspected it did not
reach accurately enough down so low; and therefore in the doctrine
of projectiles never used it nor considered the motions of the heavens;
and consequently Mr Hooke could not from my letters, which were
about projectiles and the regions desoendii^ hence to the centre,
conduoe me Ignorant of the theory of the heavens. That what he
told roe of the duplicate proportion was erroneous, namdy, that it
reached down from hence to the centre of the earth.
" That it is not candid to require me now to confess myself, in
print, then ignorant of the duplicate proportion in the heavens:
for no other reason, but because he had told it me in the case of
projectiles, and so upon mistaken grounds accused me of that ignor-
ance. That in my answer to his first letter I refused his correspond-
ence, told him I had laid philosophy a«de, sent him only the
experiment of projectiles (rather shortly hmtcd than carefully
described), iif compliment to sweeten my answer, expected to hear no
further from him ; could scarce persuade myself to answer his second
letter; did not answer his thini, was upon other things; thought no
further of philosophical matters than his letters put me upon it, and
therefore may be allowed not to have had my thoughts of that kind
about me so wdl at that time That by the same reason he condudes
me then ignorant of the rest of the duplicate proportion, he may as
wdl condude me ignorant of the rest of that theory I had read bdore
in his books. That in one of my papers writ (I cannot say in what
year, but I am sure some time before 1 had any correspondcnoe with
Mr Oldenburg, and that's above fifteen years ago), the proportion of
the forces of the planeU from the sun, redprocally dupficate of thdr
distances from him, is expressed, and the proportion of our gravity
to the moon's conatus recedendi a cgntro terra* is calculated, though
not accuratdy enough. That when Hugenius put out his Hord.
OscU.t a copy odnc presented to me, in m)r letter of thanks to him
I gave those rules m the end thereof a particular commendation for
their usefulness in Philosophy, and added out of my aforesaid paper
an instance of thdr usefulness, in comparing the forces of the moon
from the earth, and earth from the sun; in determining a problem
about the moon's phase, and putting a limit to the sun's parallax,
which diews that I had then my eye upon comparing the forces of
the planeu arising from their circular motion, and understood it;
so that a while aifter. when Mr Hooke propounded the problem
solemnly, in the end of his attempt to prove the motion of the earth,
if I had not known the duplicate proportion bdore, I could not but
have found it now. Between ten and deven years ago there was an
hypotheds of mine registered in vour booitt, wbcrdn I hinted a
cause of gravity towards the earth, sun and planets, with the de-
pendence of the celestial motions thereon; in which the proportion
of the decrease of gravity from the superfides of the planet (though
for brevity's sake not there expressed) can be no other than re-
dprocally duplicate of the distance from the centre. And I hope I
shall not be urged to declare, in print, that I understood not the
obvious mathematical condition of my own hypothesis. But, grant
I recdvcd it afterwards from Mr Hooke, yet nave I as great a right
to it as to the dlipds. For as Kepler knew the orb to be not circular
but ovd, and guessed it to be dliptical, so Mr Hooke, without
knowing what Ihave found out since his letters to mc, can know no
more, but that the proportion was duplicate ^m proximi at great
distances from the centre, and only guessed it to be so accurately,
and guessed amiss in extending that proportion down to the ve^
centre, whereas Kepler guessed right at the ellipsis. An(j^ so Mr
Hooke found less of the proportion than Kepler 01 the ellipsis.
" There is so strong an objection against the accuratencss of this
proportion, that without my demonstrations, to which Mr Hooke
w yet a stranger, it cannot be bdieved by a judicious philosopher to
be any where accurate. And so, in suung^ this business, I do
pretend to have done as much for the proportion as for the ellipsis,
and to have as much right to the one from Mr Hooke and all men,
as to the other from Kefiler; and therefore on this account also he
must at least moderate his pretences.
" The proof you sent me I like very well. I designed the whole
to connst of three books; the second was finished last summer being
short, and only wants transcribing, and drawins the cuU faidy.
Some new propositions I have since thought on, which I can as well
let alone. The third wants the theory 01 comets. In autumn last I
spent two months in calculations to no purpose for want of a good
method, which made me afterwards return to the first book, and
enlarge it with divers propositions, some relating to comets, others to
other things, found out last winter. The third I now design to sup-
press. Philosophy is such an impertinently litigious lady, that a
man has as good be engaged in lawsuits, as have to do with her. 1
found it so formerly, and now I am no sooner come near her again,
but she gives me warning. The two first books, without the third,
will not so well bear the title of Pkilosophiae Ktiurolu Ppncttna
Mathematica; and therefore I had altered it to Ibss, I>< Molu
Ccrponmlibriim,
588
NEWTON, SIR ISAAC
" But, upon second thoughts, I retain the former title. Twill
help the nilc of the book, which I ought not to diminish now 'tis
yours. The articles are, with the largest, to be called by that
name; if you please vou mav change the word to sections, thourii
it be not material. In the nrst |)age, I haw struck out the woras
' uii posthac docehilur* as referring to the third book; which is
all at present, from your affectionate friend, and humble servant,
" Is. Nbwtom."
On the 29th of June x686 Halley wrote to Newton:— "I
am heartily sorry that in this matter, wherein all mankind ought
to acknowledge their obligations to you, you thould meet with
anything that should give you unquiet "; and then, after an
account of Hooke's claim to the discovery as made at a meeting
of the Royal Society, he concludes. —
" But I found that they were all of opinion that nothing thereof
appearing in print, nor on the books 01 the Society, you ouaht to
be considered as the inventor. And if in truth he knew it Before
you, he ought not to blame any but himself for having taken no
more care to secure a discovery, which he puts so much value on.
What application he has made in private. I know not; but I am
sure that the Society have a very great satisfaction, in the honour
you do them, by tne dedication ojf so worthy a treatise. Sir, I
must now again beg you, not to let your resentmenU run so high,
as to deprive us of your third book, wherein the appUcation of jrour
mathematkal doctnne to the theory of comets and several curious
experiments, which, as I guess by what you write, ought to compoae
it. will undoubtedly render it accepuble to those, who will call
themselves Philosophers without Mathematics, which are much
the neater number. Now you approve of the character and paper,
I will push on the edition vigorously. I have sometimes had thoughts
of having the cuts neatly done in wood, so as to sund in the page
with the demonstrations. It will be more convenient, and not much
more charge. If it please you to have it so, I will try how well it can
be done; otherwise 1 will have them in somewhat a larger size
than those you have sent up. — I am. Sir, your most affectionate
humble servant, E. Hallby."
On the 30th of June 1686 the president was desired by the
council to license Newton's book, entitled PhUosophiae Natwalis
Principia Matkematica.
On the 14th of July 1686 Newton wrote to Halley approving
of his proposal to introduce woodcuts among the letterpress,
stating deady the different things which he had from Hooke,
and adding, " And now having sincerely told you the case between
Mr Hooke and me, I hope I shall be free for the future from the
prejudice of his letters. I have considered how best to compose
the present dispute, and I think it may be done by the inclosed
scholium to the fourth proposition." This scholium wa»—
" The inverse law of gravity holds in all the celestial motions,
as was discovered also independently by my countrymen Wren,
Hooke and Halley." After this letter of Newton's the printing
of the Principia was begun. The second book, though ready for
the press in the autumn of x686, was not sent to the printers
until March 1687. The third book was presented to the Society
on the 6th of April 1687, and the whole work published about
midsummer in that year. It was dedicated to the Royal Society,
and to it was prefixed a set of Latin hexameten addressed by
Halley to the author. The work, as might have been expected,
caused a great deal of excitement throughout Europe, and the
whole of the impression was very soon sold. In 1691 a copy of
the Principia was hardly to be procured.
While Newton was writing the second and third books of the
Principia, a very important event occurred at Cambridge which
had the effect of bringing him before the public in a new light.
James II. had already, in 1686, in open violation of the law,
conferred the deanery of Christ Church at Oxford on John
Masscy, a person whose sole qualification was that he was a
member of the Church of Rome; and the king had boasted to the
pope's legate that " what he had done at Oxford would very soon
be done at Cambridge." In accordance with this boast, in
February 1687 he issued a mandate directing that Father
Alban Francis, a Benedictine monk, should be admitted a master
of arts of the university of Cambridge, without taking the oaths
of allegiance and supremacy. Upon receiving the mandamus
Dr Pechell, the master of Magdalene College, who was vice-
chancellor, sent a messenger to the duke of Albemarle, the
chancellor, to request him to get the mandamus recalled; and
the regbtrary and the bedells waited upon Francis to offer him
instant admission to the degree if only he would take the aeoessary
oaths. Both the king and the monk were inexorable. The court
and the university were thus placed in open colliaioa. A mmaring
letter was despatched by SunderUnd to shake the firmness of
the university; but, though humble and respectful explanatiotts
were returned, the university showed no sign of compliance,
nor even of a desire to suggest a compromise. In consequence the
vice<hanceUor and deputies from the senate were summoned to
appear before the Hijsh Commission Court at Westminster.
Newton was one of the eight deputies appointed by the senate
for this purpose. The deputies, before starting for London, held
a meeting to prepare their case for the court. A compromise
which was put forward by one of them was stoutly and success-
fully resisted by Newton, and on the 21st of April the depuution,
with their case carefully prepared, appeared before the court.
Lord Jeffreys presided at the board. The deputation appeared
as a matter of course before the commissioners, and were dis-
missed. On the a7th of April they gave in their plea. On the
7th of May it was discussed, and feebly defencied by the vice>
chancellor. The deputies maintained that in the late letgn
several royal mandates had been withdrawn, and that no degree
had ever been conferred without the oaths having been previously
taken. Jeffreys qwke with his accustomed insolence to the vice-
chancellor, silenced the other deputies when they offered to
speak, and ordered them out of court. When recalled the deputies
were reprimanded, and Pechell was deprived of his oflke as
vice-chaincellor, and of his emoluments as mast» of Magdakne.
Newton returned to Trinity College to complete the PrimcipU.
While thus occupied he had an extensive correspondence with
Halley, a very great part of which is extant. The following
letter from Halley, dated London, July 5th, 16S7, announring
the completion of the Principia, is of peculiar interest: —
" 1 have at length brought your book to an end, and hope it viB
please you. The last errata came just in time to be inserted. I
will present from you the book you desire to the Royal Society.
Mr Boyle, Mr Paget, Mr Flamstced, and if there be any else in to»n
that you design to gratify that way; and I have sent you to botow
on your friends in the University 20 copies, which I entreat >'on
to accept. In the same parcel you will receive 40 more, which
having no acquaintance in Cambridge, I must entreat you to put
into the hands of one or more of your ablest booksellers to dispose
of them. I intend the price of them, bound in calves' leather, and
lettered, to be 9 shillings here. Those I send you I value in quires at
6 shillings, to take my money as they are sold, or at 5*^ for ready,
or else at some short time ; for I am satisfied there is no dealisc m
books without interesting the booksclfers; and I am contented to
let them so halves with me, rather than have your excellent work
smothered by their combinations. I hope you will not repent yisa
of the pains you have taken in so laudable a piece, so much to yoor
own and the nation's credit, but rather, after you AaXL have a fittle
diverted yourself with other studies, that you will resume those
contemplations wherein you had so great success, and attempt the
perfection of the lunar theory, whicn will be of nrodtgioiia use in
navigation, as well as of profound and public speculation. . . . Yon
Vill receive a box from roe on Thursday next by the waggon, that
starts from town to-morrow."
In 1692 and 1693 Newton seems to have luul a serious iIlnc9K«
the nature of which has given rise to very considerable dispute.
In a letter dated the 13th of September 1^3, addressed to
Samuel Pepys, he writes: —
" Some time after Mr Mitlin^on had delivered your meaaagc. W
pressed me to see you the next time I went to London. I was avcrw.
but upon his pressing consented, before I considered what I did. for
I am extremely troubled at the embroilment 1 am in, and have
neither ate nor slept well this twelvemonth, nor have my forrocr
consistency of mind. I never dedgned to get any thing by yonr
interest, nor by King James's favour, but am now sensible that I
must withdraw from your acquaintance, and see neither you nor the
rest of my friends any more, if I may but have them quietly. I be;
your pardon for saying I would see you again, and rest your most
humble and obedient servant."
And in a letter written to John Locke in reply to one of his
about the second edition of his book, and dated the isth of
October 1693, Newton wrote: —
" The last venter, by sleeping too often by my fire. I got an 31
habit of sleeping: and a distemper, which this summer nas been
epidemical, put me farther out of order, so that when I wrote to
you, I had not slept an hour a night for a fortnight together, sa^
lor five days togetner not a wink. I remember I wrote to you, t«tf
NEWTON, SIR ISAAC
589
iHiat I aid of yoar book I remember not. If you plcsae to tend
ane a transcript oi that passage, 1 will give you an account of it if
I can."
The I068 of sleep to a person of Newton's temperament, whose
mind was never at rest, and at times so wholly engrossed in his
scientific pursuits that he even neglected to take food, must
necessarily have led to a very great deal of nervous excitability.
It is not astonishing that rumours got abroad that there was a
danger of his mind giving way, or, according to a report which
was believed at the time, that it had actually done so. Pepys
must have heard such nimouis, as in a letter to his friend Milling-
ton, the tutor of Magdalene G>llege at Cambridge, dated the a6th
of September 169*, he wrote;—
" I must acknowledge myself not at the ease I would be glad to
be at in reference to excellent Mr Newton; concerning whom
(methinks) your answer labours under the same kind of restraint
which (to tdl you the truth) my asking did. For 1 was loth at first
dash to tell you that I had lately received a letter from him so
surprising to roe for the inconsistency of every part of it. as to be
Ct into great disorder by it, from the concernment I have for him,
t it mould arise from that whi^h of all mankind I should least
dread from him and moat lament for — I mean a discomposure in
head« or mind, or both. Let me. therefore, beg you, Sir, having
now tcJd you the true ground of the trouble I lately gave you, to
let me know the very truth of the matter, as far at least as comes
within your knowlcc^.'*
On the 50th of September 1693 Millington wrote to Pepys
that he had been to look for Newton somte time before, but that
** he was out of town, and since." he says,
" I have not seen him, till upon tne aSth I met him at Huntingdon,
where, upon his own accord, and before I had time to ask him any
question, he told me that he had writt to you a very odd letter, at
whkh he was much concerned; added, that it was in a distemper
that much seized his head, and that kept him awake for above
five nights together, which upon occasion he desired I would represent
to -you, and beg your pardon, he being very much ashamed he should
be so rude to a person for whom he hath so great an honour. He is
now very well, and though 1 fear he is under some small degree of
melancholy, yet I think there is no reason to suspect it hath at all
touched his understanding, and I hope never will ; and so I am sure
all ought to wish that love learnine or the honour of our nation, which
it is a risn how much it is looked after, when such a person as Mr
Newton lyes so neglected by those in power."
The illness of Newton was very much exaggerated by foreign
contemporary writers. In a manuscript journal of Huygens is to
be found an entry; —
" 39 Maj. 1694.— Narravit mihi D. Colm Scotua virum celeber-
rimum ac summum gcometram Is, Neutonum in phrenesin incidisse
abfainc anno et sex mensibus. An ex nimia studii assiduitate, an
dolore infortunii, quod incendio laboratorium chymicum et scripta
quafedam amiaerat ? Cum ad Archiepiscoi>um Canubrigicnsem
ircoiaset, ea kxutum, quae alienationem mentis indicarent. Ueinde
ab amicM curam ejus susceptam. domoque clauso rehiedia volenti
Dolcnti adhibita, quibus jam santtatem recupcravit ut jam rursus
Kbnim suum Prinapiorum Philoaophiae Mathematkorum intelligere
iocipiat."
Huygens, in a letter dated the 8th of June 1694, wrote to
LeibniU, " I do not know if you are acquainted with the accident
which has happened to the good Mr Newton, namely, that he has
bad an attack of phrenitis, which lasted eighteen months,
and of which they say his friends have cured him by means of
remedies, and keeping him shut up." To which Leibnitz, in a
letter dated the asnd of June, replied, " I am very glad that I
received information of the cure of Mr Newton at the same time
t^t I first heard of his illness, which doubtless must have been
very alarming."
The active part which Newton had taken in defending the legal
privileges of the university against the encroachments of the
crown had probably at least equal weight with his scientific re-
potation when his friends chose him as a candidate for a seat in
parliament as one of the representatives of the university. The
other candidates were Sir Robert Sawyer and Mr Finch. Sir
Robert stood at the head of the poll with 125 votes, Newton
next with 122 and Mr Finch was last with 1x7 votes. Newton
retained his seat only about a year, from January 1689 till
the dissolution of the Convention Pariiarocnt in February 1690.
During this time Newton does not appear to have taken part in
any of the debates in the House; but he was not neglectful
ol Ms duties as a member. On the 30th of April 1689 he moved
for leave to bring in a bill to settle the charters and privileges
of the university of Cambridge, just as Sir Thomas Clarges did
for Oxford at the same time, and he wrote a series of letters to Dr
Lovel, the vice-chancellor of the university, on points which
affected the interests of the university and its members.
Some of the members of the university who had lately sworn
allegiance to James had some difficulty ia swearing allegiance
to his successor. On the 12th of February 1689, the day. of the
coronation of William and Mary, Newton intimated to the vice-
chancelldr that he would soon receive an order to proclaim them
at Cambridge. He enclosed a form of the proclamation, and
expressed a hearty " wish that the university would so compose
themselves as to perform the solemnitv with a reasonable
decorum."
During his residence in London Newton nad made the acquaint-
ance of John Locke. Locke had taken a very great interest in the
new theories of the Principia. He was one of a number of
Newton's friends who began to be uneasy and dissatisfied at
seeing the most eminent scientific man of his age left to depend
upon the meagre emoluments of a. college fellowship and a
professorship.
At one time Newton's friends had nearly succeeded m getting
him appointed provost of King's College, Cambridge, but the
college offered a successful resistance on the ground that the
appointment would be illegal, as the statutes required that the
provost should be in priest's orders. Charles Montague, who was
afterwards eari of Halifax, was a fellow of Trinity College, and
was a very intimate friend of Newton; and it was on his
influence that Newton relied in the main for promotion to some
post of honour and emolument. His hopes, however, wero
blighted by long delay. In one of his letters to Locke at the
beginning of 1692, when Montague, Lord Monmouth and Locke
were exerting themselves to obtain some appointment for him,
Newton wrote that he was " fully convinced that Mr Montague,
upon an old grudge which he thought had been worn out, was
false to him." Newton was now in his fifty-fifth year, and whilst
those of his own standing at the university had been appointed
to high posts in church or state, he still remained without any
mark of national gratitude. But this blot upon the English
name was at last removed by Montague in 1694, when he was
appointed chancellor of the exchequer. He had previously con-
sulted Newton upon the subject of the recoinage, and on the
opportunity occurring he appointed Newton to the post of warden
of the mint. In a letter to Newton announcing the news,
Montague writes: —
" I am very glad that at last I can give you a ^ood proof of my
friendship, and the esteem the king has of your merits. Mr Overton,
■ * Coi •
the warden of the mint, is made one of the Commissioners of Customs,
and the king has promised me to make Mr Newton warden of the
mint. The office ts the most proper for you. Tis the chief office
has not too much business to require more attendance than you can
spare."
This letter must have convinced Newton of the sincerity of
Montague's good intentions towards him; we find them living
as friends on the most intimate terms until Halifax's death in
X7X5-
Newton's chemical and mathematical knowledge proved of
great use in carrying out the recoinage. This was completed in
about two years. In 1697 Newton was appointed to the master-
ship of the mint, a post worth between £1200 and £1500 per
annum. While he held this office, Newton drew up a very
extensive table of assays of foreign coins, and composed an
official report on the coinage.
Up to the time of the publication of the Principia in 1687 the
method of fluxions which had been invented by Newton, and
had been of great assistance to him in his mathematical investiga-
tions, was still, except to Newton and his friends, a secret.
One of the most important rules of the method forms the second
lemma of the second book of the Principia. Though this new
and powerful method was of great help to Newton in his work, he
did not exhibit it in the results. He was aware that the well-
known geometrical methods of the ancients would clothe his new
59°
NEWTON, SIR ISAAC
creations in a garb whitb would appear less strange and uncouth
to those not familiar with the new method. Th( Principia
gives no information on the subject of the notation adopted in
the new calculus, and it was not until 1693 that it was com-
municated to the scientific world in the second volume of Dr
Wallis's works.
Newton's admirers in Holland had informed Dr Wallis that
Newton's method of fluxions passed there under the name
of Leibnitz's Calculus DifferentUUis. It was therefore thought
necessary that an early opportunity should be taken of asserting
Newton's claim to be the inventor of the method of fluxions, and
this was the reason for this method first appealing in Wallis's
works. A further account of the method was given in the first
edition of Newton's Optics, which appeared in 1 704. To this work
were added two treatises, entitled Tracialus duo de speciebus d
magniiudine Jigurarum cunilinearumf the one bearing the title
Tractatus de Quadratura Curvarum, and the other Enumeratio
Hneantm tertii ordinis. The first contains an explanation of the
doctrine of fluxions, and of its application to the quadrature
of curves; the second, a classification of seventy-two curves of
the third order, with an account of their properties. The reason
for publishing these two tracts m his OpiicSf from the subsequent
editions of which they were omitted, is thus 'sQited in the
advertisement: —
" la a letter written to M Leibnitz in the year 1670, and published
by Dr Wallis, I mentioned a method by which I nad found some
general theorems about squaring curviknear figures on comparing
them with the conic Bocttons, or other the umplcst figures with which
they might be compared. And some years ago I lent out a manu-
script containing such theorems; and having since met with some
things copied out of it, I have on this occasion made it public, pre-
fixing to It an introduction, and joining a Scholium concerning that
method. And I have joined with it another small tract concerning
the curvilineal figures of the second kind, which was also written
many yi^rs ago, and made known to some friends, who have solicited
the making it public."
In Z707 WUliam Whiston published the algebraical lectures
which Newton had delivered at Cambridge, under the title of
ArUkmetica Univenalis, sive de Camposilione el ResoluiUme
ArUhmeUca Liber. We are not accurately informed how Whiston
obtained possession of this work; but it is stated by one of the
editors of the English edition " that Mr Whiston, Uiinking it a
pity that so noble and useful a work should be doomed to a
college confinement, obtained leave to make it public" It was
soon afterwards translated into English by Raphson; and a
second edition of it, with improvements by the author, was
published at London in 1712, by Dr Machin, secretary to the
Royal Society. With the view of stimulating mathematicians
to write annotations on this admirable work, the celebrated
's Gravesande published a tract, entitled Specimen Commentarii
in Arithmeticam Universalem; and Madaurin's Algebra seems
to have been drawn up in consequence of this appeal.
Newton's solution of the celebrated problems proposed by
John Bernoulli and Leibnitz deserves mention among his mathe-
matical works. In June 1696 Bernoulli addrened a letter to
the mathematicians of Europe challenging them to solve two
problems — (i) to determine the brachistochrone between two
given points not in the same vertical line, (2) to determine a
curve such that, if a straight line drawn through a fixed point
A meet it in two points Pi, Ft, then APi"-t-AP^ will be constant.
This challenge was first made in the Ada lApsiensia for June
1696. Six months were allowed by Bernoulli for the solution of
the problem, and in the event of none being sent to him he
promised to publish his own. The six months elapsed without
any solution being produced; but he received a letter from
Leibnitz, stating that he had "cut the knot of the most beautiful
of these problems," and requesting that the period for their
solution should be extended to Christmas next, that the French
and Italian mathematicians might have no reason to complain
of the shortness of the period. Bernoulli adopted thesuggestioii,
and pubUdy announced the prorogation for the information of
those who might not sec the Ada Lipsiensia.
On the 29th of January 1696/7 Newton received from
France two copies of the printed paper containing the problems,
and on the following day he transmitted a solution of then to
Montague, then president of the Royal Society. He announced
that the curve required in the first problem must be a cycknd,
and he gave a method of determining it. He solved also the
second problem, and he showed that by the same method other
curves might be found which shall cut off three or more segments
having the like properties. Solutions were also obtained from
Leibnitz and the Marquis de L'H6pital; and, although that
of Newton was anonymous, yet Bernoulli recognized the author
in his disguise; " tanquam," says he, " ex ungue feonem."
In 1699 Newton's position as a mathematician and natural
philosopher was recognized by the French Academy of Sciences.
In that year the Academy was remodelled, and eight foreign
associates were created. Leibnitz, Domenico Guglielmtni (1655-
1710), Hartsoeker, and E. W. Tschimhausen were appointed 00
the 4th of Febnmiy, James Bernoulli and John Bernoulli oa
the 14th of February, and Newton and Olaus Roemer on the
aist of February.
While Newton held the ofiice of warden of the mint, he retauicd
his chair of mathematics at Cambridge, and discharged the duties
of the post, but shortly after he v&s promoted to be master of the
mint be appointed Whiston his deputy with " the f uU profits of
the place." Whiston began his astronomical lectures as Newtoc's
deputy hi January 1 701. On the loth of December x 701 Ncvton
resigned his professorship, thereby at the same tixne resigning
his fellowship at Trinity, which he had held with the Lucasian
professorship since 1675 by virtue of the royal mandate.
Whiston's claims to succeed Newton in the Lucasian chair were
successfully supported by Newton himself.
On the 26th of November 1701 Newton was again elected one
of the representatives of the university m parUament, but he
retained his seat only until the dissolution in the following July.
Newton docs not seem to have been a candidate at this electjon,
but at the next dissolution in 1705 he was again a candidate for
the representation of the university. He was warmly supported
by the residents, but bcinga Whig in politics he was opposed bj
the non-rcsidenU, and beaten by a large majority.
In the autumn of 1703 Lord Somexs retired from the presidency
of the Royal Society, and Newton on the 30th of November
1703 was elected to succeed him. Newton was annually re-
elected to this honourable post during the remainder of his life.
He held the office in all twenty-five years, a period in which he
has been exceeded by but one other president of the Royal
Society, Su: Joseph Banks. As president Newton was brought
into dose connexion with Prince George of Denmark, the queen's
husband, who had been elected a fdUow of the Royal Society.
The prince had offered, on Newton's recommendation, to be
at the expense of printing Fkmsteed's observations, and especi-
ally his catalogue of the surs. It was natural that the queen
should form a high opinion of one whose merits had made such
a deep impressionjon her husband. In April 1 705, when the queen,
the prince and the court were staying at the royal residence at
Newmarket, they paid a visit to Cambridge, where they were the
guests of Dr Bentley, the master of Trinity. Her Majesty vent
in state to the Regent House, where a congregation of the senate
was held, and a number of honorary degrees conferred. After-
wards the queen held a court at Truiity Lodge, where (i6th
of April 1705) she conferred the order of knighthood upon Sir
Isaac Newton.
As soon as the first edition of the Principia wis pubfishcd
Newton began to prepare for a second edition. He was anzioia
to improve the work by additions to the theory of the motion of
the moon and the planets. Dr Edleston, in his preface to
Newton's correspondence with Cotes, justly remarks: —
*' If Flamsteed the Astronomer-Royal had cordially oo-opeiated
with him in the humble capacity of an observer in the way that
Newton pointed out and requested of him . . . the lunar theory
would, it its creator did not overrate his own powers, have bert
completely investigated, so far as he could do it, in the firat fr»
months 01 1605. and a second edition of the Principia would probably
have followed the execution of the task at no long interval.**
Newton, however, could not get the information be wanted
from Flamsteed, and after the spring of 1696 his time was mach
NEWTON, SIR ISAAC
occupied by his duties at the mint. Rumouis, however, of his
work, and of a new edition, were heard from time to time. In
February 1700 Leibnitz writes of Newton, " J'ai appris aussi
(je ne spu oiti) qu'il donnera encore quelquc chose sur le mouve*
me&t de la lune: et on ro'a dit aussi qu'il y auraune nouvelle
Edition de ses prindpes de la nature."
Dr Bentley, the master of Trinity College, had for a long time
urged Newton to give his consent to the republication of the
Frinctpia, In the middle of 1 708 Newton's consent was obtained,
but it was not till the spring of 1709 that he was prevailed upon
to entrust the superintendence of it to a young mathematician
of great promise, Roger Cotes, fellow of Trinity College, who had
been recently appointed the first Plumian professor of astronomy
and ezperimentail philosophy. On the 21st of May 1709, after
having been that day with Newton, Bentley announced this
arrangement to Cotes^-" Sir Isaac Newton," he said, " will be
glad to see you in June, and then put into your hands one part
of his book corrected for the press." About the middle of July
Cotes went to London, in the expectation doubtless to bring down
with him to Cambridge the corrected portion of the Principia.
Although Cotes was impatient to begin his work, it was nearly the
end of September before the corrected copy was put into his hands.
During the printing of this edition a correspondence went on
continuously between Newton and Cotes. On the 31st of March
1713, when the edition was nearly ready for publication, Newton
wrote to Cote8>—
" I hcare that Mr Bernoulli has sent a Paper of 40 pages to be
pablishcd in the Acta Leipska relating to what I have written upon
the curve Lines described by Projectiles in leststing Mediums. And
therein he partly makes Obaervations upon what I have written &
partly improves it. To prevent being blamed by him or others for
any dinngenuity in not acknowledging my overughts or slips in the
first edition, I believe it will not be amiss to print next after the old
FrttffaHo ad Leclorem, the following account of this new Edition.
** 'in hac aecunda Principiorum Editione, multa sparsim emen-
dantur & nonnulla adjiciuntur. In Libri primi Sect. u. Inventio
virium quibus corpora in Orbibus datis revolvi ppssint, facilior
rcdditur et amplior. In Libri secundi Sect. vii. Theoria resistentiac
fluidorum accuratius investigatur & novis ex|>erimentis oonfirmatur.
In Libro tertio Theoria Lunae & Praecessio Acquinoctiorum ex
Principiis suis plenius deducuntur. et Theoria Cometarum pluribus
et accuratius computatis Ortnum excmplis confirmatur.
"•28 Mar. 1713- . 1-N. ,
'* If you write any further PreCsce, I must not see it, for I find
that I shall be examined about it. The cuts for y* Comet of 1680 &
1681 are printed off and will be sent to Dr Beotly this week by the
Carrier."
Newton's desire to have no hand in writing the preface seems
to have proceeded from a knowledge that Cotes was proposing
to allude to the dispute about the invention of fluxions. At
last, about midsummer 17x3, was published the long and im-
patiently expected second edition of the Principia, and, on the
97th of July. Newton waited on the queen to present her with
a copy of the new edition.
In 1714 the question of finding the longitude at sea, which
had been looked upon as an important one for several years,
was brought into prominence by a petition presented to the
House of Commons by a number of captains of Her Majesty's
ships and merchant ships and of London merchants. The
petition was referred to a committee of the House, who called
witnesses. Newton appeared before them and gave evidence.
He stated that for determining the longitude at sea there had
been several projects, true In theory but diflBcult to execute.
He mentioned four: (1) by a watch to keep time exactly, (2)
by the eclipses of Jupiter's satelUtes, (3) by the place of the
moon, (4) by a new method proposed by Mr Ditton. Newton
criticized all the methods, pointing out their weak points, and
it is due mainly to his evidence that the committee brought
in the report which was accepted by the House, and shortly
afterwards was converted into a Bill, passed both Houses, and
received the royal assent. The report ran " that it is the opinion
of this committee that a reward be settled by parUament upon
such person or persons as shall discover a more certain and
practicable method of ascertaining the longitude than any yet
in practice; and the said reward be proportioned to the degree
of exactness to which the said method shall reach."
59 r
Sir Isaac Newton was a very popular visitor at the court
of George I. The princess of Wales, afterwards Queen Caroline,
wife of George II., took every opportunity of conversing with
him. Having one day been told by Sir jsaac that he had com-
posed a new system of chronology while he was still resident
at Cambridge, she requested him to give her a copy. He accord-
ingly drew up an abstract of the system from his papers, and
sent it to the princess for her own private use; but he after-
wards allowed a copy to be made for the Abb6 Conti on the
express understanding that it should not be communicated to
any other person. The abb6, however, lent his copy to M
Fr^ret, an antiquary at Paris, who translated it, and endeavoured
to refute it. The translation was printed under the title Abrigi
de ckronohgie de M le CheoaUier Newlon, fail par lui-mime et
traduit sur le manuscrU anglais. Upon receiving a copy of this
work, Sir Isaac Newton printed, in the Philosopkical Trans-
actions for 1735, a paper entitled " Remarks on the observations
made on a Chronological Index of Sir Isaac Newton, transited
into French by the observator, and published at Paris." In these
remarks Sir Isaac charged the abb£ with a breach of promise,
and gave a triumphant answer to the objeaions which Fr6ret
had urged against his system. Father Soudet entered the field
in defence of Fr6ret; and in consequence of this controversy
Sir Isaac was induced to prepare his larger work, which was
published in 1728, after his death, and entitled The Chronology
of A ncient Kingdoms amended, to which is prefixed a short Chronicle
from the First Memory of Kings in Europe to the Conquest of
Persia by Alexander the Great.
From an early period of his life Newton had paid great atten-
tion to theological studies, and it is well known that he had
begun to study the subject of the prophecies before the year
1690. M Biot, with a view of showing that his theological
writings were the productions of his dotage, has fixed their
date between 1712 and 1719. That Newton's mind was even
then quite clear and powerful is sufficiently proved by his ability
to attack the most difficult mathematical problems with success.
For it was in 1716 that Leibnitz, in a letter to the Abb£ Conti,
proposed a problem for solution " for the purpose of feeling
the pulse of the English analysts." The problem was to find
the orthogonal trajectories of a series of curves represented
by a sin^e equation. Newton received this problem about
5 o'clock in the afternoon as he was returning from the mint,
but, though he was fatigued with business, he solved the problem
the same evening.
One of the most remarkable of Sir Isaac's theological pro-
ductions is his Historical Account of Two Notable Corruptions
of the Scripture, in a letter to a friend. This friend was Locke,
who received the letter in November 1690. Sir Isaac seems
to have been then anxious for its publication; but, as the effect
of his argument was to deprive the Trinitarians of two passages
in favour of the Trim'ty, he became alarmed at the probable
consequences of such a step. He therefore requested Locke,
who was then' going to Holland, to get it translated into French,
and pubb'shed on the continent. Being prevented from going
to Holland, Locke copied the manuscript, and sent it, without
Newton's name, to Le Clcrc, who received it before the nth
of April 1691. On the 20th of January 1692 Le Clerc announced
to Locke his intention to publish the pamphlet in Latin; and,
upon the intimation of this to Sir Isaac, he entreated him " to
stop the translation and impression as soon as he could, for
he designed to suppress them." This was accordingly done;
but Le Clerc sent the manuscript to the library of the Remon-
strants, and it was afterwards published at London in 1754,
under the title of Tioo Letters from Sir Isaac Newton to M le
Clerc. This edition is imperfect, and in many places erroneous.
Dr Horsley therefore published a genuine one, which is in the
form of a single letter to a friend, and was taken from a manu
script in Sir Isaac's own hand.
Sir Isaac Newton left behind him in manuscript a work en
titled Observations on the Prophecies of Daniel and the Apocalypse
of St John, which was published in London in 1733. In one
volume 4to; another work, entitled Lexicon Prophcticum,
592
NEWTON
with a dissertation on the sarrcd cubit of the Jews, which was
printed in 1737; and four letters addressed to Bcntley, con-
taining some arguments in proof of a Deity, which were published
by Cumberland, a nephew of Bentley, in 1756. Sir Isaac also
left a Ckurck History comj^ete, a History of the Creation, Para-
doxical Questions regarding Athanasius, and many divinity
tracts.
Newton devoted much of his time to the study of chemistry;
but the greater number of his experiments still remain in manu-
script. His Tabula Quantitatum ei Craduum Caloris contains
a comparative scale of temperature from that of melting ice
to that of a small kitchen fire. He wrote also another chemical
paper De Natura Acidorum, which has been published by Dr
Horsley. Sir Isaac spent much time in the study of the works
of the alchemists. He had diligently studied the works of
Jacob Boehme, and there were found amongst his manuscripu
copious abstracts from them in his own handwriting. In the
earlier part of bis life he and his relation Dr Newton of Grantham
had put up furnaces, and had wrought for several months in
quest of the philosopher's tincture. Among the manuscripts
in the possession of the earl of Portsmouth there are many
sheets in Sir Isaac's hand of Flamsteed's Explication oj Hiero-
glyphic Figures, and in another hand many sheets of William
Yworth's Processus Mysterii Magni Philosophicus,
In the last few years of his life Newton was troubled with
incontinence of urine, which was supposed to be due to stone;
but with care he kept the disease under control In January
1725 he was seized with a violent cough and inflammation of
the lungs, which induced him to reside at Kensington; and
in the following month he had a severe attack of gout, which
produced a decided improvement in his general health. His
duties at the mint were discharged by John Conduit t, and he
therefore seldom went from home. On the 28th of February
1727, feeling well, he went to London to preside at a meeting
of the Royal Society; but the fatigue which attended this
duty brought on a violent return of his former complaint, and
he returned to Kensington on the 4th of March, when Dr Mead
and Dr Chesseldcn pronounced his disease to be stone. He
endured the sufferings of this complaint with wonderful patience.
He seemed a little better on the isth of March, and on the iSth
he read the newspapers and conversed with Dr Mead; but
at 6 o'clock in the evening be became insensible, and continued
in that state till Monday the 20th of March 1727, when he
expired without pain between one and two o'clock in the morning.
His body was removed to London, and on Tuesday the 28th of
March it lay in state in the Jerusalem Chamber, and was thence
conveyed to Westminster Abbey, where it was buried.
Authorities. — Commercium Epistolicum D. Jch^Hni^ CZ"... et
aliorum de analyst promola: jussu Societatis Regiae in lucfm cdnum,
*c (17121 ind cd,p 1723); H- Pcmbcrton, A View tff Sir l:,tac
jVesutofij Phih^iopky (173^); CoUn Mji^laurin. Sir h^^^'r W ^ »•*
Fkihiophiiai Discmvries (i775)s F* B^ily, An Accouk- n.
John Ftamitfcd, the Fint Asifanataer-Royal, &c. iV.
\Vhe«pU's HiiUify of the Imdutlioe Sfunces (1837); " '' ' '^'
Hiiioriial Eaay on ihi Firit FttHicoiion of Str i .Ju. A ... »'*
Fhndpin {183I4): Edl«loii, Corrcspondfiice of Sir ] r. u .W; '. n and
Fruftsiot Cfl^j, iSc. {iAsio); Sir D. Brewster, Met ■ r f' s'.fe,
WriiiHtii and Dmo&efi^t of Sir Isaac Nttoton (1851 \)\
Lnrd Bruijeham and Kou^riV Anolyiical View ofSn *»«««, *»*»-«,*'*
pTinapia. fiBss); S- P. Higiiudi Oirtespondence of Scientific Men of
Ike ink CentMry, &c., fr&nt the OriiinJi in the CoUection of the Earl
Prmapia tiBss); S- P. Higiiudi O^rmpondence of Scientific Men of
Ike ink CentMry, &c., fr&nt the OriiinJi in the Collection of the Earl
vj Maccksficid (ifl4M; J- Raphsccii Hin^y of Fluxions, showing in
a rompendivMi manner the FtTsi Rise <?/ and Various Improvements
made m that tneomparfxblt Mmod (1715': W. W. R. Ball, Essay on
Nruton's PriiKipia (iS^j), A complcic bibliography of Newton's
w.Fi[in>;i has Wfn. given by C. j. Crav (Cambridge, 1880). The
Luii.vuw^ r.wiks of ]\lh.Ljj) were published in i779-«785 by Dr
Samuel Horslcy, F.R.S., under the title Isaaci Newtoni Opera quae
exstant Omnia. (H . M . T.)
NEWTON, JOHN (1725-1S07), English divine, was bom in
London on the 24th of July 1725 (O.S.). His father, who for a
long time was master of a ship in the Mediterranean trade,
became in 1748 governor of York Fort, Hudson Bay, where
he died in 1751. The lad had little education and served on his
father's ship from 1737 to 1742; shortly afterwards he was
impressed on board a man-of-war, the " Harwich," where he
was made a midshipman. For an attempt to escape while his
ship lay off Plymouth he was degraded, and treated with so
much severity that he gladly exchanged into an African trader.
He made nuiny voyages as mate and then as master on slave-
trading shlps^ devoting his leisure to the improvement of his
education. The state of his health and perhaps a growing dis-
taste for the slave trade led jiim to quit the sea in 1755, when
he was appointed tide-surveyor at Liverpool. He began to
study Greek and Hebrew^and in 1758 applied to the archbishop
of York for ordination. This was refused him, but, having had
the curacy of Olney offered to him in April 1764 he was ordained
by the bishop of Lincoln. In October 1767 William Cowper
settled in the parish. An intimate friendship sprang up between
the two men, and they published together the Oiney Hymns
(1779J. In 1779 Newton left Olney to become rector of St
Mary Woolnoth, London, where he laboured with unceasing
diligence and great popularity till his death on the 31st of
December 1807.
Like Cowper, Newton held Calvinistic views, although his
evangelical fervour allied him closely with the sentiments of
Wesley and the Methodists. His fame rests on certain of the
(Xney Hymns (e.g. " Glorious things of Thee are spoken,"
" How sweet the name of Jesus sounds," " One there is above all
others,") remarkable for vigour, simplicity and direaness of
devotional utterance.
His prose work? include jinAuthenlic Narft^tiPt oftonu IntertsUng
and Rtmarkabte PartiCMtars in the Life of John Newt^m tt7*4l» a
volume ol Sermtms {ijbjltt Omirr=&n ia *enC9 of letters 00 rdiekxu
1774), Rtvir& of Bkcieiutstiinl Hiitoty U7^) and CoJrdipkoma (iTSlk
Tin- la^i was a f J It her splwibn oTn^ligiou} tnrrwpoodencc, wliicli
dV\ much 10 help the E^^anj^Erllr^l rcvix-aU Thoma* Sctrtt, WUIaai
Witlierbrti\ Charlw SiTTir,jn. Willlirn lAy and Hannah More all
camy undtr hi^ diiwt iniUirnrf.. His Leitcri Uf a Wift {J795> «*ii
Ltiuii tii R^. W. BwU (fi't^Ouiniou^H 1847) il3u*tra«e the fmafeneia
with which he vjtpn fl hi^ niuit iiuimd.tc perwnal e 3cpc neno e a> A
Lift of New ( (in t'y kf li inl Qiil wa* paflx<id to a coUected edition
of hts worlta (6 viils . iK:;.s; I vyl. iej7) Sec atsu T* WrtgM. The
NEWTON, JOHN (1823-1895), American general and engineer,
was bom in-Norfolk, Virginia, on the 24th of August 1823, and
graduated second in his class at the U.S. Military Acadenay
in 1842. From 1842 to x86x he was engaged in the construction
of coast defences and the improvement of waterways; be was
assistant professor of engineering in the Military Academy
from 1843 to 1846, became a captain in 1856, and took part as
chief engineer in the Utah expedition of 1857- 1858. He served
as an engineer in the Virginian campaign of i86x, and was
promoted brigadier-general, U.S.V., in September. He
especially distinguished himself in the Seven Days' battle and at
Antietam, and after the battle of Fredericksburg was made
major-general, U.S.V. In the Chancellorsville campaign Newton
took p^rt in the storming of Mar>'e's Heights at Fredericksburg,
on the 3rd of May 1863, and at the battle of Gettysburg he was
for a time in command of the I. corps. He had already received
the brevet of lieutenant-colonel for his services at Antietam,
and he now became brevet colonel for his services at Gett>'sburg.
Later he was transferred to Sherman's army, and as a division
commander under General Oliver O. Howard took part in the
Atlanta campaign. For gallant conduct at Peach Tree Creek
he was made brevet brigadier-general, and at the close of the
war was made brevet major-general, U.S.A. Returning to
regular engineering duty after the war, he was stationed at New
York from 1866 to 1884. His most important work there was
the improvement of the Hudson river, and especially the
removal of the obstructions to shipping in the dangerous entrance
to the East river from Long Island Sound, known as Hell Gate.
Under two of the lai^gest otet ructions— Hallet's Point and Flood
Rock, with a surface of three acres and nine acres respectively—
shafts were sunk from the shore, and tunnels were bored in every
direction. In these tunnels thousands of pounds of exploaivts
were placed, and the rocks were blown into fragments. In
March 1884 he became Chief of Engineers, with the rank of
brigadier-general, and held this position until his retirement
from the army, at his own request, in August 1886. In i887-rx&S8
I^EWTON— NEWTOWNARDS
he was commisBioner of public works in New York Qty, and
from x888 until his death, on the zst of May 1895, he was president
of the Pananui railway.
HEWTON, a dty and the county-seat of Harvey county,
Kansas, U.S.A., about 37 m. N. of Wicluta. Pop. {xgos)66oi;
(1910) 7862. It is served by the Atchison, Topeka & Santa
Fi (of which it is a division point and which has shops here),
and the Missouri Pacific railways. Newton is the centre of the
settlements of the German-Russian Mennonites, a thrifty people,
who immigrated in 1873 and subsequently; Bethel College
(opened 1893) is a Mennonite aeconda^ school, and there is a
Mennonite hospitaL Newton is a supply and distributing point
for the surrounding agricultural and stock-raising region, and
has various manufactures. The municipality has natural gas for
heating, lighting and manufacturing. Newton was first settled
in 1871,' was chartered as a city in 1873, and in zgxo ftdopted
a commission form of government.
NEWTON, a city of Middlesex county, Massachusetts, U.S.A.,
10 m. W. of Boston, on the S. bank of the Charles river, which
borders it for 16 m. Pop. (1880) 16,995; (1890) 24,379; U900)
331587, of whom 10,068 were foreign-bom, 19,006 of foreign
parentage and 505 were negroes; (19x0, census) 39,806.
Kewton is served by the Boston & Albany railway. The city,
with an area of X7'98 sq. m., contains 1$ villages. In Newton,
the most prominent of these villages, is a stone terrace monu-
ment to John Eliot, erected on the site of Waban's wigwam
near Nonantum Hill, where Eliot founded the first Indian Church
on the 38th of October 1646 — ^the Nonantum Indians, under
their chief Waban, removed to Natick in 165X. On Institution
Hill, Newton Centre, is the first Baptist theological seminary
in America, Newton Theological Institution, founded in 1825.
Here also is the residence of Samuel Francis Smith (1808-1895),
author of " America " and several missionary hymns, and pastor
here in 1842-1854. In Newton Upper FaUs, Echo Bridge (of
the Boston Aqueduct) crosses the Charles near the falls in
Hemlock Gorge Reservation of the Metropolitan Park system.
Aubumdale is the seat of Lasell Seminary for Young Women,
founded in 1851 by Edward Lasell (X809-1852). Other of the
villages are Newtonville, West Newton and Newton Highlands.
The city of Newton is primarily a residential suburb of Boston;
along the Charles is a part (i9x*x2 acres) of the Charles River
Reservation of the Metropolitan Park system, and the dty has
several attractive public parks, induding Norumbega Park,
on the banks of the river, with a large open-air theatre; boating,
especially canoeing, on the river is very popular. The city has
a public library, a high school and a technical high school.
Among its manufactures are fotmdiy and machine shop products,
worsted goods and electrical apparatus; the factories utilize
the water power of the falls. The value of the manufactured
product in 1905 was $4,140,996. The region was settled as a
p«rt of Cambridge in X630 and was called South Side {i.e. of the
Charles), Nonantum (the Indian name), Cambridge Village,
Little Cambridge or New Cambridge; in 1688 it was incorporated
as a separate town and in X69X recdved its present name; it
annexed an island in the Charles in 1803; parts of it were
annexed to Roxbury (X838) and Waltham (1849); it became a
city in 1873; and ini875 it annexed a part of Boston, with which
there have been several more recent boundary adjustments.
NEWTON ABBOT* a market town and seaport in the Ash-
burton parliamentary division of Devonshire, England, 20 m.
S. by W. of Exeter by the Great Western railway. Pop. of
urban district (1901) 12,5x7. Beautifully situated at the head
of the Teign estuary, the town grew rapidly in the 19th century.
The two parish churches, St Mary's in Wolborough, and All
Saints' in Highweek, are Perpendicular in style. St Mary's
contains a Norman font, an andent brass lectern, buried during
the Civn Wars, and some interesting heraldic ornaments which
date from the X5th century. Of the 14th century chapel of St
Leonard, only a tower survives. A large nunnery, called St
Augustine's Priory, was erected near the town in x86i; while
eastward is the Jacobean Forde House, belonging to the earl
of Devon, and visited by Charles I. and William of Orange,
XIX. 10«
593
who first reftd his declaration to the people of England at Newton
Abbot market-cross. The establishment of laige engine ^orks
by the Great Western railway has aided the development of
local industries, and there is a considerable shipping trade,
fine china clay and pipeclay being worked near the towns and
exported to the Potteries. Large fairs are hdd for the sale of
agrictdtural produce and livestock. The portion of Newton
Abbot in the parish of Highweek was formerly a separate town,
known as Newton BusheL
Probably both Newton Abbot and Newton Bushel were
originally induded under the name of Newton. Newton Abbot
was given to the abbot of Tor by William Lord Brewer, founder
of the monastery (XX96). Newton Bushel was so called from
Robert Bussell or Bushel, foster<hild and kinsman of Theobald
deEngUshville, who was made lord of the manor by Henry III.
in X246.
NBWTON-Df-IIAKERFIELD, or Newton-le-Willows, an
urban district in the Newton parliamentary division of Lanca-
shire, England, 15I m. W. of Manchester by the London &
North- Western railway. Pop. (1891) 12,861; (1901) 16,699.
At a short distance from the town is a moated Elisabetluin
half-timbered house, and also an ancient barrow of great extent.
The Liverpool farm reformatory school is in the neighbourhood.
The industrial establishments indude foundries, printing and
stationery works, paper mills, glass works and sugar refineries.
Coal abounds in the neighbourhood.
The township of Newton-in-Makerfield, gave its name in
Saxon times and in the reign of William the Conqueror to one
of the hundreds of Lancashire. The barony was held by the
Banastrcs from the conquest to 1286 and passed successively
to the Langtons, Fleetwoods and Leghs. It does not seem that
the barons were ever summoned to parliament, and the title,
like all parliamentary titles, has fallen into disuse since the
abolition of feudal tenures. The courts-baron and courts-leet
are held twice annually. The township returned two members'
to parliament from X559 to X831, but was disfranchised by the
Reform Act of X832. lliere was a market here at least as early
as 1558 which is now discontinued. Near the town a party of
Highlanders were taken prisoners in 164S by Cromwell's troops,
an d hang ed in an adjoining wood, still called Callow's Cross.
NEWTOWN, a munidpaUty of Cumberland county. New
South Wales, Australia, 3f m. S.W. of Sydney. It consists
chiefly of the residences of the wealthier citizens of Sydney and
is connected with the city by rail and tram. As a munidpality
it dates from X862. Pop (1901) 22,598.
NEWTOWN (Welsh Drcptewydd, with the same meaning,
formerly Uanfair Cedewain), a market town and contributory
parliamentary borough of Montgomeryshire, situated on both
sides of the Severn, and on the Cambrian railway, 195 m. from
London. Pop. of urban district of Newtown and Llanllwchhaiarn
(1901) 6500. It is connected with Shrewsbury (Amwythig)
by the Montgomer>'shire canal. The old Anglican church,
partly Decorated and partly Perpendicular, has been superseded
by the modern St Mary's, which contains the font and rood-screen
of the old building. In the old churchyard lies Robert Owen,
bom in X77X at Newtown, where he died in 1858, known as
" the patriarch of reason," author of New Views of Society, &c.,
and one of the fathers of communism. Newtown, rather than
Welshpool, is the chief seat of Welsh flannel manufacture,
together with that of tweeds and shawls. It joins with Welshpool,
Llanfyllin, Montgomery (Trefaldwyn), Llanidloes and Machynl-
leth , in re turning a member to parliament.
NEWTOWNARDS (pron. NewtonArds), a market town of
Co. Down, Ireland, beautifidly situated nfear the northern
extremity of Strangford Lough, on a branch of the Belfast and
Co. Down railway, 9^ m. E. of Bdfast. Pop. (1901) 9110. The
town is sheltered by the Scrabo Hills on the west and north, and
possesses a fine square, in which the pedestal of an ancient cross
was erected in 1636. Muslin embroidery is the principal industry.
There are also milb for flax and hemp yams, a weaving factory
and a hosiery factory. The remains of the old church, originally
erected in 1244, contain good Perpendicular work, and the
594
NEW ULM— NEW YORK
famQy vault of the Londondenys; there are also the parish
church and Presbyterian church, with lofty spires, and a Roman
Catholic chapel. In the neighbourhood there are freestone
quarries.
The town owes its origin to a Dominican monastery founded
in 1344 by Walter de Burgh. It was forfeited by the O'Neills,
and given to the Uamiltons and Montgomerics, from whom it
passed to the marquess of Londonderry. It received a charter
from James I., and until the Union In x8oo returned two members
to parliament. . The ruined abbey of Moville, i^ m. N.E., is
the most notable of the many ecclesiastical remains in the
neighbourhood. It is attributed to St Finian {c. 550).
NEW ULH, a city and the county seat of Brown county,
Minnesota, U.S.A., on the S. bank of the Minnesota river,
88 m. (by rail) S.W. of Minneapolis, in the south central part
of the state. Pop. (1905, state census) 5720 (1287 of German
birth); (1910) 5648. New Ulm* b served by the Minne-
apolis & St Louis, and. the Chicago & North Western railways.
In the south-western part of the city, on a wooded hill called
Hermann Heights, there is a statue of Arminius erected by the
Grand Lodge of Hermann's Sons of the United States. New
Ulm is an important livestock market. The city is the seat of
the Dr Martin Luther College (Lutheran, 1884), a secondary
school, with a normal and a collegiate department. St Michael's
Academy and St Alexander Hospital are under the charge of
Roman Catholic sisters. New Ulm was settled about 1853,
and was twice attacked and almost destroyed by the Indians
during the Sioux uprising of 1862. There is a monument to
those who lost their lives in the Sioux massacres.
NEW WASHINGTON, a town of the province of Capiz, island
of Panay, Philippine Isbnds, on the N. coast about 17 ro. W.
of Capiz, the capital of the province. The town was formed in
1903 by uniting the towns of Batan, Jimeno, Balete and the
vUlage or barrio of Lagatic in the town of Calibo; the total
population at that time was 34,480. There are about sixty-six
barrios, but all of these except Lagatic, the seat of the municipal
government, had in 1903 less than xooo inhabitants. The
language is Visayan. The cultivation of rice, sugar cane, hemp,
and Indian com and the raising of cattle and horses are the
principal industries.
NEW WESTMINSTER, a city on the north bank of the Fraser
river, British Columbia, 15 m. from the mouth. Pop. (1906
estimate) 7900. Founded in 1859 it was the capital of British
Columbia when the British possessions on the Pacific coast
formed two colonies — i.e. British Columbia (the mainland
portion) and Vancouver Island. The city is accessible to ocean-
going ships of 16 ft. draught. It is the chief centre of the farming
country of the lower Fraser and has a small export lumber trade.
In 1898 the greater portion of the business part of the city was
destroyed by fire, and though much of it was rebuilt, the estab-
lishment of the city of Vancouver, only 12 m. distant, seriously
affected its growth. It is connected with Vancouver by an
electric railway. The Great Northern railway, connecting with
Seattle and other points in the state of Washington, here crosses
the Fraser river by a fine bridge.
NEW YEAR'S DAY, the first day of the year. In the Gregorian
calendar this date occurs twelve days earlier than in the Julian;
thus in Russia, Greece, &c., where the latter is still employed.
New Year's Day is celebrated on the English 13th of January.
The ancient Egyptians, Phoenicians and Persians began their
year at the autumnal equinox (Sept. 21) and the Greeks until
the sth century B.C. at the winter sojstice (Dec. 21). In 432 B.C.
the latter altered their New Year's Day to the 21st of June.
The ancient Romans celebrated the beginning of the year on the
2 1 St of December, but Caesar by the adoption of the Julian
calendar postponed it to the ist of January. The Jews have
always reckoned their civil year from the first day of the month
of Tishri (Sept. 6-Oct. s), but their ecclesiastical year beglna at
the spring equinox (March 21). The 25th of March was the
usual date among most Christian peoples in early medieval days.
In Anglo-Saxon England, however, the 25th of December was
New Year's Day. At the Norman Conquest owing, it is believed.
to the coincidence of his coronation being'arranged for that date,
William the Conqueror ordered that the year should start on the
ist of January. But later England began her year with the rest
of Christendom on the 25th of March. The Gregorian calendar
(1582), which restored the ist of January to its position as New
Year's Day, was accepted by all Catholic countries at once;
by Germany, Denmark and Sweden about 1700, but not until
1751 by England.
The Romans, after the adoption of the Julian calendar, kept
the xst of January as a general holiday. ' Sacrifices were made to
Janus; gifts and visits were exchanged, and masquerading and
feasting were general. Congratulatoiy presents were made to
the magistrates who entered upon office on this day. The
emperors at the new year exacted from their subjects tribute of
a pound of gold. This quasi-present was called strena, a tenn
(extended to all New Year's giifts in Rome) traditionally derived
from a custom initiated by the legendary King Tatius, to whom
branches of vervain gathered in the sacred Grove of Strenua,
the goddess of strength, were presented as a good omen on the
first day of the year 747 b.c. The imperial strenac later became
so excessive that Claudius found it necessary to limit the amount
by formal decree.
Participation in the ordinary New Year's Day observances
as well as in the Saturnalia of December was from the first
discouraged by the Church. Christians were expected to spend
the day in quiet meditation, reading of scripture and acts of
charity. When about the 5th century the 2Sth of December
had become a fixed festival commemorative of the Nativity,
the ist of January assumed a specially sacred character as the
octave of Christmas Day and as the anniversary of the Crcum-
dsion. As such it still figiires in the calendars of the various
branches of the Eastern and Western Church, though only as a
feast of subordinate importance. The first mention of it in
Christian literature as a feast occurs in Canon 17 of a council
which met at Tours in 567.
The custom of giving and receiving sirenae for luck at the New
Year survives in France (where New Year's Day is known as
U jour d^ttrenncs) and the Continent generally. In England its
place has been taken by the Christmas-gift. In Scotland, where
New Year's Day is more generally observed than' Christmas,
the custom is still universal The Persians celebrated the begio-
ning of the year by exchanging presents of eggs. The Druids
distributed as New Year's gifts branches of the sacred mistletoe.
In Anglo-Saxon and Norman England New Year's gifts were
common. According to Matthew Paris, Henry III. followed the
Roman precedent by extorting New Yearns gifts from his subjects.
These in later reigns became voluntary but none the less ob»*
gatory on those who wished to stand well with the throne. Tbe
custom reached its climax in Tudor times. Wolsey one New Yea;
gave Henry VIII. a gold cup valued at £117, 17s. 6d. in the
coinage of that time. An MS. account is preserved of mone}-
glfts given to King Henry by all classes of his subjects on New
Year's Day 1533. The total reached many thousands. Bishop
Latimer, however, handed Henry instead of a purse a New
Testament with a leaf doubled down at Hebrews ziiL 4, as
apposite to the king's then impending marriage with Anne
Boleyn. In Edward VI.'s time, if not earlier, it was usual for
the sovereign to give " rewards " to those who presented New
Year's gifts. Elizabeth is rehited to have been most consdentioas
in this regard. The oistom of offering New Year's gifts to the
sovereign became obsolete during the Commonwealth and was
not revived at the Restoration.
NEW YORK, one of the original thirteen United Sutes of
America, situated between 40* 29' 40" atad 45* o' a" N^ and
between 71* 51' and 79* 45' 54-4" W. Its northetn boundaiy
is, for the most part, formed by Lake Ontario and the St Law-
rence river, which separate it from the province of Ontario.
Canada; but north of the Adirondacks the boundary line lca>TS
the St Lawrence, extending in a due east direction to the lower
end of Lake Champlain. Thus the boundary between New YoA
and the province of Quebec, Canada, is wholly artifidai
Vermont, Massachusetts and Connecticut boimd New York on
NEW YORK
595
the E.; the Atlantic Ocean, New JetMy and Pennsylvania, on
the S.; and Pennsylvania, Lake Erie and the Niagara river on
theW.
The state has a triangular outline, with a breadth from £.
to W. of 326-46 m. and from N. to S., on the line of the Hudson,
of 300 m. In addition, it includes Long Island and Staten
Island on the Atlantic Coast. lu land area is 47 1654 ^q. m. and
the area of the inland waters is 1550 sq. m., giving a total area
of 49,204 sq. m. In addition to this, New York includes 3140
sq. m. of water in Lakes Ontario and Erie.
Tofoffapky.—lht most notable topographic feature is the roughly
dccular mountain area of north-eastern New York known as the
Adirondack mountains {q.v.). This is a very ancient mountain mass
of crystaUiae rocks resembling more the Laurentian mountains of
Canada than the Appalachians. Indeed, it is commonly con«dercd
to be an extenuon of the Canadian mountains. Parts 01 the crystal-
fine area are worn down to a condition of low relief, but in the main
mountain mass, although greatly worn, there are still elevations of
truly mountainous proportions. The highest peak u Mount Marcy
(5344 ft.), though associated with it are several other peaces with an
devation from 4000 to 5000 ft. Even the higher summits are worn
to a rounded condition,, and are therefore for the most part forest
covered up to the timber line which, on Mount Marcy, is at an
elevation of about 4000 ft. From the crest of the dome of the
Adirondacks proper the surface slopes in all directions to surround-
ing lowlands: to the St Lawrence valley on the N.; the Champlain-
Hudson lowland on the E.; the Mohawk valley on the S.; and Lake
Ontario on the W. While igneous and metamorphic crystalline
locks form the bulk of the Adirondack area, it is surrounded by a ring
of ancient Palaeozoic sediments in which these peripheral lowlands
have been developed. The Adirondack area proper, and much of
the surrounding nng of more recent rocks, is cither too rugged, or
has a sou too thin and rocky for extensive agriculture. It is there-
fore a sparsely settled region with lumbering for one of the leading
industries, though there is some mining, as of iron. Om'ing to the
varied and beautiful sceneiy, this is a favourite summer resort:
the game of the forests ancf the fishing in the streams and in the
multitude of lakes serve as further attractions. In the peripheral
ring farming increases, especially dair\-ing; and manufacturing
industries connected with the products of forests, farms and mines
are developed. These and other manufacturing industries are greatly
aided by the extensive water power furnished by the mountain
streams which flow out radially from the central area.
South of the Adirondack region, and S. of the Mohawk Valley,
rises a high-level plateau which extends westward to the Pennsyt-
vaaia boundary. Here the rocks are all essentially horizontal and of
Palaeozoic age. mainly Devonian. This plateau province, which
includes more than half the state, differs greatly from place to place.
Its elevation decreases toward the N. by a series of steps, having its
lowest elevation on the Ontario plain which skirts the southern shore
of Lake Onurio. Similar to this is a narrow plain along the southern
shore of Lake Erie, which, in fact, lies in a shallow depression in this
Erie plain. Both of these plains are so level, and have so fertile a soil
that tbey are the seats of extensive agriculture, especially fruit
raising, which is further encouraged by the influence of the large
bodies of lake water that moderate the neat of summer and the cold
of winter, and tend to check the late frosts of spring and the early
frosts of autumn. . .. , j. ... .. j .. _*
Elsewhere in the plateau province the land is higher and the surface
far more irregular, increasing in ruggedness toward both the S. and
the E. "Oevations of between 1500 and 3000 ft. are common in this
region all the way from Chautauqua county in the extreme W. to
the CatsldU mountains in the E. ; and in places the surface becomes
so nigged as to simulate the features of mountains and locally to
win the name mountain. Valleys are deei^ly sunk in the plateau,
the largest with bottom lands of sufficient width to give rise to strips
of fertile farm land. The valley walls rise to undulating, and often
(airly level uplands, which are, in large part, cleared of forest: but
the ufAands are remote from markets, and the soil is thin. In the
main they are graang lands— the scat of important daiiv and sheep-
raising industnes. This is the region of abandoned farm houses.
Thousands have been deserted and they may be found along all the
opisnd roads.
Since tbb plateau region is a northward extension of the Alleghany
pbtcau, which skirts the western base of the Appalachian mountains,
itrvcs as the mountains are apnroached. Thus, in S.E. New York,
where the Appalachians enter the state, the plateau becomes much
higher than in the W., reaching its culmination in the Catskills.
Here, partly because of elevation, and partly because of the resistant
nature of the Catslcill sandstones, dissection has so sculptured the
plateau as to carve it into a mountainous mass which is generally
known as the Catskill mountains. In this part of the plateau,
summit elevations of from 3000 to aooo ft. are common, the highest
point being Slide Mountain (4205 It.). Like the Adirondacks. this
region is largely forest covered, and is a favourite summer resort;
but it is far less a wilderness than the Adirondacks, and in places is
cVAtA tor farming, especially for pasturage.
In the plateau province there are other areas known as mountains,
of which the Heloerberg mountains are the most conspicuous. This
formation is really an escarpment facing the lower Mohawk and the
Hudson river S. of Albany, where there is a downward step in the
plateau. The steeply rising face of the plateau here is due to the resist-
ance of a durable layer of limestone, known as the Helderberg lime-
stone. There, are other lower escarpments in the plateau province,
similar in form and cause to the Helderberg escarpment. Of these the
most notable is the Niagara escarpment which extends eastward from
Canada, past LewLston and Lockport, — a downward step from the
Erie to the Ontario plain, where the Niagara limestone outcrops, and
its resistance to denudation accounts for the steeply rising face at the
boundary between the two plains.
South and S.E. of the Catskills, although including only a small
portion of the state, there are a number of different topographic
leatures, due to the belts of different rock structure which cross the
state from S.W. to N.E. First come the low folds of the western
Appalachians, which, though well developed in Pennsylvania, die
out near the New York boundary. The most pronounced of these
upfolded strata in New York form the low Shawangunk mounuins,
which descend, toward the S.E., to a lowland region of folded strata
of limestone, slate and other rocks in Orange and Dutchess counties.
This lowland area, due to the non-resistant character of the strata,
is a continuation of the Great Valley of the Appalachians, and ex-
tends N.E. into Vermont and S.W. across New Jersey, Pennsylvania,
Maryland and Virginia. It b bounded on its S.E. side by the
Highlands, a belt of ancient crystalline rocks which extends N.E.
into Conncctkut and Massachusetts, and S.\V. into the Highlands
of New Jersey and thence to the Blue Ridge. South of the High-
lands, in New Jersey, but extending to the very banks of the Hudson,
is a belt of Triassic sandstone with intrusions of trap rock, which, on
account of its peculiar columnar jointing, has developed a palisade
structure — the famous Palisades of the lower Hudson. On the New
Ycvk side of the Hudson the rocks are crystalline, the surface a
region of low hills, a continuation of the crystalline area of Con-
necticut, and comparable with the Piedmont plateau of the Southern
states. Long Island, though modified by extensive glacial deposits,
may be considered a N.E. extension of the coastal plains which attain
a much more perfect development in New Jersey and the states
farther S.
The entire surface of New York, with the exception of a very small
area in the extreme W., in Chautauqua and Cattaraugus counties,
was covered by the continental glacier. With its source in Canada, it
overrode even the highest mountains and spread beyond the boundary
of New York into Pennsylvania and New Jersey; but fanher E. its
front rested on Staten Island and Long Island, wnosc surface features,
"and a part of whose area, are due to the deposits along the ice front,
includmg terminal moraines and outwash gravel plains. Elsewhere in
the state, also, the work of the glacier is very evident. It broadened
and deepened many of the vaUcys; rounded the hills; turned aside ,
many streams, causing changes in drainage and giving rise to in-
numerable waterfalls and rapids; and it formed the thousands of
lakes, large and small, which dot the surface. As the ice receded, it
halted at various points, forming moraines and other glacial
deposits. Thus the soil of almost the entire state has been derived
by glacial action. After the continental ice sheet entirely disap-
peared from the state, local v'alley glaciers lingered in the Adirondacks
and the Catskills.
Drainage. — ^The drainage of New York finds its way to the sea in
various directions. The St Lawrence system receives the most,
mainly from short streams from the plateau province and from the
Adirondacks. A small part of the state, in the Wv drains to the
Ohio, and thence, by way of the Mississippi, to the uiilf of Mexico;
and a much larger area drains into the Susquehanna, entering the
head of Chesapeake Bay. A part of the Catskills, and the region
farther S., drains into Delaware Bay through the Delaware nver.
Thus New York is pre-eminently a divide region, sending its drainage,
by various courses, into widely separated parts of the ocean. Only
the Hudson and a few streams in the extreme S.'have independent
courses to the sea within the state itself.
The Hudson ig.v.) is essentially a New York stream, though it
receives some drainage from the New England States through its
small eastern tributanes. Its entire course is within New York, from
which it receives most of its water supply. It is by far the most
important river in the state, for, owing to the sinking of the land,
which has admitted the tide as far as Troy, it is navigable for IM m.
from the saa. Thence westward the Mohawk Valley furnishes a
highway which is followed by canal, railway and wagKon road. Thus
there is here a gap, easily traversed, across the Appalachian mountains
and plateaus to the more level and fertile plains beyond. A low
gap also leads northward from the Hudson to the Champlain Valley
across a pass only 147 ft. above sea-level.^ This was of much import-
ance in early wars; but it is of only minor importance as a com-
mercial highway since it leads to Canada through a region of little
economic importance.
The lower Hudson, below Troy, is really a fiord, the stream vaDey
being drowned by the sea through subsidence of the land. It is noted
for its remarkable scenery, especially where it crosses the Highlands.
The other large river valleys are far less useful as highways, though
each is paralleled by one or more railways. The action of the
596
NEW YORK
continental glacier in eeouriiv down the paiKt between the St
Lawrence and southern drainage, and in turning streanna loutliwafd,
has facilitated the building of railways across the divides.
There are thousands of lakes and ponds in the state, most of them
very small and all, even including Lakes Erie and Ontario, the result
of glacial action. The largest lake apart from Erie and Ontario is the
beautiful Lake Champlam, which lies on the eastern boundary,
partly in Vermont, and with the N. end in Canada. It occupies the
lower portion of the trough between the Adirondacks and the Green
Mountains. The largest fake entirely within the state is Lake George,
famous for its beautiful scenery. In the central inrt of the state
arc a scries of peculiar elongated lakes, extending in a nearly N.&
direction, known as the Finger Lakes. The largest of these are
Cayuga, Seneca, Keu ka, Canandaigua, Owasco andlSkaneateles. I n
the extreme western part of the sute is Chautauqua Lake, beautifully
situated in the plateau of western New York.
New York is noted for its many falls and rapids, some of them of
great beauty. Of these the largest is the cataract of Niagara, about
I m. wide and i6o ft. high. The American Fall is entirely within the
state; but the Canadian boundary-line passes down the centre of the
Horseshoe or Canadian Fall. Other notable falk are ^ose of the
Genesee at Poruge and at Rochester, Trenton Falls, the Falls of
Ticonderoga, and a multitude of falk and rapids in the Adirondack
region and along the shores of the upper portioiu of the Finger Lakes.
Here the tributary streams tumble down the sides ci the lake valleys,
whose bottoms bave been deeocned by glacial erosion, leaving the
tributary vallc>'s hanging. There are scores of picturesque glens
here, and hundreds of waterfalls, among the most beautiful being in
the Cayuga valley — noublv Enfield Falls, a few miles S. of Ithaca,
Ithaca Falls in the city, and Taughannock, a few mDes N. of Ithaca.
The last, the highest waterfall m the sUte, has a vertkal fall of
3 1 5 ft. Similar glens and falls are found in the Seneca Valley, the best
known being the widely renowned Watkins Glen, now reserved as a
state park (sec Watkjns). Many of the waterfalls of New York,
but notably Niagara, are used as a source of power.
The Coast'line. — ^New York has extensive coast-line along the
Great Lakes, 75 m. on Lake Erie and over 200 m. on Lake Ontario.
Where the lake waters flood the stream mouths, there are excellent
harbours, and lake navigation is therefore of high importance. The
largest of the lake ports is at Buffalo at the head ol Niagara river,
where, owing to the Niagara cataract, lake boats from the W. must
transfer their goods to rail or canal. Buffalo lies at the lower end
of natural lake navigation, though by the building of a ship canal in
Canada, lake steamers can proceed into Lake Ontario and thence to
the St Lawrence.
7*he ocean coast-line, though of limited extent, is by far the most
important in the United States. The greater part of tne sea coast is
on Long Island — a lowj sandy coast, toe seat of numerous summer
resorts and of some fishing. The mainland, opposite the western end
of Long Island, is traversed by the lower Hudson and other channels
— submerged valleys — which form a branching bay with several
islands, the largest of which arc Suten and Manhattan Islands. The
western bank of the lower Hudson b in New Jersey. This branching
bay makes an excellent protected harbour, with an immense water
front, at the outlet of the chief natural hignway from the E. to the
interior of the country. Naturally, therefore, a dense population,
engaged mainly in manufacturing and commerce, hais gathered
around the shores of this harbour, the greatest number on Manhattan
Island and the contiguous mainland in New York City, but large
numbera also on western Long Island, in Brooklyn, on the smaller
islands, and on the New Jersey nde. The harbour tntrance is some-
what obstructed by sand bars, so that extensive government work
has been necessary to open and maintain a channel for large draft
ocean vessels. This sand has not been brought by the Hudson itsdf,
for that river drops most of its sediment load far up stream, in its long
tidal channel. It is supplied by the tidal- and wind-formed currents,
which are drifting sand from the Long Island and New Jersey
coasts, extending the barrier beaches, such as Sandy Hook, out
across the entrance to New York Bay.
Climate. — In eeneral the climate of New York is typical of that of
northern United States, a climate of extremes, hot m summer, and
cold in winter, and yet healthful, stimulating, and, on the whole,'
not disagreeaole. In the absence of extensive alluvial plains ana
marshes, there is little malaria. The average mean annual tempera-
ture is not far from 45* F., though it varies from over 50* near New
York City, and 48" near the Lake Erie shore, to less than 40* in the
high Adirondacks. The average maximum summer heat is about
93*, temperature of 100* being rarely reached. In the vdnter the
temperature descends below zero during exceptionally cold spdls.
A temperature of -ao* or lower is never attained in the southern
portion, seldom in the central, but b often passed, by 5 or 10 degrees,
in the Adirondacks and in the higher parts of the plateau. The
rivera and smaller lakes freeze in winter and navigation on the St
Lawrence river is closed by ice on the average from about the middle
of December until early in April. The average rainfall is between 40
and 45 in., but it is less than 30 in. in the Lake Champbin Valley and
over 55 in. N. of New York City. In most of the state frosts begin
from September ist to October 1st, and end from, April ist to May
1st. In the Adirondack region the snowfall b heavy, the winter long
and severe, la central New York it b not uncommon for snow to
accumulate to the depth of 3 or 4 ft., apd yet thb is not 1
About New York City, and on Long island, the snow rarely c
I ft. in depth. The climate b very variable, onring to the frequent
passage 01 cyclonic storms from the W. and SW., bringing warmer
weather with rain and snow in winter, and cauung days of great
heat and humidity, with thundentorms, in summer. Between these
cyclonic storms come areas of high pressure, or anticyclones, with
dry cool air in summer, and dry cold air in winter, sometimes with
such decided changes in temperature as to merit the name cold wave.
About New York City, and on Long Island, the ocean softens the
rigours of winter, and through the influence of cold surface waten
on the coast, tempera the heat of summer. The temperature of the
larger valleys b notably higher than that of the uplands; and the
temperature along the lake shores b decidedly influenced by the
large bodies of water. Lakes Ontario and Ene never ftccae con-
pletely over in winter.
Although one of the smaller states in the Union, being 30th in
area. New York ranks first in population and in wealth, and has
won for itself the name Empire State. The physiography
has enabled the state to become a great highway of commcfce
between the central part of the United Sutes and the sea-coast,
by rail and by water, along the Mohawk Gap and by other routes.
The Great Lakes waterway naturally finds an outlet in New YoHl
City. Thb has made it easy for the sUtes to the west to con-
tribute raw materiab, noUbly coal and iron, adding these to the
natural raw products of New York. Thus it happens that
from Buffalo to New Yorit Gty there b a chain of busy manu-
facturing centres along the natural lughway fdbwed by the
Erie Canal and the Hudson river. Other parts of the sute,
where connected with the main highway, are influenced by it
to some extent; but away from the great natural route of
commerce New York b not especially noteworthy either for its
density of population or for extensive mantifacturing and
commerce. (R. S. T.)
Flora.-^'Whea first settled by Europeans New York was a wood-
bnd region containing neariy all the varieties of trees, shrubs and
pbnts which were common to the territory lying E. of the Mississippi
river, N. of the Ohio, ahd S. of the St Lawrence. In the Adiraodacfc
region the trees were principally white pine, ^>nice, hemlock and
balsam, but mixed with these were some birch, mai^ beech and
basswood, and smaller numben of ash and elm; in the swamps ctf this
region were also brch and cedar. The forests of the W. half of the
state contained pine, but here such hardwood trees as oak, chestnut,
hickory, maple and beech were more common. The tulip tree was
common both in the S.W. and N.; and the walnut, butternut,
popular, sycamore and kxust were widely distributed. The original
varieties of trees still abound, though in less numbers, on lands ill-
adapted to agriculture, and in the Adirondack and Gatsldll Mountains,
where the state has established forest preserves, and the Forest,
Fish and Game Commissioner began reforesting in looi, principaOy
with pine, spruce and latdu On the summits 01 the AdiitMKiacks are
a few alpine spedes, such as reindeer moss and other lichens; on the
shores of Long Island, Suten Island and Westchester county are a
number of maritime species: and on Long Island are several specks
especially characterbtic of the pine barrens of New Jfersey. LaurU,
rhododendron, and whortleberry are common shrubs in the mountain
dbtricts, and sumac, hazel, sassafras and elder are quite widely
distributed elsewhere. Among indigenous fruit-bearing plants the
sUte has the black cherry, red cherry, red plum, yeUow plum, grape,
bbck currant, blackberry, dewbeny, strawberry and cranberry.
Blue flag, snake root, ginseng, lobelia, Unsy. wormwood, winter^
green, pleurisy root, plantain, burdock, sarsapiarilla and horebound
are among its medicinal plants. Cowslips, violets, anemones,
buttercups and blood-roots are conspicuous in early spring, the
white pond lily and the vellow pond lily in summer, asters aid
S olden-rod in autumn, and besides these there are about 1500 other
owering plants in the sute and more than ^ species of ferns.
Fawta, — Of the fur and game animab which were inhabitanu of
the primeval foresU few of the larger q)ecies remain except in the
Adirondack region. Here the puma J" panther ") has beccmsc
extinct and the Canada lynx is rare. The moose, the elk and the
beaver have been placed under the protection of the Forest. Fbh
and Game Commiauoner. There are many deer in the Adirondacks.
The porcupine b common, but the Canada pine marten or Americas
sable, fisher, and red fox are rare, and the black bear and jgrey wolf
are found only in small numbers. Rabbits and squirrels an
numerous in nearly all parU of the state; skunlo, weasefa,
muskrato and woodchucks are common; there are some raooom;
mink are frequently taken in the Adirondacks: and a few Mter
remain. In the lower counties are some " Virginia " opossums.
Among birds of prey a bald eaale and a golden eagle are occasioa-
ally seen in seduded places. Came biras include ducks, geese,
plovers, sniiie, loons, grebes, terns, rails, the woodcock and the ruffed
grouse; quaib are scarce except on Long Ishnd, where a nuMobtr cf
young birds are liberated each year, and lyy the same neans « svpply
».5i
1^
NEW YORK
597
of pheafltota it nudntained in aome pant o( the atate. There is a
sute game bird farm (1909) near Sherburne in Chenango county.
Herons, the brown pelican, bittern, and mud hen frequent the
marshes. The robin, song sparrow, chickadee, thrushes, warblers,
vireos, orioles, wrens, blue-bird, cat-bird and phoebe are favourite
song birds.
Time are about 375 species of fish in New York waters (see bek>w
under Fishbribs).
Soil,— The soil is mostly glacial drift, but its depth and compos-
tion often varv greatly even within small areas. The most widely
distributed soil, especially in the W. half of the state, b mainly a clay
which was formed by the glacial pulverizing of limestone and shale
and is still forming from the decomposition of fragments of these
substances. In the iujser valleys and along the shores of lakes
considerable alluvium is mixed with this clay. In the E. there is
some clay formed mainly by the decompo»tion of slate. A sandy
loam is quite characteristic of some of the N. counties, and gravelly
loams containing limestone are not uncommon.
Agriculture and Sfocik-ZSautfif.— Although New York has lost in the
competition with the Western States in the production of most ol the
grains, espcciallv wheat and barley, and in the production of wool,
mutton and pork, it has made steady progress in the dairy business
and continues to produce great crops of hay. The state has made
great advances, too, in the production of flowers, ornamental plants,
nursery products, fruits, vegeublcs, poultry and eggs. In 1900 a
little less than three-fourths of the state's total land area was in-
cluded in farms and a little more than two-thirds of this was im-
proved. The number of farms gradually increased from 170,621 in
1850 to 226.720 in 1900, and the average size decreased from ii2'i
acres in 1850 to 97*1 acres in 1890. but increased to 99*9 acres in 1900.
More than two-thirds of the farms (152,956) were operated by owners
or part owners, 29^900 were opciated by share tenants, and 24.503
by cash teftant^ Of the total acreage of all crops. 5,154.965 acres
(54-1 %) were of hay and 3.»25.077 acres (32-8%) were of cereals.
In 190Q the amount of the hay crop (5,002.000 tons) was greater than
that of any other state except Iowa, and its value ($7 1.028.000) was
grearer than in any other state. The oat crop in 1909 was 37,365.000
bushels: the Indian com crop, 1. 910.000 bushels: the wheat crop,
24.120,000 bushels; the bariey crop, 8,820.000 bushels; the rye crop,
2.720.000 bushels; buckwheat. 7,512,000 bushels.
There were less than one-third as many sheep in 1910 (1,177,000)
as in 1850; but in the same oeriod tne number of dairy cows
(1.771.000 in 1910) steadily incre&sed. The number of cattle other
than dairy cows was 946,315 in 1850 and 889.000 in 191a Horses
increased from 447,014 in 1850 to 717.000 in 1910.
New York has a larger acreage of vegetables than any other state.
Its crop of potatoes m 1909 was ^2,560.000 bushels and that of
Maine, the next largest, 29,250,000 Duuiels; and the state is a large
producer of onions, turnips, cabbages, cauliflower, sweet Indian
com. cucumbers, rhubarb, parsnips, carrots, green peas and green
beans. During the years 1 850-1 889 New York produced about 70 %
of the hop crop of tne entire country, but since 1890 hop culture has
been rapidly extended in the Pacific Coast states and suffered to de-
cline in New York, and the crop from 1899 to 1907 averaged only
about one-half that of 1889 (20,063,029 lb). Tobacco culture was
introduced in 18^5, and in i860 the crop was 5,764,582 lb. During
1&60-1880 the increase was slight, but in 189^ the crop was
devoted to floriculture and nurseries.
The dairy business and the production of hay are especially
prominent in the rugged region W. of the Adirondaclc Mountains and
in the rug|;cd portions of the counties in the S. half of the state. A
large portion of the Indian com, wheat and barley is produced on the
Ontario plain. There are large crops of oats here, too. but the culture
of this cereal is quite extensive in most of the counties W. of the
Adirondacks. The lower valley of the Hudson is noted for its crops
of rye. The buckwheat belt extends S.W. across the state from
Albany and Saratoga counties. The principal hop-producing counties
are Otsego. Schoharie and Madison, all of which are between Albany
and Syracuse. Those producing most tobacco are in a district ex-
tending from the S.E. shore of Lake Ontario southward across the
state. The great orchards are in the tier of counties bordering the S.
shore of Lake Ontario and in Dutchess and Ulster counties in the
Hudson Valley. Chautauqua county alone produced more than
one-half of the state's crop^ of grapes in 1899, but this fruit is ^own
extensively also in the region W. of Seneca Lake in the vicinityof
Lake Keuka. and in parts of the lower valley of the Hudso". The
culture of small fruits and vegetabks is widely distributed throughout
the W. half of the state and in the valley of the Hudson, and the
greater part of Long Isbnd under cultivation is devoted to market
gardening, floriculture and nurseries. The largest nurseries, however,
are in the vicinity of Rochester.
Fortsi Products. — The principal forest area is in the Adirondack
region where the sUte has a forest preserve (in Clinton. Essex,
Franklin, Fulton. Hamilton. Herkimer. Lewis, Oneida. St Law-
rence. Saratoga, Warren and Washington counties) containing (1909)
i>530<S59 acres, and there is as much or more in private pre-
serves and ta tracts owned by lumbermen. The state has a forest
pftierve aW in the Catifcill it^ion (in Delaware. Greene, Sullivan
and LilstcT coyntua) of 110,964 acnni, ami there are wood-k>U on
rijiny larms Lhraughuut thu state that f^roJuce commercial timber
Originally white pm^ w^ ih<r priiicipal tiitibcr of the Adirondacks,
but moiit of the fncrchan table portion h^is bctn cut, and in 1905
nearly one-half of the lumber product of thi* section was spruce, the
other half mainly hEMnlock, pine and harcjwooda (yclluw birch, maple,
beech and bajsswood, and finLiller atnt^unts of elm, cherry and ash).
The stale i» rcfoftsting poniaiu of its prrscrve chiefly with pine,
spruce and lanrh. fn the CatcikilU and in the farming regions the
lumber product consists largely of hardwooda (mostly oak, chestnut
and hickory), amallcT amounis of hem tack and pine, and a very little
lipnjcc* The state's en lire limber product in tE/D5 was 1,212,070,168
ft- (Ixdrd mcaMirc); c( (his about five-ei|^hths was from the Adiron-
dack nrgion, a little more than one- fourth iaqa fttnn the farming
rcgionsn and a Lttle I«a ihan one-eighth was from th^^ Catskill region.
Maple sugar 1% an irnpoirtant -by-product of the forests, and in the
produciion ol thi^ commodity New York rank^ second only to
Vermont t 3,6^1.540 ftj were made in 1900,
f»A*f(fj.— New \'ork was in 1904 mom cxtMsiviely engaged in
oyBier cuUure than any other stale, and was making more rapid
progress In the cultivation of hard clams. In 190Q there were
iLi&tributcd from ^Aic fiih hatchcrie* ' 531,39^,721 ^es (mostly
imeK pike-pcith, and winter flatlitii)^ a large number of fish
and cggi w<-re also placed in New York waters by the United States
bureau of Fi^ericst, The products of the marine fisheries decreased
rurarly 30 % in value from 1891 to 1697, but from 1S97 to 1904 they
incrtajicd fram tj,39i .5f>5 to I&k2Jo,558, or So- 3 %. and a large part
tii ihij incre^iC was due to the extension of the successful oyster
culture at the E. irnd of Long Uland; the value of oysters alone
rising from 11,050^58 to «3.7So452, The value of hard clams rose
during the same period from 119^.930 to <3'>3.599- Peconic Bay,
at the E. end of LonK Island, ^^elds more scallops ihan all the other
vatcrs of the United States. Soft cbms, lobsters, hard crabs and
soft crtlff afe other sh clUfiih obta i ncd i n sma II q ua n t it ies. Menhaden
arc cauEhi m much larger quantities in New York than any other
fiib, but being too bony for food tbcy art used only in the manu-
l,iciure of oil and fertilizer. The most valuable catches of food fish
in 1904 were those of bluefiab {I556.537J, 9<]ueteague ($212,623),
flounders (567,15*)), eels (151,0^3), cod {t%2.-jit). scup ($4^,068)
and shad (S^d.ftJtJ. The shad fishery is matnly in the lower waters
of the Hudson nv^^y and the catch dimmithed w rapidly from 1901
that in 1904 it was onty about one-cichih of the average for the
decade from 1890 to 1900, The Nfw York fisheries of Lakes Erie
and Ontario and the N'bjjara Sfld St Lawrence rivers yielded prx>-
ducts in 190^ valued ai $187,79^ and consisiinE largely of pike-
perch, hemnff. cat fibh, hutlhcad?i and stunieon, and m 1902 there were
commefcial fl&herSea in Aixtcen intirrior lakeland rivers which yielded
muicatlonge. ameltt bullheads, pickercL pike-perch and several other
varieties having; a total \aluv of 137,897.
If J nfffljf J. — More than thirty mineral substances are obtained in
CQmmiercial quantities from the mines, quarries and wells of New
York, but of the total value of the mineral products in l9oiS
(^4S.£*&i.S6i), nearly Eix-$eveniths was represented by clay products
($3,f)::9,iJ4>, pig Von (115.679,000). stone (|6, 1 57.279). cement
(52^^'j4JS9), salt (S?,nG,75KK petroleum (Sj.071 t ^->),and sandand
ffiavcl (SJ-j49,ifij)' The extensive depOMis of . i .y in the Hudson
Vjlley together with ihc cas^y water communii. .uions with New
V'Qfk City havt itude this ^-alley the c "palest brirk- making region in
the world; in 1906 the common hricks made here numbered
1.? 30,69? .noo, Thrtr mrr nt^^n, r:frpo5tts of clay suttible for makinjg
bfkks. lL'»r4-«.rH! : :]'■'■ :...jMy rvvry '.nu,,' j OUtside of this
valley, and there are some pottery clays in Albany and Onondaga
counties. The common bncks made m New York in 1908 were
valued at t5.066.084, an amount in excess of that in any other
state; and the total value of brick and tile products was 87,270.981,
being less than that of Ohio, Pennsylvania or Illinois. In 1750 the
mining of iron ore was begun near Monroe, Orange county. Ore
has since been found in most of the eastern counties and as far W.
as Wayne countv, but the mines in Essex, Clinton and Franklin
counties of the Adirondack region are by far the most productive.
The ores are principally magnetites (New Vork is the lareest producer
of magnetite ore among the states, producing about 45 % of the total
for the United States in 1907 and 1908). but red haematites occur in
the N. and W. section of the Adirondacks and in the central part c^
the state, and brown haematites and carbonate ore in the S.E.
counties. The total output of the state increased from 651,228 long
tons in 1884 to 1.253.^93 long tons in 1890. decreased to 179.951
long tons in 1898, agam increased to 1.37S.020 long tons in 1007,
when only three states produced more, and was only 697,^73 long
tons in 1908 when the state held the same rank as in 1907. Limestone
* These include: the Adirondack Hatchery at Upper Saranac,
Franklin county; the Caledonia Hatchery at Mumford. Monroe
county; the Cold Spring Harbor Hatchery, at Cold SpringHarbor,
Suffolk county; the Delaware Hatchery, at Marnretville. Delaware
county: the Fulton Chain Hatchery, at Old Forge. Herkimer
county; the Linlithgo Hatchery, at Linlithgo, Columbia county:
the Oneida Hatchery, at Constantia. Oswego county; and the
Pleasant Valley Hatchery, at Taggart, Steuben county.
598
NEW YORK
b widely distributed throughout the sUte, and great quantities of it
are crushed for road-making, railway ballasts, and concrete, but as
the prevailing colours are greyish or drab it b little used in the walls
of buildings. In 1908 the total value of the output of this stone was
$3,584,559. Three dbtinct varieties of sandstone are quarried
extensivelv. Those popularly known as " bluestones " belon|{ to
the Hamilton period of the Devonbn formation and occur mainly
between the Hudson and Delaware rivers. They are dark blue-grey,
fine grained and durable, and are much used for flagging and kerbing
and Tor sills, caps and steps. Medina sandstones occur throughout a
belt averaging about 10 m. wide along the S. shore of Lake Ontario
and are either red or grey; the red are used for building, the grev for
street paving. A more durable and more beautiful stone for building
b the reddish or reddish-brown Potsdam sandstone of which there
are extensive formations on the N.W. border of the Adirondacks.
The value of all sandstones quarried in 1908 was $1,774,843, an
amount exceeded by no other state. Several choice marbles are
obtained in the eastern counties. From Tuckahoe, Westchester
county, has been taken white marble, used in some of the finest
buildings in New York City, and a simitar marble b obtained in
Putnam and Dutchess counties. Near Gouverneur, St Lawrence
county, is a large quarry of coarsely crystalline magneuan limestone,
used as monumental marble. In the Lower Silurian formation at
Plattsburg and Chazy. in Clinton county, are two beautiful grey or
grey and pink marbles, one of which is a favourite among domestic
marbles for mantels, table tops and other interior decorations.
From an extensive deposit of blue-black roagncsian limestone at
Glens Falls are taken the choicest varieties of black marble quarried
in the United Sutes. At Moriah and Port Henry, in Essex county,
is a stone known as ophlite marble, a mixture of serpentine, dolomite
and calcite interspersed with small flecks of phlogopite. Larger
deposits of serpentine occur at several places in bt Lawrence county ;
and at Warwick, in Orange county, is some beautiful marble of a
carmine-red colour occasionally mottled with white or showing white
veins. The marble quarried in 1908 was valued at $706,858. There
are extensive formations of granitic rocks in the Adirondacks, in the
lower Hudson Valley, and in the adjacent highbnds, but they are not
extensively quarried. Rockland county quarries considerable trap
rock, used mostly for road-making and concrete, and Ulster county
has for more than a century produced most of the domestic mill-
stones used in the United States. Extending from Madison county
to the W. border of the state in Erie county is a narrow belt con-
taining Urge deposits of gypsum, and in IQ08 the value of the state's
output ($760,759) was greater than that ofany other state, although
Michigan produced a Larger quantity. At or near Chittenango, in
Madison county, natural-cement rock was first discovered in the
United States, and the first use made of it was in the construction of
the Erie Canal. The rock was found in much greater quantities at
Rosendale, in Ulster county, in 1823, and the amount of this cement
produced by New York rose to 4,689,167 barrels in 1899; the state
is still the chief producer but only 947,93^ barrels were made in
1008. Limestone and clay suiuble for making Portbnd cemeiit are
also found in Ulster county and elsewhere, and the production of
this increased from 65.000 barrels in 1890 to 2,390,955 barrels in
IQ08. Near Talcville, in St Lawrence county, is a large deposit of
fibrous talc In 1908 the total value of the state's ulc product was
$607,390. almost one-half the total for the entire country.
New York and Michigan are the two principal salt-producing
states in the Union. Salt was discovered by the Jesuits in Western
New York about the middle of the 17th century, and was manu-
factured by the Indians in the Onondaga region. The state bought
the salt reservation in 1788, and soon afterward the manufacture of
salt was begun by the whites. From 1880 to 1885 the first brines
were obtained in Wyoming and Genesee counties by Doring deep wells
into beds of rock salt, and in 1885 the mining of the extensive de-
posits of rock salt in Livingston county was begun. Salt is also pro-
duced in Tompkins and Schuyler counties. In 1908 the total pro-
duction of the state, 9.076,743 barrels valued at $3,136,738, was
exceeded ?
Michigan.
exceeded in quantity an(
076.743
id (for-
the first time) in value by that of
The Appalachbn oil field extends northward from West Virginia
and Pcnnsylvanb into Cattaraugus. Allegany and Steuben counties.
The first oil well in the state was drilled at Limestone in Cattaraugus
county in 1865, and the state's output of oil was 1,160,128 barrels,
valuea at $3,071,533 in 1908. At Olcan it is pumped into pipes which
extend as far north as Buffalo and as far ea^t as Long Island City.
The village of Frcdonia, in Chautauqua county, was illuminated by
natural gas as early as 1825, and gas has since been discovered in
several of the western counties. The value of the flow in 1908 was
$950,280.
There arc more than forty mineral spring in New York whose
waters are of commercial importance, and in 1908 the waters sold
from them amounted to 8,007,092 gals., valued at $877,648; several
of the springs, especially those in Saratoga county, attract a brge
number of summer visitors. Graphite is widely clistributed in the
Adirondack region, but the mining of it is confined for the most part
to Essex and Warren counties; in 1908 the output was 1,932,000 lb.
valued at $ii6,ioo. Other mineral substances obtained in small
Juantities are: pyrite, in St Lawrence county; arsenical ore, in
utnam county; red, green and purple sbte, in Washington county;
Srnet in Warren, Essex and St Lawrence counties; emery and
spar, in Westchester county; and infusorial earth in Herldmer
county^
Manufactures. — ^The establishment of a great highway of commerce
through the state from New York City to Buffalo by the construction
of the Erie Canal, opened in 1825, and bter by the building of rail-
ways along the line of the water route, made the state's manufactures
Jiuite independent of its own natural resources. The factory manu-
arture rrf rlr^Thinij m? hrgun in New York City about 1835, and
rec rjvcd Hi ^^fL.3l iini* tu-. irom the invention of the sewing-machine,
thi' dL'ittaftd^ crc4tu-U Li> ilie Civil War, and the immigration of vast
nuriibera o\ farckj^n latMiLmTS. It is now the leading manufacturing
in ! u ii TV of t ht stA u\ 1 h 1 value of the clothing was $^,7 15,931 in
igi 15. Nl-w Yi^rk Cit> r.:^iks first among American cities in pruning
ami fyubli^hini^, ihi- \m\t]u,:ts being valued at $i37.985,7<ii m 1905.
Kiuii]ii|2 Liv' nij>lTiii<rv v.as introduced into America m 1831 at
Ctiiiut'!* FjJlrtf on 1 :,. M . .' iwk river; the products, consisting brgcly
of ijiidir^i.ir, IV, r. ^ ,; .1 at $46,108,600 in 1905. Of the other
te\: - 1 ■ L M ■ : i ■ )t the manufacture of carpets and rugs and
sil^ .■:,.! !Come very prominent, and yet the total
vajuL- ..f .J I [■ xii'-.- i 1 _:....: 3 in lOOS was $123,668,177. The refining
of sugar was begun in New Yorx City bte in the i8th century, but
the growth of tne industrv to its present magnitude has been com-
parauvely recent; the value of the sugar and molasses refined in
1905 was $1 16,438,838. Foundry and machine-shop products u^re
valued at $115,876,193 in 1905, and electrical machinery*, apparatus,
and supplies at $35,348,276. The manufacture of paper and wood-pulp
f products ($37,750,605 in 1905) is an industry for which the state still
urnishes much of the raw iftaterial, and other large industries d
which the same is true are the manufacture of flour and grist-niill
products, dairy products, canned fruits and vegetables, wines, cby
products, and salt. New York state has ranked first in the Union in
the value of its manufactures since 1830, ana their value rose to
$2488.345,579 in 1905. More than three-fifths of that <rf 1905 »m
represented by the manufactures of New York City alone. Buffalo,
the second city in manufactures, shares largely with New York City
the business of sbughtering and meat packing, the refining ai^
smelting of copper, and the manufacture of foundry and machine-
shop products, and with New York City and Rochester the manu-
facture of flour and grist-mill products. Rochester ranks first
among the cities of the United States in the manufacture of photo-
graphic materials and apparatus and optical instruments. Niagara
Falls and New York City manufacture a large part of the cbemicaU.
and the value of the stat'e's output rose to $29.090484 in 1905.
Gloversville and Johnstown arc noted for leather glo\-es and piittcns.
Transportation and Commerce. — From the very beginning of the
occupation of New York by Europeans, commerce was much
encouraged by the natural water-courses. The Western Inland
Lock Navigation Company, chartered by the state in 1792, com-
pleted three canals within about four years and thereby permitted the
continuous passage from Schenectady to Lake Ontario oi boats ci
about 17 tons. The Erie Canal was begun by the state in 1817 atKl
opened to boats of about 75 tons burden in 1825. The ChampUin
Canal, connecting the Erie with Lake Champlain. was also begun in
1817 and completed in 1823. The Oswego Canal, connecting the
Erie with Lake Ontario, was begun in 1825 and completed in 18;$.
Several other tributary canals were constructed during this period.
and between 1836 and 1862 the Erie was sufficiently enlarged to
accommodate boats of 240 tons burden.
The first railway in the state and the second in operation in tl^
United States was the Mohawk & Hudson, opened from Albany to
Schenectady in 1831 The railway mileage in the state increa«^ to
1361 m. in 1850, to 3928 m. in 1870, to 7684*41 m. in 1890. and to
8422* 14 m. in January 1009. The first great trunk line in the country
was that of the Erie railway, opened from Piermont, on the Hudwti
river, to Dunkirk, on Lake Erie, in 1851. The New York Central &
Hudson River railway, nearly parallel with the water route from
New York City to Buffalo, was formed by the union, in 1869. of the
New York Central with the Hudson River railway. The West Shcn
railway, which follows closely the route of the New York Central &
Hudson River, was also the result of a consolidation, completed in
1881, of several ^horter lines. In 1886 the NeW York Central A
Hudson River Railroad Company leased the West Shore for a tena
of 475 years, and this company operates another parallel line from
Syracuse to Buffalo, a line following closely the entire N. border of
the state (the Rome. Watcrtown & Ogdensburg). and several cross
lines. Other important railways arc the Lehigh Valley, the Delawiir.
Lackawanna & Western, and the Pennsylvania in the central and
W. sections, the Delaware & Hudson, the Rutland, and the Nc*
York Ontario & Western in the E., and the Long Island on Lorj
Island. In competition with the railways, traffic on the cxisiisjg
canals suffered a marked decline. As, fiowever, this decline va*
accompanied with a considerable decrease in the proportion of the
country's exports which passed through the port « New York
interest in the canals revived, and in 1903 the electorate of the state
authorized the issue of bonds to the amount of $101,000,000 for thsr
purpose of increasing the capacity of the Erie, the Champlain arJ
the Oswego canals, to make each navigable by barges oi 1000 tcrf
burden. A project adopted by the state for tne enlargement ol th.^
Erie provides for a new route up the Hudson from Troy to Watctfo^-i
NEW YORK
599
and thence to the Mohawk river above Cohoe« Falls. Up the Mohawk
to Rome the old route is for the most part to be retained ; but from
Rome to Clyde there is to be a diversion so as to utilize Oneida Lake
and Oneida and Seneca rivers. Westward from Clyde the new
channel, like the old but larger, will pass through Rochester and
Lockport to the Niagara river at Tonawanda. Each of the three
canal.s is to have a minimum depth of I3 ft., a minimum bottom
width in rivers and lakes of 200 ft., and in other sections a bottom
width ^nerally of 75 ft. Their locks are to be 328 ft. in length and
45 ft. m width.
The imoorts to the port of New York increased in value from
.] entry _ _ ^ , . . „„ ,.
the Niagara river, Ogdensburv and Cape Vincent, on the St
Lawrence river, Plattsbuig, on Lake Champlain, Oswego, on Lake
Ontario, Rochester, on the Genesee river, Albany and Syracuse in
the interior, and Sag Harbor at the E. end of Long IsLuid.
Populalum. — New York outstripped Pennsylvania in popula-
tion in the first decade of the 19th century, and Virginia in the
second decade, and since x8ao it has been the most populous
Slate in the Union. In 1880* the population was 5,082,871;
in i8qo, 5i997>853; in 1900, 7.268,894; in 1905, according to
the state census, 8,067,308, and in 1910, 9,113,614. The
foreign-bom population in 1900 was 1,900,425, including
480,026 natives of Germany, 425.553 of Ireland, 182,248 of
Iialy, 165,610 of Russia, 135,685 of England. 1 17.535 of Canada,
7.S.491 of Austria, 69,755 of Poland and 64,055 of Scandinavia.
MoTC than two-thirds of the foreign-born were in New York City
The coloured population constituted only 1-5% of the total,
and was composed of 99,232 negroes. 7170 Chinese. 5257 Indians
and 354 Japanese.
Most of the Indians were on eight reservations: the Allegany
Reservation (30469 acres) in Cattaraugus county; the Cattaraugus
RcMirrvation (21.680 acres) in Eric. Cattaraugus and Chautauqua
counties; the St Rt^is Reservation (14,030 acres) in Franklin
county: the Tonawanda Reservation (7548 acres) in Eric and Gcncsce
rountics; the Onondaga Reservation (7^00 acres) in Onondaga countv ;
the Tuscarora Reservation (62^ acres) m Niagara county ; the Oneida
fleservatjon (400 acres) in Madison county; and the Shinnecock
Reservation (400 acres) near Southampton, on Long Island.
Of 3.591,974 members of all religious denominations in 1906.
2.285,768 were Roman Catholics, 313,689 Methodist Episco-
palians, i99>923 Presbyterians, 193,890 Protestant Episcopalians,
176.981 Baptists, 124,644 Lutherans, 57,351 Congrcgationalists,
35*342 Jews (heads of families only), 26,183 members of the
German Evangelical Synod, 19,302 members of Eastern Orthodox
churches and 10,761 Universalists. The urban population (i.e.
population of places having 4000 inhabitants or more) increased
from 3.8cS»477 m 1890 to 5,176,414 in 1900, or 36%, while the
rural population (i.e. population outside of incorporated places)
decreased during this decade from 1.834. 119 to 1,625,859 or 5-9%.
The cities havmg a population of 15,000 or more in 1905 were:
New York City, 4,011,781; Buffalo, 376.587 ; Rochester, 181.666;
Svracuse. 117.503; Albany, 9S>374; *roy, 76,910: Utica, 62,934:
Vonkers, 61,716; Schenectady, $8,387; Binghamton, 42,036;
Elmira, 34*687; Auburn, 31422; Niagara Falls. 26.560: Newburgh.
26496; Jamestown, 26,160; Kingston, 25,556: Watertown,
25447; roughkecpsie, 25,379; Mt. Vernon, 25,996; Cohocs,
24.183: Amsterdam. 23,943; Oswego. 22,572; New Rochelle.
20.479: Gtoversville, 18,672; Lockport, 17,552; Rome, 16,562;
and Dunkirk, 15,2301
Gcvernmenl.—Sinct becoming a state. New York has been
governed under fobr constitutions, adopted in 1777, 1821, 1S46
and 1S94 respectively. The first state constitution, adopted by a
convention at Kingston, made few changes in the provincial
system other than those necessary to establish it on a popular
basis, but the powers of the governor were curtailed, especially
his powers of appointment and veto. These limitations worked
unsatisfactorily, and their removal or modification and the
extension of the franchise were the principal changes effected in
1821. Under the first constitution the decentralization of
administration, which began early in the colonial era, continued
without interruption, and under the second it was checked by a
few measures only. The third constitution, besides reorganizing
* The population at preceding census years was (1790) 340.120;
(1800) S^.051: (1810) 959*049. (1820)- 1,372,812. (1830)
1.918,608; (1840) 2428.921; (1850), 3,097.394;. (i860) 3.880.735:
Ci«70) 4482.759-
the judiciary, transferred to the people the choice of many
officers, state and local, who had been appointed by the governor
or the legislature; and placed numerous restrictions on the
law-making power of the legislature. Under this constitution
the theory of local self-government was more fully realized
in New York than at any other time.
Since the middle of the 19th century an attempt has been made
to meet the problems arising from a rapid industrial and social
development by creating bureaus or commissions to exercise a
central control over local officials, corporations and even private
individuals, and as most of the heads of these bureaus and the
commissions arc appointed by the governor the importance of
that officer has increased. The constitutional changes since
1846 affect principally the judiciary and cities. A constitutional
convention met and proposed a new constitution in 1867, but
every article was rejected by the people save one relating to the
judiciary, which was adopted separately as an amendment in
1S69. The constitution of 1894 made further important changes
in the judiciary and in the government of cities. The first
constitution made no provision for its amendment or revision.
The second provided that whenever a. majority of the members
elected to each house of the legislature voted for an amendment
and two-thirds of those elected to ihfe next legislature approved,
it should be submitted to the people for their adoption or re-
jection. The third modified this provision by requiring the
approval of only a majority of the members elected to each
house of the second legislature, and directed that the legislature
should call a convention to revise the constitution at least once
in twenty years if the people requested it. The present con-
stitution contains the same clause as the third for the proposal
of amendments by the legislature, and makes the unique pro-
vision that if the people vote for a convention when the question
is submitted to them— this must be as often as once in twenty
years— the delegates shall be elected and shall assemble at an
appointed time and place without the call of the legislature,
this being the result of the governor's veto, in 1887, of a bill for
calhng a convention in response to an overwhelming vole of the
people in favour of it. Under the first constitution there were
property qualifications foi voting which amounted in the election
of the governor and senators to a freehold estate worth £100
($500) and in the election of assemblymen to a freehold estate
worth £20. ($100) or the payxnent of an annual rent of 40s. ($10).
But under the second constitution the most that was required
of any white voter w^ the pa3rment to the slate or county of
taxes on either personal or real property, and by an amendment
of 1826 this requirement was abolished. The second con-
stitution, however, imposed a property qualification on coloured
voters amounting to a freehold estate worth $250, and this re-
striction was not removed until 1874. Since 1874 the aim has
been to bestow suffrage on all male citizens who shall have
attained the age of twenty-one years and shall have been in-
habitants of the state for one year, but for the protection of the
ballot citizenship for ninety days,* residence in the county for
four months, and in the election district for thirty days next
preceding the election are required. Conviction for bribery or
of an infamous crime disqualifies, and personal identification
of voters is required in New York City. A statement of
receipts and expenditures of an election campaign, showing
the amount received from each contributor and the name of
every person or committee to whom more than $5 was paid,
must be filed by the treasurer of every poUtical committee within
twenty days after the election; each candidate also must file a
statement of his contributions. By an Act of 1910 women
may vote on financial questions afifecting a village in which
they hold property.
Executive.— Vnien the state government was first established,
the governor and lieutenant-governor were the only state officers
elected by the people. The state treasurer was chosen by the
legishiture, and for the appointment of other state officers as
well as county officers and mayors of cities the Assembly chose
four senators to constitute a council of appointment, a body
* Increased from ten days in 1894.
6oo
NEW YORK
in which the fovernor had only a catling vote. But the con>
stltution of 182X abolished the council of appointment and
gave the choice of the principal state departmental officers to
the legislature, and the constitution of 1846 transferred the
choice of these officers from the legislature to the people, where
it has since remained. Under the constitution of 1821 a great
number of local officers were appointed by the governor with
the advice and consent of the Senate. The choice of most of
these was given to the people in 1846, but since then many new
state departments have been created, the heads of which are
usually appointed by the governor, subjea to the approval of
the Senate. Under the present system, therefore, there is a
biennial election (in even-nimibered years) of a governor, a
lieutenant-governor, a secretary of state, a- state comptroller,
a state treasurer, an attorney-general and a state engineer and
surveyor; and the governor appoints, subject to the approval
of the Senate, a superintendent of public works, a superintendent
of state prisons, a superintendent of insurance, a superintendent
of banks, a commissioner of excise, a commissioner of agri-
culture, a forest, fish and game commissioner, a commissioner
of health, a commissioner of bbour, a state architect, a state
historian, a state librarian, two public service commissions,
a civil service commission, « board of charities, a commission
of prisons, a commission in lunacy, three tax commissioners
and several other boards and commissions. The governor has
the power, also, of filling vacancies in certain state offices and
on the benches of the supreme court and county courts, and
he may remove or suspend certain county and municipal officers
on charges.
The first state constitution gave the veto power to a council of
revi«on composed of the governor, the chancellor and the judges
of the supreme court, but since 1821 this power has been exercised
by the governor alone; and in 1874 it was extended to separate
items in appropriation bills. A bill or item of an appropriation bill
that has Dc«n vetoed by the governor can become a law only with
the approval of two-thirds of the members elected to each house of
the legislature. So lon^ as the legislature u in session the governor
is allowed ten days, besides Sundays, to conader a bill, and if he docs
not veto it within that time it becomes a law, but no bill becomes a
law after the final adjournment of the legislature unless it is actually
approved by the governor within thirty days after the adjourn-
ment. The governor's power to grant reprieves, commutations or
pardons b unrestricted by any board of jnrdons, but he b required
to report to the legislature each case m which he exercises such
powpr. A candidate for the office of governor or lieutenant-governor
must be at least thirty years of age and must have resided within the
sute for five yeare next preceding his election. The aovemor's
salary is $10,000 a year, and the lieutenant-governor's is |»5000.
Leiislature. — The legisbtive power is vested in » Senate of
SO members elected biennially and an Assembly of 150 members
elected annually. Since 1846 both seiuitors and assemblymen
have been elected by single districts, and ever since the state
government was established they have been apportioned accord-
ing to population, but the present constitution limits the repre-
sentation of New York City in the Senate by declaring that no
county shaU have more than one-third of ill the senators nor
any two adjoining counties more than one-half of them. The
first and second state constitutions required that every senator
should be a freeholder, but since 1846 no property qualifications
have been prescribed for membership in either house; the only
persons disqualified are those who at the time of the election
or within one hundred days before the election were members
of Congress, civil or military officers under the United States,
or officers under any city government. The constitution of
1846 limited the pay of members of both houses to three dollars
a day and to three hundred dollars for any one session (except
in impeachment proceedings) besides an allowance for travelling
expenses, but since an amendment of 1874 they have been paid
$1 500 a year and ten cents a mile for travelling expenses.
The legislature meets in annual sessions, beginning in Tanuary.
Money bills may originate in either house, but at the final vote on
such a bill in either house three-fifths of the membere elected to that
house must be present and the yeas and nays must be recorded:
bills entailing appropriations for local or private purposes must
receive a two-thirds majority to pass. The legislature appoints the
board of regents of the University of the State of New York. To
decrease the evil of lobbying a law was enacted in 1906 which requires
that every person ernployed to promote or oppose the psssafe of any
bill shall file in the office of the sccreury of state a written sutement
showing who has employed him and describing the legislation in
respect of which his services are to be rendered; the law abo re-
quires the employers of lobbyists to file in the same office within tiro
months after the adjournment of the legislature an itemised sute-
ment of all their lobbying expenses, and forbids the employment of a
lobbyist for a contingent fee.
Judiciary. — At the close of the colonial era there were a
court of chancery, a supreme court, circuit courts and couns
of oyer and terminer which were 'held in the several counties
by the justices of the supreme court, a court of common pleas
and a court of sessions in each county, and courts held by justices
of the peace in the several towns. This system, with the addition
of the Senate, the chancellor and the justices of the supreme
court occasionally sitting as a court for the correction of errors,
was retained with only slight changes until 1846. But the new
constitution of that year substituted a court of appeals for the
court of errors, mtrgtd the court of chancery into the supreme
court, estabUshed in each county a new county court composed
of a single judge, and, uking the appointment of judges from
the governor, gave the election of them to the people. Some
further alterations in the constitution affecting the courts were
made in 1869, 1879, 1888, 1894, 1899 and 1909, and the system
as at present constituted comprises a supreme court of ninety-
seven justices, an appellate divbion of the same, a court of
appeab, a court of claims and local courts. The highest judicial
court in the state b not, as in most sutes of the Union, the
supreme court, but the court of appeals. This court conscis
of a chief judge and six associate judges elected from the state
at large for a term of fourteen years. Its jurisdiction b limited,
except where judgment is of death, to a review of questions of
law. Vacancies are temporarily filled from among the justices
of the supreme court by the governor. To expedite business,
at the request of the court, the governor may designate iu>t more
than four justices of the supreme court to act temporarily ts
additional associate judges of the court of appeals. The salary of
the chief judge is $14,200, of the associate judges $13,700 a yeaf*
The ninety-seven iustices of the supreme court are elected (or
fourteen years from tnc nine districts into which the state u dixnded.
Of these thirty are chosen in the first district (New York count>) aad
'seventeen in the second district (Long Island and Staten Island).
The jurisdiction of each justice extends over the entire state.
Vacancies are temporarily filled by the governor. The suprcoK
court has general jurisdiction in law and equity, including all actiom
both civil and criminal. The salary of the justices in the nrst district
and in Kings county of the second district is $17,500 a year: in the
remainder of the second district it b $16,300 a year; in theoihcr
districts it b $10,000 a year. The state b divided into four depan-
ments for each of which there b an Appellate Division consisting d
seven iustices in the first department (county of New York) and five
in each of the othera. The justices and presiding justice are desis*
nated from among the justices of the supreme court by the govenior;
the presiding justice and a majority of the other justices ol each de-
partment must be residents of the department.
The court of claims consists of three judges, one prending. ap-
pointed by the governor fcH* a term of six years. It has jurisdicttoa
to hear and determine private claims against the state.
The local judiciary includes the usual county and city judges,
county surrogates and justices of the peace. New York City (p)
has an extensive judiciary system of its own.
Local Cot€mment.—Tht state b divided into sixty-one
counties, each (unless wholly included in a dty) having a couoty
board of supervisors elected for two years, one from every tovn
or city ward. Thb board has certain adminbtrative and kgis-
lative powers, such as the care of county property, the bortoviog
of money for the erection of county buildings, the fixing of the
salary of the county treasurer and of other county officers, the
levying of county taxes and the divbion of the county into
assembly dbtricts and school commissioners' dbtricts. Other
county officers are a county judge and a county surrogate dcded
for a terra of six years, a treasurer, a clerk, a district attoroey,
a sheriff and from one to four coroners dected for a term of
three years. Cities are of three classes: (1) those having s
population of x7Si0oo or more; {») those having a populatioo
between 50,000 and 175,000; and (3) those whose popubiion
is less than 50,000; the classification is accordiqg to the blest
state enumeration.
NEW YORK
60 1
BSOm for " ipedal ** city hwa, as opposed to ** meral,'* must be
Approved (within fifteen days after their paaaage by both houses of
toe legislature) by the mayor of the dty in firat*daas cities (in which,
however, the state legtsbture mav provide for the concurrence of the
miinkipal Iqpslative body), ana in other cities by the mavor and
council, before it is laid before the governor: if it is pamoa by the
state legislature over the mayor's veto it goes direct to the governor.
All dty dections are hdd in odd numbered years. The orgj^nisation
of dties and villages is provided by the Icgisbture, which may restrict
their powers <rf taxation and of contracting debts and may fix
salaries. Town (or township) government in New York somewhat
resembles that of New England; the chief executive officer of the
town is a- superviior, who represents his town in the county *" board
of superviiors."
NatfOKot Guard.— The natiooa! guard of the atate is commanded
under the governor by a maior-genend. . It consists of four brigades
each commanded by a brigacber>general. The establishments in 1910
.consisted of thirteen regiments and fifty separate oomoanies <^
infantry, two st^uadrons and two troops 01 cavalry, four light
batteries, one rcsimcnt of engineers, a signal corps of two OMnpames
and a naval militia, commanded by a captain and consisting of
two battalions and two separate divisions.
Lams. — A married woman has full control of her property whether
acquired before or after marriage, and she may carry 00 any business,
trade or occupation in her own right. A husband or a wife may
convey real property directly to the other. A widow has a dower
right m one-third 01 the real property to which her buUiand had
absolute title, but a wife may convey or devise her real property free
from her husband's right of tenancy by courtesy. The only ground
for divorce is adultery. As soon as a divorce has been granted the
plaintiff may marry again, but the defendant is not permitted to
jnarry within the state anv one except the plaintiff until five years
have elapsed, and then only in case the court permits it because of
the petiuoner's uniformly good conduct in the meantime. Since the
t of January 1908 a marriage licence has been required for every
lawful nurriage.
A homestead consisting of a lot of land with one or more bundings,
and properly designated as such in the office of the county derk. but
not excMding Siooo in value, u exempt from forced sale so long as it is
owned and occupied as a residence by a househdder having a family
or by a married woman, except to recover the purehase money, to
satitfy a judgment obtained before it was designated as a homestead,
or to ooUect taxes upon it. Personal property consisting of necessary
household furniture, worldng tools and team of horses, professional
instruments and a library, not exceeding $254 in value, beddes the
necessary food for the team for ninety days, provisions for the
family, wearing apparel, wa^ or other income not exceedina; $12
a week, and several other things, when owned by a householdhsr or
person providing for a family, are also exempt from sdzure for debt,
unless the debt be for purchase money or for services performed in
the family by a domestic
Eight hours constitute a legal day's work for'kll emplovees accept
those engaged in farm labour or domestic servipe The employ-
ment of children under fourteen years df age- in any factory is for>
bidden. Until sixteen years of age no child is to be so employed
without an employment certificate issued by a commissioner of
health, and showing that the child has completed an dght years'
course of study in a public school of the state or has had an equivalent
schooling elsewhere. For children under sixteen years of age who are
so employed the hours of labour are limited to debt a day and .the
days to six a "week, and such children must not Begin work bdore
dght o'dock in the rooming or continue after five o'dock in the
evening. For children between sixteen and dghteen years of age
and for women the hours of labour In a factory are limited to ten a
day, unless to prepare for a short day or a hohday. and the days to
six a week. The employment of children under fourteen years of
age in any mercantile es^blishment, business office, hotel, restaurant
or apartment house is also forbidden, except that in villages and in
cities of the second or third class children upwards of twelve years of
age may be so employed during the summer vacation of the public
schools. For both boys and girls sixteen years of age or upward the
restrictions are removed for two weeks at Christnuu time.' The
Empkyyers' Liability Act of 1903 (amended and broadened in loio)
hokb an employer liable for damages in any case in which one 01 his
employees sustains a personal injury by reason of the negligence of
the employer, of a aub-a>ntractor, of a superintendent, or any other
person m the employer's service whose duty it was to see that *' the
ways, works or machinery connected with or used iu the budness,'
were in proper condition, or whose duty it was to " direct . . . any
employee," if it is not proved that theemployee failed in due care and
diligence: by another law of 1910 incenain dangerous employments
the employer is liable unless the injured employee was negligent.
Although the constitution of 1894 expresdy declares that "any
lottery or the sale of lottery tickets, pool-selling, book-making, or
any other kind of gambling * shall not " hereafter be authorized or
allowed within the sute ' and directs the legislature to pass ap-
bture passed
I and book-i
* For further regulations rdating to the employment of women and
children aee the Labour Law enacted in 1909 and the subsequent
amcodinents.
propriate laws prohibiting the same, the 1
._ .0 L!-t. ., Tiitted pool-
in 1895, which in practice permitted pool^h'ng 1
at race-tracks, but in 1908 and 1910 bills were enacted prohibitiiw
gambling at race-tracks. License to sell intoxicating liquors is
subject to a graduated tax. The sale of liquor on Sunday or between
one o'dock and five o'dock in the momiiw of any other day is unlaw-
ful. Any town (but not any dty) may at its option whdly forbid the
sale of intoxicaung liquors, may allow it to be sdd only on cooditbn
that it be hot drunk on the vendor's premises, or may allow it to be
sold only by hotd-keepen and pharmacists, or by pharmadsu alone.
Adminutratite CommissioHS.—Tht regulation and control
of such public lervice cwpontions as own or opcnUe steam,
dectric or street railways,, gas or dectric plants, and express
companies were, in 1907, vested in two pubUc service 00m-
misdons (the first for New York City and the second for all other
paru of the sute), each of five members appointed by the
governor with the approval of the Senate; in 19x0 the regula-
tion of telephone and tdegxaph companies throughottt the state
was vested in the second •commission.
A state dvil service commission (1883) consists of three
members (not more than two of the same political party)
appointed by the governor with the approval of the Senate. Fjor
the classified service of the state and of the minor dvil divisions,
except dties, the commisdon makes rules (subject to the
governor's approval and to statutoiy and constitutional pro-
visbns) governing the classification of offices, the examination
of candidates for office, and the appointment and promotion of
employees. In dties the mayor is required to appoint a munidpal
dvi! service commission, with similar duties; not more than two-
thirds of the members may jae of the same political oarty.
Prisons. Poor Zufw^Ckarittes, fire— Penal institutions for saneadults.
except reformatories for women, are under the. general supervision
of a state commisdon of prisons; hospitals for the insane are under
the ^nerd supervidon of a state commisdon in lunacy ; and dl other
chantable and pend insdtutions, mdntdned wholly or in port by
the state, or by any county, city or town within the state, are under
the ^neral supervidon of a state board of charities. 'This board of
chanties consisu of one member from each of the nine judidd
districts and three additiond memben from the City of New York,
dl appointed by the sovemor with the consent of the Senate for a
term of eisht years. Its existence dates from 1867, but its authority
was very limited, chiefly advisory, until 1895. Since then, however,
its powen have been greatly increased. In 1910 the state charitable
institutions were as follows: State Sddien' and Sdkxs' Home,
Bath; State School for the Blind, Bataviaj the Thomas Indian
School, Iroquois; State Woman's Rdid Corps Home, Oxford;
State Hospitd for the caire of Crippled and Ddormed Children, West
Haverstraw; Syracuse State Institution for Feeble-Minded Children,
Syracuse; State Hospitd for the treatment of Indpient Pdmonary
TubereukMtaL Rajt Brook; Craig Cokniy for EpUeptica, Sonyea;
State Custodid Asylum for Feeble-Minded Women, Newark; Rome
State Custodial A^Ium for Unteachable Idiota, Rome: State Agri-
culturd and Industrid School, Industry: State Traimng School
for Girls, Hudson; Western House of Refuge, Albbn; New York
State Rdormatory for Women, Bedford; the State Trddng School
for Boys: and Letch worth Village, a custodid asylum for epileptks
and feeble-minded. Eight private institutions for the care or the
care and instruction of deaf miites and one for the care of the blind
are supported mainly by the state. Many other charitable institu-
tions recdve public money, mostly from counties, dties and towns.
The poor law of the state defines the town poor as those who have
gdned a settlement in some town or dty, by redding there for one
year prior to thdr application for public refid and who are unable
to mdntain themselves; the county poor as the poor who have not
redded in any one town or dty for one year bdore their application
for public refid, but have been in some one county for sixty days;
and the state poor as all other poor persons within the state. Wher-
ever cared for, each town, dty, county and the state must pay the
cost of mdntaining ita own poor. In some counties there is no
distinction between town ana county poor, but in 1910 ody one
county had not a county superintendent for the general supervidon
and care of the poor| towns and dties not subject to special pro-
vidons intrusted public relid to one or more overseers of the poor or
to commissioners of charities. In counties lacking adequate hospital
accommodation a poor person requiring medical or surgical treatment
may be sent to the nearest hospitd a p tMoved by the state board'of
charities. An Act of 1910 provides that indigent soldiers, sailore or
marines of the U.S. and thdr families be cued for in their homes
and not in almshouses.
The first state insane asylum, designed chiefly for recent and
curable cases, was opened at Utka in Z843. Since 1896 every public
institution for the insane has been mdntdned and administered as
a part of the state system. A state commlsdoner in lunacy was first
appdnted in 1874; this officer was replaced in 1889 by a com-
mission in lunacy, which in 1894 was placed at the bead of the
6o2
NEW YORK
adntinistration of the itate's insanity law. This commission consists
of three members appointed by the governor with the consent df the
Senate, its president must be a physician and alienist, and another
member must be a law^r. The commission appoints a board of
experts to examine all immigrants suspected oi msanity or allied
mental disorders in order to prevent the admission of the insane
into the country, in 1910 there were fourteen state hospiub
(corresponding to fourteen state hospital districts) for the poor and
indigent insane; these were at Utica, Willard, Pougnkeepsle,
Buffalo, Middletown (homoeopathic), Binshamton, Rochester.
(>KdensburK, Gowanda (homoeopathic), FlatBush, Ward's Island,
King's Pftric, Central Islip and Vorktown. There were also in 1910
two hospitals for the criminal insane, at Mattcawan an4 Dannemora.
Each ot these is under the immediate control of a superintendent
appointed by the superintendent of state prisons.
The state commission of prisons consisU.of seven members ap-
point^ by the governor with the consent of the Senate for a term of
lour years, and the institutions under its supervision in 1910 were
the Sing Sing Slate Prison,^ at Ossining, the Auburn State Prison at
Auburn, the Clinton State Prison at Dannemora, the New York
State KeloVmatory at Elmira, the Eastern New York Reformatory
at Napanoch, five county penitentiaries, and all other institutions
for the detention of sane adults charged with or convicted of crime,
or retained as witnesses or debtors. The sute prisons are under a
superintendent of state prisons, appointed by the governor, with the
consent of the Senate, for five years; and the state reformatories are
managed by a board of seven managers similarly appointed for seven
years. In the state reformatory at Elmira (which, like that at
Napanoch, is for men between sixteen and thirty yesrs of age who
have been convicted of a state prison offence for the first time only),
the plan of committing adult felons- on an indeterminate sentence to
be determined by their behaviour was first tested fn America in 1877,
and it has proved so satisfactory that it' has been in pan adopted
for the state prisons. In order to minimize competition between
prison labour and free labour, articles manufactured in the state
prisons, the reformatories and the penitentiaries, are sold only to the
mstitutions and departments of the state and its political diviaons.
£tfiKa/um.— The first school was esublished by the Dutch at
New Amsterdam (now New York City) as early as 1633, and at the
close of the Dutch period there was a free elementary school in nearly
every settlement. But from the Engli^ conquest to the close of the
colonial era the chief purpose of the' government with respect to
education was to prepare leaders for the state church; to this end
King's College was founded in 1754, and from 1704 to 1776 the other
sclunls were principally those maintained by the Society for the
Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Pftrts. Hardly any schools
remained in operation throughout the War of Independence. In
January 1784 Governor George Clinton recommended legislation for
the " revival and encouragement of seminaries of learning." with the
result that the legislature passed an act establishing a sUte university
University of the btate of New York an exclunvely executive body
with authority to incorporate new colleges and academies and to
exercise over them the right of insitation. In 1 795 an act was passed
which formed the basb of the present elementary-school system.
This act appropriated £30,000 annually for five years for the establish-
ment and maintenance of elementary schools, required each city and
town to raise by taxation a<suin for the same purpose equal to one-
half of its share from the proceeds of the state fund, and provided for
the election of school commissioners in each town and of trustees of
each school. The state appropriation, was discontinued in 1800;
but in 180s the proceeds of the sale of soo,ooo acres of land were set
apart for a permanent school fund, and in i8ia, when the interest on
this fund had become neariy $50,000 a year, the amount required
before any of it could be distributed for school purposes, the common*
school system was permanently established by an act which restored
the main features of that of IT^S, except that a superintendent of
schools chosen by the council oiappointment was now placed at its
head. Although the interest on the state fund had risen to 870,000
in 1819. this tocher with an equal sum raised by the cities and
towns was insufficient, and to meet the deficiency the patrons in each
district were required by a " rate bill " to contribute in proportion
to the attendance of their children. The schools were made free only
after a memorable contest against the " rate bill." The framere
of the constitution of 1846 were nearly equally divided on this
Question. In 1819 the legislature passed a free-scnool bill subject to
tne approval of the people. The people approved by a vote of neariy
three to one, but the court of appeals declared the act unconstitu-
tional because of the referendum. In 1851 a compromise measure
was substituted, increasing the state appropriation to $800,000 and
exempting indigent parents from the rate bill," which was finally
abolished in 1867. The administration of the common school
system was in the hands of a state superintendent of schools from
1 813 to i8ai, of the secretary of state from 1821 to 1854, and of a
* In 1906 a law was enacted for the establishment of a new state
prison in the eastern part of the sUte to take the place of Sing Sing
superintendent of public instruction from 1854 to 1904. In the
meantime the functions of the uni\-crBity h^ been extended to
include an oversijg;ht of the professional, scientific and technical
schools, the administration 01 laws relating to admiasioo to the
professions, the char^ of the Sute Library at Albany, the iuper-
vision of local libranes, the custody of the State Museum and the
direction of all' scientific work prosecuted by the state. This dual
system was consolidated by the Educational Unification Act of 1904.
in conformity with which the university regents have becomes
kgisbtive body, subordinate to the state legislature, for detennining
the general educational policy of the state, and a conumssiooer of
education acts as the chief executive, advisory and supervisory,
officer of the whole educational system.
The regents of the University are chosen by the legislature, one
retiring each year; and an act of 1909 requires that their number
shall at all times be three more than the number of judicial districts.
The first ^mmissioner of education was chosen by the legislature for
a term of six years, but it was arranged that his successor ilioaki be
chosen by the regents and continue in office during their pleasure.
The commissioner (subject to approval of the regents) appoints three
assistant commissioners, for higher, secondary and elementary educa-
tion respectively. The elementary school is administered by a schcwl
commissioner in each of the school commissioner's districts into
which a county may be divided, by one trustee or three thistees in
each separate school district, and by a board of education in each
city, villaKC or union free school district having more than three
hundred children. Any two or more adjoining school districts may
unite to form a union free school district, and m any village or union
free school district having a population of Moo or more the board of
education may appoint a superintendent of schools.
The compulsory education law as amiended in £907 and IQ09
requires the full attendance at a public school, or at & school which is
an approximate equivalent, of all chikircn who are between sevca
and fourteen years of age, are in the proper ph>'sical and mental
condition, and reside in a cit^ or school district having a populatioo
of ^000 or more and employing a superintendent of schools; in such
a city or district children between fourteen and sixteen years must
attend school unless they obtain an employment certificate and are
regularly engaged in some useful employment or service; and
outside of such a dty or district all children between the ages of
eight and fourteen years and those between fourteen and suctceo
years who are not regularly employed must attend school on alt
school days from October to June. In a city of the.iirst or second
class every boy between fourteen and sixteen years of age who has an
employment certificate, but has not completed the course of study
prescnbed for the elementary public schools or the equivalent, must
attend an evening school not less than nx hours each week for a
period of not less than sucteen weeks each year, or a trade school not
less than eight hours a week for nxteen weeks a year. By a law of
1908 the board of education of any city is authorised to establi&h
industrial schools for children who have completed the elementary
school course or have attained the age of fourteen years, and trade
schools for children who are more than sixteen years old and have
completed the elementary school course or a course offered by any
of the industrial schools. For the training of teachers for the ele-
mentary schools the state maintains ten normal schools at Oswego
ii863). Cortland (1866). Fredonia (1866). Potsdam (1866), Geneseo
1867). Brockport (1867), Buffalo (1867). New Paltz (1885), Oneonu
1887) and Plattsburg (1890) ; it also appropriates $700 annually for
each teachers' training class in about one hundred of the secondary
schools. The State Normal College at Albany, founded in 1844 as
the first state normal school, b designed principally for the traistng
of teachers for the secondary schools, .about 800 high schools and
academies, supported whollj^ or in part by the sute.
The sute controls professional and technical schools through the
regents' examinations of candidates for admission to such scboob
and to the professions, determines the minimum rejcjuiremeots for
admission to college by the regents' academic examinations, main-
Uins the large State Library and the valuable Sute Museum, and
occasionally makes a gift to a college or a university for the support
of courses m practical industries; out it maintains no coltege or
university that is composed of a teaching body. To Cornell Uni-
versity (g.s.), a non-sectarian institution opened at Ithaca in 1868. the
state turned over the proceeds from the ^'ational land-grant act of
1862 on condition that it should admit free one student annually
from each Assembly district, and in 1909 a still closer relation betwccs
this institution and the state was esUblished by an act which makes
the governor, lieutenant-governor, speaker of the Assembly and
commissioner of education ex-^fficio members of its board of trustees,
and authorizes the governor with the approval of the Senate to
appoint five other members, one each year.
Amonjg the institutions of hu;her learning in the sUte. besides
Columbia University (g.v.) and Cornell University (fr.v.), are: Unton
University (1795, non-sectarian), at Schenecudy; Hamiltoa
College (i8i3, non-sectarian), at Clinton; Colgate University (i8i9»
non-secUrian), at Hamilton ; Hobart College (182a, non-sectarian), at
(Geneva: Rensselaer Polytechnk: Institute (1824, non-sectarian}, at
Troy; New York University (183*, non-sectarian), in New York
City; Alfred University (1836. non-securian). at Alfred; Fordhsa
University (1841, Roman Catholic), in New Yortt City; College «
NEW YORK
603
SC Fnods Xavier (1847. Rofun Catholic), in New York City;
College of the City of New York (1849. city) ; University of Rochester
(1850, Baptist), at Rochester; Polytechnic Institute of Brooklyn
(i854> non-sectarian), at Brooklyn; Niagara University (1856,
Roman Catholic), at Niagara Falls; St Lawrence University (1858,
non-sectarian), at Canton; St Bona venture's Collne (1859, Roman
Catholic), at St Bonaventure; St Stephen's CoUese (i860, Pro-
testant Episcopal), at Annandale; Manhattan College (1863, Roman
Catholic), at Mew York City; St John's College (1870. Roman
Catholic), at Brooklyn; Canisius College (1870, Roman Catholic),
at Buffalo; Syracuse University (1871, Methodbt Episcopal), at
Syracuse; Adelphi College (1896, non^sectarian), at Brooklyn; and
Clarkson School of Technology (1896, non-sectarian), at Potsdam.
The United States Military Academy (i803) b at West Point.
Finance.— 'In New York the direct property tax is levied by and
for the benefit of localities. Revenues for state purpoaes are derived
from special taxes cdlected from the liquor traffic, corporations,
transfers of decedents' estates, transfers of shares of stock, recording
tax on mortgages, sales of products of state institutions, fees of
public officers including fines and penalties, interest on deposits of
state funds, refunds from department examinations and revenue
from investments of trust funds, the most important of which are the
common school fund and the United States deposit fund. A board
of three tax commissioners has supervision of methods of assessment
within the state, and with, the commissioners of the land office
constitutes the state board of equalisation. The county super-
visors, with or without the aid of three commissioners whom they are
authorised to appoint for the purpose, constitute a county board of
«|uaUsation. The recording tax on mortgages, amounting to one-
half of I % of the principal sums secured, m collected by the record-
ing officers updcr the supervision of the state board of tax com-
missioners. The administration of the liquor tax law is under the
supervision of the state commissioner of excise and his deputies.
The tax on corporations, originating as a capital stock tax in 1880
and extended through succeeding years, is administered by the state
comptroller. The comptroller also has charge of the enforcement of
the stock transfer tax act and of the laws imposing taxes upon the
transfer of decedents' estates. The anregate of taxes recei\ned by
the sute treasury through the comptroller's department for the fiscal
year ending September 30, 1909, was $23,000,000.
On the 30th of September 1909 the state debt, most of which was
created since 1895 'or the purpose of canal improvements, amounted
to I4i,a30,66a The surplus in the treasury was $8,435,848, the
total amount in trust and sinking funds was $31,301,501. The
constitution prohibits the legisbture from lending the state's credit
or incurring an indebtedness for current expenses in excess of
$1,000,000 or incurring any indebtedness whatever, other than for
.war purposes, unless such indebtedness be authorised by law for
" some single work or object," th« law to be approved by the people
at a general election and Jiroviding for a direct annual tax sufficient
to pay the interest and to liquidate the debt within eighteen years.
That instrument further prohibits each county, dty, town and
village from lending its credit and from creating an indebtedness in
excess of 10% of the assessed valuation of its r^ estate.
The first state institution to receive a bank charter was the bonk
of New York, incorporated itt 17^1. In iBo± free banking was re-
dacted to «ich an extent as to give practically a monopoly of the
business to associations receiving special charters, and as these
charters w6re-RneraUy awarded as favours to politicians the system
was a formidable agency of corruption. Chiefly because of these
evils the constitution of 1821 required the assent of two-thirds cl the
members elected to each house of the legislature to pass an act
creating a corporation. In 1829 the Safety-Fund Act was passed,
which required each bank thereafter charteredor rechartered to pay
into the sute treasury 3 % of its capiul stock other than that owned
by the state, and from this fund the debts of insolvent banks were to
be paid. The fund became exhausted by many failures, and a free
banking law was enacted in 1838. The constitution of 1846 pro-
hibited the legislature from granting any special charters for bank-
ing purposes, and consequently no more safety-fund banks were
established. At the same time the free-banking system has been
greatly improved. The state banks still have th* right to issue
currency, but the heavy tax on currency issue imposed by Congress
in 1866 (after the introduction of the National banking system in
1863) put a stop to the practice. In 1851 a state banking depart-
ment was created, and at the head of this is a superintendent of banks
appointed by the TOvemor, with the consent of the Senate, for a term
of three yean. The superintendent— or examiners appointed by
him (from a civil servkx list) — is required to exaniine every bank
and every trust company at least twfce each year, each building and
loan association at least once a year, and every savings bank at
least once in two years.- The law provides spccihcally as to the in-
vestment of deposits made in savings banks with the evident purpose
of providing the greatest poasible security to depositors. State
banks must carry from 15% to 25% reserve and trust companies
from 10% to 15% reserve, depending upon location.
. The introduction of the National banking system caused a decrease
in the number of state banks from 309 in 1863 to 45 in 1868, but their
number has increased steadily since 1880 and in 1909 there were 202.
In the same year there were 140 savings-banks. 85 trust companies, 46
safe deposit companies, 355 buildiqg and loan asaodations and other
miscellaneous ooniorations, with total resources of $3.83^,500,000
under the supervision of the banking department of the state.
This is over 21 % of the entire banking power of the United States.
To correct abuses in the life insurance business which were dis-
covered in 1905 by a committee of the state legislature, laws were
passed in the next year regulating the election of the directors of the
insurance compames, ana the investments of the companies and
the distribution of dividends, limiting the amount of business of the
larger companies and prohibiting rebates on insurance premiums. A
state superintendent of insurance, (since x86o) appointed by the
governor, holds office for three years.
History, — ^Tbe aboriginal inhabitants of New York had an
important influence on its colonial history. Within its limits
from the upper Hudson westward to the Genesee river was the
home of that powerful confederacy of Indian tribes, the Mohawks,
Oneidas, Onondagas, Cayugas.and Senecas, known to the French
as the Iroquois and to the English as the Five Oater Six) Nations.
When supplied with firearms by Europeans they reduced a
number of other tribes to pubjection and extended their dominion
over most of the territory from the St Lawrence to the Tennessee
and from the Atlantic to the Mississippi. They were at the
height of then: power about 1700. ' Oif much less influence in
New York were several Algonquian tribes in the lower valley
of the Hudson and along the sea coast.
New York Bay and the Hudson river were discovered by
Giovanni da Verrazano in 1524, and were probably seen by
Estevan Gomes in 1525; for many years following French
vessels occasionally ascended the Hudson to trade with the
Indians. The history of New York really begins, however, in
1609. In July pf that year Samuel de Champlain discovered the
lake which bears his name and on its shores led his Algonquian
Indian allies against the Iroquois, thus provoking against his
countrymen the hostility of a people who for years were to hold
the balance of power between the English and the French in
America. On the 3rd of September Henry Hudson, in the
employ of the Dutch East India Company, entered New York
Bay in the '* Half Moon " in search of the " northwest passage."
He conceived that a vast trade with the Iroquois for furs might '
be established; his report aroused great interest. in Holland;
and the United Netherlands, whose independence had been
acknowledged in the spring, claimed the newly discovered
country. In x6xo a vessel was despatched with merchandise
suitable for traffic with the Indians, the voyage resulted in
profit, and a lucrative trade in peltry sprang up. Early in 161 4
Adriaen Block explored Long Island Sound and discovered
Block Island. The merchants of Amsterdam and Hoom soon
formed themselves into the New Netherland Company, and on
the xith of October X614 received from the States-General a
three years' monopoly of the Dutch fur trade in New Netherland,
i.«. that part of America between New France and Virginia, or
between latitudes 40* and 45* N. Late in the same year or early
in 1615 a stockaded trading post called Fort Nassau was erected
on Castle Island, now within the limits of Albany, and a few
huts were erected about this time or earlier on the southern
extremity of Manhattan Island; but no effort at colonisation
was as yet made. In 1617 the Dutch negotiated with the Iroquois
a treaty of peace and alliance. Fort Nassau was soon removed
to the mouth of Tawasentha' Creek. On the expiration of the
charter of the New Netherland Company (16 18) the States-
General refused to grant a renewal, and only private ventures
were authorized -until 162 1, when the West India Company
iq.v.) was chartered for a term of twenty-four years; to this
company was given a monopoly of Dutch trade with the whole
American coast from Newfoundland to the Straits of Magellan.
It was authorized to plant colonies and to govern them under
a very 'limited supervision of the States-General, such as the
approval of its appointment of a governor and of its instructions
to him; and its own government was vested in five chambers
of directors and an executive board or college of nineteen
delegates from those chambers, eight of the nineteen representing
the Chamber of Amsterdam. New Nctheriand became one of
the more important interests of the Company. In June 1623,
however, New Netherland was formally erected into a province
and the management of its affairs assigned to the Chamber of
6o4-
NEW YORK
Amsterdam, which in March 1694 despatched the " New Nether-
land," with the fixst permanent colonists (thirty families mostly
Walloon), under Comelia Jacobsen Mey, the first fovemor
or director of the colony. Arriving at Manhattan early in May,
a few of the men remained there, another small party established
a temporary post (Fort Nassau) on the Delaware river, and
still another began a fortified settlement on the site of the
present Hartford, Connecticut. But more than one-half of the
families proceeded up the Hudson to Fort Orange, the successor
of Fort Nassau, at the mouth of Tawasentha Creek, and there
founded what is now Albany. Three more vessels arrived in
1635, and when in that year Mey was succeeded as director by
William Verhulst the colony had a population of soo or more.
The government of the province was fully established in 1626
and was vested mainly in a director-general and ooundL The
director-general was formally appointed by the Company subject
to the approval of the States-General, but the Amsterdam
Chamber and the College of Nineteen supervised his admini-
stration. The members of the council were formally appointed
by the Company, but the director-general actually determined
who they should be, and as he was not bound by their advice
th^ were no check to an autocratic rule. Peter A^uit, the first
director general, arrived with more colonists In May 1626, and
soon afterwards Manhattan Island was bought from the Indians,
Fort Amsterdam was erected at its lower end, and the settlement
here was made the seat of govemmenL
In 1629, chiefly to encourage agriculture, the Company issued
its famous Charter of Privileges and Exemptions, which provided
that any member might have anywhere in New Netherland
except on ManhatUn Island his choice of a tract of unoccupied
land ^tending 16 m. along the seacoast or one side of a navigable
river, or 8 m. along. the river on both sides " and so far into the
country as the situation of the occupyers will permit" by
purchasing the same from the Indians and planting upon it a
cobny of fifty persons, upwards of 15 years old, within four 3rears
from the beginning of the undertaking, one-fourth part within
one year; and that any private person might with the approval
of the director-general and council take up as much land as he
should be able to hnpiove. The founder of a colony was styled
a patrooHt and, although the colonists were bound to him only
by a voluntary contraa for specified terms, the relations between
them and the patroon during the continuance of the contract
were in several important respects similar to those under the
feudal system between the lord of a manor and his serfs. The
paLroon received his estate in perpetual inheritance and had the
exclusive right of hunting and fishing upon iL Each colonist
not only paid him a fixed rent, usually in kind, but had to share
with him the increase of the stock and to have the grain ground
at his milL The patroon was the legal heir of all his colonists
who died intesUte. He had dvil and criminal jurisdiction
within the boundaries of his estate; he could create offices,
found cities, and appoint officers and magistrates, and, although
the charter permitted an appeal from his court to the director-
general and council in any case m which the amount in dispute
exceeded fifty guilders ($20), some of the patroons exacted
from their colonists a promise not to avail themselves of the
privilege. The Company promised to permit the patroons
to engage in the fur trade, wherever it had no commissary of
its own, subject to a* tax of one guilder (40 cents) on each skin,
and to engage in other trade along the coast from Newfoundland
to Florida subject to a tax of 5% on goods shipped to Europe.
The colonists of the patroons were exempted from all taxes for
a period of ten years, but were forbidden to manufacture any
cloth whatever. The charter did not give the encouragement
to agriculture that was expected of it because the status created
for colonists of a patroon was no attraction to a successful farmer
in the Netherlands. Immediately after the issue of the charter
a few of the more adroit directors of the Amsterdam Chamber
hastened to acquire for themselves, as patroons, the tracts
of land most favourably situated for trade. On both sides
of the entrance to Delaware Bay Samuel Godyn, Samuel
^lomaert and five other directors who were admitted to partner-
ship in the second year (1630) esublished the manor and cobny
of Swaanendad; on a tract opposite the lower end of Manhattan
Island and including Staten Island, Michad Pauw establisbed
the manor and colony of Pavonia; on both sides of the Hudsoa
and extending in all directions from Fort Orange (Albany)
Kilian van Rensselaer established the manor and cotony of
Renssdaerwyck. The colony of Swaanendad was destroyed by
the Indians in 1632. Pauw maintained his colony of I^vooia
for about seven years and then sold out to the Company. The
oobny of Renssdaerwyck was the only one that prospered under
the patroon system. In the meantime the patroons bad
claimed unrestricted rights of trade within the boundaries of tbdr
estates. These were stoutly denied by the Company. Director-
General Blinuit was recalled in 1632 Im the ground that he had
been partial to the patroons; and Wouter van Twiller, who arrived
in X633, endeavoured to promote only the sdfish commercial
policy of the Company; at the dose of his administration (1637)
the affairs of the province were in a ruinous condition.
William Kidt was appointed director-general late in 1637,
and in 1638 the Company abandoned its monopoly of trade
in New Netheriand and gave notice that all inhabitants of the
United Provinces, and of friendly countries, might trade the»
subject to an import duty of 10%, an export duty of 15%, and
to the requirement that the goods should be carried in the
Company's ships. At the same time the director-general was
instructed to issue to any immigrant applying for land a patesi
for as large a farm as he required for cultivation and pasturasc.
to be free of all charges for ten years and thereafter subject only
to a quit-rent of one-tenth of the produce. Two years later,
by a revision of the Charter of Privileges and Exemptions, the
prohibition on manufactures was abolished, the privileges of
the original charter with respect to patroons were extended
to "all good inhabitanu of the Netherlands," and the estate
of a patroon was limited to 4 m. along the coast or a navigable
river and 8 m. back into the country. The revised charter
also provided that any one who brought over five colonists and
established them in a new settlement should recdve 200 acres,
and if such a settlement grew to be a town or village it should
recdve a grant of munidpal government These inducements
encouraged immigration not only from the Fatherland but from
New En^and and Virginia. But the freedom of trade promoted
dangerous relations with the Indians, and an attempt of Kieft
to collect a tribute from the Algonquian tribes in the vicinity
of Manhatt&n Island and other indiscretions of thb officer pro-
voked Indian hostilities (X64X-X64S), during which most ol the
outlying settlements were laid waste.
Out ol this warfare arose an organized movement for a govcn-
ment in which the colonists should have a voice. In Augntf
X64X Kieft called an assembly of the heads of families in tk
ndghbourhood of Fort Amsterdam to consider the question of
peace or war. The assembly chose a board of Twdve Men t»
represent it, and a few months later this board demanded certain
reforms, especially that the membership of the director-genetals
councfl should be increased from one to five by tbe popular
election of four members. Kidt promised the concessions to gain
the board's consent to waging war, but later denied its authority
to exact promises from him and dissolved it. At another crisis,
in X643, he was obliged to call a second assembly of the people.
This time a board of Eight Men was chosen to confer with him.
It denied his right to levy certain war taxes, and when it bad
in vain protested to him against his arbitrary measures it sent
a petition, in 1644, to the States-General for his recall, and this
was granted. Peter Stuyvesant (^.v.), his successor, arrived
at Fort Amsterdam in May 1647. Under his rule there was a
return of prosperity; from 1653 to 1664 the population of
the province increased from 2000 to xo,ooo. Stuyvesant was»
however, extremdy arbitrary. Although he permitted the exist-
ence of a board of Nine Men to act as " tribunes " for the people
it was originally composed of his sdecUons from eighteen penoas
chosen at a popular election, and annually thereafter the pbees
of six retiring members were filled by his sdcctions from twdvt
persons nominated by the board. He treated it with increasisg
NEW YORK
60s
contempt, and the most tbat ft could do ms to lemonstnte
to the States-General. That body suggested a representative
government, but this the Company refused to grant.
Stuyvesant conducted a successful expedition against the
Swedes on the southern border of New Netherland in 1655;
but he was powerless against the English. The Dutch had
long daimed the whole coast from Delaware Bay to Cape Cod,
but by the treaty of Hartford (1650), negotiated between
himself and the commissionexs of the United Colonies of New
England, Stuyvesant agreed to a boundary which on the mainland
roughly determined the existing boundary between New York
and Connecticut and on Long Island extended southward
from the west side of Oyster Bay to the Atlantic Ocean* Not-
withstanding the good claim to Uieir province which the Dutch
had established by discovery and occupancy, the government
of Great Britam, basing its claim to the same territory on Cabot's
discovery (i498)» the patent to the London and Plymouth
companies (1606) , and the intent to the Council for New England
(1630), contended that the Dutch were intruders. In 1653,
during the war between Enghmd and Holland, the Dutch,
fearing' an English attack, buflt a wall, from which the present
IVall Street was named, across Manhattan Island at what was
then the northern limits of New Amsterdam. In the following
year Cromwell actually sent out an expedition which, with the
aid of New England, was to attempt the conquest, but before
an attack was made peace was announced. The Connecticut
Charter of 1662 included in that colony some settlements
acknowledged by the treaty of Hartford to. belong to New
Netherland, and strife was renewed. Finally, in March
1664. Charles II. formally erected into a province the whole
territory from the west side of the Connecticut river to the
cast side of Delaware Bay together with all of Long Island
and a few other dependencies of minor importance, and granted
it to his brother James, the duke of York and Albany, as Its
lord proprietor. The duke appointed Colonel Richard Nicolb
governor and placed him in command of an expedition to effect
its conquest. Nicolls won over the burgomaster of New Amster-
dam and other prominent citizens by the favourable terms
which he offered, and Stuyvesant was forced, without fighting,
into a formal surrender on the 8th of September. The duke's
authority was proclaimed and New Netherland became New
York. The separation from it of what is now New Jersey (q.v.)
vja begun by the duke's conveyance, in the preceding June, of
that portion of his province to Berkeley and Carteret, and among
numerous changes from Dutch to English names was that from
Fort Orange to Fort Albany. A treaty of alliance with the
Mohawks and Senecas procured for the English the same friendly
relations with the Iroquois that the Dutdi had enjoyed. The
transition from Dutch to English institutions was effected
gradually and the private rights of the Dutch were carefully
preserved. The English executive, consisting of a guvemor
and council, was much like the Dutch, but Nicolls, by his con-
dliatory spirit, made his administration more agreeable than
Stuyvesant 's. In the administration of k)cal affairs some of the
Dutch settlements were little disturbed until ten years or more
after the conquest, but the introduction of Engli^ institutions
into settlements wholly or hirgely English was begun in 1665
by the erection of Long Island, Staten Island and Westchester
into an English county under the name of Yorkshire, and by
putting into operation in that county a code of laws known as'
the " Duke's Laws." This code was based largely on the laws
of New England, and, although a source of popular discontent,
it gave to the freeholders of each town a voice in the government
of their town by permitting them to elect a board of eight over-
seers which chose a constable and sat as a court for the trial of
small causes. Nicolls resigned the governorship in x668, but
his successor, Francis Lovelace, continued his policy — ^autocratic
government, arbitrary in form but mild in practice, and pr9-
gressive in the matter of religious toleration. In August 1673,
Holland and England being at war, a Dutch fleet surprised
New York, captured the city, and restored Dutch authority
And the names of New Netherland and New Amsterdam. But
by the treaty of Wcstmhister, Febniaiy 16741 the Dutch title
to the- province was finally extinguished, and in November the
English again took possession. A new charter was issued to the
duke to perfect his title and Edmund (later Sir Edmund) Andros,
the new governor, was instructed to establish English institutions
and enforce English law in all sections. In 1675 Andros estab-
lished at Albany a commission for Indian affairs which long
rendered important service in preserving the English-Iroquois
alliance. The imperious manner of Andros made him many
enemies. Some of them preferred charges against him relating
to his administratio;* of the revenue. He was called to England
in 1681 to answer these, and during his absence the demand for a
representative assembly was accompanied with a refusal to pay
the customs duties and so much other insubordination that the
duke appointed Colonel Thomas Dongan to sucMed Andros,
and instructed him to call the desired assembly. It met at Fort
James m the City of New York on the 17th of October 1683,
was in session for about three weeks, and passed fifteen acts.
The first, styled a charter of liberties and privileges, required
that an assembly elected by the freeholders and freemen should
be called at least once every three years; vested all legislative
authority in the governor, council and assembly; forbade the
imposition of any taxes without the consent of tJie assembly;
and provided for religious liberty and tiJal by jury. Other acts
divided the province intQ counties, established courts of justice,
and provided for a revenue. In August 1684 when, by iu charter,
the western boundary of the province was not definitely extended
beyond the Hudson, Dongan laid the basis of New York's daim
to the western lands of the Iroquois by a new covenant with
them in which they recognized the English as their protectors,
and throughout his administration he was busy neutralizing
French influence among the Iroquois and in diverting the fur
trade of the north-west from the St Lawrence to Albany. The
charter of liberties and privileges was approved by the duke, but
before the news of this reached its authors the duke became
King James II., and in x686, when a frame of government for
New York as a royal province was provided, the assembly was
dispensed with. About the same time the new king adopted a
policy for strengthening the imperial control over New England
as well as for the erection of a stronger barrier against the
French, and in x688 New York and New Jersey were consoli-
dated with the New England colonies into the Dominion of New
England and placed under the viceregal authority of Sir Edmund
Andros as governor-general. The news of the English revolution
of 1688, however, caused an uprising in Boston, and in April
1689 Andros was seized and imprisoned. Francis Nicholson as
lieutenant-governor was still in quiet possession of the govern-
ment of New York, and a majority of the popubtion of the
province were satisfied to await the outcome of the revolution
in the mother country, but in the southern portion of the province,
especially in the City of New York and on Long Island, were a
number of restless spirits who were encouraged by the fall of
Andros to take matters into their own hands. They found a
leader in a German merchant, Jacob Leisler (q.v.). Leisler
refused to pay duties on a cargo of wine on the ground that the
collector was a " papist," and on the 31st of May 1689, during
a mutiny of the militia, he and other militia captains seized
Fort James. In the following month Nicholson deserted his
post and sailed for England, and Leisler easily gained possession
of the city. To strengthen his position he caUed an assembly
which conferred upon him the powers of a dictator. Some time
after a copy of the order of the new monarchs (William and Mary)
to continue all Protestants in their ofllices in the colonies had
been received, Leisler falsely announced that he had received
a commission as lieutenant-governor. He then attempted to
revive the act of 1683 for raising revenue, but met with so much
opposition that he issued writs for the election of another
assembly. This, however, brought him chiefly petitions for
the redress of grievances. Albany successfully defied his usurped
authority until his recognition was necessary to a united front
against the French and their Indian allies, who, in February
1690, had surprised and burned Schenectady. Two other French
6o6
NEW YORK
attacks had at the same time been direaed agaiost New England,
and to meet the dangerous situation Leisler performed the one
statesmanlike act of his public career, noUble in American
history as the first step toward the union of the colonies. At
his call, delegates from MassachusetU, Plymouth, Connecticut
and Maryland met in New York City with delegates from New
York on the ist of May 1690 to consider concerted action against
the enemy, and although the expedition which they sent out
was a failure it numbered 855 men, New York furnishing about
one-half the men, Massachusetts one of the two commanders and
Connecticut the other. Leisler had proclaimed the new monarchs
of Great Britain and had declared that it was his purpose only
to prolea the province and the Protestant religion until the
arrival of a governor appointed by them; but he was enraged
when he learned that he had been ignored and that under the
new governor, Colonel Henry Stoughter, his enemies, van
Cortlandt and Bayard, had again been appointed to the council.
When Major Richard Ingoldsby arrived with two companies
of the king's soldiers and demanded possession of the fort,
Leisler refused although he still professed his willingness to
deliver it to Sloughter. On the zyth of March 1691 Leisler's
force fired on the king's soldiers, killing two and wounding
several. Governor Sloughter arrived two days later, and the
revolt terminated in the arrest of Leisler and Us chief followers.
Leisler and Jacob Milbome, his son-in-law, were pronounced
guilty of treason, and were executed on the i6th of May. The
execution was regarded even by many who had been indifferent
to Letsler's cause, as an act of revenge. The case was carried
to England, where in 1695 parliament reversed the attainders
of the victims, and for many years the province was rent by the
Ldslerian and anti-Leblerian factions.
Governor Sloughter, as his commission directed, re-established
fa 169Z the assembly which James IL had abolished in x686,
and throughout the remainder of the colonial era the history
of the province relates chiefly to the rise of popular government
and the defence of the northern frontier. At its first session
the assembly passed an act declaratory of the rights and privileges
of the people, and much like the charter of liberties and privileges
enacted in 1683, except that annual instead of triennial sessions
of the assembly were now requested and, as was also provided in
Sloughter's commission and instructions, religious liberty was
denied to Roman Catholics. This act was disallowed by the
crown in 1697, and until Governor Combury's administration
(1702-1708) both the Leislerians and the anti-Leislerians
repeatedly bid for the governor's favour by supporting his
measures instead of contending for popular rights. But Com-
bury's embezzlement of £1500, appropriated for fortifying the
Narrows connectin^^ Upper and Lower New York Bay, united
the factions against him and started the assembly in the im-
portant contest which ended in the establishment of its control
over the public purse. In 1706 it won the right to appoint its
own treasurer to care for money appropriated for extraordinary
purpoks, and eight years later the governor assented to an act
which gave to this ofTiccr the dustody of practically all public
money. Until 1737 it had been the custom to continue the
revenue acts from three to five years, but thereafter the assembly
insisted on annual appropriations.
The first newspaper of New York^' the New' York CazeUe,
was established in 1725 by William Bradford as a semi-
official organ of the administration. In 1733 a popular organ,
the New York Weekly Journal, was established under John
Peter Zenger (1697-1746), and in 1735 both the freedom of the
press and a great advance toward the independence of the
judiciary were the outcome of a famouii libel suit against Zenger.
Between the administration of Governor Montgomerie (1728-
1731) and Governor Cosby (1732-1736) there was an interregnum
of thirteen months during which Rip van Dam, president of the
council, was acting-governor, and upon Cosby's arrival a dispute
arose between him and van Dam over the division of the salary
and fees. Both appealed to the law, and when the chief-justice,
Lewis Morris, refused Cosby's request to have the court proceed
in equity jurisdiction, and denied the right of the governor to
esUblish courts of equity, he was removed from oflke. Not
long afterwards there appeared in the Weekly Journal some
severe criticisms of the administration. For printing these
Zenger was arrested for libel in November 1734. The case was
not brought to trial until August 1735, and in the meantime
Zenger was kept in jaiL Originally he had for counsel two of
the most able lawyers in the province, James Alexander (1690-
1756) and William Smith (1697-1769), but when they excepted
to the commissions of the chief-justice, James de Lancey
( 1 703-1 760) and one of his associates, because by these con-
missions the justices had been appointed " during pleasure "
instead of *' during good behaviour," the chief justice disbarred
them. Their places, however, were taken by Andrew Hamiltra,
speaker of the Assembly of Pennsylvania and a lawyer of great
reputation^ the English colonies. The jury quickly agreed
on a verdict of not guilty, and the acquittal was greeted by the
populace with shouts of triumph. The further independence of
judges became a leading issue in 1761 when the assembly
insisted that they should be appointed during good behaviour,
and refused to pay the salaries of those appointed during pleasure*,
but the home government met this refusal by ordering that ihey
be paid out of the quit-rents.
The defence of the northern frontier was a heavy burden to
New York, but by its problems the growth of the union of the
colonies was promoted. From the destruction of Schenectady to
the Peace of Ryswick (1697) hostilities between the French and
the English in the New World took the form of occasional nids
across the frontier, chiefly by the Indian allies. The main effort
of the French, however, was, by diplomacy, to destroy the En^ish-
Iroquois alliance. This rested on the fear of the Iroquois for
the French and their hope of protection from the English.
Therefore, in response to their repeated complaints of the weak-
ness of the En^ish arising from disunion. Governor Fletcher,
in 1694, called another intercolonial conference consisting of
delegates from New York, Massachusetts, Connecticut and
New Jersey, and urged the necessity of more united feelings.
Open hostilities were interrupted for a few years by the Peace of
Ryswick and for a longer period by the Peace of Utrecht (1713)1
but French priests continued to dwell among the Iroquois,
teaching them and dbtributing presents, and of the success of this
diplomacy the English were ever in danger. To counteract
it they, in 1701, prevailed upon the chiefs to deed their territory,
said to be 800 m. in length and 400 m. in breadth, to the king of
England. The English, also, frequently distributed presents.
But the success of the French at the dose of the 17th century
and the early portion of the x8th was prevented only by the
ceaseless efforts of Peter Schuyler (1657-1724) whose personal
influence was for years dominant among all the Iroquois except
the Senecas. When they had assumed a neutral attitude, he
persuaded a number of them to join troops from New York,
New Jersey and Connecticut in the unsuccessful expeditions of
1709 and 171 X against the French at Montreal. The English had
a decided advantage over the French in that they could furmsb
goods for the Indian trade much cheaper than their rivals, and
when Governor Burnet saw that this advantage was being lost
by a trade between Albany and Montreal he persuaded the
assembly to pass an act (i 7 20) prohibiting it. Pursuing the same
wise policy he established a trading post at Oswego in 1722 and
fortified it in 1727, and thereby placed the Iroquois in the desir-
able position of middlemen in a profitable fur trade with the
" Far Indians." London merchants, in theif greed, brought
about the repeal of the prohibitory act in 1729, but its effects
were only in part destroyed. At another intercolonial conference
at Albany, adled by Burnet, a line of trading posts along the
northern and western frontiers was strongly recommended
But neither the other colonies nor the home government would
co-operate, and the French were the first to accomplish it. In
King George's. War the co-operation of all the northern colonics
was.sought, and New York contributed £3000 and some cannos
toward New England's successful expedition against Louisburg
But it was left alone to protect its own frontier against the French,
and while the assembly was wrangling with Governor Clinioa
NEW YORK
607
for the control of expenditures the French and their Indians were
bunuBg farm houses, attacking Saratoga (November 16, 1745)1
and greatly endangering the EngUsh-Iroquois alliance. Even
after the Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748) the Iroquois complained
bitterly of the fraudulent land speculators, and in 1753 the chiefs
of the Mohawks threatened to declare the covenant chain
broken. A reconciliation was effected, however, by Colonel
William Johnson (17x5-1774), who had long been superintendent
of Indian affairs. Largely to secure the co-operation of the
Iroquois the home government itself now called to meet at
Albany (q.v.) the most important assembly of colonial deputies
that had yet gathered. This body, consisting of twenty-five
members and representing seven colonies, met in June 1754,
and, besides negotiating successfully with the Iroquois, it adopted,
with some modifications, a plan of colonial union prepar^ by
Benjamin Franklin; the plan was npt approved, however, either
by the home government or by any of the colonics. In the first
year of the war (1755) expeditions set out against Fort Duquesne
(on the site of Pittsburg) and Fort Niagara and Crown Point,
on the New York frontier. None of these was taken but on the
8th of September Major-General William Johnson, in command
of the expedition against Crown Point, defeated a French and
Indian force under Baron Dieskau in the battle of Lake George.
As Johnson thought it unsafe to pursue the routed army his
victory had no other effect than the erection here of the useless
defences of Fort William Henry, but as it was the only success
in a year of gloom parliament rewarded him with a grant of
j[5ooo and the title of a baronet. In August 1756 Montcalm took
Oswego from the English and destroyed it, and in 1757 he
captured Fort William Henry; but in the latter year the cider
Pitt assumed control of affairs in England, and his aggressive,
clear-sighted policy turned the tide of war in England's favour.
Victory followed victory, Ticonderoga, Crown Poii^ and Niagara
were wrested from the French and New York was freed of its
foes.
England's attempt to make the colonies pay the expenses
of the war by means of the stamp tax thoroughly aroused the
opposition of commercial New York, already chafing under the
hardships imposed by the Navigation Acts and burdened with
a war debt of its own exceeding £300,000. The assembly was
almost unanimous in voicing its protest to the governor. It
authorized its committee, which had been appointed to corre-
spond with the New York agent in London, to correspond also
with the committees in the other colonies and this committee
represented New York in the Stamp Act Congress, a body which
was called at the suggestion of Massachusetts, met in New
York City in October 1765, was composed of twenty-seven
members representing nine colonies, and drew up a declaration
of rights, an address to the king, and a petition to each house
of parliament. When the Sons of Liberty, a society composed
largely of unfranchised mechanics and artisans of New York
City, which began to dominate the movement immediately
after the Congress adjourned, resorted to mob violence — destroy-
ing property and burning in effigy the governor and other officers
— the propertied classes drew back, and a few years later the
popubr or patriot party lost its control of the assembly. Since
the Zenger trial there had been a court party and a popular
party: the former included many wealthy Anglicans and was
under the leadership of the De Lanceys, the latter included
many wealthy and influential dissenters and was under the
leadership of the Livingstons. During the administration of
Governor Clinton (i 743-1 753) a quarrel between the governor
and James De Lancey, the chief -justice, had greatly weakened the
court party, and nearly all its members supported their rivals
in opposition to the Stamp Act. In the series of events which
followed the first violence of the Sons of Liberty important
changes were made in party lines. Personal rivalry and creed
became subordinate to political principles. The court party
became the Loyalist party, standing for law as against rebellion,
monarchy and the union of the empire as against republicanism;
the popular party became the patriot party, determined to stand
en its nights at any cost. The Stamp Act was repealed in March
1766, but the Townshend Acts, imposing duties on glass, paper,
lead, painters' colours and tea, followed closely. They were met
in New York by fresh outbursts of the Sons of Liberty and,
as in the other colonies, by an association of nearly all the
merchants, the members pledging themselves not to import any-
thing from England imtil the duties were repealed. New York
had also been requested to provide certain supplies for the British
troops quartered in the city. This the assembly refused to do
but parliament answered (1767) by forbidding it to do aAy other
business until' it complied. It was under these conditions that
the Loyalists, in the elections of 1768 and 1769, gained control
of the assembly and in the latter year passed an act granting
the soldiers' supplies. When, in 1770, all the duties except
those on tea were repealed, the conservative merchants wished
to permit the importation of all goods from England except
tea. The Sons of Liberty strongly opposed this, but the con-
servatives won and went over to the Loyalists. The moderate
Loyalists joined |n the election of delegates to the first Con-
tinental Congress; but the great body of Loyalists in New York
strongly disapproved of the " dangerous and extravagant ','
measures adopted by that body, and the assembly, in January
1775) refused to approve its acts or choose delegates to the
second Continental Congress. The patriots met this refusal by
calling a provincial convention to choose the delegates. Scarcely
had they done this when news of the encounter at Lexington
produced a strong reaction in their favour, and in May 1775 they
called a Provincial Congress which usurped the powers of the
Assembly. Still, conditions were such in New York that a fight
for independence was not to be lightly considered. The failure
of Montgomery's expedition against Canada at the dose of 1775
left the colony exposed to British attacks from the north. In
the south the chief city was exposed to the British fleet. Sir
William Johnson died in 1774, but under his influence and that
of his son. Sir John Johnson, and his nephew Guy Johnson,
the Mohawks and other Iroquois Indiaiis had become firmly
attached to the British side and threatened the western frontier.)
In various sections, too, considerable numbers of Loyalists were
determined to aid the British. When, in June 1776, a vote on
the Declaration of Independence was pending in the Continental
Congress, the New York Provincial Congress refused to instruct
its delegates in the matter; but a newly elected Provindal
Congress, influenced by a Loyalist plot against the life of Wash-
ington, adopted the Declaration when it met, oh the 9th of July.
The position of New York made it naturally one of the principal
theatres of military operations during the War of Independence.
It was a settled point of British military policy throughout the
war to hold New York City, and from it, as a base, to establish
a line of fortified posts along the Hudson by means of which
communication might be maintained with another base on
Lake Champlain. Such a scheme, if successfully carried out,
would have driven a wedge into the line of colonial defence and
cut off communication between New England and the southern
colonies. A few days after the fight at Lexington and Concord,
Connecticut authorized an expedition under Ethan Allen which
surprised and captured Ticonderoga and Crown Point. In the
following year (1776) the British began their offensive opehi-
tions for the control of the Hudson; an army under Sir William
Howe was to capture New York City and get control of the
lower Hudson, while another army under Sir Guy Carleton was
to retake Crown Point and Ticonderoga and get control of the
upper Hudson. Howe, with a force of British and Loyalists
vastly superior in equipment and numbers to Washington's
untrained militia, landed in July on Staten Island and late in
August defeated Washington at the battle of Long Island
within the present limits of Brooklyn borough. In the following
month Washington withdrew from New York City which the
British entered and held until the close of the war. Washington
prepared to withstand the British behind fortifications on
Harlem Heights, but discovering that Howe was attempting
to outflank him by landing troops in the rear he retreated to
the mainland, leaving only a garrison at Fort Washington, and
established a line of forUfied camps on the hills overlooking
6o8
NEW YORK
the Bronx river as far as WUte Plains. This brought' on the
battle of White Plains late in October, in which Howe gained
no advantage; and from here both armies withdrew into New
Jersey, the British capturing Fort Washington on the way, the
' Americans leaving behind garrisons to guard the HigUands of
the Hudson. In 1777 General John Burgoyne succeeded in
taking Ticonderoga, but in the swampy forests southward from
Lake Champlain he fought his way against heavy odds, and in
the middle of October his campaign culminat<Ki disastrously
in his surrender at Saratoga. Colonel Barry St'Leger led an
auxiliary expedition from Oswego against Fort Stanwix on the
upper Mohawk, and on the 6th of August he fought at Oriskany
one of the most bloody battles of the war, but a few days later,
deserted by his terror-stricken Indian allies, he hastened back
to Montreal. The British government intended that Howe
should co-operate with Burgoyne by fighting his way up the
Hudson, but as the secretary of state for the colonies neglected
to send him such instructions this was not undertaken until
early in October, and then an expedition for the purpose. was
placed under the command of Sir Heury Clinton. Ginton met
with little difficulty from the principal American defences of
the HigUands, consisting of Forts Montgomery and Clinton
on the western bank, together with a huge chain and boom
stretched across the river to a precipitous mountain (Anthony's
Nose) on the opposite bank, and ascended as far as Esopus
(now Kingston) which he burned, but he was too late to aid
Burgoyne. The year 1778 saw the bloody operations of the
Tory Butlers and their Loyalist and Indian allies in the Mohawk
and Schoharie valleys and noubly the massacre at Cherry
Valley. In retaliation a punitive expedition under Generals
John Sullivan and James Clinton in 1779 destroyed the Iroquois
towns, and dealt the Indian confederacy a blow from which
it never recovered. The American cause was strengthened this
year also by several victories along the lower Hudson of which
General Anthony Wayne's storming of the British fort at Stony
Point was the most important. The closing episode of the war
as far as New York was concerned was the discovery of Benedict
Arnold's attempt in 1780 to betray West Point and other colonial
posts on the Hudson to the British. On the 35th of November
1783 the British forces finally evacuated New York City, but
the British posts on Lakes Erie and Ontario were,not evacuated
until some years later:
New York ratified the Articles of Confederation in 1778,. and
when Maryland refused to ratify unless th<^ states asserting
claims to territory west to the Mississippi agreed to surrender
them, New York was the first to do so. But under the leadership
of George Clinton, governor in 1777-1 79S> the state jealously
guarded its commercial interests. Ihe Confederation Congress
appealed to it in vain for the right to collect duties at Its port;
and there was determined opposition to the new Federal con-
stitution. In support of the constitution, however, there arose
the Federalist piarty under the able leadership of Alexander
Hamilton. When a majority of the constitutional convention
of 1787 had approved of the new constitution Hamilton alone
of the three New York delegates remained to sign it; and when,
after its ratification by eight states, the New York convention
met at Poughkeepsie (June 17, 1788) to consider ratification,
two-thirds of the members were opposed to it. But others
were won over by the news that it had been ratified by New
Hampshire and Virginia or by the telling arguments of Hamilton,
and on the 26tb of July the motion to ratify was carried by a
vote of 30 to 27.
The constitution having been ratified, personal rivalry among
the great families— the Clintons, the Livingstons and the
Schuylers— again became dominant in political affairs. The
Clintons were most popular among the independent freeholders;
the Livingstons had increased their influence by numerous
marriage alliances with landed families; and the Schuylers
liad General Philip Schuyler and Alexander Hamilton, his
son-in-law. Originally, the Livingstons, with whom John Jay
was connected by marriage, were united with the Schuylers,
and yet both together were unable to defeat the Clintons in an
election for governor. Later, the Livingstons, piqued at Wash-
ington's neglect to give them the oflkcs they tlK>uight their doe,
joined the Clintons, but the Federal patronage was used agaiast
the anti-Federalists or Republicans with such effect that ia
1793 John Jay recdved more votes for governor than George
Clinton, although the latter was counted in on a technicality.
Jay was elected in 1795 and re-elected in 1798, but in 1801 the
brief Federalist regime in the state came to an end with the
election of George Clinton for a seventh term. The Republican
leaders straightway quarrelled among themselves, thus starting
the long series of factional strifes which have characterized the
party politics of New York state; the bitterness of the faaions
and the irrespons'ble council of appointment are also responsible
for the firm establishment early in the Republican regime of
the " spoils system." The leaders of the several Republican
groups were Chancellor Robert R. Livingston, Aaron Burr, then
vice-president, (governor George Clinton and his nephew, De
Witt Clinton, who in iSoa was eleaed Um'ted Sutes senator.
The first break came in the spring of 1804 when Burr, who bid
Incurred the enmity of his Republican colleagues in 1800 by
seeking Federalist votes in the electoral college at Jefferson's
expense, became an independent candidate for governor against
Morgan Lewis. Hamilton's action in counselling Federalists
not to vote for Burr for governor just as he had counselled them
not to support Burr against Jefferson in 1800, was one of the
contributary causes of Burr's hostility to Hamilton which ended
in the duel O^ly 1804) in which Burr killed Hamilton. Hamil-
ton's death marked the end of the Federalists as a power in New
York. The election as governor in 1804 of Lewis, a relative of
the Livingstons, was followed by a bitter quarrel with the
Clintons over patronage, and residted at the state election of
1807 in the choice of a Clintonian, Daniel D. Tompkins, for
governor and the virtual elimination of the Livingstons from
New York state politics. Tompkins served as governor by
successive re-elections until 181 7, hu term covering the tr}'ing
period of the second war with Great Britain. New York, whose
growing shipping interests had suffered by the Embargo of
1807, was as a commercial state opposed to the war. Poliiically
this opposition had the effect of temporarily reviving the
Federalist party, which secured control of the legislature, and
gave the electoral vote of the state In 1812 to De Witt Qinton,
whom the Federalists had accepted as a candidate to oppose
Madison for re-election on the war issue. During the war New
Yorkers served with the regular troops at Niagara, Plattsburg
and other places on the western and northern frontiers of the
state. For some years after the war political contests In New
York state as in the rest of the country were not on party lines.
The opposing groups were known as " Bucktails," whose leaden
were Governor Tompkins and Martin Van Buren, and " Clia-
tonians " or supporters of De Witt Ch'nton. In 181 7 an act «»
passed which ten years later ended for ever slavery in New York
state; in the same year De Witt Clinton was elected governor
and, largely through his efforts, the Erie Canal was begun.
The election of Martin Van Buren as governor in 1828 marked
the beginning of the long ascendancy in the state of the " Albany
Regency," a political coterie In which Van Buren, W. L. Marcy,
Benjamin Franklin Butler (1795-1858) and Silas Wright were
among the leaders; Thurlow Weed, their bitterest opponent
and the man who gave them their name, declared of them that
he " had never known a body of men who possessed so moch
power and used it so well." Thurlow Weed owed his cariy
political advancement to the Introduction Into state politics of
the anti-Masonic Issue (see ANn-MasoNic' Party), which abo
brought into prominence his co-worker W. H. Seward. In 1S26 ia
Genesee county the disappearance of a printer named Willian
Morgan was attributed to Free-Masons and aroused a strong
antipathy to that order; and the anti-Masonic movement,
through the fostering care of Weed, Francis Granger (i 79^-1868)
and others, spread to other states and led eventually to the
establishment of a political organization that by uniting various
anti-Jacksonian elements, polled in the New York state dectioB
of 1832 more than 156,000 votes for Francis Granger, their
NEW YORK
609
cmndidate for governor against Marcy, who was chosen by about
zo,ooo plurality. As the anti-Masonic wave subsided its leaders
and most of its adherents found a place in the newly oiganized
Whig party, which was powerful enough in New Yqrk to elect
William H. Seward governor in. 1838, and to re-elect him and
to carry the state for W. H. Harrison against Van fiuren in 184a
It was during the first administration of Governor Seward that
the anti-rent agitation in the Hudson river counties began.
The greater part of the land in this section was comprised in
vast estates such as Rensselaerwyck, Livingston, Scaradale,
Phillipse, Pelham and Van Cortlandt manors, and on these
the leasehold system with perpetual leases, leases for 99 years or
leases for one to three lives had become general. Besides rent,
many of the tenants were required to render certain services to
the proprietor, and in case a tenant sold his interest in a farm
to another he was required to pay the proprietor one-tenth to
one-third of the amount received as an alienation fine. Stephen
van Rensselaer, the proprietor of Rensselaerwyck, had suffered
the rents, especially those of his poorer tenants, to fall much
in arrears, and when after his death (1839) the agents of his
heirs attempted to collect them they encountered violent
opposition. Governor Seward called out the militia to preserve
order but asked the legislature to consider the tenants' grievances.
The legislature appointed an arbitration commission, but this
was unsuccessful, and the trouble, spreading to other counties,
culminated ( x 845) in the murder of the deputy-sheriff of Delaware
coonty. Politically, the anti-rent associations which were
formed often held the balance of power between the Whigs and
the Democrats, and in this position they secured the election of
Governor John Young (Whig) as well as of several members of the
legislature favourable to their cause, and promoted the passage of
the bill calling the constitutional convention of 1846. In the new
constitution clauses were inserted abolishing feudal tenures
and limiting future leases of agricultural land to a period of
twelve years. The courts pronounced the alienation fines illegaL
rhe lec^slature passed several measures for the destruction of the
leasehold system, and under the pressure of public opinion the
great landlords rapidly sold their farms.* Up to the election of
Seward as governor, New York had usually been Democratic,
largely through the predominating influence of Van Buren and
the " Albany Regency." After the defeat of Governor Silas
Wri;^t in 1846, however, the Democratic party split into two
hostile factions known as the " Hunkers," or conservatives, and
the " Bamburaers," or radicals. The factions had their origin
in canal politics, the conservatives advocating the use of canal
revenues to complete the canals, the radicals insisting that they
should be used to pay the state debt. Later when the con-
servatives accepted the annexation of Texas and the radicals
supported the Wilmot Proviso the split became irrevocable.
The split broke up the rule of the " regency," Marcy accepting the
" Hunker " support and a seat in Polk's cabinet, while Wright,
Butler and Van Buren joined the " Barnburners," a step pre-
liminary to Van Buren's acceptance of the " Free Soil " nomina-
tion for president in the campaign of 1848. Only once between
1846 and the Civil War did the Democratic party regain control
of the state— in 1853-1855 Horatio Seymour was governor for
a single term. In 1854 the newly organized Republican party,
formed largely from the remnantsof the Whig party and including
most of the Free Soil Democrats, with the aid of the temperance
issue elected Myron HoUey Clark (1806-1892) governor. Two
years Uter the Republicans carried the sUte for Fr6mont for
president, and a succession of Republican governors held office
until 1862 when the discouragement in the North with re^>ect to
the Civil War brought a reaction which elected Sejrmour governor.
With the exception of New York City the sUte was loyal to the
Union cause during the war and furnished over a half million
troops to the Federal armies. Certain commercial Interests of New
York City favoured the Confederate cause, but MayorWood's sug-
gestion that the dty (with Long Island and Staten IsUmd) secede
and form a free-dty received scant support, and after the san-
1 fames Fenimore Cojper't oovds Satanstct (184$), The Chain-
bearer (1&45) and The JUdikins (1846) preach the anu-rent doctrine.
guinary draft riots of July 1863 (see New Yosk City) no further
difficulty was experienced. After the Civil War the state began
to reassume the pivotal position in national politics which has
always made its dections second only in interest and importance
to those of the nation, and the high political tension emphasized
the evils of the " spoils system." In 1868 Tammany Hall (9.V.),
then under the rule of William M. Tweed, forced the Democratic
state convention to nominate its henchman, John T. Hoffman,
for governor, and by the issue of false naturalization, papers
and fraudulent voting in New York City on a gigantic scale
Hoffman was chosen governor and the electoral vote was cast
for Seymour. Tammany 'and Hoffman were again victorious
in 1870; but in 1871 the New York Times discl<»ed the magni-
tude of Tammany's thefts, amounting in the erection of the
New York county coiut house alone to almost |8,ooo,ooo,
and Tweed and his " Ring " were crushed in consequence. The
Republicans carried the state in 1872, but in 1874 Samuel J.
Tilden, a Democrat and the leading prosecutor of Tweed, was
elected governor. The Republican legislature bad in 1867
appointed a committee to investigate the management of the
canal system, but the abuses were allowed to continue until
in 1875 Governor Tilden disclosed many imudi of the *' Canal
Ring," and punished the guilty. In 1876, Tilden having been
nominated for the presidency, New York cast its electoral vote
for him. In 1880 it was cast for Garfield, the Republican nominee.
Two years later the Republicans, having split over a struggle for
patronage into the two factions known as "Halfbreeds," or
administration party, and "Stalwarts" of whom the leader
was Roscoe Conkling, were defeated, Grover Cleveland being
chosen governor* In 1884 Cleveland as the Democratic pre-
sidential nominee received the electoral vote of his state. Cleve-
land likewise carried the sUte in 1892, but in 1888 Benjamin
Harrison, the Republican candidate, the factional quarrels
being settled, carried the state. Hostility to free silver and
" Bryanism " in the large financial and industrial centres put the
state strongly in the Republican column in the elections of 1896,
1900, 1904 and 1908. It was carried by the Democrats in the
gubernatorial campaign of 191a
Governors of New York
Colonial.
Corncfii lacobKnMc^' . . 1624-162S
William Verfaukt 1625-1626
P«cr Miniiit ..,,... 1626-1632
Ba»tLt«ii ram-frn Crol I632-1633
Wiiyter Van TwilJcf 1633-1637
Wtliani Rieft ....... 1637-1647
Peter Stuyvmaiit ^ * » » . • • 16^7-1664
Kidiard Nicon* . 166A-1668
Fraud* Lcve]Ae« ....... 1660-1673
AntboDv CoK-c ..*.... 1673-1674
E^dinund AjuJnsf ....... 1674-1683
ThtttnaA Donean . .
Fnncii NicliDlwn, LtcutenanC'GcrverTiM'.
JACob Lekkr ide fact^)
l^r^'n^y StnughEer . , ^ . . .
RichAi-d Ln^oldiby (Acting)
Bfnjamin FictchrT . . + » ,
RjchAni Caotp, earl of Eellofnont
ohfl Nanfaii tAciirtft)
I683-1688
1688-1689
1689-1691
1691
1691-1692
1692-1698
1698-1701
1701-1702
fcdword Hvdc. LortfCunibury .... 1702^-1708
iohn, Lonf LovcUrtf .-.,.. 1708-1709
■jcliard rngoldsiby (Actinit) .... 1709-1710
Gcrsriius Beckman (Actini^] . . . .1710
Robert Hunter 1710-I719
Pftt r SchuyJw (Acting J ..... 1719-1720
Williiin Burnet ....... 1720-1728
ipUn Monigomeric ...... 1728-1731
Rip van Dam £ Act! iif) I73i-i732
WilliainC<Mby . 173^1736
Cwrge Clarke [Aciing) .... 173^1743
G^ingc Climoii ...... 1743-1753
Sir Dfinver^ Osbern* . . V . . 1753
l4me4 de Lancey {.i^cilng)
Sir Cliarlei HanJy
Tames dc Uncey (Attirtff) ,
CadwaWadtr Colden (Actiog)
Rrjbert Monctton .
Culwalladcr Colden (ActiBB)
Rttberi Moocktoa
1753-1755
1755-1757
1757-176O
1760-1761
1761
1761-1763
1762-1763
NEW YORK (CITY)
6io
Cadwallader Coldcn (Acting) .... 1 763-1765
Sir Henry Moore 1765-1769
Cadwallader Coldcn (Acting) .... 1769-1770
John Murray, earl of Dunmore. ... 1770-1771
WaiiamTryon 1771-1776
Trausitum,
Provincial Congress 1776-1777
State,
George Qtntoa .... 1 777-1795 Anti-Federalist
lohnjay 1 795" » 801 Federalist
George Clintoa .... 1801-1804 Dcm.-Repub.
Morgan Lewis .... 1804-1807 „
Daniel D. Tompkins . . 1 807-1817 „
John Taylor (Acting) ... 18 17 „
l5e Witt CUnton .... 1817-1823
loseph Christopher Yates . . 1823-18^5 „
be Witt CUnton .... 1825-1828
Nathaniel Pitcher (Acting) . 1828-1829
Martin Van Buren . 1829 Democrat
Enos Thompson Throop (Acting) 1829-183Z „
Enos Thompson Throop . . 1831 -1833 „
WilliamXearned Marcy . . 1833-1839 „
William Henry Seward . . 183^1843 Whig
William C. Bouck . 1843-1845 Democrat
Silas Wright .... ««45-i847 „^...
John Young .... 1847-1849 Whig
Hamilton Fish .... t»-— «5i „
Washington Hunt . J ' 53 ^t.
Horatio Seymour ... 1 • 1 55 Democrat
Myron HoUey Clark . . . :- 1 57 Whig-Repub.
jphA AIsop King . JV. 1 "59 Republican
Edwin Dennison Morgan . .1 v. 1 03 „
Horatio Seymour . J . ! 65 Democrat
Reuben Eaton Fenton . j .. 1 69 Republican
John Thompson Hoffman . 1 >! ' h ^ r ^ 73 Democrat
John Adams Dix iH7.i-[fi75 Republican
Samuel Jones Tilden . . . i^7S 3«77 Democrat
Lucius Robinson . . s : 80 ,.
Alonzo Barton Cornell . i»»y/-i6S^ Republican
Grover CleveUnd . 1883-1885 Democrat
David Bennett Hill (Acting) . 188S-1886 „
David Bennett Hill . . 1886-1892 „
Roswell PeiUbonc Flower . . 1892-1895
Levi Parsons Morton . . 1895-1897 Republican
Frank Swett Black . 1897-1899 „
Theodore Roosevelt . . 1899-1901 „
Benjamin Barker OdcU . 1901-1905 „
Frank Wayl^nd Higgins . . 1905-1907 „
Charles Evans Hughes . 1907-1910 »
Horace White .... 1910 „
John A. Dix 19"- Democrat
Bibliography. — Physical Features and Climate>—R. S. Tarr,
Physical Geography of New York State (New York, 1902), with a
chapter on climate by E. T. Turner; Reports of the New York
Geological Survey from 1842 to 1854 (Albany) ; Reports of the Topo-
graphical Survey of the Adirondack Region of New York (Albany, 1871-
iBSo); Reports of the New York Meteorological Bureau (1889 sqq.}:
and publications of the United States Weather Bureau. Fauna and
Flora: Reports of the Forest, Fish and Game Commissioner (Albany.
1902 sqq.) ; Ralph Hoffmann, Guide to the Birds of New England and
Eastern New York (Boston. 1904): and Bulletins of the Netb York
StaU Museum (Albany, 1888 sqq.). Government: W. C. Morey,
The Government of New York: Its History and Administration (New
York, 1902) after tracing briefly the development of the govern-
mental system describes its structure and operation. C. Z. Lincoln,
The Constitutional Mistory of New York (^ vols., Rochester, 1906) is
an elaborate and able study of the growth of the constitution. See
also J. A. Fairlie. The Centralization of Administration in New York
State (New York, 1898); Annual Reports of the State Board of
Charities (Albany, 1867 sqq.); Annual Reports of the StaU Education
Department (Albany, 1904 sqq.); and Sidney Sherwood, History of
Higher Education in the State of New York (Washington, 1900), Cir-
cular of Information No. 3 of the United States Bureau of Education.
History: E. H. Roberts, New York: The Planting and Growth of
the Em^re State (2 vols., Boston, 1896) is a popular but rather
superficial treatment of the entire period. Tlie early historical docu-
ments of the state were collected by E. B. O'Callaghan in his Docu-
mentary History of the StaU 0/ New York (4 vols., Albany, 184^
1 851); and more completely in DocumenU Relating to the Colonial
History of the StaU of New York procured by J. R. Brodhead (i5 vols.,
vols, i.-xi. edited by E. B. O'Callaghan and xii.-xv. by B. rcrnow;
Albany, 1853-1883). O'Callaghan edited A Calendar of Historical
Manuscripts in the Offiu of the Secretary of StaU of New York (2 vols..
Albany, 1865-1866). E. B. O'Callaghan. History of New Nethertand
(2 vols.. New York. 1846). and J. R. Brodhead. History of the StaU of
New York (2 vols., NewYork,^ 1853 andj87iy are the sundard works
tna ' ' . . — • . . .. ^ .
k.
Century (2 voU.« New York, 1009) include the history of the province.
on the early history. Mrs Marti . ,
New York (2 vols.. New. York, 1877) and Mrs Schuyler
Rensselaer's History of the City of -....-
j. Lamb's History of the City of
^77) and Mrs Schuyler Vai
New York in the SevenUenti
William Smith's History of the LaU Prooince ef New York, from its
Discovery to 1762 (1st part, 1757, reprinted in the 1st aeries of
the. New York Historical Society CotUaions, 2 vols., 1 829-1 830) is
still the chief authority for the period from the English Revolution of
1688 to the eve of the War of Independence. For the same period,
however, consult C. W. Spencer, Phases of Royal Gonemmera in
New York, 16^^1-1719 (Columbus, 1905). John Fiske, The DuUh and
Quaker Colonies in America (2 vols., Boston.. 1900) is admirable in
its generalizations but unreliable in its deuils. G. W. Schu>icr,
Colonial New York: Philip Schuyler and his Family (2 vols.. New
York. 1885) is a family history, but especially valuable in the study of
In-'^-t affainr ar-" -'- ?.-.-- ,.-^-n:s of th- !--•-! '— -•- A.'c.
Fli' k :- L,i.-¥isif-m m l'i t -,■ pitk LiurtTi^ t'ur. ,-i r^r-rf* .j n t\.r:^-iit-Hi.ri (NcW
Yc-rlc, 1901) and H. V. Juhtl»H3n'3 Com pais" ^/ ^TT^ around New
Yvrk und Erooilyn (Brocklyn, 187$) aire ihurough stiidies. For the
military hiaiDr>' ol the War uf tridrpciuJcnci? asaUa jautn Winsor's
NurjaUiv and CrUUni Hitlery £f America. voL vL (EcKton, 1888).
Focfctricily (K>ti[LCjl histon' ^a?t a senii^ df ^icles by Carl Ekcker
in the American ffisjifriiai KsfHe^, vob* vi,, viL arw Ix., and the
Poliikst ScUrute Quiiritrty^ vd- xvh'ut J* D, KamcnDnd's liitory ef
Pciiikal Pcxriki in ikt Stale of Nr^t YGrk {2 vol*,. Albany, \t \2) and
D. % A]t>tandt^r'i Pdttkoi Hiuoty of the StaU p/ New Jtrrfe t,i^ vols..
Nt'W York, 1906-1909). See alio E. P. Cheney, The AnH'Rent
AjtitmioK in the Stafe ^ New York (Philaddphiat i8»j)i Charles
McCarthy, *' Tht Anli-^lasonic Party " in vol. L pp^ 365-574 of the
Annual Re port hr 1903 ot the American Hiitoncai A»<qctation:
N. E. Whitford, IlUtory of the Camsl SysUm of the Siaie cf N^w York
(Albany, 1906). (N. D. W.; \V. 1. A.)
NEW YORK (CITY), the largest dty of New York sUte, U.S.A..
situated at the junction of the Hudson river, here called the North
river, with the narrow East river (actually a strait connecting
Long Island Sound with the Upper Bay), and between Long
Island Sound and the Atlantic Ocean. It is composed of 6ve
boroughs: the Borough of the Bronx on the south-easternmost
part of the mainland of New York state; the Borough of Man-
hattan on ManhatUn Island (including also other small islands')
immediately S. and S.W. of the Bronx, and bounded on the
W. by the North river, on the E. by the East river, and on the
S. by New York Bay; the Borough of Richmond (Staten
Island, g.v.), the southernmost and westernmost part of the ciiy;
and on the western end of Long Island, the Borough of Brooklyn
{q.tu)t and, N. of it, the Borough of (Queens. The city hall, in
the southern part of Manhattan Island, is in lat. 40* 42' 43' N.
and long. 74' o' j' W. The greatest width of the city E. and
W. is x6 m., and the greatest length N. and S. is 32 ro.; its
area is about 32697 sq. m. (285-72 sq. m. more than in 1890),
of which Manhattan Borough constitutes neariy ^1-93 sq. m.,
the Borough of the Bronx about 41 7 sq. m., the Borough of
(^eens about 1 29s ^- >"•• '^^ Borough of Brooklyn 776 sq. m.,
and the Borough of Richmond 5 5- 2 sq. m.» The tolal waterfront
of the city b 341-22 m., and much of it, especially 00 the lower
part of Manhattan, is made ground.
New York harbour is one of the most beautiful, largest and
best of the world's great ports. Over the bar (Sandy Hook),
about 20 m. S. of the S. end of Manhattan Island, b the *' Main
Ship Bayslde-Gedney channel," 1000 ft. wide and 30 ft. deep.
By 1909 the Federal government had completed 7} m. of
the Ambrose channel farther to the E. and 40 ft. deep, and
950-1600 ft. wide (2200 ft. b the projected width).* A third
*The more important of these small islands are: Blacloh-cU's
(about 120 acres) in the East river. Ward's N. of BlackweH's. aiwJ
fUndall's N. of Ward's, separated from it by Little Hell Gate, and
in the mouth of the Harlem river: in the Upper Bay, Governor's
Island (originally 65 acres: enlarged by the addition of loi acrrs
to the southwest), a U.S. military reservation, about 1000 yds, S. oi
the Battery, the southernmost point of Manhattan Island; Bcdkie'^
Island (sometimes called Liberty Island from the Bartholdi
statue on it of " Liberty Enlightening the Workl "), with an area of
13) acres, lying 2 m. b.W. of the Battery: and Ellis Island, i) m.
W.S.W. of the Battery, occupied by the Federal govemmem a* a
landing-place for immigrants. In the Lower Bay. and a part of the
Borough of Richmond, are the artificial blands. Swinburne (1866-
1870: 8 m. S. of the Battery) and Hoffman (1868-1873; 7 m. S. of
the Battery), constructed for quarantine stations.
* Manhattan and Bronx boroughs compose New York county: the
counties of (^eens and Richmond are coterminous rcspccti\^y with
the boroughs of those names; Brooklyn Borough b coextensive with
Kinn county.
■The narrowness of the channel makes the tidal sooor more
effective, and it was little £lled in even when sewae|e and garbage was
dumped in the Bay itself. The river carries little silt and leaves roost
of it well above the harbour'. The natural excellence of the harbour
may be inferred from uie following figures: in 1895-1903 the Federal
Part of
NEW YORK CITY
NEW YORK (CITY)
6ii
chAnnd, the South and Swash, b used by coasting vessels drawing
about so ft. The harbour is divided into Uiree parts: the
Lower Bay, the Upper Bay and the North and East rivers.
The Lower Bay (about 8S sq.m.)of which. Raritan Bay on the
S.W., Sandy Hook Bay on the S.E., and Gravesend Bay on
the N.E. form parts, and to which the channels mentioned afford
entrance from the ocean, has Staten Island to the W. and N.,
Brooklyn to the N. and E., and the New Jersey shore to the
S. and W. The Upper Bay has an area of 14 sq. m., is the
immediate embouchure of the North and the East river, is
connected with the Lower Bay by the Narrows (minimum
width I m.) and with Newark Bay to the W. by Kill Van Kull,
immediately N. of Staten Island, and, except for these four
narrow water-ways, is enclosed by land. The North river
(maximum depth, 60 ft.) b here about i m. wide and the East
river (maximum depth more than 100 ft.; in Hell Gate channel
about aoo ft.) is about } m. wide and, from the Battery to
Throg's Neck and Willett's Point, where Long Island Sound
proper begins, about 30 m. long. The north-east entrance
to the harbour, from Long Island Sound by the East river,
used prindpally by New England coasting vessels (especially
coal barges), was made navigable for vessels of 25-27 ft. draft
by the Federal government, which in 1870-1876 and in 1885
widened and deepened the formerly dangerous narrows and
removed the reefs of Hell Gate, between Manhattan Island
(E. 88th Street), Blackwell's Island, Astoria (on the Long
Island shore), and Ward's Isknd. The third great entry and
commercial feeder to the harbour is the North river, by which
the great inland water-borne traffic of the Hudson river and the
Erie Canal is brought to the port of New York. On the North
river are the piers of the transatlantic steamship companies,
part of them on the New Jersey side at Hoboken (q.v.). The
coastwise trade with New England, especially through Long
Island Sound, b largely from the East river, to which a part
of the Hudson river traffic makes its way by the Harlem river.
The Harlem b a place of anchorage for small craft.
The narrow approaches to the harbour from the ocean and from
Long Island Sound make its fortification easy. On Sandy Hook,
less than 8 m. from the nearest points of Rockaway Beach and Coney
Island on the other side of the entrance, is Fort Hancock, established
as a military reservation (1366 acres) in 1892; it received its present
name in 1895, and has an artillery garrison. Between the lower
and upper bays, on the Narrows, are Fort Wadsworth (1827; named
in Konour of General James S. Wadsworth (1807-1864), killed in the
battle of the Wilderness), on the Staten Island side, a reservation of
230 acres, including Fort Tompkins, on higher ground than Fort
Wadsworth proper, and, across the Narrows, on the Long Island
shore. Fort Hamilton (1831), with a reservation of 167 acm.
Older fortifications are Fort Lafayette (1807: calksd Fort Dbmond
until 1823), between Forts Hamilton ana Wadsworth on an artificial
B^nd, now used to store ordnance and supplies, and Fort Columbus
(1806). South Battery (1812) and Castfe Williams (built in 181 1 by
Jonathan Williams (17SO-1815). who planned all the earlier forti-
fications of New York harbour; it is now a military prison), all on
Governor's Island, where are important barracks and the New York
arsenal of the Oranance Department. The north-eastern approach
to the harbour, at the entrance to Long Island Sound, b protected
by fortificatkms. Fort Totten, at Willett's Point (1862). and
directly across from thb battery by Fort Schuyler j(i826;
post established 1856) with a reservation of 52 acres on Tnrog's
N«;lc
Cedoty- — Manhattan Island* (13} m. long; maximum width —
at 14th Street — 2} m.; average width about 2 m.) b a "group of
fneissofd blands separated . . . by low levcb slightly elevated above
tide and filled with drift and alluvium " (L. D. Gale in W. W. Mather's
Geology of New York, 1843), with a steep west wall from Manhattan-
ville 7i2Sth Street W. of 8th Avenue) S. beyond 81st Street, and a
much steeper east wall. Upon its first occupatbn by the Dutch the
i^nd was rough and rocky with brooks, ponds, manihcs and several
expenses for important harbour improvements, principally dredging,
were $1,035400 for New York, 12,710,000 (exclusive of $1,185,000
for the Uelaware Breakwater) for Philadclphb. $1,501,169 for
Boston, $1404.845 for New Orleans, and $470,000 for Baltimore.
> See Wm. H. Hobbs, Configuration of the Rock Floor of Greater
Sew York (Washington, 1905). Bulletin 270 of the U.S. Geological
Survey, with an excellent summary of the earlier literature. The
studv of the underlying rock of Manhattan Island and its vicinity
has Deen stimulated by the great engineering and building enter-
prises ia the city limits.
swamps.* Superficially, the bland may be divided into: an areaol
drift, S. of 2ist Street.on the East river, of 13th street on Broadway
and of 31st Street on the North river; a second, narrow area of
drift running from Hell Gate N.W.to Manhattanvillein a line parallel
to the Harlem; a limestone' (Inwood limestone) area on the Harlem
from its mouth to the sharp turn in its course; a second and smaller
limestone area on the Spuyten Duyvil in the north-westernmost part
of the island ; and the remainder areas of gneiss, the larger part being
in two great " islands," one between the line of E. 21st Street, I3tn
Street and W. 31st Street, already mentioned, and a line from Hell
Manhattanville and covering all the narrow N.W. part of Manhattan
Island except the second limestone area on the Spuyten Duyvil.
These two kneiss areas have a southerly tilt; they are named re-
spectively Washington and Momingside HeighU. In all these areas,
except the limestone, the underlying rock u what b styled Man-
hatun schbt (see U.S. GtologU Atlas, N. Y, City, folio No. 83). The
waterfront of Manhattan does not correspond in direction with lime-
stone belts, but b probably due to lines of fracture (see W. H. Hobbs.
in Bulletin, Geok)gical Society of America, xvL 151 -182).
The Borough of the Bronx b made of high N.E. and S.W. ridges,
sbping E. to the lower shores of Long Island Sound; and the
Boroughs of Brooklyn and Queens form part of the great terminal
moraine. Low serpentine nills (300-380 ft.), with a N.E. and
S.W. trend, occupy the central part of the northern end of Staten
Island; W. of this is Jura-Trias lormation. crossed in its centre by a
narrow strip of igneous dike rock; the E. and S. part of the isbno b
Cretaceous. Yellow gravel is one of the many evidences of gbcial
drift; but the S.E. part of the island was not encroached upon by the
moraine.
ClimaU. — A combination of marine and continental influences
produces a humid climate subject to sudden changes of tem^rature.
The temperature, however, rises above 90* F. only six days m a year
on the averase; it rarely falls below zero; and in a period of thirty-
eight years, from 1871 to 1908, extremes ranged between lOO*, in
September 1881, and -6*, in February 1899. The mean winter
temperature (December, January and February) b 32*; the mean
summer temperature (June, July and August) b 72*; and the mean
annual temperature b 52*. The average montnly ratnfaU ranges
from 3-2 in. in May to 4-5 in. in July aixl in August, and the mean
annual precipitatran b ^4*8 in. The average annual fall of snow
amounts to 37 in., of which 1 1*5 in. falb in February. 87 in. in Januaiy
and 8*2 in. in March. The' average number of houn of sunshine
ranges from 150 in November to 271 in June. The prevailing winds
are N.W., except in June when they are S.W.
Streets.— \n the downtown portion of Manhattan Island, a strip
about 2 m. long, some streets follow the irregular water-fronts
and others cross these; and on the west side thb irregularity
extends farther N., in the former Greenwich village (W. and
N.W. of Washington Square), where West 4th Street, running
K.'W., crosses West i3th Street, running S.W. north of Houston
Street, then North Street, the northernmost limit of the occupied
city; in 1807 a commission laid out the island into streets, which
were numbered from S. to N. and were called East and West, as
they were E. or W. of Broadway, below 8th Street, and of Fifth
Avenue, above 8th, and into avenues, which were numbered * from
E. to W., Twelfth Avenue being on the North river waterfront.
East of First Avenue in a bulge of the Island S. of 23rd Street
four additional avenues were named A, B, C, and D, Avenue
A being one block E. of First Avenue. Afterwards Madison
Avenue was laid out midway between Fourth and Fifth Avenues,
N. from 23rd Street, and Lexington Avenue, midway between
Third and Fourth Avenues, N. from 21st Street. The most
important of the avenues is Broadway, an unfortunately narrow
street in the busy downtown part of its course. From BowUng
Green, immediately N. of the Battery, it goes in a straight line
(E. of N.) for about 2} m. to loth Street; then bears off to
the W. It b caUed the Boulevard from 78th Street to i63nd
Street in its course between Amsterdam Avenue and West
End (or Eleventh) Avenue (to 104th Street), and then as a
continuation of West End Avenue; and thence to the Yonkers
city line b called Kingsbridgc Road. The monotonous regularity
of the rectangular street plan of Manhattan above i4tb Street
b partly redeemed by thb westward trend of Broadway, the only
« See a paper. " Old Wefls and Water-Courses on the Island of
Manhattan,' by George Everett Hill and George E. Waring, Jr., in
Historic New York: Ike First Series of the Half Moon Papers (New
York, 1899).
' In the Boroueh of the Bronx the system of numbered avenue;*
no longer holds, but the crosr streets are numbered consecutively.
W. 262nd Street being immedbtely S. of the Yonkers line and t
242nd and 243rd immedbtely S. of the Mt. Vernon boundary.
6l2
NEW YORK (CITY)
©Id Street In tbis part of ihe ctty. Tlie Bow^ryj eii^nding
N. fmm CbathikDi 5qua.r? tq Ea^t 4 Lb Si. (pmctically con-
tlducd by FaurLh Avediifr), is not now a alrctt ot commercial
iraportance, being largely taken up with Yiddish tenements.
Broadway, m its soulhcrcamoat part, is. a 5nancial and basin fS5
street; the tinancial interests centre particularly about WaU
Street,^ whicb is about one-third of a miJe above the BaLtcry,
Tun3-E^ from Broadway, and was named from a redoubt built
here^by the Dutch in 1653 on news of a threatened attack
by the English. The wholesale dry goods district is ori
Broadway and the side streets between Rcade and Prince Streets
and tbe vbolesale grocery distiicL immedialcty W* ot this. In
Maiden Lunc is the wholesale jewelry trade^ The leather and
hide trade is centred immediately S* of the approaches lo Lhc
Brooklyn Bridgen A little farther gp-town on the East Side is
the tenement district,, one of the most crowdcrd in the world.
The principal shopping dlstricLs ate on Broadway from 17 lb
Street to ^ib Street; on Siatb Avenue from i^th Street lo
3.41b Street; and lo an increasing degree on Fifth Avtnue
from 33rd Street to 43'nd Street, and on the cross-streets in this
ar^, especially 23rd, j4th and 43nd Streets. Next to Broadway
tbe best known of the avenues is Fifth Avenue, which eiitcnds
from Washington Square to the Harlem river (i43Td Street) in a
straight Line. On Fifth Avenue there are a few residences in its
lower part and between 34th and 4stb Streets; but N* of 50th
and on the E, side of Central Fark axe many fine residences.
The cross streets within one block to the W. and two blocks
to the E. of Fifth Avenue, Ccnlrjl Park We^t, and in general
the upper West Side and in particular Riverside Drive^ hlghaibovc
the North river, are the newer residential parts of the city.
Parks. — ^The jrark system in i<)o3 included propfrty valued at
l5Oi,604,rS8. The principal parks arc: CcntraV I'aik in Man-
hattan; Prospect Park in BTookKn (^,p,){ and Dran% Park, Van
Cortlandt Park and fYlham fiay f*ark m the Bronx, The fitit park
{as disiincni^hcd from '' squarv ") of atiy PL£e in Manhattan W3»
Central Park [840 acres; bctwcrn 59ih atid noth Streets and
between 5eh asid gth Avenues; about 3^ m. long and | m. W]d[>).
which wa« Laid out (beginning in iB^;^} by F. L. Olmsted and Calvert
Vaux. Nearly one-half is wooded, with a variety of native and
foreign trees and shrubs. The park contains a lar^e pond, the Mere,
tn the N.t. comer; the Crolon rctaininc reservoir and the rrcetvins
reservoir, and other ihcets of water. Near I lac 65th Street entrance
from 5th Avtnije is the Arsenal, the executive quarters of the De-
partment of I^arks, with a meteoroloBical observatory (1869).
Pelham Bay f\irk (1756 acrca). In the north-easternmost comer of
the city, lies on tx»nff Island Sound, Includes Hunter's Island and
Twin Islands, and has a total shore front of about 9 m. Bordcrinj;
on the city of Yonkers, S. (from 362nd Street) to 21:^6 Stncei, 19
Van Cortland I Park {n^2 acres), in which are the Van Cortbndt
Mansion (1748)^ for a time Washington's headquarters and now a
kevolutionary Sluscum under the CoL^ial Dames, a parade-ETound
(j5 acres), and Van Cortlandt Lake^ a ska tins pond, liast of Van
Cortlandt Park is Woodlawn Cemetery^ Mosholu Parkway (600 ft,
wide and about 6000 ft, long) leads from Van Cortlandt Park lo the
S.E., and Bronx and Pelham Parkway (400 fu wide and i?,ooo ft.
long) from Pelham Bay Park to the S.W, connecting I hfsc parks with
Bronx Park ijiq acres) on either sidu of the Uronx river, a small
stream which here broadens into bkcg^ and ponds ami has a fal^ at
the lower end of the park- ISronx Park reaches from 180th Street to
205th Street, The northem part is occupied by the f^cvr York
tVotanical Gardens and the southern part by the Zoological Park.
Battery I'ark is at the southern end of Manhattan; hvre ate the
^fcw York Aquarium {in what was until 1896 Ca-itU- Garden, on the
site of Fort Clinton) and a ehildren's phygnound (1903), in City
Hall f*ark are the public buildLn|i;s mentioned below.
The other down- town open spaces are small ; many of thtm are
recrrjalifjn grournds, some, such as Mulberry Bend Park and flamilton
Fish Park, being on the site of former slums, condemnfd by the ciljf
at great expense. Especially in this part of the clt>' municipal
recreation piers and frve baths have been constructed. Washington
Square {faJ7)» between VVaverky PLice, Woystcr and Macdc^ugal
Streets, at the foot of 5th Avenue, became a pauper burial-ground
about 1797, and was laid out as a park in 18:27; on ihe N. side of the
pquare there are still a few fine old residcnceSr Union Square^
betu'^cen Broadway and 4th Avenue, is a favourite place for work-
men '5 mass meetings. Madison Square la reclaimed swampy ground
on which there was an arsenal in l8o6-lfllSH then a parade-groundf
»nd in i 855-1 Sjjri a municipal Houm? of Refuge in the old barracks,
»nd which wa^ then laid out as a pirk and was a fashionable centre in
t8sO'l&7S. Bryant Park on Sixth Avenue, betwetn 40th and 4ifld
Streets, was a Potter's. Field in 1EJ13-1823, and in 1B5J was the ailt' of
» See F. T. HUl, Stety «f a Strut (New York. i^).
a world*! fjiir with Crystal Filue, which wa» d?«¥roy«d in 1858. In
Dc Witt Clinton Park Kiwecn 52nd and 54th Streets 00 the North
river, thei¥ ^sn the firsi children'^ farm school' in Nev York.
Kiiver^ide Park (140 acres; jB?3), between 7 and and tigith Streets,
on the North river front, i4 a bnely wooded natural terrace vith
winding paths. Momine^ide Park {ill acre«), between W. IlCRh
and tajrd Streets, beau tiff ully woocfed, ^and Mount Morris Park
(20i acm) from isoth 1:0 [J4th St ri!cts, interrupting^ Pifth Avenue,
are high rough ground, Mount Morris being tbe highest point on
Manhattan Island.
Amona the other parks in the north part of h'anhattaa Islaiid are:
Roger hlorriii Park, between i6oth and t63nd Streetfi, containing the
Roger hlofris or jumel Mansion (t 763), Washington's beadquarters
for five w^ks in [776, then the headquarters of Sir Henry Qintoo.
and after 1777 of the Hessian officers; Hii^h Bridge Park (73! acres)
at the Manhbittan end of High Orid;^, betiveen W, t70th and l7Sth
Streets; Audubon Park between issth and tsSch Streets, Iroa
fJroadway to the North river, the home in iS40-tisi <ot John Jantes
Audubon; and Ft. VVashington (404 acres) from I7_l»t to 183rd
Streets on the North rivtr, the site of Ft, Washington in the War of
Independence. Along the W, bank of thc^ Harkm river for aboat
3 m, N* and NAV. vi the hiarlem Ri%'er Driveway (or ipcedway).
about 95 ft, wide. Besides the large park» in the Btimic the more
important arc Crotona (i&J'6 acres), and Poe.Park {j\ acres) on E.
192nd Street » the site of t. A* Poe's Fordbarh cottage. The great
baseball grounds of the Natiorwl and American leacucs furnish
amusement to the crowd* interested in professional ba^ebaU. Coney
Islajid [cr.e.), similar resorts on Staten Inland, on the shores of the
North nver and on Long Island on the Sound, and oq the Hudson
river are popular amusement places,
Buildingi. — Tbe city's sky-line is broken by the tall buaness
buildings^ known as *' sky -scrape rs>"' the coDst-ructioD of which
was made jiecessary by the narrownesi of the down-town portioa.
of the inland in which the increasing business population bad
to be accommodated. The ten-storey Tower Building (1889;
5t ft. widci first 9 then it storeys j replaced in 1 508-1910 by
& taller and ^ider building) #03 the ^t of tbese^ and was soon
followed by much taller on^.
The prominent business buildings include tbe Singer Sewing-
Machine Company's BuildinE^C^'^ ft- high, built in 1905-1908
by Ernest Flage)^ the Metropolitan Life Insurance Company^s
Building (6^3 ft.; completed in igoo); the Produce Eichanfr
(with a 3 2 5 -ft. tower) ; the Maidiattan Life Building (with a30o'ft
tower); the Empire Budding (20 storeys); on Wall Street, th
Dreiel Building^ the Trust Company of America Ui 8tore>-s).
and the National City Baxik; on Broad Street, the white marbk
Stock Exchange {i903)« L^e Broad Exchange BtiiSding (a?* ft
b Lgh ) ^ aLod th c Com mercial Cable Building ( j 1 7 f t . high) ; in Cedar
Street, the New York Clearing House; in Liberty Street, the
New York Chamber of Commerce (1QQ3), built of white marbk
and granite^ with Ionic columns^ the Trinity Building (with 1
Gothic facade) and the United Slates Realty Building (both by
F, H. Kimball), tbe City Investing Building (ji storeys;
486 ft. high); in Church Street, the Hudson Terming BuiMifigs
(1909, Clinton & RtisscU), 73 storeys high, with four storeys bdow
ground (including the terminal of ihedovi^n-town llud^ontunncb),
office buLldiugs with a tenant population of to,ooo; in Park
Row, the Park Row Building (jo storeys; 390 ft. hi^), and
the oflice building of the Woffd (the Pulitzer Building, with a
dome 310 ft, high); the white marble Home Life Insanaoe
Building with its ^toping red tiled roof; the Fuller (or** Flatiroo ")
Building f jqo ft. high); and the New York Times Building (363
fh high) at 4-nd Street and Broadway.
The principal public buildings arc; the Customi House (fpo**
1907; by Cass Gilbert), on the site 0/ Fort Amstcrdasn, buill of
granite in the French Renaissance style; in Wjill Street, the
United States Sub-Treasury, on the site of Federal Hall, i«
Vfhich George Washington was inaugurated first president of
the United States; and in and about City Hail P&rk, the Post
' See Jacob A. Riis, " Ciry Farms and Harvest Dances,'* ia the
Cfft.'hfy A/fljjajm* for September 1909.
* On ttic iTicebanical equipment of the New York " tlcyscraper
see R. P. Bolton, " High Office Buildings of New Yoik," vol 143 «
Minuter of FTocfedinis of thf Inuiiniiint ef Civil Ens^etn (190' );
Sec ^\siT> Frank W. Skinner, " The Foundation of Lofty BuiWiags,
in the CtnSjiry Afafaiinc for March 1909.
* See A //iTfory of the Singer SmUisng C(trttlru£ticn (New YoA.
jt;oS}, edittd by O. F. Semich. The bunding 1 atcct columns art
carried on uneuioatic cai3^n picre which reach bed noct 90 ft. bdow
the Btteet-levcL
NEW YORK (CITY)
613
Office, the Italian Renaissance City Hall by John McComb, Jr.,
x8oj-i8i3 (aichitectttially the best of the public buildings); the
Court House, the Hall of Records (French Renaissance), and a
new Municipal Building with a lantern 559 fL high, the main
building of 33 storeys being placed by an arcade through which
Chambers Street runs; a little farther N. and E. of Broadway,
the Tombs (1898-1899), the dty prison, connected by a flying
bridge called " the Bridge of Sighs " with the Criminal Courts;
at Madisbn Avenue and 25th Street, the elaborate Appellate
Court House (J. B. Lord); and on Fifth Avenue (4oth-42nd Sts.)
the new Public Library (19x1). There are several large armouries
of the state militia in the dty, the best known bdng those of
the 7th, 69th and 71st regiments.
Churches. — Historically the foremost religicnis denomination in
New York City is the Dutch Reformed. The consistory of the
Collegiate Church, controlling several churches, is the oldest ecclesi-
astical cMganization in the dty, dating from 1628, when there was a
Dutch church." in the Fort.' After the dty paned into the hands
of the English the Protestant Episcopal Churcn rapidly increased in
power, and in 1705 recdvcd the grant of the *' Queen's Farm "
between Christopher and Vesey streets. This immense wealth is
hdd by the corporation of Tnnity Church. Its present building
(1839-18^; by R. M. Upjohn) is on the site of a church built in
1 696, at the head of Wall Street on Broadway. The bronze doors are
a memorial to J. J. Astor, and the altar and reredos, to W. B. Astor.
In the churchyard are the graves of Alexander Hamilton, Robert
Fulton, Captain James Lawrence, Albert Gallatin. William Bradford,
the cok>nial printer, and General Phil Kearny. Many of the largest
Episcopalian churches in the dty were founded as its chapels, in-
cluding St Paul's (1766), the oldest church building in the dty.
Trinity has several important chapdsdependent on it. The Presby-
terian Church is relatively strons;er in New York than in any other
dty in the country with the possible exceptions of Philadelphia and
Pittsburg. The nrst Methodist Episcopal society in the United
States was formed in New York in 1^66 and still exists as the John
Street Church. The varied immigration to the dty had brougnt in
the other Protestant sects; the large Iridi immigration of the first
two-thirds of the 19th century, and the great Hebrew migration of the
last part of the same century, made the Roman Catholic and the
Jewish denominations strong. The dty became the see of a Roman
Catholic bishop in 1808 and of an archbishop in 1850. The Roman
CathoUc Cathedra], St Patrick's (soth-sist Streets; Fifth-Madison
Avenues), is the head of the archdiocese of New York ; it is the largest
and one of the most elaborately decorated churches in the country,
cs Renwick anid erected in 1850-1879, with a Lady
^ 1903. It b in Decorated style and b built prindp-
ally of white marble. Behind the Cathedral on_Madi8on Avenue is
the arch" " :opal Cathedral
of St Jol ' : ' 1 . i I ; . r ! gside Park, was
begun in ^^^ i liic tirypi ^ad St Saviour's Clvjpcl were conTpletcd
. /i.k. ■^^-,.'c^i 1: i-"-i:hpts arc: Christ Church,
's,an
,,^ . trganized
in 1808). ^iiice lELu m a commiinding posh ion at Broadway and
lOth Street 4 at the drst turn in Broudw^y* vith a building of^ white
designed by Jamci
Chapel added in i<
in 1910. Otntr promiacfit Epiacopalian cbunzhpi; arc : Christ Chv
organizecl In 179+1 the second parish in age to Trinity; St Mark'i
old parish ^rith a. colonbl church (iS^^j) ^ Grace Church (organ
of the
_ ^ Idtngc
limestone m Decocatcd it^k with a graceful stone ^pirej the Church
iatiioa (1640) with John 1^ Fargc^s mural painting of the
, a chancel by Stanford WTiiie, and Sicncse marble walls
and fMilpii; and tbe Church of the Tratj&figu ration (1S49), nicknamed
*• The LJttle Church amund the Corner," and famous under the
charge of Dt Geor^ K. Hotightoo ( 1 Bjc^tSo") as the church attended
by many actors. It has a memorial window to Edwin Booth by
John La Far^P- Of PnrabilcHan churrhe* the Fir«t (organized in
1719) lonu occupied a brick church oti Wall Street, near the old City
Hall, anti since 184s has been on Fifth Avenue between lith and
I2th Stretis; and the Madison S<iuare Church was organized in
1853, aiKl after (007 occupied one of the most striking ecclesiastical
buildings in the city, in a quasi-B^iantine tsiyle» wlili a golden dome
and a fac^tie of h k pale j^reen gran 1 cc Cori n i hian col u mns. The First
Baptist i: h u rch (or£ans2cd 17 &2; present build (He on Broadway and
79th Street ) 15 the oldest and the F ifih Awnuf B^iplis^t Church (18^1)
IS the richnrt scKiety of that denomination in the cttv; the Memorial
Church ( I nj8i is a memorial to Adoniram Judson. The first Congre-
chuitrh is at Broadway and ^th Street. St Peter's (Roman Catholic .
1785) b th^ oldest Cathohc organization in the dty; St Patrick's
(tSis) ^vas formeriy the cathedral church, and St Paul the Apostle
cPauUst; 1859; rebuilt 1876-188^, with decorations by John La
Farge) was caublished by Isaac Hecker. There are many Jewish
^£u.— The principal hotels, clubs and theatres of New York
City have stesdify been making their way up-town. Both hotels and
dubs had their oriein hi the taverns of the 17th and 18th centuries.
gn f>f* aa Frannces'sTavem, on the comer of Pearl and Broad Streets,
built hi 1719, used as a residence of the De Lancey family, sold in
176a to Samuel Frsunces (Washiiigton's steward after 1789), who
opened it as the Queen's Head or Gkieen Charlotte, used for a time
(1768) as the meeting-place of the Chamber of Commerce, and the
scene, in its assembly room, of Washington's farewell to his officers
in 1783; it was restored in 1907 by the New York State Society of
The Sons of the Revolution, which owns the building. There are
now few first-class hotels in the down-town district, the Astor House
beings the prindpal cxctptiffn to the rule thai ihe hotel dS trict is
bounded by ?j™ and syth Streets, and by Fourth lUhI S vcnth
Avonucfi. \Vitn the rapid increaie m the value of Ntrt W^ric City
real estate many apartment-hotelf hav^c bctn built, eipocialty «n the
upper west side. The mo« widely- knoun rc&iaurantsare Delmonico's
ard Sherry's, both at Filth Avenue and 44th Street.
Dm6j.— The cluba of New York arc even more important to the
social life thnn those of London, and most of thtm are splendidly
housed and appointed. The oldest of the social cLubt h the Union
Club, organized in tSj6, The Union Lea^e Club (organiird 1S63,
incorporated tflfi^) m-a* fonni?d by members of the 0-S, SmLtary
Com[ni&&ion, and ts ihccjub of the [eaderfiof the Republican p^rty in
the city. The Democratic organisations corresponding io it are the
Manh;ittnn Club (or^nlwd 1S65, rcon^anized in 1677), and the
Democratic Club, rnorc dqscly allied with the local orfauizaiiion of
Tammiiny HjU, The Mclropolitan Club waa forjpcfl in i*^ji by
members of the Union Club, with *hich the Calumtt Ckb {1S79)
alto is c\o^\y conntttcd. The Knickerbocker Club wa* founded m
1871 by descendant » of early scttWra; and the St Nicholas Club by
descendattt; of residents of the city or stale bcfote 17B5. The
University Club (1665, for college Kraduatcs only) has one of the
hantlsomicst cjub-houscs in the world. Among the ppctlpl clubs
chiefly for writcfA, artii^rs, actarm and musieians, arc the Century
Association (1S47, mennibcrahlp Drigtnally limited to ioo, drvoled
to the ad%'anccmpnt of in and literature); the Lotos Club (1870,
compowd of journa^Trts, artists, musiclani, aclorSiiindl " amatetins "
of litcoture, science and fine arts); the Salmiagundi Club (1871,
ani&t^]: the Lambs' Club (1874, "for the social intercourse of
members of the dramatic and musical professions with men of the
world"): the Flayers' (iMS?, actors and authors, artists and
music ians)t whose building was the gift ol Edwin Booth, its lounder
ard first president; the G roller Club (iSa4, bibliophiles) ; the Couxios
Club (18S5, members must have read von Humboldt's Ccimm);
and the New York Press Club (1872, jotamaliF.ts}. The Sorosu
(iB^) is a women's club^ larfjely profe^iunal. Other elubsare the
New YorL Bar Association (iSjo), the EngimTrs" Club (iBSS), the
New York Aihletic Club (iiS6a), the Racquet and Tennia Club, the
New York Yacht Club [1844, incorporated t8<j^, thejcustodlan of
the " America's " cup) : and the Rltling Club (I Bftj) ;
Society (tSji^) and the Deutschcr Vtj
Army and Kavy Club ilAl
Harmon ie and the Propreiss (1 ^
and the clubs of tlar\'ard ( i SGj), YalCt the UnivCTdty of Pcnnsyl'
Cornell Univcriity and Princeton.
Tkcaires.&c. — The fir^t dramatic performance*^ in New York City
were Kiv-en in September and Di^embL-r 171a by a company from
London which pLiycd at Ptarl Street andTiIaldcn Lbiiie; lite first
playhouse was opened on the 5th of March 1 750, but in 1 758 became a
German Reformed Church ; and the second was opened with Rowe's
Jane Shore on the 38th of December 1758, but remained a theatre
only a little more than six years. What has been called the first
New York theatre, opened on the 7th of December 1767 in John
Street near Broadway, was the Royal Theatre during the British
occupation in the War of Independence, and was destroved in 1798.
In that year was built on Park Row the Park Theatre (burnt 1820;
rebuilt 1821; burnt l8d8) in which George Frederick Cooke (1810},
James W. Wallack (1818^ and Junius Brutus Booth (1821) made
their American debuts, m which Edmund Kean, Charles Kean,
Fanny Kemble and £dwin Forrest pkiyed, and in which II Barbiere
di Siviglia, the first Italian opera given in the United States, was
rendered in 182^, and the first oallet was danced by Fanny EUsler in
1840. Rivals of the Park Theatre were: the Chatham Garden and
Theatre in 1825-1831. and later the Bowery Theatre (qnened in
1826; burnt in 1828, 1836, 1838 and 1845; named the Thalia in
1879, when it became a German theatre; and since 1892 Yiddish).
Among famous theatres of 'the iQth century the following may be
mentioned: Niblo's Garden (built in 1829; burned in 1846; re-
built in 1849; destroyed in X89O was long owned by A. T. Stewart,
and after 1866 was uie scene 01 many spectacular shows. Palmo's
Opera House (1844-1857) was the home first of Italian opera and
after 1848, under the management of William E. Burton (1802-1860),
of comedy. In Mechanics' Hall (1847-1868) E. P. Christy's minstrels,
Georee Christy's minstrels and the Bryant Brothers appeared.
The Astor Place Opera House (on the present site of the Mercantile
Library; 1847-1854) is best known because of the riot at Macready's
appearance on the 19th of May 1849, in which many were killed by
the police and militia. Tripler Hall (1850-1867) was built for Jenny
Lino's d€but but not completed in time. Here Rachel played in
Club (I B«j) t the Frcundschaft
rein (1874) \ut Germans; the
?bn
); Ecveral Hebrew clubBf notably the
the Catholic Club of New York,
> See T. Allston Brown, A History of the New Yorh Stage (3 vols.,
New York, 1903).
6i4
NEW YORK (CITY)
185s. and Patti mode her dibut in 1850. The hall was managed in
18^5 by Lauxa Keene and in 1856-1858 by William E. Burton, and
in It in 1864 the three Bootha plaved Jidius Caesar, and Edwin Booth
played Hamlet for one hunarea nights. It was burned in March
1867. In Booth's Theatre (1869-1883; managed and afterwards
leased by Edwin Booth), Sarah Bernhardt made her American
d6but (November 1880); and in the Pkrk Theatre (Broadway and
3ist Street; 1875-1882) Stuart Robson and William H. Crane first
played together. Light opera was first introduced in 1864, open
Douffe in 1867, and Gilbert and Sullivan light opera in 1879; and
The PiraUs ofPeuxance was produced in New York before it was seen
in London, most of the older theatre^still in existence have become
houses of vaudeville, melodrama or moving pictures, as, for example,
the Academy of Music (14th Street and Irving Place; opened in
■854), until about 1883 the home of the best opera, in which Christine
Niuison, Parepa-Rosa, S41vini and Emma Nevada made their
Anierican debuts. The Broadway (1888) was the scene of Edwin
Booth's last performance, as Hamlet, in March 1891. In connexion
with the Empire Theatre (189J) is the Empire Dramatic School.
The two largest places of amusement are the Madison Square Garden
(opened in 189^ and the Hippodrome (Sixth Avenue and 4^rd-
i4th Streets). ' The principal concert halls are Carnegie Music Flail
(1891 ; built by Andrew Carnegie for the Symphony and Oratorio
Soaeties) and Mendelssohn Hall. The Metropolitan Opera House
(1882; burnt 1893; immediately rebuilt) gave in 1884 the first
season of German opera in America, under tne direction of Leopold
Damroech. The ManhatUn Opera House (built in 1903 by Oscar
Haramerstein as the Drury Lane) was opened as an opera-house in
December 1906. In 1910 grand opera ceased to be given except in the
Metropolitan. Grand opera in New York hasalways been dependent
for financial success on season subscriptions, and (like the great
miiseums and the zoological and botanical gardens) has been sup*
ported by millionaires. The New Theatre (1909) is practically an
endowed house.
Music. — Musical societies were formed in the x8th cxntury, an
Apollo Society as early as 1 750, a St Cecilia Society, which lasted less
than ten years, in 1 791, and the Euterpean Society, which lived a
half century, in 1709. A New York Choral Society was established
in 1823, a »icred Music Society in the same year and a Philharmonic
Society in 182^, succeeded in 1828 by the Musical Fund Society.
The present Philharmonic Society, composed of professional players,
was organized in 1842 by a New York violinist, Uriah C. Hill (d.
1875). In 1847 was lornied the Deutscher Uederkranz, which has
given much classical German music; a secession from the Ueder-
kranz in i8si formed the Arion Society, which has been more modern
than the Uederkranz, furnished in 1859 the choruses forTannh&user,
the first Was ncr opera performed in America, and brought from
Brcslau in 1871 Leopold Damroach (1832-1885) as its conductor.
He founded the Oratorio Society in 1873 and the Symphony Society
in 1877, and was succeeded as conductor of each of these societies
by his son Walter (b. 1 862); M usical instruction in the public schools
has been under the supervision of Frank Damrosch (b. 18^9),
another son of Leopold, who formed in 1892 the People s Singing
Classes, Dicked voices from which form the People's Choral Union.
ArL — Many private collections have been given or lent td the
public gallerieA of the dty, in which are. held from time to time
excellent loan collections. The lar^gest public art ^lery is the
Metropolitan Museum of Art, for which a committee, including art
patrons and members of the National Academy of Design, drew up
a plan in 1869, and which was chartered in April 1870. General
Luigi Palma di Cesnola (q.v.) became its director in 1879 and was suc-
ceeded (1905-1910) by Sir Caspar Purdon Clarke, director of the South
Kensinston Museum, and in 1910 by Edward Robinson (b. 1858).
In April 1871 the legislature appropnatcd Isoo.ooo for a building for
the Museum in Central Park: tn 1878 the trustees took possession of
the building in a tract of i8i acres in Central Park on Fifth Avenue
between 80th and 85th Streets; and in March 1880 this building was
opened. Additions were made to the south (1888) and the north
(1894). In 1903 the central part of the E. front of a new building
was opened, and under an appropriation of $1,250,000 in 1904 the
building was again enlarged in 1908. Among the benefactors of the
Museum have been: its presidents, John Taylor Johnston (1820-1893).
Henry G. Marquand (q.v.), who gave it nis collection (old masters
•and English school), and J. Picrpont Morgan, and Miss Catharine
Lorillard Wolfe, who gave the Museum $200,000 and her collection of
paintings, Jacob S. Rosen (1823-1901) who left the Museum about
$5,000,000, Frederick T. Hewitt, who gave more than $1,600,000,
and John S. Kennedy (1810-1909), who left it $2,500,000. Besides
paintingsandstatuary tne Museum has collections of glass, Egyptian
antiques, Babylonian and Assyrian seab and cylinders, tapestries,
ancient Eems, porcelain and pottery, armour, musical instruments,
laces ana architectural casts. The New York Historical Society since
18^8 has had the collection of the New York Gallery of the Fine Arts;
in Its art gallery are several examples of Van Dyck and Velazquez,
the best collection in the United States (except the Jarvcs collection
at Yale) of the primitives and the early Renaissance of luly and the
Low Countries^nd a good American collection, rich in portraits and
in the work of Thomas Cole. There is a small collection of paintings
with some statuary in the Lenox Library and there are many private
ooUectioos of note. The National Academy of Design (onianized in
1826; incorporated in 1828) has an ait library, and ttudeots' classes.
The Society of American AnisU (1877) was a secession from the
Academy which it rejoined in 1 906. This Society with the Art Students*
League (1875), and the Architectural League of New York (i8])i)
formed in 1889 the American Fine Aru Soaety. In its building on
W. 57th Street there are good galleries, it is the headquarters oTthe
American Water Color Society (1866), the New York Water Cobr
Club, the National Sculpture Society (1893), the National Society of
Mural Painters and the New York Chapter of the American Institute
of Architects; and the exhibitions of the National Academy of Design
and of the Society of American Artists are held here. The Nationii
Arts Cluband the M unidpal Art Society ( 1 85>3)have club houses in Gra-
mcrcy Park. The Decorative Art Association (1878) has classes and
sales-rooms ifor women artists. There are art classes at Cooper U nioo
(9.V.). Columbia University has a School of Architecture (1881).
Municipal Art, Monuments, Statuary, &c.— The dty charter of
1897 csublished an art commission consisting of the mayor, the
president of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, the president of the
New York Public Ubrary, the president of the Brooklyn Institaie
of Arts and Sciences, one painter, one sculptor, one architect and
three lay membera, the last six to be appointed by the mayor from a
list presented by the Fine Arts Federation of New York. Without
the approval ot this commission no work of art can become the
property of the dty either by purchase or by gift. W'henevcr re-
quested by the mayor and board of aldermen it must act in a samUor
capadty with respect to the design of any munidpal building, bridp
or other structure,' and no munidpal structure that is to cost rooie
than one million dollan can be erected until it has apprm^d tbc
design. The Gty Hall contains a valuable collection 01 portraits.
In front of the Custom House aregroups symbolical of the continents
by D. C. French. The Hall of Records has historic and aUc^orical
statues by Philip Martiny, H. K. Bush-Brown and Albert Wciiwn.
In the Criminal Courts Building are mural decorations by EdtRard
Simmons. The statuary of the Appellate Court House is by T. S.
Clarke, K. F. T. Bitter. M. M. Schwartzott, D. C. French. F. W.
Ruckstuhl, C. H. Niehaus and others; and it has excellent mural
paintings by E. H. Blashfield, Kenyon Cox, C. Y. Turner, H. S.
Mowbray and others. Of the dty's great monuments the greatest
is the tomb (1897; designed by John H. Duncan) of General U. S.
Grant (0.9.) ; this mausoleum is tn Riverside Park, commanding the
North nver, at 1 22nd Street. In the same park at 90th Street is the
Soldiera' and Sailore' Monument (1900; C. W. Stoughton, A. A.
Stoughton and P. E. Duboy), a memoriai to those who fought in the
Union army during the Civil War; it has marMe and granite stair-
wnyt leading up to a pedestal on which are twelve fluted COTinthian
S 'liars arrangea in a drcle and covered with a white marble canopy,
n Bedloe's Island in the harbour is the colossal bronze " Ubcrtv
Enlightening the World " (F. Bartholdi; dedicated 1886; presented
to the people of the United States by the people of France), which »
151 ft. 5 in. from its base to the top of the torch held in the uplifted
hand of the female figure. On the N. side of Washii^on Squart at
the foot of Fifth Avenue is the granite Washington Arch (1889: by
Stanford White) commemorating the hundredth annivcrsar>- of the
inauguration in New York City of George Washington as fii^
president of the United States. Among other public statues and
monuments are: Augustus St Gaudcns's w. T. Sherman (1903). aa
equestrian statue in gilt bronze on a polished granite pedestal in
Fifth Avenue at the S.E. entrance to Central Park, hb D. C. Farragrt
(1880; with a granite exedra for pedestal, designed by Sunford
White) in Madison Sqiiare, and his Peter Cooper (1894), a seated
figure on a marble pedestal and beneath a marble canopy (dcagned
by Stanford White) immediately below Cooper Union on the Bo»rr\ ;
F. W. MacMonnies's Nathan Hale (1893) »« City HaU Park;
J. Q. A. Ward's William Shakespeare (1870), Seventh Regiment
Memorial (1873), " Indian Hunter " (1868). and " Pilgrim " I18S5)
in Central Park, his George Washington (1883) on the steps of the
sub-treasury, his Greeley in front of the Tribune buildii^. and bis
William Eari Dodge (^885) at Broadway and 3Ath Street; E.
Plassmann's Benjamin Franklin (1872) in Printing House Square:
Alexander Doyle's Horace Greeley (1890) in Greeley Souare; K- F. T.
Bitter's Franz Sigel (1907) in Riverside Park at io6th Street, D. C
French's Memorial to R. M. Hunt (1900), a bust with a semidmilar
granite entablature at Fifth Avenue and 70th Street : and a Colurab«s
Memorial (1894; by GaeUno Russo;erected by the Italian rBsideots>».
a ull shaft with a statue of Columbus, at 59th Street and Sn.-c«th
Avenue. There are rtany other sUtues in the dty. escedally m
Brooklyn (q.v.) and in Central Piirk. In Central Park on a knoU b.U.
of the Metropolitan Museum sUnds the Egyptian obelisk, of rose-rrd
Syene granite, the companion of that on the Thames embaiiknieitt,
London, and like itpopulariy called " Cleopatra's Ncedfe, but
actually erected by Thothmes III.; it was presented to the aty bv
Ismail Pasha. Khedive of Egypt, in 1877, was brought to New ^ ork
at the expense of W. H. Vanderbilt in 1880, and was erected la the
park in 1881. ^ . . -« v, *, _u
Scientific CoOections and Learned Soctetm.—TYve New V«t
Aquarium in Battery Pirk has excellent exhibits of nunne we:
since 1902 it has been under the direction of the New York Zooki^icai
Sodcty (organized 1895), a private corporation which has relatioas
with the Park Department and the city like those of the corpo ra tw a s
in control of the Botanical Gardens, the Natural History Museos
NEW YORK (CITY)
615
and the Metropolitan Museum of Art. Its Zoological Park (opened
1899) (orm* the southern part of Bronx Park, in which the animals
(5528 individuals, iia6 spedes — 246 mammals, 644 birds and 356
reptiles in 1910) are almost perfectly housed — in large houses, flying
eagles, pools, dens and ranges. The Botanical Gardens (incorporated
in 1 891 arid 1894), occupying the N. part of Bronx Park, contains
two large conservatories (the larp;e6t in America), the largest botanical
museum in the world (1900), with lecture hall and museum of fossil
botany in the basement, a collection of economic plants on the
main floor, and a library, herbarium, laboratories, type exhibits of
vegetation on the upper floors, and a natural hemlock grove and
bog garden, pinctum, herbaceous grounds, flower garden, fruticetum
and deciduous arboretum. The American M useum of Natural History
was incocporated in 1869, and is governed by a board of trustees. On
the ground floor of its building (77th-8i8t Streets: Eighth-Ninth
Avenues) are a lecture hall, meteorites, the Jesup collections of the
woods of North America and of building stones, and anthropological
and ethnological collections, particularly rich in specimens from the
Nofth Pacific region, collected by an expedition sent out by Morris K.
Jesup iq-v.). On the main floor are the mammals, insects and butter-
flies ; on the second floor the palaeontolodcal collections, the Cope col-
lection of fossils and (presented by J. P. Morgan)the Bement collection
of minerals and the Tiffany collection of gems ; and on the top floor are
a collection of shells and the library, including that of the New York
Academy of Sciences, which was founded in 18 17 and incorporated
in 1818 as the Lyceum of Natural History, received its pr^nt name
in X876. and publishes Annals (1824 sqq.) and Transactions (1881
■qq.). Other learned societies are : the New York Historical Society
^founded in 1804 ainl incorporateTl in 1800)^ which has a libraiy rich
in Americana, the Lenox (rollfction of Assyrian marbles, and the
Abbott collfiction of Eeryptt^n antiquities; the Am.ertc^'ui Gco-
l^phkaJ Society (foujiatcf irit 853; incorporated in 18^4), which
tsstjCtt a SuBeiin ([8S9 tqq-); the American Numismatic Society
(1859), with an eitcelicnt numismatic libtury and ccllectian^ the
Azxictieaa Sodety of Ovil EngitiKrs (t&^i; with a club hou^ and
libnry); the AoKticiUi Society of Mtdhanical Eng;inccrs [iSSo),
which occupies with the AuMrican Insiitute ol Electrical EngiiniH:rB
and the American [nstftute of Minidg Eneineers (iByt) a building
eiven by Andrew Carnegie; aad the Ni?w York Academy of
Medicine (1S47). with a technical library.
LitJrratKrf. — En liteniture^ New York> position in America is
largely due to the cky's being the hoinc of the principal publishing
hoEjKc;^ and. as the American mecropolis, the home of many authors.
Chiif les Brockdcn Brown, the first American prafessi^joal " man-of-
lettera^" ahhDUE;h a PhiladclpKhn by birth* was connected with
Ne-* York City throughout hij literary careers after him came the
bri u i, fc n 1 K -n i;: kc r 1 1 ■:« Va-t ■:•■ hf>^ <] . i nc 1 m I i n t: I [t i n 1? . Cor.i t «■ r. Ll rv a n t ,
JaiiKrd iiadioiLi^ i>.»«.w. I i^m. o.ww.v lia..vvk, Chaf^krii ¥i:nno lloff-
man (who in 1833 established the Knickerbocker Magazine), N. P.
Willis, Edgar Allan Poe, J. K. Pauldine, Georee P. Morris and Gulian
C. Verplanck. In this early period New York literature centred
largely about the Knickerbocker and the Mirror; and in the later
period the monthlies Harper's (1850), the Century (founded in 1870
as Scribnfr's: present name i88i).and Scribner's (1887) were great
literary influences under the editorship of such men as George
William Curtis. Josiah Gilbert Holland. William Dean Howclls,
Henry Mills Alden (b. i8t6) and Richard Watson Gilder. Richard
Henry Stoddard, Richani Grant White, Bayard Taylor, Edmund
Clarence Stedman, H. C. Bunher and John Bi^elow are other literary
ru&mes connected with New York City and with its periodical press.
The success of the older magazines has brotieht into the field lower-
priced monthlies. The oldest religious weekly still published is the
New York Observer (1823; Presbyterian); its great editors were
Sanauel Irenaeus'Prime from 1840 to 1885 and afterwards his son-in-
law Charles Auj^ustus Stoddard. Others are the Churchman (1844;
Protestant Episcopal), the Christian Advocate (1826; Methodist
Episcopal), the Examiner (1823; Baptist), the Christian Herald
(i 878) famous for its various charities under the control (1892-1910)
of L>r Louis Klopsch (18^2-1910), the Outlook (founded in 1870 as
the Christian Union by Henry Ward Beccher and carried on as a
household magazine by Lyman Abbott), and the Independent (1846)
after 1870 edited by William Hayes Ward.
The city's cosmopolitan character is suggested by the great
number of its newspapers published in other languages than English :
in 1905 of all the periodical publications in New York City almost
one-seventh (127 out of 893) were printed in languages other than
English. 20 languages or dialects being represented. German, Yiddish
and Italian newspapers have Urge circulations, and there are
Bohemian, Greek. French, Croatian, Hungarian and Slavonic dailies.
To a degree the New York press- is metropolitan, also; but the
American press is not dominated by the newspapers of New York
as the English press is by that 01 London (see Newspapers: United
States).
Education.* — ^The Dutch West India Company was bound by its
charter to provide schoolmasters. Its first schoolmaster emigrated
1 See Charles Hemstreet. Literary New York, Its Landmarks and
Associations (New York. I9«>3)-
s See A. Emerson PaUner, The New York Public School (New York.
1905)
in 1633 and his school still exists in the Collraiate School, the pro-
perty of the Collegiate (Dutch) Reformed Church. I>own to the
middle of the I7th century the support and control of the schools
remained with the Dutch Church. Later the desire of the English to
hasten the substitution of the English for the Dutch language in the
colony led to an unsuccessful attempt by the colonial government to
reserve to itself the appointment 01 the schoolmasters. An English
public schod was established in 1705 under an Act of 1702, ami in
1710 was first opeiied in connexion with the Anglican Church. It
still exists as the Trinity School. In 1754 King's College, now
Columbia University (o.p.)i was established; the Dutch Reformed
Church made a vain effort to secure control of it, but it became
Anglican in its syinpathies and its teachers were mostly Loyalists.
Before the War of Independence the English language nad practic-
ally carried the ds^, and taken possession of the schools and churches.
In 1787 the \ianumission Society established a free school for
negroes, which was incorporated in 1794. A Quaker society (i798)*
the " Association of Female Friends for the Relief of the Poor,"
opened a school in 1801, which soon became a school for white girls
only; until 1824 it shared in the school fund and it carried on an
infant school only from 1824 to 1846. An association known in
180^-1808 as the Society for Establishing a Free School in the City
of New York (afterwards the "Free School Society," and after 1826
the " Public School Society ") opened its first school in May 1806;
got an appropriation from the state legislature in 1807; m 1819
brought irora England a Lancasterian teacher— for the sake ol
economy the society's schools had always been conducted under the
Lancasterian system with student " monitors " or assistant teachers;
until 1826 was largely under the control of the Friends, giving religious
instruction; and was supported in part by voluntary contributions,
in part by subscriptions from those who desired to share in its
management, and m a small degree after 181 5 by a contribution
from the school fund of the ^ate. For fifty years it did virtually all
that was done for popular education in New York City, and for
nearly thirty years caused the exemption of the city from the opera-
tion of the common-school system of the state; and about 600,000
children passed through its schools.
The Roman Catholic parochial schools opposed the Protestant
character of the text-books used in these public 8choob,and in 1840,
followed by Hebrew and Presbyterian schools, attempted in vain to
secure a i^rt of the common-school fund. In 1842, as a result of this
controversy, the city was brought under the general state system,
but the Public School Society retained control of its own schools.
The Board of Education opened its first schools in 1843. The right
of the Public School Society to put up new buildings was- definitely
withdrawn in 1848; and in 1853 the Society was voluntarily dis-
solved, and its seventeen schools and property (valued at $454^422)
were handed over to the city authorities; from its trustees bfteen
commissioners were appointed to hold oflice through 1854, and in
each ward where there had been a school of the Society three trustees
were chosen. After 1856 the control of the schools was entirely in the
hands of the Board of Education. A compulsory education law came
into effect in 1875. Since 1874 the Board hascontroUed a Nautical
School, a training ship being lent to the city by the Federal Navy
Department. The separate schools for neg^roes were abolished in
i88a; free lecture courses were established in 1888; in 1893 seven
kindergarten classes were established, and after 1896 a supervisor of
kindergartens was appointed by the Board: and in 1894 a teachers*
retirement fund was established, the first in any Amencan city.
In Brooklyn also the early Dutch schools were under the clergy.
In i8isthe schools first received a part of the state common-school
fund. There were separate district schools until 1843 when a Board
of Education was organized.
By the consolidation of 1898 the Boroughs of Manhattan and the
Bronx became a unit for school purposes, the former city Board of
Education becoming the School Board for these two boroughs;
the former Brooklyn Board remained in control in that borough;
and there was a Central Board of Education for the entire city
consisting of eleven delegates from the Manhattan and Bronx Board,
six delegates from the Brooklyn Board, and one each (the president)
from the Richmond Board and the Queens Board. The revised
charter of looi abolished the borough school boards and established a
single board with 46 members (22 from Manhattan, 14 from Brooklyn,
4 from the Bronx, 4 from ()ueens and 2 from Richmond), and a6 local
school boards (distributed as above) of seven members eacn, who
took the place of the former inspectors in Manhattan and the Bronx.
In the City Board there is an executive committee of 15 members.
The borough superintendents were done away with in looi; the
powers of the city superintendent were increased, and a ooard of
superintendents (the city superintendent and eight associate super-
intendents) was created. A board of examiners, nominated by the
city superintendent^ and appointed by the Board of Education,
supervises examinations taken by candidates for teaching positions,
appointments to which are governed by rigid civil service rules.
The development of public high schools has been rapid since the
consolidation. In 1909-1910 trade schools and schools foO the
anaemic were establis^ied. There is an excellent system of evc^ng
and vacation schools.
A Free Academy founded in 1848 for advanced pupils who had
left the common schools was empowered to grant degrees in 1854,
6i6
and in 1866 became tbe College of the Gty of New York, with the
Board of Education as its Board of Trustees. In 1900 a separate
Board of Trustees (nine members appointed by the mayor) was
created. Before 1882 no one was eligible for entrance unless he had
attended the city's public schoob for one year. In 1007 the College
removed to new buildings on St Nicholas Heights between 138th
and 140th Streets, the old buildings at Lexington Avenue and 33rd
Street being used for some of the lower classes of the seven years*
course. The retention of the secondary school in connexion with
college, although there are now well-equipped public high schools, is
one of the anomalies of the New York educational system. In 1 871 a
Normal School for Girls, since 1910 the Woman's College of the City
of New York, was established as a part of the public system. Since
1888 public lectures for adults have been given under the auspices of
the Board of Education, usually in school-houses; and in 1899 the
Board opened evening recreation centres in school-houses, in which
literary, debating andathletic clubs meet. For the charitable schools
see S Charities.
The oldest institution of higher education is Columbia University
(q.vX New York University was chartered in 1831 as the University
of the City of New York, and in 1896 received its present name.
The University Council is the corporation ; ir consists of 3a members,
eight eotng out of office annually. The University Senate has
immediate control; it is composed of the chancellor ,* two professors
of the University College, and the dean and a professor from each
of the following schools — law, medicine, pedagogy, graduate and
applied science. The work of the collegiate department was begun
in 1833; a university building at Washington Square was erected
in 1 8^3-1835; a ^^ school, on a plan submitted by B. F. Butler of
New York, was established in 1835, a medical school in 1841, the
School of Applied Science in 1863, a graduate school in 1886, a school
of pedagogy m 1890, a veterinary college (formed by the union of two
previously existing schools) in 1809, and a School of Commerce,
Accounts and Finance in 1900. In 1894 the College of Arts and
Pure Science and the School of Applied Science were removed
to a commanding and beautiful ute on Washington Heights (about
E. i8i8t Street^ above the Harlem river, the schools of law and
pedagogy remaining at Washington Square where a Collegiate
Division was opened in 1903; in 1895 the Metropolis Law Sdiool
Mas consolidated with the Umversity; in 1898 the Bellcvue Hospital
Medical College became a part of the University school of medicine.
On the Washington Heights Campus the principal buildings are the
library (1900), around a part of which extends an open colonnade,
500 ft. long, which is known as the Hall of Fame for Great Americans,
and in which the names of great Americans (chosen at intervals by
the ballots of 100 prominent educatocs, hbtonans, &c.) are inscribed
on memorial tablets; and Gould Hall, a dormitory, which like the
library and the Hall of Fame was the gift of Miss Helen Miller Gould.
In 1909-1910 the University library contauned about 65,000 vols,
and the law library 33.000, and there were 354 instructors and 4036
students (966 in the School of Commerce and 739 in the Law School).
For Fordham University see Fordham. Other Roman Catholic
colleges are: the College of St Francis Xavier (Society of Jesus;
opened i&(7; chartered 1861); and Manhattan College (Brothers
01 the Christian Schools; opened 1853; chartered 1863) at Broadway
and 131st Street, in the district formerly known as Manhattanville.
Among the technical and professional schools, excluding those of
Columbia University and New York University, are: the (general
Theological Seminary of the Protestant Episcopal Church (opened
1810; in 1830-1822 in New Haven; then re-established in New
York City), beautifully situated in " Chelsea Village " on a block
(Ninth-Tenth Avenues and 30th-3ist Streets) given for the purpose
by Clement Clarke Moore (1779-1863)' in buudines largely the gift
of Eugene Augustus Hoffman (1829-1903), dean of the Seminary in
1879-1903, and of his family, who put it on a sound financial bAsi%;
the Union Thcoloeical Seminary (i8t6; Presbyterian), which is
representative of the most liberal tendencies in American Presby-
terianism (q.v.), especially in regard to text-criticism; the Jewish
Theological Seminary of America (1886), chiefly supported by the
synagogues of New York, Philadelphia and Baltimore: the College
of Physicians and Surgeons in the City of New York (1892; sec
Columbia University); the Cornell University Medical Colkrge
'1897; see Cornell University); the Eclectic Medical College
1865); the New York Post-Graduate Medical School and Hospital
.1883) ; the New York Polyclinic Medical School and Hospital (1882) ;
the New York Medical College and Hospiul for Women (1863) ; the
NEW YORK (CITY)
*The chancellors have been: in 1 831-1830 James H. Mathews
(d. 1870); in 1839-1850, Theodore Frelinghuysen (d. l863); in
1853-1870, Isaac Ferris (1798-1873); in 1870-1880, Howard
Crosby; in 1881-1891. John Hall; and in 1891-1910, Henry
Mitchell MacCracken (b. 1840). Dr Ferris was a minister of the
(Dutch) Reformed Church and the three chancellors since his time have
been Presbyterian clergymen; but the University is not sectarian.
'C. C. Moore (177P-1863), son of Benjamin Moore (1748-1810;,
who was Protestant Episcopal bishop of New York and presklent of
Columbia College in 1801-1811, was professor of Biblicaf learning in
the Seminary in 1 831-1850, compiled a Hebrew and English Lexicon
(1809) and wrote mme poetry including the popular juvenile verses
beginning " 'Twas the night before Christmas.
New York Colltgt of Dentistry (tS6S); and the Cqiifge of Dental
and Oral Surgery of New York (igf)?), AmonK the norirtal schoob
arc: thi? Teacher' CoilrRe of Colurnbia Lniverslty lj.».); the
School of Pedagocy and the kindcrgLtncii train'mg school fif xNewYork
University; the kindergarten triiiniiig ^hciot of Pratt Irjjtitute in
Brooklyn {q.v.): the Krau^ Senanary for Kindcj-gariencrs; and the
Kindergarten Normal i^epartment of the Eihkal Culture Schocd
under the Ethical Culture Society. Of the cnany prrvate %condary
schools in New York the oldest are the Colit-f iate Sclic»l and Trinity
School (see above). The Columbia Crammif Sthool (1764) was
originally a preparatory' du^partment of Cotumbia College.
Other educational irvitituciorjs of a popubr chanicter are Cooper
Union (q.p.) iktid the People'* Institute * tintorporated in iB^),
which hylda iis meetings and k-ctures in the Cooper Union Building.
Its most active pnoniotfr and long its managing dirccior ¥ as Charks
Sprague Smiih (t 853-1910), who was profcsior oJ modem languares
at Columbia University in t^So-tSqi, and in T&p6 ot^anind wt
Comparative Literature Society; he was cipccully assisted by
Richard Hel:#r Newton (b. 1840)^ a Protestant Episcopal denymaa
of broad and radir^l religious and socul view*, and by Simoel
Comptr^. The aicn was to suppty a " continuous and ordenRl
edij cation In social science^ history h lueniturc and such otb<.r subjects
as time and demand 4hall deterfnirK< ^' and " to aliDird opportunities
for the interchange of thought upon topic* of general inh rest . . .
to asr%t in the solution of prMcnt pfoblcini*'* Tlie institute b
primarily a free evening school of social science and a fcrum f<w the
dij.cuf-5.10n of queationi of the day+ There arc, bcsid. +, Sunday
evenmp ethical services, "a peoples church/" ^kkh h^v attracted
much attention, and several Institute Club»'' of a scklliI nature,
some of ihcm for children. The People's [n^tiiutc tri^aniaed a
censorship of " movEnfr pictures " to which moEt Anieh<:4n manu-
facturera of these films voluntarily Submit- Cheap concerts are
given in Cooper Union by the Peiipfe'a Syiophony Concert Associa-
tion in conjunction willi the People's InstitUlt;,
For the [Jroolclyn In? [It ute see BiioaKLirM. The Young Men's
and Young Women's Christian Associations have clasacf, especiaUy
for working people.
Libraries.—" The New York Public Library, Astor. Lenox sod
Tilden Foundations," was the result of the consolidation in May
1805 of the Astor Library (founded by- the bequest of $400,000 by
John Jacob Astor; incorporated in 1849; opened in 1854: further
endowed by William B. Astor, who gave it about $550,000 and by
iohn Jacob Astor, the younger, who gave it about $800,000 and
uilt the hall in Lafayette Street in which the library, for emeral
reference, was housed until 191 1), the Lenox Library ((mginsDy
the private collection, particularly rich in incunabula, Amencam.
genealogy and music, of James Lenok ^1800-1 880),, a biblic^ik
and art amateur, given by him to the aty in 18^ and until 1911
housed as a special reference library, in a buildmgl designed by
R. M. Hunt, on Fifth Avenue, between roth and 71SC streets), and
the Tilden Trust (to which Samuel J. Tildcn left his private library
and about $4,000,000 (most of his estate) for the establishnient of a
public library, but which, owing to a contest by the heirs, was unaUr
to secure the entire bequest and received only about $2,000,000
from one of the heirs). In 1902-IQI i a new building was erected to
house these collections. With the Public Library the New York
Free Circulating Librar^r (incorporated in 1880; re-incorporated in
1884) was consolidated in 1901 ; and in the mrxt two years se\Tral
other free libraries, including one for the blind. In 1901 Andrev
Carnegie gave more than $5,000,000 for about 65 branch libraries,
the city to furnish sites for them and maintain them. The larEt^
and best eouippcd of the college libraries is that of Columbia Uri-
versity. The library of Cooper Union has a complete set dT patent
office reports and files of newspapers. The Mercantile Library \1i20:
established by an association of merchants' clerks) is a subscriptioa
library at Astor Place; the New York Society Library* (on Lr.i-
versity Place) is a subscription library, the oldest in the city, bein^
the outgrowth of a reading room established in the City Hall in 1700
by the earl of Bellomont; it was incorporated in 1754 as the City
Lihnn- n-td in 177? unHrr it- mt name. The C»eneral Society
of Mi■■^1Kirli^--..^l1d Tl.i := led in 1785) sincc i820 has had 1
circLjbting ]!brir>'t whirh vinh Uie DeMilt (reference) and tbc
Slade (architectural collections), contains about 99.000 volumes.
Charitifi, — The citj has a commissioner and two deputy con-
midiMf:tner5, of pubtic cn.iri ties, but this municipal department worts
largeti|f' through private or^aT]i£atiic»ns, the municipal appropriatiofis
to which exceed the amount actu^iUy expended through institufio»
controlled bv the city.* Municipdl institutions include: Bclfc^iif
Hn^piMl (op(:ncd 1S16). which in 1 369 established the first hospital
ambul-inrc smice in the world, nfir which there b an Eniergtocy
Hu r'-[ ■:. \ n^7^: f- r rv'-^rr'-.r - r -J ■ .-s, and in connexion with which
« See C. S. Smith, Working with the People (New York. 1904). a«*
the Annua! Reports of the Managing Director of the People's I nstitute.
« See A. B. Keep, History of the New York Society Library (Sew
York, 1909).
• See H. R. Hunt (ed.) New York Charities Directory (191I1 f^
1910), published annually by the Charity Organization Society: and
W. H. Tolman and Charies Hemstreet. The Better New York (iwi
published by the American Institute of Social Service.
NEW YORK (CITY)
617
«re the Gonvemeur Reception Hotpital (1885), the Harlem Re-
ception Hospital and Dispenaaiy (1887) ; ana the Fordham Reception
Hospital and Dispensary (1893); the City Hospital (1853) and the
Metropolitan Hospital (1875), both on Blackwells Island; for
contagious diseases Willard Parker Hospital (1866) and Riverside
Hospital (1885; on North Brother Island in the East river); and
for the sick, cripi^ed and idiotic destitute children, the New York
City Children's Hospitals and Schools (1837; on Randall's Island).
The Manhattan State Hospiul on Ward's Island (1871: now used
for patients from New York and Richmond counties only) Central
I slip State Hospital, on Loncc Island, in Suffolk county (tor Queens
county and outside of New York City, Suffolk county) and the Long
Island Sute Hospital (for the county of Kings) are the state insane
asylums for the population of New York City.
The Charity Organization Society (organized and incorporated
in 1883) investigates claims for chanties and secures employment
for apf^ieants, nas a bureau of information and a sociological
library; has done much effective work through its Tenement House
Committee and its Committee on Prevention of Tuberculosis, has a
sch^T-' -' -^-••-— ^ •- : T ^jT^iQCil tr -"^^ bin vr'th
a IV he
Stftcth a gitt of jrjjbn S. Kennci-ly, liitrre 13 liuusea,. besidfa the Chjf ity
OiripiLn.LKation Socicfy, the Childncii's Aid Society (iSjj), whkh v-as
founded by Chark&Lortng Brace (1836^1890), its first secretary, has
estabUshtd industrial schools and lods^ing houses (the earliest r^34»
being a Newsboys' Lodging House in New Chambers Strtet)^ vacat ion
vihools, kuidcrgtirtcnit evfolmij elapses. Bummcr, houn-s at Hath
BcatH (for crippled pt\$} and \Vc*t Coney Island, and a farm stts'X)!
at Keiuico, and fitufs hori» for ornhani and homclc«ji child ixn. In
ibe same btitldmg are the New Yorlc City Mtssian and Tract Society
fiS^?, incorporated in tS6y; undenaminaEional], the first American
orranifatina ta introduce district nuning^ whoie work Ls all done
boTow ijTh street, anrf the A~?iid.T:tbn for Improving the Condition
of ih- r . ■■.■■:•■ ■■'", \ "',.'■■' " ■ ■ rtof
rehvi. _■ .-. I- ^ :■'. ■...<.^..::. ..:,......,. J , , . . 1, - 1 : T i f I -, J - rrPlc'S
baths, and has founded the Hartley House (a memorial to Robert
M. Hartley, who established the Association), a neighbourhood
settlement. The Society of St Vincent de Paul in the City of New
York (organized 1 83$; chartered 1873) is the local Roman Catholic
charitable organization. The United Hebrew Charities was formed
in 1874 by the union of four Hebrew societies. The Russell Sage
Fo^jn.l^r'— ' ^ •-- ^— ' — -•- '''— "^'-'- "--Jt r- rnt n-r-Ty
local ... .:. :...:.. .: L„ :.^..l, ^;^_...„-..l J^^.^j l:.. .,.:, ,. . ild
iKfping dtrpartrncnt, and a school hs'^^icne dopartratnt. " Iristi-
lutianal work " by the churches is Tn-ell devcfoped.
Trade and domesdctchoob include the Hebrew Tft:hnical InjttLtiite
and the licbrmf Tcchftieal School for Q\xh\ the New York Tndc
SchoDl.: Grace Imiltute, endowed by VV* R» Grace (twice Ma>urof
New Yotk City) for the iastniclion of women in t tides* the M in-
hattan Trade Schcwl for Glrli; the America n. Fomalc Guard san
Society and Home for the FricndlH^; the Baron, de Hirsch Tf,ide
Schoobj in connexion with which there are day and evening schools
for the instruction of immigrants (Russian, Galician and Rumanian)
in the Enj^ish language, and a colony with an agricultural and
iridostrial school at Woodbine, N.J.; the Clara de Hirsch Home and
Trade Training School for Worbng Girb; the New York Cooking
School; and the Association of Practical Home Making Centres.
The New York Diet Kitchen Association(i873) has established diet
kitchens in connexion with many dispensaries. The City and
Suburban Home Company (i 8|96) provides good apartments at cheap
rentals; the Society for Ethical Culture has promoted the same
work: and the Mills Hotels, erected by D. O. Mills (1835-1910), are
low-priced bat self-supporting lodging houses.
There ace many orphanages and day nurseries and there are about
thirty permanent homes for adults in the boroughs of Manhattan
and the Bronx. The New York Society for the Prevention of Cruelty
to Children was incorporated in 1875, and the children's court
movement in the city has been connected with this society; in its
work and in that of the Society (or the Prevention of Cruelty to
Animals Henry Bergh (1820-1888) was the American pioneer. The
Society for the Reformation of Juvenile Delinquents (1824) maintains
a House of Refuge on Randall s Island ; and the New York Catholic
Protectory (1862), under the Brothers of the Christian Schools and
the Sisters ol Chanty, b of a similar character. An imoortant work
has been done by the Society for the Suppression ol Vice (1873),
and by the Society /or the Prevention of Crime, organized in 1877
and re-organized m 1891 by its president Charles Henry Parkhurst
(b. 1843), a Presbyterian clergyman.
The New York Institution for the Blind was incorporated b 1831
and originated the New York point system of tangible writing and
printirw for the bUnd: the Society for the Relief of the Destitute
Blind (1869) and the New York Association for the Blind f 1006) are
noteworthy. The New York Institute for the Instruction of the Deaf
aiul Dumb (1817), of which Harvey Prindle Peet (1794-1873) was
firiiKripal in 18^1^1867, is a free state school and the first oral school
or the deaf in America ; the Institution for the Improved Instruction
of Deaf Mutes (1867) is a free city school; St Joseph's Institute for
the Inoproved Instruction of Deaf Mutes (Roman Catholic; 1869)
tui5 a acfaool for boys and one for girls.
Among special hospitals the fonPTnosc arc : the NVw York Eve and
Ear Infirmary (1820), the New Vurk Ophthalrnic Hospital (1853),
the Manhattan Eye and Ear ard Throat Hospiul (i^), the New
York Orthopaedic Dispensary and Ho&pital (tiJ66), the New York
Skin and Cancer Hospital (i88jK the General Mi^madal Hoipiial
for the Treatment of Cancer (I'^s^), the New York Qa':te-riDlogical
Institute (189a; maintaining tno New York Fa&Leur ]jis|jtute)« and
the Neurolcwical Institute (1909) . I m portant rr&eareh is u nderukea
by the richly endowed RockefcPcr Institute for Medieaj Resean'k
The St John s Guild (1866, non-8i.:Ljr!aji)ni:iintalna floating hospitals
for tuberculosis patients and a sea-slJe hospital at New Dorp*
Staten Island. There b a roof c:inip lor tubcrcutoua patients on the
Vanderbilt Clinic (i886),afreedL'peD5ary, connc'cted with the College
of Physicians and Surgeons.
Many of thegeneralhospitals have already b^en mentioned in the
list of medical schools; others are: the New York Hospital (1771),
St Luke's (1850), Mt. Sinai (i8<2), the Roosevelt (opened 1871), the
Presbyterian (opened 1872; undenominational), the J. Hood Wright
Memorial (1862; called the Manhattan Dispensary until 1895). the
Hahnemann (1875), and the Flou'cr (1890; homoeopathic; surgical).
Population. — New York is by far the largest city in the
United States in population, the census of 1910 returning
its numbers as 4,766,883, and in the whole world is second
to London only. Seven-eighths of the present area was
annexed in the decade 1890-1900; and in those years the
population increased from 1,515,301 (for an area of which the
population in 1900 was 2,050,600) to 3,437,302. In 1905 the
population by the state census was 4,000,403; of the separate
boroughs: Manhattan, 2,102,928 (in 1900, 1,850,093; in 1890,
1,441,2x6); Bronx, 271,592 (in 1900, 200,507; in 1890,88,908);
Brooklyn, 1,355,106 (in 1900, 1,166,582; in 1890, 838,547);
(Queens, 197,838 (in 1900, 152,999; in 1890, 87,050); Richmond,
72,939 (in 1900, 67,021; in 1890, 51,693). In 1900 there was
a slight preponderance of females (1,731,497 females; 1,705,705
males); the ratio of native born to foreign bom was about
as X76 to too (2,167,122 native bom; 1,270,808 foreign bom);
less thxui x-8% (60,666) were negroes; and less than 019%
(6321) were Chinese. Of the native population seven-eighths
(1,892,719 out of 2,167,122) were natives of New York state.
Of the foreign-bora population (1,270,080) in 1900, more than
one-fourth (322,343) were Germans; more than one-fifth
(275,102) were Irish, nearly one-eighth (155,201) were Russians,
principally Jews; more than one-ninth (145,433) were Italians;
and the next largest numbers were: 71,427 from Austria, 68,836
from England, 31,516 from Hungary, 28,320 from Sweden,
25,330 from Russian Poland,^ 191836 from Scotland, 19,399
English Canadians, 15,055 from Bohemia, 11,387 from Norway,
10,499 from Rumania, 8371 from Switzerland and 5621 from
Denmark. In x 900 more than two-thirds of the entire population
was of foreign parentage, 2,643i057 being the number of all
the persons of foreign parentage and 2,339,895 the number
of persons having both parents foreign-bom; of this latter
number 658,9x2 were German, 595,267 were Irish, 237,875 were
Russians, 2x4,799 were Italians and 103,497 were Austrians —
these numbers as compared with the figures just given for the
foreign-bora f uraish a hint as to priority of the Irish and German
immigration to that of the Russian Jews, who like the southera
Europeans and the Slavs came to New York in comparatively
few numbers more than a generbtion before 1900. There are in
New York City more Germans than in any city of Germany,
save Berlin, and more Irish than in Dublin. There are many
well-defined foreign commimities in the city, such as " Little
Italy " about Mulberry Street, " Chinatown " on Mott, Pell
and Doyers Streets, the Hebrew quarter on the Upper Bowery
and east of it, a " German Colony " east of Second Avenue
below X4th Street, French quarters south of Washington Square
about Bleecker Street and on the west side between 20th
and 34th Streets; a Russian quarter near East Broadway, a
" Greek Colony " about Sixth Avenue in the 40's, and negro
quarters on Thompson Street and on the west side in the 50's;
and there are equally well-defined Armenian and Arab quarters.
In X900 35% of the total working population were employed
in trade and transportation (in Boston 34%, in Chicago 32%,
in Philadelphia 24%) and 37% in manufacturing and mechanical
* The immigrants from Russian Poland, from Austria Hungary,
from Russia and Rumania are largely Jews, and it is estimated that
one-fourth of the inhabitants of Manhattan are Jews.
6i8
NEW YORK (CITY)
arts (in Philadelphia 41%; in Chicago 35%; in Boston 32%).
In x66z the population of Manhattan Island was about xooo.
In X700 it was probably about 5000, the Dutch and English
being about equally divided, and there being a few French,
Swedes and Jews. In 1731 the population was 8624. During
the War of Independence the city lost heavily; but the recovery
at the dose of the war was rapid, and although the population
probably fell during the war from 20,000 to zo,ooo, in 1790 it
was 33,131, then first being greater than that of Boston. From
60,5x5 in x8oo the population increased to 123,706 in 1820;
to 312,710 in 1840; to 8x3,669 in x86o and to 1,206,299 in
1880. This rapid growth, the large part which immigration
plays in the growth, the marked falUng-off in the character
of the immigrants, and the fact that it is usually the weaker and
less enterprising immigrant who stays in New York while the
more capable go West — all these circumstances combine to
make a serious social problem. The low scale of living of this
poorer class operates with the pecuh'ar physical character of the
city, especially on the lower East Side, where so many of the
more recent immigrants live, to make the question of housing
difficult. In Manhattan and the Bronx 66* 7 % of the population
in 1890 and 72*6% in X900 lived in dwellings in which the
minimum number of dwellers was 21; for the whole dty in
1900 the percentage was 54*4, the corresponding percentage
for Chicago in X900 was 17*9. For the entire Borough of Man-
hattan the average density was X49'0 inhabitants per acre;
but in the Eighth Assembly District (98 acres; on the lower
East Side, bounded S.E. by Henry Street, E. by Clinton Street,
N. by Stanton Street, and W. by Chrystie Street), in which
more than two-thirds of the population is foreign-bom, the
density in 1900 was 735-9 per acre, and in X90S 727 9 per acre.
In twelve tenement blocks in Manhattan in 1905 the density
was over 1000 per acre, the maximum being X458 per acre in a
block bounded by Cherry, Jefiferson, Monroe and Rutgers Streets.
A Citizens' Association with a " coimdl of hygiene and public
health " in x86s employed sanitary experts to investigate the
city's tenements. . In 1879 a prize offered for the best plans for
tenements was unfortunately awarded to the so-called " dumb
beU " tenement, in which the court for air-space gives little air
or light, and many of these tenements, which, however, were
a great improvement on the older types, were built. In X902
the further building of " dumb bell " tenements was forbidden
and a new Tenement House Commission was appointed. Model
apartments have been built: in 1855 by the Workmen's Home
Association, organized by the Association for Improving the
Condition of the Poor; by the Improved Dwellings Company
of Brooklyn and the Improved Dwellings Association of Man-
hattan (1879); by the City and Suburban Homes Company
(1896); and by some individuals. The dty is comparatively
healthy; for the five years X901-X905 the average death rate
was i8-99 per thousand for the entire city, 20-96 for the Borough
of the Bronx, x8-64 for the Borough of Brooklyn, x9-49 for the
Borough of Manhattan, i6'X2 for the Borough of Queens and
x8o8 for the Boroujdi of Richmond.
Uommunicaiums. — ^The physical Umiutions of Manhattan Island
and particularly the drcumstance that the business area of the city
is small and thiat the movement of passengers is almost entirely in
one direction at any one time, have hindered the development of a
simple and adequate system of local communications. Between
Manhatton and Long Island there were in iqio four bridges, three of
them completed in the decade immediately before ioio, three of
them to Brooklyn (q.v.) and one to Long Island City; the New York
and Brooklyn Bridge (1872-1883), with a Manhattan terminus at
Park Row, and the Williamsburg Bridge (1897-1903) from Clinton
and Delancey Streets, Manhattan, to South 5th and 6th Streets,
Brooklyn, are suspension bridges^or a technical description of them
see Bridges. voL iv. pp. 537-538. The Manhattan Bridge (1901-1909)
is a wire cable suspension bridge situated between the two just
mentioned; its Manhattan terminal is at Canal Street and the
Bowery, and its Brooklyn terminal is at Nassau Street. It b the
largest of all suspension bridges with a total roadway length of
6855 ft. (Manhattan approach 3067 ft.; Brooklyn approach 1868 ft.;
two land spans of 735 ft.; river span 1470 ft.) and a width of 1225
ft. It has a double deck, the lower for two surface car tracks and a
wagon way, and the upper for footways and four elevated railway
tracks. The Queensboro Bridge (1901-1909) is a cantilever from
Second Avenue, between 59th and 60th Streets. Manhattan, to Long
Island City, with sustainii^ towers on Blackwell's Island. Its total
length, including a plaza in (Jucens 1152 ft. long, is 8601 ft. (Manhattan
approach 1052 ft.; Queens approach 2672-5 ft.; west channel span
1182 ft.; isbnd span 630 ft.; east channel span 984 ft.) and its
width is 80-5 ft. over all, the roadway being 53 ft. and the two side-
walks each 16 ft. All of these bridges are crossed by electric cars
and on the bridges to Brooklyn there run surface cars and devated
trains. In 1909 an avcra|» of 4249 trolley cars and 3088 elevated
cars crossed the Brooklyn Bridge every week day; for the Willtanu-
burg Bridge the corresponding averages were 4473 trolley cars and
918 elevated train cars. The Harlem river is crossed by about a
dozen bridges, including High Bridge, which carries the city aoue-
duct. The ferries to Brooklyn are lesa important than in the days
when there was only one bridge and no subway conneidon between
Manhattan and Brooklyn; the opening of the Pennsvlvania-Loog
Island railwav tube in 1910 in the same way made the ferry from
^th Street, Manhattan, to Long Island City comparatively uo-
tmportant; and the Pennsylvania and the Hudson river subvaj-s
have to some degree taken the place of ferryboats on the North river
for passenger traffic between Manhattan and railways in Nev
Jersey. Between Manhattan and the various islands (to North
Brother Island from E. x6th; to Ward's Island from E. Ii6th: to
Randall's Island from E. 135th and E. 120th) of the river and bay
including Staten Island the only means of transportation is still by
ferryboats; the ferry line to Staten Island b owned and c^xntcd
by the municipality. In Manhattan the first adx-ancc made on the
horse car — which was still used to some extent in 1910, especially on
streets along the water front — was the elevated railway ; on i[rtat
iron trestles of varying heights the first of these railways was built in
18'- -'»- - '^^-r, ^^ i-rh*trrr- "' - "--• nd Ninth A\-enuc
f n ■ 1 * ^ „ 18 built on Sixth
A^L-nue, LfjitjLliiii^ otfun S^rd SifLft tu xNLr.th A^i r^ue, and on lioth
Street to Eighth Avenue and ninntng on Ei^htl^ Avenue to the
Harlem river (i^5(h Street), a dUunce of [o| m. ; soon afterwards
the Second and rhird Avenue Unci vtire bulk horn the Brookhu
Brsdice to the Hartem river, and the Line now ext'mds toFordham
(iijoib ?itn.i:i), a distance of 13 m. In 1902 the nn'T i vc power of these
elcvjicd traiEis Vk^s changExl from steam toriL^rrci^. In 1886 a
cabk' far im,- was o|x-nciJft the can« bcin^ ofHTatH by a clutch (or
•' prtp ") wit'in!^ ^ muvlnif endlc^ rable in a »iat beneath the road
bciJ ■ but in li'i)^ I he " undc-jTgtDund t«>llcy " 6> tcm began to be
substitLiied. OutAide M^nhatt^n ihe overhead tr>'lley isprevaleat.
In ifKw-1904 an-TthcT era iti " rapid trani->t " m New York was
bc;:-;^: U: t'- ■ --.- ^ - v - ^- ■ -^ 'Y^ ^-
eU
to KingiUiii^u u^uil: ^;it~t/ *.;:d iiy j, v,. * iuu;, turiuttg to the E.
from 104th street and running, above lioth Street, on Lenox
Avenue to the Harlem river and then through the Bronx to West
Farms (i8oth Street) at the S.E. entrance to Bronx Park. In 1901-
1906 the subway was continued to South Ferry and was carried
under the East river to the juncUon of Atlantic and Flatbudi
Avenues in Brooklyn. The construction company received a fifty
years' franchise for the operation of this subway. In 1908-1909 two
more underground lines were opened connecting Manhatun with
Hoboken (the terminus of the Delaware, Lackawanna & Western)
and Jers^ City (the terminus of the Erie, the Pennsylvania aui the
Central of New Jersey railways) by tubes under the Korth river; one
of these extends up Sixth Avenue to 33rd Street, near the newterminal
of the Pennsylvania railway, from which by 1910 tubes had been
carrittl immediately E. and under the East nver to Long Island and
immediately W. to the New Jersey side. The munidpaUty in 1910
contracted for the construction in Manhattan of lines on Broadvay
and Lexington Avenue and on Canal Street across town and for the
continuation in Brooklyn of the subway to Coney Island and Fat
Hamilton.
The opening of the Erie Canal made the city the gateway for ces-
municatton by water from the Atlantic Ocean to the interior of the
continent.^ and when the great railway lines were built westwani it
became the chief railway terminal on the Atlantic coast. Water
communication up the Hudson river and through the canal is still of
great importance. The New York Central & H udson river and West
Shore radways follow closely this water route to Buffalo. The Erie,
the Lehigh Valley, the Pennsylvania and the Delaware, Lackawama
& Western railways reach Buffak> by routes acrosa. New JerKjri
Pennsylvania and western New York. The New Yoric, New Haves
& Hartford railway affords communication with New Ei^land; and
the Pennsylvania and the Baldmoce & Ohio railways, with the middle
western and south-eastern parts of the country. The Central Ra3>
road of New Jersey and the Long Island railway (belongina to the
Pennsylvania; are more local. The New York Central & Hudsoa
river and the New York, New Haven & Hartford railways have a
terminal in the borough oS Manhattan, and the Pennsylvania has a
terminal there also, since 1910, with tunnels to Long Island and Nev
■ V ay subway with
x>ve42ndbtroet)
* Between 1840 and 1858 the tonnage cleared at New York netrif
Siiadrupled, the increase being from 408,768 to 1,460,998; at the
ose of the period of the pr^ominanoe of the cajnal as a freic^
carrier, in the decade 1850-1860. New York City had. thanks to the
Erie Canal and the canals oi Ohio, a monopoly of the trade of the
upper Mississippi basin*
NEW YORK (CITY)
619
Tcney; but the other nihrays have their terminals on the New
Jersey bank of the Hudson and are reached either by ferries or by
subways under the i-tver. The New York Ontral tracks are sunken
from the Grand Central Station for about 50 blocks and then run on a
trestle (like the " elevated " railways) for the rest of their course in
Manhattan. Ten steamboat lines afford commuaicatbn with the
dties and towns on the Hudson. The Old Dominion, the Qyde and
the Savannah are among the more important coastwise lines connect-
ing the city with ports on the South Atlantic coast. The Metropolitan
line connects it with Boston, and the Portland line with Portland;
aod there are several lines to ports on Long IsUnd Sound. Among
great trans-Atlantic lines which serve the city are the Cunaid and
the White Star lines to English. French and Mediterranean ports;
the North German Uovd, and the Hamburg-American Knes to
En^ish, French and German ports; the Compagnie G^n^rale
Transatlantique to French ports; and the Holland-American
line to the Dutch port of Rotterdam; the docks of some of these
lines are on the New Jersey side of the North river, in Hoboken.
There are also lines to the West Indies, Central and South
Amierica.
Camwurce.-^Tht lack of railway lines direct to wharfs and piers in
Manhattan is one of the commercial disadvantages of the city.
The value of the imports received at the port of New York, which
comprises New York Harbor and the Hudson river, increased from
5518.796,561 in 1899 to $891,614,678 (or 60-4 % of those of the entire
country) m 1909; the value 01 Uie exports from 1476,609,351 in
1899 to $627,782,767 (or 36*3% of those of the entire country) in
1909. The importations of works of art, furs, laces, diamonds,
su^r, coiffee, spices, cocoa, india-rubber, cigar wrappers, tin, cheese,
hemp, hides of cattle and gloves of Idd or other leather at New York
are especially large as compared with the other ports of the country ;
and so are the exportations of chemicab ana medidnes, copper,
machinery, illuminating oil and hardware.
The city is the prinapal centre of the New Worid for the whole-
sale grocery and'dry-goods businesses. Here are the country's most
important " exchanges," including the Stock Exchange (1793), the
Produce Exchange (the New York C>)mmercial Association in 1863-
1868), the Cotton Exchange (1871) and the Consolidated Stock
Exchange (1885); and here are the richest and most powerful
banks and trust companies in the New Work! and the great New
York Clearing House. The Chamber of Commerce of the dty
was first ofganized and was chartered in 1768, and was reorganized
in itM-
ifamttfaaures.—Many of the manufacturing industries, notably
the manufacture of clothing, are favoured by the abuiidance of
immigrant labour. Others, such as the refining ci sugar and molasses,
derive an advantage from their position with respect to imported
raw materials. Still others, e.g. the refining of petroleum, denve an
advantage from their position with respect to the exportation of the
finished products. The growth of manufactures was promoted by
the rapid growth in commerce after the opening of the Erie Canu
(iSas) and by a great stream of inunigration, and New York became
the foremost manufacturing city in the United States about the
middle of the 19th century. The value of its manufactured products
iiicreased from $1,084,850,236 in 1890 to $i^7if358,468 in 1900,
and the total value of factory products^ from 91,172,870,261 in looo
States except Chicago ami ](^hiladelphia. Printing and publishing,
with products valued at $ii6,877i594> ranked second. In 1905 the
highest degree of localization of any industry in the country was in
lapidary work, of which 96>5 % of the entire output of the country was
produced in New York City, ifaore than 60% of the total for the city
being produced in Brooklyn. The boroughs of Manhattan and the
Bronx produced in that year goods valued at $1,043,251,921, or a
fittle more than two-thirds of that for the entire city; and in this
part of the city is made more than 95 % of the clothing manufactured
u all the city. The Borough of Brooklyn producM nearly thrre-
fourths of the remainder.
Water Suppty.—Th^ water supply* of the colonial city was derived
from wells and from the many fresh-water streams and ponds which
have now almost without exception been filled in. A system, draw-
iw water from Collect Pond, was installed in 1774-1776 by
Christopher Colles (1738-1821), but thb never was in actual opcra-
tioo. In 1709 the Manhattan Company was tncorpoFstcd ostensibly
to supply the city with water, but under an omnibus clause in its
charter it devoted itself to the banking business. In 1829 the dty
built a reservoir on 13th Street. In 1830 De Witt Qinton suggested
the Croton river as a source of supply. Between 1837 and 1893 were
constructed the first Croton Aqueduct, the Bronx nver Conduit and
the New Croton Aqueduct (sec AQUEDUCT),with maximum dischaiges
* The census of 1905 was confined to establishments underihe
factory B>'8tem; the total for all manufactured products in 1900
fthe figure given in the 1900 census) is greater than the value <^
factory products only (the figure given for 1900 in the 1905 census,
90 that figures for 1900 and 1905 may be comparable).
> See Edward V^smana, Tltf Watef Supply of the City 0/ New
riwA (New York. S96), ^ ^
resp ec ti vely of 95,000,000 nis., 38,000.000 gals, and 303,000,000
gab. a day.^ In 1905 a new Water Supply Commission was created
W. side of the Hudson); thence an aqueduct was constructed whidx
crossed under the Hudson river between Storm King and Bear
Mountain to the Kcnsico storage reservoir at White Plaiin, to a
filtration phmt near Scarsdale and to the Hill View distributing
reservoir in Yonkers, and from this reservoir to the five boroughs of
Greater New York ((>ueetts and Richmond boroughs both being
supplied from Brooklyn) by tunnels, the supply for Staten Island only
being pumped through pjpcs. One of the largest of the new reser-
vfxrs within the city limits is the Jerome Park. The water supply
for the typical New York City " sky-scraper " cannot be forced to
the higher storeys of these bufldinn by the pumps of the municipal
service, and such buildings must oaye each its own installation of
engines for thb purpose. In 1908 a high pressure water supply
system was installed for fire-protection of a part of the city below
3^ Street ; induction motors driving multi<«tage centrifugal pumps
Eve sufficient power to force the water to a &re in the top of the
ghest buildings. (See Firbs and Firs Extinction.)
Administration. — By the dose of the Dutch period the city
had become practically self-governing. But in the permanent
form of English government that was established by the Dongan
charter, granted in 1686 when the English crown was attacking
the privileges of municipalities in the mother country, the mayor
and sheriff were appointed by the governor and council; the
recorder, town clerk and clerk of the market were appointed
either by the king or by the governor; and although the alder-
men and assbunts were elected by the people no ordinances
of the common council could remain in force more than three
months unless they were confirmed by the governor and council
The Montgomerie charter of 1730 was mainly an enlargement
of the Dongan charter. Fromi777toi82i the mayor was chosen
by the state council of appointment, consbting of the governor
and four senators; from 1821 to 1834 he was elected by the
common council; since 1834 he has been elected by the
people. In 1730 the' common council was divided Into two
chambers: the board of aldermen and the board of assbtants;
and the mayor and recorder were excluded from membership.
In 1853 a board of sixty coundlmen, in which was vested the
sole right to originate acts appropriating money, was substituted
for the board of assistants. The latter was restored in 1868,
but was abolished in 1873 when the board of estimate and
apportionment was created. Until 1849 the common council
was an executive as well as a legblative body, and for many
years the government was administered chiefly by its committees
and by the heads of departments which it created and appointed;
and the mayor's veto could be overcome by a bare majority vote
of the members elected to each chamber. In 1849 the choice
of the heads of departments was given to the people, and in 1853
a two-thirds vote of the members elected to each chamber
was required to pass an act over the mayor's veto. In 1857
the state legislature began the appointment of boards and com-
missions for the performance of various functions, and. from this
state interference and the popular election of the heads of depart-
ments resulted a divided responsibility in the city government.
The present state constitution (1894) affords some protection
against state interference, and under the Consolidation Act of
1883 and under the present charter of " Greater New York,"
granted in 1897 and revised in 190X, responsibility centres In
the mayor.
The mayor b elected for a term of four years. With the
exception of that of finance he appoints the heads of all depart-
ments: law, water supply, gas and electricity, fire, street
cleaning, bridges, docks and ferries, parks, public charities,
tenement house, health, correction, police, education, taxes and
assessments. Even in the department of finance he appoints
the chamberlain and two commissioners of accounts, who examine
the receipts and disbursements in the ofi&ce of the comptroller
and chamberlain and may examine the affairs of such other
offices or departments as the mayor may direct. All officers
appointed by the mayor may be removed by him, except certain
judicial officers, and the members of the board of education.
■ See A. D. Flinn, " The World's Greatest Aqueduct " in thf
Century iiaiaaiue for September 1909.
620
NEW YORK (CITY)
The aqueduct commissioners, the trustees of the CoUege of the
City of New York, and the trustees of Bellevue and allied
hospitals, however, are removable only for cause and after a
hearing. The mayor's veto of a franchise passed by the board
of aldermen is final; his veto of an ordinance or resolution
of the board which involves the expenditure of money, the
creation of a debt or the laying of an assessment can be over-
come only by a three-fourths vote; and his veto of any other
measure of the board can be overcome only by a two-thirds
vote. Special dty legislation passed by the state legislature
is referred to the mayor for his acceptance; if he does not
accept it, it may be repassed by both branches of the legislature
but must then be marked, when referred to the governor,
" passed without the acceptance of the city."
The department of finance b administered under the direction of
the comptroller, who, like the mayor, u elected for a term of four
years. He prescribes the manner in which the accounts in the other
departments shall be kept and rendered, and all such accounts are
suDicct to his inspection. His warrant, drawn on the chamberlain
ana countersigned by the mayor, is requuxxl in making a payment on
behalf of the city, lie settles claims in favour of or aj{ainst the city.
No real estate can be purchased or leased by the city without hts
consent. No contract, the expense for the execution ol whkh is not
in part cover«l by assessments on the property benefited, is valid
without his signature. Legislation affecting tne city's finances is
determined mainly by the board of estimate and apportionment
consisting of the mayor, comptroller, president pf the board of
aldermen, with three votes each ; the prcsklents of the boroughs of
Manhattan and Brooklyn, with two votes each; and the presidents
of the boroughs of Queens, the Bronx and Richmond, with one vote
each. Every October this board prepafes the budget for the ensuing
year. It is required to submit the same to the aldermen for approval,
but the aldermen are not permitted to Increase an appropriation, to
insert any new appropriation or to reduce that for tne |)ayment of
state taxes, that tor the payment of the interest on the city debt or
any of those the amounts of which are fixed by law: and in case
(hey reduce others their action is subject to the mayor s veto which
they can overcome only by a three-fourths vote.
The city's budget grew from $90,778,972 in 1900 $1^6,545,148
in 1909; the assessed value of its taxable property, real and personal,
from I3>654>i32,i93 in 1900 to $7,250,500,559 ($5,423,313,599 for
Manhattan and the Bronx) in 190Q, when the real eaute was valued
at $6,807,179,704. The net funded debt in December 1909 was
$653,370,370. the gross bonded debt being $046,005,738; the floating
debt was $60,367,390. and the sinking fund was $233,368,060.
Amoni^ the large items of the 1909 budget were: $37,470,737 for
education; $47,325,078 for redemption and interest oi the city
debt; $30,33^,115 for miscellaneous dty and county expenses;
$14,160,303 lor police; $8,438,506 for borough governments;
$8,039,565 for fire protection; $7,418,399 for street iclcaning;
$6,511,143 for water supply and public Ughting; $4,760,651 for
chariuble institutions; $3,310,065 for parks; $3,5i3;6o6 for
public charities ; and $348^,859 for health. The state constitution of
1804 fixed the debt limit of aU municipalities at 10% of the assessed
valuation of their real estate. An amendment of 1890 (in effect
1900) excepted from the debt limit of New York City the previous
debt of the counties now wholly included in the city; another
amendment adopted in 1905 excepted from thu hmit 6ttot»
ip09 (or such public improvements owned or to be.owned by the
city as yield a revenue tn excess of what b required to meet the
interest and principal of such bonds; also indebtedness incurred
prior to January ist 1910 for rapid transit or dock properties
m proportion to the extent to which the revenue meets the interest
ana the instalments to be paid for the redemption of the bonds, such
increase of the debt limit to be used, however, only for rapid transit
or dock improvements. The same amendment (1900) also authorizes
the city to issue, during any one year, in excess of its former debt limit,
bonds to be redeemed out of tne tax levy for the ensuing year to
the extent of one-tenth of i % ot the assessed value of tfic real estate
of the city subject to taxation.
The board of aldermen, whose power b less than formerly, b
composed of a president, elected on.the dty ticket for a term of four
years; the five borough presidents, each elected by his borough for a
term of four years; and 73 aldermen, elected by districts for a term
of two years. Each heaa of an administrative department b entitled
to a scat in the board but no vote ; he is required to attend the board's
meeting whenever it requests him to do so and must answer questions
relating to his department. The board is required to meet once each
month except in August and September. Each administrative
department nas a single head with the exception of the department
of parks, the department of health and the department of educa-
tion; and each head of a department has full power of appointing
and removing subordinates except that a person holding a position
fn the dassified civil service subject to competitive enminatinn cm
be nrmoved en'- ' ^. The head of the department of narks
mnriiMioners: one for the borou^ of
r.'.^ j:>r the boroughs of Brooklyn and
the Bronx; one of the three t
b a lx>ard of ^
M^nhiitMn and 1-. ...;„.. yu%j, 1
S|«;ri:-ri-^ ,ind one lor the Bttn
C-if^nuiCi^J ti> the [tiiyor &a [
dei^.irtniciLt vi health ii S.U"
mis^innrr kif htiiUh, who lb j
mi— iiinr.r and ihv health (i:
edui jjl inn is dtscfitn-d ifb ih'
Kt of the board. The head of tbe
'^d of three members; the oom-
t of the board, the poUce ooo-
the port. The department of
ph on education. Railway, gas
and [ Lairic cpm panics doing bu^im, 6S within the dty are subject.to
the 1 xiciisivie conirol of a public KP^ice commisskm of five membos
wKj are appolnciBd by the g<jvTrnor ijf the state (see New Yoaa).
\ii Ni^w York county, wh>^i' ^ iaes the bofou^ of Manhattan
and Lh^ Bronx, there U np . 9urt,but in its place are a city
court and a court of general sessions. The dty court b a dvil oomt.
bavins iurisdictton over cases in which the amount involved does not
exceed I2000, and b compoaed of seven justioes elected for a tern
of ten yotrs. The court 01 general session b a criminal court, havtog
jurisdktion of all crimes including murder, and b composed of tbe
dty judge* the recorder and three justices of the sesaons. each
elected tor a term of fourteen years. New York county elects s
surrogate for a term of fourteen years, and Kings has two county
judges; but in Queens and Richmond the county and surrocate
courts are the same as in other counties of the state. In ea^ of
twenty-ei^ht districts into which the dty b divided a munidpsl-
court justice b elected for a term of ten years and seiiioiii of the
muniapal court, whkh has jurisdiction of dvil cases in whk^ tbe
amount involved does not exceed S500, are held. For tbe adimiu»'
tration of criminal justice by magutrates (justices of the peace) the
boroughs of Manhattan and the Bronx constitute the firrt divisioii
and the other three boroughs constitute the second divinoa. In esdi
division there b a board of magistrates appointed by the mayor for
a term of ten years, and the magistrates hold the several courts of
their diviskm in rotatu>n according to such rules as they thenschre*
establish. There b also in each division a court of special 1
onsisting of six justices appointed by the mayor for a term of ten
rears; it nas iurisdiction in all misdemeanour cases except Ubd sod
Dust be hda by three justices. In the first diviaioa both the
magistrates and the justices of the court of special scisioni are i«>
quired to hold a separate court for hearing charges against chUdres
under sixteen yean of age.
Each borough has a president with extensive power, and the dty
is divided into twenty-five local improvement districts, each haviog
a board composed of the president of the borourii and the aUernaa
representing the district. The president appoinu and removes st
pleasure a commissioner of public works, who, subject to hb control,
directs hb administration rebting to streets, sewen, public buildiosi
and supplies. The borough president prepares all cootracU relatiae
to hb borough. In Queens and Richniona he directs the cluaniiif ot
the streets. In Manhatun, Brooklyn and the Bronx he b directed
by the charter to appointa superintendent of buildings, who, subject
to him and with the aid of inspectors, enforces the ordmanoes of tke
aldermen rebting to the construction, alteration and renoval of
buildings; in Queens and Richmond the borough p re si d en t may
appoint such an officer only when authorized to do so oy the board a
aldermen upon the recommendation of the board of estimate ssd
apportionment. A borough president b chairman of each of tbe
local improvement boards.
History.—The discovery of New York Bay and the Hudson
river by Verrazano in 1524 was followed only by occasioMl
visits of trading or exploring vessek until the arrival of He&iy
Hudson in 1669. Beginning with 1610, Dutch merchants
despatched several vessels to engage in the fur trade with tbe
Indians, and in 1(^14 a ship commander, Adriaen Block, haviog
lost hb vessd, built the " Onrust " or " Restless ** on the short
of Upper New York Bay. About the same time a few hots
were built at the south end of Manhattan Island. When Nev
Netherland had been erected (1623) into a province of the
West India Company (see New York), that body chose tbe
south end of Manhattan Island for a trans-Atlantic shippiog
station and for the seat of government. In 1626 Peter Minsit,
the director-general of the province, bought the entire island
from the Indians for goods valued at 60 guilders (about $24)
and at what was then its southern extremity began the erectioa
of Fort Amsterdam; and at the close of the year the settlement.
New Amsterdam, comprised thirty bark-covered dwellinp-
For several years it was maintained wholly in the interest of
the Company, and to none of the inhabitants, all of whom were
its agents or employees, were given any political rights, title to
land or right to European trade on his own account The
company divided a large portion of the island into six fum cl
iu own, and when by iu Charter of Privileges and Ejoemjidem
NEW YORK (CITY)
621
(1639) it attempted to encourage agriculture in other parts of
the province (see New York State) it reserved to itself the whole
island. In 1633 New Amsterdam received a grant of " sUple
right " by which it could compel any vessel passing the port
either to offer its cargo for saleorpay aduty;in z638the Company
extended to all friendly European countries the privilege of
trading with, the province, and about this time it opened town
lots for sale, llie town rapidly assumed the cosmopolitan
character for which it has ever since been noted, there being,
according to a contemporary report, eighteen languages spoken
by its 400 or 500 inhabitants in 1643. lo x<^4i> to gain the
necessary support to fight the Indians, Kieft had to yield to the
demand for a popular voice in the government, and permitted the
heads of families to choose a board of Twelve Men to confer
with him. In 1643 he permitted the choice of a board of Eight
Men, and ^hen he refused its demands it was largely instrumental
in effecting bis recali Under his successor, Peter Stuyvesant,
a board of Nine Men was chosen, and this body, objecting to
the customs duties which he imposed, sent three of its number
with a petition to the States-General with the result that in
1653 New Amsterdam was made a dty with a government
administered by a schout, two burgomasters and five schcpens.
Chiefly with a view to protection from roving traders the great
burgher-right and the small burgher-right were established in
1657; the great burgher-right being conferred on all who had
been magistrates as well as on those then in office, on clergymen,
on militia officers and on the male descendants of all such
penons; and the small burgher-right being conferred on all
native-bom citizens, on the husbands of native-born women
and on all who had been residents of the dty for a year and six
weeks. Other persons approved by the magistrates were
allowed to buy the great burgher-right for 50 guilders ($20)
or the small burgher-right for 20 guilders ($8). Only burghers
and employees of the West India Company could engage in
commerce, work at a trade or practise a profession, and only
great burghers could hold the more important offices. Originally
Stnyvesant appointed the dty officers, buf in 1658 he permitted
them to nominate thdr own successors. Besides engaging in
the fur trade, the dty was now exporting considerable timber
and food-stuffs; in the coast trade it was beginning to reap
the advantages of its situation on the coast route through Long
Island Sound; and its trade with the Dutch West Indies was
of some importance. But the dty and the Company were always
at odds. The duties exacted by the Company were a heavy
burden and yet the Company did not keep the fort in good
repair. Stuyvesant's arbitrary rule primarily in the interests
of the Company was another grievance, and when in August
1664 there appeared in the harbour an English fleet sent by
the duke of York for the conquest of the province, the dty was
in a defencdess condition. Richard NicoUs, the representative
of the duke, easily won over the burgomasters and other
prominent dtizens; Stuyvesant, practically deserted, was
dnvtn to a formal surrender on the 8th ct September; and
New Amsterdam became New York.
In June 1665 NFcoUs reorganised the government, vesting
it in a mayor, aldermen and sheriff, to be appointed by the
governor of the province for a term of one year; and extended
the dty's limits to include the whole of Manhattan Island. In
1666 he granted to New Harlem, founded in 1658, a charter
which gave to it the status of a town within the dty. Nicolls'
successor. Governor Francis Lovelace, established a post-route
from New York to Boston in 1673. On the 30th of July 1673
the dty was surprised and captured by a Dutch fleet tmder
Coraelis Evertsen and Jacob Binckes. The captors renamed
the dty New Amsterdam and in January 1674 Anthony Colve,
the newly appointed governor of the province, re-established
the Dutch dty government, but under the treaty of Westminster
the English again took possession in November. In 1678
Governor Edmimd Andros gave the dty practically a monopoly
within the province of commerce " over seas " and ordered
that flour should be inspected nowhere -else; two years later
he required that aU flour for export should, be bolted and packed
within the dty. The duties esublishs<i by order of the duke
of York were still a grievance, and when, in 1681. Governor
AndnM bad sailed for England without renewing the ordinance
imposing them, the merchants rdused payment and demanded
that they should thereafter be imposed by a representative
assembly. The duke 3ridded and the first New York Assembly,
called by Governor Thomas Dongan, met in the city on the 17 th
of Oaober 1683. Less than three years later, on the aoth of
April z686, Dongan gave the dty its first real charter, which
is a historic instrument in the dty government; it was super-
seded only to a very small extent as late as 1830 (when there
was a revision of the charter) and on it as a basis the later
charters have been framed.
New York City with its numerous artisans, small traders,
sailors and common labourers, such as usually compose the party
of discontent, was the centre of the Leisler uprising (see New
York State) incited by the English Revolution of x688, and
it was here that Leisler' in the spring of 1690 called the fiist
intercolonial assembly to plan an expedition against Canada.
During Leisler's rule, too, the freeholders of the city were for
the fint time permitted to elect their own mayor, a privilege
not subsequently granted until 1834. Before the dose of the
17th century New York had become a favourite hatmt of pirates;
leading merchants assbted pirates as well as privateersmen
in fitting out thdr vessels and shared in their plunder or at
least welcomed them with thdr rich cargoes, and public officials,
induding one or more governors, were also implicated. The
home government finally appointed Richard Coote, earl of
Bellomont (1636-1701), governor with explicit instructions
to suppress the eviL Before he received his commission he and
Robert Livingston sent out William Kidd (d. 1701) with a
frigate to capture the pirates. Kidd himsdf turned pirate, but
was arrested in Boston in July 1699, was sent to England for
trial and was hanged in May 1701. Bellomont met deterauned
opposition among New York officers and merchants; but by
the dose of bis brief administration (1698-1701) he had caught
a number of the pirates and broken up the corrupt system by
which they had been protected. The importation of negro
slaves was begun in 1725 or 1726 and was somewhat encouraged
by the States-General. Becoming prized as household servants
they so increased in number in the city that during the first
half of the x8th century they were not greatly outnimibere^
by the whites; the whites early began to fear a slave insurrec-
tion, and ordinances were passed forbidding negroes to gather
on the Sabbath in groups of more than four, or to carry guns,
swords or dubs; but one night in April 17x2 some slaves met
in an orchard near Maiden Lane, set fire to a building and killed
nine men besides wounding several others who came to put
out the fire. Soldiers then captured all the insurgents except
six, who committed suicide, and after trial twenty-one were
executed. When early in 1741 nine fires broke out vdthin a few
weeks and a negro was seen running from the last, the belief
became general that the negroes had formed a plot to bum the
town. A reward of £100 was offered for information exposing
the plot, and the testimony of an indentured servant-girl, Mary
Burton, that her master, mistress, a few other whites and a
number of negroes were implicated in such a plot threw the
dty into a panic. Other confessions were extorted by threats,
and on such worthless testimony four whites were executed,
fourteen negroes were burned at the stake, twenty were hanged
and seventy-one were transported. The frenzy was checked
when Mary Burton began to accuse persons of consequence and
above suspicion. The New York Gazette, the first newspaper
of New York, established by William Bradford in 1725, was a
semi-official organ. For criticizing the government in the
New York Weekly Journal, which he established in x 733, John
Peter Zenger was charged with libel in X734, and by securing
his acquittal in the following year the popular party established
the freedom of the press (see New York). At the beginning
of the SUmp-Act controversy John Holt's New YorkGaMette
and Weekly Post-Boy, the successor of Bradford's Gazette, was
the medium through which the popular leaders stirred the
622
NEW YORK (CITY)
L
people to resistance. The Stamp-Act Congress, called at the
suggestion of Massachusetts, sat in the dty from the 7th to the
aSth of October 1765, and on the 31st of October the New York
merchants started the non-importation movement which spread
to the other colonics. Lieut. -Governor Cadwallader Golden
prepared for the enforcement of the Act by strengthening Fort
George (a later name for Fort Amsterdam) and increasing its
garrison. The ship with the stamps arrived in the evening of
the 23rd of October and on the following night threatening
notices were posted on the doors of every pubUc office and at
the comers of streets. When the day (xst of November) came
For the Act to go into effect Governor Golden had retired within
the fort. Major James, the commander of the garrison, had
threatened to enforce the Act; but the Sons of Liberty gathered
a mob, broke Into the governor's coach-house, burned his coach
and burned him in effigy, destroyed the furniture and other
property of Major James and threatened to storm the fort.
On the 5th, the governor delivered the stamps to the mayor
and aldermen. No serious attempt was subsequently made
to enforce the Act, and its repeal (i8th of March 1766) was
celebrated on the city common with noby demonstrations and
the erection of a liberty pole. The Assembly also made appropri-
ations for the erection of statues of the king and William' Pitt.
The Sons of Liberty opposed the passage by the Assembly of
appropriations for the maintenance of the soldiers, and the
latter retaliated by repeatedly cutting down liberty poles
erected by the Sons of Liberty. Finally in a skirmish on the
1 8th of January 1770 the soldiers killed one man and severely
wounded several others, and this bloodshed is memorable as
the first in the struggle which culminated in the independence
of the colonies. The tea shipped to New York for testing the
right of parliament to tax the colonies did not arrive until four
months after that shipped to Boston had been thrown over-
board, but when it did arrive (April 1774) the chests in one
vessel- were destroyed in the same manner as were those in
Boston and the other vessel was forced to carry its cargo back
to London. The Port Act for punishing Boston stirred the
New York merchants as well as the Sons of Liberty (chiefly
mechanics and artisans), and when the latter again threatened
violence the merchants resolved to guide the movement, and
called a mass meeting and named a committee of correspondence
of fifty-one members. This committee, on the 23rd of May 1774,
propo^ a Continental Congress chiefly with a view to obtaining
an effective regulation of non-importation from England; it
also named the New York delegates to that body.
During the greater part of the War of Independence the city
was occupied by the British. Its capture was a part of the
British plan to get control of the Hudson and separate New
England from the southern colonies. Early in 1 7 76 the Americans
began to throw up fortifications at several points on both banks
of the East river in the hope of closing the east water front to the
enemy. Other fortifications were erected on Governor's Island
and at some' points along the west water front to the upper end
iof Manhattan Island, where an attempt was made to close the
passage of the Hudson by building Fort Washington on the New
York bank and Fort Lee on the New Jersey bank and connecting
them with a line of sunken ships fastened together with chains.
To the north of the dty proper, also, defences were constructed
along the line of the present Grand Street, and to prepare for a
retreat from the north end of the island a redoubt, which the
British later called Fort George, was built on the prominence
overlooking Kingsbridge from the south, and Fort Independence,
in what is now Bronx Borough, was built to command the
approach from the mainland. After the battle of Long Island,
fought within the present limits of Brooklyn Borough, Wash-
ington, on the night of the 39th of August 1776, crossed to
Manhattan Island. As the dty was no longer tenable, some of
the generals proposed burning it, but Congress would not give
its consent and Washington, although withdrawing the greater
part of his army behind fortifications on Harlem (now Washing-
ton) Heights, continued to occupy it with about 5000 men under
General Israel Putnam until the British general. Sir William
Howe, began to show signs of attack. Troops also remained
behind the batteries along the east water front, and it was on
this occasion that Nathan Hale went on his fatal errand to
ascertain Hpwe's intentions, was discovered within the British
lines and was hanged as a spy. On the 15th of Scptembci
several British ships which had some days before passed the
American batteries, as far as Montressor's (now Randall's)
Island, entered Kipp's Bay, at the foot of the present 34ih
Street, routed the militia posted behind the low breastworks
there, and after landing narrowly missed cutting off the rear of
Putnam's retreating army. One portion of Howe's army look
possession of the city and another marched toward Harlem
Heights along the east side of what ^ now Central Park «faiie
Putnam's men were marching in nearly parallel columns on the
west side of the park. On the x6th, in the battle of Hariem
Heights (on what is now Momingside Heights), about 1800
Americans drove a somewhat smaller number of British troops
from the field. In October Howe sailed up the East river, aod
Washington, to avoid being outffanked, retreated to the main-
land, leaving only a garrison at Fort Washington. Howe landed
at Pdl's Point (now within Pelham Bay Park), and on the 2&h.
a few miles north of the present dty limits, was fought the batik
of White Plains. Howe then turned westward and southward
and on the i6tb of November captured Fort Washington. What
is now Bronx Boroxigh was within the "Neutral Grounds"
which suffered greatly from the foraging parties of both anniei
Six days after the British entered the dty proper about one-
fourth of it was destroyed by fire, and the desolation was cr-
tended by another large fire on the 3rd of August 1778. The
British crowded thdr prisoners (who suffered terrible hardships)
into several of the churches, the City Hall, the new gaol (later
the Hall of Records), King's College, the Livingston sugar house,
and a number of ships moored in the harbour. The dty was a
refuge for Loyalists, but evert they were treated with amtempi
by the British. The homes of Loyalists and Whigs alike were
plundered, and when the British finally evacuated (2Sth of
November 1783) they had robbed the city of its wealth and
had destroyed its business.
For the first three or four years after the return of peace
recovery in some directions was very slowj but only a few
months after the British had gone an American merchantman
sailed from the port bound for China and opened trade vitk
that country. Trade was speedily resumed with European ports,
and by 1788 it was not uncommon to see 100 or more vessels in
the port either loading or unloading. On the question of enlais-
ing the powers of the Federal government in 1787-1788, the dty
strongly supported Alexander Hamilton and John Jay against a
determined opposition in other parts of the state, and the ratifica-
tion of the Federal constitution in the state convention at
Poughkeepsie was a triumph for New York City. The dty wis
the Federal capital in x 789-1 790 and under its strong Federalist
influence the new government of the nation was organized.
During the colonial era New York was always the seat of the
provincial government and for twenty years it was at times Uie
seat of the state government, but in 1797 Albany was made the
permanent capital. In 1807 the success of steam navigation was
assured by the trial trip of Robert Fulton's " Qermont " ftoa
New York to Albany and return; but the dty did not benefit
immediately from this invention. On the contrary, the Embazjo
Act (X807-X809) threatened its commerce with ruin. It rcvi\Td
under the Non-Intercourse Act, but suffered again from tbc
second war with Great Britain. In the first and second years d
this war some merchants reaped profits from privateering against
the enemy, but in December 18x3 the British stopped pdvateering
by a doser blockade of the harbour and in 1814 they threatened
to attack the dty. In preparing to resist, the dty erected er
assisted in erecting elaborate fortifications, and Robert Fulton
was busy in New York building a steam frigate with cannon-proof
sides and heavy guns, but the war dosed without a test d tie
i fortifications and before the frigate was ready for action.
In x8x7 the Erie Canal was begun and the first line of lra»-
Atlantic packet-ships was established. The canal, opened ia
NEW YORK (CITY)
623
1825, insured the commercial supremacy of New York among
American cities. The years immediately following the close of
the second war with Great Britain also mark the beginning of a
rapid increase in the number qf European immigrants, and this
stream of immigration, rising to a flood m the fourth decade and
continuing high throughout the century, has been a dominant
force in determining the city's social and political conditions.
Although the dty was a stronghold of the Federalists at the time
the National government was organized, the Democrats, owing
to the dexterous management of Aaron Burr, were victorious
ih the elections of zSoo and z8ox, and the city has continued to
be normally Democratic owing largely to the activities of the
Tammany Society or Tammany Hall (9.9.). This organization,
founded in 1789, early espoused the cause of the unfranchised
inhabitants, attended to the wants of the immigrants in various
ways, led the movement for universal manhood suffrage and the
election of dty officers, and, after the office of mayor became
elective (1834) and the last property qualifications for city voters
were removed (1842), continued strong by reason of the support
of the great mass of foreign-bom citizens. Fraud and corruption
were resorted to by Tammany, and offices were used for the good
of the organization rather than for the good of the city. Socially,
the immigrants deluged the dty with vice, crime, misery and
pauperism. The unsanitary conditions had already caused
epidemics of yellow fever in 1795, 1798, 1822 and 1823, and the
dty was visited in 1832, 1834 and 1849 with epidemics of cholera
in which several thousand lives were lost. These scourges
together with a fire in 1835, which destroyed the East Side below
Wall Street, hastened the construction of works for getting a
supply of water from the Croton river. The immigrants repre-
sented various nationalities and religious sects, and from 1830
to 1871 the city was frequently disturbed by riots arising usually
from national or reUgious antipathy. During the first mayoralty
election (1834) there was rioting; and there were an abolitionist
riot in the same year, a flour riot during the financial panic of
1837, and labour riots from time to time which were suppressed
by the police. In 1857 the state legishiture established a state
or " metropolitan " police for the better protection of the city.
The mayor, Fernando Wood, contending that the act was
unconstitutional, resisted with the old municipal police, and
another serious riot had begun when the Seventh Regiment
of state troops compelled obedience i later, too, the court of
appeals decided against the mayor.
Wood was still mayor at the outbreak of the Civil War, and
in January i86z he proposed to the Common Council that ^lan-
hattan Island, Long Island and Staten Island should secede
and constitute a free city, to be named Tri-Insula. The Council
approved. But when, in April, the dty had been aroused by
the bombardment of Fort Sumter the majority of the Democrats
joined with the Republicans in discarding the proposal and in
support of the Union. The native-bom and loyal citizens
joined the Unioii army in such large numbers that the dty was
left with inadequate protection from such of its inhabitants
as Iiad often constituted the mob. In this state of affairs the
drafting of men for the army was begun in July 1863 in con-
formity with an act of Congress which exempted from its opera-
tion all who should make a money payment of $300. The New
York proletariat and unscmpulous politidans complained that
the measure was peculiarly oppressive to the poor, and the rioting
with which it was resisted was protracted and bloody. The
rioting began the X3th of July and continued for nearly five days.
More than fifty buildings were burned. The mob was especially
furious against negroes, a number of whom were hanged or
beaten to death. The poUce fought bravely but were unequal
to the emergency, and order was restored only after several
regiments had returned to the dty and had killed at least 500
of the rioters. In 1871 Irish Catholics threatened to prevent
the Orangemen from parading the streets on the anniversary
of the Battle of Boyne (12th of July). The superintendent of
police also issued an order on the preceding day prohibiting the
parade. Public opinion, however, was so strong in favour of
the Orangemen that the order was revoked, and five regiments of
militia were called out to protect the parade before it started;
at the first assault the mob was scattered by a volley which killed
51 persons. The militia suffered a loss of three killed and several
wounded.
The character of the population did not improve speedily,
for while immigrants were coming in great numbers a large
portion of the saving middle class was removing to the suburbs;
and although Tammany Hall was discredited during the Civil
War, it gamed control of the sUte as well as the dty government
soon after the war. William M. Tweed, its ruler, organized the
" Tweed Ring "which was plundering the dty on a gigantic scale,
when in 1871 its operations were exposed by the New York
Times. The thefts of the " Ring " amounted to many millions
of dollars, those in the erection of the county court house alone
to $8,000,000. Several of the malefactors were sent to prison
and Tweed himself died there. Tammany, however, was
victorious again in the second dection (1874) after Tweed's
fall, and in 1884, when rival companies were seeking to obtain
a franchise for working a street railway on Broadway, this
privilege, so valuable that the dty could have sold it for millions
of dollars, was given away by the aldermen; and it was after-
wards proved that a number of them had shared a cash bribe
of $500,000. Some of them were subsequently punished, but
Tammany's power was not seriously impaired. In 1874 the
dty's corporate limits were extended to indude about 13.000
acres across the Harlem river; in 1895 there was a further
extension in the same county to the southern borders of Yonkers
and Mt. Vernon; and in 1898 all of Rings county, all of
Richmond county (Staten Island) and a portion of Queens
county were consolidated with it. As Tammany's stronghold
was in Manhattan, the annexation of these districts diminished
the difficulty of holding Tammany in check, or of defeating it
at the polls whenever the anti-Tammany forces united as a
consequence of a notoriously corrupt administration. In 1894
an investigation of the state Senate brought to light someof the
facts respecting an ebborate system of blackmail which had grown
up under the joint protection of Tammany Hall and the city
government. Under this system large sums were paid for
appointments to office and promotions, and money was collected
regularly from the keepers of gambling houses, houses of ill-
fame and other disorderly resorts, and from liquor sellers for
permission to violate certain details of the excise laws, such as
midnight and Sunday closing. There followed a great outcry
against Tammany and it was driven from power for three years.
During the reform administration, Colonel George Edward
Waring (1833-1898), as head of the street cleaning department,
quite revolutionized New York as respects cleanliness. The
police service and the school system were also much improved.
Tammany was successful in the election of 1897 when the opposi-
tion was divided. It again abused its power and was defeated
in 1901. In X903 and 1905 the Tammany ticket was elected, but
the mayor, George Brinton McClellan, administered the govern-
ment, especially during his second term (1906-19x0), independ-
ently of Tammany Hall. With the exception of the mayor the
Tammany ticket was defeated in 1909, and the mayor, William
Jay Gaynor (b. 1851), was little in sympathy with Tammany Hall,
having been nominated apparently for the purpose of insuring
the election of loyal Tammany men on the county ticket.
Bibliography. — ^Special work* have beeii mentioned in the body
of the article. Among general descriptive works are Moses King a
Handbook of New KoriT (Boston, 1895), Rand McNally & Company's
Handy Guide to New York City (Chicago, 21st c<l., 1907), Appleton'a
Dictionary of New York (New York, 1905) ; and of *a more aesthetic
quanty, John C. van Dyke's The New New York {ib., 1009), with
illustrations by Joseph Penncll. E. S. Martin edited (it., IQ09)
The Wayfarer in New York, a book oC selections. F. B. Kellcy's
Historical Guide to the City of New York (ib., 1909), compiled under the
auspices of the City History Club, is the best summary of old land-
marks, places of historical mterest, &c. For administration see The
Charter of (he City of New York with Amendments (New York, 1907) ;
F. C. Seckerson, Manual of Civics: A Text-Book of Municipal
Government for the City of New York (New York, 1908) ; and G. A.
Ingalls, An Outline of Municipal Government in the City of New York
(Albany, 1904). For history see Mrs Schuyler van Rensselaer,
History of the City of New York in the Seventeenth Century (2 vols..
624
NEW ZEALAND
New York, 1909): J. H. Innes, Nem Amsterdam and its People (New
York, 190a); Martha J. Lamb, History of the City of New York
{2 vols., New York, 1877); Memorial History of the City of New
York (4 vols.. New York, 180a), edited by J. G. Wtlaon; Theodore
Roosevelt, New York (New York, 1895) in the " Historic Towns "
series: R. R. Wilson, New York: Old and New; Its Story, Struts
and Landmarks (a vob., Philadelphia, 1902; new ed., 1909); D. T.
Valentine, History of the City of New York (New York, 1853); and
Historic New York, edited by Maud W. Goodwin^ al, (a voll. New
; and
• York, edited bv Maud W. Cjoodwia«l al. (2 vols..
York. 1899).
NEW ZEALAND, a British colonial Dominion (so named In
Z907), consisting mainly of a group of islands lying in the south
Pacific between 34" 25' and 47* x?' S., and between 166** a6'
and 178** 36' E. The group is situated eastward of Tasmania
and Victoria, and Wellington, its capital and central seaport,
is 1204 m. distant from Sydney. Of certain outlying dusters
of small islands belonging to the colony, the Chathams (356 m.
E. of Cook Strait), AuckJands and Campbell Island are alone of
any value. All these are grassy and the Chathams are inhabited
by sheep-farming colonists. The Aucklands contain two of the
finest harbours in the Pacific Six hundred miles north of
Auckland, the volcanic Kermadecs, covering 8208 acres, are
picturesquely clothed with vegetation. In Polynesia a number
of inhabited islands were brought under New Zealand control
in 1893. Rarotonga and Mangaia, in the Cook group, and
Niu6 or Savage Island are the largest of these; Penrhyn and
Suwarrow, though but small coral atolls, contain excellent
harbours. Rarotonga is hilly, well watered, and very beautiful.
Apart from these little tropical dependencies New Zealand has
an area of 104,471 sq. m., of which its two important islands,
called North and South, contain 44,468 and 58,525 respectively,
while, divided from South Island by Fovcaux Strait, Rakiura
or Stewart Island, mountainous and forest-dad, contains
621 sq. m. These three form a broken chain. North and South
Islands being cut asunder by Cook Strait, a channd varying in
width from 16 to 90 m.
North Island is 515 m. long and varies In breadth irom 6 to
200 m. It is almost deft in twain where the Hauraki Gulf
penetrates to within 6 m. of Manukau Harbour. From the
isthmus thus formed a narrow, very irregular peninsula reaches
out northward for some 200 m., moist and semi-tropical, and
beautiful rather than uniformly fertile. Rich strips of alluvial
soil, however, seam a cold day-marl, needing intensive cultivation
to become highly productive. Buried in this day-mat-l are found
large deposits of the {ossH resin which becomes the kauri gum
of commerce; and on the surface extensive forests are still a
great though diminishing source of wealth. Though a species
of mangrove fringes much of this peninstda, its presence does
not denote malaria, from which the islands are entirely free.
South of the Isthmus aforesaid, North Island rapidly
broadens out. Its central physical feature is the unbroken
mountain chains running N.E. from Cook Strait to East Cape
on the Bay of Plehty, ranges sddom under 3000 ft., but never
attaining 6000 ft. in height. Ikurangi, their highest summit,
though a fine mass, does not compare with the isolated volcanic
cones which, rising W. of the main mountain system and quite
detached from it, are among the most striking sights in the island.
Ruapchu (9100 ft.) is intermittently active, and Ngauruboe
(7515 ft.) emits vapour and steam incessantly. Egmont (8340
ft.) is quiescent, but its symmetrical form and dense dothing
of forest make it the most beautiful of the three. North of the
two first-mentioned volcanoes Lake Taupo spreads over 238 sq. m.
in the centre of a pumice-covered plateau from 1000 to 2000 ft.
above the sea; and round and beyond the great lake the
region of the thermal springs covers 5000 sq. m. and stretches
from Mount Ruapehu to White Island, an ever-active volcanic
cone in the Bay of Plenty. The most uncommon natural feature
of the district, the t^ink and White Terraces, was blown up in
the eruption of Mount Tarawera in z886, when for great distances
the country was buried beneath mud and dust, and a chasm 9 m.
long was opened In the earth. Fine lakes and waterialls, in-
numerable pools, in temperature from boiling-point to cold,
geysers, solfataras, fumaroles and mud volcanoes still attract
tourisU in large numbers. The healing virtue of many of the
springs is widdy known. The government maintains a
sanatorium at Lake Rotorua, and there are private bathing
establishments in other places, notably near lake Taupo. In
South Island there are hot pools and a state sanatorium at
Hanmer Plains. Experience shows that the most remarkable
cures effected by the hot waters are in cases of gout, rheumatism,
diseases of the larynx and in skin disorden. Though, thanks
to the overlaying porous pumice, the Taupo pbteau is not
fertile, it has a s^od rainfall and is drained by unfailiug riven
running through deep terraced ravines. The Walkato and
Waihou flow N., the Rangitaiki N.E., and Mokau, Wanganui
and Rangitikd W. or S.W. The first named, the longest river in
the colony, though obstructed by a bar like all western,— and
most eastern, — ^New Zealand riven. Is navigable for some 70 m.
The Mokau and Wanganui nm between ferny and forest-dad
hlUs and predpiccs, often of almost incomparable beauty.
East of the Taupo plateau and south of Opotikl on the Bay of
Plenty the steep thickly-timbered ranges bdd by the Uriwera
tribe still show scenery quite unspoiled by white intrusion.
On the southern frontier of this mountainous tract Waikai£
Moana extends Its arms, the deepest and most beautiful of the
larger lakes of the island.
From the mouth of the Waikato southward to About 25 m.
from Cape Terawhiti on Cook Strait, and for a distance of from
20 to 40 m. inland, the western coast skirts fertile country well
fitted for grazing and dairy-farming, to which it is being
rapidly turned as the timber and fern are cleared away from its
low hilb, downs and rich valleys. On the east coast the same
fertility is seen with less forest, and, round Hawkes Bay, a hotter
and drier summer. In the south centre, the upland plain of
the Wairarapa. ending in a laige but commonplace lake, has a
climate adapted for both grazing and cereals. The butt-end of
the island, of poor, rough, wind-beaten hills, is redeemed by the
fine harbour of Port Nicholson, which vies with the Waitcmau
in utility to New Zealand commerce. Broken as is the suri^ce,
poor as is the soil of certain tracts, there is but little of the Island
which will not ultimately be cultivated with profit as pumice
and day-marl yield to labour. Everywhere the settler may count
on a 8u£5dent rainfall, and — except on the plateau and the
mountain highlands — mild winters and genial summers. The
pleasant climate has certain drawbacks; the coastal farmer
finds that blights and Insect pests thrive in the comparative
absence of hard frosts. Fortunately mosquitoes are not a seriovs
plague outside a few marshy localities. To pass Cook Strait
and land in the middle province of South Island is to pass from
Portugal to Switzerland; a Switzerland, however, with a sea-
coast that in the east centre is a dull fringe of monotonous sasd
dunes or low cliffs. As a rule, neverthdess, the shores of South
Island are high and bold enough. They are not too well servtd
with harbours, except along Cook Strait, in Banks Peninsula, and
by the grand but commercially usdess fjords of the south-west
In the last-named region some fifteen salt-water gulfs penetrate
into the very heart of the mountains, winding amid steep, doTid-
capped ranges, and tall, richly-dothed diffs overhanging thdr
calm waters. The dominating features of south New Zeakad
are not ferny pidteaus or \'olcanic cones, but stem chains of
mountains. There the Southern Alps rise range upon rasge,
filUng the whole centre, almost or quite touching the western
shore, and stretching from end to end of the island. West of the
dividing crest they are forest dad; east thereof their stony
grimness is but slightly softened by growths of scrub and tussock
grass. Nincteen-twentlcths of the colonists, however, live cart
of the dividing range, for to that side settlement was attracted
by the open, grassy character of the country. The riven axe
many, even on the drier eastern coast. But, as must be expected
in an island but 180 m. across at the widest point and yet showirg
ridges capped with perpetual snows, the riven, large or smaB,
are mountain torrents, now swollen floods, anon half dry. Alaoft
useless for communication or transport, they can be easSy dnvn
upon for irrigation where, as in the east centre, water-races are
useful. The largest river, the Gutha, though but 80 m. kmg
in its course to the south-east coast, discharges a volume of water
Th
^'t
NEW ZEALAND
625
estimated at nearly 1,100,000 cubic ft. a minute. On the west
the only two rivers of importance are the Buller and the Grey,
the former justly famous for the grandeur of its gorges. Large
and deep lakes fill many of the mountain valleys. Te Anau and
Wakatipu (54 m. long) are the chief, though Manapouri is the
most romantic Aorangi (Mt. Cook) is easily first among the
mountain peaks. Its height, 12,349 ft., is especially impressive
vrhen viewed from the sea off the west coast. On the north-east
a double range, the Kaikoiiras, scarcely fall short of the Southern
Alps in height and beauty. Apart from the fjords and lakes the
chief beauties of the ^ps are glad- rs and waterfalls. The
Tasman glader is x8 m. long and has an average width of x m.
15 chains; the Murchison glacier is 10 m. in length. To the west
of Aorangi gladers crawl into the forest as low as 400 ft. above
sca-lcveL Among waterfalls the Sutherland is 1904 ft. high,
but has less volume than the Bowen and others. The finest
mountain gorge, the Otira, is also the chief route from the cast
to the west coast. It begins on the western side of Arthur's
Pass, a gap the floor of which is 3 100 ft. above the sea. Generally
the open and readily available region of South Island extends
from the Kaikouras along the east and south-east coast to the
river Waiau in Southland. It has a mean breadth of some 30 m.
In compensation the coal and gold, which form the chief minci^
wealth, are found in the broken and less practicable west
and centre, and these portions also furnish the water-power
which may in days to come make the island a manufacturing
country. (W. P. R.)
Ccolcgy. — New Zealand is part of the Australasian festoon, on the
Pacific cd^ of the Australasian area. ^ Unlike Australia, its geological
structure is unusually varied, and owing to Its instability, it includes,
for its size, an unusually complete scries of marine sedimentary rocks.
It has, moreover, been a volcanic area of long-continued activity.
The physical geography of New Zealand is closely connected with its
geological structure, and is dominated by two mtersecting lines of
mountains and earth movements. The Southern Alps, the back-
bone of the South Island, rest on a foundation of coarse gneisses
and schists, that are quite unrepresented in the North Island. The
continuation of thb line of old rocks is occupied by the basins of the
Wanganui river and Taupo. E. Suess therefore suggested that the
northern continuation of the Alps had foundered, and its summits
been buried beneath the Pliocene marine rocks of the Wanganui
basin and the volcanic rocks of the Taupo area.
The oldest rocks are Archcan, represented by the band of gneisses
and schists exposed along the western foolTDf the Southern Alps.
To the south of the district in southern Westland, where the Alps
have passed out to sea, the Archeans become more extensive; for
they spread eastward and underlie the whole of the dissected table-
land of Otago. It has been suggested that the jasperoids and
diabases of the Tarawera Mountains on the North Island may be of
Upper Archean age, from their resemblance to the Heatncotian
rocks of Australia- No Cambrian rocks have as yet been discovered,
but the Ordovician system is represented by the Aorere beds in the
north-western part ofthe South Island. Here they contain numerous
graptolitcs, including Teiragrapius, DichograpUu and Didymograptus.
The Silurian system is represented by the Baton river beds to the
west of the Aorere beds, occurring in the basin of the Motueka river,
which flows into Tasman Bay. The Devonian sjrstem is well ex-
nosed in die Recfton mining field. The Carboniferous system
includes dther the whole or a brge part of the Maitai beds. The
Maitai beds indude a thick mass ofslatcs and sandstones, which form
the bulk of the Southern Alps, whence branches extend south-
eastward to the coast. The beds takettheir name from the Maitai
river near Nelson; thev are brgely devdoped in the mountains of
the Tararua-Ruahinc-Kaukumara chain, on the eastern side of the
North Island; they occur in the Kaikoura Mountains, and an outlier
forms Mount Toriease, near the eastern edge of the Southern Alps,
west of Christchurch. The Maitai beds have generally been considered
to be Carboniferous from the presence of species of Productus found
in the Pcrmo-Carboniferous of New South Wales. But Professor
Park has obtained Jurassic fossils in the Maitai series; so that it will
probably be ultimately divided between the Carboniferous and
Jurassic The two systems should, however, be separable by an
unconformity, unless the Maitai scries also includes representatives
cf the Kaihiku series ^the New Zealand Permian), and of tlie Wairoa
series* which is Triassic.
New Zealand includes representatives of all the three Mesozoic
Srstems. The Hokanui group comprises the Triassic Wairoa and
tapira beds^ and the Jurassic Mataura beds. The Wairoa scries
includes marine limestones characterized by Monotis salinaria, and
the Otapira series is characterized by Sptrifnina spaiulata. The
Mataura beds are largely of estuarine formation; they contain oil
afaalcs and gas springs. , , . .,
The Cretaceous system indudes the Waipara senes. a bdt of chalky
XIX II
limestones with some phosphate beds at Cbrendon in eastern Ota^
Thdr fossils include belemnites, ammonites, scaphites and manne
saurians, such as Cimoliosaunu. These Cretaceous limestones are
interbcdded with glauconi tic greensands, as at Moeraki Point in
eastern Otago. The second type of Cretaceous is a terrestrial
formation, and is important as it contains the rich coal seams of
Greymouth, Westport and Seddonville, which yield a high quality
of steam coal. Cretaceous coals have long been worked in the North
Island, notth of Auckland, on the shores of the Bay of Islands, r'here
the age of the coal is shown by its ocirurrence under the Whimgard
or Waimio limestone.
The Cainozoic system is re pr e s e nted by Oligocvne, Mk)cene,
Pliocene and Pleistocene beds. The best-known Oligocene rocks
are the limestures of Oamaru and the brown-coal measures of
Waikato. The Oamaru limestones have been largdy used for
building stones: they are a pure white limestone, largely made up of
foraminifera, bryozoa and shell fragments, and contain the teetti of
sharks {e.g. Carckarodon) and of toothed whales such as Squalodon
serratus. In southern Otago the Oligocene beds are brown coals
and lignites with oil shales, which, at Orepqki. contain 47% of oil
and gas, with 8% of water. The Miocene Pareora beds occur to
EncGshMDe*
50 100
Ihtomhmam^Umtr PmloMOMoio. HB
_ _ ES3
thi ' ' . [■ ^000 ft. above sea-level, in both the
N< ds. Some of its fossils also occur in the
Oi :wo scries are unconformable. In Westland
th i Moutere gravels, which rest on the summit
of 00 ft. above sea-level.
liocene are best devdoped in the Wanganui
ba ne clays with nodular calcareous concretions
ric stocene system in the South Island indudes
gh >rove a great extension of the New Zealand
glj the western coast. The glaciers must have
re; xide Point in southern Westland. On the
ea^ uj ',: i _ A'-^j the glaciers appear to have been confined to
the mountain valleys. The Pleistocene swamp deposits are rich in
the bones of the moa and other gigantic extinct birds, which lived on
until they were exterminated by the Maori. The Cainozoic volcanic
history of New Zealand begins in the Oligocene, when the high
volcanic domes of Dunedin and Banks Peninsula were built up.
The Dunedin lavas including tephrites and kenytes correspond to
the dacite eruptions in the vofcanic history of Victoria. The building
up of these domes of lavas of intermedia^e chemical type was followed
by the eruption of sheets of andesites and rhyolites in the Thames
626
NEW ZEALAND
Goldfield and the Taupo volcanic district. The vofcanic activity of
the Taupo district lasted into the Pleistocene, and the last eruptions
contributed many of iu chief geographical featuraa.^ 0* W. G.)
Qimal^ —Diversity of level and latitude cause many varieties
of dimate in the South Island provinces. The height and
regularity of the mountain backbone increase the diversity.
Only one pass, the Haast (1716 ft), crosses from E; to W.
at a less height than 3000 fL Along the whole west coast the
climate resembles nothing in the British Islands so much as
Cork and Kerry, for there are the same wet gales from a western
ocean, the same clouds gathering on the dripping sides of wild
mountains, an equal absence of seven frosts and hot sunshine,
and a rich and evergreen vegeUtion. Elsewhere, sheltered
Nelson has a more genial air than the Wellington side of Cook
Strait. Foveauz Strait is as cold and windy as the Strait of
Dover. The Canterbury phiin has but 26 ins. of annual
rainfall, less than a fourth of that along the western littoral.
Very seldom indeed is moisture excessive in the eastern half;
there is even a deficiency in unfavourable years, and dry,
warm winds do damage to crops. Insect life is relatively not
abundant; the air is brisk and bright with ample sunshine.
The snow-line, which is at 3000 ft. on the eastern flank of the
Alps, is 3700 ft. on the westeriL
The healthiness d! the New Zealand climate in all parts is
attested by the death-rate, which, varying (1896-1906) from
9 to 10-50 per 1000, b the lightest in the world. In 1896
it was as low as 9* 10. In 1907, however, it was xo*9i, the highest
figure since the year 1883. Even in the boroughs the average
is below 13. The rainfall in most of the settled districts ranges
from 30 to so ins. a year. Meteorological statistics are collected
at AucUand, Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin and eight
other stations; and observations of rainfall, temperature,
and wind-directions are received from eighteen stations of the
second class. From the data thus obtained an isobaric map
and a report are prepared for each day; and weather warnings
are telegraphed to any part of the coast when necessary. A
system of inter-colonial weather exchanges has been agreed
upon, and telegrams are dally exchanged between Sydney and
Wellington.
. fi^o.— There are about one thousand species of flowering plants,
of which about three-fourths are endemic Most of those not
MCuUar to the country are Australian: others are South American,
European, Antarctic; and some have Polynesian affinities. Ferns
and other cryptoeamic plants are in great varietur and abundance.
The New Zealand flora, like the fauna, has been cited in support of
the theory of the remote continental period. I n appearance the more
conspicuous flora differs very greatly from that of Australia, Poly-
nesia, and temperate Soutn America, and helps to give to the
scenery a character of its own.
The early colonists found quite half the surface of the archipelago
covered with *'! -^r. cvrr^rreen forests a tuxuriapt grmrth of pinea and
beeches, tans rt^-inciJ with ful[n$„ fcrru oi clLI suci^ Y.ild
vines and oti . and ^ r^nV., busiHy^ mD^sc-d undcruroivth.
Tliough mucii ^/. LKv Hiiiibcr i* of consmcrciAl value — -notably the
kauri, totara, purin» rimu. maU^ and kahikatea^thii has not u\^
the forests from i*hDtcsa,k;( otti^n rE:)cldcM, dcttmction. Two-Bfths
perhaps have :^ir.' i.rv 'U^^ippe^rcd, and it is probable tkat in fifty
years theonlj ' ' 2<tiU Btandiiig will bcs<Lib'alpLrievoDd5.ana
m state resei .1 while charreid and roiiins slumps give a
meOmcholy i - -lir to viil]c%i and denuded hilkidcBn for
hard-wood St i"i:.p^— 4 jutl most New ^bnd Xt&em are bard- wood —
take more tb^ii n genera tian ta decay utterly^ QuDpelbd by the
windy climate* the calonisu orr doLng bomcthiog to repair these
ravages by pLLntin^ European, Calif ornian and Auscralbn shell er*
trees; but it is only m the naturally open and grassy nrgionj of the
east and south-east that settlement as yet imprcrvtn the landscape.
There, before the colonists t^mt^ wide sweeps of dull grrcn bracken
or wiry yellow-srccn tu%»ck^ seemed bleak and motiutpnoui enough.
The swamps tox'^-rcd with llax and giant bulrushes were ofien re-
deemed to t!v. >. ) J rhcets of gouicn plumed tD&^tod, a kind of
pampas grass.
Fauna. — ^The destruction of the forest is telling fatally on the
; * See the geological map of New Zealand hf Sir James Hector
(1884). A brief sketch of its geological history u given by Hutton,
Tram: New Zealand Inst. (1899), xxxii. pp. 159^183. Fullest inform-
ation about the geology of New Zealand is giVen in the Rtports of
Ceoloiical Explorations issued by the Geological Survey of New
Zealand, and the Annual Reports of the nunes department. A
bibli(wraphy of the chief literature has been compiled by A.
HamiUon, Trans. New Ztaland Inst. (1903), zxxv. 489-546.
native avifauna. In their natural state the islands y
> withoQt
land mammals, and the Polynesian immigrants brought but two b
their canoe»— a dog. now extinct, and a black nt, now nudy sees.
Until leoent years the forest birds did much to atone for this de-
ficiency, for among them the tui and makomako rank high u
songsters, while the apteryxes, kakapo, wcka and stitch-bird are of
peculiar interest to science. The importation of stoats and weaseh,
ferrets and cats has resulted in a process of extermination whicfa
has already made it necessary to set aside the islets Resoluti<m.
Kapiti and Little Barrier as sanctuaries. The place of the vanishinc
native species is being taken by such European arrivals as sky-Larks,
finches, blackbirds, sparrows and rooks. Outside the forest country
the wcka, an almost windless bird, is numerous, and in the Alpt a
hawk-like green parrot, the kea. has learned to kill sheep and holds
its ground. The pukeico, a handsome rail, abounds in swamjn. The
native wild ducks are carefully presertrod for mortsmen, in whose
interests pheasants, red and fallow deer, and brown and rainbow
trout have been very successfully acdimatixcd. Acdimatixaikn.
indeed, had played a chief part in the settlement of New Zealand
Coming to a country without useful animals, cereals, rich gnaes
or fruit trees, the colonists had to bring all these nooessaries with
them. So far acclimatize note but few failures; the chief case is
that of the salmon. Again and again salmon have been sucoeasf uOy
hatched out into rivers, but the young fish hastening down streani
to the sea never return thence. This is all the more unfortunate as
eeb'were the only large edible creatures found in the fresh-water
lakes and rivers. Tidal waters furnish minute whitebait, and the
mud-flats of salt or brackish lagoons and estuaries flounder*— bodi
very delicate eating. Oyrsters, both mud and rock, are good and
plentiful. A strange visitor, the frost-fish, never seen at sea. is
Eicked up stranded on sandy beaches in coki weather, and u prised
y epicures. The snapper is at once the handsomest and most
palatable of a good variety of sea fish. Sharks are found everywhere
and are common round the north, though they rarely attack man.
The albatross is of course the most conspkuous sea bird. Penguins
are found, confined to the islets of the far south. As 1
pensation for its paucity of useful animals and food plants. New
Zealand was, of course, free from wild camivora, has no snako. and
only one poisonous insect, the katipo, a timkl little spklcr found oa
certain sea-beaches. Of poisonous (>lants only the berries of the
tutu and the karaka «re worth notice. The wild dogs and pjits
which now sometimes prey on the sheep-farmers' lambs in outiyinf
districts are the descendants of domestic animals which have
escaped into the " bush.*' Among imported pests the rabbit and
sparrow, and a numerous company of European and Americaa
thistles and other weeds, have to be systematiodly contended with.
The formidable increase of the rabtut has been arrested, mainly by
poiaoa and wire-netting fenoes»
Population. — In January 1840 there may have been 3000
whites in New Zealand. By z86z the number was still sli^tly
under xoo,ooo. During the next twenty years the gokl dis-
coveries, the public works expenditure, and the development
of agriculture, multiplied the number of cobnists five times
to 498,000 in April z88x. Then increase slackened for many
years, and was slowest between x886 and 1891, when the ad-
dition was but 43,000 in five years. In 190Z the whites numbered
773,000; and between that year and the census computaikm
in April 1906 the increase, 115,859, was the largest yet recorded
in any qtiinquennium. In the middle of 1908 the ofikial estimate
of white inhabitants was 950,00a
The white population, about nine to the square mile, b very
unevenly distributed. In the South Island nine-tenths of the
colonists live within 40 m. of the east and south-east coasts;
in the North Island the eastern and northern parts of Wellin|tao
provinpe, and the southern and broadest part of Ancklaad
province are still very scantily peopled. For all that, AucUaad
and Wellington are the most populous of the larger districts,
while Nelson, Westland and Marlborough have for a long time
shown the slowest increase.
Males still exceed females in the proportion of nine to eight.
About 70% of the population is New Zealand bom. The white
foreign element is small; what there is is chiefly Scandinavian,
Gerznan and Dalmatian. Among the foreigners males greatly
outnumber females; even in th^ case of the German settles
the proportion is two to one.
Between z88o and 1892 the birth-rate fell by no kss thaa
Z3*95 points— rather more than z a year. It continued to fill
for seven years more, though at a much reduced rate, sad
finally reached as-ia in the year 1899. In the next ei^t yean
there was a slo-v recovery to 27 '30 in 1907. Thanks, however,
to th« km death-rate, elsewhere referred to the maigin of
NEW ZEALAND
627
increase in New Zealand ia over 17. To that, and to tlie annual
gain by immigration, the fairly rapid rate of increase Is due.
Between 1885- and 1891 the colony lost more than it gained
oversea; but from 1892 to 1908 the gain by immigration was
j90,ooo. Probably, at least half of these represent Australians,
impelled to emigrate by years of drought. England and Scotland
supply the bulk of the remainder. The government has aided
immigrant farmers and farm labourers having a certain sum
of money, also female domestics, by paying part of their passage
money.
The people of colour in 1906 numbered 53,000, including
3300 Chinese and 6500 Maori half-castes. An apparent increase
of 7000 in the Maori and half-castes between 1891 and 1906
is, perhaps, partly due to more accurate computation. It seems
probable that the number of Maori and half-castes taken together
is about the same as it was thirty years ago, though the infusion
of white blood is larger. The Public Health Department has
exerted itself to improve the sanitation of native villages and
combat the mischievous trickery of Maori wizards and
" doctors."
W*aiik.—Thi^ increase of wealth went on after 1879 in spite of dull
tiroes, and was only checked by the especially severe fioandal
dcpresaon of 1893 and 1894, caused by low prices and the Australian
bank panic Ine estimated private wealth of colonisu fell from
£336 per head in^ 1890 to £219 m 1895. It was computed in 190^ to
have reached £292. After deducting debts owing abroad the public
and private wealth of the colony is calailated to be about
£270,000,000.
Of the five banks of issue doing business in the dominion three are
Australian and New Zealand institutions. Their deposits exceeded
£2 1, 000,000 in 1007, as against £12,250,000 in 1890. At the same
date more than £10,000,000 stood to the credit of small depositors in
post office and private savings banks, nine-tenths m the former.
The gross amount insured by policies in life insurance offices
(ordinarjr and industrial) was over £29,000,000, of which the state
office claimed two-fifths.
Trade, — ^The growth of sea-trade in recent years is shown by the
larger sixe of the ocean-going vessels trading with the colonv. The
number of these only advanced from 589 to 629 between 1896 and
1906. But the increase of tonnage in the eleven years was from
614.000 tons to 1,243,000; while the crews rose from 20,000 to 32,500.
The coasting trade and trade with Australia are carried in New
Zealand-owned vessels.
External trade has risen from £13,1112000 in 1887 to £^7,371.000
in 1907. Before 1886 exports exceeded imports; but in the twenty
sub^uent years there was an invariabh* excess of exports, valued in
all at £52.ooo,ooa
The re-export trade is fltatjonary and eTttrcmcly small. Tr^de with
the United states pew from £8 77 ,000 in iBoi to Ij.uo.cmo ui 1907.
Thanks to the tariff of tlit iTnitcd States thf balanw ot trade with
North America is heavily atpinst New Zeal^ind. The aajne dis-
parity is shown in her tr^uc with Ccnruny, which i^h hcKU'Cv^r, much
smaller — ^leas than half a mllijgii. Trade «nh IndLa aiiij Ceylon
reached £sS7fiOO in 19^6; thnt with Fiji and other P^cU-.c islands
was £622.000 in 1900. Wuh these exceptions Nt!w Zc^bnd uade is
almost all done with Aus^tr^ilia (£5.^4^»dkj in 190^ J adJ tiir. United
Kingdom; the latter's share in ]r;o6 Ka& £jfi,S 11,000 of the whole.
ProdwiioH. — Wo<J tf 4, 350,000 to £7,657,000 accwdma ift prices)
remains at the head of i lie liit of tsiport^ The quantity ^^wn in-
creased by 70% in tht Twenty y^:\.r^ tSS7-i^3. M^^rraver the
export of sheep skins and p'-.ks m j.^ vuJju J j! XuSo^c-oo la ije last-
mentioned vear. But the description changes; there is much less
merino, and more of the coarser and longer cross-bred. The number
of sheep has increased from 16,564,000 in 1886 to 22,000,000 in 1908,
though the increase has been almost all in North Island. The number
of the flocks grows, and the average size diminishes even more rapidly.
There were 9149 flocks in 1886; in 1906 the number had risen to
18,500 — average size of each flock about 105a The smaller size of
the flocks and the breeding of sheep for meat rather than for wool.
the cultivation of English grasses and of extensive crops of turnips
and other roots on which to fatten sheep and lambs, all tend to
change sheep-farming from the mere grazing of huee mobs on wide,
unimproved runs held by pastoral licences. The squatters " still
occupy eleven miUion acres, but even these are more closely sub-
dividcu than in former days. How much more extensive is grazing —
ol the more scientific order — than agriculture, is seen at once from
the figures of the amount of land oroken up, for crops or other
purposes, and the amount under sown g^rasses There were about
1 .600,000 acres under crop in 1899. This is exclusive of the vast area
of native-grass land. The area now occupied and utilized by whites
is about 38,000.000 acres.
The character of the sml and the moist cool climate enable English
erasses to be sown almost everywhere, and 13,000,000 acres are now
uid down with these. The result is seen in the price obtained for
New Zealand sheep in SmithfieM Market, which is from ^. to id.
per lb higher than that given for frozen mutton from other countries.
The figures below show the growth of the trade:
Export of Fnnen Mtat,
Year.
lb.
Year.
lb.
i88a
1891
1,707.328
I ro, 199,082
1901
1907
208,045.000
263.738.496
In the market for frozen lambs the colony remains at present without
a rivaL Frozen beef is also sent to England. In 1907 the export of
frozen meat was valued at £3420.ooa The export of butter and
cheese has risen in value from £207,687 in 1890, till in 1907 that of
butter amounted to ^1,615,000. In London, New Zodand cheese
fetches as high a price as Canadian; the value of the cheese ex-
ported was £662.000 in 1907. Though not yet quite equal in im-
por^nce to wool or frozen iheat, dairy-farming is almost entirely
carried on by small fanners and their families, who supply milk to
factories. Most of these are co-operative, their shareholders being
the farmers themselves. The profits of the industry are thus widely
distributed among the producers. The development of dairy-
farming has led to the spread of settlement, especially in the west of
North Island, where large tracts of fertile soil formerly covered with
forest have now been cleared and converted into dairy-farms. Of
2,850.000 cattle in the colony, two-sevenths are dairy cows.
ine importance of hemp as an cxport-^creasing from j^.ooo in
1898 to ^832,000 in 1907 — has led to improvements in cleaning and
grading »L In consequence its price in London nearly approaches
that paid for manila.
iffinii;.— The export of gold, which was £1.220,000 in 1880,
did not exceed that figure until 1898, and, indeed, fell below three-
quarters of a million in 1887. Then gold-mining, after being long at
a standstill, began again to make headway. Fen- many years the
surface alluvial mining in South Island became less and less profitable.
As in other countrio, however, the working df quartz reefs gradually
compensated for this. The cyanide process of gold extraction, and
the returns obtained by its means from the great Waihi mine in the
Upper Thames, caused an outbreak of gold fever, whkh led to the
opening up of a few good and a great many wtMthless quartz-ndnes
in the Auckland fields. In South Island the river-beds of Otago
province have been successfully worked by means of dredges, and
good returns secured. In 1907 the gold exported was valued at
£2,027,000. The total value of the gold exported from New Zealand
from the discovery of the metal in 1857 to 1907 was, roundly,
/70,000,00a ■ Kauri gum still holds itsplace as an export, over
£500,000 worth being dug up annually. The number of Istrians and
Dalmatians who came from the Adriatic to dig Im kauri gum led to
the passing of restrictive laws.
The progressive -output of coal from 1880 to 1900 is shown below.
Year.
1880
1890
1900
1907
Raised in
the Colony.
Tons
299.923
637.397
1.093.990
1,831,009
Imported.
Tons.
123,298
110,939
124,033
Exported.'
Tons.
7.021
Four-sevenths of the coal is bituminous.
> Excluding Coal for Fuel by Ocean Steamers.
Excellent as the quality of the best New Zealand coal is, the cost of
mining and shipping it prevents the growth of any considerable
export trade. Silver is chiefly extracted in the Thames district,
but other mines containing silver ores have been found. There are
many other valuable or es copper, iron, lead, zinc, antimony, chrome
and manganese. Petroleum springs have been tapped near New
Plymouth. Building stones of various kinds and Of excellent quality
abound. Marble and cement stones occur in many places. Thoe
are extensive deposits of iron-sand on the west coast of the North
Island, and of iron ore at Parapara in Nelson.
ifanti/sctttrrj.— Protected by a tariff wall which was repeatedly
heightened between 1870 and 1907, manufactures made considerable
progress. At the end of 1885 about 22,000 work-people were being
employed in 1946 workshops, and the aggregate output was valued
at six millions and three-quarters. Twenty years later the number
of establishments was 4186; the number of hands 56.000; and the
output twenty-three millions and a half. A small deduction should
be made from this apparent increase to allow for a changed system
of classification. Male factory hands greatly outnumbered female,
standing in the ratio of four to one. Between 1879 and 1895 wages
fell. Between 1895 and 1906 they rose 15% on the average among
males of all aees, and as much as 30% among women and giri
workers. The disjKoportionate rise in the case of females is probably
due to the policy of the industrial arbitration court. The chief
factory industries come under the following heads: meat-freezing
and tallow; tanning and wool-scouring; flax mills, saw-mills and
grain-mills; boots and shoes; woollen and clothing; butter and
628
NEW ZEALAND
cheese ; breweries; printing houses; foundries;' asricultural imple-
ment and machine shops; soap and candle Works; coach-building
and furniture; gas-works. Except in meat-freezing,^ wool-scouring,
butter- and cheese-making, flax-milling and timber-sawing, manufac-
turing is almost entirely tor consumption within the colony.
Gifvemment.—lieyr Zealand was not colonized in the ordinary
manner around one centre. There were in its early years six
distinct settlements— Auckland, Wellington, Nelson, New
Plymouth, Canterbury and Otago — between which communica-
tion was for several ycais irregular and infrequent. To meet
their political wants the Constitution Act of 1852 created
them into provinces, with elective councils and superintendents
respectively, subordinated to one colonial legislature. In 1876
the provincial system was abolished. The general assembly, as
it is called, is composed of the governor, the legislative council,
and the House of Representatives. The governor is appointed
by the crown, but his salary, £7500, is paid by the colony. The
legislative council consists of members appointed for seven
years by the governor in cotmcil; the number of legislative
councillors stays at or near forty-five. The House of Repre-
sentatives consists of eighty members chosen by the electors.
The members of both houses are paid. The franchise is adult
suffrage, conditional on a previous residence in the colony for
a year, including six months in the electoral district for which
a claim to vote is registered. Every elector is qualified for
election. Four members of the house must be Maori elected
by their own race. The duration of the house is for three years,
but it is subject to re-election whenever the governor dissolves
the general assembly. Legislation is subject ' to disallowance
by the crowri, but that power is seldom exercised. Executive
administration is conducted on the principle of English re-
sponsible or parliamentary government. The government is
represented in England by a high commissioner. Local ad-
ministration is vested in local elective bodies, such as municipal
councils, county councils, road boards, harbour boards, charitable
aid boards, and others, with power to levy rates. The colonial
revenue is chiefly derived from customs; stamp duties, land tax,
income tax, beer excise, postal and telegraphic services, railways,
and crown land sales and rents. The proceeds of land sales
are applied to surveys and public works. Customs duties,
railways and stamps are by far the most important sources
of revenue. They yielded £3,103,000, £2,765,000 and li,S5^,ooo
respectively out of a total revenue of £9,056,000 in the financial
year 1907-1908. The gross public debt had reached £66,500,000
in 1908. The money has chiefly been spent on railways, tele-
graphs, roads, bridges, land purchase from the native tribes
and private estate owners, on loans to settlers and on native
wars. The state railways (2500 m.) return about £800,000 after
paying working expenses. This does not quite defray the
interest on the cost of their construction and equipment, inas-
much as it barely comes to 3§% thereon, but rates and fares
are deliberately kept low to encourage settlement and com-
munication. The debts of the local bodies amount to about
nine millions. They raise rather more than a million a year
by rates, licence fees and dues.
Education.— Under the Education Act of 1877 state schools are
established, in which teachine is free, sccubr and compulsory, with
certain exceptions, for children between the aces of seven and
thirteen. A capitation grant is given for every child in average daily
attendance at the schools. Grants are also made for scholarships
from primary to secondary schools, for training institutions for
teachers and for school buildings. Large reserves of public lands
have been made for primary, secondary and university education-
All primary and some secondary public schools are controlled by
provincial education boards elected by school committees of the
parents of pupils. The percentage of attendance has rivalled that in
the primary schools of Scotland, and in 1005 attained to 86-9%.
Native village schools are also provided by the state in native
districts. There arc, moreover, industrial schools, orphanages and
institutions for the deaf and dumb and blind. There arc about
ninety secondary schools, state-supported or aided by public endow-
ments. The university of New Zealand is an cxammmg body, and
grants honours, degrees and scholarships. It is empowered by
royal charter to confer degrees entitled to rank and consideration
throughout the British dominions, as fully as if they were granted by
any university in the United Kingdom. Colleges in the four chief
towns and in Nelson are affiliated to the New Zealand University,
which has about fifteen hundred undergraduates keeping terms.
The state in no way controls or interferes with religious administra-
tion. Each denomination attends to the religious mst ruction ci its
own adherents, chiefly by means of Sunday schools, which count
108.000 pupils. Roman Catholics support about 150 clerical day
schools attended by about 1 1 ,500 scholars. ^ State school buildings
can be, and sometimes are, used for reUgious instrucrion on days ami
at hours other than those fixed by law for ordinary school »-ork;
but no child can be required to attend, except at the wish of its parent
or guardian.' The government spends £35.000 a year on manual and
technical instruction, a branch of teaching which includes about
two hundred cookery classes. A school of engineering and an agri-
cultural college are attached to the university college in the province
of Canterbury, and there are several schools of mines elsewhere.
About 157,000 white children and 6500 Maori children attend
schools of one degree or another. Private schools claim about 10%
of' these. The annual parliamentary^ expenditure on education
exceeds £700,000. In this connexion it may be claimed that the
proportion of policemen to population (i to 1375) is lower in New
Zealand than in any other colony. The fixing of the legal minimum
" factory age " for children at fourteen undoubtedly favours schocJ
attendance.
Land. — Apart from gold-mining, coal-mining and gum-digging,
the industries are still mainly the growing of food and raw material;
and the occupation of the land is easily the chief of all economic
questions. Sixteen million acres Were in 1907 already held in free-
hold, as against about six million acres rented from the state on
permanent leasehold. Crown lands are still alienated, though but
little is now sold for cash outright. The number of holdings of one
acre and upwards in si2c rose from 33,3^ in 1886 to 58,904 in 1896,
and 72,338 in 1906; but the area held m estates of 50PO acres and
upwards remains very large and has diminished but slowly des(Hte
the severity of the graduated bnd-tax. Many interesting experi-
ments in settling .lands have been tried. The best known of these,
pcrhai)s, is the repurchase of large pastoral estates for subdi\-ision
and lease in perpetuity. In the fourteen years 1893-1907 about a
million and a quarter acres were thus acquired at a cost of somevbat
under five millions and a half. Over 13,000 souls had been settled in
this area, and the ycariy rent received from them, about £220,000,
left a substantial balance to the credit of the enterprise in the books
of the treasury. The tenants (who had been favoured with good
years) were with very few exceptions prospering.
Old Age Pensions. — ^The Old Age Pensions law, enacted in 1898,
provided for the free grant of pensions, not exceeding i|i8 a \-e^.
to persons of sixty-five years and upwards who had lived tor twenty-
five years in the colony. Pensioners must be British subjects, poor,
and not ex-criminals or of notoriously bad character. In 1905 the
maximum pension was raised to i^ a year. Oflficial figures show
that the total number of applications for pensions up to that date
had been 31,271, of which 23,877 had been granted. The number
of pensioners then on the books of the Pensions Office was 13.257.
In the first three years after enactment of the law the growth c4
the number of pensioners was very rapid ; in the next five it was
remarkably slow^-only 481 altogether. The oroportion- of whites
qualified by age and residence who were actually drawing pensiora
was rather less than one-third C>t had been 9% more in IQ02). Tbe
reduction was due to stricter administration. The total sum paid
out in eight and a quarter years had been a million and three quarters.
The amount paid in pensions in the financial year 1906-1907 was
£325,000. The money is found by the central government. The
administration of the system, which is in the hands of a special
department, costs a little over £5000. Frauds and evaaons by
applicants and pensioners, though they exist, are not believrd'to
be numerous. Public thrift does not, so far, seem to have bcea
diminished. Since the coming of the system the amount spent on
outdoor relief in the colony had by 1906 diminished from £^1.000
to £36,500, in face of an increase of nearly 23% in the popubtion.
History. — The date, even the Approximate date, of man's
arrival in New Zealand is uncertain. All that can be saidj
asserted is that by the 14th tcntury aj>. Polynesian canoe-nren
had reached its northern shores in successive voyages. By
1642 they had spread to South Island, for there Abel Jansca
Tasman found them when, in the course of his circuitous vo>-a^
from Java in the" Heemskirk," he chanced upon the archipela|:o.
coasted along much of its western side, thougji without vcntunr.g
to land, and gave it the name it still bears. One hundred icd
thirty-seven years later, Cook, in the barque " Endeavour,"
gained a much fuller knowledge of the coasts, whi h he circutD-
navigated, visited again and again, and mapped out with fair
accuracy. He annexed the country, but the British govenimeBt
disavowed the act. After him came other navigators, French.
Spanish, Russian and American, and, as the i8th ccniun
nearcd its end, 'came sealers, whalers and trading-scbooccrs
in quest of flax and timber. English missionaries, headed by
Samuel Marsden, landed in 1814, to make for many years but
NEW ZEALAND
629
slow progress. They were hindered by murderous tribal wars
in which imported muskets more than decimated the Maori.
Stilly cruel experience and the persevering preaching of the
missionaries gradually checked the fighting, and by the year
183Q it could be claimed that peace and Christianity were in
the ascendant. So far the British government had resbted the
considerable pressure brought to bear in Downing Street in
favour of annexation. In vain Edward Gibbon Wakefield,
organizer of colonizing associations, prayed and intrigued for
permission to repeat in New Zealand the experiment tried by
him in South Australia^ Lord Glenelg, the colonial minister, had
the support of the missioiuiries in withstanding Wakefield's
New Zealand Company, which at length resolved in desperation
to send an agent to buy land wholesale in New Zealand and
despatch a shipload of settlers thither without official permissioru
Before, however, the " Tory " had thus sailed for Cook Strait,
it had become known to the English government that a French
colonizing company — La Compapiie NatUthBofddaise — was
forming, under the auspices of Louis Philippe, to anticipate or
oust Wakefield. Further obstruction was manifestly futile, and
the British authorities reluctantly instructed Captain Hobson,
R.N., to make his way to northern New Zealand with a dormant
commission of lieutenant-governor in his pocket and authority
to annex the country to Australia by peaceful arrangement with
the natives. Hobson landed in the Bay of Islands on the aand
of January 1840, hoisted the Union Jack, and had little difficulty
in inducing most of the native chiefs to accept the queen's
sovereignty at the price of guaranteeing to the tribes by the
treaty of Waitangi possession of their lands, forests and fisheries.
Some French settlers, convoyed by a man-of-war, reached
Akaroa in-South Island in the May following. But Hobson had
forestalled them, and those who remained in the country became
British subjects. Meanwhile, a week after Hobson 's arrival,
Wakefield's cobnists had sailed into Port Nicholson, and proposed
to take possession of immense tracts which the New Zealand
Company claimed to have bouj^t from the natives, and for which
colonists had in good faith paid the company. Other bands of
company's settlers in like manner landed at Nelson, Wanganui
and New Plymouth, to be met with the news that the British
government would not recognize the company's purchases.
Then followed weary years of ruinous delay and official inquiry,
during which Hobson died after founding Auckland. His
successor, Fitzroy, drifted into an unsuccessful native war.
A strong man; Captain Grey, was at last sent over from Australia
to restore peads and rescue the unhappy colony from bankruptcy
and despair. Grey, much the best of the absolute governors,
held the balance fairly between the white and brown races, and
boug;ht large tracts of land for colonization, including the whole
South Island, where the Presbyterian settlement of Otago and
the Anglican settlement of Canterbury were established by
the persevering Wakefield.
In 1853 the mother-country granted self-government, and,
after much wrangling and hesitation, a full parliamentary system
and a responsible ministry were set going in 1856. For twenty
years thereafter the political history of the colony consisted
of two long, intermittent struggles— one constitutional between
the central government (first seated in Auckland, but after
1864 in Wellington) and the powerful provincial councils, of
which there were nine charged with important functions and
endowed with the land revenues and certain rating powers.
The other prolonged contest was racial — ^thc conflict between
settler and Maori. The native tribes, brave, intelligent and
fairly well armed, tried, by means of a league against land-selling
and the election of a king, to retain their hold over at least the
central North Island. But their kings were incompetent, their
chiefs jealous and their tribes divided. Their style of warfare,
too, calised them to throw away the immense advantages which
the broken bush-clad island offered to clever guerrilla partisans.
They were poor marksmen, and had but little skill in laying
ambuscades. During ten years of intermittent marching and
•fighting between x86i aiul 1871 the Maori did no more than
prove that they had in them the stuff to stand up against fearful
odds and not always to be worsted. Round Mount Egmont,
at Orakau,at Taurangaand in the Wanganui jungles, they more
than once held their own against British regiments and colonial
riflemen. The storming of their favourite positions — stockades
strengthened with rifle-pits— was often costly; and a strange
anti-Christian fanaticism, the Hau-Hau cult, encouraged them
to face the white men's bullets and bayonets. But even their
fiercest figliting leaders, Rewi and Te Kooti, scarcely deserved
the name of generals. Some of the best Maori fighters, such as
the chiefs Ropata and Kemp, were enlisted on the white side,
and with their tribesmen did much to make unequal odds still
more imeqiial. Had General Pratt or General Cameron, who
commanded the imperial forces from x86o to 1865, had the
rough vigour of their successor. General Chute, or the cleverness
of Sir George Grey, the war might have ended in 1864. Even
as it was the resistance of the Maori was utterly worn out
at last. After 187 x they fought no more. The coionbts too,
taught by the sickening delay and the ruinous cost of the war
to revert to conciliatory methods, bad by this time granted the
natives special representation in parliament. A tactful native
mimster, Sir Donald McLean, did the rest. Disarmament,
roads and land-purchasing enabled settlement to make headway
again in the North Island after twelve years of stagnation.
Grey quarrelled with his masters in Downing Street, and his
career in the imperial service came, to an end in z868. His
successors, Sir George Bowen, Sir James Fergtison, the marquess
of Normanby and Sir Hercules Robinson, were content to be
constitutional governors and to respect strictly the behests of
the cobnial office. Meanwhile the industrid story of New
Zealand may be summed up in the words wool and gold. Ex-
tremely well suited for sheep-farming, the natural pastures of
the country were quickly parcelled out into huge pastoral crown
leases, held by prosperous licensees, the sqttatters, who in many
cases aspired to become a country gentry by turning their leases
into freeholds. So profitable was sheep-farming seen to be that
energetic settlers began to bum off the bracken and cut and burn
the forest in the North Island and sow English grasses on the
cleared land. In the South artificial grassing went on for a time
hand in hand with cereal-growing, which by 1876 seemed likely
to develop on a considerable scale, thanks to the importation
of American agricultural machinery, which the settlers were
quick to utilize. Even more promising appeared the gold-fields.
Gold had been discovered in 1853. Not, however, until i86r
was a permanent field found — tliat lighted upon by Gabriel
Read at Tuapeka in Otago. Thereafter large dqx>sits were
profitably exploited in the south and west of South Island and
in the Thames and Coromandel districts of the Auckland province.
Gold-mining went through the usual stages of alluvial washing,
deep sinking and quartz-reef working. Perhaps its chief value
was that it brou^t many thousand diggers to the colony,
most of whom stayed there. Pastoral and mining enterprise,
however, could not save the settlers from severe depression in
the years 1867 to 1871. War had brought progress in the north
to a standstill; in the south wool-growing and gold-mining
showed their customary fluctuations. For a moment it seemed
as though the manufacture of hemp from the native Pftormium
tenax would become a great indtistry. But that suddenly
collapsed, to the ruin of many, and did not revive for a number
of years.
In 1870 peace had not yet been quite won; industry was
depressed; and the scattered and scanty colonists already
owed seven millions sterling. Yet it was at this moment that
a political financier. Sir Julius Vogel, at that moment colonial
treasurer in the ministry of Sir William Fox, audaciously pro-
posed that the central government should borrow ten millions,
make roads and railways, buy land from the natives and import
British immigrants. The House of Representatives, at first
aghast, presently voted four millions as a beginning. Coinciding
as the carrying out of Vogel's policy did with a rising wool
market, it for a time helped to bring great prosperity, an influx
of people and much genuine settlement. Fourteen millions
of bonowed money, spent in ten years, were on the whole well
630
NEW ZEALAND
laid out. But prospenty brought on a feverish hud speculation;
prices of wool and wheat fell in 1879 and went on falling. Faulty
banking ended in a crisis, and 1879 proved to be the first of sixteen
yean of almost unbroken depression. Still, eight prosperous
yean had radically changed the colony. Peace, railways,
telegraphs (including cable connexion with Europe), agricultural
machinery and a larger population had carried New Zealand
beyond the primitive stage. The provincial councils had been
swept away in 1876, and their functions divided between the
central authority and small poweriess local bodies. Politics,
cleared of the cross-issues of provincialism and Maori warfare,
took the usual shape of a struggle between wealth and radicalism.
Sir George Grey, entering colonial politics as a Radical leader,
had appealed eloquently to the work-people as well as to the
Radical " intellectuals," and though unable to retain office for
very long he had compelled his opponents to pass manhood
suffrage and a triennial pariiaments act. A national education
system, free, non-religious and compulsory, was established in
1S77. The socialistic bent of New Zealand was already dis-
cernible in a public trustee law and a state life insurance office.
But the socialistic labour wave of later yean had not yet gathered
strength. Grey proved himself a poor financier and a tactless
party leader. A land-tax imposed by his government helped
to alarm the farmers. The finanrial collapse of 1879 teft the
treasury fcropty. Grey was manoeuvred out of office, and Sir John
Hall and Sir Harry Atkinson, able opponents, took the reins
with a minion td reinstate the finances and restore confidence.
Roughly speaking, both the political and the industrial
history of the colony from 1879 to 1908 may be divided into two
periods. The dividing line, however, has to be drawn in different
years. Sixteen yean of depression were followed, from 1895
to 1908, by thirteen yean of great prosperity. In politics
nearly twelve yean of Conservative government, or at least
capitalistic predominance in public affairs, were succeeded by
more than seventeen yean of Radicalism. Up to January
1 89 1 the CQUscrvative forces which overthrew Sir George Grey
in 1879 controlled the country in effect though not always in
name, and for ten yean progressive legislation was confined to
a mild experiment in offering crown lands on perpetual lease,
with a right of purchase (1882), a still milder instalment of local
option (1881) and an inoffensive Factories Act (x886). In
September 1889, however, Sir George Grey succeeded in getting
parliament to abolish the last remnant of plural voting. Finance
otherwise absorbed attention; by z88o the public debt had
reached £35,000,000, against which the chief new asset was
1300 m. of railway, and though the population had increased
to nearly half a mHlion, the revenue was stagnant. A severe
property-tax and an increase pf customs duties in 1879 only for a
moment achieved financial equilibrium. Although taxation
was seconded by a drastic. Indeed harsh, reduction of public
salaries and wages (which were cut down by one-tenth all round)
yet the yean 1884, 1887 and z888 were notable for heavy
deficits in the treasury. Taxation, direct and indirect, had to
be further increased, and as a means of gaining support for this
in 1888 Sir Harry Atkinson, who was responsible for the budget,
gave the customs tariff a distinctly protectionist complexion.
During the yean 1879-1890 the leading political personage
was Sir Harry Atkinson. He, however, withdrew from party
politics when, in December 1890, he was overthrown by thc(
Progressives under John Balkuice. Atkinson's party never
rallied from this defeat, and a striking- change came over public
life, though Ballance, until hb death in April 1893, continued
the prudent financial policy of his predecessor. The change
was emphasized by the active intervention in politics of the
trade unions. These bodies decided in 1889 and 1890 to exert
their influence in returning workmen to parliament, and where
this was impossible, to secure pledges from middle-class candi-
dates. This plan was fint put into execution at the general
election of 1890, which was held during the industrial excitement
aroused by the Australasian maritime strike of that year. It
had, however, been fully arranged before the conflict broke out.
The number of labour memben thus elected to the general
assembly was small, never more than six, and no in dcpeirimt
labour party of any sixe was formed. But the influence of labour
in the Progressive or, as it preferred to be called. Liberal party,
was considerable, and the legislative resulu noteworthy. BaUaocc
at once raised the pay of memben from £150 to £240 a year, but
otherwise directed his energies to constitutional reforms and
social experiments. These did not interfere with the general
lines of Atkinson's strong and cautious finance, though the first
of them was the abolition of his direct tax upon all property,
personal as well as real, and the substitution therefor of a land-
tax of zd. in the £ on capital value, and also of a graduated tax
upon unimproved land values, and an income-tax also graduated,
though less elaborately. The graduated land-tax, which has
since been stiffened, rises from nothing at all upon the smaller
holdings to 3d. in the £ upon the capital value of the largest
estates— those worth £3 10,000 and upwards. Buildings, improve-
ments, and live stock are exempted. In the case of mortgaged
estates the mortgagor is exempted from ordinary land-tax in
proportion to the amount of his mortgage. On that the mortgagee
pays at the rate of id. in the £. In 1896 municipal and nizai
lool bodies were allowed to levy rates upon unimproved land
values if authorised to do so by a vote of their electon, and by
the end of 190X some sixty bodies, amongst them the city of
Wellington, had made use of this permission. The income-tax
b not levied on incomes drawn from land. In 189 1 the tcnuxt
of memben of the legislative council or nominated Upper House,
which had hitherto been for life, was altered to seven yean.
In 1892 a new form of land tenure was introduced, under whidi
large areas of crown lands were leased for 999 yean, at an
unchanging rent of 4% on the prairie value. Crown tenants
under this tystem had no right of purchase. In the same year
a law was also passed autluDrizing government to repurchase
private land for closer settlement.
On Ballance's sudden death in April 1893 his place was taken
by Richard Seddon, minister of mines in the Ballance cabinet,
whose fint task was to pass the electoral bill pf his predecessor,
which granted the franchise to all adult women. This was adopted
in September 1893, though the majority for it in the Upper
House was but two votes. In 1893 was enaaed the Akoholic
Liquor Control Act, greatly extending local option. In 1894
was passed the Advances to Settlen Act, under which sUte
money-lending to farmen on mortgage of freehold or leasehold
land was at once begun. The money is lent by an official board,
which deals with applications and manages the fixunoe of the
system. In thirteen yean the board lent out over five millioos
and a half, and received repayment of neariy two twai^^M of
principal as well as over one million in interest at 5 %. Bonowen
must repay i% of their principal half-yearly, and may repay as
much more as they choose. Profits are paid over to an assurance
fund. No losses were incurred during the thirteen years above
mentioned. The net profit made by the board in 1906 was
£45,ooa The same year also saw the climax of a aeries of lavs
passed by the Progressives affecting the relations of cmployen
and workmen. These laws deal with truck, empbyen* liability,
contracton' workmen, the recovery of workmen's wages, the hooxs
of closing in shops and merchanu' offices, conspiracy amongst
trade unionists, and with faaories, mines, diit^ingaadseBxcea.
In X 895 a law controlling servants* registry offices was added.
In X897 all shipownen engaging in the coasting trade of the ooloBy
were compelled to pay the colonial rate of wages.
Meanwhile the keystone of the regulative system had been laid
by the passing of the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act.
under which disputes between employen and unions of wvvkcfs
are compulsorily settled by state tribuzuUs; strikes and Kock-oots
are virtually prohibited in the case of orgaxiized work-peopk, and
the coiulitions of employment in industries may be, aiid in many
cases are, regulated by public boards and courts. The yean
1896,1897 and Z898 were marked by struggles over the Old Age
Pensions Bill, which became law hi November X89S. In 1898 the
divorce law was amended on the lines of the Stephen Act of Nev
South Wales, a change which helped to treble the number ef
petitions for divorce in the next seven years. In 1898 also the
NEXT FRIEND
631
municipal fxanchiae, hitherto confined to ratepayers, was greatly
widened; in xgoo the English system of compensation to work-
men for accidents suffered in their trade was adopted with some
changes, one of the chief being that contested claims are adjudi-
cated upon cheaply and expeditiously by the same arbitration
court that decides industrial disputes. In 1895 borrowing on
a larger scale was begun, and in twelve years twice as many
millions were added to the public debt. Before this the Ballance
ministry had organized two new departments, those of labour
and agriculture. The former supervises the labour laws and
endeavours to deal with unemployment; the latter has done
much practical teaching, inspection, &r. Butter, cheese and
New Z^ealand hemp are by law graded and branded by depart-
mental inspectors before export. For some years the government
has worked two coal-mines profitably, diicfly to supply its
raOways. In 1907 the net profit on these was over £8000. The
continued success of the government life insurance office led
in 1899 to the setting up of an iacddents insurance office, and,
in Z903, of a state fire insurance office.
TheNmtbreak of the Boer War in October 1899 was followed
in New Zealand by a prompt display of general and persistent
warlike enthusiasm: politics ceased to be the chief topic of
interest; the general election of 1899 was the most languid held
for fifteen years. The desire of New Zealandezs to strike a blow
for the mother-country took the practical shape of despatching
to South Africa ten successive contingepts.
After gaining office at the beginning of 1891 the Ballance-
Seddon party had to struggle with the last four years of the
period ci depression. In 1895 began a marked conmiercial
revival, mainly due to the stc^y conversion of the colony's
waste lands into pasture; the development of frozen meat and
dairy exports; the continuous increase of the output of coal;
the invention of gold-dredging; the revival and improvement
of hemp manufacture; the exploiting of the deposits of kauri
gum; the reduction in the rates of interest on mortgage money;
a general rise in wages, obtained without strikes, and partially
secured by law, which has increased the spending power of the
working classes. Undoubtedly also commercial confidence was
restored by the reconstruction in 1895 of the Bank of New Zea-
land, and activity has been stimulated by large public loans,
while more cautious banking and the systems of taxation and
rating on land values, adopted in 1891 and 1896, have done
something to check land speculation.
Between 1879 and 1908 seven governors represented tht crown
in New Zealand. Of these Sir Hercules Robinson and Sir Arthur
Gordon had but brief reigns; Sir Arthur. Gordon quilted the
colony in June 1882. His successor. Sir William Dnimmond
Jervois, arrived in January 1883, and held office until March 1889.
The earl of Onslow, who followed, landed in June 1889, and
resigned in February 1892. The next governor, the earl of
Glasgow, remained in the colony from June 1892 to February
1897, and was succeeded in August of the last-mentioned year
by the earl of Ranfurly, who did not retire until 1904. His place
was then taken by Lord Plunket. The cabinets which adminis-
tered the affairs of the colony during these years were those of
Sir Frederick Whitaker, Sir Harry Atkinson (3), Sir Robert
Stout (3), Mr Ballance, Mr Seddon, Mr Hall- Jones and Sir Joseph
Ward. Mr Hall-Jones's short premiership was an interregnum
made necessary by the absence of Sir Joseph Ward in England
at the moment of Mr Seddon's death. Except in one disturbed
month, August 1884, when there were three changes of ministry
in eighteen days, executives were more stable than in the colony's
earlier years. The party headed by Ballance, Seddon and Ward
held office without a break for more than seventeen years, a result
mainly due to the general support given to its agrarian and
labour policy by the smaller farmers and the working classes.
Sir Arthur Gordon differed from his ministers— Hall and Atkinson
—on their native policy. Lords Onslow and Glasgow came into
collision with Ballance over a proposal to nominate a large batch
of Liberals to the then Conservative legislative counc^. The
dispute was by consent referred to the secretary for the colonies,
and the decision from Downing Street was in Ballance's favour.
The governor's salary, reduced in 1887, was restored to £7500
a year in 1900. An Immigrants Exclusion Act voted by the
general assembly in 2896 did not receive the royal assent; but,
by arrangement with the colonial office, another measure, giving
power to impose a reading test on aliens landing in the colony,
became law in 1899.
The presence of New Zealand premiers at the imperial con-
ferences in London in 1897, 1903 and X907 helped to bring the
colony into conscious touch with imperial public questions.
Among the results were the increase of the naval contribution
(first to iUOfOoo and then, in 1908, to £100,000), and the im-
position in 1903 and again in 1907 of severe discriminating duties
ag^iln^t ImportE from forc'tgn countries.
DiiJLioCK.At"Uif.^^Tlie orily lengthy bifitorical acoDun.t of any note
is Rij^knV rlira^-volumc flishry (?f Nrw Zraiand (iind cd., Af clboumc,
l8'y<:i, chkrty vaEiiiblc as a. fitnEcfnpnt oi the ericviincc^ of the
M f'.Ti niL'e. Short histories arc: fL F. In-ine and O, T. J^ Alpersij
TUrf !'f<y^cis aj New Zealand in ihi Ctntury (London, 19OJ}, and
W r. Reeves, Tkt Long WhiU: Ciottd {jnd cd-, London » 1900). Sir
\V:I]! Lsn Foic, The WV in Nm: Zealand (.Londcrn, 1866J is ih* best
aO''''3ni of 3^ny portion of the niitive wsn. A. S, Thotnion'b Siw^y
of A' Til ZMlund {London, tUV>) u> historical as ■«re]i as dn^riptivc.
WUh-:n!i GTiibornc^B A'fw Zealand Ruim and Slateswun, iS44^tSgj
(L^'i'j'itij 1397), givts many grnphvc port nUf. For early accounti of
thr M Lfjri niti?i s*'"' Cook'4 X^ayaf,ta.nd Bao^:^'5 transLition o( Crorot'*
V(!\ : T. On the Staori also note. Sir C. Grey, Folyntsian Myihoiojy
ani Miiitri Ltsmdf (New Zealand^ 1SS5); Cdward Tnc^rcar. Th^
Jfi '►" Hii£€ (New Z«3l3nd, 1704); S- Pericy Smith, Hawatki (New
Zc J irkd, 1903): John WlailCi Jlw Ancitxt Hiilory of ike Ma&ri
(6 V 1^'., London, (flSg): snd majw popery — especially by the three
an ] Sli.ind— in the Tfum^Mons ttj tht Near Zealand Insiituie (New
Ze/. 'kJ^ annuiil). and the Jaumai af ih( Poiyn^ian Socieijf (New
2Jc :1 u'-'Lannnial). Oncarly*?\*eiitft*>fpioiicertngandcoioniationare;
E. ] . Wakefield, Advftiturt rft N(V Z<ai*ind (new cd.. New ZcAland^
IQ .; Hon. R. McNab. MurihuH {Nfw Zealand, 1907}: T. M,
hIs '.:vn, Conlributipm to ttic Earh Huioty of Ntiu Zf aland (LqimJod,
18^-:); Sacntiel Butler, First Ytct in tkf Canierbufy Seidmati
(lh',\). For later imprcsdonfr ftotci; Lady Barkcf, SUititm Lijf in
Nr- Ats.latid (London, i96o); Sir Cbarlw Diltt:, Crt^kr Btiiain
(Ln li>ciH new ed^t ifi85h Anthony TroUocc, AuiifaHa and Nrur
Zer/.,ir.A {London, i»755; J* A- Fpaude, Ocmaa (London, tse&).
Tho l*i-it-kcipwn poetic work pmduccd ii Domett's Rnmtlf and
Ap-.-'hia (Londctn, 1667). An anihokigy rf New Zealand vense
&p'.A..iTvii lit London ia 1907. Sir John Com, Nrto Zfaland Hf-
vuiioi (London, t9o8)> Amon|: Kli^ntidc works coeiw pap,^jfis in (he
tw.^ L<H:ietic* abovt>mcmtoncd and F. von Hochstetttr, New
Ze.:l2rul (transliitloti. London, i86i); J. Krik, J** forest fiora <-/
iVit. ZcJaitd (New Ztalaml, i&^h Sir J. Hooker, ilandimli of
tht \.-JJ ZniiaHd Flora (Undon. i^ja); Laing and Olitkwcil. The
Phr.:-, iif Nns ZtaUnd (Nc*/ Jk^^lind, 1906): Professor E. Huttoii
anil limifi Drummondn The Animah of Afip Zealand (New Zealand,
I9r^-^;'; ^ir W. L, Bullirr, Tht Birds of M™ Zealand^ finely i II us^i rated
(m A LiJ., London, ryo6) t^S* Percy Smitlj, The Et^piicn uf Tarauvra
(Ni ^ Zcabfld, 18B7). On recent snciil and pylitical chan^cfi and
exi ruMLni* there are: W, P. Rcevcsn £i<iU Bxhetimenis in Auslmha
ani Aru:^ 2<?aJartJ U vols.^ London^ iq/aj^x H. D- Lloyd, A'revjif
£ir ' .-id (London, 1901); Andti SWncdf Lo. D^mof ratteen Nouwile
ZfJc.Title (Pari*, 1904) ► On Alpine climbinif the Ix^st btxik ii Hill The
Hizh Aips of Niio Ztdand by W- S. Green (London^ iftSj)
NEXT FRIEND, in law, tbe phrase used for a person who
represents in an action another person who is under disability
to maintain a suit on his own behalf. This disability arises from
infancy or mental Incapacity, consequently every application
to the court on behalf of an infant or a lunatic must be made
through a next friend {prochein amy^ proximus amicus). Previous
to the Married Women's Property Act 188 a it was also usual
for a married woman to sue by a next friend, but that act,
allowing a married woman to sue in all respects as a feme soU^
has rendered a next friend unnecessary in her case. In the case
of an infant the father is prima facie the proper person to act
as next friend; in the father's absence the testamentary guardian
if any; but any person not under disability may act as next
friend so long as he has no interest in the action adverse to that
of the infant. A married woman cannot, however, act as next
friend. An infant defends a suit, not by a next friend, but by
a guardian ad litem. In the case of a lunatic, he su« by his
committee, but if he has no committee, or if the committee has
some interest adverse to the lunatic, he sues by his next friend.
A next friend has ftdl power over the proceedings in the action
632
NEY
as if he were an ordinary plaintiff, but he is not entitled to be
beard in person.
NET, MICHEL^ duke of Elchingen, prince of the Moskowa
(i 769-181 5), marshal of France, was born at Saarlouis on the
loth of January 1769. His father was a cooper, and he received
only a rudimentary education. In 1788 he went to Mctz and
enlisted in a regiment of hussars; in 1792 he was elected
lieutenant; and in 1794 he became captain and was placed by
K16bcr at the head of a special corps of light troops. He was soon
promoted chejde brigade, and in x 796, after repeatedly distinguish-
ing himself in action, general of brigade. He then commanded
the right wing of Hoche's army up to the peace of Campo Formio.
On the resumption of hostilities he again took the field, and for
his surprise of Mannheim in 1799 received the grade of general
of division. He distinguished himself and received thr^ wounds
in the Swiss campaign of Mass^na, and when Mass€na turned
against the Russians, who were approaching from Italy, Ney
was left in command of the holding detachment opposite the
Austrians. He displayed great vigour and skill in this work,
and was completely successful, although his opponent was
the famous Archduke Charles. In x8oo he was present at
Hohenlinden. In May 1802 he married Mademoiselle Augui6,
whom Josephine had chosen for him at Bonaparte's request.
This event marks a change in Ney's political opinions which can
only be explained by reference to Napoleon's power of captivating
men. He was henceforward as ardent and sincere an admirer
of Napoleon as hitherto he had been of revolutionary principles,
and was one of the very few officers of the Army of the Rhine
who became a trusted lieutenant of the emperor.. He soon
afterwards carried out an important diplomatic mission in
Switzerland, and in 1803 he was placed in command of the camp
of Montrcuil. It was while there that, in the name of the army,
he begged Napoleon to declare himself emperor, and on the
sstabllshment of the empire he was made marshal of France,
<ind received the grand eagle of the Legion of Honour. In 1805
he commanded the VI. corps of the Grand Army, and his great
victory at Elchingen (for which in x8o8 he was made duke of
Elchingen) practically secured the surrender of the Austrians
at Ulm. He was then ordered to the upper Adigc, and missed
the battle of Austerlitz, but was present at Jena and Eylau and
led the decisive attack at Fricdland. His reputation for personal
heroism was by now at its height, and after Friedland Napoleon
gave him the title by which he is still known, " the bravest of
the brave."
In x8o8, after the first disaster to the French arms in Spain,
Ney accompanied Napoleon thither as commander of the VI.
corps. He took part in the Peninsular War from 1808 to 18x1,
commanding his corps in Napoleon's own operations of XS08-09,
in the irregular operations in Galicia X809-10, and under Mass^na
in the invasion of Portugal in x8io-ix. In the last, however,
he quarrelled bitterly with his former chief, and although he
distinguished himself very greatly in command of the rearguard
during the retreat from Torres Vedras — notably at Rcdinha —
he was recalled to France by Napoleon and censured for his
indiscipline. Almost immediately, however, he was re-employed
with the Grande ArmSe in central Europe under Napoleon himself.
In the x8ia expedition to Russia Ney commanded the centre
at Borodino, and was created prince of the Moskowa on the
evening of the victory. In the retreat he was a tower of strength,
animating the rearguard with his own sublime courage, keeping
the harassed an^ famished soldiers together under the colours
and personally standing in the ranks with musket and bayonet.
He himself was the last to rccross the frontier, and threw the
remaining muskets into the Niemen. In 1813 he commanded
a corps in the German campaign, fought at Lfitzen, Bautzen,
Dennewitz and Leipzig, and in 1814 he shared in the victories
and defeats of the campaign in France. At the fall of the Empire
Ney was neither the first nor the last of the marshals to give
up the struggle, but that he acted in the negotiations in concert
with Macdonald and Caulaincourt is sufficient proof of his desire
to avert the unreserved abdication that was forced upon Napoleon
by other circumstances. Less satisfactory than his conduct at
this crisis was his loud protestation of devotion to the Bourbons,
when the Restoration was a faU accompli. But he was soon
mortified by the disdain of the returned imigrls, and retired
to his country seat. While on his way thence to take up a
command at Besan^on, he learned of the return of Napoleon.
He hurried at once to pay his respects to Louis XVIIL and to
assure him of his fidelity. With the famous remark that the
usurper ought to be brought to Paris in an iron cage, he proceeded
to Lons-le-Saulnier to bar Napoleon's progress. But instead
of doing so, he deserted with his troops, and Napoleon's march
became a triumphal progress. Ney's act was undeniably
treason to his sovereign, but it was hardly the calculated treason
that his imigrS detractors saw fit to imagine. The first violence
of his language, his ineffective efforts to make constitutional
guarantees the price of his adhesion to Napoleon, and his final
surrender to the dominant personality of his old leader, all show
him to have been " out of his depth " in this political crisis.
Napoleon received him kindly, but did not give him a command
at first. But when the Waterloo campaign was about to begin
he summoned Ney to the northern (lontier. The marshal
gladly obeyed and took up the command of the left wing on
June 13. The next day the army moved into Belgium. Ney
took part in the campaign successively in the r61es of strategist,
tactician and soldier (see Waterloo Caupaign). Much con-
troversy has raged over his actions of the x 5th and i6th of June.
At Waterloo he was of course subordinated to the personal com-
mand of Napoleon, but his advice as to the conduct of the battle
was often offered and sometimes accepted, and he personally kd
several charges of the French up to the British squares. But
when all was lost, his courage, instead of burning brightly ts
in the Moscow retreat, was extinguished. He made no attempt
to second Davout and Grouchy in the last days of Napoleon's
reign, and in despair advocated the restoration of the Bourbons.
Finding that Louis XVIII. and his allies ignored his advances,
he resolved to escape from France, but afterwards, believing
himself protected by the terms of the convention concluded
on the 3rd of June, he gave up the idea. Soon a fresh order was
issued denouncing him by name, and after a half-hearted attempt
to conceal himself he was arrested on the 5th of August. King
Louis and his minister Decazes realized to the full the lasting
unpopularity that would fall on the monarchy in consequence;
they had done their best to facilitate the escape of the " traitors ";
and when Louis heard of Ney's arrest he exclaimed, "By letting
himself be caught he has done us more harm than he did on the
13th of March!" But neither king nor ministers were in a
position to resist the clamour of the ultra-royalists for blood.
Every fresh delay in the process of Ney's trial raised a oar
outcry at the court, in the salons and in the Chamber of Deputies;
and fiercest of all in demanding immediate execution was the
king's niece, the unhappy duchess of Angoultoie, who lived
to confess that had she known the record of Ney's services to
France she would, never have consented to his death. The
king was powerless, against this all but unanimous voice ci
royalist opinion, backed as it was by that of the powers to wlwrn
he owed his crown. Ney was placed on trial before a court-
martial composed chiefly of his former brothers-in-arms, whose
participation in the tragedy, slight as it was, was probably
never forgiven them by their countrymen. Others of the
marshal's old comrades refused to serve, and were disgraced
in consequence, until public opinion forced their reinstAtes»cnt.
The court, once assembled, was only too glad to take ad'vantage
of the plea of Ney's counsel that he was entitled to be tried by
his equals in the Chamber of Peers. \n spite of the oourageocs
and eloquent appeal of the young due de Broglie, the resu^
of the trial before the latter body was a foregone coDchxsioa;
as to Ney's treason there could be no doubt, and de Broglie
was alone in voting for his acquittal. In the early monung of
the 7th of December x8is Ney was shot in the Luxembourg
gardens, near the Observatory. He met his death quietly and
with a perfect soldierly dignity that effaced the memory of his
political extravagances, and made him, next to Napoleon himself,
the most heroic figure of the time. Much has been said as to
NEZ PERCYS— NGAN-HUI
633
the share of the duke of Wellington in the trial and execution,
and, rightly or wrongly, he has been blamed for allowing the
Bourbons, when restored by the foreign bayonets that he con-
trolled, to proscribe the soldiers who as soldiers had been included
in the military capitulation to the AU.cs.
Ney left materials for memoirs, but in an incomplete state. The
iiimoires du marUhal Ney, published in 1833, were collected from
these papers by his brother-in-law Gamot and by General Foy.
They cover only the earlier part of his career, and end with the battle
of Elchingcn (October 1805). An edition in English was published
the same year.
See Rouval. Vie du mar6chal Ney (Paris, 1833); Dumoulin,
Histoire du proch du marichal Ney (Paris, 1815, Eng. trans. i8t6);
-. ^. . ' • .jj.
NoUet-Fabcrt, £ioge du marichal Ney (Nancy, 1852); Wclschinger,
Le marichal Ney, 1815 (Paris, 189
Hvixion du prochs du marichal Ney
Le marichal Ney, 1815 (Paris, 1893); A. Delmas, Mimoire sur la
rivisiou du procks du marichal Ney (1832): and Military Studies by
Marshal Ney (Eng. trans. London. 1833); VoL 1. of General Bonnal's
Life of Ney appeared in 1910:
HEZ PERCYS (in allusion to their custom of wearing nose-
rings, &c.), a tribe of North American Indians of Sahaptian
stock. They call themselves Shaptin (whence the stock name)
but to other tribes were known as Chopunnish. Their former
range was a large tract in eastern Washington and Oregon and
centralldaho. Until 1877 they had been at peace with the whites.
In 1875 a portion of their reservation having been taken from
them, owing to the allegation that they had not carried out the
treaty stipulations, difficulties arose which, two years later,
caused the NezPercfaWar. 'The disaffected portion of the tribe,
numbering some 400 or 500, held out for several months against
all the forces the government could bring up, but were finally
captured on the Sweet Grass Hills, northern Montana. They
were placed in Indian Territory, but in 1884 transferred, owing
to their decrease through disease,to a healthier locality in northern
Washington. The main tribe are on a reservation in northern
Idaho.
NGAMI, the central point of an inland water system of South
Africa, once forming a lake 20 m. long and 10 wide, but now
little more than an expanse of reeds growing in a soft treacherous
soil, below which brackish water is found. It is cut by 20Y* S.
and 23° E. Ngami is the lowest point of a large depression in
the plateau which comprises nine-tenths of Africa south of the
Zambezi. The area which drains to it is bounded S. by the basin
of the Orange, E. by the Matabelc hills, N. by the western affluents
of the Zambezi. The greater part of the Ngami water-system
lies, however, N. W. of the lake (which for convenience it may still
be called) in the tableland of Angola and German South West
Africa. On the high plateau of Bihe, in the hinterland of
Benguella, rise two large rivers, the Okavango and the Kwito,
which uniting discharged their waters into Ngami. From the
N.E. end of Ngami issued the Botletle or Zuga, a stream which
ruosS.E. and drains towards the Makarikari marsh, from which
there is no outlet.
Although Ngami has dried up since 1890 the Okavango and
its tributary the Kwito remain large rivers. The Okavango
is known in its upper course as the Kubango. Its most remote
source lies in about i2|^ S. and x6|° £. and its length is over
900 m. It flows first S. then S.E. and E. In about x8^ S. and
2o|^ E. it is joined on the north bank by the Kwito, a large
navigable stream rising almost as far north as the Okavango.
Its general course is S.E., but between 15^ and 17° S. it flows
S. and ewn S.W. Below the Kwito confluence the Okavango,
which is also joined by various streams from the S.W. (German
territory), is a rapid stream with an average breadth of over xoo
yds., and generally navigable as far as the Popa falls, in 21° 50'
E. In the dry season, the water-level is from 4 to 20 ft. below
the banks, but these are overflowed during the rains. At this
period, April-June, some of the surplus water finds its way (in
about 19" S.) by the Magwekwana to the Kwando or Linyanti
(Zambezi system), to which, it is conjectured, the whole body
of water may have once flowed. Below the Magwekwana outlet
the Okavango, now called the Taukhe or Tioghe, turns almost
due S., enters a swampy reed-covered plain and is broken into
several branches. In this region the effects of desiccation are
marked. Through the swamps the river formerly entered Ngami.
The last 20 m. of the old channel are now dry and devoted to
grain crops. Above this point the waters of the Okavango are
diverted eastward through a channel called Tamalakane to the
Botletle, the river which, as stated above, formerly flowed out
of Ngami. The point of confluence is in about 20* S. 234* E.,
the Botletle above this point being merely a succession of pools.
Below the junction the river bed is 150 to 200 yds. wide. The
banks are 25 to 30 ft. high, and form steep white walls of sand
compacted with lime, behind which the dark green forest rises.
The stream is fringed with reeds harbouring countless walet-
fowl. The Botletle, whose bed is about joo m. in length, loses
itself in a system of salt-pans — round or oval basins of varying
size sunk to a depth of 30 to 45 ft. in the sandstone, and often
bounded by steep banks. The outer pans are dry for a large
part of the year, the whole system being filled only at the height
of the flood-season in August. The Botletle, which receives in
addition the scanty waters of the northern Kalahari, at this
season reaches the Makarikari marsh. This marsh, occupying
the N.E. comer of Bechuanaland, has also feeders from the
Matabelc hills in the direction of Bulawayo. During the rains
the marsh is converted into a large lake. Much of the water is
lost by evaporation; much of it sinks into some subterranean
reservoir.
The evidence ot travellers is conclusive that the country around
Ngami is drying up. The desiccation appears to be rapid. In 1849
when David Livingstone visited Ngami the lake though shallow was
of considerable extent. Later travellers reported progressive
decrease in the size of the lake and in 1896 Sir F. D. Lugard and Dr
Sicjjf ried Passarge found it dry. Dr Passarge was told by the natives
that the cessation of the river's flow was caused, about 1890, by a
blocking of the channel by thousands of rafts.
Although the river system below the Magwekwana outlet of the
Okavanro is drying up, above that point there are long stretches of
navigable water both on the Okavango and the Kwito, in all con-
siderably over 1000 m. The Popa falls are the last of a scries of six
in a distance of 40 m., but none present serious engineering difii-
culties. The Magwekwana connexion with the Zambezi is a little
over xoo m. long, and for more than half its course flows through a
deep well-defined bed with a minimum width of 100 yards. The fall
to the Linyanti affluent of the Zambezi is only a few feet and the
country presents no obstacles to the construction of artificial
channels.
Ngami is within the (British) Bechuanaland protectorate, about
^ m. E. of the frontier of Ckrman South-West Africa. The district
IS the home of the Batawana tribe of Bechuana, with whom is
stationed a European magistrate. The tribes living along the lower
Okavango are tributary to the Bechuana, and the blocking of the
channel referred to was occasioned by their bringing to Ngami their
annual tribute of com.
See Bechuanaland and Kalahari. An account of the Ngami
t-..:^.. :. ^: .•_ n.-. «r-f-L_„- l.. rx- €?.-__/_:_ j r» '"critn,
LaJce
NOAH-HUI (An-hwei or Gan-hwuy), an eastern province of
China, whicb,. together with Kiang-su and Kiang-si, forms the
vice-royalty of Kiang-nan. It is bounded N. by Ho-nan, E.
by Kiang-su and Cheh-kiang, S. by Kiang-si and W. by Hu-peh
and Ho-nan. It covers an area of a&a^i sq. m., and contains a
population of 23,600,000. Its principal city is Ngan-k'ing on
the Yangtsze Kiang, besides which it numbers seven prefectural
cities. One district city, Ho-fei, is noted as having been the
birthplace of Li Hungchang (1822-1901). The southern half of
the province, that portion south of the Yangtsze Kiang, forms
part of the Nan-shan, or hilly belt of the south-eastern provinces,
and produces, besides cotton, coal and iron ore, large quantities
of green tea. There are also considerable forest areas. Ngan-
hui is one of the most productive provinces of China. Over the
whole of Its southern portion tea is largely grown, notably in
the districts of Hui-chow Fu, Tung-liu, Ta-tung and Wu-hu.
The Yangtsze Kiang is the principal river of the province, and
is of great importance for foreign commerce, supplying direct
water communication between some of the principal tea-growing
districts and the neighbourhood of Hang-chow. The only other
river of importance is the Hwai-ho (see China: The Country).
Wu-hu on the Yangtsze Kiang is the only open port in this
province. From this port a railway runs S.E. to Wen-chow — an
open seaport in Cheh-kiang province.
634
NIAGARA— NIAGARA, FORT
HIAGARA, a river of North America, nuining northward
from Lake Erie to Lake Ontario, and carrying the discharge of
all the Laurentian or Great Lakes, except Lake Ontario (see
St Lawrence River). It constitutes part of the boundary
between the United States and Canada, separating the state of
New York from the province of Ontario. It is navigable from
its head to Chippawa, t6 m., and from Queenston to its mouth.
6 m. The intervening q m. include a series of rapids and the Falls
of Niagara. On the right bank are Buffalo, Tonawanda, Niagara
Falls, Lewiston and Youngstown, of New York; on the left
bank, Chippawa, Niagara Falls, Queenston and Niagara-on-the-
Lake, of Ontario.
The Fails of Niagara are justly celebrated for then: grandeur
and beauty, and are viewed every year by from 800,000 to
1,200,000 visitors. They are in two principal parts, separated
by an island. The greater division, adjoining the left bank, is
called the Horseshoe Fall; its height is 155 ft., and the length
of its curving crest line is about 2600 ft. The American Fall,
adjoining the right bank, is :62 ft high and about 1400 ft. broad.
The water, being supplied by a lake, is free from sediment, and
Bird's-eye sketch of Niagara river and gorge, from the north.
L.E.. Lake Erie. EE, Escarpment.
B. Buffalo. Lr Lewiston.
N, Niagara Falls, N.Y. Q, Queenston.
F. Niagara Falls. Ont. D. St Davids.
W. Whiripool.
its clearness contributes to the beauty of the cataract. In recog-
nition of the importance of the waterfall as a great natural
spectacle, the province of Ontario and the state of New York
have retained or acquired title to the adjacent lands and con-
verted them into parks, which are maintained at public expense
for the convenience and pleasure of visitors. The cataract is
thus a great aesthetic asset of the people of the world; but its
perpetuity has been threatened because it is also a great economic
asset of the bordering nations. The flow of water in the river
at mean stage is 223,000 cub. ft. per second, at low stage 176,000
cub. ft. The descent of this stream at the Falls, and in the rapids
just above them, affords a theoretic water power equal to nearly
four million horse power, and it is estimated that three-fourths
of this is practically available. The annual value of the power
must be reckoned in millions of pounds sterling, at least, and
pbssibly in tens of millions. In the utilization of this natural
power a beginning has been made; about 15,000 cub. ft. of water
per second are now used for the development of electric power,
and much larger appropriations have been authorized. As the
full development of the economic value involves the diversion
of the river from its channel and the destruction of the cataract
as a scenic feature, the econonuc and aesthetic interests are
antagonistic. An agitation started by the champions of 1
beauty led to negotiations looking to the reguhition of economic
exploitaUon by international agreement.
The river has no valley. The belt of land it crosses consists
of two plains separated by a high cliff or escarpment facing
towards Lake Ontario. The stream runs half its length 00 the
upper plain, drops at the falls into a narrow gorge through which
it courses 7 m. to the escarpment, and then traverses the lower
plain in a deep channel Under the lower plain are soft shales.
The crest of the escarpment is a bed of limestone, nearly ]e\*el.
and this bed is visible in both walls of the gorge to the falls,
where it is 60 ft. thick. From this firm brink the cataraa plunges
down into a deep pool or basin hollowed from the soft shale,
and the resulting agitation causes fiuther wear of the shale azKl
the continual \mdermining of the limestone, which breaks away
in blocks. Thus the site of the cataract retreats up sueam and
the gorge is lengthened; the average rate, measured from 1842
to 1905 being about 5 ft. a year. It is evident that the wbok
gorge has been dug out by the river, and many attempts have
been made to determine the time consumed in the work.
The problem of the river's age is of much interest to geologists.
be""-r ft- rrilr.tion would aid in csublishing a relation between the
pe :,..,,. 1 . . . t of geolonc time and the centuries of human chrooo-
Io]:y. 1 lie ^Ttat Canadian glacier, which in the Glacial period
altrrn^ituly crowded forward over the Great Lakes region and raehed
bark a,.;jiri, «^-i modified the face of the land by erocion acxl by the
dcfi'i'^k 'A drin that the waters afterwards had to find new courses.
Thi' N I \i^ri r.i ] i vvr came into existence when the waning of the gladcr
lai I h.f- r: I estem part of the Ontario baun, and the making <d
th ten begun. If it were supposable that the tengthening
of the fforge proceeded at a uniform rate, the computation of the time
would De <»ty, but there are various modifying conditions. (1 ) The
limestone is not equally thick all along the gone; in one plaice it b
90 ft., and in several places as little as 3^ ft. (2) The hekht of the
cataract has varied from 1 55 ft. to more than 300 ft. (3) I^ a Aon
distance at the whirlpool tHe limestone and shale were replaced by
softer nuiterial, sand and clay. The river here touched a more andeot
gorge, which had prex'iously been concealed by drift except at the
escarpment. The diagram shows the breach m the escarpment at
St Davids directed towards the sharp turn of the river gorge at the
whiripool. U) The size of the river has varied. While the glader
was gradually melting the lakes underwent a complicated seria
of metamorphoses, and there were two separate epochs when the
discharge from all the basins beyond Lake Erie followed other routes,
and during these epochs the Nuuara drained only one-eighth <rf in
present territory. The variation m the size of the river is the most
important of the modifying conditions, and at the same time least
amenable to computation.
The paru of the gorge eroded by the full river are now marked by
deep pools, the powerful cataract having dug far down into the shale.
The parts eroded by the depleted river are comparatively nanvw
and shallow, the weaker cataract having been unable to dear away
the fallen blocks of limestone. The work of the full river is illustrated
by the main division of the present cataract, called the Horseshoe
Fall, which wore its cliff back 335 ft. in 63 years. The work of the
depleted river is less adequately represented by the narrower and
shallower American Fall; where the present rate of reoessioQ b
about one-twenty-fifth as fast. In making two-thirds of the gor^
the full river probably consumed between 5000 and 15.000 years.
If the depleted river worked one-tenth as fast, the period required for
the remaining third was five times as long; but the relative rate is
wholly conjectural. A weighing of the evidence now available
mdicates 35.000 years as a lower limit for olausible estimates of the
age of the river, but yields no suggestion oi an upper limit.
Authorities.— lames Hall, Natural History of New Tori:
Geolo^, Part IV. (Albany, 1843); Sir Charics Lyell, Tnods w North
America (London, 1845); John Tyndall, "Some Observatioas os
Niagara," Pop, Set, Mo. (1873): I. PoWman, " The Life-History of
Niagara." Trans. Amer. Jnst. Mining Entimers (1888): G. K.
Gilbert. " The History of the Niagara River,^ Sixth Ann, Rep.
Com.
9f Reeissi
_^ , 307 of the U
Sutes Geological Survey: A.'S."kibber" Report of the Survey «
StaU Reservation at Ntogara (Albany, 1890), and Rate of Reetssiem of
Niagara foZIf (Washington, 1907), being Bulletin 307 of the Unhcd
determine the Crest Lines of the Falls of Niagara in 1890," Saeath
Ann. Rep. Com. State Reservation at Niagara (Albany, 1891); G. K.
Gilbert, " Niagara Falls and their History,*^ National Ceogrophk
Monographs (Sew York. 189^); " Niagam Number," Casner's
and " Origin of the Gorge ojf the Whiripool'Rapids'at Niagara.'*Ba&
Ceol. Soc. Amer. (1898). (C. K. G.)
NIAGARA, FORT, an American fortification, on the £. aide
and at the mouth of Niagara river, opposite the Canadian viQage
NIAGARA FALLS— NIAM-NIAM
635
of Niagara! or Niagara-on-the-Lake. Fort Niagara has a reser>
vation of 2S8 acres, with fairly modem equipments, several
historic buildings of the time of French and of British possession,
in one of which, the old magazine (1757), William Morgan was
imprisoned in 1826. Fort Niagara was long, especially during
the French occupation of Canada, one of the most important
forts in North America, being the key to the Great Lakes, beyond
Lake Ontario. " This immense extent of inland navigation,"
says Parkman, " was safe in the hands of France so long as she
held Niagara. Niagara lost not only the lakes but also the
valley of the Ohio was lost with it." Ren£ Robert Cavelier,
Sieurde La Salle, wintered here in 1678-9, built his ship the "Grif-
fon," and established a trading post and Fort Conti, destroyed not
long afterwards. Fort Denonville, built in 1687 by Jacques Ren6
de Br£say, marquis de Denonville, governor-general of Canada,
In his cruel campaign against the Iroquois, was abandoned in
1688, after the garrison, commanded by Pierre de Troyes
(d. 1687), had been wiped out by an epidemic. The first Fort
Niagara, to be so named, was built in 17 25-1 7 37 at the instance
of Charles le Moyne, ist baron of Longueil (1656-1729), and
became a very important military and trading post; the fort
wasrebuilt by Francois Pouchot (1712-1769) in 17 56. but in July
1759, after a siege of about sixteen days, it was surrendered to
Sir William Johnson by Pouchot, who wrote a Memoir upon the
Latt War (translated and edited by F. B. Hough; 2 vols., 1866).
On the X4th of September 1763 a British force marching from
Fort Schlosser (about a m. above the Falls; built 1750) to Fort
Niagara was ambushed by Indians, who threw most of their
captives into Devil's Hole, along the Niagara river. In July
1764 a treaty with the Indians was signed here, which detached
some of them from Pontiac's conspiracy. Joseph Brant, John
Butler, and, in general, the Indians of north-western New York
favouring the British during the American War of Independence,
made Fort Niagara their headquarters, whence they ravaged the
frontier, and many loyalists and Indians took refuge here at the
time of General Sullivan's expedition into western New York
in f 779. The fort was not surrendered to the United States until
August 1796. In the War of 1813 it was bombarded by the guns
of Fort (korge (immediately across the river in the town now
called Niagara, then Newark') on the 13th and X4th of October
i8f 3; was the starting-point of the American expedition which
took Fort George on the 37th of May 1813; and on the 19th of
December 1813 was surprised and taken by assault — most of
the garrison being killed or taken prisoners — by British troops
under John Murray (1774-1862), who had previously retaken
Fort George. After the close of the war, on the 27th of March
1815, Fort Niagara was restored to the United States, and a
garrison was kept there until 1836. The fort was regarrisoned
about 1836.
See F. H. Seveiance. Otd Troth on the Niagara Frontier (Buffalo,
1903), Parkman's works, especially Montcalm and Wolfe (a vols.,
Boston, 1884), and The Conspiracy ofPontiac (3 vols., Boston, 1851),
and a pamphlet by Pcrrr A. Porter A Brief History of Old Fort
Niagara (Niagaia Falls, 1896).
NIAOARA PALLS (formeriy Clifton or Suspension Bridge), a
town and port of entry of Welland county, Ontario, Canada,
40 m. S.S.E. of Toronto, on the west bank of the Niagara river
and opposite the Falls. Pop. (1901) 4244. It is a station on the
Grand Trunk, Michigan Central and St Catharines & Niagara
Central railways, and has electric railway communication with
the chief towns in the neighbourhood. Three large steel bridges
connect it with the American town of Niagara Falls on the
opposite bank. Its importance is chiefly due to the tourist
traffic, but the unrivalled water power is being more and more
employed. Factories have sprung up, and power is transmitted
to Toronto and other cities. A beautiful park, named after
* On the riwht of the loth of December 1813 the American general
George McClure (1 771-1851), upon abandoning Fort George, set fire
to Newark, almost destroytne the town and causing great sufTering
among the inhabitants. McClure attempted to justify this act by a
strained conttructkm of a letter to him from the secretary of war,
hot ii was promptly disavowed by the United States government.
The burning of Newark led to severe reprisals on the part of the
British.
Queen Victoria, extends along the bank of the river for 3| m.
above the Falls.
NIAGARA PAULS, a dty of Niagara county, New York,
U.S. A., on the £. side of the Niagara river, at the Falls, 33 m.
N.N.W. of Buffalo. Pop. (1900) 19,457, of whom 7336 were
foreign-bom, (1910 census) 30,445. The dty is served by
the New York Central & Hudson River, the Wabash, the Erie,
the Lehigh Valley, the West Shore and the Michigan Central
railways, and by the International Electric railway and the
Niagara, St Catharines & Toronto (electric) railway. The city
extends along thelevd summit of the cliffs from above the Falls
to some 3 m. bdow. The river is here crossed by three bridges;
the (upper) sted arch bridge, built (1895) on the site of the former
suspension bridge (built in 1869; blown down in 1889; rebuilt as
a suspension bridge) near the Falls, is crossed by double carriage-
ways and footpaths and by an electric railway, and is pro-
bably the longest bridge of the kind in the worid, being 1340 ft.
long with an arch span of 840 ft.; and x| m. farther down the
river are two raflway bridges, the Michigan Central's cantilever
bridge, completed in 1883, and the (lower) single sted arch bridge
(completed in 1897, on the site of John A. Roebling's suspension
bridge built in x85x-x8s6) of the Grand Trunk railway, which
has a terminus at Niagara Falls (Clifton), Ontario, and connects
here with the New York Central & Hudson River and the Lehigh
Valley railways.
The prindpal buildings of the dty are the Niagara Falls
Memorial Hospital, the Federal Buildbig and the Niagara Falls
Power Co. Building. The dty has a Carnegie library, De Veaux
College (Protestant Episcopal, chartered in 1853), and Niagara
University, a Roman Catholic institution, founded in 1856 by
the priests of the Congregation of the Mission and incorporated
in X863 as the Seminary of Our Lady of Angels, a name still
used for the theological department, but displaced, since the
charter of the university in 1883, by the present name. In the
extreme S.W. part of the city is Prospect Park, which with Goat
Island immediately S., and several smaller islands, has been,
since 1885, the " New York State Reservation at Niagara Falls."
From the Falls, which gave the city its first importance as a
stopping place for tourists, valuable electric and hydraulic
power is derived (by a tunnel 39 ft. deep and 18 ft. wide, passing
about 300 ft. under the surface of the city, from the upper steel
arch bridge to a point x| m. above the Falls, and by the canal of
the Niagara FallsHydraulic Power and ManufacturingCompany).
Niagara Falls is an important manufacturing city; the value
of the factory products increased from $8,540,184 in 1900 to
816,915,786 in 1905, or 98*1 %. The city is the shipping centre
for the W. part of Niagara county. The village of Niagara Falls
was for a time called Manchester. In 1893 the village of Sus-
pension Bridge (formerly Niagara City) was joined with it under
a city charter, which has been frequently amended.
NIAK-NIAM (Zandeh, A-Zandek), a people of Central Africa,
of mixed Negroid descent. With kindred tribes, they stretch
from the While Nile above the Sobat confluence to the Shari
affluent of Lake Chad,and from the Bahr-el-Arab, about 10^ N.,
nearly to the equator. Their political ascendancy, weakened
by the incessant attacks of the Arab-Nubian slave-raiders before
the rise of the Sudanese mahdi in 1883, was afterwards broken
by the forces of the Congo Free State and the Anglo-Egyptian
Sudan.
The term Niam-Niam appean to be of Dinka origin, meaning
in that language " great eaters," with reference, as is supposed,
to their cannibalistic propensities. They are called Babungera
by the Mangbettu (Monbuttu), A-Madyaka by the Diur. Mundo
or Manyanya by the Bongo, Makaraka or Kakaraka by the
Miltu. But Niam-Niam has been adopted and generalized by
the Sudan and Nubian Mahommedans. Their native name is
Zandeh (pi. A-Zandeh), which is current throughout the eastern
Niam-Niam domain, a region estimated by Georg Schwdnfurih,
who visited the country In 1870, at about 48,000 sq. m., with
a population of at least two millions. But these by no means
constitute a uniform ethnical group, for within this area is the
large Madi nation, differing altogether in speech and even
636
NIAS
in some respects physically from the ordinary Ntam-Niam type.
Apart also from* numerous tribal divisions, the eastern Niam-
Niam proper form three very distinct branches. The bleak
northern highlands bordering east on the Bongo and north on
Dar-Fertit are occupied by the Banda Niam-Niam. To the
southwards are the more civilized Bclanda Niam-Niam, who
hold the fertile hilly territory of the Nile-Congo watershed.
Very different from either are the so-called " White " Niam-
Niam, neighbours of the Madi of the Makua-Welle river basin.
Their complexion is of a lighter bronze tint, and they are dis-
tinguished from the other branches of the family by their tall
stature, symmetrical figure, long kinky hair and beard and
higher social culture. They wear cotton garments, obtained by
barter for ivory, copper and iron, and have a tendency to political
unity under one chief.^
There is, however, a very distinct Niam-Niam type, one of the
most marked in the whole of Africa. " These beings," remarks
Schweinfurth, on his first introduction to them, " stood out like
creatures of another world ... a people of a marked and most
distinct nationality, and that in Africa and amongst Africans is
saying much." They are of medium heiglit and powerful build.
The great space between the eyes, which are almond-shaped and
slightly slanting, gives them a peculiar expression. They have
a very short nose, with correspondingly long upper Up; woolly
hair; a very round head, agreeing in this respect with the Bongo
of the Bahr-cl-Ghazal but differing from the great majority of
the other African dark races; features generally round, with less
jaw-projection and altogether more regular than the typical
Negro; of a ruddy brown or chocolate colour, scarcely ever
black, but occasionally bronze and even olive.
The average Niam-Niam is distinguished by some excellent
qualities, such as frankness, courage, an instinctive love of art,
and above all a genuine and lasting affection for his women, such
as is betrayed by no other African race. By tribal custom the
men are all hunters, armed with long knives and spears and'
carrying oblong shields of wicker-work; the women all tillers
of the soil, which with little toil yields abundant crops of cereals,
yams, manioc, colocasia and Virginian tobacco. Both sexes
wear large pins of ivory, iron, monkey or human bone stuck in
their hair, and stain their skin with red camwood and the oil
of a wild berry. The Niam-Niam are inteUigcnt, skilful builders,
and proficient in many native industries. Prominent among
these are their earthenware vessels, which djsplay considerable
symmetry; iron smelting and metal work, such as swords,
knives and spears; wood carvings, such as stools, benches,
bowls and tobacco pipes, of varied and intricate design and often
admirable works of art. They are great smokers, and very fond
of music. Of the ox, horse, ass or camel they have no knowledge;
the only domestic animals are poultry, and a breed of dogs, like
small wolf-hounds, with smooth red hair, twisted tail like a
porker^s, large cars, pointed nose and four-clawcd hind feet.
These curious little " greyhounds " join in the chase with small
wooden bells round the neck, and arc thus soon found when lost
in the woods.
The Niam-Niam are distinguished by their elaborate head-
dresses (they formerly wore a sort of big full-buttomed wig, and
Dr W. Junker actually saw elderiy people in these), and peculiar
tattoo markings— square patterns on forehead, temples or cheeks,
' About the middle of the 19th ccmury, most of the eastern Niam-
Niam lands appear to have been subject to Vapaty, son of Mabcngch.
But after his death they were distributed amongst his seven sons,
Rcnjy. Balia, Perkye. Tonibo, Bazimbcy, Manuba; and in 1870
there wore already fourteen rcignine princes of this dynasty, besides
several of doubtful relationship with the line of Mabengch. In the
Niam-Niam districts visited by the traders from the Egyptian Sudan
there were at that time altogether as many as thirty-five independent
chiefs. But reports were current of a very powerful " sultan "
named Mofio. wnose empire lay some 300 m. farther westj Another
large state, founded in the Welle region by Kipa (Kifa), brother of
Vapaty, alxo fell to pieces after his death in 1868. The powerful
chiefs Bakangoi and Kanna, visited in 1883 by G. Casati, were sons
of this Kipa, whose grave near Kanna's village was still watched by
twenty- five " vestals," bound, under penalty of death, to keep a fire
constantly burning, and to preserve their chastity inviolate
(Esfdoratore, August 1883).
an X-«haped figure in a cartouche below the cbcst, and varioat
zigzag, straight or dotted lines on the upper arm and breast.
Most of them file the incisors. From the malted grain of a species
of ftletisine they brew good beer, of a sparkling brown or reddish
cobur and pleasant bitter taste, derived from the stalk of the
same cereal
In this widespread Negroid family are now provisionally grouped
the Makaraka, mterminsTed with the litrndu, and the BaJmkar in
the north-east (Bahr-cl-Ghazal); the Krej, Banda and ITSakkora ia
the north-west (Dar-Fertit, and thence to the upper Shan); the
Bantiri, Ndris, Togbo, Languassi, Dakoa, Ngapu, Wia-Wia, Manja,
Awaka, Akun^ and others about both slopes of the Congo-Chad
water-parting. These last, who give such an enormous westward
extension to the family, present much the same physical characters
as the Zandeh proper, and speak diakicts of the widely diffused Ndris
language, which is not Bantu, but appears to show affinities with
Zandeh
This great division ethnologists are even disposed to connect with
the Fula of west and central Sudan, ami to substitute for the now
exploded " Nuba-Fula " a " Zandeh-Fula " family, resulting from
various secular intermingUngs between the true negroes and the
Berbers of North Africa. Such crossings have updoubtedly been in
progress since prehistoric times over an enormous area south of the
Sahara (Africa: Ethnology), and are almost everym'here marked by
certain consunt characters, such as long ringlety or kinky Uack hair,
coppery, reddish or bronze shades 01 c ' " ' ' * "
(round) head, often highly
complexion, brachyoephafic
„ and mdicated outwardly by
an unusually wide space between the orbits, and generally by SMoe-
what softeiwd negro features. But. owing to the different environ-
ments and to the different initial ratios a intermixture, the transi-
tional forms are almost endless, so that it becomes difficult to consti-
tute distinct ethnical groups without calling in the aid of laagoage.
Where type and speech correspond, as to a large extent is the case
with most of the above-mentioned tribes, even strict systematists
will be disposed to constitute separate ethnical groups, at least as
working hypotheses, always allomng for the somewhat uatnist-
worthy nature of the linguistic factor. In the case under coo-
uderation Fula has no kind of connexion with Zandeh speech, but
this by no means precludes the possibility of racial connexion.
Beyond a few meagre vocabularies no materials have yet been
collected for the study of the Zandeh language, which, except in the
Madi country, appears to be everywhere spoken with considerate
uniformity in the eastern Niam-Niam lands. Its phonetic system,
such as initial mb and vowel audauS, affiliates it, not to the Libyan, as
has been asserted, but to the Ni^ro linguistic type. Within this order
of speech its pronominal prefix inflection points to affinity rather vith
the southern Bantu than with the Sudan group of languages. Thus
the personal i>lural a-, as in A-Zandch, A-Madi, A-Ban«. &c., would
appear to be identical in origin and meaning with the Uantu tra-. as
in Wa-Ganda, Wa-Swaheli, Wa-Sambara, &c There is also the same
dearth of abstract terms, which renders the translation of Script ure
into the Neero tongues such a difficult task. Compare eumbak, an
expression for the Deity, really meaning " lightning, with tt»
Chinyanja chuiUa''thunaefCoa (?) and the Zulu UnkiUiaknIu»
great-grandfather, also adopted by the missionaries as the neanst
equivalent for the Deity in that language.
Politically the dismembered Zandeh empire and dependent
principalities are divided up between France, which claims tlie
sultanates " of Rafai, Dinda, Zemio and Tambura in the Mbomu
valley, with all the peoples in Fertit and the Shari hasin; Belgium,
which administers the eastern section between the Mbomu and the
upper Welle: and Great Britain, to whose share have falfen the
Makaraka and other Niam-Niam groups of the Bahr-el-Ghazal rcpon.
See John Petherick, Egypt, the Soudan and Central Africa (1861)-
Carlo Ptaggia's " Account of the Niam-Niam," communicated by the
Marchese O. Antinori to the BoUetino of the Italian Geographical
Society (1868). pp. 91-168: G. A. Schweinfurth. Heart of Africa
(English edition. 1873): G. Casati. "Journey to the Niam-Niaia
Country," in Esphratore for August 1883, and Ten yrsri ia
Equatotia (i89i):F. R. Bohndorff, Reisen in Central Africa (1^5):
Dr W. Junker, " Rundretse in dem sGdlichen Niamniam-Laode." in
Petermann's MiUheilungen (or May 1883, English edition, Tmds in
Africa (1890).
NIAS, the largest island in the chain off the west cotst of
Sumatra, Dutch East Indies, lying about x" N., 97** 30' E. It
is roughly oblong in form, measuring about 80 m. by 28, and
appears to be partly of volcanic origin and to consist partly of
older rocks corresponding with those of Sumatra. Its extreme
elevation is about 2300 ft. A number of islets (Nako, Bunga, &c.)
lie off the west and north coasts. The island is thickly populated
by a pagan people, who by some authorities, including F. Jong-
huhn, have been associated with the Battas, but are probably
a distinct branch of the pre-Malayan or Indonesian race. Slavery
and head-hunting arc universal, despite the efforts of Dutch
and German missionary societies. The natives aie skilled ia
NIBELUNGENLIED
637
such cnfts as weaving and metal-work, as well as in agriculture
and road-making. Coco-nut oil is produced on Nias and also
more especially on the Nako group. A Dutch commissioner is
established at Gunong Sitoli on the east coast, a settlement of
Malay and Chinese traders.
NIBELUNGENLIED, or Der Nibelunge N6t, an heroic epic
written in a Middle High German dialect. The story on which
the poem is based belongs to the general stock of Teutonic saga
and was very widespread under various forms, some of which aro
preserved. Thus it is touched upon in Beowulf y and fragments
of it form the most imporUnt part of the northern Eddas, the
poets of which evidently assumed that the tale as a whole was
well known and that their hearers would be able to put each
piece in its proper place. In the prose Edda^ or Vdsungasagaf
which, though largely primitive in spirit, dates from the 13 th
century, it is set forth in fulL The substance of this Norse
version is as follows. —
The three An«a — Odin, Loki and J-ldmIr — sa* an oiirf devouring
a salmon licskle a waterfall Thry kiHctl nud skinned the otter and,
taking the skiji with tbcm, soushi ahcker for the nighi with tiodmar
the giant. But Rodnur rvrofi^niied the ikia as that or hb son. md
deroandert zi ttxte^Ud gnid cikh^ lo cover it completdy* !.')ki
thereupon weni back to iht atceam* where Andvan i:i iln kTm . f a
pike was ^^u^rJitig a p^^t tncas^ure, cau^Kt h^rn in 1 cd
him to SLirniider his hoards But the plled-yp : lir
expoficd; in oriiL-r to cover it Loki returned lo A:. ed
him to su rfcndcr a jnaslc rifig whkJi bad the vijiut ut Up , fnii: .;. Id.
Thcreupcici Andvan, enn^redj laid upon the ht^ni and »ll v. ho
should p&>?csa it a eursc^ Th b curse^ the ItUmotif cX t he whnk f f ' ry ,
be^n to rperaic at once, Rodman for the ialtc yf the treasure, was
elam by his ujns Fafnir and Kt-gidt and Fafnir^ selling the wli- Ic,
retired tci rt f|e?o!:^tc^ hirath nnr], in the fnrm of n. *nake nr Ar<- m,
brooded .i^r iho " ■ I. Itrniji, ,.' : ' -•'. '.: !-:^;, ; " : ed
vengeance and the conquest of the treasure.
lo Regin, a notable smith, was sent Si^rd — son of the sbin hero
Sigmundr the Vobung and his wife Hiortis, now wife of the Danish
king Alf — to he trained in his craft. To him Rcgin told of Fafnir
ana the hoard, and the young hero offered to go out against the
dragon ii Regin would weld him a sword. But every brand forged by
the smith broke under Sigurd's stroke; till at last he fetched the
fragments of the sword Gram, Odin's gift to his father, which Hiortis
had carefully treasured. These Sigund forged into a new sword, so
hard that with it he could cleave the anvil and so sharp that it would
sever a flock of wool floating against it down stream; and, so armed,
he soueht and slew the dra^^on. But while xoasting Fafnir's heart,
which Regin had cut out, Sigurd burned his (inger with the boiling
fat and, placing it to his lips, found that he could understand the
language of bitds, and so learned from the chattering of the wood-
peckers that Regin was planning treachery. Thereupon he slew the
smith and ksading the treasure on the magic steed Grani, given to him
by Odin, set out upon his travels.
On the summit of a fire-girt hill Sigurd found the Valkyrie Brunhild
in an enchanted sleep, and ravished by her beauty awakened her;
they plighted their troth to each other and, next morning, Sigurd left
her to set out once more on his journey. Coming to the court of
Giuld, a king in the Rhine country, Sigurd formed a friendship with
his three sons, Gunnar, Hogni ana Guthorm; and, in order to retain
so vatluable an ally, it was determined to arrange a match between
him and their Kister Gudrun. Queen Grimhild, skilled in magic,
therefore gave him an enchanted drink, which caused him to forget
Brunhild. Gunnar, on the other hand, wished to make Brunhild his
wife, and asked Sigurd to ride with him on this quest, which he con-
Knted to-do on condition of receiving Gudrun to wife. They set out ;
but Gunnar was unable to pass the circle of fire round I5runhild's
abode, the achievement that was the condition of winning her hand.
So Sgurd, assuming Gunnar's shape, rode through the flames on his
magic horse, and in sign of troth exchanged rings with the Valkyrie,
givmff her the ring of Andvari. So Gunnar and Brunhild were
wedded, and Sigurd, resuming his own form, rode back with them to
Giuki's court where the double marriage was celebrated. But
Brunhild was moody and suspicious, remembering her troth with
Sigurd and believing that he alone could have accomplished the quest.
One day the two queens, while bathing in the river, fell to quarrel-
ling as to which of their husbands was the greater. Brunhild taunted
Gudrun with the fact that Sigurd was Gunnar's vassal, whereupon
Gudrun retorted by telling her that it was not Gunnar but Sigurd
who rode through the flames, and in proof of this held up Brunhild's
ring, which Sigurd had given to her. Then Brunhild " waxed as wan
as a dead woman, and spoke no word the da^ long." Maddened by
jealousy and wounded pride, she now incited the three kings to
murder Steurd by exciting their jealousy of his power. The two
elder, as bound to. him by blood-brotherhood, refused: but the
youngest, Guthorm, who had sworn no oaths, consented to do the.
deed. Twice he crept into Sigurd's chamber, but fled when he found
the hero awake and gazing at him with flashing eyes. The third
time, finding him asleep, he stabbed him ; but Sigurd, before he died,
had just strength enough to hurl hb sword at the murderer, whom it
cut in two. Brunhild, when she heard Gudrun wailing, laughed aloud.
But her k>ve for Sigurd was great as ever, and she determined not to
survive him; distributing her wealth to her hand-maidens, she
mounted Sigurd's funeral pyre, slew herself with his sword, and was
burnt with nim.
In course of time Gudrun married Atlt (Attila), king of the Huns.
Brunhild's brother. Atli, intent on getting hold of the hoard, which
Gudrun's brothers had seized, invited them to come to his court. In
spite of their suter's warnings they came, after sinking the treasure
in the Rhine. On their refusal to surrender the ho«^, or to say
where it was concealed, a fierce fight broke out, in whkh all the
followers of Gunnar and Hoent fell. Atli then once more offered to
spare Gunnar's life if he would reveal his secret; but Gunnar refused
to do so till he should see the heart of Hognt. The heart of a slave
was laid before him, but he declared that that could not be Hi^ni's,
since it quaked. Hogni's heart was then cut out, the victim laughing
the while; but when Gunnar saw it he cried out that now he alone
knew where the hoard was and that he would never reveal the secret.
His hands were then bound, and he was cast into a den of venomous
serpents; but he played so sweetly on the harp with his toes that he
charmed the reptiles, except one adder, by which he was stung to
death. Gudrun, however, avenged the death of her brothers by
slaying the sons she had borne to Atli and causing him unwittinely
to drink their blood and eat their hearts. Finally, in the night,
she killed Atli himself and burned his hall; then, leaping into the
sea, she was carried by the waves to new scenes, wncre she had
adventures not connected with thobe recorded in the Nibelungeniied.
This story, in spite of the late date of the Vdsungasaga and
of added elements due to the imagination of its author, evidently
represents a very primitive version. In the Nibdungen story,
on the other hand, though its extant versions are of much earlier
date, and though it contains elements equally primitive not found
in the other, the spirit and the motives of the earlier story have
to a large extent been transmuted by later influences, the setting
of the story being — though by no means consistently — medieval
rather than primitive. Thus the mysterious hoard is all but lost
sight of; no mention is made of the curse attached to it; and
it is only as an afterthought that Siegfried (Slfrit) is described
as its master. Everywhere the supernatural elements are elimin-
ated or subordinated, and the story becomes a drama of human
motives, depending for its development on the interplay, of
human passions and activities:
To us in ancient story wonders great arc told
Of heroes rich in glory and of adventures bold.
Of feast and joyous living, of wailing and of woe,
Of gallant warriors striving may ye now many marvels know.*
That is all he gives by-way of preface. The gods have vanished
from the scene; there is nothing of Loki and his theft of Andvari's
hoard, nothing of Odin and his gifts of the sword Gram and
the magic horse Grani; and not till the third Aventiurtf when
Siegfried comes to Worms, are we given even a hint that such
things as the sword and treasure exist. On the other hand, in
the very next stanza we are introduced to what is to be the
leading motive of the plot: Kriemhild, the Burgundian princess,
on whose account " many a noble knight was doomed to perish."
For, as in the legend of Sigurd the Volsung, the plot had turned
upon the love and vengeance of Brunhild, so in the song of the
Nibelungs it is the love and vengeance of Kriemhild, the Gudrun
of the northern saga, that forms the backbone of the story and
gives it from first to last an artistic unity which thcVolsungasaga
lacks. Of the story itself it is impossible here to give anything
but the barest outline, sufficient to show its contrast with the
northern version. We may note at the outset the spirit of
pessimism which, like the curse on the hoard, pervades the
whole. It appears in the very first Avenliurc, when Kriemhild,
in answer to her mother's interpretation of her dream, declares
that she will never marry, since " it has been proved by the
experience of many women that joy is in the end rewarded by
sorrow "; it is repeated in the last stanza but one of the long
poem: "As ever joy in sorrow ends and must end alway."
This tragic contrast is emphasized by the pomp and circumstance
that surroimd the ill-fated hero of the story at the beginning.
» Uns ist in alten maeren wunders vil gcscit
Von heleden lobcbaercn von grdzer arcbeit
Von freude unt hOchgezften von weincn unde klagen
Von kQcncr reckcn stritcn muget ir nun wunder hoeren sagen.
638
NIBELUNGENLIED
The primitive setting of the notthem version has vanished iitteriy.
Sigmund is lung of the Netheriands; the boy Siegfried is brought
up by " wise men that are his tutors *' {AvenL iL); and when,
attracted by the fame of Kriemhild's beauty, he rides to Worms
to woo lier, it is as the typical handsome, accomplished and
chivalrous king's son of medieval romance.
It is at this point {Avenl, iv.) that some of the primitive
elements of the story are suddenly and awkwardly introduced.
As Si^ried approaches Worms, Kriemhild's brothers, the
Burgundian kings Gunther, Gisdh£r and G^mot watch his
coming, and to them their faithful retainer, " the grim Hagen," ^
explains who he is. This, he exclaims, can be no other than the '
hero who slew the two kings of the Nibelungs, Schilbunc and
Nibelunc, and seised their treasure, together with the sword
Balmunc and the tamkappe, or cape of darkness, which has the
virtue of making him who wears it invisible. Another adventure,
too, he can tell of him, namely, how he slew a dragon and how by
bathing in its blood his skin became homy, so that no weapon
could wound him, save in one place, where a linden leaf had
fallen upon him as he stooped, so that the blood did not touch
this spot.^ In spite of Hagen's distrust and misgivings, Siegfried
now fights as the ally of the Burgundians against the Saxons
{Avent. iv.), and imdertakes, on condition of receiving Kriemhild
to wife, to help Gunther to woo Queen Brunhild, who can only
be won by the man who can overcome her in three trials of
strength {Avent, vi.). Siegfried and Gunther accordingly go.
together to Brimhild's castle of Isenstein in Iceland, and there the
hero, invisible in his tamkappet stands beside Gunther, hurling
the spear and putting the weight for him, and even leaping,
with Gunther in his arms, far beyond the utmost limit that
Brunhild can reach (Avent. vii.). Brunhild confesses herself
beaten and returns with the others to Worms, where the double
marriage is celebrated with great pomp (il Mil/. X.). But Brunhild
b ill content; though she saw Siegfrieid do homage to Gunther
at Isenstein she is not convinced, and believes that Siegfried
should have been her husband; and on the bridal night she
vents her ill humour on the hapless Gunther by tying him up
in a knot and hanging him on the walL " I have brought the
evil devil to my house!" he complains to Siegfried next morning;
and once more the hero has to intervene; invisible in his foff»-
kappe he wrestles with Brunhild, and, after a desperate struggle,
takes from her her gprdle and ring before yielding place to
Gunther. The girdle and ring be gives to hb wife Kriemhild
(Avent. X.).
One day, while Siegfried and his wife were on a visit to the
Burgundian court, the two queens fell to quarrelling on the
question of precedence, not in a river but on the steps of the
cathedral {Avent. xiv.). Kriemhild was taimted with being the
wife of Gunther's vassal; whereupon, in wrath, she showed
Brunhild the ring and the golden girdle taken by Siegfried, proof
that Siegfried, not Gunther, had won Brunhild. So far the story
is essentially the same as that in the VoUungasaga-, but now the
plot changes. Brunhild drops out, becoming a figure altogether
subordinate and shadowy. The death of Si^ried is compassed,
not by her, but by the "grim" Hagen, Gunther's faithful
henchman, who thinks the glory of Us master unduly over-
shadowed by that of his vanal. Hagen easily persuades the
weak Gunther that the supposed insult to his honour can only
be wiped out in Siegfried's bbod; he worms the secret of the
hero's vulnerable spot out of Kriemhild, on pretence of shielding
him from harm (Avent, xv.), and then arranges a great hunt in
the forest, so that he may ^y him when off his guard.
The x6th Aventiure, describing this himt and the murder of
Siegfried, is perhaps the moQt powerful scene in all medieval
epic To heighten the effect of the tragic climax the poet
begins with a description of the hunting, and describes the
high spirits of Siegfried, who captures a wild boar, rides back
with it to camp, and there lets it loose to the great discomfiture
of the cooks.
When the hunters sat down to feast, it was found that the wine
had been forgotten. Hagen thereupon proposed that they should
* Compare the hod of Achillct.
race to a spring of which he knew some way off in the forest.
Siegfried readily agreed, and though handicapped by canying
shidd, sword and spear, easily reached the goal first, but waited,
with his customary courtesy, until the king had arrived and
drunk before slaking his own thirst. Then, laying aside his
arms, he stooped and drank. Hagen, seizing the spear, thrust
it through the spot marked by Kriemhild on Siegfried's surcoaL
The hero sprang up and, finding that his sword had been removed,
attacked Hagen with his shield.
Though to death he was wounded he struck so strong a stroke
Ihat from the shattered ahieki-rim forthwith out there broke
Showen of flaahiag jeweb; the shidd in fmgmeau lay.'
Then reproaching them for their cowardice and treachery,
Siegfried fell dying "amid the flowers," while the knighu
gathered round lamenting.. At this point two stanxas may be
quoted as well illustrating the poet's power of dtamatic
characterizations—
The king of the Buigundians he too bewailed his death :
Then spake the dying hero: " Nay, now you waste your breath!
You weep for an ill fortune that you youndf have wrousht:
That u a shameful sorrow: it were better you said nought i "
Then out qiake the grim Hagen: '* I know not why ye phia:
Thu is for us the ending of lorrow and of pain.
Full few are left of foemen that dare withsund us now.
Glad am I that the hero was by this hand of mine laid k»w !"
This account of the death of Siegfried, which embodies the
ancient German tradition, is far finer than the northern version,
according to which Hogni murders the hero in his bed. The
whole spirit of this Aventiwet too, is primitive Teutonic rather
than medievaL The same is true, indeed, of the whole of the
rest of the poem. Siegfried, to be sure, is buried with all the
pomp of medieval Catholic rites; but Kriemhild, while praying
for his soul like a good Christian, plots horrible vengeance like
her pagan prototype. With this significant difference, however:
Gudrun revenged upon her husband the death of her brothers;
Kriemhild seeks to revenge upon her brothers the death of her
husband. The Catholic bond of marriage has become stronger
than' the primitive Teutonic bond of kinship. Mbtrcas now of
the inexhaustible hoard of the Nibdungs, Kriemhild sought
to win a following by lavish largesses; but thb Hagen frustrated
by seizing the treasure, with the consent of the kings, and sinking
it in the Rhine, all taking an oath never to revttl its hiding-
place, without the consent of the others, so long as they should
live {Avent, xix.). At last, however, after thirteen years,
Kriemhild's chance came, with a proposal of marriage from
Etzd (Attila) king of the Huns, whom she consented to many
on condition that he would help her to vengeance (Aveni. xx-V.
Then more years passed; old feuds seemed to be for^ottcD;
and the Burgundian kings, in spite of Hagen's warnings, thought
it safe to accept their sister's inviution to visit her court {A9emL
xxiiL xxiv.).
rhe journey of the Burgundians into Hunland b Aacnboi
by the poet at great length (Avenk xxv.-xxvii.). The stocy b
full of picturesque detail and stirring inddent, full also of interest-
ing problems in folk-lore and mythok>gy; and throughout it
b dominated by the figure of the grim Hagen, who, twitted with
cowardice and hb advice spumed, b determined that there shall
be no turning back and that they shall go through with it to the
bitter end. With his own hands he ferries the host over the
Danube and then, when the last detachment has crossed, destroys
the boat, so that there may be no return. At AttOa's oocnt
(Avent. xxviii.) it b again Hagen who provokes the catastrophe
by Uunting Kriemhild when she asks him if he has brought
with him the hoard of the Nibdungs:
" The devil's what I bring you I " Hagen then repUcd.
" What with thb heavy haraets and my shield beride.
I had enough to carry: thb hdmet bright 1 broiwht;
My sword b in my right hand, and that^De sure, I bring you doc!"
The sword was Siegfried's. It b Hagen, too, who alter the
• Thb last fight with the shiek! seems to have belonged to the
common stock of heroic story. Cf. the account of the death 01
Hereward " the Wake " given by Geoffrey Gaimar in the (
Angfo-Norm. and adopted by Freeman in hb ^sf
(1871), iv. 4M.
NIBELUNGENLIED
639
fint onaUoght of the Htms strikn off the bead of OrtUeb, the
ion of Etzel and Kriemhild, and who, amid the imoke and
9aniage of the burning hall, Uds the Buigondiaas drink blood if
tbey are thirsty.
Besides Hagen, during the ride into Hunland and in the
final fight, another figure comes to the front, that of Volkfar
the Fiddler, so far only mentioned as a hero of the Saxon war
in Avent. iL He rides fiddling at the head of the host; he plays
to the weary warriors in the intervals of the battle in the cx>urt
of Etzd's palace; but he is also expert at performing other
music, with " a strong fiddle-bow, mighty and long, like to a
sword, exceeding sharp and broad." He is the type of the
medieval knightly minstrel of the age of the Minnesang.
But for all their prowess, after a prolonged struggle {AmU.
xxix.-xxxvii.), the Burgundians were at last overwhelmed.
Most of the chief figures of heroic saga had oome up against
them: Attila, Hildebrand, the Ostrogoth Theodoric (Dietrich
von Bern). To the last-named even Hagen armed with Sieg-
fried's sword had to yield {Aveni. xxxviii.). Kriemhild came to
him as he lay in bonds and demanded the Nibdung treasure. He
refused to reveal iu hiding-place so long as Gunther, also a
prisoner, should live. Gunther was accordingly slain by the
queen's orders and his bead was brought to Hagen, who cried out
when he saw it that all had been accomplished as he had foretold:
" Now none knows where the hoafd is save God and I alone:
That to thee, devil-woman, shall nevermore be known I '*
Whereupon Kriemhild slew him with Siegfried's sword. But
Kriemhild was not destined, like Gudrun, to set out on further
adventures. Hildebrand, horrified at her deed, sprang forward
and cut her to pieces with U^ sword.
In sorrow now was ended the king's high holiday.
As ever joy in sorrow ends and must end alway.
To some MSS. of the Nibdungenlied is added a supplementary
poem called the Klage or Lament, a sequel of site short-line
couplets, describing the himent of the survivors— notably Etsd—
over the slain, the burying of the dead, and the carrying of the
news to the countries of the Burgundians and others. At the end
it is stat«i that the story was written down, at the com-
mand of Bishop Pilgrim of Passau, by a writer named Konrad
(KuomAt) in Latin, and that it had since been sung (feftcAld)
often in the German tongue.
Sources of th€ Story. — The origin and nature of the various
elements that go to make up the story of the NibetuMget^-
tied have been, and continue to be, the subject of very lively
debate. The view at one time most generally accepted was
that first propounded by Karl Lachmann in his " Kritik der
Sage von den Nibelungen " (Rkeinisckes Museum fUr Philologie,
Num. 349, 250, 1839, republished in his Zu den Nibetungen . . .
Anmeriuugen in 1836), namely, that the story was ori^nally a
myth of the northern gods, modified into a heroic saga after
the introduction of Christianity, and intermingled with historical
dements. This view is maintained by Richard von Mutb in
his Eifdeitung in das NibduHgeulied (Paderbom, x877)» who
thus sums up the result of his critical researches: " The basis
of all is an old myth of a beneficent divine being (Siegfried),
who conquers daemonic powers (the Nibdungen), but is slain
by them (the Burgundians turned Nibdungen); with this
myth was connected the destruction of the Burgundian kingdom,
ascribed to Attila, between 437 uid 453, and later the legend
of Aitila's murder by his wife; in this form, after Attila and
Theodoric had been assodated in it, the legend penetrated,
between 555 and 583, to the North, where its second part was
devek>ped in detail on the analogy of older sagas, while in Germany
n complete change of the old motif took place." To this theory
the objectran is raised that it is but a theory; that it is un-
supported by any convindng evidence; and that the process
which it postulates, that, namely, of the transformation of the
ggds into heroes l^ the popular imagination, is contrary to all
that we know of the fate of dethroned deities, who are apt to
live on in fairy stories in very unheroic guise. So early as 1783
Johannes von MQller of GAttingen had called attention to the
historical figures appearing in the Nibdungenlied, identifying
Etxd as Attila, Dietrich of Bern as Theodoric of Verona, and the
Burgundian kingi Gunther, Giselh£r and Gtoiot as the Gun-
daharius, Gislaharius and Godomar of the Lex Burgundiorum;
in i8ao Julius Ldchtlen {Neuaufgefuudeues BruckstUck des
Nibeluugemliedes, Freiburg-im-Breisgau) roundly declared that
" the Nibelungadied rests entirdy on a historical foundation,
and that any other attempt to explain it must fail." This view
was, however, overborne by the great authority of Lachmann,
whose theory, in complete harmony with the prindples popular-
ized by the brothers Grimm, was accepted and ehiborated by
a kmg series of critics. It is only of late years that criticism
has tended to revert to the standpoint of Mailer and Ldchtlen
and to reoognixe in the story of the Nibdungen as a whole a
misty and confused tradition of real events and people. Mythical
elements it certainly contains; and to those figures which—
like Siegftied, Brunhild, Hagen and the "good margrave"
Ruedegte of BechUrenr-cannot be traced definitively to historical
originals, a mythical origin is still provisionally ascribed. But
criticism is still busy attempting to trace these also to historical
originals, and Theodor Abding {Das Nibdungenlied, 1907)
makes out a very plausible case for identifying Siegfried with
Segeric, son of the Burgundian king Sigimund, Brunhild with
the historical Brunichildis, and Hagen with a certain Hagnericus,
who, according to the Life of St Cdumban, guided the saint
(the chaplain of the Nibdungenlied), who had incurred the
enmity of Brunichfldis, safe to the court of her grandson Theu-
derich, king of the West Franks.
Herr Abding's theory of the sources of the Nibdungen story
is one among many; but, as it is one of the latest and not the
least ingenious, it deserves mentioiL That the Icelandic Eddas
contain the oldest versions of -the legend, though divided and
incomplete, is universally admitted. It is eqtudly wdl established,
however, that Iceland could not have been its original home
This Herr Abding locates among the Franks of what is ix>w
southern France, whence the stories spread, from the 6th century
onwards, on the one hand across the Rhine hito Franconia,
on the other hand westwards and northwards, by way of Ireland —
at that time in dose intercourse with continental Europe— and
the northern islands, to Iceland. Hence the two traditions,
the German and the Icelandic, of which the latter alone is
preserved in something of its primitive form,* though primitive
dements survive in the Nibdungenlied.
The basis of the story is then, according to this view, historical,
not mythical: a medley of Franoo-Burgundian historical
traditions, overlaid with mythical fandcs.* The historical
nudeus is the overthrow of the Burgundian kingdom of Gun-
dahar by the Huns in 436; and round this there gathered
an accretion of other episodes, equally historical in their origin,
however distorted, with a naive disregard of chronological
possibility: the murder of Segeric (c. 525), the murder of
Sigimund by the sons of Chrothlldis, wife of Govis (identified
by Abding with Kriemhild), the murder of Attila by his Bur-
gundian wife Ildioo (see Kxiemhiid). In the Eddas the identity
of the original Franco-Burgundian sagas is fairly preserved.
In the Nibdungenlied, on the other hand, the influence of other
wholly unconnected stories is fdt: thus Hildebrand appears
during the final fight at Etsd's court, and Theodoric the Great
(Dietrich von Bern; see T&eoookxc), for no better reason than
that the Dietrich legend had sent him into exile there, and that
he must have been there when the Burgundians arrived.
Origin of Ike Poem.—Tbe controversy as to the underlying
deraenu of the Nibdung legend extends to the question of the
authorship and construction of the poem itsdf. Was it from
the first— whatever additions and interpolations may have
* The Eddas were first written down, as it commonly assumed, by
Bishop Saemund Sisfusaon (10^6-1133)
• The process of this overlaving is easy 10 realii* if we remember
how usual it was to transfer characteristics and episodes drawn from
immemorial folk-lore to successive historical perK>nages. A good
example is the " Swan-maiden *' myth connected with the house of
Bouillon (see Lorbkcrin). See also other interesting cases dtcd
in the chapter on the " Gcste of John de Courci " in Mr J. H.
Round's Peerage and Pedigree (London, 1910).
640
NICAEA— NICAEA, COUNCIL OF
foUowed— conceived as a single, coherent story, or is it based
on a number of separate stories, popular ballads akin to the
EddaSf which the original author of the Ntbdungenlied merely
collected and strung together? The answer to these questions
has been sought by a succession of scholars in a critical com-
parison of the medieval MSS. of the poem still surviving. Of
these 33 arc now known, of which 10 are complete, the rest being
more or less fragmentary. The most important are those
first discovered, viz. the MSS. lettered C (Hohenems, I755)>
B (Schloss Wcrdenberg, 1769), A (Hohenems, 1779); &nd
round these the others more or less group themselves. They
exhibit many differences: put briefly, C is the most perfectly
finished in language and rhythm; A is rough, in places barbarous;
B stands half-way between the two. Which is nearest to the
original? Karl Lachmann (Z« den Nibdungen und zur Klage,
Anmerkungen, 1836) decided in favour of A. He applied to the
Nibclungenlied the method which Friedrich August Wolf had
used to resolve the Iliad and Odyssey into their dements. The
poem, according to Lachmann, was based on some twenty
popular ballads, originally handed down orally, but written
down about 1x90 or laoo. This original is lost, and A— as its
roughness of form shows— is nearest to it; all other MSS.,
including B and C, are expansions of A. The great authority
of Lachmann made this opim'on the prevalent one, and it still
has its champions. It was first seriously assailed by Adolf
Holtxmann {Untersuchungen iiber das Nib., Stuttgart, 1854),
who argued that the original could not have been strophic in
form — the fourth lines of the strophes are certainly often of the
nature of " padding" — that it was written by Konrad (Kuonr&t
of the Klage), writer to Bishop Pilgrim of Passau about 970-984,
and that of existing MSS. C is nearest to this original, B the
copy of a MS* closely akin to C, and A an abbreviated, corrupt
copy of B. This view was adopted by Friedrich Zamcke, who
made C the basis of his edition of the Ntbelungenlied (Leipzig,
1856). A new hypothesis was developed by Karl Bartsch in
his Untersuchungen itber das Nibelungenlied (Leipzig, 1865).
According to this the original was an assonance poem of the Z2th
century, which was changed between 1190 and 1200 by two
separate poets into two versions, in which pure rhymes were
substituted for the earlier assonances: the originals of the
Nibelungenlied and Der Nibelunge N6t respertively. Bartsch's
subsequent edition of the Nibelunge N6t (1st ed., Leipzig, 1870)
was founded on B, as the nearest to the original. To this view
Zamcke was so far converted that in the 1887 edition of his
Nibelungenlied he admitted that C shows signs of recension and
that the B group is purer in certain details.
As a result of all this critical study Herr Abeling comes to the
following conclusions. The poem was first written down by a
wandering minstrel about 971 to 991, was remodelled about
X140 by Konrad,^ who introduced interpolations in the spirit
of chivalry and was perhaps responsible for the metre; during
the wars and miseries of the next fifty years manners and laste
became barbarized and the fine traditions of the old popular
poetry were obscured, and it was under this influence that,
about 1 1 90, a jongleur (Spielmann) revised the poem, this re-
cension being represented by group B. After X190, during the
Golden Age of the art poetry {Kunstdichtung) of the Minnesingers
(g.v.), a professional poet (Rudolf von Ems?) again remodelled
the poem, introducing further interpolations, and changing the
title from Der Nibelunge Ndt into Das Nibelungenliet, this
version being the basis of the group C. The MS. A, as proved
by its partial excellence, is based directly on Konrad's work,
with additions borrowed from B.
' Bartsch and others ascribe its authorship, with much plausi-
bility, to an Austrian knight of the race of Kurenbcrg. the cariiest
of the courtly lyric poets, whose lyrics are written in the Nibelung
strophe. Thus compare Karcnbem's lyric (Lachmann and Haupt,
Des Minnesangs FrUkling, 4th ed., F. Vogt, Leipzig, 1888)—
" Ich rfich mir cincn valkcn mfire danne ein j4r '*
with the Nibdungen Ndt (Bartsch) Av. I 13—
" troumte Kriemhtlde.
Wie sic zQgc eincn \*alken, stare scoen' und wilde."
Theodor Abcline (Das Ntbdungenlied und seine Lileraiur (Leipzig.
1907) gives a full bibUography. embracing 1272 references from 1756
to IQ05. There are English translations ^ the poem by A. G. Foster-
Barham (1887), Margaret Armour (prose, 1897) and Alice Hortoo
(1898). * v*« , «y/y (W.A.P.)
NICAEA, or Nice [mod. Isnik, ix. ds NucoZoy] an andent
town of Asia Minor, in Bithynia, on the Lake Ascania. Antigonus
built the city (316 b.c. ?) on an old deserted site, and soon after-
wards Lysimachus changed its name from Antigonia to Nicaca,
calling it after his wife. Under the Roman empire Nicaea and
Nicomedia disputed the title of metropolis of Bithynia. Strabo
describes the andent Nicaea as built regularly, in the form of
a square, with a gate in the middle of each side. From a monu-
ment in the centre of the dty all the four gates were visible
at the extremities of great cross-streets. After Constantinople
became the capital of the empire Nicaea grew in importance,
and after the conquest of Constantinople by the Crusaders
became the temporary seat of the Byzantine emperor; the double
line of walls with the Roman gates is still well preserved. The
possession of the dty was long disputed between the Greeks
and the Turks. It remained an important dty for some time
after its final incorporation in the Ottoman empire; but became
subsequently an insignificant village.
NICAEA, COUNCIL OF. The Coundl of Nicaea (a.d. 325) is
an event of the highest importance in the history of Christianity.
Its convocation and its course illustrate the radical revolution
which the position of this religion, within the confines of the
Roman empire, had undergone in consequence of the Edict of
Milan. Further, it was the first oecumenical council, and this
fact invested it with a peculiar halo in the eyes of subsequent
ages; while among its resolutions may be found a series of
decisions which acquired a lasting significance for the Christian
Church. This applies more especially to the reception of the
doctrine of the Trinity; for though, immediatdy after the dotse
of the synod, it was exposed to a powerful opposition, it gained
the day, and, in the form which it received at Nicaea and at
the coundl of Constantinople (381), still enjoys offidal validity
in the prindpal churches of Christendom. Finally, the orHindl
marks an epoch in the history of the conception of tbe Christian
religion, in that it was the first attempt to fix the criteria of
Christian orthodoxy by means of definitely formulated pro-
nouncements on the content of ChrisUan belief— the acceptance
of these criteria bdng made a sine qua nan of membership of the
Church. Moreover, it admitted the principle that the state
might employ the secuhir arm to bring the Christian subjects
of the Roman world-empire tuder the newly codified faith.
Thus the Nicene Council is an important stage in the develop-
ment of the state-church, though the completion of that edifice
was delayed till the reign of Theodosius the Great. The relation
of the emperor Constantine to the assembly was in itself a step
in the direction of that independent treatment of ecclesiastical
affairs, which, in the following centuries, created the peculiar
type of the Byzantine state-church.
From his accession Constantine had shown himself the friend
of the Christians; and, when his victory over Lidnius (a J). 323)
gave him undisputed possession of the crown, he adhered to
this reUgious policy, distinguishing and fortifying the Christiaa
cause by gratuities and grants of privilege. This propitiatory
attitude originated in the fact that he recognized Christianity
wliich had successfully braved so many persecutions— as the
most vital and vigorous of religions, and as the power of the
future. Consequently he directed his energies toward the
establishment of a positive relationship between it and ibe
Roman state. But the Church could only maintain its great value
for the politician by remaining the same compact organism which
it had proved itself to be under the stormy reign of Diocletian.
Scarcely, however, did it find itsdf in the enjoyment of exiercal
peace, when violent feuds broke out in its midst, whose extent,
and the virulence with which they were waged, threatened to
dismember the whole religious body. Donatism in the West was
followed by the Arian struggle in the East. The former move-
ment had been successfully arrested, though it survived in North
Africa till the 5th century. The conflict kindled by tb:
NICAEA, COUNCIL OF
641
Akiandrian presbyter Anus if.v.) assumed greater dimensions
and a more formidable character. Constantine at first attempted
to restore quiet in Alexandria by transmission of an epistle by
Bishop Hosius of Cordova, but his admonitions were fruitless.
Accordingly, since other debatable points were at issue, he bad
recourse to an institution previously evolved by the Christian
Church— the convocation of a synod to pronounce on burning
questions — qualifying it, however, to correspond with the
altered circumstances. He convened a council, designed to
represent the whole Church of the empire, at Nicaea in Bithynia,
a town situated no great way from the imperial summer-residence
of Nicomedia and within easy reach by sea of the Oriental
bishops. Among the various estimates of the number of dele-
gates, the statement of Athanasius, who speaks of 318 members,
has dominated the tradition. In consequence of the vast dis-
tances, the West was but weakly represented. From Spain,
Hosius — the above-mentioned bishop of Cordova — made his
appearance; from Gaul, Kicasius of Dijon; from Dalmatia,
Domnus of Stridon; from Italy, Marcus of Calabria with two
presbyters as deputies of the Roman bishop Silvester; and from
North Africa, Caecilian of Carthage. Thus an immense majority
of the synod hailed from the East. The bishops of the three
most important metropolises were present — Alexander of
Alexandria. Eustathius of Antioch and Macarius of Jerusalem —
while a prominent r6Ic was also played by Euscbius, bishop of
the imperial dty Nicomedia, and his erudite namesake, Euscbius
of Caesarca. Of the other prelates not a few had distinguished
themselves as confessors in the later persecution, and still bore
the honourable traces of their sufferings. Since the bishops
were accompanied by priests, Nicaea witnessed an array of
clerics such as had never before been mustered in a single place.
Among the attendant clergy, the still youthful deacon Athanasius,
destined to succeed Alexander in the see of Alexandria, was
prominent as the most powerful antagonist of Arianism (see
Athanasius). The synod met in the imperial palace from the
aoth of May to the asth of July. What order of procedure
obtained, and in whom the presidency was vested, are problems
which admit of no certain solution: the one indisputable fact is
that Constantine — ^who, at his appearance, was accorded a
ceremonious reception, and himself delivered a^ address on the
occasion — exercised a decided influence on the discussions.
The deliberations on the Arian question passed through several
distinct stages before the final condemnation of Anus and his
doctrines was reached. A clearly defined standpoint with regard
to this problem — the relationship of Christ to God — was held
only by the attenuated group of Arians and a far from numerous
section of delegates, who adhered with unshaken conviction to
the Alexandrian view. The bulk of the members occupied a
position between these two extremes. They rejected the
formulae of Arius, and declined to accept those of his opponents;
that is to say, they were merely competent to establish negations,
but lacked the capacity, as yet, to give their attitude of com-
promise a positive expression, In the main they perpetuated
the line of Origen. That the majority of the council should
have adopted this neutral tendency is easily intelligible when
we consider the sute of theology at that period. True, at Nicaea
this majority eventually acquiesced in the ruling of the Alex-
andrians; yet this result was due, not to internal conviction,
but partly to indifference, partly to the pressure of the imperial
will — a fact which is mainly demonstrated by the subsequent
history of the Arian conflicts. For if the Nicaean synod had
arrived at its final decision by the conscientious agreement of all
non-Arians, then the confession of faith there formulated might
indeed have evoked the continued antagonism of the Arians,
but must necessarily have been championed by all else. This,
however, was not the case; in fact, the creed was assailed by
those very bodies which had composed the laissez-faire centre at
Nicaea; and we are compelled to the conclusion that, in this
point, the voting was no criterion of the inward convictions of
the council.
In the synod, an Arian confession of faith was first brought
forward and read; but it aroused such a storm of indignation
that obviously, in the interests of a restoration of ecclesiastical
peace, there could be no question of its acceptance. On this,
Eusebius of Cacsarea submitted the baptismal creed of his
community; and this met with the imperial approvaL Since
the creed dated from a period anterior to the outbreak of the
Arian struggle, its reception would have been equivalent to a
declaration on the part of the council that it declined to define
its position with reference to the controversy of the hour.
That the greater number of delegates were not disinclined to
adopt this subterfuge, so congenial to their standpoint, and to
shelve the actual sdution of the whole problems by recognition
of this or some similar neutral formula, is extremely probable.
But the emperor manifestly saw that, if the difiiculties were
eluded in any such mode, it was inevitable from the very nature
of the case, that they should rise again in an accentuated form,
and that consequently no pacification could be expected from
this policy. Since the Eastern Church subscribed to the Alex-
andrian solution of the qtiestion, he drew the natural deduction
and concluded that he had here a genuine presentment of the
feeling of the Church, which, if it received official sanction,
might be justly expected to restore peace to the Christian
community. But, in pronouncing for this view, he was careful
to dissociate himself from the formulation of a new confession:
for it was imperative to avoid even an apparent innovation in
the anides of faith. Accordingly he proposed that the Caesarean
creed should be modified by the insertion of the Alexandrian
passwords-^as if for the purpose of more accurate definition —
and by the ddetion of certain portions. That he appreciated the
import of thestt alterations, or realized that this revision was
virtually the proclamation of a new doctrine, is scarcely probable.
The creed thus evolved — the expression bitocbcias is of Western
origin — was finally signed by all the deputies with the exception
of the bishops Theonas of Marmarica and Sccundus of Ptolemais:
even the Arians had submitted. The two recaldtrant prdates,
with the presbyter Arius, were banished to Illyria; Eusebius of
Nicomedia and Theognis of Nicaea were also driven into exile,
and at the same time the works of Arius were condemned to
be burned imder pain of death.
But this artificial unity was no ratification of peace: in fact,
it paved the way for a struggle which convulsed the whole
empire. For it was the proclamation of the Nicene Creed that
first opened the eyes of many bishops to the significance of the
problem there treated; and its explanation led the Church to
force herself, by the arduous path of theological work, into
compliance with those prindples, enunciated at Nicaea, to
which, in the year 335, she had pledged herself without genuine
assent.
In addition to the Arian impasse, there was the schism of
Bishop Meletius of Lycopolis in the Thcbaid, whose settlement
Constantine had added to the programme of the council. He
and Peter, bishop of Alexandria, had come into conflict over the
treatment of the " backsliders " {lapst) in the Diocletian persecu-
tion; and their strife acquired' additional bitterness from the
fact that it was extended to cover the prerogatives of the
Alexandrian bishopric. Peter had composed a treatise advocat-
ing moderate principles and censuring the courtship of martyrdom
for its own sake, then gone so far as to save himself by flight.
Meletius, on the other hand, represented the most rigorous
school, and allowed himself high-handed infringements of the
law. When this had resulted in his deposition by a synod, a
faction still adhered to him, and the Melctians became a schis-
matic community; and such they remained even after the death
of Peter (311), who demonstrated by his martyrdom that his
counsds of moderation were not prompted by trowardice. This
Meletian schism made for disorder in the ecclesiastical life of
Egypt all the more because its followers sided with Arius. The
Nicene Council broke the strength of the movement by great
concessions to the Meletian bishops, and, at the same lime,
expressly recognized the supreme rights of the Alexandrian see
over Egypt, Libya and the Pentapoh's. Since, in the resolution
dealing with this point (canon vi.), reference was made to the
analogous and undisputed suzerainty of the Roman see — over
642
NICANDER— NICARAGUA
the ten subnrbican provinces, tttadied to the diocese of Rome
and iadttdiog middle and lower Italy, with the islands of Sidly,
Corsica and Sardinia — this decision enahxines an Important
piece of evidence for the history of the papacy. On this oppor-
tunity, his ancient privileges were restored to the bishop of
Jerusalem, who, in consequence of the political history of
the Holy Land, had been subordinated to the metropolitan
of Caesarea (canon vii.). The path was smoothed for the
readmittance of the Novatians (CaUuri) into the church, by
recognizing, in this case, their clergy, with the bare stipulation
that the kying-on of hands should follow their written promise
to be faithful to the doctrine of the Catholic Church (canon viii.).
With regard to the much-debated question as to the termina-
tion of the Easter festival, the synod committed itself so far
as to pronounce in favour of the Alexandrian cyde— a settle-
ment which entailed such important results in practical life
that it was communicated to the Christian churches by Con-
stantino in a circular letter. The problem, whether a
baptism, performed by heretics in the name of Christ or the
Trinity, should rank as a baptism or not, had given rise to an
animated controversy between the Roman bishop Stephen,
who answered in the affirmative, and Cyprian of Carthage, who
gave an equally decided negative. The council followed the
Roman practice, merely declaring the nullity of baptisms
imparted by the adherents of Paul of Samosata (canon xix.).
An important provision, in point of ecclesiastical law, was that
the chirotony of a bishop required the presence of at least three
other bishops of his province, while the confirmation of the
choice remained at the disposal of the metropolitan (canon iv.).
A further regulation was that two provincial synods should be
held annually (canon v.); but a law enacting the celibacy of the
dergy was rejected at Nicaea, since Paphnutius, an aged bishop
of Egypt who had been tested in persecution, warned his col-
leagues against the danger of imposing too arduous a yoke upon
the priesthood, and defended the sanctity of marriage.
As Constantine had convened the synod, so he determined
its conclusion. A brilliant banquet in the imperial palace— of
which Eusebius of Caesarea gives an enthusiastic account —
marked its dose, after which the bishops were granted their
return. The admonitions to peace with which he dismissed
them proved unavailing for the reasons indicated above: but
the reputation of the first oecumenical council suffered no
abatement in consequence-.
See F. v. Hefele. ConcUieniuekiekte, I. (ed. a, Freiburg. 1873).
pp. 383-443. A catalogue of the spedal literature will be Touna in
Loofs's article " Arianismus " in Henog-Hauck, RtaUncyklopddie f.
froUslafUische Theologie, i. (ed. 3. Leipzig, 1897); also Bernoulli,
'* Nicaeniaches Konzil," tfr., vol. ouv. (1904)1 V?' 9 >qq* (C M.)
NICANDER (and cent. B.C.), Greek poet, pbysidan and
grammarian, was bom at Claros, bear Colophon, where his
famQy held the hereditary priesthood of Apollo. He flourished
under Attains III. of Pergamum. He wrote a number of vorks
both in prose and verse, of which two are preserved. The longest,
Theriacaf is an hexameter poem (958 lines) on the nature of
venomous animals and the wounds which they inflict.' The
other, Alexipkarmacaf consists of 630 hexameters treating of
poisons and their antidotes. In his facts Nicander followed
the physician Apollodorus. Among his lost works may be
mentioned: Aekiicaf a prose history of Aetolia; Heteroeumena,
a mythological epic, used by Ovid in the Metamorphoses and
epitomized by Antoninus Liberalis; Georgica and Mdissowfica,
of which considerable fragments are preserved, said, to have
heen imitated by Virgil ((^uintilian x. x. 56). The works of
Nicander were praised by Cicexo {De oratore,.i. z6), imitated by
Ovid, and frequently quoted by Pliny and other writers. His
reputation does not seem justified; his works, as Plutarch
says (De audiendis poetis^ x6), have nothing poetical about
them except the metre, and the style is bombastic and obscure;
but they contain some interesting information as to ancient
belief on the subjects treated.
■ EdiUmu.-A. G. Schneider (1793. 1816): O. Schneider (1856)
(mnth the SrhoHa); H. Klauscr. " '" ■"" *' "
Ntcandri '
' De bicendi Gcnere
{Dissertationes Philologicae Vindobonenus, vi. 1898).
The Scholia (from the *G4tttngen MS.) have bea edited by C
WentJDeLhi Abkamdltmgpt der k. GesMsdufi dtr Wist, m CiUHmffm,
xnviMiSQa). SeealwW.VoUgrBff.Aaafitfcrsiitf(Mi(CifaiSSS
X909 folL).
NICANOR, Greek grammarian, son of Hermeias of Aknadzia
(or Hierapolis), lived during the reign of H«HTia« He chiefly
devoted himself to the study of punctuation and the difference
of mrsning caused by it. Henoe he was tlM^^^^i^»wH " the
Punctuator " (6 orty/uaias). He is known to have wiittca
onthepunctuatkMiof HomerandCaOimadnis. HewaspoHibiy
the author of a work Utpl Utmmiamusf (0» Ike Ckastga 4/
Names ef Places)^ of which some fragments are pteaerved ia
C W. MiUler, FrdgfRMto HislflrtMrew GraAMrmi, iiL 63a.
Edition of the lUad and Odyssey fragments by L. FriedUader C1850I
and O. Carauth (1675) respectivdy.
NICARAGUA, a republic of Ctential America, boanded on the
N. by Honduras, £. by the Caribbean Sea, S. by CosU Rka,
and W. by the Pacific Ocean (for map, see Cemxsal Aioica).
Pop. (1905), about 550,000; area, 49fMO sq. m. Nicatasna
forms an irreguUr equilateral triangle with its fa^se stietdhiag
for 280 m. along the Caribbean Sea from Cape Gradaa A IMoe
southwards to the San Juan ddta, and iu apex at the CoseKuina
volcano, on the Bay of Fonseca, which separates Nicanctta
on the Padfic side from Salvador. The frontier which sepaxatcs
the republic from Honduras extends across the oontineiit fron
east-north-east to west-south-west. It is defined by the nver
Segovia for about one-third <A the distance, or from Cape Gracias
A Dios to Sd"* W.; it then deflecU across the watershed en the
east and south of the Hondurian river Choluteca, rfmiHj the
main Nicaraguan cordillera (mountain chain), and follows the
river Negro to the Bay of Fonseca. In accordance with the
treaty of 1858, which was confirmed in x888 by the United States
president, acting as arbitrator, and more fuUy defined in 1896,
the boimdary towards Costa Rica is drawn a m. S. of the Saa
Juan river and Lake Nicaragua, as far as a point paraDd tt» the
centre of the western shore of the lake. It is then cootiimed
south-westward for the short distance which intervenes b e t wee n
this point and the northernmost headland of Salinas Bay, oo
the Pacific.
Physical Feo/erer.— The coasts of Kicangna are strikio^
different in configuration. The low, swampy and moootgnoas
shore of the Caribbean, with its numerous lagoons and estwuies,
and its fringe of reefs and islets, contains only three harboois:
Gracias A Dios, Bluefidds or Blewfidds, and Greytofwn (Saa
Juan dd Norte). Its length, from Cape Grades A Dios to tltt
San Juan ddu, is neariy 300 m. The Padfic coast, "***«"'iig
some 300 m. from the Bay of Fonseca to Salinas Bay, is bold,
rocky and unbroken by any great indentation; here, however,
are the best harbours of the republic— the southern arm of the
Bay of Fonseca (9.V.), Corinto, Brito and San Juan dd Sur.
The surface of the country is naturally divided into five deariv
distinct zones: (i) the aeries of volcanic peaks which extend oaraU
to the Padfic at a little disunce inland; (a) the plains and lafces <rf
the great depresdon wUch lies to the cast of these "*"""^*«* «ni
stretches from tea to sea, between the Bay oT Fonseca aad the
mouths of the San Juan; (3) the main cordillera, wfakh skirts the
depression on the east, and trends north-west from Monkey Point or
Punta Mico on the Caribbean Sea, until it is merged ia the lasaifioa*
tions of the Hondurian and Salvadorian htfhlanos: (4) the phtwaes
which slope gradi^y away from the mam cocdiUefa to w ards the
Caribbean ; (5) the east or Mosquito caaat.with iU knr-Mng hiatcr>
land. The last-named region has to a great extent had a ■*!«■*■*•
history; and it was only in 1804 that the Monoito Reserve, a eentnl
enclave which indudes more than half of the httocal and hinterland,
was incorporated in the republic and renamed the dqxactaaemoi
^laya. (See MoSQurro Coast.)
Tnough situated almost on the western edge of the coontry.aod
greatly inferior, both in continuity and in mean altitude, to the naia
cordiUera, the chain of volcanic cones constitutes a waterdnd qeSle
equal in importance to tha cordillera itself. It consists for the aMSt
part of isdated igneous peaks, sometinies connected by low iater^iciK
ingridtts. It terminates ia the ej iu c i ue north-west with rnsm iii i s
(2831 It.), and in the extreme south-east with the low wooded aii^i>
f dagos of Solentiname and Chichicaste near the head of Ae Saa
uan river. Between these two extremes the chid cooes. p s wrxB afi
southwards, are: the Maribios chain, comprising El Vieto (SS40 fiX
Santa Clara. Telka. Orota, Las PQas, AxOsco, Momotombo (4»7 ft-J.
all crowded ckMe together between the Bay of Foeesca aad Lake
NICARAGUA
643
Managua; Masaya or Popocatepac (which was active in 1670, 1782,
1857 and 1903, and attains a height of 2072 ft.), and Mombacho
Um3 ft.)i near Granada; lastly, in Lake Nicaragua the two islands
01 Zapatera and Ometepe or Omotepec with iu twin peaks Ometepe
(«643 ft.) and Madeia. On the aotb of January 1835 Coseguina was
the scene of one of the most tremendous eruptions on record. The
outbreak lasted four days and the vokanic dust and ashes erupted fell
over a va^ area, which comprised Jamaica, southern Mexico and
B<^ot4. After a long repose Ometepe also burst into renewed
acuvity on the 19th of June 188^, whenth^ lavas from a new crater
began to overflow and continued for seven davs to spread in various
directions over the whole island. In the Maribios district occur
several volcanic lakelets, such as that of Masaya. besides numerous
wferniUos, low craters or peaks still emitting sulphurous vapour and
smoke, and at ni^t often lighting up the whole huid with bluish
In the neat lacustrine depretdon of Nicaragua Is collected all the
drainage 1mm the eastern venant of the volcanic mountains, from
the sbMT western escarpment of the main cordillera. and from a large
area bf northern Cosu Rica. The only river iriiich flows out of the
dcpresobn (m the north enters the Bay of Fonseca at Tempisque.
The accumulated waters which pour down into the depression are
nthered into the two basins of Lake B4anagua and Lake Nkaragua.
Both basins have a maximum depth of some 360 ft. Lake Managua,
the more northeriy, has a length of 30 m. and varies in breadth m>m
8 to 16 m. Iu area is about 57^ sq. m. After the rains a portion of
Its overflow escapes southwards mto the lower and larger Lake
Nicaragua, through the Panaloya channel. Steanwrs pjly on both
lakes, but the channel is rendered impassable by a rapid near the
town of Tipitapa,
fall of 13 ft. The
existence dt ancient lacurtrine beaches, upheaved
be tw een the two basins by vokanic agencies or left dry bv some
enlargement of the Sen Juan outfall, and a consequent subsidence of
the water-level, seems to indicate that the lakes were formeriy united.
Now, however. Lake Managua b almost a closed basin in the dry
season, when the stream in parts of the Panaloya channel sinks to a
mererivulet. The surface of Lake Nicaragua after the rains u 1 10 ft.
above sea-leveL The lake if 100 m. k>ng. and has a maximum
breadth of ^5 m. and an area of 2970 sq. m. It b thus the largest
sheet of fresh water between Lake Michigan and Lake Titicaca on the
borders of Bolivia and Peru. Towards the San Juan outlet its depth
decreases to 6 or 8 ft., owing to the vast accumubtion of the silt
washed down into the bke by its principal Cosu Rican affluent, the
Rio Frio. Much of thb silt a again carried away by the San Juan.
Under the influence of the intermittent trade-winds Lake Nicaragua
rises and faUs regubriy, whence the popubr notion that it was a
d3al lake. It b alio exposed to the dangerous Papagayos tornadoes,
caused bv the prevailing north<easteny winds meeting opposite
currents from the Pacific It b drained on the south by the San
Juan river, which flows geneUlly east by south to the Caribbean Sea.
The distance from the lake to the prinapal or Colorado mouth of the
river b 9$ m., and the average width of the channel 1500 ft. Near its
mouth the main stream branches out into a wide delta. Navigation
b neatly impeded by shifting banks of silt, and especially by five
rapids which can oniy be traversed when the river b in full flood.
It b often asserted that thete rapids were arttficblly formed by the
Spanbrds therosdves to orevent the buccaneers from penetrating to
Lake Nicaragua. But Herrera (Dec. iii. book 2, chap. 3) speaks of
the " great rocks and falb " which prevented Cordova, the first
circumnavigator of the bke, from descending the San Juan in 152a ;
and althoupi the English traveller Gage sutcs that in his time (17th
century) vesseb reached Granada direct from Spain, there can be
Httle ooubt that the rapids aie natural obstructions. The various
schemes si^ich have been put forward for the conversion of the San
Joan and the lacustrine depression into an interooeanic waterway are
Fully discussed under Pan am a Canal.
The main Nicaraguan cordillera, which flanks the depresdon on
the east, has often been called the Cordillera de k» Andes, from its
supposed continuity with the mountain-chains of Panama and the
west coast of South America. There b in fact no such continuity, for
the San Juan valley completely separates the mountains of Panama
from the main Nicaraguan system. This severance, it is true, may
be geoloncally recent, and some geologists see, in the five rapids of
the San Joan, remnanu of a connecting rid^ which the river has
swept away. But the evidence for past continuity b inconclusive,
while there can be no doubt about the present severance of the two
mountain systems. The main cordillm bears different names in
differtat pa^ of Nicaragua. ^ Thus the important section which
terminates at Monkey Point b commonly called the Cordillera de
Yolaioa. The summtu of the main cordillera seem nowhere to
exceed 7000 ft. in altitude; *the mean elevi^tion is probably less
than aooo f t^ the declivity b sheer towards the bkes, and gradual
towards the Caribbean. Along the shores of the lakes the cordillera
may be described as a double range, consisting of tlvo series of ridges
divided by a great longitudinal valley. The lower series, which
adjoins the bkes, rises .near Lake Managua, and marches parallel to
the main crest of the cordillera as far as the northern base of the
Yoti^tta section: it then diverses, trending south-east nearly as far
as Greytovm, while the axb of the Yolaina section has a more easteriy
orecuon.
On the east, the main cordillera abuts upon the region of pbteaus
and savannas, which occupies nearly half of the area of Nicaragua.
It b likely that this region was once a single uniform ubicland,
sloping by degrees to the flat Mosquito Coast, in which direction its
level still sinks. But the relief ol the ublebnd has been wholly
changed by fluvbl action. The great rivers which flow eastward to
the sea have fissured and moulded the surface into deep ravines alter-
nating with hiffh pbteaus, ridges and isoUted hills. Large tracu of
these upbnds nave never been adequately explored, and consist of
virgin forest and prairie. The principal nvcr b the Segovb, which
rises in the main cordillera due north ot Lake Managua, winds E.N.E.
as far as 85* W., and constitutes the frontier until it reaches the sea
at Cape Gracbs k Dios, after a course of more than 450 m., during
which it receiw* many tributaricii. its basin is narrow and its
volume not remarkiible. but m leiigth it &urpr.MC4 all other Ccntril
American rivcti. Its [lomtincLatUfT, like dtat of many leuer atrean^s
in the pLitcau ref^ion, is scmcwKat confuunj^ ; for ^blle the SptaniflA)
cclonlEtfl were HrttUnj; beiidi: tta head waters the mkl^stfEam wsm
luirdEy knowa cuccpt to the native (rldian$^al)d the lowvr rcachrt
Wtrv fnHjycjitrtl by butcanccrii^ often 'Ot Britiih or Dutch odginr In
additiion 10 the three iLamcs d Segovia, Coco or Cofoji, and W^nks/
which Art applkat'lt to the whoie rivier, different parts have frmo
time to lime received the RJ^mts ol CabuKil Cabnjga]. Cape RIvtf,
Encuentro, GmcLii. HtrbLui. Oro. Pant^md. Portillo Lis«. Tapacae^
Tt.-tflJTllXI S.-.,T-,r,r,-h Vifi'^M. X-r^'. rti,,! \:r,r.-, riT(,,.F ^rr.r^rtant
st-'.-.^m-- . ■ ■ . ; • - -rt- the
Huciao, \\.j.u^, C:.! — Ll_i., riu..ui.^.«^, is^u (^^.i..^, jL»....«.uu« audi
Rama. The Rio Grande or Amaltara, which receives one laree
tributary, the Tuma, is navigable for about 100 m. The Bluefields,
Blewfields, Escondida, or Rio del Desastre, which derives its best-
known name from that of Blieveldt, a Dutch corsair, is navigable for
65 m. The hydrography of Nicaragua is curious in two respects:
as in the Amazonian region all the laurge rivers flow ^st, noneescap*
ing to the Pacific; and the main watershed does not correspond with
the main cordillera, which is inferior in this particular both to the
vokanic mountains and to the plateau region.
The geology, fauna and flora of Nicaragua may be studied in
connexion with those of the neighbouring countries (see Central
Amekica).
CZtmolr.— The climate is mild and healthy for Europeans on the
uplands, such as those of Sesovia and Chontales, which nave a meaa
efevation of aooo to 3000 it. above sea-level. But elsewhere it is
distinctly tropical, with two season*— wet from May to November
on the Pacific slope, and from June to December on the Caribbean,
and diy throughout the winter months. The mean annual tempera-
ture is about 80* Fahr., falling to 70* at night and rising to 90* at
noon in summer. Nicaragua comes within the sone of the wet north-
east trade-winds, which sweep inbnd from the Atlantic The rain-
Observation/ made at Greytown in 1890 showed the extremes of
temperature to be 89* Fahr. in September for the maximum and
70*Tahr. in January for the minimum; the rainfall for the whole
year amounted to 297 in., the rainiest month having been July
(53'5 in.) and the driest. May (4*9 in.). Earthouakcs are felt at times
on the Pacific slope, but in Nicaragua they are less violent than in the
neighbouring countries.
Inhabitants. — Accurate statistics as to the growth and distri-
bution of the population cannot be obtained, and the figures
given below are based on estimates which can only be approxi-
mately correct. The census of i88a gave the total as 275,816;
this appears to have risen in 1890 to 375,000, in 1900 to 500,006,
and in 1905 to 550,000, or xx inhabitants per sq. m. There can
thus be no doubt that the population is increaising with extra-
ordinary rapidity, although there is hardly any immigration.
The number of Europeans and their ptuc-bloodcd descendants
is about X200, and tends to increase. Spanish and German
elements preponderate in the foreign colonies. The most densely
peopled region and the foais of civilization is the lacustrine
depression and the surnnmding uplands. Here are all the large
towns, and hither European settlers were attracted from the
first by the temperate climate, rich soil, and natural Waterways.
The development of Nicaragua, unlike that of most American
countries (notably Brazil and the United States), has been from
west to east. The great mass of the population b a composite
race, descended thlefly from the native *' Indians," their Spanish
conquerors, many of whom were Galidans, and the negro slaves
introduced during the colonial period. Intermarriage with
British, Dutch, and French with Caribsand Creoles has further
complicated the ethnology of the country, producing " Indians."
with fair hair and blue eyes, and half-castes with Eur(^)ean
features and Indian or negroid coloration, or with. Eurooean
6+4
NICARAGUA
coloration and Indian or negroid features. The prevailing
language is a degenerate form of Spanish, nearer to Galidao than
to Castilian. Most of the native dialects have ceased to exist,
but a corrupt form of English is spoken on parts of the east
coast. All who speak Spanish are classed as Ladinos; the
half-castes generally are termed Mestizos; and the name of
Sambos or Zambos is confined to the descendants of Indian and
negro parents; these are also incorrectly called Caribs. The
number of the uncivilized Indians, whose camps or villages are
situated in open glades among the forests of the plateau region,
is usually estimated at 30,000; but this would seem to be an
exaggeration. Pure-blooded Indians are not numerous, as whole
districts were depopulated and whole tribes exterminated by the
Spanish colonists and the buccaneers. A few may be descendants
of the Aztecs and Mayas, whose temples, sculptures, burial-
grounds, &c., have not yet been fully explored. For a general
account of this ancient civilization and of the Indian tribes see
Central America and Mexico: Archaeology. A collection of
Nicaraguan antiquities is preserved in the National Museum
at Washington, U.Su\.; and the archaeological collection
brought to Europe by Dr W. Lehmann in 19x0 was exhibited in
the Berlin Museum of Fine Arts.
Chief Towns and Communicalions.—The capital is Managua (pop.
1905, about 30,000): other important towns are Leon (45,000),
Granada (25,000), Masaya (20,000), Chinandcga (12,000), and the
seaports of Corinto (300Q) and Grcytown (2500). These arc de-
scribed in separate articles. At the beginmi^; of the 20th century,
Nicaragua had few good roads, and none at all cast of the mam
Cordillera. Transport in the plateau region was mainly effected by
means of pack mules, over the roughest of tracks. But between
1900 and 190S contracts were signed for the construction of three
highways, leading respectively from Matagalpa, from Nueva Segovia
and from the Pis Pis mining district to the head of steam navigation
on the Segovia, about 160 m. above Cape Graciaa. These highways
were to be linked to the western system by 79 m. of road connecting
Matagalpa with Momotombo. For the construction and upkeep w
roads a tax varying from one to ten pesos is levied on all males over
eighteen years old. There are 160 m. of state railways, running from
Corinto to Leon, Managua, Granada and Diriamba, with branches to
El Viejo and Momotombo. Contracts for additional lines were signed
between 1900 and 1905. The steamers which ply on the great lakes
and the San Juan, besides other vessels which visit the principal
Caribbean and Pacific ports, are national property; but from the ist
of January 1905 all the state railways were leased to a syndicate for
fifteen years and the steamers for twenty-five years. There are also
ao m. of private railway near the mouth of the Rio Grande, and
grivate steam tramways on the western shore of Lake Nicaragua,
orinto is the headquarters of shipping; it is visited by two-thirds
of the 2100 vessels of 550/)00 tons (including coasters) which annually
enter the ports of the republic The coasting trade is restricted to
vessels under the Nicaraguan flag. At the oeginning of the 20th
century most of the occan-^otng steamers were owned in Germany
or the United States; British enterprise beinp chiefly represented
by schooners trading from Jamaica to Bluelields and Greytown.
Nicaragua joined the postal union in 1882. and the western provinces
have a fairly complete telegraphic and telephonic system.
Industries and Commerce. — ^The principal agricultural product is
coffee, the yield of which increased from 4,528,300 lb in 1880 to
11.332,000 & in i8qo, and 26400,000 lb m 1900. Coffee is grown
pnncinally in the Matagalpa region, on the ufxands of the interior.
The plantations are chiefly owned and managed by Germans, and
the product is of good quality; but coffee-planting, like most
J^icaraguan industries, suffers from the scarcity of labour. On the
Caribbean coast bananas are cultivated and largely exported to the
United States. In 1903 more than 3,000,000 bunches were consigned
to New Orleans. The Cultivation of cotton has been often attempted,
but with little success. Sugar is grown and there are many small
sugar factories, but little oif the output is exported. The cocoa
export is also small; tobacco, rice, beans and other crops are grown
for local use. Rubber is collected in the forests, and plantations
have been formed. Dye-woods and indigo are exported, ^ut the
demand for vegetable dyes has decreased. Cattle-rearing is success-
fully pursued, live cattle and hides being imporUnt articles of
export. Cheese and butter are manufactured in large quantities
for home consumption. Horses and pigs are also reared, but not
sheep. In 1899 the government sold about 52,000 acres of public
land lying about 18 m. £. of Lake Nicaragua for the purpose
of colonization. The purchaser undertook to introduce settlers trom
northern Europe, to import cattle for the improvement o( the
Nicaraguan breed, to plant rubber and vanilla, and to provide
schools for agricultural instruction. The sale of Nicaraguan spirits is
a state monopoly. From the ist.of January 1904 it was leased to a
syndicate of distillers for six years. Gold-mining is Carried on along
the (Caribbean littoral. In 1898 the-gold dust and bar exports from ,
Bluefields were of the value of £2^,760; in 1900, £69,000; and ia
(907> £6iSiOOO. Copper, coal, petroleum, silver and predoua stones
arc also found, and tfiere seems little reason to doubt that the mineral
resources of Nicaragua, though undeveloped; are oeariy as rich as
those of Honduras. Other industries include manufactures ot
leather, boots and shoes, furniture, bricks and pottery, cigars and
cigarettes, beer, wine and spirits, candles and soap. Tbe lai^est axad
most numerous commercial firms are German, Vut there are also
French, Britbh, and even Chinese establishments, although the ixor
migration of Chinese bprohibited by law. The prindpaJ exports are
(in order of value) coffee, bananas, gold, rubber, cattle and hides,
dye-woods and cabinet woods. The principal imports are cottoa
and woollen goods, machinery and hardware, flour, beer. wine.
spirits and drugs. The United States and Great Britain neiMi
respectively 60% and 30% of the imports, receiving 60% and
8 % of the exports. The average yearly value of the foreign txade
is about £1,200,000— exports, £700,000; imports, £500,000^
Money, Weights and Measures.-— Thtrt is one bank of issue, the
Bank <i London and Central America, which has a caiMtal at
£^60,000 (£130.300 paid). The monetary unit is the sil\'cr peso or
dollar of xoo cents, which weighs 35 grammes, '900 fine. The cuxrent
coin consists largely of Mexican and Central and South American
dollars; but little coin is in circulation. The currency is mostly
paper, notes being issued directly by the treasury and by the bank.
The notes issued by the bank must be covered to the extent of 40%
by gold and silver; the actual bank reserve is stated to be frasn 65
to 1 00 % of the notes issued. The value of the paper peso fluctuates;
in 1994 the premium on gold stood at 640 %. The value of the silw
peso in fractional silver money is about nineteen pence; in a single
coin about twenty pence. The exportation of silver pesos is pto-
hibited. In 1899 a nickel coinage was introduced. The metric
system of wdghts and measures was legalized in January 1803.
Finance. — ^The revenue of the republk is derived mainly from
customs duties, liquor, tobacco and slaughter taxes, railways and
steamers, the postal -and telegraph services, and the gunpomfcv
monopoly. The prindoal spending departments are those of war
and marine, intonal development, and finance. The publislsed
accounts, however, present no continuous or dear view o£ the
national receipts and disbursements. Revenue and cxpeoditiire vary
considerably, but neither often falls bebw £300,000 or rises above
£500,000. In 1886 the republic contracted a railway loan in Loxadon
to the amount of £285,000 at 6% interest, and m July 1804 the
interest fell into default. In 1895 an arrangement was made lor the
reduction of interest to 4%, the oeginning of amortiratjon, and the
creation of " coffee warrants " to be used in the payment of czpcvt
duties on coffee assigned for the service of the debt. In the four yean
1897-1900 the sales of these warrants amounted to 1,038^990 sold
pesos or (at 33d., the average rate for this period) £98,610. In July
190^ the outstanding amount of the debt was £253,600^ In 1905 a
further loan of 12,500,000 francs (£500.000) was raised in Fans at
5 %. The internal debt amounu to about £400,000.
CoHsliiuiion and Administration. — ^The former constitutictfi,
proclaimed on the 4th of July 1894 and amended on the loth of
December 1896, was superseded on the 30th of March 1005,
when a new constitution was promulgated. By this instraxncot
the legislative power is vested in a single chamber of 36 membccs
(instead of 40, as under the old constitution), elected by uoiwzsal
male suffrage for six years (instead of two). The executive is
entrusted to a president similarly chosen for six years (instead of
four) and aided by a cabinet representing the five ministiies of
foreign affairs and education, finance, internal administratioa
and justice, war and marine, and public works. For adnunis-
trative purposes the republic is divided into 13 depaitmcnts and
2 comarcas, each under a political head who acu as militaiy
commandant and controls education, finance, &c The ad-
ministration of justice is entrusted to numerous courts oC first
instance, three courts of i^ipeal, and a supreme cooit. The
active army of 4000 men can be increased to 40,000 in var.
All dble-bodied citizens between the ages of seventeen and fifty-
five are compelled to serve one year with the colouis aad are
then enrolled in the reserve. Roman Catholicism is the prevaiKiv
creed, but all religions are tolerated, and none receives any en-
dowment or other special privilege from the sUte. Thebisbt^
of Leon, whose diocese is included in the archiepiscopal {Moviiicc
of Guatemala, is the spiritual head of the Roman CatbQlic&
There are numerous elementary schools, at which the teaching is
free and compulsory, besides ten colleges for aecondtiy or
technical education, and two universities. •
History. — For a general account of the Spa^iish adnunistratka
during the colom'al period, i.e. up to 1821, and of the sub seque nt
attempts to unite ell the Central American republics in a sia^
NICASTRO
645
federal sute, see CEimtALAifEUCA. The history of the Moequilo
Reserve and of the relations between Nicaragua and Great
Britain is told in full under Mosquito Coast.
First discovered by Columbus in 150a, Nicaragua was not
regularly explored till 1522, when Gil Gonzalez Davila pene-
trated from the Gulf of Nicoya to the western provinces
and sent his lieutenant Cordova to circumnavigate the great
lake. The country is said to take its name from Nicaras or
Nicaragua (also written Micaragua), a powerful Cholutec chief,
ruling over most of the land between the lakes and the Pacific,
who received Davila in a friendly spirit and accepted baptism
at his hands. Nicaragua's capital seems to have occupied the
site of the present town of Rivas. The Spaniards overran the
country with great rapidity, both from this centre northwards,
and southwaxds from the Honduras coast. The occupation
began with sanguinary conflicts between the two contending
waves of intrusion. Granada was founded in 1524 on the
isthmus between the two lakes as the capital of a separate
government, which, however, was soon attached as a special
province to the captaincy general of Guatemala, which comprised
the whole of Central America and the present Mexican state of
Chiapas. Hence, during the Spanish tenure, the history oi
Nicaragua is merged in that of the surrounding region. Of its
five earliest rulers " the first had been a murderer, the second
a murderer and rebel, the third murdered the second, the fourth
was a forger, the fifth a murderer and rebel " (Boyle). Then came
the hopeless revolts of the Indians against intolerable oppression,
the abortive rebellions of Hernandez de Contreias and John
Bennejo (Bermudcz) against the mother country (1550), the
foundation of Leon, future rival of Granada, in x6zo, its sack
by the buccaneers under William Dampier in 1685, and, lastly,
the declaration of independence (x82x), not definitively acknow-
ledged by Spain till 1850.
In 1823 Nicaragua joined the Federal Union of the five Central
American states, which was dissolved in 1839. While it lasted
Nicaragua was the scene of continual bloodshed, caused partly
by its attempts to secede from the confederacy, partly by its
wars with Costa Rica for the possession of the disputed territory
of Guanacaste between the great lake and the Gulf of Nico3ra,
partly also by the bitter rivalries of the cities of Leon and
Granada, respective headquarters of the Liberal and Conservative
parties. During the brief existence of the Federal Union no
fewer than three hundred and ninety-six persons exercised the
supreme power of the republic and the different states. The
independent government of Nicaragua was afterwards dis-
tinguished almost beyond all other Spanish-American states by
an uninterrupted series of military or popular revolts, by which
the whole people was impoverished and debased. One out-
standing incident was the filibustering expedition of William
Walker (g.v.), who was at first invited by the Liberals of Leon to
assist them against the Conservatives of Granada, and who,
after seizing the supreme power in 1856, was expelled by the
combined forces of the neighbouring states, and on venturing
to return was shot at Trujillo in Honduras on the 12th of
September x86o.
Under the administration of Chamorro, who became president
in 1875, a difficulty with Germany occurred. The German
govemnlent asserted that one of its consuls had been in^ted,
and demanded an indemnity of $30,000 (about £2800), a demand
to which Nicaragua only submitted after all her principal ports
had been blockaded. The successor of President Chamorro was
General Zavala, whose administration brought Nicaragua to a
higher clegree of prosperity than she had ever knowiL He was
succeeded in 1883 by Dr C&rdenas, during whose presidency the
attempt of General Barrios to unite the five Central American
states was a cause of war between Guatemala and Honduras on
one side, and Salvador, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica on the other.
C&rdenas had taken command of the united Nicaraguan and Costa
Rican army when Barrios died, and on the xith of April X885
a treaty of peace was signed. Don Evaristo Carazo succeeded
Dr Cirdenas as president of the republic in X887, but died when
he had served a little over two years, and was succeeded by
Dr Roberto Sacasa. Under Carazo's administration the boundary
question between Nicaragua and Costa Rica had been settled
by arbitration, the president of the United States acting as arbi-
trator. While Dr Sacasa was president of Honduras, Salvador
and Guatemala signed a treaty, under which the United States of
Central America were to be formed. The president of Nicaragua
adhered to this treaty, but the National Congress refused to
ratify it. Sacasa was overthrown by a revolution in 1893, and
was succeeded by a provisional government, which in its turn
was deposed soon after by another uprising, at the head of
which was General Jos6 Santos Zelaya. His position was
regularized by the constitution of X894, and he was re-elected
president in 1898 for another term of four years. Under his
government the incorporation of the Mosquito Reserve into the
territory of Nicaragua took phice. In x 895 occurred the Hatch
incident, which led to the occupation of the port of Corinto by a
British fleet. Mr Hatch, British pro-vice-consul at Bluefields,
being accused of conspiracy against the Nicaragiuin government,
was arrested, along with other British subjects, and expelled.
For this action Nicaragua was required to pay an indemnity of
$1 5,000. An attempt to overthrow Zelaya was made in February
1896, but it was crushed after several months of severe fighting.
There were occasional disturbances subsequently, but none
sufficient to overturn President Zelaya, who was again re-
elected in X902 and X906. In X907 he carried to a successful
issue the war which broke out in that year between Nicaragua
and Honduras (q.v.). But he was believed to be planning the
conquest of other Central American states, and his policy of
granting monopolies and commercial concessions to his own
supporters aroused widespread discontent. In October 1909
an insurrection broke out in the Atlantic departmenU. The
execution (after alleged torture) of two citizens of the United
States named Grace and Cannon, who were said to have foug£it
in the revolutionary army under General Estrada, led to the
despatdi of United States warships to Nicaragua; but in the
absence of full evidence President Zelajra's responsibility for the
execution could not be proved.^ On the xst of December the
United States broke off diplomaUc relations with Nicaragua,
and in an official note Secretary Knox described the Zelayan
administration as a " blot on the history " of the republic. Fight-
ing at Bluefields was prevented by the U.S. cruiser " Des Moines "
(iSth December), an example followed at Grey town by the
British cruiser Scylla"; but elsewhere along the Atlantic
coast the insurgents gained many victories. In the battle of
Rama (23rd December) they captured the greater part of the
government troops. Chi the following day Zelaya took refuge
on board a Mexican gunboat, and sailed for Mexico. Dr Madriz,
one of his supporters, had already succeeded him as president.
BlBLiOGRAFHTr— Fora stfiu'ral aconint of Nicariig:ua, 3eeF^ Bo^le,
A Ridf across a Certtiitcnt (a vol?.* Londo^n, ift&s): E. G* SaiiiPf,
Ni.-^TC^iia, &c. (2nd cd^ Lofldort, iBjt); J. W. Bodham, Whdham.
Atr.-r^ C^iTtit Ameritn (London, 1677); T. Belt, The Nciur&lifi in
Nt :- 'ir.ua (Lrjndititi, ie»8>| A. R. Colqubounr Tht Kiy oUkt I'arifU
(L' 'I Ion, i&95h G. Ni^dedciJJt Tin SLite of NicAraiua I,i'hil.><lclp1iiat
laj-^.i: A. P.'^UavnAt Ifydtography of Nifaraiua ^U.S.A* Gcoko^^'^
Survey report, Not 7o) (ipooj; C. Medina, Li: NicAFagua e« iQoo
(Piri , 1900) : }. W. C. Walker, Ocean io Ocean: on Aicotmt, P^semd
an-: Ilai^ficcJ, of SkiSfseaa and Us Fitfple {Chkik^Q^ 1903)+ For
coinriiL-ri^c, finnnce and Bomiiiiitratioiii ism' the annufil Reporit iiftht
Cc"-.'r.iiir€- cf ike Csrp^^ion of Farei^m BondAiriHtrs (hondaa); D-
Pcl t r, JCfiHi? /fcrjB^fffiiffu* ittr ia ripitbitque de NifGra^ao (NcuchfttcS,
l8'M ■; Builetiwjoi thu Burtyiij of Arncrksn Republics ^Wa^tiinBton) ;
U."^ A. Ctmsular and Briu^h Forti^n Office Rt potts; offvdal reporu
isaitc E ppAidicallv at Marugua, In Spaiueh. For hirtcry, M. M. dt
PeT^.ilt:i. jViVflfo^Tii y FdiwmJ m d st^o XVI (Madfid^ iftSj) ; J. D*
GjLm. !i, Arfki^ ftfitoriio d£ ia Rj^pullka dg NkaragiiO. (^Innaiua.
Iftji : ; F- Otega, Kicarqtm fle hj primtros eitoi dt n* emaiiiipaciAn
po^,i-rr. iP^n^, iPh), D^ B. Lufiia, Kiearatm: Wm of lAr fili-
buiLTi t Richmond, Va., 18^); C Bov-jlliu*. NkaroEHcn Aniiqutties
(Stockholm, x886}.
NICASTRO, a town and episcopal see of Calabria, Italy, in
the province of CaUnzaro, 17 m. W.N.W. of Catanzaro by rail,
and si m. E. of S. Eufemia, a sUtion on the line along the
« General Medina and other officers were tried by a Nicara^an
court-martial for the murder of Grace and Cannon, but were acquitted
on the a8th of January 1910.
646
NICCOLI— NICE
west coast from Naples to Reggio di Calabria. Pop. (1901)
13,671 (town), 18,150 (commune). It is situated on the isthmus
between the gulfs of S Eufemia and of Squillace, the narrowest
part of Calabria, 970 ft. above sea^level, and commands a fine
view. The ruined castle served as the place of imprisonment
of Frederick II. 's son Henry. The place suffered greatly from
the earthquake of 1638, which also destroyed the Benedictine
abbey of S Eufemia, founded by Robert Guiscard.
NICCOU, NICOOLO DB*- (1363-1437). Italian humanist,
was bom and died at Florence. He was one of the chief figures
in the company of learned men which gathered round Cosimo
de' Medici, who played the part of Augustus to Niccoli's Maecenas.
Niccoli's chief services to classical literature consisted in his
work as a copyist and collator of ancient MSS.; he corrected
the text, introduced divisions into chapters, and made tables
of contents. His lack of critical faculty was compensated by
his excellent taste; in Greek (of which he knew very little)
he had the assistance of Ambrogio Traversari. Many of the
most valuable MSS. in the Laurentian library are by his hand,
amongst them those of Lucretius and of twelve comedies ofPlautus.
Niccoli's private library was the largest and best in Florence;
he also possessed a small but valuable collection of andent
works of art, coins* and medals. He regarded himself as an
infallible critic, and could not bear the slightest contradiction;
his quarrels with Filelfo, Guarino and especially with Traversari
created a great sensation in the learned world at the time. His
hypercritiod spirit (according to his enemies, his ignorance of
the language) prevented him from writing or speaking in Latin;
his sole literary work was a short tract in Italian on Latin
Orthography, which he withdrew from circulation after it had
been violently attacked by Guarino.
See the Lift in Traversarii Epistolae (ed. L. Mehut, 17S9); G.
VoiKt, Dis WiedgrheUbung des kUusischen AUertwiu (1893): G.
Zippel, NicM NiecoU (Florence, 1890).
NICOOUTB, a mineral consisting of nickel arsenide, NiAs,
containing 43'9% nickel and 56- r% arsenic. Crystals are hex-
agonal, but are rare and indistinct. It usually occurs as
compact masses. A characteristic feature is the pale copper-
red colour, with metallic lustre, on the uneven fractured surfaces.
It is opaque and brittle, and the streak is brownish-black. The
specific gravity is 7-5, and the hardness 5I. Small quantities
of sulphur, iron and cobalt are usually present, and sometimes
the arsenic is largely replaced by antimony. Antimonial varieties
are known as arite, and form a passage to the isomorphous
species breithauptite (nickel antimonide). Niccolite occurs with
ores of cobalt, silver and copper at Annaberg and Schneeberg
in Saxony, at Sangerhausen and Mansfeld in Prussian Saxony
and other localities; It has occasionally been found in Cornwall
and Scotland. The original arite (aarite) is from Mount Ar
(Aar) near Pic du Midi d'Ossau in the Pyrenees.
The names niccolite (J. D. Dana, z868) and nickdine (F.
S. Beudant, 1833) refer to the presence of nickel (Lat. niccolum).
Owing to its copper-red colour the mineral is commonly called
" copper-nickel," the German equivalent of which, Kupjemickd,
was used as early as 1694. (L. J. S.)
NICB, a dty of France, the chief town of the department
of the Alpes Maritimes, and previous to t86o the capital of
the county of Nice (Nizza) in the kingdom of Sardinia, 739 m.
by rail from Paris. 'Pop. (1901) 127,027, of whom 105,109
were permanent residents; in winter-time there is a large
influx of visitors. It occupies a fine position at the mouth of
the PaiUon (Paglione), a stream (often dried up in summer)
which, after a course of 30 m., enters the northern end of the
Bale des Anges. A steep isolated limestone hill, 308 ft. in
height, running back for some distance from the shore, forms
the historical nudeus of the town. Formerly crowned by a
castle, which, previous to its destruction by the duke of Berwick
in 1706, was one of the strongest fortresses on the coast, it is
now laid out as a public pleasure-ground, and planted with
aloe, cactus, agave and paUn. Towards its south-west comer
stands a tower (Tour Bellanda or dtnaay) dating, it is said,
from the 5th century. The old town stretches along the western
base of the hill; the " town of the i8th century " occupies the
ground farther west, which slopes gently towards the PaiDon;
and away to the north-east and north and west beyond the
stream lie the ever-growing quarters of the modem dty. To
the east of the hill, and thus out of sight of the more ^■*'»«**TTMr
districts, the commercial quarter surrounds the poet. Tht
whole frontage of Nice is composed of fine embankmenU: the
Quai des Ponchettes, constmcted in 1770 round the base of
the castle hill, is continued westward by the (2uai du Midi to the
public gardens and the municipal casino, whence the Promenade
des Anglais (so called because it was begun in 182 3-1824 at
the cost of the English colony), a boulevard 85 ft. wide, extcn<is
for more than a mile to the mouth of the Magnan, and in
1904 was prolonged to the Var. A pier projecting into the
sea from the promenade contains a "crystal palace." The
course of the PaiUon also is embanked on both sides^ and at
one part the Place Mass6na, one of the largest public sqiuarcs
in the dty, and the prindpal resort of foreign visitors, and the
Avenue Mass6na (leaiding thence to the Promenade des Anglais)
have been laid out across the stream. Besides a Roman Cat hoik:
cathedral— Ste R^parate, dating from 1650— Nice possesses
two Russian churches, two synagogues and an Andean chapcL
Architecturally the most remarkable church is Notre Dame
du Voeu, a modem Gothic building with two towers 213 ft.
high, erected by the town in 1835 to commemorate its preserva-
tion from cholera. The secular buildings indude the town
hall, the prefecture, the theatres, the hospitals, the lycfe (founded
by the Jesuits in the 17th century), the natural history museum,
the library (espj^edally rich in theology), and, at some dittance
from the town, the astronomical and meteorological observatory
on Mont Gros (i 220 ft.). The industrial establishments oompiise
perfumery factories, distiUcrics, oil-works, furniture and irood-
work factories, confectionery works, soap-works, tanneries
and a national tobacco factory employing several hundred
persons. Besides the vine, the trees prindpally cultivated
in the neighbourhood are the olive, the orange, the mulberry
and the carob; and the staple exports aro dl, agrkultiual
produce, fruits and flowers.
Nice now joins on the north-east the andent episcopal town
of Cimies, in which are situated the hrgest and most elegantly
appointed hotels. Reckoning from east to west the town is sur-
rounded by a girdle of beautiful towns— Carabacel, St Eticnae,
St Philippe and Les Beaumettes. On the east of the port lie
Montboron, Riquier and St Roch, the last partly occupied
by barracks. The entrances to the port of Nice and the outer
pier have been improved; that of the outer port is 300 ft.
wide, and that of the inner 2 20 ft. The area of the port is aboot
15 acres, the length of quayage available 3380 ft., the deptb
of water 30 ft., its trade, mostly coastal, being shared principally
between French and Italian vessels, the arrivals being about
X 23 5 vessels of some 300,000 tons annually. Nice is an episoopal
see (first mentioned at the end of the 4tfa century) which sxnoe
x86o is in the ecdesiastical province of Aix en Provence. It
is the headquarters of a military division forming part of the
corps d'armie of Marseilles. Protected towards the north by
hills which rise stage behind stage to the main ridge (tf the A^is.
Nice* is cdebrated for the milcbiess of its dimate. The mean
temperature is 60** Fahr., that of winter being 49*f of spnag
56°, of summer 72* and of autunm 63°. For a few ni^ts in
winter the mercury sinks bdow freezing point, but snow is
practically unknown, falling, on an average, only half a day in
the year. The highest reading of the thermometer is rarely
above 90**. There are sixty-seven days with rain in the course
of the year; but it usually falls in heavy showers which soon
leave the sky dear again, though the whole annual amount
exceeds 33 in. Fine days and rainy days axe almost equafiy
distributed throughout the different seasons. The winds arc
very variable, sometimes changing several times a day. Apart
from the ordinary land and sea breezes, the most frequent is
the east wind, which is especially formidable during aatomn.
The south-west wind (called Libeccio, or wind of Lybia) is moist
and warm; the north-east (or Gregaou, Greek), which is faa|»p^
NICE— NICEPHORUS
6+7
rare, brings stonns ci hail and even snow in winter. The mistial
(from the north-west) and the tramontane (from the north)
are generally stopped by the mountains; but when they do
reach the city they raise intolerable dust-storms. For two
thousand years the climate of Nice has been considered favour-
able in chest complaints. Those who are requiring rest, and those
suffering from gout, asthma, 'catarrhs, lachiUc affections,
scrofula, stone, also experience benefit; but the reverse is the
case when heart disease, nervous disorders or ophthalmia are
concerned. Autumn is the best season; in spring the sudden
changes of temperature demand great care. Means of passing
the time pleasantly are fairly abundant. The city is at its
liveliest during the carnival festivities, in whidu as at Rome,
battles are waged with sweetmeats and flowers.
History. — ^Nice {Niaua) was founded about two thousand years
ago by the Phocaeans of Marseilles, and received its name in
honour of a victory iHiai) over the neighbouring Ligurians. It
soon became one of the btisiest trading stations on ibe Ligurian
coast; but as a dty it had an important rival in the town of
Cemenelum, which continued to exist till the time of the Lombard
invasions, and has left its ruins at Cimiez, 2^ m. to the north.
In the 7th century Nice joined the Genoese league formed by the
towns Of Liguria. In 739 it repulsed the' Saracens; but in 859
and 880 they ^aged and burned it, and for the most of the xoth
century remained masters of the surrounding country. During
the middle ages Nice had its share in the wars and disasters of
Italy. As an ally of Pisa it was the enemy of Genoa, and both
the king of France and the emperor endeavoured to subjugate
it; but in spite of all it maintained its municipal liberties. In the
course of the xjth and X4th centuries it fell more than once into
the hands of the counts of Provence; and at length in 1388 it
placed itself under the protection of the counts of Savoy. The
maritime strength of Nice now rapidly increased till it was able to
cope with the Barbary pirates; the fortifications were largely
extended and the roads to the city improved. During the struggle
between Francis I. and Charles V. great damage was caused by
the passage of the armies invading Provence; pestilence and
famine raged in the city for several years. It was in Nice that
the two monarchs in 1538 concluded, through the mediation of
Paul in., -a truce of ten years; and a marble cross set up to
commemorate the arrival of the pope still gives its name, Croix de
Marbre, to part of the town. In 1543 Nice was attacked by the
urJted forces of Francis I. and Barbarossa; and, though the
inhabitants, with admirable courage, repulsed the assault which
succeeded the terrible bombardment, they were ultimately
compelled to surrender, and Barbarossa was allowed to pillage
the dty and to carry off 2500 captives. Pestilence appeared
again in 1550 and 1580. In 1600 Nice was taken by the duke of
Guise. By opening the ports of the countship to all nations, and
proclaiming full freedom of trade, Charles Emmanud in 1626
gave a great stimulus to the commerce of the dty, whose noble
families took part in its mercantile enterprises. Captured by
Catinat in 1691, Nice was restored to Savoy in 1696; but it was
again besieged by the French in 1705, and in the following year
its dtadd and ramparts were demolished. The treaty of Utrecht
in 17x3 once more gave the dty back to Savoy; and in the
peacef^ years whid^ followed the "new town" was built.
From X744 till the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748) the French
and Spaniards were again in possession. In 1775 the king of
Sardinia destroyed all that remained of the andent liberties of
the commune. Conquered in X793 by the armies of the French
Republic, the county of Nice continueid to be part of France till
18x4; but after that date it reverted to Sardinia. By a treaty
concluded in x86o between the Sardinian king and Napoleon III.
it was again transferred to France, and the cession was ratified
by over 35,000 electors out of a total of 30.700.
See L. Durante. Histoire de Nice (3 vols., Turin, 1833-1834) ; J. N.
Fervel. HisUrire de Nice ei des Alpes Marilimes defuis 21 sticUs
(Paris, 1863); E. Tisscrand, Histoire civile et religieuse de la ciU de
Nice (2 vols.. Nice. 1862) : Cartidaire de rancienne catkidrale de Nice
(Turin. 1868).
NICB* an adjective which in present usage has two main
meanings; (x) fastidious, particular, precise or scrupulous, and
(3) pleasant, kind or agreeable. The first meaning has been
common since the x6th century, the second only since the end
ofthex8th. In O. Fr., from whidi the English form was adapted,
the word is niche or nice, which are derivatives of Lat. nescius,
not knowing, ignorant. The devdopment in meaning is doubt-
ful; some authorities take it as (x) foolish, (2) foolishly precise,
(3) delicate, (4) pleasant. Skeat suggests an early confusion
with the word " iwsh," soft, delicate, still surviving dialectically.
NICEPHORUS, the name of three emperors of the East.
NiCEFHORUS I., emperor 802-^xx, was a native of Sdeuaa in
Pisidia, who was raised by the empress Irene to the office of
logolketes or lord high treasurer. With the hdp of the patridans
and eunuchs he contrived to dethrone and exile Irene, and to be
elected emperor in her stead. His sovereignty was endangered
by Bardanes, one of his ablest generals, who revolted and recdvcd
support from other commanders, notably the later emperors Leo
the Armenian and Michael the Amorian. But Nicephoms gained
over the latter two, and by indudng the rebel army to disperse
achieved the submission of Bardanes, who was relegated to a
monastery. A conspiracy headed by the patridan Arsaber had
a similar issue. Nicephorus, who needed large sums to strengthen
his military force, set himself with great energy to increase the
empire's revenue. By his rigorous imposts he alienated the
favour of his subjects, and especially of the dergy, whom he
otherwise sought to control firmly. In 803 and 8x0 he made a
treaty with Chariemagnc, by whidi the limits of the two empires
were amicably fixed. Venice, Istria, the Dalmatian coast and
South Italy were assigned to the East, while Rome, Ravenna and
the Pentapolis were induded in the Western realm. By with-
holding the tribute which Irene had agreed to pay to Harun
al-Rashid, Nicephorus committed himself to a war with the
Saracens. Compdled by Bardanes's disloyalty to take the field
himself, he sustained a severe defeat at Crasus in Phrygia (805),
and the subsequent inmads of the enemy into Asia Minor induced
him to make peace on condition of paying a yearly contribution
of 30,000 gold pieces. By the death of Harun in 809, Nicephorus
was left free to deal with the Bulgarian king, Krum, who was
harassing his northern frontiers. In 8xx Nicephorus invaded
Bulgaria and drove Krum to ask for terms, but in a night attack
he allowed himself to be surprised and was slain along with a
large portion of his army. Kriun is said to have made a drinking-
cup of Nicephorus's skulL
N:o£PE0RU8 n. (Phocas), emperor 963-969, bdonged to a
Cappadodan family which had produced several distinguished
generals. He was bom about 9x2, joined the army at an early
age, and, under Constantine Vn., became commander on the
eastern frontier. In the war with the Saracens he began with a
severe defeat (956), which he retrieved in the years following by
victories in Syria. In 960 he led an expedition to Crete, stormed
Candia after a ten months' siege, and wrested the whole island
from the Saracens. After receiving the unusual honours of a
triumph, he returned to the east with a large and wdl-equipped
army. In the campaigns of 962-63 by brilliant strategy he forced
his way through CiUda into Syria and captured Aleppo, but
made no permanent conquests. Upon the death of Romanus II.
he returned to Constantinople to defend himself against the
intrigues of the minister Bringas. With the help of the regent
Theophano and the patriarch, he recdved supreme command
of the eastern forces, and bdng prodaimed emperor by these
marched upon the capital, where meanwhile his partisans had
overthrown his enemy Bringas. Thanks to his )>opuIarity with
the army, Nicephorus was crowned emperor by the side of
Romanus's infant sons, and in spite of the patriardi's opposition
married their mother Theophano. During his reign he continued
to wage numerous wars. In 964-966 he definitdy conquered
Cilida and again overran Mesopotamia and Syria, while the
patridan Nicctas recovered Cyprus. In 968 he reduced most of
the fortresses in Syria, and after the fall of Antioch and Aleppo
(969), which were recaptured by his lieutenants, secured his
conquests by a peace. On his northern frontier he began a war
against the Bulgarians, to whom the Byzantines had of late been
paying tribute (967), and by instigating an attack from the
648
NICEPHORUS CALLISTUS— NICHOLAS, ST
Russians distracted their attention e£fectively. Nioephorus was
less successful in his western wars. After renouncing his tribute
to the Fatimite caliphs, he sent an expedition to Sicily under
Nicetas (964-65), but was forced by defeats on land and sea to
evacuate that island completely. In 967 he made peace with the
Saracens of Kairawan and turned to defend himself against their
common enemy, Otto L of Germany, who had attacked the
Byzantine possessions in Italy; but after some initial successes
his generals were defeated and driven back upon the southern
coast. Owing to the care which he lavished upon the proper
maintenance of the army, Nicephorus was compelled to exercise
rigid economy in other departments. He retrenched the court
largesses and curtailed the inununities of the clergy, and although
himself of an ascetic disposition forbade the foundation of new
monasteries. By his heavy imposts and the debasement of the
coinage he forfeited his poptilarity with the rest of the community,
and gave rise to riots. Last of all, he was forsaken by his wife,
and, in consequence of a conspiracy which she head^ with his
nephew John Zimisces, was assassinated in his sleeping apart-
ment. Nicephorus was the author of an extant treatise on
military tactics which contains valuable information concerning
the art of war in his time.
NiczpHOKUS III. (Botaniates), emperor X07&-1081, belonged
to a family which claimed descent from the Roman Fabii and
rose to be commander of the troops in Asia. He revolted in Z078
from Michael VII., and with the connivance of the Turks nuutJied
upon Nicaea, where he assumed the purple. In face of another
rebellious general, Nicephorus Bryennius, his election was ratified
by the aristocracy and clergy. With the help of Alexius Com-
nenus he drove out of the field Biyennius and other rivals, but
failed to clear the invading Turks out of Asia Minor. Nicephorus
ultimately quarrelled with Alexius, who used his influence with
the army to depose the emperor and banish him to a monastery.
In the years of his reign he had entirely given himself over to
debaucheiy.
See Gibbon, Decline and Fall (ed. Bury, 1896); Finlay, Hist, of
Greece; G. Schlumberecr, Nicihhore Pkocas (Paris, 1890); iC
Leonardt, Kaiser Niuphorus II. (Halle, 1887).
NICEPHORUS CALUSTUS ZANTHOPOULOS, of Constan-
tinople, the last of the Greek ecclesiastical historians, flourished
13 20-1330. His Historia Ecclesiastical in eighteen books,
brings the narrative down to 610; for the first four centuries
the author is largely dependent on his predecessors, Eusebius,
Socrates, Sozomen, Theodoret and Evagrius, his additions
showing very little critical faculty; for the later period his
labours, based on docimients now no longer extant, to which he
had free access, though he used them also with small discrimina-
tion, are much more valuable. A table of contents of other
five books, continuing the histoiy to the death of Leo the
Philosopher in 91X, also exists, but whether the books were ever
actually written is doubtful. Some modem scholars are of
opinion that Nicephorus appropriated and passed off as his own
the work of an unknown author of the xoth centu'iy. The plan
of the work is good and, in spite of its fables and superstitious
absurdities, contains important' facts which would otherwise
have been unknown. The history of the Latin Church receives
little attention. Only one MS. of the history is known; it was
stolen by a Turkish soldier from the library at Buda during the
reign of Matthias Corvinus of Hungary and taken to Constan-
tinople, where it was bought by a Christian and eventually reached
the imperial library at Vienna. Nicephorus was also the author
of lists of the emperors and patriarchs of Constantinople, of a
poem on the capture of Jerusalem, and of a synopsis of the
Scriptures, all in iambics; and of commentaries on liturgical
poems.
Works in J. P. Migne, PiUrolotia Craeca, cxlv.-cxlvii. ; see also
F. C. Baur, Die Epochen der kirchiichen Ceschichtsschreibun^ 0®5^I
C. Krumbachcf, Gesckichle der byzanliniscken Litteratur (1897^
Wetzcr and Wcltc's Kirckenlexikon, ix. (Freiburg im Breisgau, 1 895,
NICEPHORUS PATRIARCHA (c. 75^829), Byzantine
historian and patriarch of Constantinople (806-815). His father
Theodonis, one of the secretaries of the ismperor Constantino
Copronymus, had been scourged and banished for his zealous
support of image-worship, and the son inherited the religions
convictions of the father. He was secretary to the imperial
commissaries at the coimcil of Nicaea in 787, which witnessed
the triumph of his opinions; but, feeling dissa t isfied with court
life, he retired into a convent. In 806 he was suddenly raised
by the emperor Nicephorus L to the patriarchate of Constan-
tinople, and this office he held until 8x5, when he accepted deposi-
tion rather than assent to the iconoclastic edict promulgated bj
Leo the Armenian in the previous year. He retired to the
cloister of St Theodore, which he himself had founded, acd
died there in 829. After his death he was included among the
saints of the orthodox church.
Nicephorus is the author of a valuable compendium iBrenarivm
historicum) of Byzantine history from 602 to 770, of a meagre
Chrom^ogia compendiaria from Adam to the year of his own death.
The former contains an interesting account of the origin and migra*
tions of the Bulgarians. Both will be found, together with aoioc
controversial writings and his biography by his pupil Ignatius,
also patriarch of Constantinople, in T. P. Migne, Fatrotogia GraecCt
c; edition of the compendia and life by C de Boor (1880.
Teubner series); see also F. Hirsch, Bytanttniscbe Studien (1876]:
J. HcrgenrOther, Fhotius (1867); C. Krumbacher, CesckicUe der
lytantinischen Litteratur (1897); Wetzer and Wdte's Kirdtea-
lexikon, ix. (Freiburg im Breisgau, 1895).
NICHE (through Fr. niche from ItaL nkdUa, mcckic, shell;
possibly from Lat. mitulus, a sea-mussel; cf. " napkin " from
mappa), in architecture a recess sunk in a waU, generally for the
reception of a statue. The niche is sometimes terminated by
a simple label, but more commonly by a canopy, and with a
bracket or corbel for the figure, in which case it is often calfed
a " tabernacle."
NICHOU JOHN (1833-1894), Scottish man of lett^s, son of
the astronomer J. P. Nichol (1804-1859), was bom on the 8th
of September X833, and educated at Glasgow and Balliol College,
Oxford, where he had a brilliant career. After taking his first-
class in classics, he remained at Oxford as a coach. With Albeit
Venn Dicey, Thomas Hill Green, Swinburne and others, he formed
the Old Mortality Society for discussions on literary mattcis.
In 1862 he was made professor of English literature at Glasgow.
He had already made a reputation as an acute critic and a suc-
cessful lecturer, and his influence at Glasgow was very marked.
He visited the United States in 2865, and in 1882 he wrote
the article on American literature for the ninth edition of the
Encyclopadia Britannica—an. article which is a good example
of his pungent (sometimes unduly pungent) style, fie kft
Glasgow for London in 2889, and died on the xith of October
1894. Among his best works were his drama Hannibal (1873).
The Death oj Themistocks, and other Poems (1881), his 5>t«i
in the " Ene^ish Men of Letters " series (1880), his Raberi Bmu
(1882) and Carl^e (1893).
A Memoir by Professor Knight was published in 1896.
NICHOLAS* ST, bishop of Myra, in Lyda, a saint bonoared
by the Greeks- and the Latins on the 6th of December. His
cult is as celebrated as his history is obscure. AH the accounts
that have come down to us are of a purely legendary character,
and it is impossible to find any single incident confirmed histotk>
ally. The main facts of his life are usually given as foUovs.
He was bishop of M3rra in the time of the emperor Diodeiias,
was penecuted, tortured for the faith, and kept in prison until
the more tolerant reign of Constantine, and was present at the
council of Nicaea. It should be observed that this last circuD-
stance b ignored by all the historians, and that St Athanasaes^
who knew all the notable bishops of the period, never menixHS
Nidiolas, bishop of Myra. The oldest known monument of the
cult of St Nicholas seems to be the church of SS Priscns and
Nicholas built at Constantinople by the emperor Justinian (see
Procopius, De aedif. L 6). In the West, the name of St
Nicholas appears in the 9th century martyrologies, and churches
dedicated to him are to be found at the beginning of the iilh
century. It is more especially, however, from the time of the
removal of his body to Bari, in Apulia, that his cult bccasre
popular. The inhabitants of Bari organized an expcdiiioo.
seized his remains by means of a ruse, and transported them to
Bari, where they were received in triumph on the 9th of May
NICHOLAS
6+9
Z087, and where the foundations were laid of a new basilica in
his honour. This was the origin of a famous and still popular
pilgrimage. There are nearly 400 churches in England d^icated
to St NichoUs. He is the patron saint of Russia; the special
protector of children, scholars, merchants and sailors; and is
invoked by travellers against robbers. In art St Nicholas is
represented with various attributes, being most commonly
depicted with three children standing in a tub by his side. Of
the various interpretations of this, none h absolutely certain.
One explanation has been sought in the legend of St Nicholas
miraculously restoring to life three rich youths, who had been
murdered, cut up and concealed in a salting tub by a thievish
innkeeper or butcher, in whose house they had taken lodging.
A legend of his surreptitious bestowal of dowries upon the
three daughters of an impoverished citizen, who, unable to
procure fit marriages for them, was on the point of giving them
up to a life of shame, is said to have originated the old custom of
giving presents in secret on the Eve of St Nicholas, subsequently
transferred to Christmas Day. Hence the association of Christmas
with " Santa Claus," an American corruption of the Dutch
form " San Nicolaas," the custom being brought to America
by the eariy Dutch colonists. (For the ceremony of the boy-
biahop elected on St Nicholas's Day see Boy-Bishof.)
See N. C. Falconius, Sancti Nicdai acta primigenia (Naples, 1751) :
Bibliotkua hagiograpkica Graeca (Brussels, 1805), p.' 06;
kagiogr. Laiina (Brussels, 1899), n. 6i04-623i; F. Nitti di Vito, Le
Pergamene di S. Nicola di Bari (Ban, 1901); Charles Cahicr,
CaracUristiques des saints (Paris, 1867), p. 354; Frances Arnold-
For^ter, Studies in Church Dedications (London, 1899), i. 495-501 and
tii. 21.
NICHOLAS, the name of five popes, and one anti-pope.
Nicholas I., sometimes callai The Great, and certainly the
most commanding figure in the series of popes between Gregory
I. and Gregory VU., succeeded Benedict III. in April 858.
According to the annalist Prudentius of Troyes, " he owed his
election less to the choice of the clergy than to the presence and
favour of the emperor Louis II. ahd his nobles" — ^who can
hardly have foreseen with what ability and persistency the rights
of the Holy See as supreme arbiter of Christendom were to be
asserted even against themselves by the man of their choice.
Of the previous history of Nicholas nothing is recorded. His
pontificate of nine years and a half was marked by at least
three memorable contesU which have left their mark in history.
The first was that in which he supported the claims of the
unjustly degraded patriarch of Constantinople, Ignatius; the
history of the conflict cannot be related here, but two of its
incidents, the excommunication of Photius, the rival of Ignatius,
by the pope in 863, and the counter-deposition of Nicholas
by Photius in 867, were steps of serious moment towards the
permanent separation betwee^p the Eastern and the Western
Church. The second great struggle was that with Lothair,
the king of Lorraine (second son of the emperor Lothair I.,
and brother of the emperor Louis II.), about the divorce of his
wife Theutberga or Thietberga. The king, who desired to marry
his mistress Waldrada, had brought a grave charge against the
life of his queen before her marriage; with the help of Arch-
bishops Gunther of CologneandThietgaudof Treves, a confession
of guilt had been extorted from Thietberga, and, after the matter
had been discussed at more than one ^nod, that of Aix-la-
ChapeUe finally authorized Lothair, on the strength of this
confession, to many again. Nicholas ordered a fresh synod
to tiy the cause over again at Metz in 863; but Lothair, who
was present with his nobles, anew secured a judgment favourable
to himself, whereupon the pope not only quashed the whole
proceedings, but excommunicated and deposed Gunther and
Thietgaud, who had been audacious enough to bring to Rome
in person the " libellus " of the synod. The archbishops appealed
to Louis II., then at Benevento, to obtain the withdrawal of
their sentence by force; but, although he actually occupied
the Leonine city (864), he was unsuccessful in obtaining any
concession, and had to withdraw to Ravenna. Thietberga
herself was now induced to write to the pope a letter in which she
declared the invalidity of her own marriage, and urged the cause
of Lothair, but Nicholas, not without reason, refused to accept
statements which had too plainly been extorted, and wrote
urging her to maintain the truth steadfastly, even to the death
if need were, "for, since Christ is the truth, whosoever dies
for the truth assuredly dies for Christ." The imminent humilia-
tion of Lothair was prevented only by the death of Nicholas.
The third great ecclesiastical cause which marks this pontificate
was that in which the indefeasible right of bishops to appeal
to Rome against their metropolitans was successfully maintained
in the case of Rothad of Soissons, who had been deposed by
Hincmar of Reims. It was in the course of the controversy
with the great and powerful Neustrian archbishop that papal
recognition was first given (in 865^ to the. False Decretals,
which had probably been brought by Rothad to Rome in the
preceding year (see Decretals). At an early period in his reign
it also became necessary for Nicholas to administer discipline
to John of Ravenna, who seems to have relied not only on the
prestige of his famous see but also on the support of Louis II.
After lying under excommunication for some time he made a
full submission. Nicholas was the pope to whom Boris, the
newly converted king of Bulgaria, addressed himself for practical
instruction in some of the difficult moral and social problems
which naturally arise during a transition from heathenism to
Christianity. The pope's letter in reply to the hundred and
six questions and petitions of the barbarian king is perhaps the
most interesting literary relic of Nicholas I. now extant. He
died on the X3th of November 867, and was succeeded by
Adrian II.
The epistolae of Nicholas I. are printed in Mignc, Pairohtia Lot.
vol. 119, p. 769 acq. Sec F. Gregorovius, Rome in the MidtUe Ages,
vol. iii. (tng. trans., London, 1900-1902) ; H. L&mmer, Nikoiaus J.
und die byzantinische Staalskirche seiner Zeit (Berlin, 1857): J. Roy.
Saint-Nicolas I. (Paris, 1900); J. Richtcrich, Papst Nikoiaus I.
(Bern, 1903); A. Grcinacher, Die Anschauuneen des Papstes
Nikoiaus I. Uber das VerhdUnis von Slaat und Kirche (1909)* (A.)
Nicholas II., pope from December 1058 to July xo6i, was a
Burgundian named Gerard, who at the time of his election was
bishop of Florence. He was set up by Hildebrand, with the
support of the empress-regent Agnes and of the powerful Duke
Godfrey of Lorraine, against Benedict X., the nominee of the
Roman nobles, and was crowned at Rome, after the expulsion
of Benedict, on the 24th of January 1059. His pontificate was
signalized by the continuance of the policy of ecclesiastical
reform associated with the name of Hildebrand (afterwards
Gregoiy VII.). To secure his position he at once entered into
relation with the Normans, now firmly established in southern
Italy, and later in the year the new alliance was cemented at
Melfi, where Nicholas II., accompanied by Hildebrand, Cardinal
Humbert and the abbot Desiderius of Monte Cassino, solemnly
invested Robert Guiscard with the duchies of Apulia, Calabria
and Sicily, and Richard of Aversa with the principality of Capua,
in return for oaths of fealty and the promise of assistance in
guarding the rights of the Church. The first fruits of this
arrangement, which was based on no firmer foundation than the
forged " Donation of Constantine " (9 .v.), but destined to give
to the papacy a position of independence towards both the
Eastern and Western Empires, was the reduction in the autumn,
with Norman aid, of Galera, where the anti-pope had taken
refuge, and the end of the subordination of the papacy to the
Roman nobles.
Meanwhile, Peter Damian and Bishop Anselm of Lucca had
been sent by Pope Nicholas to Milan to adjust the difference
between the Patarenes and the archbishop and clergy. The
result was a fresh triumph for the papacy. Archbishop Wido,
in face of the ruinous conflict in the Church of Milan, being
forced to submit to the terms proposed by the legates, which
involved the principle of the subordination of Milan to Rome;
the new relation was advertized by the unwilling attendance of
Wido and the other Milanese bishops at the council summoned
to the Lateran palace in April 1059. This council not only
continued the Hildebrandine reforms by sharpening the discipline
of the clergy, but marks an epoch in the history of the papacy
by its famous regulation of future elections to the Holy See (see
650
NICHOLAS
Lateran Councos, and Conclave). Its most important
immediate result was the revival of strained relations with the
empire, due to the fact that the emperor's traditional rights in
the matter of papal elections had been completely ignored.
Stephen, cardinal priest of S. Chrysogonus, was sent to the
German court to attempt to allay the consequent ill-feeling, but
was not received. Pope Nicholas, moreover, had offended the
German bishops by what they regarded as arbitrary interference
with their rights: he had refused to send the pallium of Arch-
bishop Siegfried of Mainz; he had sent a sharp letter of
admonition to Archbishop Anno of Cologne. The resulting
opposition culminated in a synod of German bishops, perhaps
early in io6x (its date and place of meeting are unknown), at
which the decrees of the pope, including the new electoral law,
were annulled, while he himself was deposed and his name
ordered to be expunged from the canon of the Mass. That these
resolutions were not followed by any further action was due to
the war of parties in Germany, which enabled the papacy to
ignore a demonstration of opinion to which no effect could be
given.
I Nicholas IL died at Florence in July xo6x.' Personally he
was one of the least important of the popes, and the great
importance of the events of his pontifiqite is due to the fact
that, as Peter Damian wrote {Epist. i. 7), he possessed in HUde-
brand. Cardinal Humbert and Bishop Boniface Of Albano
acuiissimi a perspicacis oculi.
His Diplomata, epistolae, dtereta are in Migne, Patrolog. Lot.
I43> PP* 1301-1^66. See the article " Nikolaus 11." by C. Mirbt
in Herzog-HaucK, RukncyklopSdie (^rd ed., htvans^ 1904), with
bibliography. Other lists of authorities are in Potthast, Bibiiotk.
HisL Med. Aev. (and ed.. Beriin. 1896), p. 854; and Ulysse Chevalier,
Ripertoire des sources htst, hiohiUiotr, (Paris, 1905), voL 3347. f.v.
•llSicolasn." s V v-o o^^^
Nicholas m. (Giovanni Gaetano Orsini), pope from the
35th of November 1377 to the ssnd of August xsSo, was a
Roman nobleman who had served under eight popes, been nuule
cardinal-deacon of St Nicola in carcere Tulliano by Innocent IV.,
protector of the Franciscans by Alexander IV., inquisitor-general
by Urban IV., and succeeded John XXI., Uurgely through family
influence, after a six-months' vacancy in the Holy See. His
brief pontificate was marked by several important events. A
bom politician, he greatly strengthened the papal position in
Italy. He concluded a concordat with Rudolph of Habsburg in
May Z278, by which the Romagna and the exarchate of Ravenna
were guaranteed to the pope; and in July he issued an epoch-
making constitution for the government of Rome, which forbade
foreigners taking dvil office. Nicholas issued the bull Exiit
on the Z4th of August 2279 to settle the strife within the
Franciscan order between the parties of strict and loose observ-
ance. He repaired the Lateran and the Vatican at enormous
cost, and erected a beautiful country house at Soriano near
Viterbo. Nicholas, though a man of learning and strength of
character, brought just reproach on himself for his efforts to
found principalities for his nephews and other relations. He
died from a stroke of npnnlcs;y and was siii!ctc<lcd by lliri 1 si TV.
See " Lcs Regtstres <W Nicobs \\l^" publSiihetl by Just's, <.r.tv in
Bibliothique des icotesjrr.i^i^aiies d'Aikhtas ti de Rome (Pari», 1 ^jS-
1905); A. Potthast, K ■■/■::■ 1 3. p^nlif. Remtan. vol 2 (Berlin, i^;:});
A. Demski, " Papst N ^ liu* 111. ' in Kirehrnieickkhiikhe 5-uiun
Niccold IIL (Rome. i8fi > j . (C. ] I . i i v , )"
Nicholas IV. (Girolamo Masci), pope from the 33nd of
February .1388 to the 4th of April 1293, a native of Ascoli and a
Franciscan monk, had been legate to the Greeks under Gregory X.
in 1373, succeeded St Bonaventura as general of his order in
X374, was made cardinal-priest of Sta Prassede and Latin
patriarch of Constantinople by Nicholas HI., cardinal-bishop of
Palestrina by Martin IV., and succeeded Honorius IV; after a
ten-months' vacancy in the papacy. He was a pious, peace-
loving monk with no ambition save for the church, the crusades
and the extirpation of heresy. He steered a middle course
between the factions at Rome, and sought a settlement of the
Sicilian question. In May 1389 he crowned Charles IL king of
Naples and Sicily after the latter had expressly recognized papal
suzerainty, and in February 1391 concluded a treaty with
Alphonso m. of Aragon and Philip IV. of France looking toward
the expulsion of James of Aragon from Sicily. The loss of
Ptolemais in 1391 stirred the pope to renewed enthusiasm for
a crusade. He sent the celebrated Franciscan missionary, John
of Monte Corvino, with some companions to labour among tbe
Tatars and Chinese. He issued an important constitution on
the z8th of July 1389, which granted to the cardinals one-half
of all income accruing to the Roman see and a share in tbe
financial management, and thereby paved the way for that
independence of the college of cardinals which, in the following
century, was to be of detriment to the papacy. Nicholas died in
the paJace which he had built beside Sta Maria Maggk>re, and
was succeeded by Celestine V.
See " Les Registres de Nicolas IV.." ed. by Ernest Langkris in
Bibliothhpu des icolesjranfaises d'Atkhes et de Rome (Paris. 1886-
1893); A. Potthast, Regesta ponUf, Roman, vol. 2 (Beriin. 187O;
F. Gregorovius, Rome in the Middle Ages, vol. s. trans, by Mrs G. W.
Hamilton (London, 1900-1903) ; O. Schiff, " Studicn zur Geschichte
Papst Nikolaus IV.'*^ in Historische Studien (1897); W. Norden,
Das Papsttum u, Bytaiu (Beriin, 1903): R. Kdhricht. Gesckiciue
des Kdnirreichs Jenualem (Innsbruck, 1898): J. B. Sigmuller.
Die Th&txgkeit «. SUUung der Kardimdle bis Papu Bomifa* VIII.
(Freibure-i.-B.^ 1896} ; J. P. Kirsch, " Die Finanzverwaltunc des
KardinalKoUegiums im 13. u. 14. Jahriiunderte " in Kirckem-
gesckichtiiche Studien (1895). (C H. Ha.)
Nicholas V. (Tomaso Parentucelli or Tomaso da Sarzana),
pope from the 6th of March 1447 to the 34th of March 145s,
was bom at Sarzana, where his father was a physician, in
X398. He early studied at Bologna, where the bishop, Nicholas
Albeigati, was so much struck with his ardour for learning that
he gave him the chance to pursue his studies further, by scsKling
him on a tour through Germany, France and England. He
distinguished liimself at the council of Ferrara-Fbrence, and in
1444 was made bishop of Bologna by Pope Eugenius IV., who
soon afterwards named him as one of the legates charged to
negotiate at the convention of Frankfort an understanding
between the Holy See and the Empire with regard to the re-
forming decrees of the council of BascL His successful diploonacy
was rewarded, on his return to Rome, with the title of cardinal
priest of Sta Susanna (December 1446). He was elected pope in
succession to Eugenius IV. on the 6th of March of the following
year, taking the name of Nicholas in honour of his early bene-
factor.
The eight years of his pontificate were important in the
political, scientific and literary history of the world. With the
German king, Frederick UL, he made the Concordat of Vienna,
or Aschaffenburg (February 17, 1448), by which the decrees
of the council of Basel against papal annates and reservations
were abrogated so far as Germany was concerned; and in the
following year he secured a still greater triumph when the
resignation of the anti-pope Felix V. (April 7), and his own
recognition by the rump of the council of Basel, assembled at
Lausanne, put an end to the papal schism, llie next year,
X450, Nicholas held a jubilee at Rome; and the offerings of tbe
numerous pilgrims who thronged to Rome gave him the means
of furthering the cause of culture in Italy, which he had so
much at heart. In March 1453 he crowned Frederick III. as
emperor in St Peter's, the last occasion of the coronation of an
emperor at Rome.
Under the generous patronage of Nicholas humanism made
rapid strides. He employed hundreds of copyists and scholars,
giving as much as ten thousand gulden for a metrical translation
of Homer, and founded a library of nine thousand volumes.
Nicholas himself was a man of vast erudition, and his friend
Aeneas Silvius (later Pope Pius II.) said of him that " what
he does not know is outside the range of human knowledge.**
He was compelled, however, to add that the lustre of his
pontificate would be for ever dulled by the tragic fall of Con-
stantinople, which the Turks took in 1453. The pope bitterly
felt this catastrophe as a double blow to Christendom and to
Greek letters. ^ It is a second death," wrote Aeneas Silvias,
NICHOLAS— NICHOLAS I.
651
" to Homer and Plato." Nicholas preached a crusade, and en-
deavoured to reconcile the mutual animosities of the Italian
states, but without much success.
Nicholas conceived great plans for beautifying and developing
Rome. He restored the walls and numerous churches, and
began the rebuilding of the Vatican and St Peter's. In under-
taking these works Nicholas was moved by no vulgar motives,
his idea being " to strengthen the weak faith of the people by
the greatness of that which it sees." The Romans, however,
appreciated neither his motives nor their results, and in 1453
a formidable conspiracy for the overthrow of the papal govern-
ment, under the leadership of Stefano Porcaro, was discovered
and crushed. This revelation of disaffection, together with the
fall of Constantinople, darkened the last years of Nicholas;
*' As Thomas of Sarzana," he said, " I had more happiness in a
day than now in a whole year." He died on the a4th of March
I4S5-
Sec Henog-Hauck, Realencyklopidis fir proUstantische Tkedogie
und Kirche^ vol. xiv. (1904), with lull references; Cambridge Modem
History, i. 76-78; and M. Creighton, History of the Papacy (London,
lbS2), vol. ii.
Nicholas V. (Pietro Rainalducci), antipppe in Italy from
1338 to 1330 during the pontificate of John XXII. at Avignon,
was a native of Corbara in the Abnizzi. He joined the Franciscan
order after separating from his wife in 1310, and became famous
as a preacher. He was elected through the influence of the
excommunicated emperor, Louis the Bavarian, by an assembly
of priests and laymen, and consecrated at St Peter's on the
i2tb of May 1338 by the bishop of Venice. After spending
four months in Rome, he withdrew with Louis to Viterbo and
thence to Pisa, where he was guarded by the imperial vicar.
He was excommunicated by John XXII. in April 1329, and
sought refuge with Count Boniface of Donoratico near Piombino.
Having obtained assurance of pardon, he presented a confession
of his sins first to the archbishop of Pisa, and then (35th of
August X330) to the pope at Avignon. He remained in honour-
able imprisonment in the papal palace until his death in October
See F. Gregorovius, Rome tn the Middle Ages, vol. o, trans, by
MrsG.W. Hamilton (London, 1900-1903); Baluzius, Kttae ^pariun
Avenionensium, voL x (Paris, 1693); J* B. Christophe, Histoire de la
papauU pendant le XIV**^ siicle, vol. i (Paris, iSm); E. Marcour,
Anteil der Minoriten am Kampfe twiscken Kdnig Ludwit JV. V(m
Bayern und Papst Jokanu XX 11. (Emmerich, 1874) ; Eubel, " Der
Geecnpapst Nicolaus V. u. seine Hierarchie," in Hist. Jahrbuck^
V0L1271891). (C.H.HA.)
NICHOLAS (i84i> ), King of Montenegro and the Berda,
was bom at the viUage of Niegush, the ancient home of the
reigning family of Petrovitch-Niegush, on the 35th of September
184X. His father, Mirko Petrovitch, a celebrated Montenegrin
warrior, was elder brother to Danilo II., who left no male off-
spring. After 1696, when the dignity of vladika, or prince-
bishop, became hereditary in the Petrovitch family, the sovereign
power had descended from uncle to nephew, the vladikas belong-
ing to the order of the " black clergy " who are forbidden to
marry. A change was introduced by Danilo II., who declined the
episcopal office, married and declared the principality hereditary
in the direct male line. Mlrko Petrovitch having resigned his
claim to the throne, his son was nominated heir, and the old
system of succession was thus accidentally continued. Prince
Nicholas, who had been trained from infancy in martial and
athletic exercises, spent a portion of his early boyhood at Trieste
in the household of the Kuetitch family, to which his aunt, the
princess Darinka, wife of Danilo H., belonged. The princess was
an ardent advocate of French culture, and at her suggestion the
young heir of the vladikas was sent to the academy of Louis
]o Grand in Paris. Unlike his contemporary, King Milan of
Servia, Prince Nicholas was little influenced in his tastes and
habits by his Parisian education; the young mountaineer,
whose keen patriotism, capability for leadership and poetic
talents early displayed themselves, showed no inclination for
the pleasures of the French capital, and eagerly looked forward
to returning to his native land. He was stiU in Paris when,
in consequence of the assassination of his uncle, he succeeded
as prince (August 13, i860). In 1863 Montenegro was engaged
in an unfortunate struggle with Turkey; the prince distin-
guished himself during the campaign, and on one occasion
narrowly escaped with his life. In the period of peace which
followed he carried out a series of military, administrative and
educational reforms. In 1867 he met the emperor Napoleon III.
at Paris, and in x868 he undertook a journey to Russia, where
he received an affectionate welcome from the tsar, Alexander II.
He afterwards visited the courts of Berlin and Vienna. His
efforts to enlist the sympathies of the Russian imperial family
were productive of important results for Montenegro; consider-
able subventions were granted by the tsar and tsaritsa for
educational and other purposes, and supplies of arms and
ammunition were sent to Cettigne. In X871 Prince Dolgorouki
arrived at Montenegzo on a special mission from the tsar, and
distributed large sums of money among the people. In 1869
Prince Nicholas, whose authority was now firmly established,
succeeded in preventing the impetuoiis mountaineers from
aiding the Krivoshlans in their revolt against the Austrian
government (see Cattaxo); simikrly in 1897 he checked the
martial excitement caused by the outbreak of the Greco-Turkish
War. In 1876 he declared war against Turkey; his military
reputation was enhanced by the ensuing campaign, and still
more by that of 1877-78, during which he captured Nikshitch,
Antivari and Dulcigno. The war resulted in a considerable
extension of the Montenegrin frontier and the acquisition of
a seaboard on the Adriatic. In 1883 Prince Nicholas visited
the sultan, with whom he subsequently maintained the most
cordial relations; in 1896 he celebrated the bicentenary of the
Petrovitch dynasty, and in the same year he attended the
coronation of the tsar Nicholas H.; in May 1898 he visited Qaten
Victoria at Windsor. In 1900 he assumed the title of " Royal
Highness." On the 38th of August 19x0, during the celebration
of his jubilee, he assumed the title of king, in accordance with
a petition from the Skupshtina. He was at the same time
gazetted field-marshal in the Russian army, an honour never
previously conferred on any foreigner except the great duke of
Wellington. The descendant of a long line of warriors, gifted
with a fine physique and a commanding presence, a successful
military leader and a graceful poet, King Nicholas possessed
many characteristics which awoke the enthusiasm of the im-
pressionable Servian race, while his merits as a statesman
received general recognition. His system of government, which
may be described as a benevolent despotism, was perhaps that
best suited to the character of his subjects. His historical
dramas, poems and ballads hold a recognized place in contem-
porary Slavonic literature; among them are — Balkanska Tzariita
and Kniaz Arvanili (dramas); Haidana, Potini Abenserage and
Pesnik i Vila (poems); Skupliene Pesme and Nova Kola (mis-
cellaneous songs). In November i860 Prince Nicholas married
Milena, daughter of the voievode Petar Vukotitch. Of his three
sons, the eldest. Prince Danilo, married (July 37, 1899) Duchess
Jutta (Militza) of Mecklenburg-Strelitz; of his six daughters.
Princess Militza married the Grand Duke Peter Nikolaievitch,
Princess Stana, Duke George of Leuchtenberg, Princess Helena,
King Victor Emmanuel lU. of Italy, and Princess Anka, Prince
Francis Joseph of Battenberg. (J. D. B.)
NICHOLAS L [Nikolai PavlovichI, empetor of Russia (1796-
i8S5)i eighth child of the emperor Paul I. and his wife Maria
Feodorovna, was bom at Tsarskoe-Selo on the 3Sth of June
(July 6, N.S.) 1796. He was only five years old when his
father's murder brought his brother Alexander I. to the throne
(1801). In the following 3rear his education was entrusted to
M. von Lambsdorff, director of the ist cadet corps and ex-
governor of Courknd, a man of character and wide knowledge,
who superintended it for the next fifteen years. But Nicholas
had as little taste for learning as his brother Constantine. The
royal pupils spent their lesson hours, as Nicholas afterwards
confessed, " partly in dreaming, partly in drawing all sorts of
nonsense," in the end "cramming" just enough to scrape
through their examinations without discredit. Their chief bent
was in the direction of everything connected with military
65a
NICHOLAS I.
matters. Religious training was confined to instruction In the
forms of the Orthodox Church and the repetition of prayers by
rote; dogmatic questions Nicholas neither understood nor
cared about; and, in spite of his reverence for his brother
Alexander, the latter'a mysticism had not the faintest influents
upon him.
Though a colonel in his cradle and a general since x8o8, the
grand-duke Nicholas did not see any active service until 181 4,
when he was allowed to join the Russian head-quarters in France
but not to take part in any fighting. It is characteristic of him
that from this time onwards he never wore civilian dress. In
18x5 he was with the Allies in Paris, and in the following year
set out on the grand tour, visiting Moscow and the western
provinces of Russia, Berlin (where his engagement to Prmcess
Charlotte Louise, daughter of Frederick William III., was
arranged) and England, where his handsome presence and
charming address created a profound impression.^ On the
x/i3th of July 181 7 took place at St Petersburg his marriage to
Princess Charlotte (Alexandra Fcodorovna), the beginning of
those intimate relations between the courts of Berlin and St
Petersburg which were later to become of great international
importance. On the x7/29th of April x8i8 their first child, the
future emperor Alexander II., was bom. In the autumn Nicholas
was placed in command of the snd brigade of the xst division of
the Guard. In 18 19 the emperor Alexander first mentioned his
intention to abdicate in favour of Nicholas, Constantine consent-
ing to stand aside; but he took no steps to initiate his prospective
heir in affairs of state, and the grand-duke continued to be
confined to his military duties. In 1820 a further important
step in the matter of the succession was taken in the divorce of
Constantine from the grand-duchess Anne and his re-marriage
to Johanna Grudzinska (see Constantine Pavlovich). In
January 1823 it was decided in a family cotmdl, with the know-
ledge though not in the presence of Nicholas, that Constantine's
petition to be relieved of the burden of the crown, for which he
felt himself unfitted, should be granted. It was not, however,
until August 1823 that the emperor drew up the necessary papers,
in the presence of the metropolitan Philaret and other witnesses,
and deposited them in sealed packets, to be opened at his death,
with the council of state, the senate and the holy synod. For
some reason, which can only be conjectured, Constantine wa^
not made a party to this proceeding.
Alexander I. ded at Taganrog on the xst of December 1825.
When, some days later, the news reached St Petersburg, all
was confusion and uncertainty. Constantine was at Warsaw;
Nicholas, who on the 3rd of May of the same year had become
chief of the 2nd division of the infantry of the Guard, was too
conscious of his unpopularity in the army—the fruit of his
drastic discipline — to dare to assume the crown without a public
abdication on the part of the legitimate heir. No steps were
taken to open the sealed packets, and he himself took the oath
to Constantine, and, with characteristic contempt for constitu-
tional forms, usurped the functions of the senate and council of
state by himself ordering its imposition on the regiments stationed
in St Petersburg. But Constantine refused to come to St Peters-
burg, or to do more than himself take the oath to Nicholas as
emperor, and write assuring him of his loyalty. The result was
a three weeks' interregnum, of which the discontented spirits
in the army took advantage to bring to a head a plot that had
long been hatching in favour of constitutional reform. When
on the 14th of December the troops who had already taken the
oath to Constantine were ordered to take another to Nicholas,
it was easy to persuade them that this was a treasonable plot
against the true emperor. The Moscow regiment refused to take
the oath, and part of it marched, shouting for Constantine and
" Constitution,"' to the square before the Senate House, where
they were joined by a company of the Guard and the sailors
from the warships. In this crisis Nicholas showed high personal
>Sce Stockmar, Denkwilrdigkeiten (Brunswick. 1873), p. 98 aeo.;
and. for a later impression, Queen Victoria to the king of tne
Belgians. 4th of June 18^4, in Qiuen Victoria's Letters.
■ They bad been tokl tliat thtt was the name of Constantine't wife.
courage, if little decision and initiative. It was entirely nacertaja
how many, and which, regiments could be trusted. For bo«n
he stood, or sat on horseback, amid the surging ctovd, iaczg
the mutinotis soldiers— who had loaded their muskets ar<i
formed square — while effort after effort was made to brirf iks
to reason, sometimes at the cost of life — 9s in the case of 0>>j::t
Miloradovich, military governor of St Peter^urg, vfao vas
mortally wounded by a pistol shot while arguing vith Ote
mutineers. Nicholas was saved by the very belief of the coa-
spirators in the universal sympathy of the army with ibdr aia&
Had the mutinous troops early in the day received the order ta
attack, they would have carried the waverers with them; but
they hesitated to fire on comrades whom they expected to ss
march over to their side; and when at last the emperor bi
steeled his heart to use force, a few rounds of grvpe-shot su£:ei
to quell the mutiny. The chicl conspirators — Prince Shctfpb-
Rostovski, Suthoff, Ryleyev, Prince Sergius Trubetskd, Prisoe
Obolenski and others— were arrested the same night and inter-
rogated by the emperor in person. A special oommiisioii, con-
sisting entirely of officers, was then set up; and before ihk k<
five months, the prisoners were subjected to a rigorous inquisit::^.'
It was soon clear that the Decabrist * rising was but one mioiiesta-
ti*n of a vast conspiracy permeating the whole army. A militrv
rising on a large scale in the south was only averted by the vtn
of the failure of the mutiny at St Petersburg: and at Moscw
there were many arrests, including that of Colonel Paul VesitL
the chief of the revolutionary southern league. TTie jKisccm
were finally brought to trial before a supreme criminal co.rt
established by imperial ukas on the xst of June 1826; there vac
X2x of them and their trial had concluded by the i3th of Jast
Some were condemned to death, others to solitary ooafioeaar^
in fortresses, others to the Siberian mines and coloiiies. Oi tb<
latter many were accompanied by their wives, though the Rtssic
law allows divorce in the case of such sentences; the emperor
unwillingly allowed the devoted women to go, but decreed tbit
any children born to them in Siberia would be illegitimate:
Firmly seated on his throne, Nicholas proceeded to fill up iH
gaps in his education by studying the condition of his emigre.
In spite of his reverence for his brother's memory, be made a
clean sweep of " the angel's " Bible Society.' and other paa-
phemalia of official hypocrisy; as for Alexander's projects d
reform, the pitiful legacy of a life of unfulfilled purposes, that
were reported upon by committees, considered and sbehe-i.
Nicholas too saw the need for reform; the Decabrist con^ir^cy
had burnt that into his soul; but he had his own views as to liie
reform needed. The state was corrupt, disorganized; what v^i
wanted was not more liberty but more disdpline. So he p^t
civil servants, professors and students into uniform, and ict
little offences had them marched to the guard-house; tbcni^kt
was disciplined by the censorship, the army by an uoceasr:4
round of parades and inspections. The one great gift cf
Nicholas I. to Russia, a gift which he really believed would be
welcome because it would bring every subject into ixnxnedi^ie
contact with the throne, was— the secret police, the dreaded
Third Section.*
The crowning fault of Nicholas was, however, that he would
not delegate his authority; whom could he trust but himseU?
In this he resembled his contemporary the emperor FraAcis L
But Francis would " sleep upon" a difficult problem; Nidtobs
never slept. His constitution was of iron, his capacity for work
prodigious; reviews and parades, receptions of depulatkms.
visits to public institutions, then eight or nine hours ia his
* The prisoners were kept in solitary confinement in the caaeiaates
of the inner fortress of St Peter and St Paul. They were brou^:
blindfolded before the commission, and then suddoily oonfR»ted
with their interrogators. Many went mad under the ordeaU «>e
died, and one surved himself to death (Schumann, iL 73).
* From Russ. Dekabr, December.
* " The Holy Scriptures distributed with an absurd profunoa ia a
country where the clergy itself is hardly able to understand aci
explain them " had been the " prime source of all the secret «acietie«
established in the empire." Pika remise par S.ii. V Pw fuj tm
NtcUas, in Neaaelrode vi. 375.
* Ije. of the Private Chancery <A the emperor.
NICHOLAS I.
653
cabinet reading and deciding on reports and despatches— snch
was his ordinary day's work. Yet, in spite of slli this, his activity
could not but prove the narrow limits of autocratic power.
Under the " Iron Tsar " the outward semblance of authority
was perfectly maintained; but behind this imposing facade
the whole structure of the Russian administrative system con-
tinued to rot and crumble. The process was even hastened;
for the emperor's stem dlsdpline crushed out all independence
of initiative and silenced all honest criticism. The secret police
provided but a poor substitute for the assistance which an
argus-eyed and articulate public opinion gives to the efficient
working of a constitutional system; for the greatest of autocrats
has but two eyes, and it is no difficult task to deceive him.
Thus it came about that, as Professor Schiemann puts it,
" Polemkin's scenery was brought out again," and Nicholas
walked with conscious self -approval through a Russia seemingly
wdl ordered, but in fact merely temporarily prepared for each
stage of his progress.
War is the ultimate and sharpest test of the soundness of a
state, and to this test Russia was submitted soon after the
accession of Nicholas, who could not be blind to the revelations
that resulted, though, he drew the wrong moral. These re-
velations had, indeed, begun before the outbreak of the war
with Turkey in 1828. The new tsar had devoted especial
attention to the reform and reconstruction of the navy, which
under Alexander I. had been suffered to decay. Yet the newly
organized squadron which in 1827 set out on the cruise which
ended at Navarino only reached Plymouth with difficulty, and
there had to be completely refitted. The disastrous Balkan
campaign of 1828 was an even more astounding revelation of
corruption, disorganization and folly in high places; and the
presence of the emperor did nothing to mitigate the attendant
evils. He was indefatigable, in war as in peace, in parading and
inspecting; the weary and starving soldiers were forced to turn
out amid the marshes of the Dobrudscha as spick and span as on
the parade grounds of St Petersburg; but he could do nothing
to set order in the confusion of the commissariat, which caused
the troops to die like flies of dysentery and scurvy; or to remedy
the scandals of the hospitals, which inflicted on the wounded
unspeakable sufferings. On the other hand, his presence was
sufficient to hamper the initiative of Prince Wittgenstein, the
nominal commander-in-chief; for Nicholas was constitutionally
incapable of leaving him a free hand. This was one reason for
the failure of the opening campaign.^ Another was more
creditable to the tsar's heart than to his head; he turned from
the sight of wounds and blood, and would not make up his
mind to sanction operations which, at the cost of a few hundred
lives, would have saved thousands who perished miserably of
disease.*
These then were the leading principles which underlay
Nicholas's domestic and foreign policy from first to last: to
discipline Russia, and by means of a disciplined Russia to
discipline the world. So far as the latter task was concerned,
he again sharply divided the issues which Alexander had con-
fused. The mission of Russia in the West was, in accordance
with the principles of the Holy Alliance as Nicholas interpreted
them, to uphold the cause of legitimacy and autocracy against
the Revolution; her mission in the East was, with or without
the co-operation of " Europe," to advance the cause of Orthodox
Christianity, of which she was the natural protector, at the
expense of the decaying Ottoman empire. The sympathy of
Europe with the insurgent Greeks gave the tsar his opportunity.
The duke of Wellington was sent to St Petersburg in 1826 to
* Nicholas remained in Russia in 1S29, and Diabitsch had a free
hand.
» He once sentenced an unhappy Jew to run the gauntlet of 10,000
strokes, exclaiming as he siened the warrant. " Thank God. we have
no capital punishment in Russia 1 " Yet his nature had its kindly
side: "He feds kindness deeply— and his love for hw wife and
children, and for all children, is very great " (Queen Victoria, loc. cit).
I^e also spent much personal enort in organizing the charitable
institutions of the dowager empress Maria, and founded a great
aumber of institutions for technical education.
congratulate the new tsar on his accession and arrange a concert
in the Eastern Question. The upshot proved the diplomatic
value of Nicholas's apparent sincerity of purpose and charm of
manner; the " Iron Duke" was to the " Iron Tsar" as soft
iron to steel; Great Britain, without efficient guarantees for the
future, "^tood committed to the policy which ended in the de-
struction of the Ottoman sea-power at Navarino and the march
of the Russians on Constantinople. By the treaty of Adrianople
in 1829 Turkey seemed to become little better than a vassal
state of the tsar, a relation intensified, after the first revolt of
Mehcmet Ali, by the ireaty of Unkiar-Skclessi in 1833 (see
Meheuet Axj). In the West, meanwhile, the revolutions of
1830 had modified the balance of forces. Nicholas himself
proposed an armed intervention of the Alliance in order " to
restore order " in Belgium and France;* and when his allies
held back even proposed to intervene alone, a project rendered
impossible by the outbreak of the great insurrection in Poland,
which tied the hands of all three powers (see Poland: History).
In the circumstances, Nicholas was forced to give a grudging
recognition to the title of Louis Philippe as king of the French;
his recognition of that of Leopold, king of the Belgians, was
postponed until King William of the Netherlands had finally
resigned his rights. Then, the insurrection in Poland once
crushed, and Poland itself scarce surviving even as a geographical
expression,^ he drew the three eastern autocratic powers together
in a new " Holy Alliance " by the secret convention of Berlin
(3rd Oct. 1833) reaffirming the right and duty of intervention at
the request of a legitimate sovereign. The cordial understanding
with Austria, cemented at Manchengr&tz and Berlin, was
renewed, after the accession of the emperor Ferdinand, at
Prague and Tdplitz (1835) ; on the latter occasion it was decided
" without difficulty " to suppress the republic of Cracow, as
a centre of revolutionary agitation.^ The Triple Alliance was
now, in the tsar's opinion, " the last anchor of safety for the
monarchical cause." To its maintenance he had sacrificed " his
religious convictions" and " the traditions of Russian policy "
in consenting to uphold the integrity of Turkey; a sacrifice
perhaps the less hard to make since, as he added, the Ottoman
empire no longer existed.^ He allowed himself to be persuaded
by Mettemich to support the cause of Don Carlos in Spain,'
and so early as May 1837, in view of the agitation in Hungary,
he announced that " in every case " Austria might count on
Russia.
These cordial ties were loosened, however, by the fresh crisis
in the Eastern (^estion after 1838. Metternich was anxious to
summon a European conference to Vienna, with a view to placing
Turkey under a collective guarantee. To Nicholas this seemed
to be a blow aimed at Russia, and he refused to be a party to it.*
Moreover, in view of the tendency of Austria to forget the con-
ventions of Mtlnchengratz and Tdplitz, and to approach the
maritime powers, he determined to checkmate her by himself
coming to an agreement with Great Britain, in order to settle the
Eastern Question according to his own views: a double gain,
if by this means Queen Victoria (a " legitimate " sovereign) could
be drawn away from her unholy alliance with the Jacobin Louis
Philippe. This is the explanation of those concessions in the
Eastern Question which ended in the Quadruple Alliance of
1840 and the humiliation of Louis Philippe's government (see
MeheiietAli). t
The new Anglo-Russian entente led in 1844 to a visit of the
' Martens, Recueil, viii. 16^. Ac, especially the autograph mem.
of the tsar on the situation (p. 168): " But apart from konour, is
it to our interest to consent to this fresh iniguity? .... Even if
France invade Austria. Prussia says she will give her moral support!
Is that — Great God! — the alliance created by the immortal emperor?
.... Let us preserve the sacred fire for the moment of the struggle
with the infernal powers! "
* Nicholas himself ascribed his hatred of Poles and Jews to the
stories told him by his English nurse, Miss Lyon, of her sufferings
during the siege of Warsaw m 1794. — Schiemann, i. iSl.
* This convention was not acted upon til! 1 8d6.
* Conversation with Count Ficquclraont (Feb. 13, 1833) in Martens
ftecueil, iv. pt. i. p. 443.
» lb. p. 475. • lb. p. 481.
65+
NICHOLAS I.
tsar to the English court. This visit, in spite of the favourable
personal impression made by the emperor, was the starting-point
of a fresh and fateful divergence; for it was now that the tsar
first openly raised the question of the eventual partition of the
inheriunce of the " Sick Man," as he called Turkey. The whole
question, however, was indefinitely postponed by the events
culminating in the revolutions of X84B. Nicholas foresaw tlie
troubles brewing, and warned Frederick William IV. of Prussia,
in a tone of lofty and paternal remonstrance, of the inevitable
results of his constitutional experiments. When the storm burst,
he remained entrenched behind the barriers of his own disciplined
empire; sovereigns truckling in a panic to insurgent democracies
he would not lift a finger to help;Mt was not till Francis Joseph
of Austria in 1849 appealed to him in the name of autocracy,
reasserting its rights, that he consented to intervene, and, true
to the promise made at MtinchengriLtz in 1833, crushed the
insurgent Hungarians and handed back their country as a free
gift to the Hababurg king. Scarcely less valuable to Austria was
the tsar's intervention in the quarrel between Austria and Prusda
arising out of the Hesse incident and the general question of the
hegemony of Germany. In October 1850 he had a meeting with
Francis Joseph at Warsaw, at which Coimt Brandenburg and
Prince Schwarzenberg were present. Prussia, he declared, must
in the German question return to the basis of the treaties of 18x5
and renew her entente with Austria; this was the only way of
preserving the old friendship of Prussia and Russia. In face
of the threat conveyed in this, the Prussian government decided
to maintain peace (Nov. 2), Radowitz resigning as a protest.
Thus Nicholso, who refused to believe in the perfidy ascribed by
Frederick William to Austria,* was the immediate cause of
Prussia's humiliation at Olmfltz.
Nicholas was soon to have personal experience of the perfidy
of Austria. It was a small matter that Count Prokesch-Osten,
the Austrian ambassador, was discovered to be supplying a
" foul Jew " editor with copy; more serious was Austria's
attitude in the troubles that led up to the Crimean War. Grati-
tude, in the tsar's opinion, should have made her neutral if not
friendly; the revelation of her ingratitude came upon him
with the shock of a painful surprise. The first cause of all the
evils that followed was his attitude towards Napoleon III. He
was forced to recognize the new French empire, but he would
recognize no more than the fact of its existence (iu fait en lui-
mtme)\ he refused to address the emperor of the French as a
brother sovereign. He attempted, moreover, to revive the
function of the triple alliance as guardian of Europe against
French aggression. The resentment of Napoleon awakened the
slumbering Eastern Question by reviving the obsolescent
claims of France to the guardianship of the Holy Places, and
this aroused the pride of the Orthodox tsar, their guardian by
right of faith and in virtue of a clause of the treaty of Kuchuk
Kainardji (1774), as interpreted in the light of subsequent events.
Nicholas coiild not believe that Christian powers would resent
his claim to protect the Christian subjects of the sultan; he
believed he could count on the friendship of Austria and Prussia;
as for Great Britain, he would try to come to a frank under-
standing with her (hence the famous conversations with Sir
Hamilton Seymour on the 9th and 14th of January 1853, reviving
the " Sick Man" arguments of 1844), but in any case he had the
assurance of Baron Brunnow, his ambassador in London, that the
influence of Cobden and Bright, the eloquent apostles of peace,
was enough to prevent her from appealing to arms against him.
The disillusionment that followed was profound. In October
1853 Nicholas met his brother monarchs of the triple alliance
at Warsaw for the last time. In December, at the conference
of Vienna, Austria had already passed over to the enemy.
Prussia was wavering, neutral indeed, but joining the other
powers in a guarantee of the integrity of Turkey (9th April
* " Russia cannot aid a power which has abjured its traditions
and u under the empire of revolutionary institutions." — Nicholas
to Frederick William IV., Sept. a6, 1848. Martens, ReaieU, viii.
376.
" See Frederick William's letter to the tsar (Nov. 4) and the tatter's
reply. Martens, viii. 384, 386.
i8s4)» urging the tsar to accept the decisions of the Yienoa
conference, and on his refusal signing a defeimve alliance with
Austria (April 20, x854)» which indiided among the ccsiu bdli
the incorporation in Russia of the banks of the Danube and a
Russian march on Constantinople. Thus Nicholas, the pillar
of the European alliance, found himself isolated and at var,
or potentially at war, with all Europe. The invasion of the
Crimea followed, and with it a fresh revelation of the corruptioQ
and demoralization of the Russian system. At the outset
Nicholas had grimly remarked that " Generals Jamiaiy attd
February " would prove his best allies. These acted, however,
impartially; and if thousands of British and French soldieis
perished of cold and disease in the trenches before Sevastopol,
the tracks leading from the centre of Russia into the Crimea
were marked by the bones of Russian dead. The revelation of
his failure broke the spirit of the Iron Tsar, and on the 2nd o(
March 1855 he threw away the life which a little ordinary^care
would have saved.
The character of the emperor Nicholas was summed up with
great insight by Queen Victoria in a letter to the king of the
Belgians, written diiring the tsar's visit to Englaitd (June 11,
1844). " He is stem and severe — with fixed principles of tfa^
which nothing on earth will make him change; veiy dem I do
notr think him, and his mind is an uncivilized one; his education
has been neglected; politics and mHitaxy concerns are the only
things he takes great interest in; the arts and all softer occupa-
tions he is insexuuble to, but he is sincere, I am certain, siKcn
even in his most despotic acts, from a sense that that is the trij
vay to govern; he is not, I am sure, aware of the dreadful cases
of individual misery which he so often causes, for I can see by
various instances that he is kept in utter ignorance of many
thingS) which his people cany out in most corrupt ways, while ht
thinks that he is extremely just . . . and I am sure iniidk never
reaches his ears, and (as you observed) bow can it? He is, I
should say, too frank, for he talks so opeidy before peofde,
which he should not do, and with difficulty restrains himself.
His anxiety to be bdieud is very great, and I must say his personal
promises I am inclined to believe; then his feelings axe voy
strong; he feels kindness deeply. .... He is iwl happy, and
that melancholy which is visible in the countenance inade me
sad at times; the sterxmess of the eyes goes vexy much off
when you know him, and changes according to his being put out
or not. ... He is bald now, but in his chevalier Garde unifom
he is magnificent still, and vexy striking"
The emperor was a kind husband and father, and his domestic
life was very happy. He had seven children: (x) the emperar
Alexander U. iq.v.)\ (3) the grand-duchess Maria (X8X9-1876).
duchess of Leuchtenberg; (3) the grand-duchess Olga (183^
1892), consort of King Charles of WOrttemberg; (4) the grand-
duchess Alexandra (1825-1844), married to Prince Frederick of
Hesse-Cassel; (5) the grand-duke Constantine Kikolayevtdi
(1837-X892); (6) the grand-duke Nicholas Nikolayevich (1831-
1891); (7) the grand-duke Michael Nikolayevich (b. xSjs)-
The second son of the latter, the grand-duke Michael Mikhafiovich
(b. x86i), who was morganatically married, his wife bearing the
title of Countess Torby, took up his residence in England.
Authorities.— All other works on Nicholas I. have been more or
less Miperteded by Professor Theodor Schiemann's Ceukkkk
Russlands unter Kaiser Nikelaus /., of which the 1st vol., JCatscr
i4/cxafiier Lund die Ergebnisse seiner Lebensarbeit, was published tt
Berlin in 1904; the 2nd, carrying the history of Nicholas's rei^ dovn
to the revolutions of 1830, in i^. It is based on a large mass of
unpublished material, and considerably modifies, e.g. the account d
the accession of Nicholas and of the Decabrist conspiracy giwa is
chapter xiii. o( vol. x. of the Cambridge Modem HisUrry, and telb fcr
the first time the secret history of the Russo-Turkish War of 182&-
20. The great Recneil des traiUs condus par la Rmssie of T. T. de
Martens (St Petersburg, 1 874-1909) contains admirable intrcMluctorr
essays, based on the unpublished Russian archives, and eiving reaca
material for the study of Nicholas's character and policy. Mac7
documents are published for the first time in Schiemann's work;
some, from the archives of Count Nesaelrode, are published in tbc
LeUres et papiers du Ckancdier Comte de Nesselrode, t. vi. aeq. Ftf
other works see bibliographies attached to the chapters on Kosaia
in vol. X. and xi. of the Cambridgt Modem History, (W. A. P )
NICHOLAS II.— NICHOLAS OF GUILDFORD
655
HICHOLAS n. (1868- ), emperor of Russia, eldest son
ud successor of Alexander III., was bom at St Petersburg on
the iSth of May x868. He received the ordinary edudition of
Russian grand-dukes, under the direction of General Danilovitch,
assisted by M. PoMdonostsev and other eminent professors.
Among these was an Englishman, Mr Charles Heath, for whom
be had great respect and affection. By the death of his grand-
father, Alexander II., in x88i, he became heir^apparent
(cesarevich). Though he received, like all the heirs-apparent
to the Russian throne, a certain amount of military training,
his personal tastes did not lie in that direction, nor did he show
any inclination for the boisterous amusements of the jewusse
dorie of St Petersburg. Like his father, he was nowhere happier
than in the family circle, and he was particularly attached to
his sister, the grand-duchess Xenia, who was seven years younger
than himself. In 1890-1891 he made a tour in Greece, Egypt,
India, Ceybn and Japan, where he mirrowly escaped assassina-
tion at thtf hands of a Japanese fanatic. On the return journey
by Siberia, at Vladivostok, he turned the first sod of the eastern
section of the Siberian railway, and two years afterwards (1893)
he was appointed president of the imperial committee for that
great undertaking. By the death of his father on the xst of
November 1894 he became emperor, and on the a6th of that
month he married Princess Alix of Hesse (a grand-daughter of
Queen Victoria), to whom he had been betrothed in the presence
of his father during the latter's last illness. Eighteen months
later the coronation took place at Moscow with great pomp,
but a gloom was thrown over the festivities by the unfortunate
inddent of the Khodinskoe Polye, a great open space near the
city, where a popular f£te had been prepared and where, from
defective police arrangements, a large number of men, women
and children, roughly estimated at aooo, were crushed and
trampled to death. Nicholas II. followed in the footsteps of
his father, seeking to preserve peace in foreign relations, and
continuing in home affairs, though in a much milder form, the
policy of centralization and Russification which had characterized
the previous rdgn. His pacific tendencies were shown by his
systematic opposition to aU bellicose excitement, by his maintain-
ing M. de Giers in the post of minister of foreign affairs, by his
offering the post, on the death of that statesman, to M. de Staal,
by his restraining France from dangerous adventures, and by
initiating the Peace Conference at the Hague. To these ought
perhaps to be added the transformation of the Franco-Russian
entente c&rdiale into a formal alliance, since the alliance in question
might be regarded as favourable to the preservation of the
siaiM quo in Europe. In the internal adiministration during
the first years of his reign he introduced by his personal influence,
and without any great change in the laws, a more humane
spirit towards those of his subjects who did not belong by
language and tradition to the dominant nationality, and who
were not members of the Eastern Orthodox Church; but he
disappointed the men of liberal views by giving it to be clearly
understood soon after his accession that he had no intention
of circumscribing and weakening the autocratic power by
constitutional guarantees or parliamentary institutions. In
spite, however, of his desire for peace he let his country drift
into the disastrous war with Japan; and notwithstanding
his sincere attachment to the principles of bureaucratic autocracy,
it was he who granted the constitutional reforms which altered
the whole political outlook in Russia (see Russia).
NICHOLAS OF BASEL (d. 1397), a prominent member of the
Beghard community, who travelled widely as a missionary
and propagated the teachings of his sect. Though vigorously
sought after by the Inquisition he eluded its agents for many
years until in 1397 he was seized In Vienna, and burned at
the stake as a heretic, together with two of his followers,
John and James. A considerable legend has attached itself to
Nicholas through the persistent but mistaken identification of
him with the mysterious " Friend of God from the Oberland,"
the " double" of Ruhnan Merswin, the Strassburg banker who
was one of the leaders of the 14th-century German mystics
known as the Friends of God. In Merswin's Story of the First
Four Years of a New Life^ he writes: " Of all the wonderful
works which God had wrought in me I was not allowed to tell
a single word to anybody until the time when it should please
God to reveal to a man in the Oberland to come to me. When
he camp to me God gave me the power to tell him everything."
The identity and personality of this "Friend of God," who
bulks so largely in the great collection of mystical literature,
and is everywhere treated as a half supernatural character, is
one of the most difficult problems in the history of mysticism.
The tradition, dating from the xsth century and supported
by the weighty authority of the Strassburg historian Karl
Schmidt (Nicolaus von Basd, Vienna, x866), identified him
with Nicholas, but is now discredited by all scholars. A. Jundt
(Les Amis de Dieu, 1879) shared Preger's view that the Friend
was a great unknown who lived in or near Chur (Coire) in
Switzerland. But since Denlfle's researches (see especially
Der Gottesfreund im Olerlande und Nikolaus von Basd, 1870)
the belief has gained ground that the " Friend " is not a historical
personage at all. Apart from the collection of literature ascribed
to him and Merswin there is no historical evidence of his existence.
The accounts of his life say that about 1343 he was forbidden
to reveal his identity to anyone save Ruhnan Merswin. And
as all the writings bear the marks of a single authorship it has
been assumed, especially by Denlfle, that " the Friend of God "
is a literary creation of Merswin and that the whole collection
of literature is the work of Merswin (and his school), tendency-
literature designed to set forth the ideals of the movement to
which he had given his life. Thus " the great unknown" from
the Oberland is the ideal character, " who illustrates how God
does his work for the world and for the church through a divindy
trained and spiritually illuminated layman," just as William
Langland in EngUnd about the same time drew the figure of
Piers Plowman.
To rescue Merswin from the charge of deceit involved in
this theory, Jundt puts forward the suggestion, more ingenious
than convincing, that Merswin was a " double persomdity,"
who in his primary state wrote the books ascribed to him, and
in his secondary state became " the Friend of God from the
Oberland," writing the other treatises. A third hypothesis
is that advanced by Karl Rieder (Der Gottesfreund mm Oberland,
Innsbruck, 1905), who thinks that not even Merswitf himself
wrote any of the literature, but that his secretary and associate .
Nicholas of L5wen, head of the Houseof St John at GrUnenw5rth,
the retreat founded by Merswin for the circle, worked over all
the writings which emanated from different members of the
group but bore no author's names, and to glorify the founder
of the house attached Merswin's name to some of them and out
of his imagination created "the Friend of God from the
Oberland," whom he named as the writer of the others. As his
design took shape he expanded the supernatural element and
made the narratives autobiographical. There is much in this
contention that is sound, but Rieder seems to go unnecessarily
far in denying altogether that Merswin wrote any of the mystical
books. The conclusion remains that the literature must be
treated as tendency-writing and not as genuine bid^aphy and
history.
See besides the works cited, Rufus M. Jones, Studies in Mystical
Religion, ch. xiii. (London, 1909). (A J. G.)
NICHOLAS OF GUILDFORD (fl. 1250), English poet, the
supposed author of The Owl and the Nightingale, an English
poem of the 13th century. This work, which displays genuine
poetical and imaginative qualities, is written in the south-
western dialect, and is one of the few 13th-century English poems
not devoted entirely to religious topics. The nightingale sitting
on a branch covered with blossom sees the owl perched on a
bough overgrown with ivy, and proceeds to abuse him for his
general habits and appearance. Th^ birds decide to refer the
consequent dispute to Master Nicholas de Guildford, who is
skilled in such questions, but they first of all engage in a regular
dibat in the French fashion. The owl is the best logician, but the
nightingale has a fund of abuse that equalizes matters. Finally,
when the argument threatens to bcM:ome a fight, the wren
656
NICHOLAS, SIR E.— NICHOLS
interferes, and the two go to the house of Master Nicholas at Por-
tisham in Dorset. He judges, they say, many right judgments,
and composes and writes much wisdom, and it is lamentable that
so learned and worthy a man should gain no preferment from
his bishop. The poet, whoever he was, wrote the octosyllabic
couplet with ease and smoothness. He borrows something from
Alexander of Neckham's De naturis rerum, and was certainly
familiar with contemporary French poetry. The piece is a
general allegory of the contest between asceticism and a more
cheerful view of religion, and is capable of a particular application
to the differences between the regular ordere and the secular
clergy. The nightingale defends her singing on the ground
that heaven is a place of song and mirth, while the owl maintains
that much weeping for his many sins is man's best preparation
for the future.
There are two MSS. of the HuU amd Ike Nightingale, MS. Cotton
Caligula A ix. (British Museum), dating from the first half of the
13th century, and MS. Arch. I. 29, Jesus College, Oxford, written
about half a century later. In the Jesus Collece MS. the poem is
immediately preceded by a religious poem entitled La PassyunJhu
Christ, which, according to a note on it, once possessed an additional
quatrain implying that it was written by John of Guildford, perhaps
a relation of Nicholas.
The Owl and the Nightingale has been edited from the Cotton MS.
chiefly for the Roxburghc Club (1838) by Joseph Stevenson, and for
the Percy Society (1843) by T. Wright; the best edition is by F. H.
Stratmann (Krelcld, 1868), who collated the two MSS. See also B.
criticism see A.E. Egge in Modem Language iVo/tfi(Baltimore,January,
1887).
NICHOLAS. SIR EDWARD (1593-1669), English statesman,
eldest son of John Nicholas, a member of an old Wiltshire family,
was bom on the 4th of April 1 593. He was educated at Salisbury
grammar school, Winchester College and Queen's College,
Oxford. After studying law at the Middle Temple, Nicholas
became secretary to Lord Zouch, warden and admiral of the
Cinque ports, in 161 8, and continued in a similar employment
under the duke of Buckingham. In 1625 he became secretary
to the admiralty; shortly afterwards he was appointed an extra
clerk of the privy council with duties relating to admiralty
business, and from 1635 to 1641 he was one of the clerks in
ordinary to the council. In this situation Nicholas had much
business to transact in connexion with the levy of ship-money;
and in 1641, when Charles I. went to Scotland, a heavy responsi-
bility rested on the secretary who remained in London to keep
the king informed of the proceedings of the parliament. On
the return of Charles to the capital Nicholas was knighted, and
appointed a privy councilor and a secretary of state, in which
capacity he attended the king while the court was at Oxford,
and carried out the business of the treaty of Uxbridge. Through-
cat this troubled period he was one of Charles's wisest and most
loyal advisers; he it was who arranged the details of the king's
surrender to the Scots, though he does not appear to have
advised or even to have approved of the step; and to him also
fell the duty of treating for the capitulation of Oxford, which
included, permission for Nicholas himself to retire abroad with
his family. He went to France, being recommended by the
king to the confidence of the prince of Wales. After the king's
death Nicholas remained on the continent concerting measures
on behalf of the exiled Charles II. with Hyde and other royalists,
but the hostility of Queen Henrietta Maria deprived him of any
real influence in the counsels of the young sovereign. He lived
at the Hague and elsewhere in a state of poverty which hampered
his power to serve Charles, but which the latter did nothing
to relieve. He returned to England at the Restoration; but
although Charles had formally appointed him secretary of state
in 1654, this office was now conferred on another, and Nicholas
had to content himself wi^h a grant of money and the offer of
a peerage, which his poverty compelled him to decline. He
retired to a country seat in Surrey which he purchased from a
son of Sir Walter Raleigh, and here he lived till his death in
1669. By his wife Jane, a daughter of Henry Jay, an alderman
of London, he had several sons and daughters; his younger
brother Matthew Nicholas (i 594-1661) was successively dean
of Bristol, canon of Westminster and dean of St Paul's.
See The Nicholas Papers, edited by G. F. Warner (Camden Society,
London, 1886-1897), containing Nicholas's correspondence and some
autobiographical memoranda. Private correspondence betutxn
Nicholas and Charles I. will be found in the Memoirs of John Evt*Yn,
edited by W. Bray (London. 1827); The Edgerton MSS. and the
Ormonde Papers contain many references to Nicholas.
NICHOLAS (or Niclaes), HENRY (or Hendrik) (c. isot-c.
1 580), founder of the sect called " the Family of Love," was bora
in 1 501 or 1502, at Manster, where he was married and carried on
the business of a mercer. As a boy he was subject to v^Ions,
and at the age of twenty-seven charges of heresy led to his
imprisonment. About 1530 he removed with his family to
Amsterdam, where he was again imprisoned on a charge of
complicity in the Munster revolution of 1534-1535. About 1539
he experienced a caj\ to found his " Familia Caritatis.'* Remov-
ing to Embden, he lived there and prospered in bu^css for
twenty years, though he travelled with commercial as well as
missionary objects into the Netherlands, England and elsewhere.
The date of his sojourn in England has been placed as early as
1553 and as late as 1569. In 1579 he was living at Cologne,
where probably he died a year or two later. His doctrines seem
to have been derived largdy from the Dutch Anabaptist David
Joris or George, who died in 1556; but they have mainly to be
inferred from the jaundiced accounts of hostile writers. The
outward trappings of his system were merely Anabaptist; but
he anticipated a good many later speculations, and his followers
were accused of asserting that all things were ruled by nature
and not directly by God, of denying the dogma of the Trinity,
and repudiating infant baptism. They held that no man should
be put to death for his opinions, and apparently, like the later
Quakers, they objected to the carrying of arms and to anything
like an oath; and they were quite impartial in their repudiation
of all other churches and sects, including Brownists and
Barrowists.
Nicholas's principal disciple in England was one Christopher
Vitel, and towards 1579 the progress of the sect especially in the
eastern counties provoked literary attacks, proclamations and
parliamentary bills. But Nicholas's followers escaped the
gallows and the stake, for they combined with some success the
wisdom of the serpent and the harmlessncss of the dove. They
would only discuss their doctrines with sympathixers; they
showed every respect for authority, and considered outward con-
formity a duty. This quietist attitude, while it saved them from
molestation, hampered propaganda; and though the " Family **
existed until the middle of the 1 7th century, it was then swallowed
up by the Quakers, Baptists and Unitarians, all of which de-
nominations may have derived some of their ideas through the
" Family " from the Anabaptists.
The list of Nicholas's works occupies nearly six columns in
the Diet. Nat. Biogr. Sec also Belfort Bax, Rise and Fall of lU
Anabaptists, pp. 327-380 (1903); and Strype's Works. General
Index. (A. F. P.)
NICHOLS, JOHN (i 745-1826), English printer and author,
was born at Islington on the 2nd of February 1745. He edited
the Gentieman*s Magazine from 1788 till his death, and in the
pages of that periodical, and in his numerous volumes of A necdoUs
and Illustrations, he made invaluable contributions to the personal
history of English men of letters in the x8th century. He was
apprenticed in 1757 to " the learned printer," William Bowycr,
whom he eventually succeeded. On the death of his friend and
master in 1777 he published a brief memoir, which afterwards
grew into the Anecdotes of William Boveyer and ku IM^cry
Friends (i 782). As his materials accumulated he compiled a sort
of anecdotical literary history of the century, based on a large
collection of important letters. The IMerary AnccdUes of tkc
i8th Century (1812-1815), into which the original work was
expanded, forms only a small part of Nichols's production. It,
was followed by the Illustrations of the Literary History of tke
i8tk Ccntuf^y, consisting of Authentic Memoirs atid OrigincI
Letters of Eminent Persons, which was begun in 18 17 and com-
pleted by his son John Bowyer Nichols (i 779-1863) in 1S53.
NICHOLSON, H. A.— NICHOLSON, J.
657
TIm Anecdotes and the IttustraHons are mines of valuable in-
fonnation on the authors, printers and bookselleis of the time.
Nichols's bother works include: A CoUectum of Royal and
Noble Wills (1780); Select Collection of Miscellaneous Poems
(1782), with subsequent additions, in which he was helped by
Joseph Warton and by Bishops Percy and Lowth; Bibliotkeca
Topograpkica Britannica (1780-1790); with Richard Cough,
The Progresses and Public Processions of Queen Elizabeth (1788); ,
and the important History and A ntiquities of the Town and County
of Leicester ( 1 795-181 5) . Nichob was a fellow of the Society of
Antiquaries, a trustee of many city institutions, and in 1804 he
was master of the Stationers' Company. He died on the 26th
of November 1826. John Bowyer Nichols continued his father's
various tuulertakings, and wrote, with other woria, A Brief
Account of the CuildhaU of the City of London (1819). His eldest
son, John Couch Nichols (1806-1873), was also a printer and a
distingtyshed antiquary, who edited the Centleman*s Magazine
from 185X to 1856, and the Herald and Genealogist from 1863 to
1874, and was one of the foimders of the Camden Society.
A full Memoir of John Nichols by Alexander Chalmera is contained
in the lUustnUioHS, and a bibliography in the Anecdotes (vol. vi.) is
supplemented in the later work. See also R. C. Nichols, Memoirs of
J. C. Nichob (1874).
NICHOLSON, HENRY ALLETNB (1844-1899), British palaeon-
tologist and zoologist, son of Dr John Nicholson, a biblical
scholar, was bom at Penrith on the xith of September 1844.
He was educated at Appleby Crammar School and at the uni-
versities of Cottingcn (Ph.D., 1866) and Edinburgh (D.Sc.,
1867; M.D., 1869). Ceotogy had early attracted his attention,
and his first publication was a thesb for his D.Sc. degree On the
Geology of Cumberland and Westmoreland (1868). In 1871 he was
appointed professor of natural history in the university of
Toronto, in 1874 professor of biology in the Durham College of
Science and in 1875 professor of natural history in the university
of St Andrews. This last post he held tmtil 1 88 2, when he became
regius professor of natural history in the imiversity of Aber-
deen. He was elected F.R.S. in 1897. His original work was
mainly on fossil invertebrata (graptolites, stromatoporoidsand
corals); but he did much field work, especially in the Lake
district, where he laboured in company with Professor R.
Harkness and afterwards with Dr J. E. Marr. He was awarded
the Lyell Medal by the Geological Society in x888. He died at
Aberdeen on the 19th of January 1899.
Publications.— XmcmkI Life-History oftheSartk (1877) ; Manual
of Zoology (of which there were 7 editions) and other text-books of
Zoolcgzy: Manual of Palaeontology (1872, 3rd cd., a vols., with R.
Lydekker, 1889); Monograph cf the Silurtan Fossils of the Cirvan
District in Ayrshire {^'xXJi K. Etheridge, jun.) (1878- 1880); Mono-
graph of the British Stromatoporoids in Palaeontograph. Soc (1886-
Obituary, with portrait, by Dr G. J. Hinde. in Ceol. Mag. (March
1899).
NICHOLSON, JOHN (1822-1857), Anglo-Indian soldier and
administrator, son of Alexander Nicholson, a north of Ireland
physician, was bom on the nth of December 1822 and educated
at Dungannon College. He was presented with a cadetship in
the Bengal infantry in 1839 by his uncle Sir James Hogg, and
served in the first Afghan War of 1839-43; he distinguished
himself in the defence of Ghazni, and was one of the prisoners
who were carried to Bamian and escaped by bribing the guard
upoa General Pollock's successful advance. It was in Afghanistan
that Nicholson first met Sir Henry Lawrence, who got him the
appointment of political officer in Kashmir and subsequently
on the Punjab frontier. In 1847 he was given charge of the Sind
Sagar district, and did much to pacify the country after the first
Sikh War. On the seizure of Multan by Mulraj, he rendered
great service in securing the country from Attock, and was
wounded in an attack upon a tower in the Margalla Pass, where
a moniunent was subsequently erected to his memory. On the
outbreak of the second Sikh War he was appointed political
officer to Lord Cough's force, when he rendered great service in
the collection of intelligence and in furnishing supplies and boats.
On the annexation of the Punjab he was appointed deputy
commissioner of Bannu. There he became a kind of legendary
MX II*
hero, and many tales are told of his stern justice, his tireless
activity and his commanding peisonality. In the course of fivt
years he reduced the most turbulent district on the frontier
to such a state of quietude that no crime was committed or even
attempted during his last year of office, a condition of things
never known before or since. On one occasion, being attacked
by a ghazi, he snatched the musket from the hand of a sentry
and shot the man dead; on another occasion he put a price
on the head of a notorious outlaw, and finding every one afraid
to earn it, rode single-handed to the man's village, met him in
the street and cut him down. But besides being a severe ruler,
Nicholson was eminently just. A criminal had no chance of
escaping him, so able and determined was his investigation;
and a corrupt official could not long evade his vigilance; but he
was deliberate in his punishments, and gave offenders a chance
to redeem their character. He would go personally to the scene
of a crime or a legal dispute and decide the question on the spoL
Every man in his district, whether mountain tribesman^ or
policeman, felt that he was controlled by a master hand, and the
natives said of him that " the tramp of his wai>horse could be
heard from Attock to the Khyber." Lord Roberts says of him
in Forty-One Years in India: " Nicholson impressed me more
profoundly than any man I had ever met before, or have ever
met since. I have never seen any one like him. He was the
beau idtal of a soldier and a gentleman." It is little wonder that
the natives worshipped him as a god under the title of Nikalsain.
Nicholson, however, had a fiery temper and a contempt for rod
tape, which made him a somewhat intractable subordinate.
He had a serious quarrel with Sir Neville Chamberlain, and was
continually falling out with Sir John Lawrence, who succeeded
his brother Henry as ruler of the Punjab.
It was when the Mutiny broke out in May 1857 that Nicholson
was able to show the metal that was in him, and he did more
than any other single man to keep the Punjab toyal and to bring
about the fall of Delhi. When the news of the rising at Meerut
arrived, Nicholson was with Edwardes at Peshawar, and they
took immediate steps to disarm the doubtful regiments in that
cantonment. Together they opposed Sir John Lawrence's
proposal to abandon Peshawar, in order to concentrate all their
strength on the siege of Delhi. In June Nicholson was appointed
to the command of a movable column, with which he again
disarmed two doubtful regiments at PhiUaur. In July he made
a forced march of 41 ni. in a single day in the terrific heat of the
Punjab summer, in order to intercept the mutineers from Sialkot,
who were marching upon Delhi. He caught them on the banks
of the Ravi near Gurdaspur, and utterly destroyed them, thus
successfully achieving what hardly any other man would have
attempted. In August he had pacified the Punjab and was free
to reinforce General Wilson on the Ridge before Delhi. An officer
who served in the siege gives the following word picture of him
as he appeared at this time: —
" He was a man cast in a giant mould, with masnve chest and
powerful limbs, and an expression ardent and commanding, with a
dash of roughness; features of stern beauty, a lon^ black beard, and
a deep sonorous voice. There was somethmg of immense strength,
talent and resolution in his whole frame and manner, and a power ol
ruling men on high occasions which no one could escape noticing.
His imperial air, which never left him, and which would have been
thought arrogant in one of less imposing mien, sometimes gave
offence to the more unbending of his countrymen, but made him
almost worshipped by the pliant Aaatics."
Before Nicholson's arrival the counsels of the commandert
before Delhi, like those at Meerut, suffered from irresolution
and timidity. As General Wilson's health declined, his caution
became excessive, and Nicholson was specially sent by Sir John
Lawrence to put more spirit into the attack. His first exploit
after his arrival was the victory of Najafgarh, which he won
over the rebels who were attempting to intercept the British
siege train from Ferozepore. After marching through a flooded
country scarcely practicable for his guns, Nicholson, with a
force of 2500 troops, defeated 6000 disciplined sepoys after an
hour's fighting, and thenceforth put an end to all attempts
of the enemy to get in the rear of the British position on the
Ridge. Nicholson grew fiercely impatient of General Wilson's
658
NICHOLSON, W.— NICKEL
procrastination, and at one time was thinking of appealing to
the army to set Wilson aside and elect a successor; but at last,
on the 13th of September, he forced Wilson to make up his mind
to the assault, and he himself was chosen to lead the attacking
Golunm. On the morning of the X4th he led his column, 1000
strong, in the attack on the Kashmir gate, and successfully
entered the streets of Delhi. But in trying to dear the ramparts
as far as the Lahore Gate, he undertook a task beyond the powers
of his wearied troops. In encouraging them as they hesitated,
he turned his back on the enemy and was shot in the back. The
wound was mortal, but his magnificent physique allowed him
to linger for nine days before finally succumbing on the 23rd of
September.
His best epitaph is found in the words of Sir John Lawrence's
Mutiny Report: —
" Brigadicr-Gcncnil John Nicholson Is now beyond human praise
and human reward. But so long as Britbh rule shall endure in Indta.
hb fame can never perish. He teems especially to have been raised
up for this juncture. He crowned a bright, thoueh brief, career by
dying of the wound he received in the moment 01 victory at Delhi
llie Chief Commissioner docs not hesitate to affirm that without
John Nicholson Delhi could not have fallen."
See J. L. Trotter. Life of John Nidudson (1904); Sir John Kaye.
Lives of Indian Officers (1889); Bosworth Smith, Ltfe of Lord
Lawrence ( 1 883) ; Lady Edwardes, Memorials of Sir Herb^ Edwardes
(1886); and S. S. Thorburn, Bannu (M76).
MICHOLSON, WILLIAM (17 53-181 5), English writer on natural
philosophy, was bom in London in 1753, and after leaving school
made two voyages as midshipman In the East India service.
He subsequently entered an attorney's office, but, having become
acquainted, in 1775, with Josiah Wedgwood, he lived for some
years at Amsterdam as agent for the sale of pottery. On his
return to England he was induced by Thomas Holcroft to devote
himself to the composition of light literature for periodicals,
assisting that writer also with some of his plays and noveb.
Meanwhile he employed himself on the preparation of i4fi Intro-
duction to Natural Philosophy ^ which was published in 1781 and
was at once successful. A translation of Voltaire's Elements of
the Newtonian PhUosoplty soon followed, and he now entirely
devoted himself to scientific pursuits and philosophical journalism.
In 1784 he was appointed secretary to the General Chamber of
Manufacturers of Great Britain, and he was also connected with
the Sodety for the Encouragement of Naval Architecture, estab-
lished in 1 791. He bestowed much attention upon the construc-
tion of various machines for comb-cutting, file-making, cylinder
printing, &c.; he also invented an areometer. In 1800 he began
in London a course of public lectures on natural philosophy and
chemistry, and about this period he nuide the discovery of the
decomposition of water by the voltaic current. In 1797 the
Journal of Natural Philosophy, Chemistry and the Arts, generally
known as Nicholson*s Journal, the earliest work of the kind in
Great Britain, was begun; it was carried on till 18x4. During
the later years of his life Nicholson's attention was-chiefly directed
to waterworks engineering at Portsmouth, at Gosport and in
Southwark. He died in London on the 21st of May 18x5.
B^des considerable contributions to the Philosophical Trans-
actions, Nicholson wrote translations of Fourcroy's Chemistry (1787)
and Chaptal's Chemistry (1788), First Principles of CA«mM(i^(i788)
and a Chemical Dictionary (1795): he also edited the British Encyclo-
paedia, or Dictionary of Arts ana Sciences (6 vob.. 8vo, London. 1809).
NICHOLSON, WILUAM (1784-1844), Scottish painter, was
born at Newcastle-on-Tyne. Having settled in Edinburgh, he
painted portraits both in oil and water-colour; and along with
Thomas Hamilton the architect he was one of the founders and
most vigorous promoters of the Scottish Academy, of which
he became the first secretary (x82fr-x833). In x8i8 he published
a series of etchings entitled Portraits of Distinguished Living
Characters of Scotland, including Sir Walter Scott, Lord Jeffrey,
Robert Bums and Professor Wilson.
NICIAS (d. 414 B.c.)» a soldier and statesman in andent Athens,
inherited from his father Niceratus a considerable fortune in-
vested mainly in the silver mines of Laurium. Evidence of his
wealth is found in the fact that he had no less than 1000 slaves
whom he hired out. He gravitated naturally to the aristocratic
party, and was several times colleague with Pericles in the
strategia. On the death of Peridcs he was left leader of the
aristocrats against the advanced party of Cleon iq.t). He
made use of his wealth both to buy off enemies (cspecisUy in-
formers) and to acquire popularity by the magnificent way in
which he discharged various public services, cspedally those
connected with the state religion, of which he was a strong
supporter. In the fidd he displayed extreme caution, and prior
to the great Sidlian expedition achieved a number of minor
military successes. In 421 he took a prominent part in the
arrangement of the " Peace of Nidas," which terminated the
first decade of the Peloponnesian War (g.v.). He now entered
with varying success upon a period of rivalry with Alcibiadcs,
the details of which are largely matters of conjecture. So bitter
was the strife that the ostracism of one seemed inevitable, but
by a temporary coalition they secured instead the banishmcat
of the demagogue Hyperbolus (417). In 415 he was appointed
with Aldbiades and Lamachus to command the Sicilian ex-
pedition, and, after the flight of Alcibiadcs (q.v.) and the death
of Lamachus, was practically the sole commander, the much
more capable Demosthenes, who was sent to his aid, being
apparently of comparatively little weight. How far it is just to
attribute to his excessive caution and his blind faith in omeos
the disastrous failure it is difficult to say. At all cvenU it is
clear that the management of so great an enterprise was a task
far beyond his powers. He was a man of conventional respect-
ability and mechanical piety, without the originality which «as
required to meet the crisis which faced him. His popularity
with the aristocratic party in Athens is, however, strikinsly
shown by the lament of Thucydides over his death: **He
assuredly, among all Greeks of my time, least deserved to come
to so extreme a pitch of ill-fortune, considering his exact per-
formance of established duties to the divinity " (vil. 86, Grote's
version).
Besides Thucydides see Plutarch's Nicias and Diod. xiL 83: also
the general authorities on the hbtory of Greece, and the artkle
Pblofonnesian War.
NICIAS, son of Nicomedes, an Attic painter of the 4th century
B.C. Pliny (xxxv. 131) gives a list of his works. He was associ-
ated with Praxitdcs, whose statues he coloured, thus adding to
their value.
NICKEL (symbol Ni,atomic weight 58-68 (0«x6)),a metallic
element. It has been known from the earliest times, bcicg
employed by the Chinese in the form of an alloy called pakfoog.
It was first isolated in an impure condition in 1751 by A. F
Cronstedt from niccolite, and his results were afterwards con-
firmed by T. O. Bergman in 1775 {De niccolo,opusc. 2, p. 231;
3> P« 4S9; 4i P- 374)*' It occurs in the uncombined condition
and alloyed with iron in meteorites; as sulphide in miUcrite
and nickel blende, as arsenide in niccolite and doanthite, and
frequently in combination with arsenic and antimony in the form
of complex sulphides. In recent years it has been found in
considerable quantities in New Caledonia in the form of a
hydrated silicate of nickel and magnesia approximating to the
constitution (NiO, MgO)SiOi*nHiO (J. Gamier, 1865), and ut
Canada in the form of nickcliferous pyrrhotines, which consist
of sulphides of iron associated with sulphides of nickd and
copper, embedded in a matrix of gneiss. At the present time
nickd is obtained practically entirely from gamierite and the
nickdiferous pyrrhotines. When the former is used it is roasted
with caldum sulphate or alkali waste to form a matte which is
then blown in a Bessemer converter or heated in a reverberator)-
furnace with a sih'ceous flux with the object of forming a rich
nickel sulphide. This sulphide is then by further heating con-
verted into the oxide and finally reduced to the state of meial
by ignition with carbon in day cnidbles. The process adopted
for the Canadian ores, which are poor in copper and nickel,
consists in a preliminary roasting in heaps and smdting in a blast
furnace in order to obtain a matte, which is then further smelted
with a siliceous flux for a rich matte. This rich matte is then
mixed with coke and salt-cake and melted down in an open
hearth furnace. The nickel sulphide so obtained is then roasted
to oxide and reduced to metal. For a wet method of eztractkn
NICKEL
«>59
oC the (Mtte see Giristofle and Bouflhet, French Patent 11x591
(1S76). li' Mond (Jour. Soc. Ckem. Ind. 1895, p. 945) has
obtained', metallic nickel from the Canadian mattes by first
roasting ihcm and then eliminating copper by the action of
sulphuric- acidi the product so obtained being then exposed to
the reducing action of producer gas. at about 350" C. The
reduced metal is then passed into a " volatilizer "and exposed
to the action of carbon monoxide at about So** C, the nickel
carbonyl so formed being received in a chamber heated to
i8»-20o^ C, where it decomposes, the nickel being deposited and
the carbon monoxide returned to the volatilizer. For an electro-
lytic method of treating mattes, see T. Ulke, Memteur scient.
nickel salts see A. Riche and Laborde, Jour, Pharm, CMern.^ 1888,
Isl. 17, PP: 1, 59, 97.
Nickel is used for the manufacture of domestic utensib, for
crucibles, coinage, plating, and for the preparation of wious
allo3rs, such as German silver, nickel steels such as invar (nickel,
35-7%; steel, 64-3%), which has a negligible coefficient of
thermal expansion, and constantan (nickel, 45%; copper, 35%},
which has a negligible thennal.coefficient of its electrical resist-
ance.
Compounds.
JViclrf ^n&f .--Sevenl oxides of nicisel are known. A tuboxide.
Ni^ (?), described by W. Mulkr {Pogg. Attn., 1869, 213. p. 59}. is
not certainly known. The momaadej NiO. occurs naiuralty
rarely contains more than about 99-99*5% of nickel, the chief
impurities being copper, iron, cobalt, silicon and carbon.
The following tables show the output of nickel from Canada
and the shipments of nickel ore from New Caledonia in recent
years: —
Canada
Production
(tb).
Export
(lb).
Production
(tb).
'fr
1900
1901
1903
1903
1901
7.080.227
9,1^.047
10,693.410
12.505.Sio
10.547,883
13493.239
9.537.558
3.883,264
9.032.554
14,229,973
18,876.315
21490.955
21,189.793
19.143.11'
11.970.557
20,653,845
I9.376s$35
19419.893
« »»•• .1 t,» j» .J .1 « «i ••*'* **.iM»»iMjr ».M»*wi». tin; ffiviwnno*, i^i\7, occurs naiUrailV AS
1897. 49. p. 450- The metal as obtained by industnal methods j bunaenite. and b obuincd artificially when nkkel hydroxide,
1 .«: : — .u u^..* 0/ ^f _:>K-i .u--i-._* carbonate, nitrate or sulphate is heated. It may also be prepared by
the action of nickel on water, by the reduction of the oxide NitOj
with hydrogen at about zoo* C. (H. Moissan. Ann. Ckim. Phys.,
l5l, ai, p. 199), or by heating nickel chloride with sodium carbonate
and extracting the fused mass with water. It is a green powder
which becomes yellow when heated. It dissociates at a red heat, and
IS readily reduced to the metal when heated with carbon or in a
current of Hydrogen. It is readily soluble in acids, forming salts, the
rate of solution being rapid if the oxide is in the amorphous condition,
but slow if the oxide is crystalline. The hydroxide, Ni(OH)f, is
obtained m the form of a greenish amorphous powder when nickel
salts are predpiutcd by the caustk alkalis. It is readily soluble in
ac»ds and in an aqueous solution of ammonia. Nickel sesguioxide,
NijOa. IS formed when the nitrate is decomposed by heat at the lowest
possible temperature, by a similar decomposition of the chlorate, or
by fusing the chloride with potassium chlorate. It is a black powder,
the composition of which is never quite definite, but approximates
to the formula given above. When
heated with oxy-acids it dissolves,
with evolution of oxygen, and
with hydrochloric acid it evolves
chlorine. Numerous hydrated
forms of the oxide have been de-
scribed (sec W. Wernicke, Pom.
Ann., 1870, 217, p. 122). A
tetoxide, NiOi, has been obtained
in the form of dinickelite- of
banum. BaO*2NiOi, . by heating the monoxide with anhydrous
baryta in the electric fornacb (E. Dufau. Comptes rendus, 1890, 123,
p. 495). G. Pellini and D. Meneghini {Zeit. anorg. Ckem., looSt 60,
p. 178) obtained a greyish green powder of composition NiCh*x'H«0,
bv adding an alcoholic solution of potassium hydrate to nickel-
chloride and hydrogen peroxide at — 50^ It has aU the reactions of
hydrogen ceroxide. and S. Tanatar {Ber., 1909, 42, p. 1516) regards
it as NiO-Hi<^ An oxide, Ni]0«, has been obtained by heating nickel
New Caledonia
1900.
1901.
1902.
1903-
1904.
1905.
1906.
1907.
1908.
Metric tons
100,319
133.676
129.653
77.360
9«.665
125.289
130,688
101.708
120,028
(Sec Rothweil's Mineral Industry (1908), pp. 666, 670).
The metal may also be obtained on the small scale by the
reduction of the oxide by hydrogen or by carbon, by ignition
of the oxalate or of nickel ammonium oxalate (J. J. Berzelius),
by reduction of the chloride in a current of hydrogen (E. P£h'got),
by electrolysis of nickel ammonium sulphate (Winkler, Zeit.
anorg. Ckem. 1894, 8, p. x), and by reduction of the chloride
with calcium carbide.
ft is a greyish white metal, and is very malleable and ductile.
Its specific gravity varies according to the method employed for
its preparation, the extreme values being 8-279 and 9-25. It
melts between 1400-1600** C. Its specific heat increases with
rise of temperature, the mean value from is** to 100" C. being
0-10S4 (A. Naccari, Gozs., 1888, 18, p. 13). It is magnetic, but
loses its magnetism when healed, the loss being complete at about
540-350* C. On the physical constants sec H. Copaux, Comptes
rendus, X905, 140, p. 651. Nickel occludes hydrogen readily, is
attacked by the halogen elements, and oxidizes easily when
heated in air. In the massive state it is unacted upon by dry air,
but if moistened with acidified water, oxidation takes place slowly.
When obtained by reduction processes at as low a temperature
as possible the finely divided metal so formed is pyrophoric, and
according to P. Schutzenbergcr(Coin^M rendus^ 1891, xi3,p. 177)
dry hydrochloric acid gas converts this form into nickel chloride
aiid a volatile compound of composition NiHCl. It decomposes
water at a red heat. According to E. St Edme (Comptes rendus,
1886, X06, p. 1079) sheet nickel is passive to nitric acid, and
the metal remains passive even when heated to redness in a
current of hydrogen. On the reduction of organic compounds by
hydrogen in the presence of metallic nickel see P. Sabatier and
J. B. Senderens, Ann. Ckim. Pkys., X905 [8], 4*PP«3i9>433>
. It rapidly oxidizes when fused with caustic soda, but is
scarcely acted upon by caustic potash (W. Dittmar, Jour, Soc.
Ckem. Ind., 1884, 3, p. X03). Hydrochloric and sulphuric adds
are almost without action on the metal, but it dissolves readily
in dilute nitric acid. Nickel salts arc antiseptic; they arrest
fermentation and stop the growth of plants. Nickel carbonyl,
however, is extremely poisonous. On the toxic properties of
- '. 1890 Isl, 21,
p. 199). ^ The former method yields greyish, metallic-looking,
microscopic crystals, the latter a grey amorphous powder. A
hydratecl form, NijOi*2HiO, is obtained when the monoxide is fused
with sodium peroxide at a red heat and the fused mass extracted
with water.
Nickel Salts.^-Only one scries of salts is known, namely those
corresponding to the monoxide. In the anhydrous state tney are
usually of a yellow colour, whilst in the hydrated condition they are
p^reen. They may be recognized by the brownish violet colour they
impart to a borax bead when heated in an oxidizing flame. The
adds (tartaric add, dtric acid, &c.). Potassium cyanide gives a
greenish yellow predpitate of nickel cyanide, Ni(CN)9, sofublejn
excess of potassium cyanide, forming a double salt, Ni(CN)f2KCN.
which remains unaltered when boiled with excess of potassium
cyanide in presence of air (cf. Cobalt). Ammonium sulphide pre-
cipitates black nickel sulphide, which b somewhat soluble in excess
01 the precipitate (especially if ^llow ammonium sulphide be used),
forming a dark-coloured solution. Ammonium hyoroxide gives a
green predoitate of the hydroxide, soluble in excess of ammonia,
forming a blue solution. Numerous methods have been devised for
the separation of nickel and cobalt, the more im|x>rtant of which are :
— the cobaltinitrite method by which the cobalt is precipitated in the
presence of acetic add by means of potassium nitrite (the alkaline
earth metals must not be present); the cyanide method (J. v.
Liebig.ifna., 1848, 65, p. 244; 1853, 87, p. 128), in which the two metals
^re precipitated by excess en potassium cyanide in alkaline solution,
bromine being afterwards added and the solution warmed, when the
nickel is predpitated. The Utter method has been modified by
adding potasuum cyanide in slight excess to the solution of the
mixed salts, heating for some time and then adding mercuric oxide
and water, the whole bdng then warmed on the water bath, when a
precipiute of mercuric oxide and nickel hydroxide is obtained
66o
NICKNAME— NICOBAR ISLANDS
(Liebig). M. lUaski and G. v. Knorre {Ber., 1885. 18, p. X69)
separate the metals by adding nitroso-^-naphtbol in the presence
of «>% acetic acid, a precipitate of cobalti nitroso-/S-naphthoI,
ICMHtO(NO)]>Co, insoluble in hydrochloric acid, being formed, whilst
the corresponding nickel compound dissolves in hydrochloric acid.
E. Pinerua separates the metals by takine advantage of the fact that
cobalt chloride is soluble in ether which has been saturated with
tiydrochbric acid gas at low temperature. For an examination of
the above and other methods see £. HinU, ZeU. anal. Ckem., 1891,
on nickel chloride, crystallises in yellowish green prisms which
Nitkelfwride, NiFt, obtained by the action of hydrofluoric acid
volatilise above 1000* C. It is difficultly soluble in water, and com-
bines with the alkaline fluorides to form double laltSk Nkket chloride,
NiCb. is obtained in the anhydrous condition by heating the hydrated
•alt to 140* C. or by gently heating the finely divided metal in a
current 01 chlorine. It readilv sublimes when heated in a current of
chlorine, forming golden yellow scales. It is easily reduced when
heated in hydrogen. It forms crystalline compounds with ammonia
and the organic oases. It is soluole in alcohol and in water. Three
hydrated forms are known, viz. a mOno-, di-, and hexa>hydrate: the
latter being the form usually- obtained by the solution of the
oxide or carbonate in hydrochloric add. Nukd chloride ammonia,
NiClf6NHi. b obtainra as a white powder when anhydrous nickel
chloride is exposed to the action of ammonia gas (H. Rose. Pogg.
Ann., 1830, 96, p. 155), or in the form of blue octahcdra by evaporat-
ing a scJution of nicloel chloride in aqueous ammonia.. Wnen heated
to 100^ C. it loses four molecules of ammonia. Two hydrated forms
have been described, one containing three molecules of water and
the other half a molecule. Numerous double chlorides of nickel and
other metals are known. The bromide and iodide of nickel resemble
the chloride and are prepared in a similar fashion.
Several sulphides of the element have been obtained. A sub-
tulphide, NiiS(?). results when the sulphate is heated with sulphur
or when the precipitated monosulphide is heated in a current of
hydrogen. It forms a light yellow amorphous mass which is almost
insoluble in adds. The monosnlphide, NiS, is obtained by heating
nickel with sulphur, by heating the monoxide with sulphuretted
hydrogen to a red heat, and by heating potassium sulphide with
nickel chloride to 160-180* C. When prepared by dry methods it b
an exceedingly stable^ jrelbwish, somewhat crystalline mass. When
prepared by the preapitation of nickel salts with alkaline suljphidc
m neutral solution it b a greyish black amorphous compound which
readily oxidizes in moist air, forming a basic nickel sulphate. The
freshly precipitated sulphide b soluble in sulphurous acid and some-
what soluble in hydrochloric acid and yellow ammonium sulphide
(see H. Baubtgny, ComPtes rendus, 1883, 94, pp. 961. 1183; 95, p.
34). Nichel snlphate, NiSO«. b obuincd anhydrous as a yellow
powder when any of its hydrates are heated. When hcateo with
carbon it b reduced to the metal. It forms hydrates containing one.
two. five, six and seven molecules of water. The hcptahydrate is
obtained by dissolving the metal or its oxide, hydroxide or carbonate
1-green rhombic prisms
moderately soluble in water. It cfilorcsces gradually on exposure to
air and passes into the hexahydrate. It loses four molecules of water
of crysUllization when heated to too* C. and becomes anhydrous at
about 300* C. The hexahydrate b dimorphous, a tetragonal form
being obtained by crystallization of a solution of the hcptahydrate
between 20" and 30* C. and a monoclinic form between 50*and 70* C.
Nickel sulphate combines with many metallic sulphates to form
double salts, and also forms addition compounds with ammonia
aniline and hydroxylamine. The nitrate, Ni(N0a)t.6H«0i is obtained
by dissolving the metal in dilute nitric add and concentrating the
solution between 40* and 50* C. It crystallizes in green prisms which
deli<^uesce rapidly on exposure to moist air.
Nichel carbonyl, Ni(C0)4, is obtained as a colourless mobile liquid
by passing carbon monoxide over reduced nickel at a temperature
of about 00* C. (L. Mond, Laneer and Quincke, Jour. Chem. See.,
»890. 57, p. 749). It boils at 43* C. (751 mm.), and sets at -25* C.
to a mass of crystalline needles. It is readily soluble in hydrocarbon
solvents, in chloroform and in alcohol. Its critical pressure is
30 atmospheres and its critical temperature b in the neighbourhood
of 195* C. (J. Dewar, Proc. Roy. Soc., 1903, 71, p. 427). It decom-
poses with explosive violence when heated rapidly. Dcwar and
Jones {Joum. Chem. Sec., 1904, p. 303) have made an exhaustive
study of its reactions, and find that it is decomposed by the halogens
(dissolved in carbon tetrachloride) with liberation of carbon mon-
oxide and formation <^ a nickel halide. Cyanogen iodide and
iodine mono- and tri<hloride effect similar decompositions with
simultaneous liberation of iodine: sulphuric acid reacts slowly,
forming nickel sulphate and liberating hydrogen and carbon mon-
oxide. Hydrochloric and hydrobromic acids are without action;
hydriodic acid only reacts slowly. With aromatic hydrocarbons in
the presence of anhydrous aluminium chloride, in the cold, there b
a large evolution of nydrochloric acid gas. and an aldehyde is formed ;
at 100° C, on the other hand, anthracene derivatives are produced.
Thus by usine benzene, bcnzaldehyde and anthracene are obtained.
Dcwar and Jones suggest that m the latter reaction it b the
metallic nickel which b probably the reducing agent elTectiag the
change, since it bonly dissolved in any quantity when the anthracene
hydrocarbon b proouced. When mesitylcne is used, the reactiofi
does not proceed beyond the aldehyde suge since hydrocarbon
formation b prevented by the presefnce of a methyl group in the
ortho-position to the -CHO group. Acids and alkalis are in general
without action on nickel carbonyl. The vapour of nickd carbonyl
burns with a luminous flame, a cold surface depressed in the flam
being covered with a black deposit of nkkel. It b an extremely
powerful poison. Mond and hu assbtants have di s c o vered several
other carbonyb. For example cobalt gives Co(CO)«, as ocai^
crystals which melt at 51* decomposing at a higher temperature,
giving Co(CO)i and CO at 60*: Co(CO)s forms jet black crysub.
For iron carbonyb see Iron; also L. Mond. H. Hira and M. D.
Cowapj Jour. Chem. Soc.. 1910. 97. p. 798. Hickd carboneU, NiCOi.
b obtained in the anhydrous state by heating nickd chloride with
cakium carbonate in a sealed tube to 150* C. (H. de Sinanoont. ilss.
Chim. Phys., 18^ (3]. 30, 138). It crystallizes in miotwcopic rhombo-
hedra insoluble in cold acids. By precipitatun of nkkel salu with
solutmns of the alkaline carbonates, bask Carbonates of variable
composition are obtained.
Numerous determinations of the atonik weight of nkkel have been
published, the values obtained varying from 58*0 to approximately
^05. The more recent work of T. W. Kkhards and Cushman {Chem.
News, 1899. 79. 163. 174. 185) gives for the atomk wdfht of the
meUl the values 58-69 and 58-70.
NICXMAMB. a name given to a person in addition to his
personal luunes, Christian and surname, either as a playful or
familiar form of address or as a mark of ridicule/contenipi or
hatred. The Middle English form of the word, nekename, shows
that it b a corruption of " an ckename " (i.e. " added " name;
ehe, earlier ecAe, from the root seen in Lat. auger e^ Gr. ov^iniy),
and b therefore equivalent to the Lat. agnomen.
There b an interesting list of national nkknamcs in Notes and
Queries, 9th series. 4, aia-314.
NICOBAR ISLANDS, a British group of twelve Inhabited and
seven uninhabited islands in the Bay of Bengal, between Sumatra
and the Andaman Islands, to which latter they are administra-
tively appended. They have an aggregate area of about 63 s
sq. m.. Great Nicobar iLo6ng)f the largest and southernmost
of any size, covering 333 sq. m. Six others range In area from
about 20 sq. m. to 62 sq. m. ; the rest are mere islets. A careful
census of the natives, taken by Mr £. H. Man in 1 901, gave a
total population of some 6700, at about which figure the estimates
of the number of inhabitants have always stood. Car Nicobar
(Pu), the most northerly island, with an area of 49 sq. m., was
by far the most densely populated, and had 3500 inhabitants.
Great Nicobar containing only 450. The marine surveys of
these islands are still meagre uid unsatisfactory, but the whole
of the Nicobars and outlying islands were surveyed topographi-
cally by the Indian Survey Department in 1886-18S7, when a
number of maps on the scale of 2 in. to the mile were produced,
giving an accurate coast-line. Some of the islands have mere
flat, coral-covered surfaces; others, again, are hilly, the Great
Nicobar rising to 2105 ft. On that island there are considerate
and beautiful streams, but the others generally are badly of!
for fresh surface water. There is one good harbour, a magnificent
land-locked shelter called Nancowry Harbour, formed by the
islands of Camorta and Nancowrv (both kiu>wn to natives as
Nankauri),
Geology.— TYk Nicobars form part of a great submarine chain, of
which the Andamans arc a continuation. Elaborate geological
reports were issued by a Danish scwntific expedition in 1846 and as
Austrian expedition in 1858. Dr Rink of the former found no trace
of true volcank rocks, though the chain as a whok b known for its
volcanic activity, but features were not wanting to indkate con-
siderable upheavals in the most recent periods. He considered that
the islands belonged to the Tertbry age. Von Hochstetter of the
Austrian expedition cUssified the most important formations thus:
eruptive, serpentine and gabbro: marine deposais. pnobably late
Tertbry, consisting of sandstones, slates, clay, marls, and plastk
cby. recent corals. He conudered the whole group connected
geologically with the great idands ot the Malay Archipelago farther
south. The vexed question of the presence of coal and tin in the
N icobars has so far received no decided sckntific support. The white
clay marb of Camorta and Nancowry have become famous as being
true polycbtinan maris like those of Barbados. Earthquakes ci
great violence ^ere recorded in 1847 and 1881 (with tidal wave), and
mild shocks were experknccd in DKember 1809.
Meteorology. — It hasalways been held to be important to main-
tain a meteorokgical station on the Nicobars. for the purpose of
NICOL, J.— NICOL, W
66 1
•nppfementing the information obtained from the Andanum regard-
ingcydoneSintbeBayof Bensal. From 1869 to 1888 an observatory
was properly maintained in Nancowry harbour, but after the latter
year observations were recorded only in a more or less desultory way
until 1897, when the station was removed to M us in Car Nioobor.
The diroate is unhealthy for Europeans. The islands are exposed
to both monsoons, and smooth weather is only experienced from
February to April, and in October. Rain falb throughout the year,
generally in sharp, heavy showers. During the five years ending
1888 the annual rainfall varied from 91 in. to 13^ in., and the number
of wet days per annum from 148 to aaa. The highest temperature In
the shade was 98-2* F.. and the lowest 64* F.
Flora and Fauna, — ^Although the vegetation of the Nioobars has
received much desultory attention from scientific observers, it has
not been subjected to a systematic examination by the Indian Forest
Department like that of the Andamans, and indeed the forests are
quite inferior in economic value to those of the more northerly
group: besides fruit trees — such as the coco-nut ICocos nnctfera),
the betel-nut (Areea ealteku), and the mellori (Pandamms Ueram) — a
thatching palm [NipafnUicans) and various timber trees have some
commeraal value, but only one timber tree (iiyristua irya ) would be
considered first-class in the Andamans. The palms of the Nicobars
ate. however, exceedingly graceful. Instances of the introduction
of foreign economic plants are frequently mentioned in the old
missionary lecords, and nowadays a number of familiar Asiatic
fruit-trees are carefully and successfully cultivated. As with the
eeolosy and the flora, certain phases of the fauna of the islands
nave been extensivdy reported. The mammals are noc numerous.
In the soothcmmost islands are a snull monkey, rats and mice, tree-
shrews {CladobaUs nic.), bats, and flying-foxes, but It u doubtful
if the " wild " oig is indigenous; cattle, when introduced and left,
have speedily become " wild." There are many kinds of birds,
notably the megapod (iiempodius nic), the edible-nest-building
swift (CoUcaUla ntdifica), the hackled and pied pigeons (CaUunas
nic. and Carpotkana bicolor), a paroquet ^Palaeomu caniups) and
an oriole (Oriolns macrounu). Fowls, smpe and teal thrive after
importation or migration. Reptiles — snakes, lizards and chame-
leons, crocodiles, turtles and an enormous variant of the edible
Indian crab — are numerous; butterflies and insects, the latter very
trouUesoroe, have not yet been systematically collected. The fresh-
water fish are reported to be of the types found in Sumatra.
Natites.—Tht Nicobarcse may be best described a^ a Far
Eastern race, having generally the characteristics of the less
civilized tribes of the Malay Peninsula and the south-eastern
portion of the Asiatic continent, and speaking varieties of the
Mon-Annam group of languages, though the several dialects
that prevail are mutually unintelligible. Their figure is not
graceful, and, owing to their habit of dilating the lips by betel-
chewing, the adults of both sexes are often repul^ve in appear-
ance. Though short according to the standard of whites (average
height, man, 5 ft. 3} in.; woman, 5 ft.), the Nicobarese are a fine,
well-devek>ped race, and live to seventy or eighty years of age.
Their mental capacity is considerable, though there b a great
difference between the sluggish inhabitant of Great Nicobar and
the keen trader of Car Nicobar. The religion is an undisguised
animism, and all their frequent and elaborate ceremonies and
festivals are aimed at exorcising and scaring spirits. Though
for a long time they were callous wreckers and pirates, and cruel,
and though they show great want of feeling in the "devil
murders "—ceremonial murders of one of themselves for grave
cffenccs against the community, which are now being gradually
put down---still on the whole the Nicobarese are a quiet, inoffen-
^ve people, friendly to each other, and not quarrelsome, and by
inclination friendly and not dangerous to foreigners. The
old charge of cannibalism may be generally said to be quite
untrue. Tribes can hardly be distinguished, but there are dis-
tinctions, chiefly territorial All the differences observed in the
several kinds of Nicobarese may with some confidence be referred
to habiut and the physical difficulties of communication. Such
govemment as there is, is by the village; but the village chiefs
have not usually much power, though such authority as they
have has always been maintainol by the foreign Powers who have
possessed the Islands. The clothing, when not a caricature of
European dress, is of the scantiest, and the waggling tags in
which the loin-ctoths are tied behind early gave rise to fanciful
stories that the inhabitants were naked and tailed. The houses
are good, and often of considerable size. The natives are skilful
with their lands, and though they never cultivate cereals, exercise
tome care and knowledge over the coco-nut and tobacco, and
have had much success with the foreign fruits and vegetables
introduced by the missionaries. The staple article of trade has
always been the ubiquitous coco-nut, of which it is computed
that X5 million are produced annually, 10 million bemg taken by
the people, and s million exported about equally from Car
Nicobar and the rest of the isUinds. The usual cheap European
goods are imported, the foreign trade being carried on with the
native traders of the neighbouring Asiatic countries. There Is
an old-established internal trade, chiefly between the older Islands
and Chowra, for pots (which are only made there) and radng
and other canoes.
Hislory.— The situatkm of the Nicobars along the line of a very
ancient trade route has caused them to be reported by traders
and seafarers through all historical times. In the 17th century
the isUnds began to attract the attention of missionaries. At
varx>us times France, Denmark, Austria and Great Britain all
had more or less shadowy rights to the isUnds, the Danes being
the most persbtent in their efforts to occupy the group, until in
1869 they relinquished their claims in favour of the British, who
at once began to put down the piracies of the isUmders, and
established a penal settlement, numbering in all about 350
persons, in Nancowry harbour. The health of the convicts was
always bad, though it improved with length of residence and
the ad<^tion of better sanitary measures; and an attempt to
found a Chinese colony having failed in 1884 through mis-
management, the settlement was withdrawn in 1888. There arc
native agencies at Nancowry harbour and on Car Nicobar, both
of which places are gazetted ports. At the latter is a Church of
En^and mission station under a native Indian catechist attached
to the diotcsc of RiTigiwri.
ALTrTOHinF.s,^E- \i- Msn, Diciionnry of tki Ccnit'i! Nicobarese
inFtuief (London, i.'^Sg); \r, Mjufit, Die Nitttbarm (TVrlin, 1867);
Df Svol>Q(U, Du BttiKfhntr iUs Nikobarcn-Ar^hipflj (j^ i.Jen, 1893):
F- A. Dc RCTrpatOftTT DiiiiUftaty of tkf N<^n^inirry Ihaftri (Calcutta.
iBSi)^ Vffi^nirulary &f DialfcU tn ihg Nicobar hm Ar^ii.nt^an Islands
{inQ pd^t OlcuttAt LSi'S!! > Ptevo^t and Hciri];, Ri-pofi an Frdiminary
tma tkfou^k iA* Nicobar l3Ja.ndi (Go vltti merit, Ri^ti^iion, 1897);
ji. B. KlfM^^ /« ike Andamans and Nurobari {Londiyfl. IQOa): A-
AlcQck. A NtiSuralisi in the Indian Seoj (London, igo2}. (R. C. T.)
mCOU JAMES CtSto-ia7g), Scouish geclogist, was bom at
Traquaif, n^ar Inoc^rldUicli, lu Peeblesshire, on tJli-8 12th of
August 1810, His hihtt, the Rev, J&ma Nicol (176^x819),
was minister of Traquair, and acquired some celebrity as a
poet. Educated at Eidinburgh University (1825), James Nicol
attended the lectturs of Jameson, and thereby gained a keen
interest in geology and mineralogy; and he pursued their study
in the universities of Bonn and Berlin. After returning home
he worked zealously at the local geology and obtained prizes
from the Highland Society for essays on the geology of Peebles-
shire and Roxburghshire; he subsequently extended his re^
searches over various parts of Scotland, and in 1844 published
his able Guide to tiu Geology of Scotland. In 1847 he was ap-
pointed assistant secretary to the Geological Society of London,
in 1849 professor of geology in Queen's College, Cork, and in
1853 professor of natural history in the University of Aberdeen,
a post which he retained until a few months before he died, on
the 8th of April 1879. During these years he carried out im-
portant researches on the southern uplands of Scotland and on
the structure of the Highlands. In the former region he gave
the first clear account of the succession of the fossiliferous
Lower Palaeozoic rocks (1848-1852) ; and when he came to deal
with the still older Highland rocks he made out the position of
the Torridon sandstone and Durness limestone and their re-
lations to the schists and gneisses. His matured views, although
contested by Murchison, have subsequently been substantiated
by Professor C. Lapworth and others.
The more important of his papers were: " On the Structure of the
North-Westem Highlands " {Quart. Joum. Ceol. 5k., 1861), and " On
the Geological Structure of the Southern Gramixans " (ib., 1863).
He contributed the artide " Mineralo^ " to the ninth edition of the
EncycioptBdia Britannica. Among his other works were Manual of
Mineralogy (1849); Elements of Mineralogy (1858, and ed., 1873};
Geological Map of Scotland (1858); and Geology and Scenery ^ the
North of Scotland (1866).
NICOU WILUAM (? X76S-X851). Scottish physicist, was bom
about X768, and died at Edinburgh on the and of September
662
NICOLAI— NICOLAUS OF LYRA
1851. Nothing is known of his early history beyond the fact
that, after amassing a small competence as a popular lecturer
on natural philosophy, he settled in Edinburgh to live a very
retired life in the society of his apparatus alone. Besides the
invention of the prism known by his name (" A method of
increasing the divergence of the two rays in calcareous spar,
so as to produce a single image," New Edin. Journ.^ 1828), he
devoted himself chiefly to the examination of fluid-filled cavities
in crystals, and of the microscopic structure of various kinds of
fossil wood. His skill as a working lapidary was very great;
and he prepared a number of lenses of garnet and other precious
stones, which he preferred to the achromatic microscopes of
the time.
NICOLAI. CHRISTOPH FRIEDRICH (1733-1811), German
author and bookseller, was born on the i8th of March 1733 at
Berlin, where his father, Christoph Gottlieb Nicolai (d. 1752),
was the founder of the famous Nicolaische Buchhandlung. He
received a good education, and in 1749 went to Frankfort-on-
Oder to learn his father's business, finding time also to become
acquainted with English literature. In 1 752 be returned to Berlin,
and began to take part in literary controversy by defending Milton
against the attacks of J. C. Gottsched. His Briefe Uher den
jdzigen Zustand der.schdnen Wissenschaften in Deutschland, pub-
lished anonymously in 1755 and reprinted by G. Ellinger in 1894,
were directed against both Gottsched and Gottsched's Swiss
opponents, Johann Jakob Bodmer and Johann Jakob Brcitinger;
his enthusiasm for English literature won for him the friendship
of Lessing and Moses Mendelssohn. In association with Mendels-
sohn he established in 1757 the Bibliothek der schdnen Wisscn-
schofteHt a periodical which he conducted until 1760. With
Lessing and Mendelssohn Nicolai founded in 1759 the famous
Briefe, die neueste Literatur betrejend; and from 1765 to 1792
he edited the AUgemcine deuiscke Bibliolhek. This latter period-
ical served as the organ of the so-called " popular philosophers,"
who warred against authority in religion and against what they
conceived to be extravagance in literature. The new move-
ment of ideas represented by Herder, Goethe, Schilleri Kant
and Fichte, Nicolai was incapable of understanding, and he
made himsdf ridiculous by foolish misrepresentation of the aims
of these writers. Of Nicolai's independent works, perhaps the
only one which has some historical value is his Anekdoten von
Friedrick 11. ( 1 788-1 792). His romances are forgotten, although
Das Leben und die Meinungen des Harm Magister Sebaldus
Notkanker (i 773-1776), and his satire on Goethe's Werthcr,
Freudendesjungcn Wcrtkers (i77s), had a certain reputation in
their day. Between 1788 and 1796 Nicolai published in 12 vols,
a Besckreibung einer Reise durck DetUsckland und die Sckweiz,
which bears witness to the narrow conservatism of his views in
later life. He died in Berlin on the nth of January 1811.
Nicolai's Bildniss und Sdbsthiographie was published by M. S.
i^Owe in the Bildmssejetzt tebender Berliner Gelehrter, in 1806. Sec
also L. F. G. von Gdckingk, F. Niadai's Leben lutd liter arischer
Nachlass (1820); I. Minor, Lesnn^j Jugendfreunde, in j. KUrschncr's
Deutsche NationaUUeratur, vol. Ixxii. (1883); O. Hoflfmann, Herders
Briefwuhsel mit Nicolai (1887); E, Fncdel, Zur Cesckichte der
Nicolaischen Buchhandlung (1891); and E. AltenkrOgcr, F. Nicolais
JugjBndsckriften (1894).
NICOLAI, OTTO (1810-1849), German composer, was bom on
the 9th of June in Kdnigsberg. He studied music in BerUn and.
in 1833 became organist to the German embassy in Rome.
There his operas Enrico II (1839) and // Tcmplario (1840)
were produced, besides some church music, a series of songs, and
a number of compositions for the pianoforte.. He was subse-
quently appointed Hof Kapellmeister at the Berlin Opera House;
and there, only two days before he died (on the nth of March
1849), was performed his brilliant opera, Tke Merry Wives of
Windsor, the work by which he is now remembered.
NICOLAS, SIR NICHOLAS HARRIS (1799-1848), English
antiquary, fourth son of John Harris Nicolas (d. 1844), was bom
at Dartmouth on the loth of March 1799. Having served in the
navy from 1812 to 1816, he studied law and was called to the bar
at the Inner Temple in 1825. His work as a barrister, however,
was confined principally to peerage cases before the House of
Lords, and his time was mainly devoted to genealogical and his*
torical studies. In 183 1 he was made a knight of the order of
the Guelphs, and in 1832 chancellor and knight -commander of
the order of St Michael and St George, being advanced to the
grade of the grand cross in 1840. He became a member of the
council of the Society of Antiquaries in 1826, but soon began to
criticize the management of the society's affairs, and withdrew
in 1828. He then criticized the Record G>mmission, which be
regarded as too expensive. These attacks, which brou^t him
into controversy with Sir Francb Palgrave, led in 1836 to the
appointment of a select committee to inquire into the public
records. He was also responsible for several reforms at tltt
British Museum. In 1822 Nicolas married Sarah (d. 1867),
daughter of John Davison of Loughton, Essex, a reputed de-
scendant of the Tudor statesman William Davison. By her be
left two sons and six daughters. Pecimiarydifficultiescompdled
him to leave England, and he died near Boulogne on the 3rd
of August 1848. Although a sharp and eager controversialist
Nicolas was a genial and generous man, with a great knowledge
of genealogical questions.
The jiiost important of tKe works cF Nicolas is his History cf tie
OfdcFi of KnifMhoi>d pf the Bniish Empire; of the Order of the
^ • • • .-..,-.-- i'f Naval '"■••■ "
Gvelphs I and aj Midaii, Ciaspi, /-
(l.ofidon^ l84l"lS4j). Amon^;
Chrvndtfiy of Uiitsry (Lonri^
and Military Seirvice^
frous other writings arc. The
I; Life of William Davison
ofEng
(London^ i%2ii\ Synopsis cj the- ^ of England (London, 1825)
£i/f un4 Times of Sir Chfiitop^hcr h^iton (London, 18
unrrcumplfttTj IHslory tff the Ruyal Nnvv (London, 1847)'
ii/f un4 Times of Sir Ckfiii{ft^hi:r h^itcin (London, 1847;
w, 18^).
dl of En^ud, ijS6-
ana Letters of I^ord
i47): and an
>imLi]i:ttTj llislory cj iUe Kuyal iVni-v (London, I847^ "* edited
i'rmetdings and OrdinaHies of ike Frfvy Council of En^nd, JjS6-
i<42 (London, 1834-1837), and Despatches
Nelson (London, 181^-1846) ; wrote lives of Chaucer, Burns, Cowper.
Thomson, Collins, Kirke White and others for Pickering's Aloioe
edition of the poets; lives of Izaak Walton and Charles Coctoo for an
edition of the ComtUat Angler; and several elaborate works on
genealogical and kinorcd subjects printed for private circulation ooly.
NICOLAUS DAMAS^ENUS, Greek historian and philosopher
of Damascus, flourished in the time of Augustus and Herod the
Great, with both of whom he was on terms of friendship. He
instructed Herod in rhetoric and philosophy, and had attracted
the notice of Augustus when he accompanied his patron on a
visit to Rome. Later, when Herod's conduct aroused the sa»-
picions of Augustus, Nicolaus was sent on a mission to Ixisg
about a reconciliation. He survived Herod, and it was through
his influence that the succession was secured icx Archelaos;
but the date of his death, like that of his birth, b unknown.
Fragments of his universal history i^ltnopla xa^oXur^), frosi the
time of the Assyrian empire to his own days, his autobiography,
and his life of Augustus (B(ot Koltropos) have been preserved,
chiefly in the extracts of Constantine Porphyrogenitus. N icolaus
also wrote comedies and tragedies, paraphrased and wrote com-
mentaries on parts of Aristotle, and was himself the author of
philosophical treatises.
Fragments in C. M (liter, Fragmenta htstoricomm Craeeomwt, iH.;
sec also F. Navet, Nikolaus von Damascus (i8«3). coouining &a
account of his life and writings, and translation olthe fragments.
NICOLAUS OF LYRA {c. 1 265-1349), French commentator,
was born in Lire, now VieiUe-Lyre, in the department of £ure,
Normandy. He entered the Franciscan order at Vemeufl abcmt
1300, and studied at Paris, where, becoming adoctc»-sotne tinse
before 1309, he taught for many years. From 13 19 he W3s
provincial of his order in France, and was present in that capacity
at the general chapter at Pdrouse (1321). In 1325 he was
provincial of Burgundy, and as executor of the estate of Jeanne
of Burgundy, widow of King Philip VI., he foimded the college
of Burgundy at Paris, where he died in the autumn of 1340,
being buried in the ch2^)ter hall of the convent of the Cordeliers!
Among the authentic works of Nicolaus of Lyra are: (x) t^ro
commentaries on the whole Bible, one {PostiUa lUieraliSt 1322-
^iit) following the literal sense, the other (PostiUa tmysiicA
seu moralis, 1339) following the mystic sense. There are
numerous editions (Rome, 1471-1473; Douai, 1617; Antwerp,
1634). (2) Tractatus de diffcrefUia nosirae Iranslaiionis (t^!
Vulgate) ab Hebraica vcritate, 1333. (3) Two treatises against
the Jews. (4) A theological treatise on the Beatific Vision,
directed against pope John XXII. (1334), unpublished. (^
NICOLAY— NICOLLS
663
Conlemphtia de vila S. Pratuisci, a book of devotions. Nicolaus
was above all a commentator. His exegesis, which was dominated
by his polemics against the Jews, is characterized by a fidelity
to the literal sense, the comparison with the Hebrew text, the
direct use of Jewish commentators, a very independent attitude
towards traditional interpretations, and a remarkable historical
and critical sense. In all this he resembled Roger Bacon. His
works, especially the PostiUa liUeralis, were very popular in the
14th and isth centuries, but produced few imitators.
In addition to the notices in Wadding, du Moustier, Sbaraglia and
Fabricius, lec C. Siegfried, in ArchtP. f wissensihafUiche Erf or-
sckuHt des A.T.t vols. i.. ii.; A. Mcrx, Die Prophetic des Joel und
ikrt AusUter (1879. pp. 305-366); M. Fischer in Jakrbdcker j.
proUstantiuke Theologie, xv.; F. Maschkowski, in Zeitsckrift /.
alUestamenUich* Wissenuhaft, xv.; Neumann in Revue des iludes
juives, vols. 26 and 37; H. Labrosae in Pontions des thkses de VEcole
des Chartes (1906).
MICOLAY, the name of a French family of Vivarais which
came rapidly into legal prominence at the end of the i sth century.
Jean Nicolay (d. 1527), son of a bailli of Bourg Saint- Andtol,
became councillor at the parlement of Toulouse and afterwards
at the Grand Council, chancellor of the kingdom of Naples,
Maltre des Requites, and, finally, first president of theCharobre
des Comptes of Paris ( 1 506) . This last post was filled continuously
up to the Revolution by his descendants. Antoine Chretien
de Nicolay (17x2-1777) became marshal of France in 1775.
His brother, Aymar Chr£tien Frangois Michel (1721-1769),
bishop of Verdun, was first almoner of Marie Joscphe of Saxony,
wife of the dauphin Louis (d. n^s)* &nd her influential counsellor.
See A. de Boislisle. Pibces justificatives pour servir d I'hiitoire des
premiers prlsidenls de la Chambre des Comptes (1873), ^nd Ilistoire de
la maisau de Niceiay (1875).
MICOLB, PIERRB (1625-16^5), one of the most distinguished
of the French Janscnists, was the son of a provincial barrister,
and was bom at Chartres. Sent to Paris in 1642 to study
theology, he soon entered into relations with the Jansenist
community at Port Royal {q.v.) through his aunt, Marie des
Angea Suircau, who was for a short time abbess of the convent.
Some scruple of conscience forbade him to proceed to the priest-
hood, and he remained throughout life a ^' clerk in minor orders,"
although a profound theological scholar. For some years he
was a master in the " little school " for boys established at
Port Royal, and had the honour of teaching Greek to young
Jean Racine, the future poet. But his chief duty was to act,
in collaboration with Antoine Amauld, as general editor of the
controversial literature put forth by the Jansenists. He had a
large share in collecting the materials for Pascal's Pronncial
Letters (1656); in 1658 he translated the Letters into Latin, under
the pseudonym of Nicholas' Wcndrock. In 1664 he himself
began a series of letters, Les Imaginaires, intended to show
that the heretical opinions commonly ascribed to the Jansenists
really existed only in the imagination of the Jesuits. His
letters being violently attacked by Desmaretx de Saint-Sorlin,
an erratic minor poet who professed great devotion to the
Jesuits, Nicole replied to him in another series of letters, Les
Visi&nnaires (1666). In the course of these he observed that
poets and dramatists were no better than " public poisoners."
This remark stung Racine to the quick; he turned not only
on his old master, but on all Port Royal, in a scathing reply,
which — as Boileau told him — did more honour to his head
than to his heart. About the same time Nicole became involved
in a controversy about transubstantiation with the Huguenot
Claude; out of this grew a massive work. La Perpduiti de la
foi de Ng^ise catholique louchant l*euckarisiie (i66q), the joint
effort of Nicole and Antoine Amauld. But Nicole's most
popular production was his Essais de morale, a scries of short
discussions on practical Christianity. The first volume was
published in 1671, and was followed at irregular intervals by
others; altogether the series numbers fourteen volumes. In
1679, on the renewal of the persecution of the Jansenists, Nicole
was forced to fly to Belgium in company with Amauld. But
the two soon parted. Nicole was elderly and in poor health;
the life of a fugitive was not to his taste, and he complained that
he wanted rest ** Rest," answered Amauld, " when you have
eternity to rest in!" In 1683 Nicole made a rather ambiguous
peace with the authorities, and was allowed to come back to
Paris. There he continued his Uterary labours up to the lastj
he was writing a refutation of the new heresy of the Quietists,
when death overtook him on the i6th of November 1695.
Nicole was one of the most attractive figures of Port Royal.
Many stories are told of his quaint absent-mindedness and unreadi-
ness in conversation. His books are distinguished by exactly
opposite qualities; they arc neat and orderly to excess. Hence they
were exceedingly popular with Mmc de S<Svign6 and readers of her
class. No other J[an9enist writer, not even Pascal, was eo successful
in putting the position of Port Royal before the world. And although
a modern appetite quaib before fourteen volumes on morality, there
is much solid sense and practical knowledge of human nature to be
found in the Essais de morale. Several abridgments of the work
exist, notably a Choix des essais de morale de Nicole, ed. Sllvcstre de
Saci (Paris, 1857).
Nicole's life is told at length in the 4th volume of Sainte Bcuve'a
Port-Royal. (ST. C.)
NICOLL, ROBERT (1814-1837), Scottish poet, was bom
on the 7th of January, 1814, at the farm of Little Tullybeltane,
in the parish of Auchtergaven, Perthshire. When Robert was
five years old his father was reduced to poverty. He became
a day-labourer, and was only able to give liis son a very slight
education. At sixteen the boy was apprenticed to a grocer and
wine-merchant at Perth. In 1833 he began to contribute to
Johnston^s Magazine (afterwards Tail's Magazine), and in
the next year his apprenticeship was cancelled. He visited
Edinburgh, and was kindJy received there, but obtained no
employment. He opened a circulating library at Dundee,
but in 1836 he became editor of the Leeds Times. He held
pronounced Radical opinions, and overtaxed his slender physical
resources in electioneering work for Sir William Molesworth
in the summer of 1837. He was obliged to resign his editorship,
and died at the house of his friend William Tait, at Trinity, near
Edinburgh, on the 7th of December 1837, in his twenty-fourth
year. He had published a volume of Poems in 1835; iui<i ^n
1844 appeared a further volume. Poems and Lyrics, with an
anonymous memoir of the author by Mrs C. I. Johnstone.
The best of his lyrics are those written in the Scottish dialect.
They are simple in feeling and expression, genuine folk-songs.
An clo|qucnt appreciation of his character and his poetry was
included in Charles Kingslcy's article on " Bums and his School " in
the North British Review for November 1851. See also P. K.
Drummond, Life of Robert Nicoll, Poet (1884).
NICOLL, SIR WILUAH ROBERTSON (1851- ), Scottish
Nonconformist divine and man of letters, was bom at Auchindoir,
Aberdeenshire, on the 10th of October 1851, the son of a Free
Church minister. He graduated M.A. at Aberdeen in 1870,
and studied for the ministry at the Free Church College there
until 1874, when he was ordained minister of the Free Church
at Dufftown. Three years later he moved to Kelso, and in
18S4 became editor of the Expositor. In 1S86 he founded
the. British Weekly, a Nonconformist organ which obtained
great influence over opinion in the free churches. Robertson
Nicoll secured many writers of exceptional talent for his paper,
to which he was himself a considerable contributor, the papers
signed " Claudius Clear " being among those from his hand.
He abo founded and edited the Bookman (1891, &c.), and acted
as chief literary adviser to the publishing firm of Hodder &
Stoughton. Among his other enterprises were The Expositor's
Bible and The Theological Educator. He edited The Expositor's
Creek Testament (1897, &c.), and a series of Contemporary Writers
(1894, &c.), and of Literary Lives (1904, &c.). He wrote a history
of The Victorian Era in English Literature, and edited, with
T. J. Wise, Literary Anecdotes of the Nineteenth Century. The
knighthood bestowed on him among the birthday honours in
1909 was an apt recognition of his long and able devotion to
the " journeyman work " of literature.
A list of his publications is included in a monograph on Dr Nicoll
by Jane T. Stoddart (" New Century Leaders," 1903).
NICOLLS, RICHARD (1624-1672), American colonial governor,
was bom probably at Ampthill, Bedfordshire, England, in 1624.
He commanded a royalist troop of horse during the Civil War,
and on the defeat of the king went into exile. Soon after the
Restoration he became groom of the bedchamber to the duke of
664
NICX)LSON— NICOMEDIA
York, through whose influence he was appointed in 1664 on a
commission with Sir Robert Carr (d. 1667), Georse Cartwright
and Samuel Maverick, to conquer New Netherland from the
Dutch and to regulate the affairs of the New England colonies
and settle disputes among them. The expedition set sail from
Portsmouth on the asth of May 1664, and New Amsterdam was
surrendered to Nioolls on the 8th of September. Under authority
of a commission from the duke of York, NicoUs assumed the
position of deputy-governor of New Netherland (New York). His
policy was vigorous but tactful, and the transition to the new
regime was made smoothly and with due regard to the interests
of the conquered people. They were guaranteed in the possession
of their property rights, their laws of inheritance, and the enjoy-
ment of religious freedom. The En^ish system of law and
administration was at once introduced into Long Island, Staten
Island and Westchester, where the English element already
predommated, but the change was made much more slowly in
the Dutch sections. A code of laws, known as the " Duke's
Laws," drafted by the governor with the help of his secreUiy;
Matthias Nicolls* (c. 1630-1687), and dated the iath of March,
was proclaimed at Hempstead, Long Island, on the xst of March
1665 and continued in force until 1683; the code was compiled
from the codes of the New England colonies, and it provided for
trial by jury, for proportional taxation on property, for the
issuance of new patents for land and for land tenure only by
licence from the duke. NicoUs returned to England in the summer
of 1668 and continued in the service of the duke of York. He
was killed in the naval battle of Southwold Bay on the 38th of
May 1672.
See J. R. Brodhcad. History of the State of New York (a vols., lev.
cd., 1873). For the " Duke's Laws " see laws of Colonial New York,
i. 6-100.
NICOLSON, WILUAI (1655-1727). English divine and
antiquary, was educated at Queen's College, Oxford (M.A., 1679;
fellow, 1679-1683). After visiting Leipzig to learn German he
was made prebendary of Carlisle in 1681, archdeacon in 1682.
Twenty years later be was appointed bishop of the same diocese,
where he remained until his translation to Dcrry in 1718. In
1727 he was nominated archbishi^ of Cashd and Emly, but died
before he could assume charge. Nicolson is remembered by ihe
impulsiveness of his temperament, which led him into a good
deal of strife as a bishop, and more happily by his seal in collecting
and guarding manuscripts and other official documents. For this
purpose he had special rooms built at Derry. His chief works
were the Historical Library (English, 1696-97-99; Scottish,
1702; Irish, 1724; complete later editions, 1733 and 1776),
and Leges Marckiarum or Border Laws (1705, new ed., X747)-
NICOHACHUS, a Neo-pythagorean philosopher and mathe-
matician, bom at Gerasa in Arabia Petraea, flourished about
A.D. 100. In his musical treatise he mentions Thrasyllus (d. 36),
the astrologer and confidant of Tiberius, and his AriUmelic'^ins
translated by Apuleius, who wrote under Antoninus Pius and
Marcus Aurelius. He is the author of two extant treatises:
(i) *k(nBiarnxii daorfurfy {Introduction to Arithmetic), a meta-
physical account of the theory and properties of numbers, and
the first work in which arithmetic was treated quite independently
of geometry. It was extremely popular, was the subject of
commentaries by lamblichus (ed. H. Pistelli, 1894) and others,
was translated into Latin by Apuleius (according to Cassiodorus,
the translation itself being lost) and BoStius, and used as a
schoolbook down to the Renaissance. (2) 'EyxM^Mv^ Apfumt^
{Mansial of Harmony), complete in one book, to which are
erroneously appended as a second book some fragments probably
belonging to a larger treatise On Music now lost. It is the oldest
authority on the Pythagorean theory of music. Photlus (cod.
187) also mentions a work by Nicomachus called 'AptBiatrutik
*■ Matthias may have been a cousin of Richard NicoUs; his famUy
were of Iftlip, Oxford; he was iccreury of the province, held
various judicial positions, and was mayor of New York City in 1673.
Matthias's son WiUiam (1657-1733). a lawyer, was a member of the
New York Assembly from 1702 until his death and was speaker in
1702-1718; he received a royal patent for what is now the town
of Islip on Long I^nd. Descendants of Richard and of Matthias
NicoUs speU the name " NicoU."
StoKoyobiupa {The Tkedogy of Arithmetic), written in a tpaii of
Pythagorean mysticism and Oriental superstition, and letUBg
forth the appUcation of arithmetic, or rather of the first tea
numbers, to the origin and attributes of the gods^ But the
extracts in Photlus are now generaUy attributed to lamblicbus.
Other works of Nicomachus were: a Life of Pytkageras and a
CoUecHon of Pythagorean Doctrines, the chief source of the life of
IVthagoras and the account of his ^lilosophy by lamblichus.
Editions.— /nlrtfd. to Arith,, by R. Hoche (1866); Manwalt el
Harmony, by C. de Jan in Musici scriptores Graeci (1895), with
account of Nicomachus and his works, and French translation, with
bibliography and notes, by C. E. Ruelle (1881): Theology ef ArUk-
metic, by F. Ast (1817); see W. Christ, CeKhuhU der grieckisekea
Literatur (1898); M. Cantor, Vorlesungen Hber GeschkhU der Matie-
matik, i. (1894) p. 400. and J. Cow. A Short History 0/ Greek Maaw
nCOMACHUS, of Thebes, Greek painter, of the eaxly psit of
the 4th century, was a contemporary of the greatest painters of
Greece; Vitruvius observes that if his fame was less thain theirs, it
was the fault of fortune rather than of demerit. Plix^ (xxxv; 108)
gives a list of his works; among them a " Rape of Persephone,"
" Victory in a Quadriga," a group of Apollo and Artemis, and
the " Mother of the Gods seated on a Lion." Pliny tells us that
he was a very rapid worker and used but four colours (the Isst
seems impossible). Plutarch mentions his paintings 4ts possessing
the Homeric merit of ease and absence of effort.
NICOHEDES I., son of Zipoetes, king of Bithynia {c 278-
248 B.a). He made himself master of the whole country and put
to death his brother, who had set himself up as an independent
ruler. He enhuged and consoUdated the kingdom, founded the
great city of Nicomcdia as the capital, and fought successfuUy
for some time with Antiochus of Syria. His reign seeros to haw
been prosperous and uneventful; the year of his death a
uncertain.
Livy xxxviii. 16; Justin xxv. 2; Memnon in C. MilUer. Asf.
hist, Craec. iii. 535.
nCOIEDES n^ Epiphanes, king of Bithynia, 149-91 B.C,
fourth in descent from Nicomedes I., was the son of Pnisias IL
He was so popular with the people that his father sent him to
Rome. Here he was so much favoured by the senate that Pnisias
sent an emissary to Rome with secret orders to assassinate him.
But the emissary revealed the plot, and persuaded the prince to
rebd against his father. Supported by Attains D., king of
Pergamum, he was completely successful, and ordered his father
to be put to death at Nicomedia. During hb long reign Nico-
medes adhered steadily to the Roman aUiance, and assbted them
against Aristonicus of Pergamum. He made himsdf for a time
master of Paphlagonia, and in order to have a daim on Cappa-
doda married Laodice (the widow of Ariarathes VI.), who had
fled to him when Mithradates the Great endeavoured to annex
the country. When her two sons died, Nicomedes brought
forward an impostor as a claimant to the throne; but the plot
was detected. The Romans refused to recognise tlie claim, and
required Nicomedes to give up aU pretensions to Cappadocia and
to abandon Paphlagonia.
Appian. Mitkrad. 4-7; Strebo xiii. 634, 646; Diod. Sk. xndL
30, 31 ; Justin xxxiv. 4, xxxviL 4. xxxviii. 1, 3.
ncOHEDES III^ PhOopator, king of Bithynia, 91-74 B.C,
was the son and successor of Nicomedes II. His brotbo- Socrates,
assbted by Mithradates, drove him out, but he was reinstated by
the Romans (90). He was again expeUed by Mithradates, who
defeated him on the river Amneus (or Anmias) in Paphlagonia.
This led to the first Mithradatic War, as the result of whkh
Nicomedes was again restored (84). At hb death he bequeathed
hb kingdom to the Romans, a legacy which subsequently brought
about the third Biithradatic War.
Justin xxxvii. 4, xxxviii. i, 2; Ap|^n, liiArad, 7, to-ao^ 57.
60: Memnon in C. MQIler. Frag. huL Graec, iii. 541; Plutarch.
Sulla, 22, 24: Eutropius vi 6.
NICOMEDIA [mod. lsmid\, an andent town at the bead of the
Gulf of Astacus, which opens on the Propontis, was bufli in 264
B.C. by Nicomedes I. of Bithynia, and has ever since been oot
of the chief towns in this part of Asia Minor. It was the metres
polb of Bithynia under the Roman empire. (Jee Nxcasa)^ and
NICOPQLIS— NICOTINE
665
Dfedetian made ittlie cfaSef dty 6t iht East. Owing to its
position at the convergence of the Asiatic roads to the new
capital, Nicomedia retained iu importance even after the
foundation of Constantinople and its own capture by the Turks
(1338).
See C. Teder, AsU mineurt (Paris, 1839): .V. Cuenet, TmrfuU
d^Asie (Paris, 1894).
NICOPOUS, or Actia Nicopous, an ancient dty of Epirus,
founded 31 B.C. by Octavian (Augustus) in memory of his victory
over Antony and Cleopatra at Actium. The colony, composed
of settlers from a great many of the towns of the neighbouring
countries (Ambrada, Anactorxum, Calydon, Argos Amphilo-
cbicum, Leucas, &c.), proved highly successful, and the dty
was considered the capital of southern Epirus and Acamania,
and obtained the right of sending five representatives to the
Amphictyonic coundL On the spot where Octavian*s own tent
had been pitch^l he erected a sanctuary to Neptune adorned
with the beaks of the captured galleys; and in further cele-
bration of his victory he instituted the so-called Actian games
in honour of Apollo Actius. The dty was restored by the
emperor Julian, and again after the Gothic invasion by Justinian;
but in the course of the middle ages it was supplanted by the
town of Prevesa. The ruins of Nicopolis, now known as Palaeo-
prevesa (Old Prevesa), lie about 3 m. north of that dty, on a
small bay of the Gulf of Arta (Sinus Ambradus) at the narrowest
part of the isthmus of the peninsula which separates the ^If
from the Ionian Sea. Besides the acropolis, the most conspicuous
objects are two theatres (the larger with twenty-seven rows of
seats) and an aqueduct which brought water to the town from
a dbtance of 37 m.
Nicopolis was also the name of (i) a dty in Cappadocia in the
valley of the Lycus, founded by Pompey on the spot wheie he
defeated Mithradatcs; (2} a dty in Egypt, founded by Octavian
34 B.C. to commemorate his final victory over Antony: and C}) a city
in Thrace (Nikup) at the junction of the latrus with the Danube,
founded by Trajan in memory of hts victory over the Dadans.
NICOSIA, the capital of Cyprus, situated in the north central
part of the island. Pop. (1901) 14J52 (Moslem, 60x3 ; Christian,
8739). Its earliest name was Ledra, but Leucos, son of Ptolemy
Soter (280 B.C.), is said to have restored it and changed its name
to Leuteon, Leucothcon or Levcosia. A mile S.W. of the town
lies the very large Bronse Age necropolis known as Hagia
Paraskevi, which has been repeatedly explored with valuable
results. The drcuit of the dty was reduced in 1567, under the
direction of the Venetian engineer G. Savorgnano, from 9 m.
to 3 m.; eighty churches and a number of fine houses were
sacrificed. The new walls were given a drcular shape, with
deven bastions and three gates. Water b supplied by two
-aqueducts. Government House, the residence of the high
commissioner, the government offices, hospital, central prison
and the new English church are without the walls. The fosse
has been planted, and part of it used as an experimental garden.
Carriage roads have been completed to Kyrenia, Kythraia,
Famagusta, Lamaca, Limasol and Morphou. The prindpal
monuments of the Lusignan period are the fine cathedral church
of St Sophia, an edifice of French Gothic, at once solid and
elegant (the towers were never completed); the church of St
Catherine, an excellent example of the kist years of the X4th
century (both these are now mosques); and the church of St
Nicolas of the English (now a grain store), built for the order of
the Knighu of St Thomas of Acre. A gateway of no great
imporunce is nearly all that remains of the palace last used by
the Venetian provoeditori. It dates from the end of the xsth
century. There is a n-useum, with a valuable catalogue. The
chief industries are tanning and hand weaving, both silk and
cotton.
NICOSIA, a dty and episcopal see (since 1816) of Sidly, in the
province of Catania, ai m. by road N. of the railway station of
Loonforte (which is 49 m. W. of Catania) and 42 m. W.N.W. of
Caunia direct, 2840 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) 16,004.
The town retains a thoroughly medieval appearance, with a fine
Norman cathedral and some other interesting churches, among
them S. Maria Maggiore, with a reredos by Antonio Gagini.
A Lombard dialect is still spoken here, and the town b less
naodemlsed in evecy respect than any other in Sicily. The Sicel
town of Herhita is usually placed here, but without suffident
reason, and the origin of Nicosia is unknown. It was destroyed
by the Saracens and repopulated by the Normans.
NICOTBRA, GIOVANNI (1828-1894). Italian patriot and
politician, was bom at San Biagio on the 9th of September
1828. Joining the party of young Italy he was among the
combatants at Naples in May 1848, and was at San Pancrazio
with Garibaldi during the defence of Rome. After the fall of
Rome he fled to Piedmont, where he organized the expedition
to Sapri in 1857, but shortly after his arrival there he was
defeated and severdy wounded by the Bourbon troops. Con-
demned to death, but reprieved through the intervention of
the British minister, he remained a prisoner at Naples and at
Favignana until' 1860, when he joined Garibaldi at Palermo.
Sent by Garibaldi to Tuscany, he attempted to invade the Papal
States with a volunteer brigade, but his followers were disarmed
and disbanded by Ricasoli and Cavour. In 1862 he was with
Garibaldi at Aspromonte; in x866 he conunanded a volunteer
brigade against Austria; in 1867 he invaded the Papal States
from the south, but the defeat of Garibaldi at Mentana put an
end to his enterprise. His parliamentary career dates from i860.
During the first ten years he engaged in violent opposition, but
from 1870 onwards he joined in supporting the military reforms
of RicottL Upon the advent of the Left in 1876, Nicotera
became minister of the interior, and governed with remarkable
firmness. He was obliged to resign in December 1877, when he
joined Crispi, Calroli, Zanardelli and Baccarini in forming the
*' pentarchy " in opposition to DepreUs, but he only returned to
power thuteen years later as minister of the interior in the
Rudini cabinet of 1891. Oh this occasion he restored the system
of uninominal constituendes, resisted the sodalist agitation,
and pressed, though in vain, for the adoption of drastic measures
against the false bank-notes put in drculation by the Roman
bank. He fell with the Rudini cabinet in May 1892, and died
at Vico Equense, near Naples, on the X3th of June 1894.
Sec V. Giordano. La Vita ed i discorsidi GUnanni NicoUm (Salermo.
1878); Mauro, Biografia di Giovanni Nicotera (Rome. 1886; German
trans.. Leipzig, 1886); and Mario, In mtmoria di Giovanni Nicotera
(Florence, 1894).
NICOTINB, CioHmNi, an alkaloid, found with small quantities
of nicotimine, CifHMNt, nlcotdne, CioHuNi, and nicotelline,
CiaHtNs, in tobacco. The name is taken from Nicotiana, the
tobacco plant, so called after Jean Nicot (1530-1600), French
ambassador at Lisbon, who introduced tobacco into France in
1560. These four alkaloids exist in combination in tobacco
chiefly as malates and dtrates. The alkaloid is obtained from
an aqueous extract of tobacco by' distillation with slaked lime,
the distillate bdng addified with oxalic add, concentrated to a
syrup and decomposed by potash. The free base is extracted
by ether and fractionated in a current of hydrogen. It is a
colourless oil, which boils at 347" C. (745 mm.), and when pure is
almost odourless. It has a sharp burning taste, -and is very
poisonous. It is very hygroscopic, dissolves readily in water,'
and rapidly undergoes oxidation on exposure to air. The free
alkaloid is strongly laevo-rotatory. F. Ratz (Monats., 1905, 26,
p. X24x) obtained the value [a]o"-i69-54'* at ao^; its salts a^
dextro-roUtory. It behaves as a di-add as well as a di-tertiary
base.
On oxidation with chromic or nitric adds, or potassium per-
mannnate, it yields nicotinic add or iS-pyridine carboxylic acid.
CtHfN'COsH; alkaline pouanum femcyanide gives nfeotyrine.
CmHioNi. and hydrogen peroxide (»ynicotine, CwHi4N/). Oxidar
tion of its iflomethylhydroxidc with potassium permanganate yields
trigonelline. CtHtNOi (A. Pictet and P. Gcnequand. Ser., 1897, 30,
p. 21 17). It Rives rise to various decompo«tlon products such as
pyridine, ptcoiine. &c., when its vapour is passed through a red-hot
tube. The hydrochloride on heating with hydrochlonc acid gives
methyl chloride (B. Blau. Ber., 1893. 36. p. 631). Hydriodic acid
and phosphorus at high temperature give a oihydro-compound,
whilst sodium and alcohol give hcxa- and octo-hydro derivatives.
Nicotine may be recognized by the addition of a drop of ^o %
formaldehyde, the mixture beinR allowed to stand for one hour
and the solid residue then moistened by a drop of concentrated
666
NICTHEROY— NIDIFICATION
mlpftniic 4ictd> wlwn an intmsc raiie-r«l colour is produEicd (I.
Scbinjdelm<;b«rri Ph^fm. ZtniraJkttiU, i&^„ 40, p. 704).
The ccnstitulion o( nicoiiiit;^ wjj established by A. Pinnfr (lee
papcra \ti thf ftrrKAif, 1^91 1,0 1B95). With bromine in afrtJc acid
•otutton at orrJinAry le-mpcraturCt nicoLine viclds a perbroniidc,
Ct*H)*Br|NtO'HBri4 whicfi H'iLh (ulphur dioiddSt f^llowiMi] by
f:>tA^)ii i}vtA dibrDmcoiirLinct CjiiHjiiBr]Ni!0+ from whtch c£>!-iEunc,
stHitN^, t* oUai(M?d by diitiilUtion over jrinc dust. By huiing
nicoTinc v\ih bmniint in h^drobnwic acid sol u lion for 4otnc hours
at lOo" €.» dibromikonlTic hydrobfDmidc. CwHiNiBr^-HBr,
nsuhft. DibromcrjtJnine on hydrolysis yiclils oimlic ^cid, rctcthy-
lamlne and j3-mcthyl pyridyl kftonp; Cj-H<#Rr,N«0+:!lHtO+0-
H,CtOi+CH,NH,+CJLN COCHi+2KHr: wtijl^t dibrcrntunrnnc
yields me til y 1,1 mine, ma Ionic acid anii nicotirtic acid : CiiHiGr^N ,( '^+
4HiO-CHjNH,+<:VMC€>ilUr+Cjf,N'COiH+2HBr, or ii b, .Lcd
■with pnc and c^uniic fiota.^ih, mc thy la mine and pyridyl'^v-dwaty-
butyric acid. Thui the firaupineB
T
C—
-CC— >N.CH, and— CCC—
exist in the molecule, and the alkaloid is to be represented as
a-pyridyl-N-methyl-pyrolUdine.
. This result has been confirmed by its synthesis by A. Pictet and
P. Cr^icux {Comptts rendus, 1903. 137, p. 860) and Pictet and
Rotschy (Ber.^ iQo^i 37. P- 1225): ^-aminopyridine is converted
into its mucatc, which by dry distillation gives N-/3-pyridylpyrrol.
By passing the vapour of this compound through a red-hot tube,
it yields the isomeric a/3-pyridyIpyrrol, the potassium salt of which
with methyl iodide gives a substance methylated both in the pyridine
and pyrrol nuclei. By distillation over lime, the methyl group is
and pyrrol nuclei. By distillation over lime, the methyl group is
removed from the pyridine ring, and the resulting o-pyridyl-N-
mcthylpyrrol gives t-nicotinc on reduction. This base is resolved into
he natu
{ formul
V CH CH U 1
its active components by d-tartaric acid, ^nicotine-d-tartrate
crystallizing out first. The natural (laevo) bsise is twice as toxic as
the dextro. The following formulae are important : —
r— CH /N-C-CH A-CHCH.
CH CH U NH CH U N CH,
%/ N \-/ N V"
CH CH H,C CH,
N-^Pyridylpyrrol, a/5-pyridylpyrrol, nicotine.
Acetyl and benzoyl derivatives of nicotine on hydrolysis do not
yield mcotinc, but an isomeric, inactive oily liquid (mctanicotinc).
It is a secondary base, and boils at 275°-278^ C.
Nicolimine is a colourless liquid which boils at 250^-255* C. Its
aqueous solution is alkaline. Nicoieine is a licfuid which boils at
267^ C. It is separated from the other alkaloids of the group by
distilling off the nicotine and nicotiminc in steam and then fraction-
ating the residue. It is soluble in water and is very poisonous.
Nicotelline crystallizes in needles which melt at 147^ C. ana is readily
soluble in hot water.
NICTHEROY, or Niteroy, a city of Brazil and capita] of
the state of Rio do Janeiro, on the £. shore of the Bay of Rio
de Janeiro, opposite the city of that name. Pop. (1890) 34,269,
(1900 estimate) 35,000. A railway connects the dty with
the interior— the old Canugallo line, now a part of the Lco-
poldina system, a branch of which runs north-eastward to
Macahi, on the coast, and another northward from Nova
Friburgo to a junction with the railway lines of Minas Gcraes.
Nictheroy is practically a residential suburb of Rio dc Janeiro.
It occupies, in great part, the low alluvial plain that skirts the
shores of the bay and fills the valleys between numerous low
wooded hills. The site is shut off from the sea coast by a range
of high rugged mountains. The shore line of the bay is broken
by large, deeply indented bays (that of Jurujuba being nearly
surrounded by wooded hills), shallow curves and sharp pro-
montories. Within these bays are beaches of white sand, called
praias, such as the Praia da Icarahy, Praia das Flechas and
Praia Grande, upon which face low tile-covcred residences
surrounded with gardens. The city consists of a number of
these partially separated districts— Praia Grande, Sfto Domingos,
Icarahy, Jurujuba, Santa Rosa, S&o Louren^o, Ponta d'Arcia
and Barreto--all together covering 8 or 9 m. of the shore.
An electric street railway connects all the outlying districts
with the ferry stations of Praia Grande and Sfio Domingos.
The dty is characteristically Portuguese in the construc-
tion and style of its buildings — ^low, heavy walls of broken
stone and mortar, plastered and coloured outside, with an
occasional facing «of glazed Lisbon tiles, and covered with
red tiles. Among the public buildings are several churches
and hospitals (including the Jurujuba yellow-fever hospital
and the Barrelo isolation hospital), the government palace,
a municipal theatre and a large Salesian college situated in the
suburbs of Santa Rosa on an eminence overlooking the lower
bay. Several large islands fill the upper bay near the eastern
shore; some arc used as coal deposits for the great steamship
compam'es, and one (Flores) is used as an immigrants' dep6t.
There is a small, rocky and picturesque island nearer the
harbour entrance, which is crowned by a small chapel, dedicated
to Nossa Senhora da Boa Viagem. Manufactures include
cotton and woollen fabrics, tobacco, spirits, soap and tiles.
The first settlement on the east side of the Bay of Rio de
Janeiro dates from 167 1, when a chapel was erected at Praia
Grande, in the vicinity of an Indian village. The settlement
did not become a village until 1819, when it was named Villa
Real da Praia Grande. In 1834 the dty and munidpal district
of Rio de Janeiro was separated from the province, and Praia
Grande became the capital of the latter in the following year.
in 1836 it was raised to the dignity of a city and received the
appropriate name of Nictheroy, from the Indian name Nyierdi,
" hidden water." In the naval revolt of 1893-94 the older
districts of the dty suffered much damage from desultory
bombardments, but the insurgents were too few to take possession.
Soon afterwards the scat of government was removed to
Petropolis, where it remained until 1903, when Nictheroy
again became the capital of the state.
NIDIFICATION (from Lat. nidus), the process of making a
nest (g.v.). Nidification is with most birds the beginm'ng of the
breeding season, but with many it is a labour that is scamped
if not shirked. Some of the auk tribe place thdr single egg on
a bare ledge of rock, where its pectdiar conical shape is but
a precarious safeguard when rocked by the wind or stirred
by the thronging crowd of its pbrents' fellows. The stone-curlew
and the goatsucker deposit their eggs without the slii^htes*
preparation of the soil on which they rest; yet this is not don*
at haphazard, for no birds can be more constant in selecting,
almost to an inch, the very same spot which year after year
they choose for their procreant cradle. In marked contrast
to such artless care stand the wonderful structures which others.
such as the tailor-bird, the bottle-titmouse or the fantail-warbler,
build for the comfort or safety of their young. But every variety
of disposition may be found in the dass. The apteryx seeira
to entrust its abnormally big egg to an excavation among the
roots of a tree-fern; while a band of female ostriches scrape
holes in the desert-sand and therein promiscuously drop their
eggs and leave the task of incubation to the male. Sonne
mcgapodes bury their eggs in sand, leaving them to come to
maturity by the mere warmth of the ground, while others
raise a huge hotbed of dead leaves wherein they deposit theirs,
and the young arc hatched without further care on the part
of either parent. Some of the grebes and rails seem to avail
themselves in a less degree of the heat generated by vegetable
decay and, dragging from the bottom or sides of the ^sraters
they frequent fragments of aquatic plants, form of them a rude
half-floating mass which is piled on some growing water* weed —
but these birds do not spurn the duties of maternity.
Many of the gulls, sandpipers and plovers lay their eggs in a
shallow pit which they hollow out in the soil, and then as incuba-
tion proceeds add thereto a low breastwork of haulm. The
ringed plover commonly places its eggs on shingle, which they
so much resemble in colour, but when breeding on grassy uplands
it paves the ncst-hole with small stones. Pigeons mostly make
an artless platform of slicks so loosely laid together that their
pearly treasures may be perceived from beneath by the inquisitive
observer. The magpie, as though self-consdous that its own
thieving habits may be imitated by its neighbours, surrounds
its nest with a hedge of thorns. Very many birds of aJiTKsi
every group bore holes in some sandy cliff, and at the end of
their tunnel deposit their eggs with or without bedding. Such
bedding, too, is very various in character; thus, while the
sheldduck and the sand-martin supply the softest of materials —
the one of down from her own body, the other of feathers ooUecteti
NIDIFICATION
667
by dint of diligent search— the kingfisher forms a couch of the
undigested spiny fish bones which she ejects in pellets from her
own stomach. Other birds, such as the woodpeckers, hew holes
In living trees, even when the timber is of considerable hardness,
and therein establish their nursery. Some of the swifts secrete
from their salivary glands a fluid which rapidly hardens as it
dries on exposure to the air into a substance resembling isinglass,
and thus furnish the " edible birds' nests " that are the delight
of Chinese epicures. In the architecture of nearly all the
passerine birds, too, some salivary secretion seems to play an
important part. By its aid they are enabled to moisten and
bend the otherwise refractory twigs and straws, and glue them
to their place. Spiders' webs also are employed with great
advantage for the purpose last mentioned, but perhaps chiefly
to attach fragments of moss and lichen so as to render the whole
structure less obvious to the eye of the spoiler. The tailor-bird
deliberately spins a thread of cotton and therewith stitches
together the edges of a pair of leaves to make a receptacle
for its nest. Beautiful, too, is the felt fabricated of fur or hairs
by the various species of titmouse, while many birds ingeniously
weave into a compact mass both animal and vegetable fibres,
forming an admirable non-conducting medium which guards
the eggs from the extremes of temperature outside. Such a
structure may be open and cup-shaped, supported from below
as that of the chaffinch and goldfinch, domed like that of the
wren and bottle-titmouse, slung hammock-wise as in the case
of the golden-crested wren and the orioles, or suspended by a
single cord as with certain grosbeaks and humming-birds.
Certain warblers {Aedon and Tkamnobia) invariably lay a
piece of snake's slough in their nests — to repel, it has been
suggested, marauding lizards who may thereby fear the neigh-
bourhood of a deadly enemy. The clay-built edifices of the
swallow and martin are known to everybody, and the nuthatch
plasten up the gaping mouth of its ncst-hole till only a postern
large enough for entrance and exit, but easy of defence, is left.
In South America the oven-birds {Furnariidae) construct on the
branches of trees globular ovens, so to speak, of mud, wherein
the eggs are Uid and the young hatched. The flamingo erects
in the marshes it frequents a mound of earth sometimes 3 ft. in
height, with a cavity atop. The females of the hombills submit
to incarceration during this interesting period, the males im-
muring them by a barrier of mud, leaving only a small window to
admit air and food.
But though in a general way the dictates of hereditary instinct
are rigidly observed by birds, in many species a remarkable
degree of elasticity is exhibited, or the rule of habit is ruicly
broken. Thus the falcon, whose ordinary eyry is on the beetling
cUfT, will for the convenience of procuring prey condescend to
lay its eggs on the ground in a marsh, or appropriate the nest
of some other bird in a tree. The golden eagle, too, remarkably
adapts itself to circumstances, now rearing its young on a
precipitous ledge, now on the arm of an ancient monarch of the
forest and again on a treeless plain, making a humble home
amid grass and herbage. Herons will breed according to circum-
stances in an open fen, on sea-banks or (as is most usual) on lofty
trees. Such changes arc easy to understand. The instinct of
finding food for the family is predominant, and where most food
is there wiU the feeders be gathered together. This explains, in
all likelihood, the associated bands of ospreys or fish-hawks,
which in North America breed (or used to breed) in large
companies where sustenance is plentiful, though in the Old
World the same species brooks not the society of aught but its
mate. Birds there are of eminently social predilections. In
Europe, apart from sea-fowls— whose congregations are universal
and known to all— only the heron, the fieldfare and the rook
habitually flock during the breeding season; but in other parts
of the world many birds unite in company at that time, and in
none possibly is this habit so strongly developed as in the anis
of the neotropical region, the republican swallow of North
America and the sociable grosbeak of .South Africa, which last
joins nest to nest until the tree is said to break down under the
arrumulated weight of the common edifice.
In the strongest contrast to these amiable qualities is the
parasitic nature of the cuckoos of the Old World and the cow-
birds of the New. The egg of the parasite is introduced into the
nest of the dupe, and after the necessary incubation by the fond
fool of a foster-mother the interloper successfully counterfeits
the heirs, who perish miserably, victims of his superior strength.
The whole process has been often watched, but the reflective
naturalist will pause to ask how such a state of things came
about, and there is not much to satisfy his inquiry. Certain it
is that some birds whether by mistake or stupidity do not
infrequently lay their eggs in the nests of others. It is within the
knowledge of many that pheasants' eggs and partridges' eggs
are often laid in the same nest, and gulls' eggs have been found
in the nests of eider-ducks and vice versa; a redstart and a pied
flycatcher will lay their eggs in the same convenient hole — the
forest being rather deficient in such accommodation; an owl
and a duck will resort to the same nest-box, set up by a scheming
woodsman for his own advantage; and the starling, which
constantly dispossesses the green woodpecker, sometimes dis-
covers that the rightful heir of the domicile has to be brought
up by the intruding tenant. In all such cases it is not possible
to say which species is so constituted as to obtain the mastery,
but it is not difficult to conceive that in the course of ages that
which was driven from its home might thrive through the foster-
ing of its young by the invader, and thus the abandonment of
domestic habits and duties might become a direct gain to the
evicted householder. (A. N.)
Nests and Coloration,— The correlation between nests and the
coloration of the birds has been investigated by A. R. Wallace.
Accordingly he divides birds into two main groups, first those in
which the sexes are alike and of conspicuous or showy colours,
and which nidificate in a covered site; secondly, those in which the
males are showy and the females sombre, and which use open sites
for their ncsu. The many exceptions to these generalizations caused
j. A. Allen {Bull. NuU. Orn. Club, 1878) to write an advene criticism.
C. Dixon (H. Sccbohm's Hist. Brit. Birds, ii.. 1884, introduction)
has reviewed the question from Wallace's point of view. He
established the following categories.
I . Birds in which the plumage of the male is bright and conspicuous
in colour, and that of the female dull and sombre, and which nidificate
in open sites. In these very common cases, the female alone in-
cubates, and obviously derives protection from its inconspicuous
plumage.
3. Birds in which the plumaee of both sexes is showy or brilliant
in colour, and which nidificate in open nests. This group forms one
of those exceptions which at first sight appear seriously to affect the
validity of Wallace's theory. In most of the cases, however, the
biitls, as, for instance, crows, gulls, herons, are cither well able to
defend themselves and their nests or, as, for insuncc, the sandpipers,
they seek safety for themselves in flight, relying upon the protective
tints of their eggs or young. ,. ^ * . ^
3. Birds in which the male is less bnlliant than the female, and
which nidificate in open nests. Such birds are exceedingly few, e.g.
the Phalaropes, the common cassowary, the emu, a carrion hawk
{Milvago Uucurus) from the Falkland Islands, an Australian tree-
creeper {Climacteris erythrobs) and an Australian goatsucker {Eury-
stopodus albiguloris). In all these cases the male performs the duty
of incubation. The male tinamous do the same, although they do
not differ from their mates, but the conspicuously cok>urcd male
ostrich takes this duty upon himself during the night.
4. Birds in which both sexes are brightly coloured, and which rear
their young in holes or covered nests. For instance, the gaudy
coloured rollers, bee-caters, kingfishers, the hoopoe, hornbills,
toucans, parrots, tits, the sheldrake and many others.
5. Birds in which both sexes arc dull in colour, and which build
covered nests from motives of safety other than concealment. For
example, the swifts (Cypselus), the sand-martin {CotyU riparia),
wrens, dippers and owls.
6. Birds in which the female is duller m colour than the male,
and which nidificate in covered nests; e.^. the redstart (Ruticilla
phoenicura), the pied flycatcher (Musctcapa atricafnlla), rock-
thrushes {Monlicola), chats {Saxicoia) and robin-chats {Tkamnobia),
and birds of the genus iialurus. In some of these cases the showy
male bird assists in incubatk>n, the kind of nest allowing him to do
so with safety. , , ,. , . .
Similar difliculties beset the generaliiations concerning the
correlation of the colour of the eggs and the exposed or bidden
condition of the nest. The eggs of most birds which breed in holes,
or even in covered nests, are white, but the number of exceptions
is so great that no general rule can be laid down to this effect. Con-
versely the number of birds which lay purely white eggs in open
nests, e.g. pigeons, is also large. The eggs of owb are always white.
668
NIEBUHR, B. G.
whether they be deposited in holes on the bnre sround or in open
nests in • tree. The eggs of the goshawk are white, but those of
its small relation, the sparrowfaawk, are always bkxchcd. the nest of
both being built predaely in the same kind of position. &c In
regard to tAe almost countless cases of spotted eggs in holes or covered
nests, of which so many groups of birds furmsh examples cither
wholly or in part, it has been suggested that the species m question
has taken to hiding its eggs in times comparatively recent, and has
not yet got pd of the ancestral habit of secreting and dcspositing
Length of Timg of /nciiteiion.— Most of the smaller Patseres seem
to hatch their young in from 13-15 days. The shortest period, only
10 days, b rixordcd of the small Zosterops coerulesctns; the largest,
amounting to about 8 weeks, is that of some of the larjscr Ratitae,
penguins and the condor. The best list, comprising birds of most
groups, is that by W. Evans {Ibis, 1891. pp. 53-93: and 1892, pp.
55-58). Speaking broadly, the largest birds lay the largest eggs and
require the tongest time for incubation, but there are very many
exceptions, and only birds of the same group can be compared with
each other. The domestic fowl ukcs 21 days, but the pheasant,
though so very nearly allied, ukes 2 or 3 da^ longer, and even the
small partridge requires 24 days. The mallard ukcs 26, the domestic
duck 27. the musk duck 35 davs, like most of the swans. The cuckoo,
with ti to 14 days, seems to nave adapted itself to the short period
of its foster parents.
The whole question still affords ample opportunities of experimcnul
investigation and comparison. The condition of the newly hatched
birds abo varies extremely. The Nidifupte are bom with their eyes
open, are thinly clothed with ncossoptiln of simph: structure, leave
the nest on the first day and feed themselves. The NidkoUu arc
bom blind, remain a long time in the nest and have to be fed by their
parents. Taken as a whole, the Ntdifugae comprise most of the
phylogenetically older groups; but many of these may include some
closely allied members which have reached the developmental level
of the NiditoUu: for instance, some Akidae. the ^gcons. Sphenisci,
Tubinarcs, Ciconiae. For detail see Birds: Clasnfieation. While in
the first pategory the sense organs, tegumentary and locomotory
organs are far advanced, these are Tctardod in the NidkoUu, the
development of these structures being shifted on to the postcmbnronic
period. Yet the kmgth of the incubation is by no means always
longer in the Nidifugae, when compared with equal-siaed Nidicolae.
For further information the reader may be referred to: A. R.
Wallace, " A Theory of Birds' Nests," Joum, of Travd and Nat.
Hist., 1868, p. 73. reprinted in his Contributions to the Theory of
Natural Selection {London, 1870); A. McAldowie, " Observations on
the Development and the Decay of the Pigment Layer in Birds'
Eggs," Joum. An. Phys. xx., 1886. pp. 22^-337; W. Hewitson.
Coloured Illustrations of the Eggs of Brtttsh Btrds (3rd ed.. London.
1856); T. M. Brewer. North American Oology (4to. Washington.
1857); A. LefAvre, Atlas des aufs des oiseaux a' Europe (8vo. Paris.
1845); F. W. Baedeker. Die Eier der europdischen VOgel (fol.
Leipzig. 1863): E. Rcy. Eier d. Vdul Mittd-Europa's (Cera, 1905):
A. Newton, Ooiheca WMeyana (8vo. London, 186^-1907); and
articles on ** Eggs " and " Nidification " in DiU. Btrds (London.
1893-1896). (H. F. C.)
NIBBUHR, BARTROLD ORORO (1776-1831), German states-
man and historian, son of Karsten Niebuhr (9.V.), was born at
Copenhagen on the 27th of August 1776. From the earliest age
young Niebuhr manifested extraordinary precocity, and from
1794 to i796> being already a finished classical scholar and
acquainted with several modem languages, he studied at the
university of Kiel. After quitting the university he became
private secretary to Count Schimmelmann, Danish minister of
finance. But in 1798 he gave up this appointment and travelled
in Great Britain, spending a year at Edinburgh studying agri-
culture and physical science. In 1799 he returned to Denmark,
where he entered the state service; in 1800 he married and
settled at Copenhagen. In 1804 he became chief director of the
National Bank, but in September 1806 quitted this for a similar
appointment in Prussia. He arrived in Prussia on the eve of
the catastrophe of Jena. He accompanied the fugitive govern-
ment to K5nigsberg, where he rendered considerable service
in the commissariat, and was afterwards still more useful as
commissioner of the national debt and by his opposition to ill-
considered schemes of taxation. He was also for a short time
Prussian minister in Holland, where he endeavoured without
success to contract a loan. The extreme sensitiveness of his
temperament, however, disqualified him for politics; he proved
impracticable in his relations with Hardenberg and other ministers,
and in 1810 retired for a time from public life, accepting the
more congenial appointment of royal historiographer and
professor at the university of Berlin.
He commenced his lectures with a course on the history of
Rome, which formed the basis of his great work R9wdsckt
GeschichU. The first two volumes, based upon his lectures,
were published in 1813, but attracted little attention at the time
owing to the absorbing interest of political events. In 1815
Niebuhr's own attention was diverted from history by the
uprising of the German people against Napoleon; he entered
the Landwehr and ineffectually sought admission into the
regular army. He edited for a short time a patriotic journal,
the Prussian Correspondent, joined the headquaxten of the
allied sovereigns, and witnessed the battle of Bautxcn, and was
subsequently employed in some minor negotiationa. In 1815 he
lost both his father and his wife. He next accepted (18x6) the
post of ambassador at Rome, and on his way thither he discovered
in the cathedral library of Verona the long-lost InslUutes of
Gaius, afterwards edited by Savigny, to whom he oommunkated
the discovery under the impression that he had found a portion
of Ulpian. During his residence in Rome Niebuhr discovered
and published fragments of Cicero and Livy, aided Cardinal Mai
in his edition of Cicero De Republiea, and shared in framing the
plan of the great work on the topography of ancient Rome by
Christian C. J. von Bunsen and Ernst Plainer (1773-1855), to
which he contributed several chapters. He also, on a journey
home from Italy, deciphered in a palimpsest at St Gall the frag-
ments of Flavius Merobaudes, a Roman poet of the 5th century.
In 1823 he resigned the embassy and established himself at Bonn,
where the remainder of his life was spent, with the exception of
some visits to Berlin as councillor of state. He here rewrote
and republished (1827-1828) the first two volumes of his Reman
History, and composed a third volume, bringing the narrative
down to the end of the First Punic War, which, with the help of
a fragment written in 1811, was edited after his death (185:)
by Johannes Classen (1805-1891). He also assisted in August
Beldcer'a edition of the Byzantine historians, and delivered
courses of lectures on ancient history, ethnography, geo-
graphy, and on the French Revolution. In February 1830 his
house was burned down, but the greater part of his books and
manuscripts were saved. The revolution of July in the same year
was a terrible blow to him, and filled him with the most dismal
anticipations of the future of Europe. He died on the snd of
January 1831.
Niebuhr's Rowtast History counts among epoch-making histories
both as marking an era in the study of its special subject and for
its momentous influence on the general conception of histoo'-
" The main results," says Lconhard Schmitz, '* arrived at by the
inquiries of Niebuhr, such as his views of the andent popula-
tion of Rome, the origin of the plcbs, the relation between the
patricians and plebeians, the real nature of the agcr publicus, and
many other points of interest, have been acknowledged by all
his successors." Other alleged discoveries, such as the con-
struction of eariy Roman history out of still earlier balbds,
have not been equally fortunate; but if every positive conclusion
of Niebuhr's had been refuted, his claim to be considered the
first who dealt with the ancient history of Rome in a sdeniific
spirit would remain unimpaired, and the new principles intro-
duced by him into historical research would lose nothing of thdr
importance. He suggested, though he did not elaborate, the
theory of the myth, so potent an instrument for good and ill in
modem historical criticism. He brought in inference to supply
the place of discredited tradition, and showed the possibility
of writing history in the absence of original records. By his
theory of the disputes between the patricians and plebeians arising
from original differences of race he drew attention to the immense
importance of ethnological distinctions, and contributed to the
revival of these divergences as factors in modem history. More
than all, perhaps, since his conception of ancient Roman story
made laws and manners of more account than shadowy lawgivers,
he undesignedly influenced history by popularizing that con-
ception of it which lays stress on institutions, tendencies and
social traits to the neglect of individuals.
Niebuhr's poraonal character was in most respects exceeding
attractive. His heart was kind and his affections were itronc;
NaEBUHR, K.— NIEDERWALD
669
he wts magnanimous and disinterested, simple and honest.
He had a kindling sympathy with everything lofty and generous,
and framed his own conduct upon the highest principles. His
chief defect was an over-sensitiveness, leading to peevish and
unreasonable behaviour in his private and official relations, to
hasty and unbalanced judgments of persons and things that had
given him annoyance, and to a despondency and discouragement
which frustrated the great good he might have effected as a philo-
sophic critic of public affairs.
The principal authority for Ntcbuhr'a life is the Lehensnacknchltn
^ber B. G. Niehuhr, aus Briefen <UsseU>en und aus Ertnnerungen
amigtr sginer ndckskn Preunde, by Dorothea Hcnslcr (3 vols., 1838-
i839)> In the English translation by Miss Winkworth (1852) a
great deal of the convspondcncc b omitted, but the narrative is
rendered more full, especially as concerns Niebuhr's participation
in public affairs. It also contains interesting communications from
Bunsen and Professor Locbell, and select translations from the
Kkiiu SckrifUn, See also J. Classen, BcrtkM Ceorg Ntebukr, etne
Geddcktnusekrift (1876), and C. Eysaenhardt. B G. Ntelmhr (18B6)
The first edition of his Roman History was transbtcd into English
by F. A. Walter (1827), but was immediately superseded by the
translation of the second edition by Julius Hare and Connop Thirwall,
completed by William Smith and Leonhard Schmitz (last edition,
1 847-1 85 1 ). The History has been discussed and criticized in a great
number of publications, the most important of which, perhaps, is
Sir George Cornwall Lewis's Essay on Uu Credibility oj the Early
Roman History. See further J. E. Sandys, History of Classical
Scholarship (1908), UL, pp. 78-82.
NIBBUHR, KAR8TEN (1733-1815), German traveller, was
bora at Lfldingworth, Lauenburg, on the southern border of
Holstein, on the 17th of March 1733, the son of a small farmer.
He had little education, and for several years of his youth had
to do the work of a peasant. His bent was towards mathematics,
and he managed to obtain some lessons in surveying. It was
while he was working at this subject that one of his teachers, in
1760, proposed to him to join the expedition which was being sent
out by Frederick V. of Denmark for the scientific exploration
of Egypt, Arabia and Syria. To qtialify himself for the work
of surveyor and geographer, he studied hard at mathematics
(or a year and a half before the expedition set out, and also
mana^ to acquire some knowledge of Arabic. The expedition
sailed in January 1761, and, landing at Alexandria, ascended the
Nile. Proceeding to Suez, Niebuhr made a visit to Mount Sinai,
and in October 1762 the expedition sailed from Suez to Jcddah,
journeying thence overland to Mocha. Here in May 1763 the
philologist of the expedition, van Haven, died, and was followed
shortly after by the naturalist Forsk&l. Sana, the capital of
Yemen, was visited, but the remaining members of the expedition
sttfTercd so much from the climate or from the mode of life that
they returned to Mocha. Niebuhr seems to have saved his own
life and restored his health by adopting the native habits as to
dress and food. From Mocha the ship was taken to Bombay,
the artist of the expedition dying on the passage, and the surgeon
soon after landing. Niebuhr was now the only surviving member
of the expedition. He stayed fourteen months at Bombay, and
then returned home by Muscat, Bushire, Shiraz and Perscpohs,
visited the ruins of Babylon, and thence went to Bagdad, Mosul
and Aleppo. After a visit to Cyprus he made a tour through
Palestine, crossing Mount Taurus to Brussa, reaching Con-
stantinople in February 1767 and Copenhagen in the following
November. He married in 1 773, and for some years held a post in
the Danish military service which enabled him to reside at
Copenhagen. In 1778, however, he accepted a position in the
civil service of Hoktein, and went to reside at Mcldorf, where he
died on the 26th of April 1815.
Niebuhr was an accurate and careful observer, had the in-
stincts of the scholar, was animated by a high moral purpose,
and was rigorously conscientious and anxiously truthful in
recording the results of his observation. His works have long
been dusics on the geography, the people, the antiquities
and the archaeology of much of the district of Arabia which he
traversed. His first volume, Btsckreibung von Arabien, was
published at Copenhagen in 1772, the Danish goveramcnt de-
fraying the expenses of the abundant illustrations This was
followed in 1774-1778 by two other volumes, Reisebeschreibung
ton Arabien und anderen unUiegenden Ldndem. The fourth
volume was not published till 1837, long after his death, undcf
the editorship of Niebuhr's daughter. He also undertook the
task of bringing out the work of his friend ForskAl, the naturalist
of the expedition, under the titles of DescHpliones animalium.
Flora Aegyptiaco-Arabica, and Iconts rerum naturalium (Copen-
hagen, 1775-' 776). To a German periodical, the Deutsches
Museum, Niebuhr contributed papers on the interior of Africa,
the political and military condition of the Turkish empire, and
other subjects.
French and Dutch translations of his narratives were published
during his lirctime, and a condensed English trandation, by Robert
Heron, of the first three volumes in Edinburgh (1792). His son
Barthold (see above) published a short Life at Kiel in 1817; an
English version was issued in 1838 in the Lines of Eminent Men,
published by the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.
See D. G. Hogarth. The Penetration of Arabia (" Story of Ex-
ploration " series) (1904).
NIEDERBRONN, a town of (jermany, in the imperial province
Alsace-Lorraine, on the Falkenstelner Bach, situated under the
eastern slope of the Vosges, 12 m. N.W. from Hagenau by rail.
Pop. (1905) 3120. It contains an Evangelical and a Roman
Catholic church, a convent of the Sisters of the Divine Redeemer,
and a high-grade and other schoob. Niedcrbronn is one of the
best-known watering-places in the Vosges. Its brine springs,
with a hydropathic establishment attached, are specific in cases
of gout, obesity and liver disorders. Here, on the 26th of July
1870, the first engagement between the Germans and the French
in the Franco-German war took place. There are several ruined
castles in the neighbourhood, the most noteworthy of which is one
on the Wesenburg (1415 ft. high) ere^ed in the 14th century.
Various Celtic and Roman antiquities have been found around
Niederbronn.
Sec Kuhn. Les Eaux de Niederbronn (3rd ed.. Strassburg, i860):
Mathis, Aus Ntederbronns alten Zeiten (Strassbuiig. 1901); and
Kirstcin, Das Wasgaubad Ntederbronn (Strassburg, 1902).
NIBDERLAHNSTBIN, a town of Germany, in the Prussian
province of Hesse-Nassau, situated on the right bank of the Rhine
at the confluence of Lahn, 3 m. S.E. from Coblenz by the railway
to Ems. and at the junction of lines to Hochheim and Cologne.
Pop (1905) 4351 It has two Roman Catholic churches. The
chief industries are the making of machinery and shipbuilding.
Nicderlahnstcin obtained dvic rights in 133 i, and was until 1803
on the territory of the electors of Trier. Here on the xst of
January 18 14 a part of the Russian army crossed the Rhine.
In the vicinity are the Johanniskirche, a Romanesque church
restored in 1857, and the Allerheiligenberg, whereon stands a
chapel, once a f amou s place of pilgrimage.
NIBDER-8ELTER8, a village of Germany, in the Prussian
province of Hesse-Nassau, situated in a well-WOoded country on
the Ems, 12 m. S E.*from Limburg by the railway to Frankfort^
on-Main. Pop (1900) 1339. Here are the springs of the famous
Sellers or Seltzer water, employed as specific in cases of catarrh
of the respiratory organs, the stomach and bladder. Until 1866
the springs belonged to the duke of Nassau; since this date they
have been the property of Prussia. They beadne famous in the
earlier part of the 19th century, although the3f had been known
many years previously
See Grossmann, Die HeilqneUen des Taunus (Wiesbaden, 1887).
NIEDERWALD, a broad hill in Germany, in the Prussian
province of Hesse-Nassau, on the right bank of the Rhine,
between that river and the Wisper, opposite Bingen, forming
the south-wcstera apex of the Taunus range. Its summit is
clothed with dense forests of oak and beech, while its southern
and western sides, which descend sharply to ROdesheim and
Assmannshausen on the Rhine, are covered with vineyards, and
produce some of the finest wines of the district At the edge of
the forest, on the crest of the hill above RUdeshcim, stands the
gigantic " Germania " statue, the national monument of the war
of 1870-71, which was unveiled on the 38lh of September 1883
by the emperor William I., in the presence of all the rulers in
Germany or their representatives. It was designed by Johannes
Schilling, and the bronze figure of Germania is 33 ft. high; the
670
NIEHAUS— NIELLO
pedestal is adorned with aUcgorical fignies and portraits of
German princes and generals. Cogtooth mountain railways
run up the hill from Radesheim and Assmannshausen.
See Spielmano, NitdtrvnU und Nationaldenkmal (Wiesbaden,
1898).
NIEHAUS, CHARLES HENRT (1855- ). American sculptor,
of German parentage, was bom at Cincinnati, Ohio, on the 24th
of January 1855. He was a pupil of the McMichen School of
Design, Cincinnati, and also studied at the Royal Academy,
Munich, returning to America in 1881; in 1885, after several
years in Rome, he established his studio in New York City. In
1906 he became a National Academician. Kb principal works
are: a statue of President Garfield, for Cincinnati; the Hahne-
mann Memorial, in Washington; " Moses " and " Gibbons,"
for the Congressional Library, and " James A. Garfield," " John
J. Ingalls," " William Allen." and " Oliver P. Morton," for
Statuary Hall, Capitol, Washington; " Hooker " and " Daven-
port," State House, Hartford, Connecticut; the Astor Memorial
doors. Trinity Church, New York; " General Forrest," Memphis,
Tennessee; Generals Sherman and Lee, and William the Silent;
" The Scraper; or Greek Athlete using a Strigil "; statues of
Lincoln, Farragut and McKinley, at Muskegon, Mi(;higan; a
statue of McKinley and alunette for McKinley's tomb, at Canton,
Ohio, and " The Driller," at Titusville, Pennsylvania, in memory
of Colonel E. L. Drake, who, in 1859, sank the first oU well in
Pennsylvania.
NIEU ADOLPHB (1802-1869), marshal of France, was bom
at Muret on the 4th of October 1802, and entered the Ecole
Poly technique in 1821, whence he passed to the engineer school
at Meu, becoming lieutenant in the Engineers in 1827 and
captain in 1833. At the storming of Constantine he led the
engineer detachment with one of the storming parties, and his
conduct gained for him the rank of ckef de hataiUon (1837).
In 1840 he was promoted lieutenant-colonel, and in 1846 colonel,
and his next war service was as chief of staff to General Vaillant
during the siege of Rome (1849), after which he was made general
of brigade and director of engineer services at headquarters.
In 1 85 1 he became a member of the Committee of Fortifications,
in the following year a member of the council of state, and in
1853 general of division. In the first part of the Crimean War
he was employed in the expedition to the Baltic, and directed
engineer operations against Bomarsund, but early in 1855 he
was sent to the Crimea, where he succeeded General Bizot as
chief of engineers. For some years he had been the most trusted
military adviser of Napoleon III., and he was now empowered to
advise the generals on the spot in accordance with the wishes of
the sovereign and the home government. This delicate and
difficult task Niel managed to carry out ^ith as much success
as could be expected, and he had the credit of directing the siege
operations against the Malakoff (see Crimean War). His
reward was the grand cross of the Legion of Honour. From 1855
to 1859 he was employed at headquarters, and also ser\'ed in the
senate. In the war against the Austrians in the latter year (see
Itauan Wars) Niel commanded the IV. corps, and took a
brilliant part in the battles of Magenta and Solfcrino. On the
field of battle of Solferino he was made a marshal of France.
After service for some years in a home command, he became
minister of war (1867). In this capacity he drafted and began
to carry out a far-reaching scheme of army reform, based on
universal service and the automatic creation of large reserves,
which needed only time to mature. He also rearmed the whole
of the army with the chasscp6t rifle. But he did not live to
complete the development of his system. He died on the X3th
of August 1869 in Paris, and a year later the Franco-German War
destroyed the old imperial army upon which the new formations
were to have been grafted.
NIELLO (the Italian form of Lat. nigdlum, diminutive of
nigar, " black "; Late Gr. fukav^)^ a method of producing
delicate and minute decoration on a polished metal surface by
incised Unes filled in with a black metallic amalgam. In some
cases it is very difficult to distinguish niello from black enamel;
but the black subsunce differs from tree enamel in being metallic,
not vitreous. Our knowledge of the process and materiab
employed in niello-work is derived mainly from four writers,—
Eradius the Roman (a writer probably of the nth century),
Theophilus the monk, who wrote in the 12th or 13th century,'
and, in the i6th century, Benvenuto Cellini* and Giorgio Vasah.*
The design was cut with a sharp graving tool on the smooth
surface of the metal, which was usually silver, but occasionally
gold or even bronze. An alloy was formed of two parts silver,
one-third copper and one-sixth lead; to this mixture, while
fluid in the cmcible, powdered sulphur in excess was added; and
the brittle amalgam, when cold, was finely pounded, and scaled
up in large quills for future use. A solution of borax to act as a
flux was brushed over the metal plate and thoroughly Vp-orkcd
into its incised Unes. The powdered amalgam was then shaken
out of the quills on to the pbte, so as to completely cover all the
engraved pattern. The plate was now carefully heated over a
charcoal fire, fresh amalgam being added, as the powder fused,
upon any defective places. When the powder had become
thoroughly liquid, so as to fill all the lines, the plate was aUowcd
to cool, and the whole surface was scraped, so as to remove the
superfluous niello, leaving only what had sunk into and filled up
the engraved pattern. Last of all the nielloed plate was very
highly polishfd, till it presented the appearance of a smooth
metal surface enriched with a delicate design in fine grcy-bbck
lines. This process was chiefly used for silver work, on account
of the vivid contrast between the whiteness of the silver and the
darkness of the niello. As the slightest scratch upon the metal
received the niello, and became a distina bbck line, ornament
of the most minute and refined description could easily be pro-
duced.
The earliest specimens of niello belong to the Roman period.
Two fine examples are in the British Museum. One is a bronze
statuette of a Roman general, nearly 2 ft. high, found at Barkinj;
Hall in Suffolk. The dress and armour have patterns partly
inlaid in silver and partly in niello. The dark tint of the bronze
rather prevents the nieUo from showing out distinctly. This
statuette is apparently a work of the ist century.* The othn
example is not earlier than the 4th century. It is a silver casket
or lady's toilet box, in which were found an ampulla and other
small objects, enriched with niello-work.*
From Roman times till the end of the i6th century the an of
working in niello seems to have been consuntly practised in
^me part at least of Europe, while in Russia and India It has
survt>^ to the present day. From the 6th to the i ath century
a large number of massive and splendid works in the precious
metals were produced at Byzantium or under Byzantine influence,
many of which were largely decorated with niello; the silver
dome of the baldacchino over the high altar of S. Sophia was
probably one of the most important of these. Niello b frequently
mentioried in the inventories of the treasures belonging to the
great basiUcas of Rome and Byzantium. The Pala d'Oro at &
Mark's, Venice, loth century, owes much of its refined beauty
to niello patterns in the borders. This art was also practised by
Bernward, artist-bishop of Hildeshdm {ob. 1023); a fine sflver
paten, decorated with figures in niello, attributed to his hand.
still exists among the many rich treasures in the church of Han-
over Palace. Other nielli, probably the work of the same bishop,
are preserved in the cathedral of Hildeshetm. In France, too,
judging both from existing specimens of ecdesiastical plate and
many records preserved in church inventories, this mode of
decoration must have been frequently applied all through the
middle ages: especially fine examples once ezbtcd at Notre
Dame, Paris, and at Cluny, where the cdumns of the sanctuary
were covered with plates of silver In the^ith century, each plate
being richly ornamented with designs in niello. Among the
early Teutonic and Celtic races, especially from the 8th to the
nth centuries, both in Britain and other countries, nicUo was
* Dim. Art. Sehed. iii. 27-30 ^ Hcndric*s edition, 1847).
* Trattato ddt oreficeria.
' Tre arti del dtseno.
* Sec Sec. AhI. Vet. Mtm. iv. pk. I1-15.
* See Viflconti, Una AnUca Argenlana (Rome. 1793).
NIEM— NIEMCEWICZ
671
frequently used to decorate the very beautiful personal orna-
ments of which so many specimens enrich the museums of Europe.
The British Museum possesses a fine fibula of silver decorated
with a simple pattern m niello and thin plates of repouss^ gold.
This, though very similar in design to many fibulae from Scandi-
navia and Britain, was found in a tomb at Kerch (Panticapacum).
Several interesting gold rings of Saxon workmanship have been
found at different times, on which the owner's name and orna-
mental patterns arc formed in gold with
a background of niello. One with the
name of Ethelwulf, king of Wesscx
(836-838), is now in the Bntish Museum
(see figure). Another in the Victoria
and Albert Museum has the name of
I Alhstan, who was bishop of Sherborne
[ from 823 to 867. The metal-workers of
Ireland, whose skill was quite unrivalled,
practised largely the art of nielb from
^^^^^^^ the loth to the lalh century, and pos-
G^dlndNicUoIUng. ^"r'''^ ^Ifu'- Fine cro«m, shrink,
fibulae, and other objects of Insh work-
manship, most skilfully enriched with elaborate niello-work,
exist in considerable numbers. From the 13th to the x6th
century but little nicllo-work appears to have been produced in
England. Two specimens have been found, one at Matlask,
Norfolk, and the other at Devizes, which from the character of
the df^sign appear to be English. They are both of gold, and
seem to be the covering plates of small pendant .reliquaries
about X in. long, dating about the end of the islh century. One
has a crucifix between St John the Baptist and a bishop; the other,
that found at Devizes, has the two latter figures, but no crucifix.*
It is, however, in Italy that the art of niello-work was brought to
greatest perfection. During the whole medieval period it was
much used to decorate church plate, silver altar-frontals, and the
like. The magnificent frontals of Pistoia cathedral and the
Florence baptistery are notable instances of this. During the
15th century, especially at Florence, the art of niello-work was
practised by almost all the great artist -goldsmiths of that period.
Apart from the beauty of the works they produced, this art had
a si>ccial importance and interest from its having led the way to
the invention of printing from engravings on metal plates (see
LiNK-ENCRAViNc). Vasari's account of this invention, given in
his lives of Pollaiuolo and Maso Finiguerra, is very interesting,
but he is wrong in asserting that Maso was the first worker in
niello who took proofs or impressions of his plat cs. An important
work of this sort, described at length by Vasari and wrongly
ascribed by him to Maso Finiguerra (^.v.), still exists in the
Opera del Duomo at Florence. It is a pax with a very rich and
delicate niello picture of the coronation of the Virgin; the
composition is very full, and the work almost microscopic in
minuteness; it was made in 1453. Impressions from it are
preserved in the British Museum, the Louvre and other col-
lections. The British Museum possesses the finest existing
example of 15th-century German niello. It is a silver beaker,
covered with graceful scroll-work, forming medallions, in
which are figures of cupids employed in various occupations
(sec Shaw's Dresses and Dtxorations of the Middle Ages, 1858,
voL ij.)-
AUTRORITIBS.— n« A rchaeologicai Journal of 1 863 (vol. xix. p. ^^)
has an excellent monograph on the subject, see also vol. xu.
p. Tj) and vol. iv. p. 347; Archaeologia, xxxi. 404; Mcrrificld,
A nctent Practice of Painting, vol. i. (i 849) (gives MSB. 01 Eraclius and
other cariy writers) ; Catalocue of Museum of Royal Irish Academy;
Les Nieltes d la cath. d" Aix-la-ChapdU (Paris, 18^9) ; .^Ivin. Niellet
'Ancient Practice ofPatnting, vol. i. (1849) (gives MSB.
ers) ; Catalogue of M ""
catk.d'Aix- _. ,.„,,.
de la bibliothbgue roy. de Belgique (1857); Duchesne, NieUes des
orjhvres Jltnentins (1836); Passavant, Le Peintre-graveur (1860-
X864); Oi\\cy^ ^History of Engraving (1816) and CdUction of Fac-
859);
ichcsii
similes of Prints (1826); Cicoff nara, ^/(^a delta sciatura.iiu p. 168
(Prato. 1823), and Storia delta cakografia (Prato, 1831): Lanzi,
Sioria fnttorica, cp. i. sec. iii. (1809); Baldinucci, Professori del
disrgnc (i68i'l738) and L'Arte di intailiare in rame (1686): Zani.
Origtne delT incisione in rame (1802); Labartc. Arts of the Middle
Ages (1855): Tcxicr. Dictionnaire de I'orfhrerie p. 1833 (Paris,
> See Proc, Norfolk Ankaeo, Soc. iii. p. 97.
1857): Bartsch Le Petntre-graveur, xiii. 1-35; Rumohr, Unter-
suchung der Crunde far die Annahme, &c (Leipzie, 1841): Lessing,
CoUectaneen »ur Literatur (vol. xii. art. " Niellum ); C. Davenport,
in Journal of Soc. of Arts (1901), vol. xlviii. (J. H. M.)
NIEM [NvEM, or Nieheim], DIETRICH OF (c. 1345-1418),
medieval historian, was bom at Nieheim, a small town subject
to the see of Paderbom. He became a notary of the papal court
of the rota at Avignon, and in 1376 went with the Curia to Rome.
Urban VI. here took particular notice of him, made him an
abbreviator to the pqxU chancery, and in 1383 took him with him
on his visit to King Charles at Naples, an expedition which led
to many unpleasant adventures, from which he escaped in 1385
by leaving the Curia. In 1387 he is again found among the
abbreviators, and in Z395 Pope Boniface IX.. appointed him to
the bishopric of Verden. His attempt to take possession of the
see, however, met with successful opposition; and he had to
resume his work in the chancery, where his name again appears in
X403. In the meantime he had helped to found a German
hospice in Rome, which survives as the Instituto dell' Anima,
and had begun to write a chronicle, of which only fragments are
extant. His chief importance, however, h'es in the part he took
in the controversies arising out of the Great Schism. He accom-
panied Gregory XII. to Lucca in May 1408, and, having in vain
tried to make the pope Usten to counsels of moderation, he joined
the Roman and Avignonese cardinals at Pisa. He adhered to the
pope elected by the council of Pisa (Alexander V.) and to his
successor John XXHL, resuming his place at the Curia. In view
of the increasing confusion in the Church, however, he became
one of the most ardent advocates of the appeal to a general
council. He was present at the council of Constance as adviser
to the German " nation." He died at Maastricht on the 32nd of
March X418.
Nicm wrote about events In which he dther had an intimate
personal share or of which he was in an excellent position to obtain
accurate information. His most important works are the Nemus
unionis and the De schismate. Of these the first, compiled at Lucca
after the breach with Gregory XII., is a coltection of documents
which had fallen into his hands during the negotiations for union :
papal pronouncements, pamphlets, letters written and received by
himself, and the like. The De schismate libri IJJ.^ completed on
the 35th of May 1410, describes the history of events smce 1376
as Niem himself had seen them. It was continued in the Historia
de vita Johannis XXIJ2, Other works are De bono regimtne Rom.
ponttficis, dedicated to the new pope (John XXI II.); De modis
uniendi ac reformandi ecctestam and De difictdtate reformationis in
concilio unioersali, advocating the convocation of a council, to which
the pope is to bow; Contra dampnatos Wiclivilas Pragae, against the
Hussites; Jura ac pHvilegia imperii^ a {glorification oi the empire in
view of the convocation of the council of Constance; Avisamenta
proerammc of diurch reform based on his experiences of the evils
of tne papal system.
For bibliography see Potthast, Bibl. hist, maiii aeri (snd cd..
Berlin, 1896). p. 1051, 8.v. " Theodoricus de Nkmi "; and generally
see the article on Niem by Theodor Lindner in AUgemeine deutsrhe
Biographu (Leipzig, 1886); and Brier. Dietrich von Nieheim (Leipzig,
1887).
NIEMCEWICZ, JUUAN UR8IN (1758-X841), Polish scholar,
poet and statesman, was bom in X757 in Lithuania. In the
earlier part of his life he acted as adjutant to Kosciusko, was
taken prisoner with him at the fatal battle of Maciejowicc (i 704),
and shared his captivity at St Petersburg. On his release he
travelled for some time in America, where he married. After
the Congress of Vienna he was secretary of state and president
of the constitutional committee in Poland, but in 1 830-1 831 he
was again driven into exile. He died in Paris on the 2 ist of April
1841. Niemcewicz tried many styles of composition. His
comedy The Return of Ute Deputy (1790) enjoyed a great reputa-
tion, and his novel, John of Tenczyn (1825), in the style of Scott,
gives a vigorous picture of old Polish days. He also wrote a
History of the Reign of Sigismund III. (3 vols., 1819), and a
collection of memoirs for andent Polish history (6 vols., 1823-
1823). But he is now best remembered by his Historical Songs
of the Poles (Warsaw, x8i6), a series of lyrical compositions in
which the chief heroes are of the golden age of Sigismund I.,
and the reigns of Stephen Bathori and Sobieski.
Hb collected works were publbhed in la vols, at Leipzig (1838-
1840).
672
NIENBURG ON THE SAALE— NIBTZSCHB
mBRBURO Oil THS 8AALS, a town of Gemumy , in the dndqr
of Anhalt, lituated at the influx of the Bode into the Stale,
6m.N.of Bernburgontherailway Calbe-KOnnem. P^(i905)
5748. It contains a beautiful Gothic Evangelical dratch, an
old castle, once a monastery (founded 975, dissolved 1546), and
now devoted to secular uses, and a classical school The hi-
dustiies embrace iron-founding and machine-making, malting
and tanning
HIBMBURa ON THE WESER, a town of Germany, in the
Prussian province of Hanover, situated on the Wesef, 33 m.
N.W. from Hanover by the railway to Bremen. Pop. (1905)
9638. It has an Evangelical and a Roman Catholic church,
a chusical school and an agricultural college. lu industries
consist chiefly in glass-blowing, distilling, biscuit-making and
the manufacture of manures. The town is mentioned as early
as 1025. It was fortified in the i3th century, obtained municipal
rii^ts in 2569, and passed in 1582 to the house of Lflnebiurg.
It was occupieid by the imperialists from 1627 to 1634, and by
the French during the Seven Years' War. The walU were dis-
mantled by order of Napoleon I. in 1807.
See Gade. (ksdudUe der Stadt Nienburg an der Weser (i86a).
HIBPCB, JOSEPH NICiPHORE (1765-1833), French physicist,
and one of the inventors of photography, was bom at Chftlon-
tur-Sa6ne on the 7th of March 1765. In 1792 he entered the
army as a sub-lieutenant, and in the following year he saw active
service in Italy. Ill-health and failing eyesight compelled him to
resign his commission before he had risen above the rank of
lieutenant; but in 1795 he was nominated admittUtrakwr of
the district of Nice, and he held the post until 1801. Returning
in that year to his birthplace, he devoted himself along with
liis elder brother Claude (i 763-1828) to mechanical and chemical
researches; and in 181 1 he directed his attention to the rising
art of lithography. In 18 13 the idea of obtaining sun pictures
first suggested itself to him in this connexion; and in i8s6
lie learned that L. J. M. Daguerre was working in the same direc-
tion. In 1829 the two united their forces, " pour coop6rer au
perfectionncmcnt de la d^couverte invcnt6e par M. Niepce
et perfcctionn6e par M. Daguerre" (see also Photography).
Niepce died at Gras, his properly near Ch&lon, on the 3rd of
July 1833. A nephew, Claude F£ux Abel Niepce de Saint-
Victor (1805- 1870), served with distinction in the army, and
also made important contributions towards the advancement
of the art of photography; he published Rcchcrckts photo-
grapkiques (Paris, 1855) and Traiti pratique de gravure hilio-
fraphique sur ucier et sur verre (Paris, 1866).
NIEREMBERO. JUAN EUSEBIO (1595-1658), Spanish
Jesuit and mystic, was bom at Madrid in 1595, joined the
Society of Jesus in 1614, and subsequently became lecturer on
Scripture at the Jesuit seminary in Madrid, where he died on
the 7th of April 1658. He was highly esteemed in devout circles
as the author of De la aficidn y amor de Jcs&s (1630), and De la
cficidn y amor de Maria (1630), both of which were translated
into Arabic, Flemish, French, German, Italian and Latin.
These works, together with the Prodigios del amor divtno (1641),
are now forgotten, but Niercmberg's version (1656) of the
Imitation is still a favourite, and his eloquent treatise, De la
kermosura de Dios y su amabilidad (1649), is the last classical
manifestation of mysticism in Spanish literature. Nicrcmbcrg
has not the enraptured vision of St Theresa, nor the philosophic
«gnificance of Luis de Le6n, and the unvarying sweetness of
his style is cloying; but he has exaltation, unction, insight,
and his book forms no unworthy close to a great literary
tradition.
NIERSTEIN* a village of Germany, in the grand duchy of
Hesse-Darmstadt, on the left bank of the Rhine, 8 m. S. from
Mainz by the railway to Worms. Pop. (1905) 4445. It contains
a Roman Catholic and a Protestant church, an old Roman
bath — Sironabad — and sulphur springs. It is famous for its
wines, in which a brge export trade is done. Nierstein was
priginaWy a Roman settlement, and was a royal residence under
the Carolingian rulers. Later it passed from the emperor to
tte elector i»ktine of the Rhine.
(iiir«9Mli
pUloiopher, «es the iQB of the pMtor at RBcfcn. MB
wlien he ves botn 00 15th October 1844.
at Schulplbfto, end etndied the dialci at tke
Boon tad Le^rig. In 1869, while itfll oa
was, on F. W. RIttchl's iroommendatjon, appoJated'to tm ea»
ordinaiy pnfewHsh^ of da«ical pUklogy ia the ' ~
of Bead, tad rapidly promoted to an otdiaanr piofcM
Here he ahnoet immediately bcfsn a bcilliaat Kunnr ad
which gndnaliy aHomed a more and moce pMeeopMal tkit
acter. In 1876 eye (and brain) troable cavMd.Um to duk
dck leave, and finally, in 1879, to be p mri o ne d Fior tht 1
ten yean he Uved in various health icaocti, In coaridn
luffoing (he dedavet that the year mniained for Um leej^i
of pure pain), but dishing off, at Ugh preamre, the 1
essays on which his fame rests. Towards the end of iSH^ ■
recovering from an earlier attadc, be was pronooBoed hopda ,
insane, and in this condition he remained until he Aed en la
S5th of August Z9oa Nietaeche's wiitinfi mnet be 1
in their rdation to these drcumstanoei of Ut fife, and as it
outcome of a violent revolt against them on the pert «f « I
intensely emotional and nervous temperament. HispUloesplK:
consequently, is neither sjrstcmatic fai ittdf nor eip o a adsfll-
systematic form. It is made up of a number of points «f ibi.;
which successively appeared aocepuble tq a perNoaHty lAV;
self-appredation verges moie and more upon the fanaae, al'
exhibits neither consecutiveneas nor coosbtency. lui
form is the aphorism, and to this and to iu cpigna
brilliance, vigour, and uncompromising revolt agaiaat aB c»^
ventions in sdenoe and conduct it owes its iiiiiuarfwiiw
Revolt against the whole dvillttd envirounent in wUdi hei
broui^t up is the keynote of Nietache's literary career.
revolt agaiiDst Christian faith and morals turns Um intoap
atheistic "free-thinker," and preacher of a
morality, which transposes the current valuaiiQai^
the "Christian virtues," and indtes the "over-Dsan"
to trample under foot the servile herd of the weak, <
and poor in spirit. His revolt against the theory of MM
supremacy turns him into an anarchist and individoslirtj lb
revolt against modem democracy into an aristocrat. Hb rnI
against conventional culture leads him to attack D. F. SosMl
as the typical " Philistine of culture "; his revolt agsisst tti
fashion of pessimism to demand a new and more robust i "
tion of life, not merely altkougk^ but because, it is patnf oL
his very love of life may itself be regarded as an la
revolt against the toils that were inexorably closing bi 1
him. He directs this spirit of revolt also against tbes
of his own inspiration; he turns bitteriy against
whose intimate friend and enthusiastic admirer he hsd ki^
and denounces him as the musician of decadent l .
he rejects his " educator " Schopenhauer's pessimiHi, flf J
transforms his will to live into a " WUl to Power." Ncvotkka I
his reaction does not in this case really cany him bqFOBiii I
ground of Schopenhauerian philosophy, and his '
perhaps be most tmly regarded as the paradoxical de
of an inverted Schopenhauerism. Other influences wlidiif i
be traced in his writings are those of modem naturalimimivl
a somewhat misinterpreted Darwinism (" strength "b gu— if
interpreted as physical endowment, but it has 1
be reluctantly acknowledged that the physically feeble, by ll
combination and cunning, prove stronger than the ** a
His writings in their chronological order are as foIbeK
Ceburt der TragddU aus dem Ceiste der Musik (187a); I
gcmOsse Betracktungen (1873-1876) (Slrauss^Vtm Kwt
NachUilder Historic far das Lebem^SckopemUtm di I
Richard Wagner in BayretOk); Mcnscklkkes, AU
(1876-1880); MorgenrdU (i88i); DU friUkkt Wk
(1882); Also sprack Zaratknstra (1883-1884); /a
Cut und Bdse (1886); Zur GeneaUgU der Umdi <
?aXl Wagner (1888); CdtsendOmmerumg (i888>; JTii
Wagner, Der Antickrist, and Poems first appeared la the fl
edition of his works, whidi abo '^^'^iiint the aolCI fv 1
NIEUPORT— NIGDEH
mMaekt, in vliidi NIetadbe htd InteDded to g^ > mort
MBatk acopnnt of his doctrine { 1 8^s-iOoiK (F, C. S, SJ
Aa cdioaii of NieUKhe • complete works Lcg^d t^ appe&r in i Sas^
temdM two popubr editions, i^ ff. {15 vol*, haw b«Ti pGB^
fiM)aad IQ06 (10 yob.). In 1900 Nieuacbe » J3r«fe b^aii to be
nuiAed. An Engluh tranalatioo ki i« vuk, cdiu*d 6y Ostar
tetHf????** *Kt'.3'** Xo1-,S? «?»^ His biography, by kU turtcr.
EiBbMh Fonter-Nietzache (Paslet^n Ffuidrk% Nitiz^h^, 1895 (!.),
racbed its thud volume in 1907. There are aUo livw by D. Hil&vy
(woo) and M. A. MOgge (/. Nieiastfu: ki$ Lift and ^ofK iQoaf.
tthMtter of a somewhat popular character. G. Brandt* first dre#
urapean attention to Nietzsche by h'n famoui essay la 1*189^ alncp
Unan enormous literature has erown up round ihe «ut)j«;t. Sec
■maDy U Andreas SaIoni6, F. Nielm-h* in srinm W£rkt» ( J 804 J;
Vl!|*v/* J^^iff^'te/'^J*' ?"* «* ' '9^^ J: ^ T&nnitt, Ni^t^d^^
Uu (1897): H. Ellis, A Nietuthe hn Ahrmosiani, ifi^n H.
Unienbcfnr» La Pkilosopkie de Nt^Ljihe fiS^s; Gtrmia tmni,,
■•»); E. Homeffcr, VorUdgi uber F. Ni^tzs£h€ (taaoj ; T. 2i™k'r,
g. Jrwte icjy (1900); J. Zcitkr. Niikschfj Astketik U900}: P,
Miien, EnfUKfMJifni an F. Niei^ihe (1901); R. Richttft Fr
MteAe, sein Leben und sein Werk ( 1903) j G, Simrnd, Sih&ptnhaufr
mi Ni€tssche (1907). For an estinuitc ol hii moraj (Jioory see
Kima,adJiH.
673
(Flem. Nieuwpoori), a town 0! Bclgimn in (he
of West Flanders. Pop, (1904) 37 So. It was the
port of Ypres, and is situated on the Y»r about 10 m. S. of
Cktcad. It was strongly fortified in the middle ages and its siege
^ the French in 1488-1489 is an qitsode of ju heroic period.
Ibder its walls in x6oo Maurice of Nassau defeated the An;hduLc
ttbm and the Spaniards. It contains an ancient cloth inrLrtct^
I ioe town-hall and an old church, and outside ia a Hghthijiisc
bdiif from 1289. Nicuport Bains, 2 m. fruca thcr tof^n, i^ a
Uaonable seaside resort dating ocity from i56g. It biis a fioc
pier extending 1500 yds. out to sea and flanking the entrance
to tite Yser, which has been canalized. The bathing is excellent,
■dbtbe season the place is largely frequented b>^ visitors.
luVRB, a department of central Fmnce, formed from the
M pcovince of Nivemais with a small portion of the Orl6anais.
hb bounded N.W. by Loiret, N. by Yonne, E. by C6ie d'Or,
1 and S.E. by Sa6ne.et-Loirc, S. by Aliier and W. by Cher,
wp- (1906) 313, 97a. Area, 2659 sq. ni. Nicvte faJls into three
fe|bDS differing in elevation and in geological fomiAtion. In
tbecast are the granitic mountains of the Morvan^ one of I he
■ott picturesque portions of France, containing Mont Prinelay
[a789 ft) and several lesser heights. The north and centre arc
xrapied by plateaus of Jurassic limestone with a maximum
devation of 1400 ft. The west aiid south-westem part of the
jytment is a district of plains, composed mainly of tertiary
naations with alluvial deposits, and comprising the vaUtys
af the Loire and the Allier. The lowest level ol the department
•446 ft., at the exit of the Loire. Nj^i^fe belongB partly to the
btin of the Loire, partly to that of the Seine. The watershed
Sliding these two basins follo\vs the general dope of the depart-
■ot from SX. to N.W.— from Mont Prf ncby to the Pkiisaye,
tkdistrict in the extreme north-wrst. Toward* the west the
fcttts of Nidvrc are marked by the AUief- Loire valley— the
Ure striking across the south-west comer of the department
^Decize and Nevcrs and then continuing the line of its great
JJocnt the Allier northwards by Fourthamhault, La Charitf,
gjaiy and Cosne. Secondary feeders of the Loire are the
J*vre, which gives its name to the depamneniT i^nd the AroOf
*oie valley is traversed by the Nivemais Canal. The largest
Jniary of the Seine in Nievrc is the Vonncj vhich rises in
* south-east, passes by Clamecyj and carries along with it
J northern part of the Nivemais Canal. Th4; CurCt the principil
Jlent of the Yonne (with which , however^ [t does not unite
' after it has left the department), is the outlet of a lake, Lac
* Settons, which serves as a reservoir for the regulation of
* river and the canaL Owing to its greater elevaiion and the
^tion of the rain-water on its impermeable suiface in the
'Pe of ponds and streams, Morvan showii a menn temperature
r, lower than that of the western district, which, in the viiUey
the Loire, is ahnost identical with that of Parts {%t* F0<
Never* the annual rainfall amounts to only si in^, but
korvan it is nearly three times a^ great.
^ principal cereals arc oats and wheats potatoes are '
alio Uigffy grown. Much land is given over to pasture and
the cultivation of various kinds of forage, and the fattening
of cattle is a thriving agricultural industry. The Nivemais
and Ckarolais are the chief breeds. The rearing of sheep and
draught-horaes is also of importance. Vines are grown in the
valley of the Loire and in the neighbourhood of Chimecy. The
white wines of Pouilly on the Loire are widely known. Nievre
abounds in forests, the chief trees being the oak, beech, hornbeam,
elm and chestnut. Coal is mined at Dedze, and gypsum, building
stone, and kaolin are among the quarry products. The best-
known mineral springs are those of Pougues and St Honor£.
Of the iron-works for which Niivre is famous, the most important
are those of Fourchambault. At Imphy there are large steel-
works. The government works of La Chaussade at Gu£rigny
make chain-cables, anchors, armour-phites, &c. There are also
manufactories of agricultural implements and hardware, potteries,
manufactories of porcelain, and faience (at Nevers), tile- works,
chemical works, ^per-mills and saw-mills, as weU as numerous
tanneries, boot and shoe factories, cask manufactories and oil
works (colxa, poppy and hemp). In the Morvan district a large
part of the population is engaged in the timber industry; the
logs carried down by the streams to Ckmecy are then put into
boats and conveyed to Paris.
A great deal of the traffic is by water: the canal along the
left bank of the Loire nms through the department for 38 m.,
and the Nivemais canal for 78 m. The chief railway b that
of the Paris-Lyons-M£diterran6e Company, whose main line
to Nimes follows the valley of the Loire and AUier throughout
the department. Nidvre is divided into 4 arrondissementa
(Nevers,ChAteau-Chinon,Chimecy and Cosne being their capitals),
25 cantons, 313 communes. It forms the diocese of Nevers,
and part of the educational district of Dijon and of the region
of the VIII. corps d'armie. Its court of appeal is at Bourges.
The most noteworthy towns are Nevers, the capital, Clamecy,
Fourchambault, Cosne, La Charit£ and Decizc. Varzy and
Tannay have fine churches of the X4th, and the 12th, 13th and
x6th centuries respectively, and there is an interesting church,
chiefly Romanesque in style, at St Pierre-le-MoQtier.
NIFO, AGOSTINO [Augustinus NiphusJ (c. 1473-1538 or
1545), Italian philosopher and commentator, was bomat Japoli
in Calabria. He settled for a time at Sezza and subsequently
proceeded to Padua, where he studied philosophy. He lectured
at Padua, Naples, Rome and Pisa, and won so high a reputation
that he was deputed by Leo X. to defend the Catholic doctrine
of Immortality against the attack of Pomponazri and the
Alexandrists. In return for this he was made Count Palatine,
with the right to caU himself by the name Medici. In his early
thought he followed Avcrrocs, but afterwards modified his
views so far as to make himself acceptable to the orthodox
Catholics. In 1495 he produced an edition of the works of
Avcrroes; with a commentary compatible with his acquired
orthodoxy. In the great controversy with the Alexandrists
he opposed the theory of Pomponazzi that the rational soul
is inseparably bound up with the material part of the individual,
and hence that the death of the body carries with it the death
of the soul. He insisted that the individual soul, as part of
absolute intellect, is indestmctible, and on the death of the
body is merged in the eternal unity.
His principal philosophical works are De immortalUate animi
(1518 and 1524); De inUlUctu et daemonibus; De infinitate primi
motoris quatstio and Opuscula moralia et politico. His numerous
commentaries on Aristotle were widely read and frequently reprinted,
the best-known edition being one printed at Paris in 1654 in fourteen
volumes (including the Opuscula).
NIGDEH (Arab. Nakidah), the chief town of a sanjak of the
same name in the Konia vilayet of Asia Minor, situated on the
Kaisarieh-Cilidan Gates road. It is remarkable for the beauty
of its buildings, dating from almost all ages of the Seljuk period.
After the fall of the sultanate of Rum (of which it had been
one of the principal cities), Nigdeh became independent, and,
according to Ibu Batuta. ruinous, and did not pass into Ottoman
hands till the time of Mahommcd IL It represents no classical
town, but, with Bor, has inherited the importance ol T^^auL^
674
NIGEI^-NIGER
whose site lies aboutio m. S.W. A Hitfite-insciibed monument,
brought perhaps from Tyana, has been found at Nigdeh. The
population (20,000) includes a large Greek and a small Armenian
community. The Orthodox metropolitan of Iconium resides
here.
NIGEL (d. X169), bishop of Ely, head of the exchequer In the
reigns of Henry I. and Henry II., was brought into the exchequer
in early life (1x30). Soon after his uncle Roger of Salisbury'
secured him the bishopric of Ely, much to the disgust of the
monks. Nigel was at first retained in Stephen's service; but,
like his unde and his brothers, incurred the suspicion of leaning
towards the Angevin interest, when Roger of Salisbury and
Alexander of Lincoln were arrested by Stephen (January 1x39).
Nigel attempted to maintain himself in his see by force of arms,
but he was forced to fly to the empress at Gloucester He
was reconciled to Stephen in XX42 and restored to his see; but
he now became involved in a quarrel with the powerful Henry
of Winchester. Raiiulph, his first treasurer and representative
at Ely, had been extortionate and dishonest, and the monks
accused Nigel, probably with some justification, of spending
the estates and treasures of the see in maintaining knights and
gaining court influence. Henry of Winchester, who can have
had little sympathy with bishops of Nigel's type, took up their
quarrel, and Nigel was forced to go to Rome. Fortunately,
both in these quarrels and in all his difficulties with Stephen,
he secured the strong and uniform support of the Roman Curia.
At the accession of Henry II: (11 54) Nigel was summoned to
reorganize the exchequer. He was the only surviving minister
of Henry I., and his knowledge of the exchequer business was.
unrivalled. This was the great work of his life. It is to the work
of his son Richard, the DialogustUSeaccario, that we are indebted
for our knowledge of the procedure of the exchequer as it was
left by Nigel. The bishop took' little part in politics, except
as an administrator. In x 166 his health was broken by a paralytic
seizure. Except for another quarrel with his monks, who
accused him of despoiling their church and gained the ear of
Pope Adrian, the last part of his life was laborious and uneventful.
See Dr Liebermann's EinUitune in den Diahgns de Scaccaric;
J. H. Round's Geoffrey de MandcoiUf,
NIGER, GAIUS PESCENNIUS. governor of Syt!a under the
emperor Commodus. On the death of Pertinax (A.a 193),
he was saluted emperor by the troops at Antioch, but unaccount-
ably delayed marching on Rome until he learned that Septimius
Severus, one of the rival daimanU, had assumed the offensive.
He then strongly garrisoned Byzantium and the principal
towns of Asia Minor, but after his legate Aemilianus had been
defeated and slain near Cyzicus he himself was driven from
Nicaea axid routed near the Cilldan Gates^ Having failed in
an effort to escape toward? the Euphrates, he was brought badL
and put to death in X94.
Aelius Spartianus, Pescennius Niger; Dio Cassius IxxiL 8; bodii.
13.14.
NIGER, a great river of West Africa, inferior only to the
Congo and Nile among the rivers of the continent, and the only,
river in Africa which, by means of its tributary the Benue,
affords a waterway uninterrupted by rapids, and available
for shallow-draught steamers, to the far interior. Rising within
150 m. of the sea in the mountainous zone which marks the
N.E. frontiers of Sierra Leone and French Guinea, it traverses
the interior plateaus in a vast ciirve, flowing N.E., E. and S.E.,
until it finally enters the Gulf of Guinea through aXi immense
delta. ^ Its total length is about 3600 m. About 250 m. from
its mouth it is joined by the Benue, coining from the east from
the mountainous region of Adamawa. From its mouth to the
limit of navigability from the sea the river is in British territory;
above that point it flows through French territory.
The source of the Niger Ues in 9** 5' N. and xo** 47' W., and
the most northerly point of the great bend is about x?** N. The
area of the Niger basin, exduding the arid regions with a
slope towards the stream, has been calculated by Dr. A. Bludau
at 584,000 sq. m. The river is known locally under various
names, the most commoa being JoIiba.(a Maodigo word meaning
Great River) and K«rorra or Quorra. By the last name the Niger
"was known m its lower reaches before its identity with the upper
river was established. The stream considered the chief
source of the Niger is called the Tembi. A narrow 2j/3^
watershed separates it from the headwaters of the tktrhtr.
streams flowing south-west through Sierra Leone. The
birthplace of the Niger is in a deep ravine 2800 ft. above sea-
levd. From a moss-covered rock a tiny spring issues and has
made a pool bdow. This little stream is the Tembi, which
within a short distance is joined by two other rivulets, the
Tamincono and Falico, which have thdr origin in the same
mountainous district. After flowing north for about 100 m.,
the river turns eastward and recdves several tributaries from
the south. At its confluence with the Tankisso (a northera
tributary), 210 m. from its source, the river has attained dimen-
sions sufficient to earn for itself the title Joliba. Taking &t
this point a decided trend northward, the Niger, xoom. lover
down, at Bamako — the first considerable town on its bank&^
has a depth of 6 ft. with a breadth of 1300 ft. Seven or eight
miles below Bamako the Sotuba rocks mark the end of what may
be considered the upper river. From this point the navigable
portion of the Niger begins. Thirty miles below Sotuba are tbc
rapids of Tulimandio, but these are^ navigable when the river
is at its highest, namely from July to October. A little lower
down is Kulikoro, from which point the bed of the stream for
over xooo m. is fairly free from impediments.
The river here turns xnore directly to the east and increases
in volume and depth. At Sansandig the stream' is deep enoogb
to permit of. steamers of considerable size plying upon
the river^- After Sansandig is passed the banks of j^
the stream become low and the Niger is split up into mua»
a number of channels. Mot>ti is at the junction of ^Qtm'm'
the main stream with a large right-hand backwater ^*^^
or tributary, the BanlorMahd Balevd, on whidi
is situated the important town of Jenn^. The banks of the
Niger below Mopti become swampy and treeless, and the first
of a series of lakes (Debo) is reached. These bkes are chieily
on the left of the main stream, with which they are conneaed
by channels conveying the water in one direction or the olber
according to the season. At high water most of these are united
into one general inundation. The largest lake, Faguibini, is
nearly 70 m. long by 12 m. broad, has high shores and reaches
a depth exceeding, in parts, x6o ft. It is not until Kabara,
the port of Timbuktu, is reached, a distance of 450 m. from
Sansandig, that (he labyrinth of lakes, creeks and backwaters
ceases. Below Kabara the river reaches its most XMrtherly
point. At Bamba it is shut in by steep banks and narrovs
to 600 to 700 yds., again spreading out some distance down.
At Barka (200 m. from Timbuktu) the stream turns south-east
and preserves that direction throughout the remainder of its
course. At Tosaye, just before the bend becomes pronounced,
the Baror and Chabar rocks reduce the width of the river to
less than 500 fU, and at low water the strength of the currant
is a serious danger to navigation. Bdow Timbuktu for a coa-
siderable distance the Niger recdves no tributaries; frca
the -north none until the region of the Sahara is passed. la
places the desert approaches close to the river on both basb
and immense sand dunes fill the horizon.
At Ansongo, 430 xn. bdow Timbuktu, the itavig&ble reack
of the middle Niger, in all X057 m., ends. Fo\ir huge flint rocks
bar the river at Ansongo and effectually prevent g^^
further navigation except in very smaU vessels. Frotn i^m
Ansqngo to Say, some 250 m., the river flows thiough *■*_
several rocky passes, the current attaining great Jj^
velodty. Throughout this distance the river is a
hopdess labyrinth of rocks, islands, reefs and rapids. Fits
Say, where the stream is about 700 yds. in breadth, to Bussa,
there is another navigable stretch of water extending 30013.
After the desert region is past the Niger recdves the watefs
of the river Sokoto, a considerable stream flowing from the nort^
east. Some distance bdow this confluence are the Bussa ra(»ds«
which can only be navigated with considerable difficulty. Tbe«
NIGER
67s
npids — though not such a hindrance to navigation— are of a
more dangerous character than any encountered between Ansongo
and Say. "In one pass, some 54 yds. wide, shut in between
two Urge reefs, a good half of the waters of the Niger flings
itself over with a tremendous roar" (Hourst). The rapids
extend for 50 m. or more; in a less obstructive form they
continue to Rabba, but light-draught steamers i^^rnding the
stream during flood season experience little difficulty in readiing
Bussa. A little above Rabba the river makes a loo^S south-west,
at the head of the loop being (right bank) Jebba. Here the
river is bridged by the railway from Lagos. Sixty miles lower.
down is the mouth of the (left hand) tributary the lc»Aitnf^ a
river of some magnitude which gives access to Zungeru,
the headquarters of the British administration in Northern
Nigeria. The head waters of the Kaduna are not far from Kano,
Below the mouth of the Kaduna, on the right bank of the Niger,
is Baro, the starting-point of a railway to Kano. In 7** so' N.
6* 4$^ E. the Niger is joined by its great tributary the Benue.
At their confluence the Niger is about three-quarters of a mile
broad and the Benue rather more than a mile. The united strean;i
forms a lake-like expansion about a m. in width, dotted with
islands and sandbanks; the peninsula at the junction is low,
swampy, and intersected by numerous rliann^l*. On the
western bank of the Niger at this point is situated Lokoja
iqv.), an important conmierdal centre. The stream, as far
south as Iddah (Ida), a town on the east bank,, rlishes through
a valley cut between the hills, the sandstone difls at some
places ridng 150 ft. high. Between Iddah and Onitsha, 80 m.,
the banks are lower and the country flatter, and to the soutli
of Onitsha the whole land is laid under water during the annual
T^Omlta. ^^^^ ^^^ ^^y ^ ^^^ ^^ begin the great delta
of the Niger, which, extending along the coast for
about X20 m., and 140 or 150 m inland, forms one of the most
remarkable of all the swampy regions of Africa. The river
breaks up into an intricate network of channels, dividing and
subdividhig, and intercrossing not only with each other but with
the branches of other streams, so that it is exceedingly difficult
to say where the Niger delta ends and another river system begins.
The Rio Nun is a direct continuation of the line of the undivided
river, and is thus the main mouth of the Niger
From the sea the only indication of a river mouth is a break
in the dark green mangroves which here universally fringe
the coast. The crossing of the bar requires considerable care,
and at ebb tide the outward current runs 5I knots per hour.
For the first 20 m. (or as far as Sunday Island, the limit of the
sea tide in the dry season) dense lines of mangroves 40, 50, or
60 ft in height shut in the channel; then palm and other trees
begin to appear, and the widening river has regular banks.
East of the Nun the estuaries known as the Brass, Sombrero,
New Calabar, Bonny, Opobo (or Imo), &c. (with the exception,
perhaps, of the first-named), seem to derive most ot their water
from independent streams such as the Orashi, rising in about
6" N., which is, however, linked with the Niger by the Onita
Creek in sJ* N. Behind the town of Okrika, some 30 m. up
the Bonny river, the swampy ground gives place to firm land,
partially forest-dad West of the Nun all the estuaries up to
the Forcados seem to be tnie mouths of the great river, while
the Benin river, though linked to the others by transverse
channels, may he more properly regarded as an independent
stream. (See Benin.) In this direction the largest mouth
is the Forcados, a noble stream with a safe and relatively deep
bar Its banks in its lower course are densely wooded, but the
beach is sandy and almost free from marsh and malaria. The
mouth is 3 m. wide. It has supplanted the Nun river as the
chief channel of communication with the interior. There
are x 7 to iq ft. of water over the Forcados bar, as against 73 ft.
at the Nun mouth. Moreover the Forcados bar shifts little
laterally, and within the bar is a natural harbour with an area
of 3 to 4 sq. m. having a depth of 30 ft. at low water spring
tides. From the mouth of the Forcados to the main stream
15 loS m.,'with a minimum depth in the dry season of 7 ft. A
OOXt.licrn arm affords ocean-going vessels access to Wari and
Sapele. The other western mouths of the Niger have as a rule
shallow and difficult bars. Tlie delta is the largest in Africa
and covers 14,000 sq. m.
The Benue b by far the most imporUnt of the affluenta of the Niger.
The name signifies in the Batta tongue " Mother of Waters." The
river rises in Adamawa in about 7" 40' N. and 13* 15' E.. ^ft, « • „,
a little north of the town of Ng^undere. at a height of "^"""^
over 3000 ft. above the sea, being separated by a narrow water
parting from one of the hcadstreams 01 the Logone. whose waters
now to Lake Chad. In its upper course the Benue is a mountain
torrent falling over aooo ft. in some IM m. With the Chad system
it is connected by the Kebbi m Mayo Kebbi, a right-hand tribuury
whose confluence b in about 9^* N., 13I* E. The Kebbi, fed by many
torrents rising in the eastern versant of the Mandan Hills, issues
from the S.W. end of the Tuburi marshes. These marshes occupy
an extensive depression in the moderately elevated platnu east of
the Mandara Hills, and are cut by 10* N., i^* E. The central part
of the marshes forms a deep lake, whence there is a channel going
northward to the Loeone and navigable for some months during
the year. The Kebbi flows west, and soon after leaving Tubun
passes through a rocl^ barrier marked by a series of rapids and a fall
at Lata of i6s ft. Below these obstructions the Kebbi to its junction
with the Benue has a depth of not less than 6 ft. In places, as at
Lere and Btfara, it widens into lake-like dimenmoos.
Below the Kebbi confluence the Benue, now a considerable river,
turns from a northerly to a westerly direction and is nayi^ble all
the year round by boats drawing not more than 2\ ft. ror some
40 m. below the confluence the river has an average width of 180 to
aoo yds., and flows with a strong steady current, although a broad
strip of countnr on each side b swampy or submersed. It b here
joined by the Faro, which, rising in the Adamawa Mountains S.E.
of Neauodere. flows almost due north. About 50 m. below the
junction of the Faro b Yola, the capital of Adamawa. It lies 00 the
southern side of the Benue, some 850 m. by river from the sea and
at an altitude of 600 ft. Here the width ot the stream increases at
flood time to looo or 1500 yds., and though it narrows at the some-
what dangerous rapids of Kumde GiUa to 150 or 180 yds., it soon
expands again. About 50 m. below Yola the Benue receives, on the
right bank, the Gongola, which rises in the Bauchi highlands and
auer a great curve north-cast turns southward. It is over 300 m.
long, and at flood time b navigable for about half of iU course.
The Benue receives several other tributaries both from the north and
the south, but they are not of great importance. It flows onwards
to the Niger with comparatively unobstructed cunent, its valleys
marked for the most part by ranges of hilb and its banks diversified
with forests, villages and cultivated tracts. But though exception-
ally free from obstruction by rapids» the river falls very low m the
dry season, and for seven to etaht months is almost useless for navi-
gation. The Benue lies within Britbh territoiy to a point 3 m. below
the mouth of the Faro, in about 13^" 8' E. East of that point the
river is in the German colony of Cameroon.
As the Niger and the Benue have different gathering grounds,
they are not m flood at the same time. The upper Niger rises in
June as the result of the tropical rains, and decreases in —^.
December, its breadth at Turellia expanding from between \I^
2000 and 2500 ft. to not less than li m. The middle ^,„^j,
Niger, however, reaches its maximum near Timbuktu
only in January; in February and March it sinks slowly above the
narrows of Tosaye, and more rapidly below them, the level being
kept up by supplies from backwaters and lakes; and by Apru
there b a decrease of about 5 ft. In August the channel near Tim-
buktu is again navigable owing to rain m the southern highlands.
The Benue reaches its greatest height in August or September,
begins to fall in October, falb rapidly in November and slowly in
the next three months, and reaches its lowest in March and April,
when it b fordable in many places, has no perceptible flow and at
the confluence begins to be covered with the water-weed Pislia
SiratioUs. The fl<x>d rises with great rapidity, and reaches 50, 60,
or even 75 ft. above the low-water mark.
The two confluents being so unlike, the united river differs from
each under the influence of the other. Here the river is at its lowest
in April and May; in June it is subject to ^reat fluctuations; about
the middle of August it usually begins to nse; and its maximum is
reached in September. In October it sinks, often rapidly. A slight
rise in January, known as the yangbe^ is occasioned by water from
the upper Niger. Between high- and low-water mark the difference
is as much as 35 ft. . . xt* l •
The geological changes which have taken place in the Niger basin
are imperfectly known. The French sdentists E.^ F. Gautier and
R. Chudeau, summing up the evidence available in 1909,
set forth the hypothesis that the exbting upper Niger
and the existing lower Niger were distinct streams.
According to this theory the upper Niger, somewhat above
where Timbuktu now sunds, went north and north-west and emptied
into the Juf. which in the beginning of the quaternary age was a
salt-water lake, the remnant of an arm of the sea which in the
tertiary age covered the .northern Sudan and southern Sahara as
far east as Bilma. Lake Fagubini is regarded as a remnant of the
676
NIGER
andent ooune of the upper river. When the ui^per Niser had this
direction, the Wadi Taffaasasaent, now a dried-up river 01 the central
Sahara, which rose in the/Aliasgar mounuins, is believed to have
formed the upper course of the existinE lower Niger.- While the
upper and lower parts of the Niger have all the appearance of ancient
streams, the middle Niger is the result of a '* recent " capture:
" it has no past, it scarcely has a present " (see R. Chudeau, Sahara
soudanaiSf Paris, 1909}.
Vague ideas of the fadstcnce of the river were possessed by
the andents. The great river flowing eastward reached by the
Nasamoma;ns as reported by Herodotus can be no
"f'^^v other than the Niger. Pliny mentions a river Nigris,
. of the same nature with the Nile, separating Africa
and Ethiopia, and forming the boundary of Gaetulia;
and it is not improbable that, this Is the modem I^iger. In
Ptolemy, too, appears along with Gir (possibly the Shari) a
certain Nigir (Slytip) as one of the largest rivers of the interior;
but so vague is his description that it is impossible definitely
to identify it with the Nigcr.^ Arabian geographeis, such as
Ibn Batuta, who were acquainted with the middle course of
the river, called it the Nile of the Negroes. At the same time
contradictory opinions were held as to the course of the stream.
It was supposed by some geographers to run west, an <^inion
probably &st stated by Idrisi in the xath century. Idrisi
gave the NUc of Egypt and the Nile of the Negroes a common
source in the Mountain of the Moon. Fountains from the
mountain formed two lakes, whence issved streams which
united hi a very large lake. From this third lake issued two
rivers— the Nile of Egypt flowing north, and that of the Negroes
flowing west (see R. Dozy and M. J. de X}oeje's Edrisit Leiden,
1866: Premier Climat, xst 4 sections). From Idrisi's description
it would appear that he regarded the Shari, Lake Chad, the
Benue, Niger and Senegal as one great river which emptied
into the Atlantic* That the Niger flowed west and reached
the ocean was also sUted by Leo Africanus. The belief that a
western branch of the Nile emptied itself into the Atlantic was
held by Prince Henry of Portugal, who instructed the navigators
he- despatched to Guinea to look for the mouth of the river,
and when in 1445 they entered the estuaxy of the Senegal the
Portuguese were convinced that they had discovered the Nile
of the Negroes (see Azurara's Discovery and Conquest of Guinea,
Beazley and Prestage's translation, vol. ii., London, 1899, chaps.
be. and bd., and introduction and notes). The Senc^ being
proved an independent river and the eastward flow of the
Niger assumed, the theory that it ran into the Nile was revived,
and almost to the very year in which the coarse of the river
was actually demonstrated geographers and travellers, such
as J. G. Jackson in his Empire of Morocco, first published in
1809, fou^t zealously for the identity of the Nile of the Negroes
with the river of Egypt. The highest scientific authority of the
day. Major James Rennell, believed, however, that the Niger
ended, by evaporation, in the country of " Wangara " — a region
located by him, through a misreading of Idrisi, far too much
> Sir Rufane Donkin in a curious and learned work, A Dissertation
on ,, * the Niger (1820), made the Niger join the Gir, which last
stream he calls the. Nile of Bomu. The united river ran north,
disappeared under]^und in the Sahara and readied the Mediter-
ranean at ** the quicksands of the gulph of Sidra." Donkin believed
that the desert, advancing eastwards, would overwhelm the Egyptian
Nile also in its lower course. *' The Delta," he exclaims, *' shall
become a plashy quicksand, a second Syrtis I and the Nile shall
cease to exist from the Lower Cataract downwards.'*
'The hydrography of northern central Africa as now known
lari|[ely explains the medieval belief in a connexion between the
western rivers and the Egyptian Nile. Leaving out of account the
Weile-Ubangi (and Idrisi's description of the two Niles may infer a
knowledge of that stream, which was supposed by Schweinfurth to
form part of the Chad system), there is an almost continuous water-
way (rom the mouth of the Senegal to that of the Nile. The upper
waters of the Bakoy branch of the Senegal and those of the navigable
Niger are less than ao m. apart ; the Niger communicates directly
through the Benue, Lake Tuburi and the Logone with the Shan;
the easternmost affluents of the Shari and the mojtt western tribu-
taries of the Bahr el Ghaiel affluent of the Nile are within 30 m.
of one another. With but three short porterages a boat could be
navigated the whole of this distance. Moreover, from the confluence
of the Ghazel the Nile is navigable (at high water) the tatstt distance
to the Mediterranean. (See also Suari.)
to the east, between 15* and so* E-. (see RenneU's map in Bone-
mann's Travels, x8oa). To .Rennell the Benue was an east-
flowing continuation of the Niger,* The imagined ezisteBoe
of mountains — called Kong in the west and Komri (Lunar) ia the
east— stretching in a high and unbroken chain across Africa
about xo** N. long prevented geographers from thinking of a
possible southern bend to the Niger.
That the vast network of rivers on the Guinea coast, of whidi
the Nun was the chief, known as the Oil Rivers, formed the driu
of the Niger does not appear to have been suspected before the
beginning of the X9th century. 0)nsequently it was from the
direction of its source that the river was first explored in modera
times. In 1795 Mungo Park (9.V.) was sent out by the African
Association, and was the first European to see and describe
the upper river. Park landed at the Gambia, and struck the
Niger near Segu (a town some distance above Sansandig) on the
aoth of July 1796, where he beheld it ** glittering in the morning
sun as broad ss the Thames at Westminster and flowing slowly to
the eastward " {travels, xst ed. p. 194). He descended the
river some distance, and on his return journey went up streaia
as far as Bamako. In 1805 Park returned to Africa for the
purpose of descending the Niger to its mouth. He started £S
before from the Gambia, reached the Niger, sailed down tbe
river past Timbuktu, and on the eve of the successful accomplish-
ment of his tmdertaking lost his life during an attack on his boat
by the natives*at Bussa (Nov. or Dec x8os). Park hdd to the
opinion that the Niger and Congo were one river, though in xSos
C. O. Reichard, a (}erman geographer, had suggested that the
Rio Nun was the mouth of the Niger.* (>wing to Park's death the
results of his second journey were lost, and the work had to be
begun afresh. In 1823 Major A. G. Laing (who had reached
Timbuktu by way of Tripoli) obtained some accurate infoxnution
concerning the sources of the river, and in X828 the French
explorer Ren6 Cailli6 went by boat from Jenn6 to the port of
Timbuktu. In X826 Bussa was reached from Benin by Hogh
Clapperton, and his servant Richard Lander. On Clappeito&'&
death Richard Lander and his brother John led in 1830 tn
expedition which went overland from Badagry to tbe Niger-
Canoeing down the river from Yawri—do m. above Buasa— to
the mouth of the Rio Nun they finally settled the doubt as to the
lower course of the stream. In x 83 2 Macgregor Laird csublished
the African Steamship Company,, and Richard Lander and
R. A. K. Oldfield (as members of its first expedition) asrmdfd
the Niger to Rabba, and the Benue as far as Dagtto (80 m.).
In X84X an expedition, consisting of three steamers of the British
navy, under Captain (afterwards' Admiral) H. D. Trotter, went
up to Egga (Egam), but was forced to return owing to sicknea
and mortality.
Heinrich Barth (185X-X854) made known to Europe the
course of the river from Timbuktu to Say. Barth sailed dova
from Saraiyamo (situated on a tributary stream south-west ci
Timbukutu) to Kabara; then skirted the left l>ank to a smaU
town called Bomu in 16** N., and the right thence to Say. la
i88o-x88x the German E. R. Flcgel ascended the Niger to
Gomba opposite the confluence of the Sokoto river with the
main stream, and about 70 m. below Barth*s southxnost potoL
Zweif^ and Moustier, sent out by M. Verminck, a Max^cillfs
merchant, discovered (1879) the sources of the Falico, &c, a:^
in 1885 the Tembi source was visited by Captain Brouet, a French
officer. Indeed the additions to the knowledge of the Ni^
during the last two decades of the X9th century were largely
the work of French officers engaged in the cxtensbn of French
influence throughout the western Sudan.- From x88o onwaris
Cobnel (afterward General) GaUieni took a leading [tart in iYe
operations on the upper river, where in x883a small gunboat, the
Niger, was launched for the protection of the newly established
French posts. In 1885 a voyage was made by Captain Delanneai
' In 1816 James Mc(^een correctly divined that there was t
great west-flowing tributary (the Benue) to the Niger, and that aiixr
its confluence the river ran south to the Atlantic See his Viem *f
Northern Central Africa. {1621) and Geoira^ucal Survty of Af^
*bee £pkimirides ghgrapkiqnes, v6L xii. (Weimar. Aug. itet3}w
NIGERIA
677
past tbe ruins of Stosandig, as far as Dialarabe. In 1887 the
gunboat made a 'more extended voya^, reaching the port of
Ttmbuktu, and correcting the mapping of the river d6wn to that
point In 1894-1895 attention was directed to the middle and
lover Niger, to which several expeditions started from the coast
of Guinea. A still more important expedition was that of
Lieutenant Houist, who, starting from Timbuktu in January
1896, navigated tbe Niger from that point to its mouth, executing
a careful survey of the river and the various obstructions to
navigaUoiL A voyage made in 1897 by Lieutenant de Chevign6
showed that at low watec the section between Timbuktu and
Ansongo presents great difficulties, but the voyage from
Timbuktu to Say was again successfully atxomplished in 1899
by Captain Granderye. In xqoi Captain £. Lenfant ascended
the river with a flotilla from its mouth to Say, and he demon-
strated the " normal practicability " of the route, despite the
Bossa rapids. Tbe delta of the Niger has been partially surveyed
since it became British territory by various ship tcaptains,
officials of the Royal Niger Company and others, including Sir
Harry Johnston, sometime British consul for the OQ Rivers.
In addition to the main stream, the Niger basin was made
known by exploration during the last quarter of the xgth century
and the early years of the aoth. The journeys of the German
traveller G. A. Krause (north from the Gold Coast, 1886-1887)
and the French Captain Binger (Senegal to Ivory Coast, 1887-
liSg) first defined its southern limits by revealing the unexpected
northward extension of the basins of the Guinea coast streams,
especially the Volta and Komoe, a fact which explained the
absence of important tributaries within the Niger bend. This
was crossed for the first time, in iu fullest extent, by Colonel P. L.
Monteil (French) in 1890-189X. At the eastern end of the basin
much light has been thrown on the system of the Benue. In 1851
fiarth crossed the Benue at its junction with the Faro, but the
region of its sources was first explored by Flegel (X882-X884),
who traversed the whole southern basin of the river and reached
Ngaundere. Other German travellers added to the knowledge
of the southern tributaries, the Tarabba, Donga and others,
which in the rains bring down a large body of water from the
highlands of southern Adamawa. British travellers who have
done work in the same region are Sir W. Wallace, L. H. Moselcy,
W. p. Hewby, P. A. Talbot and Captain Claud Alexander.
The kst-named two were members of an expedition led by
Lieut. Boyd-Alexander, who himself crossed Africa from the
Niger to the Nile.* Messrs Talbot and Claud Alexander surveyed
the country between Ibi on the Benue and Lake Chad, mapping
(igo4) a considerable part of the Gongoki.^ In 1854 the Benue
itself was ascended 400 m. by the ** Pleiad " expedition, and in
1S89 to X3I** E., and the Kebbi to Bifara by Major (afterwards
Sir (Haude) Macdonald, further progress towards the Tuburi
marsh being prevented by the shallowness of the water. The
upper basin of the Benue was also traversed by the French
expeditions of Mizon (X893) and Maislre (1892- 1893), the latter
passing to the south of the Tubtui marsh without definitely
settling the hydrographical question connected with it. This
was accomplished by Captain Lenfant in 1903. He ascended the
Kebhl aiKl discovered the Lata Fall, continuing up the river to its
point of issue from Tuburi. Crossing the marshes he found and
navigated the narrow river leading to the Logonc. Save for the
porterage round the Lata Fall the whole journey from the mouth
ot the Niger to Lake Chad was made by water. The Benue in
tbe neighbourhood of Yola was mapped in Z903-X9C4 by an
Anglo-German boundary commission.
From 1904 onwards the French undertook works on the Niger
between Bamako— whence there is railway communication with
tbe Senegal — and Ansongo with a view to deepening the channel
and removing obstructions to navigation. In 1910 the British
began dredging with the object of obtaining from the mouth of
the river to Baro a minimum depth of 6 ft. of water.
* Captain Cbod Alexander died of fever in northern Nigeria on
tbe 30ch of November 1904. His brother, Lieut. Boyd Alexander,
in a Bubaequent especUtion acroas Africa was murdered in Wadai on
the and of April 191a
AtrrHORTTflBS.— ^iufigo Park* Tnsstit in tki Initrim Distrku w/
Africa . . . in tht Kcar/ ijm, j^gd and ijg^ Cl^ondon. 1799}. A
geographical append ii by Major J.tnic» Kenaell §ummArii4£a the
information then ^vjiLLible about the U\zvt* R* And J. L^iidc:r.
Journal of an EtptdHiOH to txpion ike OsMfu stnd TttminatiaH of
tkt Niter . . . Ci vols. Londiin. 1^33) ; H. Barth. Trax^U And
Discoveries in Notih and CeKtraJ Afrim . .. ;, vol*, iv. and v. (t^nrfun*
18^7-1858); Gen, J. S. Cillicni, AfisUeit d'txpioraiion iu Ifcvi
Niger . . . (Parii^, f&^5}\ E* CAPotit Di Smnt Louiji au F^rt di
Timhouktou; Voya^t d! ufu axnn&niht /rflHydij^ (I'laris, 1891) s
M. Hourst, Sur It A ii^t tmu pcyi dts Tavare^s {Tans, 1 89*31, EbcliAh
translation, Frekfh Eaierpn^e in Affita . . . Etpioraiion of iht
Niger (London, iSofl). The polLitrot rckmiccs In thii book are
marked by jealous hwtiJity to ihc BnEi^b. Cob J* K* Trotter. The
Niger Sources . . (Lt].nrJ.>n, i&97}:&ir IL H- tobrtaEoii»"The Niger
Delte," Proc,'R.U.^. (l>(.Trcmlwj' iKSS): Sir F- Lugard. "An Ex-
pedition to Bori^ on t]i,e Nigtf/* Cctf. JuL (September ifi95h E-
Lenfant, Le Niger; r-tii pwi'/r^ J mitt empire iijru:ain {Pa,jis, 1903),
chiefly a demonstraEjon diat the EtHbo. rapids afe nat an nbsalute
bar to navigation.
The foreffoing books deal a] ^"--^ ^ ^ fr Ifcly vl t h the N Ijfer. For the
Benue see, oesidet Barth't Tr '■- F. stockier FerryTnan, Up the
Niger; Narrative of Major Clt . -dotmid't Mis awn ta Iht Ni^tr
and Benue Rivers . . . (Loodc , ,.;. L, MUoht " hinit^iv de Ia
source de la Ben6u6 au conflM chl ^i^ rivi^rr^ Kadc) et Mamb^rf ^*
and other papers in the Bull. So^^ G^^yg* P^m for 1^^ and 1S96;
C. Maistre, A trovers VAfrique '. mtrnt dv C&nga an A'jj(« irJiri*. 1895) ;
E. Lenfant. La Grande Route du Ck^ iParift i90S>i Coh Lh jackton.
"The Anglo-German Boundir>' ExpeiJition in Jvigcriat" Cfw. JtU.
(July 1905) ; P. A. Talbot. " S urvf y Work by tht AleK4iidcr Gosling
Expedition: Northern Nigeri iyos/* wf^w (Ftbrtiary i9o&h
Boyd Alexander, From the N SiU, vol. i. (LoRtJ&n* 1907)-
The British Blue Books, Co net rfhtisf^ t9 Raiivay Con*
struction in Nigeria (1905) ai --f C^rrtipottdmct^ &c. (1909K
contain information about th JnUry al rhf.' lower NiwraDd
of the Kaduna. The best tm ihcut publUhed by the French
and British War Offices; an 4\ii.ii an caurs du JVifer d^ TomifOttfiou
aux rapides de Boussa in 50 shi-oEi oii the iciile of 1 : 50,000, by Lieut.
Hourst and others, was publi linl in Paris in J&99. (F. R. C*)
NIGERIA, a British protectorate in West Africa occupying the
lower basin of the Niger and the country between that river and
Lake Chad, inchiding the Fula empire («.«. the Hausa States)
and the greater part of Bomu, It embraces most of the territory
in the square formed by the meridians of 3^ and 14* E. and the
parallels of 4^ and 14^ N., and has an area of about 338,000 sq. m.
The protectorate is bounded W. , N. and N. E. by French possessions
(Dahomey, Upper Senegal and Niger colony, and Chad territory),
S.E. by the Gemian colony of Cameroon and S. by the Atlantic
Physical Features,— The country is divisible, broadly, into
three zones running parallel with the coast: (i) the delta, (2)
forest region, giving place to (3) the plateau region. The coast
line, some 500 m. in length, extends along the Gulf of Guinea
from a* 46' 55' E. to 8* 45' E. ending at the Rio del Rey, the point
where the great bend eastwards of the continent ceases and the
land turns south. The Niger iq.v.)^ which enters the protectorate
at its N;W. comer and flows thence S.E. to the Atlantic, receives,
250 m. from the sea, the Benue, which, rising in the mountains of
Adamawa south of Lake Chad, flows west across the plateau.
Into the huge delta of the Niger several other rivers (the " Oil
Rivers") empty themselves; the chief being, on the west,
the Benin (9.V.), and on the east tbe Brass. East of the Niger
delta is that formed by the Imo or Opobo, Bonny and other
streams, and still farther east is the Calabar estuary, mainly
formed by the Cross river {q.v,). West of the Niger delta are
several independent streams discharging into lagoons, which
here line the coast. The most westerly of these streams, the
Ogun, enters the Lagos lagoon, which is connected by navigable
waterways with the Niger (see Lagos).
The delta region is swampy, and forms, for a distance of from
40 to 70 m. inland, a network of interlacing creeks and broad
duggish channels fringed with monotonous mangrove forests.
The main rivers are navigable for ocean-going steamers for a
distance of from 15 to 40 m. from their mouths. Beyond the
delta firm ground takes the place of mud and the mangroves
disappear. The land rises gradually at first, becoming, however,
in many districts very hilly, and is covered with dense forests.
The Niger at its confluence with the Benue is not more than
350 ft. above the sea. North of this point are hills forming
the walls of the plateau which extends over the centre of the
678
NIGERIA
protectorate and is part of the great plateau of North Africa.
This plateau, broken only by the valle>'S of the rivers, does
not attain an elevation approaching that of the plateaus of the
southern half of the continent, the culminating point (apart from
particular mountain districts), situated in about 10" N., reaching
a height of 3000 ft. only. The valleys of the Niger and Benue,
especially the latter, are very much lower, the town of Yola
on the Benue, some 400 m. inland, lying at an altitude of little
over 600 ft. The surface is generally uhdulatin)$. with isolated
" table mountains "• of granite and sandstone often rising
abruptly from the plain. It is clothed largely with thin forest,
but becomes more open to the north untQ, near the French
frontier, the arid steppes bordering the Sahara are reached.
Much of the country north of Zaria (11* N.) is covered with
heavy loose sand. The most mountainotis districts are northern
Bauchi (a little north of 10°), where heights of 6ooa to 7000 ft.
occur; parts of Muri, along the north bank of the Benue;
and the southern border of the Benue basin, where the hills
(consisting of ironstone, quartz and granite) appear rich in
minerals. The mountainous area covers some 50,000 sq. m.
On the east the plateau sinks to the plains of Bomu (g.v.), which
extend to Lake Chad. Tributaries of the Niger traverse the
western portion of the country^ the most noteworthy being
the Gulbin Kebbi or Sokoto river and the Kaduna, which flows
through a valley not more than 500 ft. above the sea. The
north-eastern part of the country drains to Lake Chad by the
Waubc or Yo, an intermittent stream, which in its lower cocrse
forms the Anglo-French boimdary. The western portion ol
Lake Chad (q.v.) belongs to the protectorate, whicit contaiss
no other large lake. The water parting between the Chad aitd
Niger systems runs N.W. and S.E. from about Katsena is
13** N. to the Bauchi hills. Of the tributaries of the Bcooe
the most important is the Gougola. During the dry season rao^
of the small rivers cease runnhig and the water in the U;;^
streams is low. The great rise of the Niger within the pfo-
tcctorate takes place in August and September and there is a
second rise about the b^inning of the year.
Ceoiogy. — ^Thc fundamental formation connst? of crystalline mcfci^
From the edge of the coast belt to near the confluence of the Bcr-J.-*
and Niger they are overlain by unfcssilifcrous sandstones, l>-tQg c'
disturbed and possibly of the age of the sandstones of the Congo Ki^
Limestones, with fossils indicating a Tertiary age. have bero ktcsi
near Sokoto. Superficial deposits occupy the coast belt. Rcrrr':
alluvium and a thick deposit of black earth border the upper mcks
of the Benue and cover wide areas around Lake Chad.
aimate.— The country lies whollv within the tropics. Tk
climate of the coast-lands is moist and not, and extremely unheali^
malaria! fever being prevalent and deadly. The annual rainfsD ffi ^^
delta regions varies between 100 and 140 or more inches: the carta
temperature is over 80* F. The heat does not vary gncatly. ht^
NIGERIA
679
ainldn^ below 70*, and not often exceedinffioo* in the shade. The
direction of the prevailing wind is S.W. Though unfavourable for
the permanent residence of white men, the interior is much less
dcaoly than the coast-lands. The northern part is a land of tornadoes.
At the close of the dry season (end of February) cyclones from the
N.E., usually accompanied by tain and thunder, burst over the land.
They increase in frequency until they meree in the heavy rains
vhich last from J uly to October. Then the " namattan,*' or hot, d^
«ind from the Sahara, begins and brings with it clouds of impalpable
dust. At this period the nights are cold, and in the north January
and February are cold even in the day'time, while frosts are ex-
perienced in the neighbourhood of Lake Chad. The temperature in
the central part of the jirotcctorate is much the same aveia^ as at
the coast, but the ran^ is far ereater, varying from a shade mmimum
of 50* to a shade maximum of 107*.^ The rainfall is much scantier
on the plateaus than in the maritime regions, averagine; in Northern
Ni^ria about 50 in. a year. There b evidence of the increasing
desiccation of the whole country north of the forest belt. This
desiccation is partly attributable to the unrestricted felling of wood
practised for many centuries by the inhabitants. Along the northern
border ctf the protectorate this has resulted in the encroachment of
the Saharan desert over once fertile districts.
The natives ctf the northern regions do not suffer to any extent
from fever unless they move to a part of the country some distance
from their home. Leprosy b common, especially in the inland towns ;
while ophthalmia a prevalent in the north, especially among the
poorer classes, who are compelled to expose themselves to the
blinding dust from the dcserta and the excessive glare of the sun
reflected from the burning sand.
Fauna and Flora. — ^The animals of Nigeria include the elephant,
lion, leopard, giraffe, hyena, West-African buffalo, many kinds of
antelope and gazelle and smaller game. Monkeys are numerous in
the forests, and snakes arc common. The camel is found in the
northern regions bordering the Sahara. In the rivers are rhinoceros,
hippopotamus and crocodile. The manatus is also found. The birds
incfuae the ostrich, marabout, vultures, kites, hawks, ground horn-
bill, great bustard, guinea fowl, partridge, lesser bustard, quail,
snipe, duck, widgeon, teal, geese of various kinds, paraqucts, doves,
blue, broiue and green oigeons, and many others. Domestic animals
include the horse and cionkev in the plateaus, but baggage animals
are rare in the coast-lands, where the tsetse fly is found/ Mosquitoes
are also abundant throughout the delta. Herds of cattle and flocks
(^ sheep and goats are numerous throughout the country.
The mangrove is the characteristic tree of the swamps. North
of the swamps the oil palm {EJaeis guineetuis) flourishes abundantly.
It is common as far as about 7* N. ' Rubber vines, mahogany, ebony
and many valuable timber trees are found in the forest zone. Other
trees, found chiefly on the plateaus, are the baobab, the shea-butter
tree, the locust tree, gambier, palms, including the date and dum
palm (Hyphaene), the tamarind, and, in the and regions, the acacia
»nti aiimosa*
Inhabitants. — ^The population of Nigeria is estimated at
15,000,000. The Europeans (mostly British) Dumber about a
thousand, and are civil servants, soldiers, traders or missionaries.
In the delta district and the forest zone the inhabitants are
typical negroes. Besides the people of Benin, the coast tribes
include the Jekri, living on the lower part of the Benii; river
and akin to the Yoruba, the Ijos, living in the delta east -of the
main mouth of tlie Niger, and the Ibos, occupying a wide tract
of country just above the delta and extending for too m. east
from the Niger to the Cross river. South of the Ibos live the
Aros, a tribe of relaUvely great intelligence, who dominated
many of the surrounding tribes and possessed an oracle or ju-ju
of reputed great power. On the middle Cross river live the
Akuna-kunas, an agricultural race, and in the Calabar region
are the Efiks, Ibibios and Kwas. All these tribes are fetish
worshippers,* though Christian and Mosl(;m missionaries have
made ntimerous converts. The Efiks,- a coast tribe which has
come much into contact with white men, have adopted several
European customs, and educated Efiks are employed in
government service. The great secret society called Egbo {q.v.)
is an Efik institution. Each tribe has a different ju-ju, and
each speaks a separate language or dialect, the most widely
diffused tongues being the Ibo and Efik, which have been
reduced to writing. In general little clothing is wom, but none
of the tribes go absolutely nude. In colour the majority are
dark, chocolate, others are coal-bhick (a tint much admited by
the natives themselves) or dark yellow-brown. Cannibalism,
hxunan sacrifices and other revolting practices common to the
tribes, axe bemg gradually stamped out under British control.
^ Returns at Zungeni for 1903.
Trial by ordeal and domestic slavery arc still among the recog-
nized institutions.
In the northern parts of Nigeria the inhabitants are of more
mixed blood, the negro substratum having been to a great
extent driven out by the northern races of the continent. The
most important race in Northern Nigeria is that of the Hausa
iq.v.) , among whom the superior classes adopted Mahommedanism
in the zjth and 14th centuries. While the lower classes remained
pagan, a fairly dvilizcd system of administration, with an
eflSdcnt judicial and fiscal organization, was established in the
Hausa territories. The Hausa |ue keen traders and make ex-
cellent soldiers.
At the bieginning of the xpth century the Hausa territories
were conquered by another dominant Mahommodan race, the
Fula (.q.v.)f who form a separate caste of cattle-rearers. Arab
merchants are settled in some of the larger Hausa towns.
In general the people living in the river valleys have been
unaffected by Moslem pnq>aganda either in blood or religion.
Thus along the banks of the Niger, Benue and other streams,
the inhabitants ai^ negro and pagans, and generally of a purely
savage though often rather fine type. Of these the Munshi,
who inhabit the district nearest the junction of the Benue with
the Niger, were long noted for their intractability and hostility
to strangcxs, whom they attacked with poisoned arrows. The
Yoraghums, their neighbours, were cannibals. Nearer Yola
live the Battas, who also had a bad reputation. These tribes,
luder British influence, are turning to trade and agricultural
pursuits. In the central hilly region of Kochia are other pagan
tribes. They wear no clothes and their bodies are covered with
hair. South of th<e Benue, near the Niger confluence, dwell
the savage and warlike Okpotos, Bassas and other tribes. In
the districts of Illorin and Borgu, west of the Niger, the inhabit-
ants are also negroes and pagan, but of a more advanced
type than the tribes of the river, valleys. To attempt any
complete list of the tribes inhabiting Northern Nigeria would
be vain. In the one province of Bauchi as many as sixty native
languages are spoken.
In Bomu (g.v.) the population consists of (i) Berberi or
Kanuri, the ruling race, containing a mixture of Berber and
negro blood, with many lesser indigenous tribes; (2) so-called
Arabs, and (3) Fula. The country to the back of Lagos is largely
inhabited by Yorubas (9.0.), and the people of Borgu according
to some native traditions claim to have had a Coptic origin.
Towns. — A Large proportion of the population dwells in towns.
The chief ports are La^os {q.v.), capital of Southern Nigeria,
with a population of about 50,000: Calabar (4.9.). pop. about 15,000,
known as Old Calabar and Duke Town, on the Calabar river; Opobo,
Bonny Town and Brass Town, all on the rivers of the same name.
Brass Town contains a fine church, the gift of a native chief. These
places are east of the Nun or main mouth of the Ni^r, where, on
the western bank, is Akassa. Here arc important engineering works
and a slip for repairing ships. Further west at the Forcados mouth
of the Niffer is a town of the same name, which is the principal port
of entry tor the river. Benin (q.v.), about 60 m. inland from the
mouth of the Benin river, and Bende, about 50 m. N.W. of Calabar,
were noted ju-ju towns and have lanne populations. Wari and
Sapele are towns in the Benin dbtrict. Owo, some 50 m. N. of Benin
city, is an important trade centre for the Yoruba country, in which
are the laree cities of Abeokuta, Ibadan and Illorin, all separately
noticed. On the Niger at the head of the delta are Asaba (w-est
bank) and Om'tsha (east bank); Iddah (Ida), in the p?lm-oil zone;
Lokoja on the west bank opposite the confluence with the Benue,
and the headquarters of the protectorate's military force; Baro,
on the east bank, 70 m. above Lokoja. the river terminus of the
Northern Nigeria railway; Egt^, Mureji (at the Kaduna confluence),
Tebba and Bussa {q.v.). The administrative headquarters of Northern
Nigeria are at Zungeru. on the Kaduna river, in 6* 09' 40" E.,
9* 48' 32" N.
Apart from the sea and river ports and the towns in Yorubaland,
the chief centres of population are in the open plains east of the
Niger. Thev are the capitals of various states founded by the
Hausa. Of these cities the most important is Kano (9.V.), the neat
emporium of trade for the central Sudan, where Tuareg and Arab
from the north meet merchants from the Niger, Lake Chad and
the far southef^ regions. It is situated in 12* N. and 8" 32' E.
Some 220 m. W.N.W. of Kano is Sokoto, on a tribuUry of the Nigjer
of the same name. Sokoto is the religious and political centre of Uie
Fula. Next in importance among the Hausa towns are Bauchi (or
Yakoba), pop. over 50.000. 140 m. S.E. of Kano; Zaria (^.v.). pop.
68o
NIGERIA
about 60,000. 83 m. S.S.W. of Kano; Kataena (g.v.), 8k m. N.W.
of Kano; Hadeija, near the N. eastern frontier; Gando.oo m. S.W.
of Sokoto; Bida (q.v.), 25 m. N.W. of Egga on the Niger; and Yota
(q.v.) on the Bcnue near the German frontier. J^ga, 85^ m. S.W. of
Sokoto, is an important entrepdt' for ttade from the hinterland of
the Guinea coast and the Hausa states. The chief towns of Bomu
are Kuka (9.0.) on Lake Chad, and Maidugari, some 70 m. S.W. of
that lake Most of these towns are capitals of provinces and resi-
dences of native princes subordinate to the British administration.
They arc nearly all surrounded b)r strong mud walls and outer dry
inoats. Their mterior is divided into a series of compounds, each
entered throueh a flat-roofed audience chamber. Inside are the
bechive-shapea huts of the household. The gateways are strongly
fortified. In addition to the towns mentioned there are many others
containing populations of from 10,000 to 20,000, the bulk of the
inhabitants of the Hausa countries being town dwellers.
Communicalums. — ^The rivers are the great highway? pf com-
munication, but, in consequence of the bwness of the wtlu r 1x t^ ctm
October and May, navigation is then only possible for shal ^ <w . I r 1 u i,'ht
stern-wheel steamers and launches. From the Forcadi^. rn>.ui]i of
the Niger steamers xan ascend the main stream as fur a^ t'lba,
a distance of 530 m. and, at some risk, to Fort Goldie, 30 ru. iLrt Iter
up at the foot of the Bussa rapids. Steamers can also a^ l lu^ ihe
Bienue to Yola, 480 m., above tne confluence of that visct Ki\,h iht
Niger at Lokoja. It is also possible by this route to i'ti:- E.e t[ by
small boat vb the Shan 8>'stem to Laka Chad. The K^duna isom
its confluence with the Niger can be ascended by steamer 50 m. to
Barijuko, which is 23 m. by rail from Zungeru. The Gongola is
navigable at high water for 130 m. from its junction with the Benue.
In the delta region every place of importance is eanly reached by
river steamers, and there is a regular service between Forcados and
Lagos by the lagoons. The Cross river iis na^dgabks 340 m. up to and
beyond the frontier of Cameroon.
A 3 ft. 6 in. gauge railway from the port of Lagos to Ibadan was
completed in 1900, the distance by rail being 123 m. Only about half
that distance intervenes between Ibadan and the sea. This line was,
during 1906-1910. extended via Oshogbo, Illorin and Jebba to
Zungeru, whence it is continued to She, 40 m. E. of Zungeru and
about 450 m. from Lagos, where a junction is effected with the Baro-
Kano hne. A small light surface line 32 m. long. 3 ft. 6 in. gauge was
built(i90i-i902)in Northern Nigeria between BarijukoontneKaduna
and the capital, Zungeru. and proved most successful and lucrative. In
1907 the construction was begun of a 3 ft. 6 in. railway from Baro on
the Niger via Bida and Zaria to Kano — a distance of about 400 m.
Good roads connect some of the great Hausa cities, and Kano and
Kuka are starting-points for caravans across the Sahara to the
Mediterranean. There arc also old established caxavan routes from
Kano to Ashantt and neighbouring countries.
Regular communication is maintained with Europe by steamers
running between Liverpool and Forcados, Bonny and Calabar, the
steamers calling at other West African ports en route. The time
occupied between Liverpool and Forcados is about seventeen days.
Other steamers ply between the ports named (and others in the pro-
tectorate) and London and Hamburg. There is telegraphic com-
munication between Brass and Bonny and Europe by submarine
cable, and land lines from Calabar to Lagos and from Lagos to Jebba,'
Lokoja. Zungeru. Kano. &c.. a connexion being also effected with the
telegraph system of French West Africa.
Agriculture. — ^The natives of the coast re^on cultivate yams and
other food plants, but in that district agnculture proper scarcely
exists, the fruit of the oil-palm supplying an easy means of obtaining ,
almost everything that the natives require. ' In the plains of the
north, inhabited by Hausa and by agricultural pa^n tribes, and in
the fertile river valleys, agriculture is regularly earned on. Rice and
wheat are cultivated in many parts, though the staple food is guinea
com. Sweet potatoes, ground nuts, yams, onions and other vege-
tables are largely grown. Of fruits, dates, pomegranates, citrons
and bananas abound in certain areas. The shea-butter tree supplies
an excellent oil for lamps, and also for cooking, though it is only used
by the poorer classes. The most important vegetable products are
cotton and indigo,- which are univetsally grown. Tobacco and Icola
nuts are also grown."
Mineral Products. — ^l^n ore of excellent quaUty Is found In the
irovince of Bauchi, alkali salts are abundant in Kano province,
ron ore and red and yellow ochres are found in Kontagora and other
pro\dnccs, kaolin (china clay) and limestone in the west central
regions. Silver and lead have been found in the Benue area.^
Trade. — ^Throughout Nigeria local trade is active and has- shown
rapid increase under British rule. Its further development mnll be
fostered by the improvement of communications which is taking
place. Export trade in the delta and forest regions is almost entirely
confined to " jungle produce," the most important articles being
patm oil and pa\m kernel. Rubber, ebony and other timber, cocoa
and gum copal, come next in importance. Cotton is also grown for
export. The quantity of palm oil exported annually exceeds
12.000,000 gallons, and is worth over £600.000. .Of palm kernels
pre
iroi
»See Colonial Office Reports, Northern Nigeria Mineral Survey
tgo6-joo7\ Southern Nigeria Mineral Survey jqos~J907 (Miscella-
neous, Nos. 59, 67. 68).
,000 to 70,000 tons are shipped yeaily, with an avenfe Tsloe o(
t>o,ooo a year. The principal imports are cotton goods (nearly all
rom the United Kingdom), and in the southern regicm spirits— fio
and geneva— <dmost wholly from Holland and Germany, ash. net
and other provisions, tobacco, hardware, cutlery and buildioc
material, &c., mostly from the Umted Kingdom. The value of tl^
trade (imports and exports) of Southern Nigeria texdushre of Lagos)
increased from £1.566.000 in 1804-1895 to £3,464.000 in 1905- Is
1906 the total trade, inclusive of Lagos, was valued at it^x^fitn—
imports, £i,i48xx)o; exports, £3,151,000.
In Northern Nigeria up to the moment of the Britidi occupation
the foreign trade was chiefly in the hands of Tripdi Arabs whose
caravans crossed the desert at great risk and expense, and carried
to the markets of Kuka and Kano tea, sugar and other Eunxieaa
goods, taking away the skins and feathers which constituted the
principal articles of export to the Mediterranean coast. There was
also a very considerable caravan trade in native i{oods w^iicfa the
industrious Hausa population carried for great distances thronrii the
western and central states of the Sudan. The principal artioes of
this trade are salt, kola nuts, ivory, leather, sodium caibooates aad
spices. The centre of the cloth manufacture is Kano. The cbth is
made <A the cotton grown in the country, woven 00 smaQ hasd-
kx>ms and dyed either with indigo or with a ma^ienta dye obtained
from the bark of a tree. If the Hausa history, wluch exists in writtes
form, be correct, the manufacture of this cloth has been carried on
in Kano since the 9th century. Kano and the district aroand it
clothes half the population of the Sudan. The kob not, chewed by
almost every native of the country, is brought frem vest of tbe
Niger, traders from Ashanti, Accra and Yonil»land frequeotittg the
markets of Jegga. Sadt and " potash " are imported from Absen
in the Sahara; and ivory, ostrich feathers ana leather goods aie
exported to Tripoli. The principal exports to Great Britain ha>-e
come hitherto from the forest regions, and are of the same cbss
as the forest products of the soutfu Rubber constitutes at present
the most important export. The cultivation ci cotton is howmr
indigenous to the country. Inquiries made under the auspices of
the British Cotton Growing A«ociation have led to thecoocfaiskn
that Northern Nigeria offers the most promising 6eld contaiwd
within the empire for the growth of cotton required to reader
Lancashire looms independent of foreign supplies. Steps have beea
taken to stimulate the native industry, and it is hoped that cottoo
may take the pla(» in Northern Nigeria which palm oil and kemtb
occupy in the coast zone. Any great expannon in the cotton trade
is however dependent on the development of cheap and cfficistt
means of transport — hence the importance, cooun^dally. of the
Baro-Kano railway, with its base on the navigable Niger. Whh
the increase of transport facilities it is probable that the trade widi
the Mediterranean coasts will also be diverted to the south, and pre6t-
able minor branches of trade would be formed in leather, oscridi
feathers, gums, fibres, &c The imports from Great Britain, wtick
come via Forcados, are mostly cotton goods, proviakms and hard-
ware. The importation of spirits is prohibited north of 7* N.
Curren^ and BanMfif^The legal currency, and that in genenl
use, is British steriing. There is a subsidiary ccnaage Ontrodoced b
\9oS) conasting of a nickel penny and a nickd tentn ol a pesmr
(the last-namedwas first coined in alumiiUum, but this metal proved
unsuitable and was wididrawn). Cowries (1000 ■■ 3d.) are stiQ
occasionally employed, and on the coast , accounts a re -some t imes kcft
in galk>ns of palm oil. Banking is in the hands of the Bank of
British West Africa and the Bink of Nigeria. Thcxte b |Jso s
government savings bftnk.
Hi^ory,
Of the early history of the races bhabiting the ootst bads
little b known. The Ben! appear to have been the most powexfd
race at the time of the discovery of the coast by the Bortagaese
in the zsth century, and the kings of Benin in the zTth cestazy
ruled a large part of the south-western portion of the exktiag
British protectorate (see Benin). The Benin infittence dees
not seem to have reached east of the Forcados mouth of the
Niger. In the greater part of the delta region eadi town owoed
a dt£Ferent chief and there was no one dominant tribe. Aidob^
these people, who occupied a low position even amoog the de-
generate coast negroes, and' who were constantly raided by the
more virile tribes of the interior, trading sUtions were cstabBshcd
by the Portuguese, and bter on by other Eunqpeaas, British
traders appearing as early as the 17th century. There was bs
assertion of political rights by the white men, who were bifdt
at the mercy of the natives, and who rarely ventured far fna
their ships or the " factories " established on the various itren
and estuaries^
By the end of the x8th century Britbh enterprise had afaae^t
entirely displaced that of other nations on the Niger co^:-
But the principal trade of all Europeans was stiD in skves.
NIGERIA
68 1
Aftec the abob'tion.^ tbe ikve-tzade in the 19th centuxy palm
oil fanned the staple article of commerce, and the various
itreams vhich dxain the Niger coast near the mouth of the
great river became known as the " Oil Rivers." The opening
ap of the interior was in the meantime promoted, chiefly by the
efforts of British traveHers and merchants. Mungo Park traced
the Niger from Segu to Bussa, where he lost his life in 1805.
From Bu<aa to the sea the course of the river was first made
known in 1830 by the brothers Richard and John Lander.
Major Dixon Denham and Captain Hugh Clapperton entered
the country turn known as Northern Nigeria from the north
in 1833, crossing the desert from TripolL Clapperton in x826>
1837 made a second journey, approaching the same territory
from the Guinea coast. Dr Barth, travelling under the auspices
of the British government, entered the country from the north
and made the journeys, lasting over two years between 185 a
and 1855, of which he has left the record that still remains
thi principal standard work for the interior. Macgregor Laird
first organized in 1832 the navigation of the river Niger from
its mouth to a point above the Benue confluence. During the
next twenty-five years expeditions were despatched into the
interior, and a British consul was posted at Lokoja. Possession
wa also taken, in 1861, of Lagos island, with the object of
checking the slave trade still bdng carried on in that region
But the deadly climate discouraged the first efforts of the British
government, and, after the parliamentary committee of 186$
had recommended a policy which would render possible the
ultimate withdrawal of British official influence from the coast,
the consulate of Lokoja was abandoned.
It was re-established a few years later to meet the still steadily
growing requirements of British trade upon the river. In 1880
the influence of the international " scramble for Africa " made
itself felt by the establishment under the recognized protection
of the French government of two French firms which opened
upwards of thirty trading stations on the Lower Niger. The
establishment of these firms was admittedly a political move
which coincided with the extension of French influence from
Senegal into the interior. Nearly at the same time a young
Englishman, George Goldie-Taubman, afterwards better known
as Sir George Goldle (?.«.), having some private interests on
the Niger, conceived the idea of amalgamatmg all local British
interests and creating a British province on the Niger. To
effect' this end the United African Company was formed in
1879, and trade was pushed upon the river with
an energy which convinced the French firms of the
futility of their less united efforts. They yielded
the field and allowed themselves to be bought out
^' by the United African Company in 1884. At the
Berlin Cbnference held in 1884-1885 the British representative
was able to sUte that Great Britain alone possessed trading
interests on the Lower Niger, and in June 1885 a British pro-
tectorate was notified over the coast Unds known as the Oil
Rivers. Germany had in the meantime esublished itself
in Cameroon, and the new British protectorate extended along
the Gulf of Guinea from the British colony of Lagos on the
west to the new German colony on the east, where the Rio del
Rey marked the frontier. In the following year, x886, the
United African Company received a royal charter under the
title of the Royal Niger Company. The territories which were
placed by the charter under the control of the company were
those immediately bordering the Lower Niger in its course from
the confluence at Lokoja to the sea. On the coast they extended
from the Forcados to the Nun mouth of the river Beyond
the confluence European trade had not at that time penetrated
to the interior.
The hiterior was held by powerful Mahommedan rulers who
had imposed a military domination upon the indigenous races
and were not prepared to -open their territories to European
intercourse. To secure British political influence, and to preserve
a possible field for future development, the Niger Company
had negotiated treaties with some of the most important of these
rulers, and the nominal extension of the company's territories
was carried over the whole sphere of influence thus secured.
Xhe movements of Germany from the south-east, and of France
from the west and north, were thus held in check, and by securing
international agreements the mutual limits of the three European
powers concerned were definitely fixed. The principal treaties
relating to the German frontiers were negotiated in 1886 and
1893: the Anglo-French treaties were more numerous, those
of 1890 and 1898, which laid down the main b'nes of division
between French and British possessions on the northern and
western frontiers of Nigeria, having been supplemented by many
lesser rectifications of frontier. (See Africa, § 5.) It was not
until 1909 that the whole of the frontier between Nigeria and the
French and German possessions had been definitely demarcated.
Thus, mainly by the action of the Royal Niger Company, a
territory of vast extent, into which the chartered company
itself was not able to carry either administrative or trading
operations, was secured for Great Britain. In 1897, at a time
when disputes with France upon the western frontier had
reached a very active stage, the company entered upon a
campaign against the Mahommedan sovereign of Nupe. This
campaign would, no doubt, have led to important results had
the company retained its administrative powers. In the ex-
pedition a force of 500 Hausa, drilled and trained by the company,
and led by thirty white oflScers— of whom some were lent for
the occasion by the War Office-^ecisively defeated a force
of some thousands of native troops, led by the emir of Nupe
himself The capital town of Bida was taken and the emir
deposed. From Bida the expedition marched to Illorin, where
agam the whole district submitted to the authority of the
company. In Illorin the campaign had some lasting effect.
In Nupe, on the northern side of the river, as the company
was unable to occupy the territory conquered, things shortly
reverted to their previous condition. When the company's
troops were withdrawn the deposed emir returned and reoccupied
the throne, leaving the situation to be dealt with after the
territories of the company had been transferred to the crown.
The complications to which the pressure of foreign nations,
and especially of France, on the frontiers of the territories
gave rise, became at this period so acute that the n„g/^^
resources of a private company were manifestly M<tert<r
inadequate to meet the possible necessities of the *» <*•
position. Relations with France on the western "•■'*
border became so strained that in 1897 Mr Chamberlain,
who was then secretary of state for the colonies, thought it
necessaty to raise a local force, afterwards known as the West
African Frontier Force, for the special defence of the frontiers
of the West African dependencies. In these drcumstancea
it was judged advisable to place the territories of the Royal
Niger Company, to which the general name of Nigeria had been
given, under the direct control of the crown. It was therefore
arranged that in consideration of compensation for private
rights the company should surrender its charter and transfer
all political rights in the territories to the Crown. The transfer
took place on the ist of January 1900, from which date the
company, which dropped the name of '* royal," became a purely
trading corporation. The southern portion of the territories
was amalgamated with the Niger Coast Protectorate, the whole
district taking the name of the Protectorate of Southern Nigeria,
while the northern portion, extending from a line drawn slightly
above 7* N to the frontier of the French possessions on the north
and including the confluence of the Niger and the Benue at
Lokoja, was proclaimed a protectorate under the name of
Northern Nigeria.
The company, during its tenure of administrative power
under the charter, had organized its territories south of the
confluence, into trading districts, over each of which there
was placed a European agent. The executive powers in Africa
were entrusted to an agent general with three provincial
and twelve district superintendents. There was a small judicial
staff directed by a chief jusdce, and there was a native con-
stabulary of about 1000 men, trained and drilled by white
officers. The company kept ateo upon the river a fleet of about
682
NIGERIA
thirty steamers. The entire direction of the proceedings of the
company was, however, in the hands of the council in London,
and the administrative control of the territories was practically
from first to last vested in the person of Sir George Goldie. The
local work of the representatives of the company was mainly
commercial. When, on the surrender of the charter. Sir George
Goldie withdrew from the company, the administrative element
disappeared No administrative records were handed over,
and very httle machmery remained. Two enactments, however,
bore testimony to the legislation of the company. One, which
by force of circumstances remained moperatlve, was the abolition
of the legal sutus of slavery, proclaimed in the year of Queen
Victoria's jubilee (1897) The other, more practical, which has
remained in operation to the present day, confirmed and enforced
by the succeeding administration, was the absolute prohit^ition
of the trade in spirits beyond the parallel of 7^ N
While the development of the Royal Niger Company's tem-
tortes was proceeding in the Bianner described, the regions
under direct British control were also being opened up
and law and order introduced. In 1893, when the title
Oil Rivers Protectorate was changed to that of Niger
Coast Protectorate, a regular administration was
^^ estabhshed (subject to the Foreign Office in London)
under Sir Claude Macdonald, who was succeeded as
commissioner and consul-general in 1896 by Sir Ralph Moor
(1860-1909). Under these officials peace was gradually estab-
lished between various tribes, trade routes opened and progress
made in civilization. The work was one of extreme difficulty,
largely because there was no central native authority with which
to deal. Small military expeditions had constantly to be
employed to break up slave-raiding gangs or reduce to order
tribes which blocked trade routes or made war on other tribes
living peaceably under British protection The most serious
military operations were against the Beni, a peaceful mission to
the king of Benin having been massacred in the bush in January
1897 The operations were completely successful and the Benin
country was added to the protectorate (see Benin). In 1900, as
stated, the southern portion of the Niger Company's territories
was added to the protectorate, the change in administration
being effected without difficulty of any kind Sir Ralph Moor
continued until 1904 to govern the country under the style of
high commissioner. The efforts of the administration to better
the condition of the natives without undue interference with
customary law met with encouraging results, and the sub-
mission of the Ar<» to the government in 190a brought to an
end the system of tribal warfare for the purpose of making
slaves, while the enforcement of a proclamation of 1901 prohibit-
ing the buying, pawning or selling of slaves had a salutary effect.
Trade steadUy developed, and owing to the large sums paid
as duty on imported spirits, the revenue of the protectorate was
sufficient to cover the expenditure.
In Northern Nigeria in 1900 the establishment of British
authority remained still to be effected. The man selected for the
post of first high commissioner was Colonel— afterwards better
known as Sir Frederick — Lugard, who had conducted one of the
Royal Niger company's most successful expeditions into the
western portion of the interior and had already been employed
by the British government to raise and organize the West
AJfrican Frontier Force.
The transference of influence from the company to the govern-
ment was officially effected on the xst of January 1900, on which
Northtra ^^ ^^ Union Jack was hoisted at Lokoja, and the
Nig9rta formation of a local administration was entered upon.
The number of civilians in the employ of the govern-
ment was very small, and the administrative machinery
had to be evolved under the pressure of a somewhat
acute military situation. The headquarters of the West African
Frontier Force had been at Jebba, not far from the point at
which Mungo Park had lost his life upon the river. Neither
Jebba nor Lokoja was considered suitable for the permanent
capital of the protectorate, and survey parties were sent out,
with strict orders to avoid conflict with the nominally friendly
natives, to find a more suitable site. This was sdected on a
branch of the Kaduna river in the south-western aimer of the
province of Zaria, at a place of which the native name of Zuneeni
was retained, llie ruler of Zaria, while professing fiiendlinesi,
was, however, unable or unwilling to restrain the rukis of Konta-
gora and Nupe from aggression. These two potentates raided
for slaves to the bordera of the rivers and openly threatened the
British position on the Niger. The Ashanti War of 1900 daimcd
the despatch of a strong detachment of the West African Frontier
Force, and it was not until the return of the troops in Febniaiy
1 901 that Nupe and Kontagora could be effectively dealt iriilL
In that year both provinces were subdued, their emirs deposed,
and letters of appointment given to new emire, who undertook
to -rule in accordance with the requirements of humanity, to
abolish slave-raiding and slave dnling, and to acknowledge
the sovereignty of Great Britain. lUorin and Borgu with a
portion of Kabba were already under British rule. The rulos
of other neighbouring provinces offered their allegiance, and
by the end of the year 1901 nine provinces, lUorin, Kabba,
Middle Niger, Lower Benue, Upper Benue, Nupe, Kontagora,
Borgu and Zaria had accepted the British occupation. These
territories, with the exception of Zaria, were all in the more a;
less immediate neighbourhood of the valleys of the Niger and
the Benue, and Zaria bordered upon the Kaduna. For all these
territories an initial system of administration was organised,
and British residents were appointed to each province. Scvo
teen legislative proclamations were enacted in the first }-ear
dealing with the immediate necessities of the position, aad
providing for the establishment of a supreme and proviodal
court of justice, for the legalization of native courts of justice,
and dealing with questions of slavery, importation of liquor
and firearms, Und titles, &c. In the autumn of 1901 the eicir
of Yola, the extreme eastern comer of the territories borderiag
upon the Benue, was, in consequence of the aggressions upon
a trading station established by the Niger Company, dealt with
in the same manner as the emirs of Nupe and Kontagora, ind a
new emir was appointed under British rule. In 1902 Bauchi and
Bomu were brought under British rule. In Bauchi the cniir vas
deposed and a new emir was appointed. In Bomu the extends
of British authonty was very willingly accepted as a guarantee
against other European encroachments, and the legitimate Shefca
was restored to the throne under British protection. MiHtsry
stations were established in Bomu and in Bauchi, and both
provinces were included in the system of British administration.
Later in the same year an act of treachery culminating in the
murder of a British resident, Captain Moloney, in the province
of Nassarawa, led to the military subjugau'on of that province.
The murderer fled northwards through Zaria to Kano, which
was still an independent Mahommedan state. The emir of Zaria
was found to be in treasonable correspondence with the ecir
of Kano. It was thought desirable to arrest and dethrone bin,
and his prime minister was temporarily appointed to administer
the province under British protection. To all these provioca
British residents were appointed, and British legislative enact-
ments became applicable to them alL By the end of tlie ytu
1902 British administration had been extended to the whole of
the provinces in the south, east and west of the protectorate. The
important Mahommedan states of Sokoto, Gando, Kano and
Katsena remained mdependent. These sutes were res&rded a
the stronghold of Fula supremacy. The emir of Sokoto fadd the
position of religiotts as well as political head of all the lesxr
states of Northern Nigeria, and in response to friendly overtiins
on the part of the British administration had declared im
between Sokoto and Great Britain there could be nothing b^t
war. Katsena was the centre of local learning, while Kano wss
at once the commercial and the military centre of power. Br
the end of 1902 it had become evident that a trial of strength
between the Mahommedan powen and the new British adnr^r-
istration was inevitable. The Mahommedan rulera were thcts-
selves of comparatively recent date. In fighting them there wss
no question of fighting the whole country. On the contrarr h
was presumed with justice that their overthrow would be hailct.
NIGERIA
683
with satisfaction by many of the subject peoples. Every attempt
was made to settle the question at issue by conciliatory methods,
but these having failed, a campaign against Kano and Sokoto
was entered upon in January 1903. It was entirely successful.
The capital of Kano, a walled and fortified town of great extent
and formidable strength, fell to a British assault in February of
X903. Sokoto subijutted after a battle which took place on the
17 th of May. Hie sultan fled, and on the aist of May a new
sultan, chosen by the council of elders, was installed by the
British high commissioner, after he had publicly accepted the
conditions imposed by the British government, lliese conditions
were thM all rights of conquest acquired by the Fulanl throughout
Northern Nigeria passed to Great Britain, that for the future
every sultan and emir and principal officer of state should
be appointed by Great Britain, that the emirs and chiefs so
appointed should obey the laws of the British government, that
they should no longer buy and sell slaves, nor enslave people,
that they should import no firearms, except flint-locks, that
they should enforce no sentences in their courts of law which were
contrary to humanity, and that the British government should
in future hold rights in land and taxation. When these con-
ditions were accepted by the Fulani chiefs the supremacy of
Great Britain was established over the entire country. Katsena
and Gando followed the example set to them by Kano and
Sokoto. Throughout Northern Nigeria all chiefs, Mahommedan
and Pagan, now hold their appointments under the British
ciown and take the oath of allegiance to the British sovereign.
It remained to organize the territories for British rule, to
institute a reformed system of taxation, to establish courts of
justice, and to open the country to civilized occupation.
The following account of the legislation carried into force up
to 1907 shows in effect what was done in that direction. After
the conquest of the Hausa States in 1903-1903 the king's writ
ran — ^with the exception of a few districts inhabited by primitive
savages-Hhrough the whole area known as Northern Nigeria.
The temporary enactments of the earlier days were then super-
seded by laws based upon a more accurate knowledge of local
conditions and rendered possible by the effective administration
which had been set up throughout the country.
Courts of Lam and Administration of Justice, — A superior court
was aet up with juriadictbn over all non-natives and govenunent
employ^. Its jurisdiction over natives vrais limited to the two
centres of administration named " cantonments," and to such neigh-
bouring territories as might be included by regulation withih a
feasible distance of those centres, ft could, however^ try any case
in any province by special warrant of the high commissioner. The
whole country was divided into seventeen provinces, in each of which
there was a provincial court presided over by the resident in charge,
whose assistants were commissioners of the court. They submitted
their lists of criminal trials to the high commissioner, who, advised
by the attorney-general, acted as a court of appeal, and no sentence
exceeding six months could take effect without his confirmation.
Cases could be referred by him for re-trial in the superior court if
he so decided. A criminal code was drawn up, together with a
criminal procedure proclamation. Native courts were established
by warrant at all the chief native towns with varyine powera.
They were of two classes, the " Alkalis ' Court." presided over by
trained Mahommedan jurists, and " Judicial Councils," under the
leading chiefs and narives pmided over by the emir or other native
ruler. In these courts native law and customs (principally the
Mahommedan law) were administered with the proviso that no
penalty could be enforced which was contrary to the laws of humanity
or opposed to any specific proclamation of the protectorate. With
the exception of two or three of the most enlightened courts, the
criminal powers of these courts were restricted, out in civil actions
they had full scope. No native court could carry a sentence of
death into execution without the concurrence of the resident.
Cantoiiment courts were also set up in the two chief government
centres (Zuneeni and Lolcoja), chiefly for the purpose of enforcing
sanitary aiuT municipal regulations. These were affiliated to the
superior courts.
Lands and Mtnerals. ^These constitute the main asset of the
government. In the first instance, as following upon conquest or
potential conquest, the Fulani emirs who were appointed by
covemment to each of the great native states were installed under a
fetter of appointment in whkh (in addition to rights of legislation.
taxation and other powers inherent in suzerainty) the ultimate
title to all land was transferred from the Fulani dynasty and vested
in the British. Private ownership was not tnteriened with, but all
waste fauida became the property of the crown, and no non-native
could acquire ritle except as from the government, ^milariy the
sole title to minerals (subject to the share of profits assigned to the
Niger Company by the deed of transfer) was vested in the govern-
ment, and the terms upon which licences to prospect or mine could
be acquired, together with full regulations regarding mining, were
enacted by hiw. The right of natives to smelt iron and the question
of compensation for any other existing mining industry or for surface
disturbance was left to the discretion of government.
Siaoery. — Practical effect was given to the abolition of the legal
status ol daveiy, in so far as all British courts were concerned.
This decree had been promulgated before the transfer of Uie ad-
ministration, but had existed merely on paper. Every slave could
thereby assert hb freedom if he desired to do so, but it was not made
illegal for a native to own a slave, and no penalty attached to mere
possession in such a case. Slave-dealing and transactions of every
kind in slaves were now made illegal. Civil questions arising from
the institutbn of domestic slavery remained justiciable by the native
courts; which in this matter were very carefully supervised by the
British administration.
Taxation. — In the earlier years of the administration the tolb
upon trade in transit, which had existed from rime immemorial and
had become the means of much extortion, were made a monopoly
of the government, and were reorsanized on an equitable and popular
basis. To these were added certain licences («.g. on canoes, &c.).
In i905acom{^te reosjpazuzationofthedirect taxation of thecountry
was introduced. The mnumerablc taxes upon a^culture and in-
dustry of all kinds were consolidated into two principal taxes, viz.
the land and general tax— in its nature an income tax — and the
jan^li or cattle tax upon nomad herdsmen. The imposition of this
tax involved a rough and ready assessment of every village in the
protectorate. Under this system the oppression and extortion
practised under nadve rule gave place to a carefully regulated
method of assessment. At its initiation the proceeds were divided
in approximately equal shares between the central government and
the native administration, and a means was thus found of crearing
a legitimate revenue for the native chiefs to supersede the proceeds
of slave-raiding and slave-dealing, and of oppression and extortbn,
by which they had hitherto Bui>plied their needs. As in India^ the
vilbge with its lands and cultivation was constituted the umt of
assessment, and the provinces were divided into districts under
native headmen responsible for the collection of the tax, and its
payment to the paramount chief, who in turn rendered the assif^ned
share to district and village chiefs, to the officers of state recognized
by government and to the government itself. The administrative
officers were entrusted with the aa&essment and acted as arbitratora
and referees in case of illegal exactbns. In the Pagan districts
where no native machinery existed and no previous taxatbn had
been in force, a nominal impost was levied and collected by the
officera of the government through the agency of the village chiefs.-
The taxatbn oil the great cities formed a separate and very difficult
problem. The law laid down the method to be employed in this
case, but pending the completion of the rural taxatbn this detailed
application of the system was allowed to remain in suspense. It was
hoped that so soon as the scheme could be effectively put into opera-
tion the taxes on trade in transit could be largely if not completely
abolished, and the traders and merchants — the wealthiest class of
the community— would be assessed in their city domiciles. By
these means a am and rapidly increasing revenue is being secured
to government; while the conditbn of the peasantry and people b
being greatly ameliorated, an adequate but not excessive income is
being secured to the native rulers; and the class of middlemen
who lived by extortion and absorbed a great part of the wealth of
the country is being abolished. ^
Native Rulers, — By the operatbn of the native courts proclamatbn,
the taxation proclamation, and finally by the enforcement of native
authority proclamatbns, the status 01 the native rulers, their powers
and authority, were defined and legalized. They receive the support
of the government within the limits of their recognized sphere of
action. The great chiefs are appointed by the government in
consultation with the principal men, and in accordance ^th native
customs and laws of succession. Minor chiefs are nominated by
their paramount chiefs, subject to the approval of the high com-
missioner.
Military end Poticej^The defcnnve f o rc e t he Northern Nigeria
Regiment of the West African Frontier Force — is constituted by
law, and the proclamation contains a military code. based on the
Army Act with modifications necessary in local circumstances.
A police force is similarly organized and controlled by a second
enactment. The military force is divided into three, regiments
and two batteries of artilleiy under the supreme command of a
commandant. The distribution of the garrisons is under the direc-
tion of the high commissioner. The police, en the other hand, are
more or less equally divided between the provinces (including the
establishment at eadi cantonment), and while their interior economy
and organization rests in the hands of a commissbner, they are
for purposes of duty under the control of the resident of the province.
A distrKt superintendent is appointed to each province.
Miscellaneous Enactments. — ^A variety of other enactments deals
with minor matters of administration. Commissions of inquiry may
be appointed by the high commissioner to investigate the conduct
684
NIGHT— NIGHTINGALE, FLORENCE
of an individual or department and take evidence on oath. DiadpUne
on board of steamers is prescribed by the Marine Discipline Act.
The preservation of wild animaU and birds in accordance with
international agreemenu is enforced bv law. The imporution or
possession of arms of precision is forbidden, except by permits in
conformity with the Brussels Act, and in further applicauon of that
act the importation of spirits for sale to natives is wholly prohibited.
The cantonments are regulated by a municipal ordinance, establish-
ing rates and laying down various regulations for order and sani-
tation. In order to prevent hydrophobia dogs may onl^ be kept
under certain restrictions. Patents, nuuriages (of non-natives), &c.,
&c., form the subject of other laws.
Administrative Divistons. — For administrative Dumospi the
territories were at first divided into sevenr Sokoic,
Gando, Kano, Katsena, Bomu East, Bom L^-iucht,
Borgu, Kontagora, Nassarawa, Muri. Yola i >, lUarin,
Nupe. Of these Sokoto and Gando, Kano at J K^t^cu, Barnu Fast
ana Bomu West have been carried a step further Iri crsaniutian
and now form three double provinces, each under th? ch^e of a
first-class resident. Illorin, iMupe and KsbtLi have boec. formed
into one province called the Niger province, and also pUeed under
the charge of a first-class reudent, and it i^ in tended to continue
this process so as to make finally eight finc-<c[jia provinces ol the
whole territory. The first<las8 residents df the double prnvinccii
are assisted by about twelve reudents an«] n^^^osf^ne rc!^ide?nts af
subordinate rank. In the Mahommedan siaiu:$ iku iiaUvc s^'^^tcm
of administration remains intact, and is carried on under British
supervision by native emirs and officials. In the Pagan states there
is no organized system of native administration, and the British
rendents are responsible for good government.
Amalgdmation of Lagos and Southern Nigeria. — ^The political
reasons which had resulted in the Nigerian territories being
divided into three distinct administrations no k>nger existing,
it was decided to unite them under one government, and as a
first step in that direction Sir Walter (then Mr) Egerton was in
IQ04 appointed both governor of Lagos and high commissioner
of Southern Nigeria. This was followed in February 1906 by
the amalgamation of the two administrations tmder the style of
" the Colony and Protectorate of Southern Nigeria," with head-
quarters at Lagos town. The former colony and -protectorate
of Lagos (q.v.) became the western or Lagos province of the new
administration. Li the year the amalgamation was effected
the revenue reached a record figure, the amount collected being
£1,088,000, to which Lagos province contributed £434,000.
Over 80% of the revenue was derived from customs. In the
same year the expenditure from revenue was £1, 056,00a
Northern Nigeria Railway. — ^In Northern Nigeria, which con-
tinued for the time to be a separate protectorate. Sir Frederick
Lugard was, at the beginning of 1907, succeeded as high com-
missioner by Sir Percy Girouard. In* August of that year the
British government, on administrative, strategic and commercial
grounds, came to a decision to build a railway which should place
the important cities of Zaria and Kano in direct commimication
with the perennially navigable waters of the Lower Niger. In
view of the approaiching unification of Southern and Northern
Nigeria, the money needed, about £1,250,000, was raised as a loan
by Southern Nigeria. The route diosen for the line was that
advocated by Sir Frederick Lugard. This important work,
essential for the welfare of the northern territories, was begun
under the superintendence of Sir Percy Girouard,* the builder
of the Wadi Haifa-Khartum railway. At the same time 'the
decision was taken to continue the Lagos railway till it effected
a junction with the Kano line near Zungeru, the Niger being
bridged at Jebba.
Land Tenure. — ^Sir Percy Girouard devoted much attention to
land tenure, probably the most important of the questions
concerm'ng imperial policy in West Africa. He adopted the land
policy of Sir F. D. Lugard, and recommended " a declaration in
favour of the nationalization of the lands of the Protectorate."
This was in accord with native laws^that the land is the pro-
perty of the people, held in trust for them by their chiefs, who
have not the power of alienation. Thereafter the secretary for
the colonies appointed a strong committee, which, after hearing
much evidence, issued a report in April 1910 in substantial
agreement with the governor's recommendations. This policy
> In 1900 Sir Percy Girouard was succeeded by Sir H. H. J. Bell.
The title High Commissioner had meantime been changed to that of
Governor.
was adopted by the Cblonial Office. By this means the nathrei
of Nigeria were secured in the possession of their land— the
government imposing Umd taxes, which are the equivalent of rent.
This exclusion of the European knd speculator and denial d
the right to buy and sell land and of freehold tenure was heki hy
all the authorities to be essential for the moral and material
welfare of the inhabitants of a Umd where the duty of the wfaiu
man is mainly that of administration and his material advantages
lie in trade. (See an article on " Land Tenure in West Africa "
in Thf Times, May 74 ^ rgio.)
Aui HOUiTiES, — Of early books dealing with brge areas of Ni|
H. Edrth's Tratch and Diicovtrwt m Aorij^ and Central Ajrkt
(London, i S^j-iA^^]! ii a ttandiird atitborily. Set also Lady Lugsrd,
A Trupicai Dcpendrncy (London^ 19*^5); Boyd AJeicander, Fram the
Ni^fT to ikt NUe (London. 190;); C, Larymore. A Residents W^eim
NtgtTvi (London, 190^}; the aTiQual Rtports 00 Southern and
Nortbcrm Nigeria isdued by the Cotonial Omo«^ £. D. Morel, A fain
of Wcit Africa (London. t9Qj);C. H. Robtmon. Mausaland (Londoo,
1896J : S. Vandeleor, Camp^i^Hixt on the Upper Nile and Nifer
(London. 1898), with introduttLoa by Sir George Goklie; Ma;or
A. G. Leonard ^ TU LtTwer Niptr end iis Tribes (London, I906);
C. Partridge, Tkt Cross Ris^r Nalms (London, Iw); E. Dayrefl,
Fdk Stones from Souih^n At^ffio f London, 19 lO). Maps oi the
country on the scale of nrr^TST ana itsVn^ are published by the
Wi,r Office. The Blue Bixiks, Cd. 35J5 (1904). a?*? (190S) and
45^^ {i9^}i di^l wltb railway CD&structMw, harbours ud river
navigation. (F. L. L)
NIGHT, that part of the natural day of twenty-four houxs
during which the sun is below the horizon, the dark part of the
day from sunset to sunrise (see Day). The word in O. Eng. takes
two forms, neaht and night, the latter form apparently being
established by about the loth century. The word is oomnxm
in varying forms to Indo-European languages.' The root is
usually taken to be nah-, to peridi, the word "*^"«"c the time
when the light fails (cf. Gr. i>£xof , Lat. nex, death, nocere, to hurt).
It was customary to reckon periods of time by nights, and we stfll
use " fortnight " (0. Eng. feetwertyne niht, fourteen nigibts), hot
" se'n-night " (seven m'ghts) has been displaced by " week *' (f r).
NIOHTINOALBi FLORENCE (xSao-tgto), younger dau^ter
of William Edward Nightingale of Embley Park, Hampshire,
and Lea Hurst, Derbyshire, was bom at Florence on the tsth
of May 1820, and named after that city, but her childhood vas
spent in England, chiefly in Derbyshire. From her earliest years
her strong love of nature and animals manifested itself. Her
games, too, were characteristic, for her great delight was to
nurse and bandage her dolls. Her first living patient was a
shepherd's dog. Ftom tending animals she passed to humaa
beings, and wherever there was sorrow or suffering she was sort
to be found. Her most ardent desire was to use her talents for
the benefit of humanity. She had a natural shrinking froa
sodety; and though her social position necessitated her prcseatft-
tion at Court, her first season in town was spent in eTaminiag
into the working of hospitals, reformatories and other charitat^
institutions. T^is was followed by a tour of inspection of fordga
hospitals. At that time England was sadly behind-hand is
matters of nursing and sanitation, and Miss Nightingale, who
desired to obtain the best possible teaching for herself, wot
through a course of training in the Institute of Protcstast
Deaconesses at Kaiserswerth. She remained there six mootk.
learning every detail of hospital management with a thorougfaness
rarely equalled. Miss Nightingale neglected iK>thing that covU
make her proficient in her self-chosen task. From Ka ise i s werA
she went to Paris, where she studied the system of nursiBg and
management in the hospitals under the charge of the sisters of
St Vincent de PauL Alter her return to England she devoted
herself to reorganizing the Governesses' Sanatorium in Harky
Street (now the Home for Gentlewomen during Temporary
Illness), which was at that time badly numaged arKl in grtit
need of f tmds. Miss Nightingale grudged neither time imt waeey
to this work, and she had the satisfaction of pladxkg it on a
thoroughly satisfactory basis.
In the year 1854 Eni^d was stirred to its depths by tk
report of the sufferings of the sick and wounded in the Criraes.
There was an utter absence of the commonest pr^Mratloos to
carry out the first «nd aimpkit demands in a place set aptf
NIGHTINGALE— NIGHTSHADE
685
to receive the sick and wounded of a large army. The condition
of the large barrack-hospital at Scutari was deplorable. A royal
commission of inquiry was appointed, a patriotic ftmd opened,
and money flowed in fast. To Miss Nightingale this proved the
trumpet-adl of duty. She wrote to Sidney Herbert, secretary
at war, and offered her services. Her letter crossed with one
from him inviting her to proceed to the Crimea. She set out on
the 34th October with a staff of thirty-seven nurses, partly
volunteers, partly professionals trained in hospitals. They
reached Scutari on the 4th of November, in time to receive the
Balaklava wounded. A day or two later these were joined by
600 from Inkerman. The story of Miss Nightingale's labours at
Scutari is one of the brightest pages in English annals. She gave
herself, body and soul, to the work. She would stand for twenty
hours at a stretch to see the wounded accommodated* She
regularly took her place in the operation-room, to hearten the
sufferers by her presence and sympathy, and at night she would
make her solitary round of the wards, lamp in hand, stopping
here and there to speak a kindly word to some patient. Soon she
had xo,ooo men under her charge, and the genend superintendence
of all the hospitab on the Bosporus. Gradually the effects of
the measures adopted were seen in a lowered death-rate. In
February 1855 it was as high as 42%, before many months it had
sunk to 2. For a time Miss Nightingale was herself prostrated
with fever, but she refused to leave her post, and remained at
Scutari till Turkey was evacuated by the British in July 1856.
The enthusiasm aroused in England by Miss Nightingale's
labours was indescribable. A man-of-war was ordered to bring
her home, and London prepared to give her a triumphant
reception; but she returned quietly in a French ship, crossed
to England, and escaped to her country home before the news
of her return could leak out. The experiences of those terrible
months permanently affected Miss Nightingale's health, but the
quiet life she afterwards led was full of usefulness. With the
^50,000 raised in recognition of her services she founded the
Nightingale Home for training nurses at St Thomas's and King's
College Hoq>itals. She also turned her attention to the question
of army sanitary reform and army hospitals, and to the work
of the Army Medical College at Chatham. In 1858 she published
her NoUs on Nursing, which gave an enormous stimulus to the
study of this subject in England. According to Miss Nightingale
nursing ought to signify the proper use of fresh air, light, warmth,
cleanliness, quiet, and the selection and administration of diet —
all at the least expense of vital force to the patient.
Miss Nightingale followed with interest all the later improve-
ments in sanitation, and was frequently consulted about hospital
plans both at home and abroad. With the help of the County
CouncQ Technical Instruction Committee she organized in 1892
a health crusade in Buckinghamshire. Teachers were sent
round among the cottagers to give practical advice on such
points as ventilation, drainage, disinfectants, cleanliness, &c.,
a plan which, if widely carried out, would bring the most valuable
knowledge to every home in England. She is understood to have
drawn up a confidential report for the government on the working
of the Army Medical Corps in the Crimea, and to have been
officially consulted during the American Civil War and the
Franco-German War. In 1907 she received the Order of Merit
from King Edward VII, She died in London on the zsth of
August 19x0. She is the subject of a beautiful poem by
Longfellow, *' Santa FHomena," and the popular estimate of
her character and mission was summed up in a partictilarly
felicitous anagram. Flit on, cheering angd.
MlOHTmOAtB (O. Eng. NihlegaU, literally "singer of the
juigbt"), the bird celebrated beyond all others by European
writers for the admirable vocal powers which, during some weeks
after its return from its winter-quarters in the south, it exercises
at all hours of the day and night. The song itself is indescribable,
though several attempts, from the time of Aristophanes to the
present, have been made to express in syllables the sound of its
many notes. Poets have descanted on the bird (which they
neariy always make of the feminine gender) leaning iu breast
against a tbom and pouring forth its melody in anguish. But
the cock alone sings, and there is no reason to suppose that the
cause and intent of his song differ in any respea from those of
other birds' songs (see Song). In great contrast to the nightin-
gale's pre-eminent voice is the inconspicuous coloration of it%
plumage, which Is alike in both sexes, and is of a reddish-brown
above and dull greyish-white beneath, the breast bemg rather
darker, and the rufous tail showing the only bright tint
The range of the European nightingale, Daulics lusciniCf is
peculiar. In Great BriUin it is abundant in suiuble localities
to the south-east of a line stretching from the valley of the Exe,
in Devonshire, to York, but it does not visit Ireland, its occur-
rence in Wales is doubtful or intermittent, and it is extremely
improbable Uiat it has ever reached Scotland. On the conu'nent
of Europe it does not occur north of a line stretching irregulariy
from Copenhagen to the northern Urals, and it is absent in
Brittany: over south Europe otherwise it is abundant. It
reaches Persia, and is a winter visitor to Arabia, Nubta, Abyssinia,-
Algeria and as far south as the Gold Coast. The larger eastern
D, phUomdCy sometimes called the thrush-nightingale or Sprosser
of German bird-catchers, is russet-brown in both sexes, and is
a native of eastern Europe. D. hafiti of Persia, a true nightingale,
is probably the Perso-Arabic bulbul of poets.
The nightingale reaches its English home about the middle
of April,* the males (as is usual among migratory birds) arriving
some days before the females. On the cocks being joined by
their partners, the work for which the long and hazardous journey
of both has been undertaken is speedily begun, and before long
the nest is completed. This Is of a rather uncommon kind, being
placed on or near the ground, the outworks consisting chiefly
of a great number of dead leaves ingeniously applied together
so that the plane of each is mostly vertical. In the midst of the
mass is wrought a deep cup-like hollow, neatly lined with fibrous
roots, but the whole is so loosely constructed, and depends for
lateral support so much on the stems of the plants, among which
it is generally built, that a very slight touch disturbs its beautiful
arrangement. Herein from four to six eggs of a deep olive colour
are duly hiid, and the young hatched. The nestling plumage of
the nightingale differs much from that of the adult, the feathers
above being tipped with a buff spot, just as in the young of the
redbreast, hedge-sparrow and redstart, thereby showing the
natural aflSnity of all these forms. Towards the end of summer
the nightingale disappears to its African winter hauntsi
The name nightingale has been vaguely applied to aeveral other
birds. The 80<alled '* Vir^nian nightingale ^ is a species of gros-
beak (g.v.) : the " Peldn nightingale " or " Japanese nightingale '*
is a small babbler {Liotkrix luteus) inhabiting the Himalayas and
China, not Japan at all.
The nightingale holds a place In daaskal mythology. Procne
and Philomela were the daughters of Pandion, king of Attica, who
in return for warlike aid rendered him by Tcreus, kmg of Daulis in
Thtace, gave him the first-named in marriage. Tereus, however,
being enamoured of her sister, feigned that his wife was dead, and
induced Philomela to take her place. On her discovering the truth
he cut out her tongue to hinder her from revealing his deceit ; but
she depicted her sad story on a robe which she sent to Procne; and
the two skten then contrived a horrible revenge for the infidelity
of Tercus, by killing and serving to him at table his son Itys. There-
upon the gods interposed, chanatng Tereus into a hoopoe, Procne
into a swallow, and Philomela into a nightingale, while Itys was
restored to life as a pheasant, and Pandion (Who had died of grief at
his daughters' dishonour) as a bird of prey (see Osprev). The fable
has several variants. Ovid's versbn may be seen in the 6th book of
his Metamorphoses Gines 412-676). (A. N.)
NIOHTSHADB, a general term for the genus of plants'known
to botanists as Solanum. The spedes to which the name of
nightshade is commonly given in England is Solanum Dulcamara
which is also called bittersweet or woody nightshade (see fig. i).
It is a common plant in damp hedgebanks and thickets, scram-
bling over underwood and hedges. It has slender slightly woody
stems, with alternate lanceolate leaves more or less heart-shaped
and auriculate at the base. The flowers are arranged in drooping
dusters and resemble those of the pouto in shape, although
^* Poets and novelists are apt to command at will the song of this
bird, irresfjective of season. If the appearance of truth is to be
regarded, it is dangerous to introduce a nightingale as singing in
England before the i^th of April or after the 15th of Tune. The
. " early nightingale ** c« newspaper paragraphs is generally a thrush.
686
NIGRA— NIHILISM
much smaller. The flower clusters spring from the stems at the
side of, or opposite to, the insertion of a leaf. The corolla is
rotate, of a lUac-blue colour with a green spot at the base of each
segment,* or sometimes white, and bears the yellow sessile anthers
united at their
margins so as
to form a cone
in the centre of
the flower. The
flowers are suc-
ceeded by ovate
scarlet berries,
i in. long, which
in large doses
appear to be
poisonous or, to
say the least,
dangerous to
children, cases
of poisoning by
them having
occurred. Sola-
num Dulcamara
is subject to the
same parasitic
fungus {Phyto-
phtkora infest-
ans) as the
potato, and
Fio. I.— Bittersweet (Solanum Dulcamara), may serve as
I, Flower; 2, fruits. 3, oerry, cut across, en- a medium for
larged; 4, seed, much enlarged. communicating
the spores to the potato if not removed from the hedges of
the fields where potatoes are grown. The plant derives its
names of " bittersweet " and Dulcamara from the fact that its
taste is at first bitter
^/I and then sweet. It
is a native of
Europe, North
Africa and temper
ate Asia, and has
been introduced
into North America.
The dried young
branches are known
in pharmacy under
the name dulca-
mara.
Dulcama ra con-
tains a bitter prin-
ciple yielding
by decomposition
a sugar dextrose
rand the alkaloid
sola nine. It also
containsanother
glucoside dulca-
marin, which when
boiled with dilute
add splits up into
sugar and duicama-
retin. Solanine
appears to exert a
depressant action on
the vagus nerve and
an excitant action
on the medulla ob-
longata.
Solanum nigrum
differs (torn S, Dulca-
mara in having white
flowers in small
common weed in
Fic . 2 . — Deadly Nightshade (A tropa
belladmna). Flowering branch, i, Flower,
after removal of the corolla; 2 corolla, with
stamens, cut open and flattened; 3, cross
section of ovary, much enlarged.
umbels and globose black berries. It is
gardens and waste places, growing about I3 or 18 in. high, and has
ovate, entire or sinuate or toothed leaves. Two varieties of the
plant, one with red and the other with ycHow berries, are sometimes
met with, but are comparatively rare. The berries have been known
to produce poisonous effecu when eaten by childreo, and owe thdr
properties to the presence of solanine. In Reunion and Mauritius the
leaves arc eaten like spinach.
Deadly nightshade, dwale or belladonna (Atropa t^eUadtmna)
is a tall bushy herb oif the same natural order (fig. 2). It grov^
to a height of 4 or 5 ft., having leaves of a dull green cok>ur,
with a hl&dL shining berry fruit about the size of a cherry, and s
large tapering root. The plant is a native of central and south
Europe, extending into Asia, and is found locally in Eng^d,
chiefly on chalk and limestone, from Westmorland and south-
wards. The entire plant is highly poisonous, and accidents not
infrequently occur through children and unwary persons eating
the attractivc-lookmg fruit. Its leaves and roots are largely
used in medicine, on which account the plant is cultivated, diiefy
in ^mth Germany, Suiizerland and France (see Belladonna).
The name nrghiahaiie is applied to plants of different genera in
oth^r Cdilntfies. American nij^ntshsde is Phytolacca decanara (poke-
ivcTx!» ^.if,)^ The ihrec-lcavcd nig;hL';li:ide is an American hkcks of
Trilhum- The MabUar titghtahadc j:^ Basella, whkh b widely used
a^ a pi^^t-herb In India. EnchAntcr'E: rug;htshadc is Circaea luIetisKa,
ft sEiKii^ KLandular, sofily- hairy plurr, common in damp woods,
with slendcTt erect or asocndin^^ i^tcm^, paired ovate leaves with k>D?
tulks. and «mall while floATrs in trrnrinal racemes, surceedcd b>- a
irnall Imii covered with hooked bristles; it is a member of ibe
ni'^uTtil order Onaaraceae, and u. not known to possess any
roi^-srtou* ptrtperty; the name seems to have been given to tt
1:1 the hr^t pl.^ce in miatake for a species of Mandraiora {set
NIGRA, COSTANTINO, Cottnt (1828-1907), Italian dipfe-
matist, was bom at Villa Castelnuovo, in the province of Turin,
on the I ith of June 1828. During the war of 1848 he intexniptcd
his studies to serve as a volimteer against Austria, and was
wounded at the battle of RivolL On the conclusion of peace he
entered the Piedmontese foreign ofiice; he accompanied Victor
Emmanuel and Cavour to Paris and London in 1855, and in tl^
following year he took part in the conference of Paris by whkii
the Crimean War was brought to an end. After the meeting at
Plombi^es .between Cavour and Napoleon HI. Nigra was sent
to Paris again to popularize a Franco-Piedmontese alliance,
Nigra being, as Cavour said, " the only person perhi^ who kncm
all my thoughts, even the most secret." He was instrumoita!
in negotiating the marriage between Victor Enrnianud's daughter
Clothilde and Napoleon's nephew, and during the war of 1839
he was always with the emperor. He was recalled from Fans
when the occupation of the Marche and Umbria by the Pieu-
montese caused a breach in Franco-Italian rdations, and vis
appointed secretary of state to the prince of Carignano, viceroy
of the Neapolitan provinces. When Napoleon recognised the
kingdom of Italy in 1861, Nigra returned to France as minister-
resident, and for many years played a most important part in
political affairs. In 1876 he was transferred to St Petersburg viik
the rank of ambassador, in 1882 to London, and in 1885 to Vioux
In 1899 he represented Italy at the first Hague Ptace CoofercDce.
In 1904 he retired, and he died at Rapallo on the ist ol July
1907. He was created count in 1882 and senator in 1890. Kign
was a sound classical scholar, and published translations ol may
Greek and Latin poems with valuable comments; he was abc
a poet and the author of several works of folk-lore and popular
poetry, of which the most important is his CanH pofdari id
PicmonU.
NIHIUSM, the name commonly given to the Russian fonn of
revolutionary Socialism, which had at first an academical
character, and rapidly developed into an anarchist revolutiocary
movement. It originated in the early years of th« reign of
Alexander II., and the term was first used by Turguenicv in kis
celebrated novel, Fathers and Children, published in i^^
Among the students of the universities and the higher technk^sJ
schools Turgueniev had noticed a new and strikingly ordinal
type — ^young men and women in slovenly attire, who called in
question and ridiculed the generaUy received convictioos aiid
respectable conventionalities of social life, and who talked d
reorganizing society on strictly scientific prindplea. TbcY
reversed the traditional order of things even in trivial matteo
of external appearance, the males allowing the hair to grow k&$
and the female adepts cutting it short, and adding somrtinws tbe
NIHILISM
687
additional badge of blue spectacles. Their appearance, manners
and conversation were apl to shock ordinary people, but to this
they were profoundly indifferent, for they had raised themselves
above the level of so-called public opinion, despised Philistine
respectability, and rather liked to scandalize people still under the
influence of what they considered antiquated prejudices. For
aesthetic culture, sentimentalism and refinement of every kind
they had a profound and undisguised contempt. Professing
extreme utilitarianism and delighting in paradox, they were
ready to declare that a shoemaker who distinguished himself in
his craft was a greater man than a Shakespeare or a Qoethe,
because humanity had more need of shoes than of poetiy.
Thanks to Turgueniev, these young persons came to be known
in common paiiance .as " Nihilbts," though they never c«ised
to protest against the term ais a caluminous nickname. According
to their own account, they were simply earnest students who
desired reasonable reforms, and the peculiarities in their appear-
ance and manner arose simply from an excusable neglect of
trivialities in view of graver interests. In reality, whatever
name we may apply to them, they were the extreme repre-
sentatives of a curious moral awakening and an important
intellectual movement among the Russian educated classes (see
Alexander II., of Russia).
In material and moral progress Russia had remained behind
the other European nations, and the educated classes felt, after
the humiliation of the Crimean War, that the reactionary regime
of the emperor Nicholas must be replaced by a series of drastic
reforms. With the impulsiveness of youth and the recklessness of
inexperience, the students went in this direction much farther than
their elders, and their reforming zeal naturally took an academic,
pseudo-scientific form. Having learned the rudiments of
positivism, they conceived the idea that Russia had outlived
the religious and metaphysical stages of human development,
and was ready to enter on the posittvist stage. She ought,
therefore, to throw aside all religious and metaphysical con>
ceptions, and to regulate her intellectual, social and political
life by the pure light of natural science. Among the antiquated
institutions which had to be abolished as obstructions to real
progress, were religion, family life, private propertyiand central-
ized administration. Religion was to be replaced by the exact
sciences, family life by free love, private property by collectivism,
and centralized administration by a federation of independent
communes. Such doctrines could not, of course, be preached
openly under a paternal, despotic government, but the press
censure had become so permeated with the prevaiUng spirit of
enthusiastic liberalism, that they could be artfuUy disseminated
under the disguise of literary criticism and fiction, and the public
very soon learned the art of reading between the lines. The work
which had perhaps the greatest influence in popularizing the
doctrines was a novel called Shto Dydalif (What is to be done?),
written in prison by Tchernishevski, one of the academic
leaders of the movement, and published with the sanction of the
authorities!
Since the time of Peter the Great, Russia had beei\ subjected
to a wonderful series of administrative and social transformations,
and it seemed to many people quite natural that another great
transformation might b^ effected with the consent and co-
operation of the autocratic power. The doctrines spread, there-
fore, with marvellous rapidity. In the winter of i86i-i86a a
high official wrote to a friend who had been absent from Russia
for a few months: " If you returned now you would be astonished
at the progress which the opposition — one might say, the
revolutionary party— has made. . . . The revolutionary ideas
have taken possession of all classes, all ages, all professions, and
they are publicly expressed in the streets, in the barracks, and in
the government offices. I believe the police itself is carried away
by them." Certainly the government was under the influence of
the prevailing enthusiasm for reform, for it liberated all the
sc'rfs, endowed them liberally with arable land, and made their
democratic communal institutions independent of the landed
proprietors; and it was preparing other important reforms in a
similar spirit, including the extension of self-govemmeot in the
rural districts and the towns, and the reorganization of the
antiquated judicial system and procedure according to the
modem principles adopted in western Europe
The programme of the government was extensive enough and
liberal enough to satisfy, for the moment at least, all reason-
able reformers, but the well-intentioned, self-confident young
people to whom the term Nihilists was applied were not reason-
able. They wanted an immediate, thorough-going transforma-
tion of the existing order of things accordmg to the most advanced
socialistic principles, and in their youthful, reckless impatience
they determined to undertake the work themselves, indepen-l
dently of and in opposition to the government. As they had no;
means of seizing the central power, they adopted the method of:
endeavouring to bring about the desired political, social and;
economic changes by convertin|^ the masses to their views.
They began, therefore, a propaganda among the working popula-
tion of the towns and the rural population in the villages. The
propagandists were recruited chiefly from the faculty of physical
science in the universities, from the Technological Institute,
and from the medical schools, and a female contingent was
supplied by the midwifery "lasses of the Medico-Surgical
Academy. Those of each locality were personally known to each
other, but there was no attempt to establish among them
hierarchical distinctions or disdpline. Each individual had
entire freedom as to the kind and means of propaganda to be
employed. Some disguised themselves as artisanis or ordinary
labourers, and sought to convert their uneducated fellow-
workmen in the industrial centres, whilst others settled in the
villages as school-teachers, and endeavoured to stir up dis-
affection among the recently emancipated peasantry by telling
them that the tsar intended they should have all the land, and
that his benevolent intentions had been frustrated by the selfish
landed proprietors and the dishonest officials. Landed pro-
prietors and officials, it was suggested, should be got rid of, and
then the peasants would h^ve arable, pastoral and forest land
in abundance, and would not require to pay any taxes. To
persons of a certain education the Agitators sought to prove
that the general economic situation was desperate, that it was
the duty of every conscientious citizen to help the people in such
a dilemma, and that the first step towards the attainment of
this devoutly to be wished consummation was the limitation
or destruction of the uncontrolled supreme power. On the whole
the agitators had very little success, and not a few of them fell
into the hands of the police, several of them being denounced
to the authorities by the persons in whose interest they professed
to be acting; but the great majority were so obstinate and so
ready to make any personal sacrifices, that the arrest and punish-
ment of some of their number did not deter others from con-
tinuing the work. Between 1861 and 1864 there were no less
than twenty political trials, with the result that most of the
accused were condemned to imprisonment, or to compulsory
residence in small provincial towns under police supervision.
The activity of the police naturally produced an ever-increas-
ing hostility to the government, and in 1866 thiis feeling took a
practical form in an attempt on the part of an obscure individual
called Karakozov to assassinate the emperor. The attempt failed ,
and the judicial inquiry proved that it was the work of merely
a few individuals, but it showed the dangerous character of the
movement, and it induced the authorities to take more energetic
measures. For the next four years there was an apparent
lull, during which only one political trial took place, but it was
subsequently proved that the Nihilists during this time were
by no means inactive. An energetic agitator called Netchaiev
organized in 1869 a secret association under the title of the
Society for the Liberation of the People, and when he suspected
of treachery one of the members he caused him to be assassinated.
This crime led to the arrest of some members of the sodety, but
their punishment had very Uttle deterrent effect on the Nihihsts in
general, for during the next few years there was a recrudescence
of the propaganda among the labouring classes. Independent
circles were created and provided with secret printing-presses in
many of the leading provincial towns — notably in Moscow,
688
NIIGATA
Nijni-Novgotod, Penza, Samara, Saratov, Kharkof, Kiev,
Odessa, Rostov-on-the-Don and Taganrog; and doser relations
were established with the revolutionaxy Socialists in western
Europe, especially with the followers of Bakunin, who considered
that a great popular rising should be brought about in Russia as
soon as possible. Bakunin's views did not, it is true, obtain
unanimous acceptance. Some of the Nihilists maintained that
things were not yet ripe for a rising of the masses, that the pacific
propaganda must be continued for a considerable time, and that
before attempting to overthrow the existing social organization
some idea should be formed as to the order of things which
should take its place. The majority, however, were too im-
patient for action to listen to such counsels of prudence, and
when they encountered opposition on the part of the govern-
ment they urged the necessity of retaliating by acts of terrorism.
In a brodiure issued in 1874 one of the most influential leaders
(Tkatchev) explained that the object of the revolutionary party
should be, not the preparation of revolution in general, but the
realization of it at the earliest possible moment, that it was a
mistake to attach great importance to questions of future social
organization, and that all the energies of the party should be
devoted to * a struggle with the government and the established
order of things, a struggle to the last drop of blood and to the last
breath." In accordance with the fashionable doctrine of evolu-
tion, the reconstruction of society on the tabula rasa might be left,
It was thought, to tJie spontaneous action of natural forces, or,
to use a Baconian phrase, to natura naiurans.
To this and simikr declarations of irreconcilable hostility
the government replied by numerous arrests, and in the winter of
1877-1878 no less than 193 agitators, selected from 2000 arrested
on suspicion, were tried publicly in St Petersburg by a tribunal
specially constituted for the purpose. Nearly aU of them were
condemned to imprisonment or exile, and the revolutionary
organization in the northern provinces was thereby momentarily
paralysed, but a few energetic leaders who had escaped arrest
reorganized their scattered forces and began the work anew.
They constituted themselves into a secret executive committee,
which endeavoured to keep in touch with, and partially direct,
the independent groups in the provincial towns. Though they
never succeeded in creating an efficient centralized administra-
tion, they contrived to give to the movement the appearance of
united action by assummg the responsibility for terrorist crimes
committed by persons who were in reality not acting under
their orders. During the years 1878, 1879 and 1S80 these
terrorist crimes were of frequent occurrence. General Trepov,
prefect of St Petersburg, was shot by Vera Zasulitch under
pretence of presenting a petition to him; General Mezentsov,
chief of the political police, was assassinated in broad daylight
in one of the principal streets of St Petersburg, and an attempt
was afterwards made on the life of his successor, General
Drenteln; Prince Krapotkin, governor of the province of
Kharkof, was assassinated for having introduced stricter prison
discipline with regard to political prisoners; a murderous attack
was made on the emperor in front of the Winter Palace by an
ex-student called Soloviev; repeated attempts were made to
blow up the train conveying the Imperial family from the
Crimea to St Petersburg; and a dynamite explosion, by which
ten people were killed and thirty-four wounded, took place in
the Winter Palace, the Imperial family owing their escape to the
accident of not sitting down to dinner punctually at the usual
hour. Assassination was used also by the agitators against
confederates suspected of giving information to the police, and a
number of gendarmes were murdered when effecting arrests.
After each of these crimes a proclamation was issued by the
executive committee explaining the motives and accepting the
responsibility.
When repressive measures and the efforts of the police were
found insufficient to cope with the evil, Alexander 11^ deter-
mined to try a new system. Count Loris Melikof was entrusted
with semi-dtctatorial powers, relaxed the severity of the police
regime, and endeavoured to obtain the support of all loyal
Uberals by holding out the prospect of a scries of reforms in a
liberal sense. W» oondliatoiy methods failed signally, and were
repaid by an attack on his life. A sembkuce of parliamentary
institutions was not what the Anarchists wanted. They simply
redoubled thdr activity, and hatched a plot for the assassination
of the emperor. In March x88i the plot was successful. Alex-
ander II., when driving in St Petersburg, was mortally wounded
by the explosion of small bombs, and died almost as socm as he
had reached the WintO* Palace. On the following day the
executive committee issued a bombastic prodamation, in whic^ it
declared triumphantly that the tsar had been condemned to
death by a secret tribunal on 26th August 1879, and that two years
of effort and painful losses had at last been crowned with success.
These facts put an end to the policy of killing Anarchism by
kindness, and one of the first acts of the new reign was a m^niti^r*^
in which Alexander III. announced very plainly that he had no
intention of limiting the autocratic power, or making concessioos
of any kind to the revolutionary party. The subsequent hi^ory
of the movement presents little that is interesting or original,
merely a continual but gradually subsiding effort to pirovoike
local disttirbances with a view to bringing about sooner or
later a general rising of the masses and the overthrow not only
of the government, but also of the existing sodal and economic
regime. A serious manifestation on the part of the terrorists
took the shape of a plot to assassinate the emperor by bombs
in the streets of St Petersburg in March 1887. It was tbe work
of a very small group, the members of which were being watched
by the police, and were all arrested on the day when the crime
was to be perpetrated. The movement afterwards showed
occasionally signs of revivaL In 1901, for examf^, there wtie
troubles in the universities, and in 190a there were setioitts
disturbances among the peasantry in some of the central ninl
districts; and the assassination of M. Sipiaguine, tb^ minisfer
of the interior, was a disquieting inddent; but the iDusioos and
enthusiasm which produced NOiilism in the young generation
during the early years of the rdgn of Alexander U. had been
largely shattered and dispelled by experience. The revohitioinaiy
propaganda temporarily led to a serious situation in the early
years of the reign of Tsar Nicholas II., but a new era opened for
Russia with the inauguration of parliamentary government.
The following criminal statistics of the movement during lax
and a half years of its greatest activity (from 1st July iMi to ist
January 1888) are taken from unpublisned official records: —
Number of affairs examined in the police department 1500
Number of persons punished 3046
These 3046 punishments may be divided into the foQowiiif
categories: —
Death 20
Penal servitude . 128
Exile in Siberia 681
Exile under police supervision in European Russia . 1500
Lesser punishments • •■ • • 717
3046
From the beginning of the movement up to 1902 the onnber
of Anarchists condemned to death and executed was forty-eight,
and the number of persons assassinated by the Anarchists «as
thirty-nine. There is no reason to suspect the accuracy of these
statistics, for they were not intended for publication. They are
taken from a confidential memorandum presented to the emperor.
(D. M. W.)
NnOATA, the chief town of the province of Echigo, Japaa.
Pop. (1903) 58,821. It lies on the west coast of tbe island of
Nippon, on a narrow strip of sandy ground between the leli baak
of the Shinano and the sea, which though dose at hand is shot
out from view by a low range of sandhills. It occupies an area
of rather more than x sq. m., and consists of five long paraUd
streets intersected by cross-streets, which in most cases hate
canals running down the middle and communicating with the
river, so that the internal traffic of the dty is mainly carried
on by water. The houses are usually buOt with gabks to the
street, and roofs and verandas project so as to keep the windoiis
and footpaths from being blocked up by the heavy winter sno«&
Niigata was originally chosen as one of the five open porw
Nagasaki, Kobe, Yokohama, Niigata and Hakodatie--lMil i
failed, chiefly owing to a bar which prevents the entry of ^
NIJAR— NIKE
689
of any size. The town has been brought within the railway
circuit, and the production of petroleum has been developed in
the district. Ebisa, on the bland of Sado, was opened as a
supplementary harbour of refuge, but not as a trading port.
There is a large manufacture of lacquer-ware in the town.
The foreign trade is entirely in the hands of Japanese merchants.
During winter Niigata suffers from a terribly severe climate;
the summers, moreover, are excessively hot.
NIJAR, a town of south-eastern Spain, in the province of
Almeria; on the southern slope of the Sierra Alhamilla, and
on the small river Artal, which flows into the Mediterranean Sea
6 m. S.W. Pop. (1900) 12,497. Diespite the lack of railway
communication, Nijar is a place of some commercial importance.
Lead, iron and manganese are mined in the neighbouring moun-
tains; the fertile plain watered by the Artal yields an abundance
of wheat, fruit, olives and esparto grass; and fine porcelain and
woollen and cotton goods are manufactured in the town.
NIJMWEGEN, NiicEGUEN, Nymecen or Niuwecen, a town
in the province of Gcldcrland, Holland, on the left bank of the
Waal, 24I m. by rail E. by S. of Tiel. It has regular steamboat
communication with Rotterdam, Cologne and Amhem, and steam-
tramways connect it with the popular resorts of Neerbosch,
Bcek and Berg -en -Dal in the vicinity. Pop. (1904) 49*542.
Nijmwegen is very prettily situated on the slopes of five low
hills rising from the river-side. It stands up with a boldness quite
unusual in a Dutch town, and steps are even necessary to lead
to the higher portions of the town. In 1877-1884 the old town
walls were demolished, a promenade and gardens taking their
place, and since then a new quarter has grown up on the south
side with ^ fine open pkce called the Emperor Charles's Plain.
On the east of the town is the beautiful park called the Valkhof,
which marks the ute of the old palace of the Carolingian emperors.
The palace was still inhabitable in 1787, but was ruined by the
French bombardment of 1794, and only two portions of it
remain. These are a part of the choir of the 1 2th<entury palace-
church, and a sixteen-sided baptistry originally consecrated
by Pope Leo III. in 799 and rebuilt in the 12th or X3th century.
Close by is the lofty tower of the Belvedere, dating from 1646.
The Groote Kerk of St Stephen forms with its tall square tower
one of the most striking features in the general views of the town.
Originally built about 1272, it dates in its present condition
mainly from the 15th and i6th centuries. In the choir is the
fine monument of Catherine of Bourbon (d. 1469), wife of
Adolphua of Egmont, duke of Gclderland, with a brass of the
duchess, and the heraldic achievements of the house of Bourbon.
There is also a fine organ. The interesting Renaissance town-
hall was built in 1554 (restored in 1879). It is adorned with the
effigies of kings and emperors who were once benefactors of
Nijmwegen. Inside are to be found some fine wood -carving,
tapestries, pictures and a cumbrous safe in which the town
charters were so jealously preserved that the garrison used to be
called out and the city gates closed whenever they were con-
sulted. There is also an interesting museum of antiquities.
Other buildings of note are the theatre (1839), the Protestant
hospital, the Roman CathoHc or Canisius hospital (1866), and the
old wei^-house and Flesher's Hall, probably built in 161 2 and
restored in 1885. Between 1656 and T678 Nijmwegen was the
seat of a university. Beer, Prussian blue, leather, tin, pottery,
dgais, and gold and silver work are the chief industrial products,
and there is a considerable trade by rail and river.
NIKAYA (" collection "), the name of a division of the Bud-
dhist canonical books. There are four principal NikAyas, making
together the SutU Pitaka (" Basket of Discourses "), the second
of the three baskets into which the canon is divided. The fifth or
miscellaneous Nik&ya is by some authorities added to this Pitaka,
by others to the next. The first two Nikfiyas, called respectively
Dfgka and Majjkima (Longer and Shorter), form one book, a
collection of the dialogues of the Buddha, the longer ones being
included in the former, the shorter ones in the latter. The third,
called the Anguttara (Progressive Addition), rearranges the
doctrinal matter contained in the Dialogues in groups of ethical
coocepU, beginning with the units, then giving the pain, then the
XIX 12
groups of three, four, five, &c., up to ten. In the Dialogues the
arrangement in such numbered groups is frequent. In an age
when books, in our modern sense, were unknown, it was a
practical necessity to invent and use aids to memory. Such were
the repetition of memorial tags, of cues (as now used for a pre-
dsely similar purpose on the suge), to suggest what is to come.
Such were also these numbered lists of technical ethical terms.
Religious teachers in the West had similar groups— the seven
deadly sins, the ten commandments, the four cardinal virtues,
the seven Sacraments, and many others. These are only now,
since the gradual increase of books, falling out of use. In the
5th century B.C. in India it was found convenient by the early
Buddhists to classify almost the whole of their psychology and
ethics in this manner. And the Anguttara Nikflya is based on
that classification. In the last Nikiya, the Saiftyuita (The
Clusters), the same doctrines are arranged in a different set of
groups, according to subject. All the Logia (usually of the master
himself, but also of his principal disciples) on any one point,
or in a few cases as addressed to one set of people, are here
brought together. That was, of course, a very convenient
arrangement then. It saved a teacher or scholar who wanted to
find the doctrine on any one subject from the trouble of repeating
over, or getting some one else to repeat over for him, the whole
of the Dialogues or the Anguttara. To us, now. the Satpyutta
seems full of repetitions; and we are apt to forget that they are
there for a very good reason.
During the time when the canon was being completed there
was great activity in learning, repeating to oneself, rehearsing
in company and discussing these three collections. But there
was also considerable activity in a more literary direction.
Hynms were sung, lyrics were composed, tales were told, the
results of some exciting or interesting talk were preserved in
summaries of exegetical exposition. A number of these have
been fortunately preserved for us in twenty-two collections,
mostly of very short pieces, in the fifth or miscellaneous Nikftya,
the Kkuddaka Nikdya,
The text of the Dialogues $Hs about 2000 pages Svo in the edition
Eni..:. I f.f L. i _ '■ :. ! ..y, of which five vols, out of six
aii Lpvvd pabli^tK^ m i^t^, And Lhc first had been translated into
Er^ti^K. The SamytiUti, af about the same size, and the Anguttara,
wliKh U a-ijitle smalJCT, have Lwjili been edited. Of the twenty-two
mi <:clUTH,'0«i booka twctnty havt been edited (see Rhys Davids,
Arfitrkan Liflbrti {t&i)6]. pp. 66-79), five have been translated into
Encii^ and two tnort intQ German.
Sti: l>igha Nikdya. ed. Rhy* Davids and Carpcitter (3 vols.);
ScmyvUiii^it^ya (5 voU.)k ed. L6on Peer, vol. vi. by Mrs Rhys Davids,
conEainlE^g 'ir\(liO>i; Aniuitara NilJlya, ed. R. Morris and E. Hardy
(5 vpk}: a!1 publitlied hy the Pali Text Society. Also Rhys
Davidt, Byxln**is ^tf /** B^dyiha, vol. i. (Oxford, 1899); A- J.
Edmundf^ " Uunlt^hi^t BlblioEmphy," in Journal of the Pali Text
So. i:iy C 1 yo^h PP' 5- 1 ^ * (T. W. R. D.)
NIKfi. in Creek mythology, the goddess of victory (Gr. lajcij).
She does not appear personified in Homer; in Hcsiod {Thcog.
384) she is the daughter of the giant Pallas and Styx, and is sent
to fight on the side of Zeus against the Titans. Nik€ does not
appear to have been the object of a separate cult at Athens.
She was at first inseparably connected and confounded with
Palbs Athena, the dispenser of victory, but gradually separated
from her. As an attribute of both Athena and Zeus she is repre-
sented as a small figure carried by those divinities in their hand.
Athena Nike was always wingless, Nike as a separate goddess
winged. In works of art she appears carrying a palm branch
or a wreath (sometimes a Hermes staff as the messenger of
victory); erecting a trophy or recording a victory on a shield;
frequently hovering with outspread wings over the victor in a
competition, since her functions referred not only to success in
war, but to all other human imdertakings. In fact, Nike gradu-
ally came to be recognized as a sort of mediator of success between
gods and men.
At Rome the goddess of victory (^ctoria) was worshipped
from the earliest times. " Evander was said to have erected a
temple in her honour on the Palatine before the foundation of
Rome itself (Dion. Halic. i. 32, 33). With the introduction of the
Creek gods, Victoria became merged in Nike. She always had a
690
NIKISCH— NIKOLAYEV
firm hold over the Roman mind, and her popularity lasted tUl
the end of paganism. Special games were held in her honour
in the circus, and generals exacted statues of her after a successful
campaign. She came to be regarded as the proteaing goddess
of the senate, and her statue (originally brought from Tarentum
and set up by Augustus in memory of the battle of Actium) in
the Curia Julia (Dio Cassius IL 22; Suetonius, Aug. xoo) was
the cause of the final combat between Christianity and paganism
towards the end of the 4th century. Victoria had altars in
camp, a special set of worshippers and colleges, a festival on the
ist of November, temples at Rome and throughout the empire.
The Sabine goddess Vicuna and Vica Pota, one of the dii indigetes
(both of them goddesses of victory), are earlier varieties of Vic-
toria (Livy zxix. 14). Representations of Nike-Victoria in
Greek and Craeco-Roman art are very numerous. The statue of
Nike at Olympia by Paeonius has been in great part recovered.
See A. Baudrillart. Les DiviniUs de la victotrt en Grhce el en lUxlie
(1894). whose view that in the 5th century NikC became detached
from Athena, although Athena NikC still continued to exist, is
supported by Miss J. E.. Harrison (CZasiicai Renews April 1895)
and L. R. Famell iCuUx of Ike Greek Slates, i., 1896), but opposed by
E. Sikes {C.R., June 1895), who hokls that " while NikC was a late
conceptu>n, Athena NikC was still later, and that the goddess of
Ober das CuUusbild der Athena Nike (Vienna. 1879); G. Boissier.
Lajin du paeanisme (1891); Gibbon, Decline and Fall, ch. 28.
In the article GaEEK Aar, fig. 32 represents Nike pourinff water
over a sacrificial ox; fig. ^6 the floating NikC of Paeonius; ngs. 61,
62 (PI. iii.}, the winged Nike of Samotnraoe; the running or flying
figure (fig. 19) is also possibly a Niki.
NIKISCH, ARTHUR (1855- )p Hungarian conductor,
became known as a musical prodigy 'at an early age, making a
public performance as a pianist at eight years old. He studied
at the Vienna Conservatoire from z866 to 1873, and while there
he composed a symphony and other works. For a time he wa3
engaged as a violinist, but in 1877 he began as assistant conductor
at the I/cipzig opera and two years later became chief conductor.
His success there, and his reputation as the producer of the
more modem types of music as well as of classical masterpieces
led to his being appointed conductor of the symphony orchestra
at Boston, U.S.A., from 1889 to 1893; and subsequently, after
having been director at the Budapest opera, he was made
conductor at the Leipadg Gewandhaus. His fame was now wide-
spread, and he made successful visits to London, Paris and other
capitals, his ability as a pianoforte accompanist being recog-
nised as no Ies& marked than his brilliance as director of an
orchestra.
NIKITIN, ATHANA8IU8, of Tver (fl. 1468-1474), Russian
merchant, traveller and writer, the earliest known Russian visitor
to India. He started in 1468 on his " wanderings beyond the
Three Seas " (Caspian, Euxine and Indian Ocean), and descended
the Volga, passing by UgUch, Kostroma, Nizhniy Novgorod,
Kaxan, Sarai and Astrakhan. Near the latter he was attacked
and robbed by Tatars; but he succeeded in reaching Derbent,
where hi joined Vasili Papin, the envoy of Ivan lU. of Moscow
to the shah of Shirvan; from Nixhniy Novgorod he bad travelled
with Hasan Bey, the Shirvan shah's ambassador, returning to his
master with a present of falcons from Ivan. At Derbent Nikitin
vainly endeavoured to get means of returning to Russia; falling
In this, he went on to Batu, where he notices the " eternal fires,"
4nd thence over the Caspian to Bokhara. Here he stayed six
months, after which he made his way southward, with several
prolonged stoppages, to the Persian Gulf, through Mazandaran
province and the towns of Amul, Demavend, Ray (near Tehran),
Kashan, Nain, Yesd, Sirjan, Tarun, Lar and Bandar, opposite
New (or insular) Hormui. From Hormuz he sailed by Muscat to
Gujarat, Cambay and Chaul in western India. Landing at Chaul,
he seems to have travelled to Umrut in Aurangabad province,
south-east of Surat, and thence to Beder, the modem Ahmedabad.
Here, and in adjacent regions, Nikitin spent nearly four years;
from the little he tells us, he appears to have made his living by
horse-dealing. From Beder he visited the Hindu sanctuary
(" their Jerusalem ") of Perwattum. He returned to Russia by
way of Calicut, Dabul, Muscat, Hormuz, Lar, Shiraz, Ycxd,
Isfahan, Kashan, Sulianich, Tabriz, Trebizond and Kaffa
(Theodosia) in the Crimea. He has left us descriptions of
western Indian manners, customs, religion, court<ereroonic$,
festivals, warfare and trade, of some value; but the text is
corrupt, and the narrative at its best is confused and meagre.
His remarks on the trade of Hormuz, Cambay, Calicut. Dabai,
Ceyk>n, Pegu and China; on royal progresses and other functions,
both ecclesiastical and civil, at Beder; and on the wonders of
the great fair at Perwattum— as well as his comparisons of things
Russian and Indian — deserve special notice.
Two MSS. are kno«*n: (i) tn the Ubraiy of the cathedral of Sc
Sophia in Novgorod: (2} in the library of the Troitsa Monastery
(Troitsko-ScrKievskaya Lavra) near Moscow. See also the edxtioQ
by Pavel Mikhailovich Stroev in Sofiiskii Vremennik (a.o. ^2-1534),
yt. ii. pp. 145-164 (Moscow, 1820-1821); and the English version u
ndia in tb* istk Century, pp. Ixxiv.-Ixxx. ; 1-32 (separately pa^cd.
Nikitin's being the third narrative in the volume, translated and edited
by Count Wielhorski; London, Hakluyt Society, 1857). (C. R. B.)
NIKKO, one of the chief religious centres of Japan. The
name bebngs properly to the district, but is as commonly
applied to the principal village, Hachi-ishi, which is 91 m. N.
of Tokyo by rail. Tlie district is high-lying, mountainous and
beautiful, and is in favour for summer residence. The chid
mountain range is known as Nikko-Zan (MounUios of the Son's
Brightness). A Shinto temple seems to have existed at Nikko
from time immemorial, and in 767 its first Buddhist temple was
founded by Shodo Sho-nin (the subject of many strange kgemdary
adventures); but the main celebrity of the place is due to the
sepulchres and sanctuaries of lyeyasa and lyemitsu, the fiist
and third shoguns of the Tokugawa dynasty. lyeyasa was
buried with amazing pomp in 1617, and lyemitso, his graodsoBi^
was slain in 1650 while visiting his tomb. From 1644 to zS6S
the " abboU " of Nikko were always princes of the imperial
blood; thirteen of them are buried within the sacred grounds.
Though the magnificent abbots' residence was destroyed by fire
in 1871, and the temples have lost most of their ritual and much
of their material splendour, enough remains to astonish by
excellence and bfewilder by variety of decorative detail. Of the
numerous structures whidi cluster round the shrine of lyeyasn,
it is sufficient to mention the cylindrical copper column (1643),
a guardian against evil influences, 42 ft. high, adorned at the
top with a aeries of lotus flowers, from the petab of which hang
small bells; a five-storied pagoda (1659), 104 ft. high, with the
signs of the zodiac carved round the base; the gate of the Two
Kings, with its figures of imicoms, lions, tigers, eiepliaBts,
mythical animals and tree-peonies; the vermilion-cokmred
timber enclosure to which this gate gives entrance, with three
great storehouses, a sumptuous stable for the sacred hMscs, and
a finely fashioned granite cistem (x6i8) for holy water; and the
Yo-mei-mon.gate, which with the contiguous cbister is covered
with the most elaborate carving, and gives access by way of
another gate (Kara-Mon) to the court in the midst of which stands
the last and most sacred enclosure. This, known as the Tam^
gaki, is a quadrangle of gilt trellis- work 50 yds. square; within it
stands the " chapd " or oratory (or rather a series of cfaambeis),
in the decoration of which gilding and black lacquer have beca
lavishly employed* The tomb of lyeyasu lies apart about two
hundred steps higher up the hills, in the shadow of taH crypto-
merias — a single light-K»loured bronze uro or casket standing en
a circular base of three steps with a stone table in front on vhick
rest a censer, a lotus-duster and a stork with a candlestick in its
mouth, the whole cnckned by a high stone waU. Somewhat stmSsr
are the tomb of lyemitsu and its surroundings; and though the
art displayed is of an inferior character, the profusion of boildisp
and embellishments is even more remarkable. Hotok^ Iwa, the
hill on which the tomb stands, is completdy covered to the sonuait
with trees of various tints. There are n^uneroos tenples asd
shrines of minor interest in the locality.
NIKOLAYEV, a town, seaport and chief naval statica of
Russia on the Black Sea, in the government of Kherson, 40 c
N.W. of the city of Kherson. Pop. (i88x) 35.000; (1891)
7^,2x0; (1897) 92,060. Nikolayev stands a litUe above tht
NIKOLAYEVSK— NIKON
691
confluence of the Ingol with the Bug, at the head of the /imaii,
or estuary, of the Bug, and is the natural outlet for the basin of
that river. The estuary, which is 25 m. long, enters that of the
Dnieper. The entrance to the double estuary is protected by
the fortress of Ochakov and by the fort of Kinbum, erected on a
narrow headland opposite, while several forts surround Nikolayev
on both sides of the Bug and protect it from an attack by land.
Over the bar at Ochakov the water has been deepened to 25 ft.,,
and over the bar of the Dnieper to 30 ft. by dredging. The town,
which occupies two flat peninsulas between the Bug and the Ingulf .
extends up the banks of the latter, while its suburbs reach still
farther out into the steppe. The streets are wide, and intersect
one another at right angles. The bank of the Ingul is taken up
with shipbuilding yards, docks, slips and various workshops of
the admiralty for the construction of armour-plates, guns, boilers,
&c. On the river there is a floating dock for armoured ships.
Before the Crimean War the activity of the dockyards was very
great; the suburb»— which belong to the admiralty— were
bound to supply the necessary hands to the number of 3000
every day, and all the inhabitants had to perform compulsory
service. Since 1870 the construction of armoured ships and
torpedo-boats has been carried on here. From 1893 Nikolayev
was the chief port for the Russian volunteer fleet, which sailed
to and fro between this port and Vladivostok until the Russo-
Japanese War of 1904-05. Nikolayev has steam flour-mills,
iron and machinery works, saw-mills, soap, tobacco, vinegar,
carriage and agricultural machinery works. The foreign exports
consbt almost entirely of cereals, especially wheat and rye,
with a little sugar, iron and manganese ore and oilcake. The
total value reaches £7,000,000 to £9,000,000 annually. Navi-
gation is maintained during the whole winter by the aid of a
powerful ice-breaker. Nikolayev is the chief market for the
governments of Kherson, Poltava, Kharkov, Ekaterinoslav and
parts of Kiev, Kursk and Podolia. In addition to the naval
harbour, there are the harbour of the Russian Steamship
Company and the coasting harbour, made in 1893; while large
storehouses stand dose to the commercial port, 2 m. from the
town, at Popovaya-Balka on the Bug. The educational in-
stitutions include an artillery school, a school of navigation,
two technical schools, an astronomical and meteorological
observatory, museums and libraries, and a hydrographical
institute. Amongst the public buildings, the cathedraJ, which
contains fome good Italian pictures, the theatre, the artillery
arsenal, the admlralt)r and other state buildings are worthy of
mention.
The remains of the Greek colony Otbia have been discovered
close to the confluence of the Ingul with the Bug, 10 m. S. of
Nikolayev. In medieval times the country was under the
Lithuanians, and subsequently under the Zaporogian Cossacks.
Russian colonists settled in the locality about the end of the
i8th century, and after the fall of Ochakov, Prince Potemkin
established (1789) a wharf on the Ingul which received the name
of Nikolayev. (P. A. K. ; J. T. Bb.)
NIKOLAYEVSK, a town of East Siberia, in the Maritime
province, on the left bank of the Amur, ao m. above its outflow
into the Gulf of Amur, in 53** 8' N. Pop. (1897) 8200. It is
defended by a fort and batteries. Founded in 185 1, Nikolayevsk
was formerly the capital of the Maritime province.
NIKOLAYEVSK, a town of Russia, in the government of
Samara, on the right bank of the Irgiz, 40 m. from the Volga
and 100 m. S.W. of the town of Samara. Pop. (1897) 12.534.
Its inhabitants are mostly Raskolniks (t.f. Nonconformists),
who have numerous monasteries along the river, and members
of the United Greek Church, with about 2000 Tatars. The chief
occupations are agriculture and live stock breeding.
Under the name of Mechetnoye, Nikolayevsk was founded in
1762 by Raskobiiks who had fled to Poland and returned when
Catherine II. undertook to grant them religious freedom. In
1828 serious persecutions began, with the result that the
monasteries were ck)sed with the exception of three, which were
handed over in 1829 and 1836 to the United Greek Church.
la 28j5 the name of the town was changed to Nikolayevsk^
NIKOLAYEVSKAYA. SLOBODA; a town of Russia in the
government of Astrakhan, 3 m. from the left bank of the Volga,
opposite Kamyshin, and no m. N. of Ttoritsyn.. Pop. (1897)
20,000. It dates from* the end of the x8th century, when a
number of Little Russians settled there for the transport of salt
from Lake Elton. It is one of the chief centres on the lower
Volga for the trade in com and salt.
• NIK0L8BUR0(Czech,Af»ih</<nF),a town of Austria, in Moravia,
53 m. S. of Brtinn by rail. Pop. (1900) 8091. It is situated at
the foot of the Polau Mountains and near the border of Lower
Austria. It possesses a ch&teau of Prince Dietrichstein-Mens-
dorff, which contains an extensive library, with some valuable
manuscripts. The Heiliger Berg, in the immediate vidnity,
has sixteen chapels, and a church in the Byzantine style. The
prindpal resources are viticulture, the manufacture of cloth,
and trade in lime and limestone. On the 31st of December 1621
peace was conduded here between the emperor Ferdinand II.
and Bethlen Gabor, prince of Transylvania; and on the 26th
of July x866 a preliminary treaty of peace between the Prussians
and the Austrians was signed here.
NIKON [Nduta Minin] (1605-1681), 6th patriarch of Moscow,
Russian reformer and statesman,' son of a peasant farmer
named Mina, was bom on the 7th of May 1605 in the village of
Valmanovo, 90 versts from Nizhny Novgorod. Misery pursued
the child from his cradle, and prematurely hardened a character
not naturally soft; he ran away from home to save his life
from an inhuman stepmother. But he gave proim'se betimes of
the energy and thoroughness which were to distinguish him
throughout life, and contrived to teach himself reading and
writing. When he was but twenty his learning and talents
obtained for him a cure of souls. His doquence attracted atten-
tion, and, through the efforts of some Moscow jnerchants, he
was transferred to a populous parish in the capital. Shortly
afterwards, seeing in the loss of his three little children a provi-
dential warning to seek the higher life, he first persuaded his
wife to take the veil and then withdrew himself first to a desolate
hermitage on the isle of Anzersky on the White Sea, and finally
to the Kozhuzersky monastery, in the diocese of Novgorod,
of which he became abbot in 1643. On becoming a monk he
took the name of Nikon. In his ofiidal capadty he had frequently
to visit Moscow, and in 1646 made the acquaintance of the pious
and impressionable T^r Alexius, who fell entirely under his
influence. Alexius appointed Nikon archimandrite, or prior,
of the wealthy Novospassky monastery at Moscow, and in 164S
metropolitan of Great Novgorod. Finally (ist of August 1652)
he was elected patriarch of Moscow. It was only with the utmost
difficulty that Nikon could be persuaded to become the arch-
pastor of the Russian Church, and he only yielded after imposing
upon the whole assembly a solemn oath of obedience to him in
everything concerning the dogmas, canons and observances of
the Orthodox Church. .
Nikon's attitude on this occasion was not affectation, but the
wise determination of a would-be reformer to secure a free hand.
Ecclesiastical reform was already in the air. A number of
ecclesiastical dignitaries, known as the party of the protopopes
(deans), had accepted the responsibiUty for the revision of the
church service-books inaugurated by the late Patriarch Joasaf,
and a few other very trivial rectifications of certain ancient
observances. But they were far too timid to attempt anything
really effectual. Nikon was much bolder and also much more
liberal. He consulted the most learned of the Greek prelates
abroad; invited them to a consultation at Moscow; and finally
the scholars of Constantinople and Kiev opened the eyes of Nikon
to the fact that the Muscovite serviCe-books were heterodox,
and that the ikons actually in use had very widely departed from
the andent Constantinopolitan models, being for the most part
imitations of later Polish and Prankish (West European) models.
He at once (1654) summoned a properly qualified synod of
experts to re-examine the service-books revised by the Patriarch
Joasaf, and the majority of the synod dedded that " the Greeks
should be followed rather than our own ancients." A second
coundli hdd at Moscow in 1656, sanctioned the revision of the
692
NIKOPOL— NILE
wsrvice-bookji as suggested by the first coundl, and ahathe-
nuitized the dissentient minority, which included the party
of the protopopes and Paul, bishop of Kolomna. Heavily
weighted with the fullest ecumenical authority, Nikon's patriarchal
staff descended with crushing force upon the heterodox. His
scheme of reform included not only service-books and ceremonies
but the use of the " new-fangled " ikons, for which he ordered
a house-to-house search to be made. His soldiers and servants
were charged first to gouge out the eyes of these "heretical
counterfeits " and then carry them through the town in derision.
He also issued a ukaz threatening with (he severest penalties
all who dared to make or use such ikons in future. This ruthless-
ness goes far to explain the imappeasable hatred with which the
" Old Ritualists " and the " Old Believers," as they now began
to be called, ever afterwards regarded Nikon and all his works.
From 1652 to 1658, Nikon was not so much the minister as
the colleague of the tsar. Both in public documents and in
private letters he was permitted to use the sovereign title.
Such a free use did he make of his vast power, that some Russian
historians have suspected him of the design of establishing " a
particular national papacy"; and he himself certainly main-
tained that the spiritual was superior to the temporal power.
He enriched the numerous and splendid monasteries which he
built with valuable libraries. His emissaries scoured Muscovy
and the Orient for precious Greek and Slavonic MSS., both sacred
and profane. But his severity raised up a whole host of enemies
against him, and by the summer of 1658 they had convinced
Alexius that the sovereign patriarch was eclipsing the sovereign
tsar. Alexius suddenly grew cold towards his " own familiar
friend." Nikon thereupon publicly divested himself of the
patriarchal vestments and shut himself up in the Voskresensky
monastery (19th of July 1658). In February 1660 a synod was
held at Moscow to terminate " the widowhood " of the Muscovite
Church, which had now been without a pastor for nearly two
years. The synod decided not only that a new patriarch should
be appointed, but that Nikon . had forfeited both his archi-
episcopal rank and his priest's orders. Against the second part
of this decision, however, the great ecdcbiastical expert Epifany
Slavenitsky protested energetically, and ultimately the whole
inquiry collapsed, the scrupulous tsar shrinking from the enforce-
ment of the decrees of the synod for fear of committing mortal
sin. For six years longer the Church of Muscovy remained
without a patriarch. Every year the question of Nikon's
deposition became more complicated and confusing. Almost
every contemporary orthodox scholar was consulted on the sub-
ject, and no two authorities agreed. At last the matter was
submitted to an ecumenical council, or the nearest approach to it
attainable in the circumstances, which opened its sesuons
on the i8th of November 1666 in the presence of the tsar. On
the 1 3th of December the coundl pronounced Nikon guilty of
reviling the tsar and the whole Muscovite Church, of deposing
Paul, bishop of Kolomna, contrail to the canons, and of beating
and torturing his dependants. His sentence was deprivation of all
his sacerdotal functions; henceforth he was to be known simply
as the monk Nikon. The same day he was put into a sledge and
sent as a prisoner to the Therapontov Byclozersky monastery.
Yet the very council which had deposed him confirmed all his
reforms and anathematized all who should refuse to accept them.
Nikon survived the tsar (with whom something of the old
intimacy was resumed in 167 1) five years, expiring on the xyth
of August 1681.
See R. Nisbet Bam, The First Rmanms (London, 1905): S. M.
Solovev, History of Russia (Rus.). vol. x. (St Petersburg, 1895, Ac);
A. K. Borozdin, The Protopope Awokum (Rus.) (Si Petersburg.
1898); V. S. Ikonnikov, New Materials concerning the .Patriarch
Nikon (Rus.) (Kiev, 1888); William Palmer, The Patriarch and the
Tsar (London, 187 1- 1876). (R. N. B.)
NIKOPOL, a town of Russia, in the government of Ekaterino-
s'av, on the right bank of the Dnieper, 70 m. S.S.W. of the town
af Ekaterinoslav. It was formerly called Nikitin Rog, and
occupies an elongated peninsula between two arms of the
Dnieper at a point where its banks are low and marshy, and has
been for centuries one of the places where the middle Dnieper
can most conveniently be crossed. Its inhabitants, ai,a8i in
1900, are Little Russians, Jews and Mennonites, who carry on
agriculture and shipbuilding. The old seclutt or fortified camp
of the Zaporogian Cossacks, brilliantly described in N. V. Gogol's
novel Taras Bulba (1834)1 was situated a little higher up the
river. Numbers of graves in the vicinity recall the battles which
were fought for the possession of this important strategic point..
One of them, dose to the town, contained, along with other
Scjrthian antiquities, the well-known precious vase represenliog
the capture of wild horses. Even now Nikopol, which is situated
on the highway from Ekaterinoslav to Kherson, is the poiot
where the "salt-highway" of the Chumaks (Little Rusian
salt-carriers) to the Crimea crosses the Dnieper. Nikopol is,
further, one of the chief places on the lower Dnieper for the
export of com, linseed, hemp and wooL
NIKOPOU, or Nicopous (Turkish, Nighebolu or Nebui),
the chief town of a sub-prefecture in the dislria of Plevna
(Pleven), Bulgaria. Pop. (1908) 5236, induding 3339 Turks
and 1615 Bulgarians. Nikopoli is picturesquely situated on the
south bank of the Danube, where it receives the Osem. Until the
creation of a new port at Somovit, in the neighbourhood, Nikopoli
served as an outlet for the trade of Plevna, Lovtcha and other
towns in the interior, the prindpal export bdng cereals. The
chief industries are tanning and fishing. As a military post the
town has for centuries been important. A ruined castle still
dominates the place, and fortifications stretch down to theri^'er.
Nikopoli occupies the site of the andent Asamus, but by some
medieval confusion bears the name of Nicopolis ad Istrum, whkh
was founded by Trajan several miles down the river, at the infiov
of the latrus or Yantra, at the spot slill called Nikup. Tbc
following are the chief points in the modern history of tbe plact:
— capture of the fortress by Sigismund of Hungary in 1392 and
1395; defeat of Sigismund and his hosts in 1396 by Bayezid L;
siege of the town by King Ladislaus I. of Hungary in 1444;
defeat of the Turks by Bathori in 1 595 and by Michael of Walachis
in 1598; capture of the town by Pasvan-oglu in 1797; occupa-
tion of the fortress by the Russians under Kamensky in iSio;
destruction of the Turkish flotilla and storming of the Turkish
camp by Govarov in 1829; capture and burning of the town
by the Russians under Kriidener on the 15th of June 1877.
NIKSHICH (also written Nikshitch and Nikshtti; Croauaa.
Nikiie)f a town of Montenegro, lying in a flat plain enclosed by
lofty mountains on the north-west, and watered by the rivxr
Zeta. Pop. (1000) about 3500. Owing.to the prevalence of floods,
a long viaduct, a gift from Russia, was raised between the town
and the mountain road which leads to Podgoritsa, 60 m. S.E.
Nikshich consists of a mass of white houses, dominated by tbe
belfry and the pale yellow cupola of its cathedral, another ^>t
from Russia. This building is chiefly Byzantine in style, and,
though hardly beautiful, is the most impressive and by far the
largest of Montenegrin churches. Close by stands a barrack-liic
toyal palace; and a little beyond the town are the ruins of an dd
castle. As Nikshich possesses a brewery and a dothmiU, besides
being the chief mart of Western Montenegro for timber, hides,
farm-produce and livestock, it ranks second in comm^dil
importance to Podgoritsa. About 12 m. S.E. is tbe celebraied
shrine of Ostrog (see Montenecko). Nikshich was induded in
the Turkish province of Herzegovina until 1876, in which year it
was stormed by the Montenegrins, led by Prince Nicholas ia
person. In 1878 the Montenegrin possession was ratified by the
treaty of Berlin.
NILE, the longest river of Africa, and second b length of iH
the rivers of the globe, draining a vast area in north-east Afrka.
from the East African lake plateau to the shores of the Mediter-
ranean. Although falling short of the length of the Mississipp*-
Missouri (4194 m. according to the estimate of General Tilio^
the Nile is at the head of all rivers as regards the length of r^
basin, which extends through 35* of latitude or 2450 m. is 1
direct line, with a waterway of about 4000 m. Tbe Nile proper.
i.e. from the outlet at Victoria Nyanxa to the sea, is 3473 n. keg.
> General Alexl A. Tillo (1839^1900). Ruasiaa saentot ^
geographer, author of works on geodcay, meteorology, Ac.
NILE
693
The Frame.—The eariy Egyptians caUed
this river by a name which was probably
pronounced Hap. It seems to be con-
nected with a root meaning " concealed,"
" mysterious." This survived as a religious
designation down to the fall of paganism.
The "great river" was also a frequent
name for the main stream, and this
became the usual name of the Nile in
late times as Ier-*o and continued in use
amongst the Copts. In the Bible the
Nile is regularly named YeOc (^, •«*«:),
from the contemporaiy Egyptian Yor,
"river." The origin of the Greek and
Roman name NoXos, Nilus, is quite
unknown. AZyvrrof in the Odyssey is
the name of the Nile (masc.) as well as
of the country (fem.). The Arabs pre-
served the classical name of the Nile in
the proper name £n-Nll ^!^\p or Nil-
Misr jta^ ^tj, the Nile of Misr (Cgypt).
The same word signifies indigo.*
The modem Egyptians conunonly
call the river £1-Bahr, " the sea," a term
also applied to the largest rivers, and the
inundation "the Nile," En-NH; and the
modem Arabs call the river Bahr-en-N0
"the river Nile."
• Basin of Ike Rher.— The Nile system is
a simple one with three principal divisions:
(i) the main stream running south to north,
and fed by the great lakes of East Central
.Africa; (a) the equatorial tributary rivers
draining the country north-east of the
Congo basin; (3) the Abyssinian affluents.
The extent of the basin of the Nile is
dearly indicated on the map. Its area b
estimated at 1,107,227 sq. m., which com-
"pares with the 1,425,000 sq. m. area of
the Congo basin. Tlie smaller basin of
the longer river is due to its narrowness
when passing through the Sahara. South-
ward the basin includes the northem part
of the plateau between the two " Rift "
valleys which traverse that part of Africa,
and also that portion of the Albertine (or
western) " Rift " valley which lies north
of the Mfumbiro mountains. That part
of the plateau within the Nile basin is
occupied b^ the Victoria Nyanza and its
affluents. These affluents drain a compara-
tively small part of this plateau, which
stretches south to Lake Nyasa. The most
remote feeder of the Nile in this direction
does not extend farther than 3° ao' S.
West and W.S.W. of Victoria Nyanza,
however, the Nile basin reaches 3** 50' S.
(264 m. south of the equator) and 29** 1 5' E.,
following the crest of the hills which
dominate the north-eastern shores of Lake
Tanganyika and the eastem shores of
Lake Kivu. Turning north-westward from
this point the Nile basin crosses the
mountainous region of Mfumbiro and in-
cludes that of Ruwenzori. Its limit is
marked by the western wall of the
* "En-Ntt is the river Qh. the inundation)
of Esypt: Es-Sagh&nl says—' But as to the
I [indieo] with which one dyes, it la an
'■" (rt Misbdk el
nil I
Indian word Arabicized '
Bl'Fay&mi),
694
NILE
Albertlne Rift valley, in which lie the Albert Edward and
Albert Nyanzas. For a a>nsiderable distance the water-parting
between the Congo and the Nile is dose to the Albert Nyanza
and to the Nile as it flows from that lake, but not far north
of Wadelai (a** 46' N.) the hills recede and the Nile basin
. expands westward, over the wide area drained by th; Bahr-
el-Ghazal and its tributaries. In this region there is no well-
marked watershed between the G>ngo and Nile systems, which
interlace. Farther north the limit of the valley is marked by
the hills of Darfur. Below that point the valley of the Nile
extends but a mile or two into the desert.
The south-eastern limiu of the Nile basin extend nearly to
the western escarpment of the eastern Rift valley— the dividing
plateau being a narrow one. North of the equator a bend is
made westward to Mt. Elgdn, which on the north-east sends
its water towards Lake Rudolf. From Mt. Elgon the Nile
watershed is some distance to the west of that lake, while to its
north a turn is made again, the watershed including a great part
of the Abyssinian highlands. Beyond 15^ N. it follows a line
generally parallel to th« west shore of the Red Sea, except where
diverted to the west by the basin of the Khor Baraka.
Sources of the Nile. — The question of the sources of the Nile opens
up a time-honoured controverey (see under Story of Discovery below),
victoria N>;anza (q.v.) is the grmt reservoir whence issues the Nile
on its long joumev to the MediterFancan. But if the source of the
river be constderea to be the most remote headstream (measured by
the windings of the stream), the distinction belongs to one of the
upper branches of the Kagera. Among the feeders of Victoria Nyanza
the Kagera is by far the most important, both for length of course
and volume of water carried, draining the region of greatest rainfall
round Lake Victoria. Three chief branches unite to form the KajEcra,
and of these the most important for the volume of water earned is
said to be the Nyavarongo. The Nyavarongo is formed by the
union of various mountain streams, tne Rukarara and the Mhoeo
being the chief. The Rukarara rises in about 2" 20' S., '2^' 2& E..
at an elevation of some 7000 ft., in a picturesque and bracmg noon
immediately east of the Albertine Rift valley. The Nyavarongo first
flows north to about i" 40' S., then turning in a sharp bend east and
south, and on again reaching 2* ao' S.. unites with the Akanyaru
just west of 30^ E. The Akanyaru, whkh comes from the south-
west, has been sometimes considered the laiger stream, but according
to Dr Richard Kandt it carries decidedly less water, while iu courw
is shorter than that of the Nyavarongo. The combined stream
takes an easteriy and southeriy direction, flowing in a swamp valley
and joining a little west of 31^ E. the third branch of the Kagera,
the Ruvuvu, coming from tne south. The source of the Ruvuvu is
in about a" 55' S., 29)* E.^ but its most southern tributary, and the
most distant stream sending its waters towards the Nile, is the
Lavironza. The Lavironza rises in about 3* 4X' S., 29' 50' E., and
flows north-east, joining the Ruvuvu, which has hitherto had an
easteriy directbn. in about 30** 25' E., 3' 10' & From this point the
Ruvuvu flows east and noith to its junction with the Nyavarongo.
From this confluence the combined stream of the Kagera flows north
and north-west in a level valley strewn with small lakes until almost
l' S., when it turns east, and finally empties itself into Victoria
Nyanza just north of i* S., the mouth forming a small projecting
delta. Its lower course is navigaUe by shallow draught steamers.
The total length of the Kagera, reckoning from the source oi the
Nyavarongo, is some 430 m. Its volume is stated to vary between
21,000 and 54,000 cub. ft. per second. All the other feeders of
Victoria Nyanza are small and often intermittent rivers, the largest
being probably the Nzoia, which enters on the north-east from the
plateaus south of Mount Elgon. jfThe rivers which enter Albert
Edward and Albert Nyanzas and, ^th those lakes, form the western
sources of the Nile, are dealt with under A^bbst Nyanza and Albert
Edward Nyanza.)
The Victoria or Somerset Nile. — ^The ridge of high land whkh forms
the northern shore of Victoria Nvanza is broken at its narrowest
part, where the pent-up waters ot the lake — through which a drift
from the Kagera inlet to the Nile outlet is just perceptible— have
forced a passage at the northern end <^ a beautiful bay named
Napoleon Gulf. At this spot, 30 m. north of the equator, at an alti-
tucle of 3704 ft., the Nile issues from the kike between cliffs 200 and
more ft. high with a breadth of some 500 yds. The scene is one of
much grandeur. The escaping water precipitates itself over a rocky
kdge with a clear fall of 16} ft. The falls, some 300^ yds. across,
and divided into three channels by two small wooded islands, are
named the Ripon Falls, after Eari de Grey and Ripon (afterwards
1st marquess of Ripon), president of the Royal Geographical Society
in 1859. The Victoria or SoroerKt Nile, as this Section is called, has
at first the character of a mountain stream, racing swiftly through a
rocky channel often walled in by cliffs (at times 180 ft. h^h) and
broken by picturesque islands and countless rapids. It receives the
waten of several streams, which, rising within a few miles of the
Victona Nyanza, flow north. For 133 m. its course is N.N.W.,
when, on being joined by the river Kafu (on which Fort Mruli stands),
about i" 39' N.J 32* ao" E.. it takes the north-east direction of that
channel, and it u not till a* N. that the river again turns westward
towards the Albert Nyanza. Seventy miles below the Ripon Falls
the Nile enten a marehy lake of irregular outline, running mainly
east and west, and known as Kioga (or Choga). Tlie current of the
Nile is cleariy discernible along the western shore of this lake, which
is 3514 ft. above the sea. Eastwards the lake breaks into several
long arms, which receive the watere of other lakes lying on the plata
west of Mount Elgon. One of these^ named Lake Salisbury, Iks in
I* ao' N. and 34* E. ; east of this lake and connected with it is Lake
Gedge., Lake Kioga also receives the Mpdogoma. a river which
rises in the foothills of Elgon and flows east and north, attaining
a width of li m.; and from the south (west of the Nile) a broad
lacustrine river, the Seziwa. The Ktoga lake system, lying north of
the ridge which separates it from Vktoria Nvanza, owes its farmatioo
in part to. the waten pouring down from the Nyanza, and is in the
nature of a huge Nile backwater. The lake itself is rarely more than
20 ft. deep: its greatest length is 8^ m. ; its greatest width 10 m.
Below Mruli, the fall in the oed levels of the Nile, whidi up to this
point has been comparatively gradual, increases cowaderaNy. At
Karuma, where the western bend to the Albert Nyanza is made,
the river falls over a walMike ledge of rock, 5 ft. high, whkh extci^is
across its bed. But the great feature of the Victoria Nile are the
Murchison Falls (named by Sir Samuel Baker, their discoverer, after
Sir Roderick Murchison, the geologist), situated in a* 18' N. and
31* 50' E. At this point the river rages furiously throo^ a rock-
bound pass, and, plunging through a clclt less than z8 ft. wide, leaps
about 130 ft. into a spray-covered abyss. Downstream from these
falls the river flows tor some la m. between steep forest<»vefed
hills, a wide and noble stream with a current so sk>w and steady that,
at certain seasons, it is only from the scarcely perceptible driftis^
of the green water-plants called Pistia Stratiotes that it can be
observed. About 24 m. below the Murchison Falls and 254 m.
from the Victoria Nyanza the river enters, through a wide ddta.
and across a formidable bar, the N.E. end of Albert Nyanza. In its
paaages from the one lake to the other the Nile falls altogether
about 1400 ft. Takin[( its name from a fort which once existed
there, the delta district is known as Magungo.
From Albert Nyaiua to the Plains. — Issuing from the north-west
comer of Albert Nyanza some 5 m. from the spot wlwre it entertd
that lake, the Nile, which is now known as the Bahr^-Jcbd. or
Mountain river, flows in a generally northerly direction. As far as
Dufile, 130 m. below Magungo, it has a gentle slope, a deep dumnd
and a current generally slight. It forms a series of lake-like reaches
often studded with recHy islands. Immediately below Dufile the
Kuku mountains on the west and the Arju range on Uie east close in
upon the river, which, from an average' width of 706 yds., narrows
to 230 yds. Here the hills cause the stream to make a sharp bend
from the north-eaiit to the north-west. - Four or five miles lower
down the river widens to 400 yds., and a large island divides tl«
stream, the eastern channd carrying the mam volume of water.
This island marks the beginning of the Fola Rapids. At its southen
end the water falls some ao ft., and then, like a gigantic mill-race,
rushes through a gorge 330 ft. long and nowhere more than 52 ft.
wide, to leap into a deep cavity not more than 40 ft. acrass. Escaping
from this ' cauldron the waten thunder on in a succession <^
rapids, whkh extend beyond the northern end of the island. In aB
the Fda Rapids are ncariy 2 m. long. For the next 80 m. the Nik.
save for the great' volume of water, resembles a mountain tone&t.
its course interrupted faty continual rapids. The last of theat occurs
at Beddcn, where the river breaks through a line of low hills nm '
athwart its channel. One of these hills forms an island in 1
stream. Below Bedden various stations are established upon the
river. Fort Berkeley, in 4** 40' N. (on the right bank), b the nearest
to the rapids. Then follow Rejaf (left bank), Gondokoro (right
bank^ and Lado fleft bank), all within 30 m. of one another. A
striking feature of the scenery at Rejaf is a cone-shaped hill, aboet
370 ft. high, crowned by rocks which have the appearance of the
ruins of an ancient castle. At Gondokoro the Nile is clear of the ht&
country, and enten a vast awamp-like expanse thnnwh which it
flows with a very low slope and a very tortuous channcL
Between Albert Nyanza and^the swamp region the Bahr-d-J^>d
froa
is joined by many streams. The most important of these afflixcts
11a (nearly;
jn3lS0'l , .
dry season. Tne Asua and its subsidiary streams rise on the 1
is the Asua (neariv 200 m.
k>ng), which enten the main s
(19 m. NTof Dufile), but has little water ia the
the
dry .
versant of the Karamojo plateau and among the mountain rai^get
whkh run off from that plateau to the north-we^ the moat 1
head-stream running originally due south.
The Region of Swamps.— Ihit wide valley wnich the Nile c
Gondokoro sk>pes so gradually towards the north that the river faHi
only some 182 ft. in a stretch of 475 m. Through this valley thf
river winds in an extremely tortuous course. Its chanad has b9
banks, and the overflow has caused extensive swao^M whkh are
covered by a mass of papyrus and tall reeds, and are traversed bf
numerous shallow lagoons or " mayyas." The shape of these la^xscf
b coiistantly altering, as also b that of the channels connectiiq; thra
with the river. About 8 m. below Bor, many of the eastern "apau*
unite and form a straun of oonaiderable bicadth, with a etro-it
NILE
695
cmTent. This stream, which is known to the Dinlcas as the Atem,
follows a course generally parallel to the Jd>el, being bounded east-
ward by forest land. Opposite Kanisa (6*^46' N.}i on the main river,
the Atem divides into two channels, marshy land extending at this
point a great distance to the east. The western branch, or Awai,
rejoins Uie Jebcl near Shamb6 7' 6' N. The eastern branch or
Myding continues through the manhes, eventually joining the Bahr-
d-Zera? (see below) in lU lower course.
Except for the Atem divergence the Nile, des|nte the swamps
through which it passes, maintains a fairly definite course, with a
considerable depth of water as far as ShamM> where, to the west,
is a large lagoon. Five miles bwo* down the river splits into two
great channels. That to the left, the main stream, continues to be
known as Bahr-el-Jebel, but is sometimes called by its Dinka name
Kir. The right branch, or Bahr-el-Zeraf (Giraffe river), has a more
easterly direction, and does not rejoin the main river until 50 m.
below Its confluence with the Bahr-el-Ghaaal (9.9.^. From the point
of biifurcation the Bahr-el-Jcbei flows for 230 m. m a general north-
westerly direction until it is joined by the Bahr-el-Ghaxal coming
from the south-west. The whole region is a vast expanse of low land
crossed by secondary channels, and flooded for many miles in the
rainy season. At the junction of the Bahr-el-Ghazal and the Bahr-
d-jebel in 9* 29' N. the permanentlv submerged area is usually
named Lake No. but the Arabs call it Uogkren-el-Bokur (meeting of
the rivers). Lake No in the rains covers about 50 sq. m. In the
Bahr-«l-Jebel occur the great accumulations of "sudd" (g.vOt
masses of floating vegetation which obstruct and, if not removed,
prevent navigation. The aspect of the river throughout the sudd
region is monotonous and depressing. On all sides stretch reaches
of the reed known as um suf or mother of wool {Vossui ^ocera)^
ambach. Bus and papyrus. These grasses rise 1 5 to 20 ft. above the
water, so as often to close the view like a thick hedge. The level
of the flat expanse is broken only at intervals by mounds of earth,
erected by the white ants and covered with a clump of brushwood or
trees: the moisture in the air is excessive; mosquitoes and other
swamp flies swarm in myriads. And yet touches of beauty arc not
wanting. Water-lilies {Nymphaea sUUata and Nymphaea Lotus)—
white, Dlue and crimson — often adorn the surface of the stream.
Occasionally the rare and odd-looking whale-headed stork or BaUu'
niups rex is met with among the reeds, and at night the scene is lit
up by innumerable fire-flies.
Tlu While .' I r 1 1 iKe conduoncc with tbe Bahr-el-Ghaxal
at Lake No, t1. 1. whicli h^r? laka the name of Bahr-el-
Abiad, or Whjn: n^.r, aUipi-i the ea^ierly eour« of the .tributary
stream. Fortv milti l.^hiw ihe point where the Bahr-el-Zeraf
irunites with I he nuin h'nun h, the N ile receivea its first great eastern
affluent — the Suljat (^.p.), whose head -4t ream* rise in the mounuins
of south-west Abyisinia and the re^iaa north of Lake Rudolf.
Just above thi "S^ibAt iunccion the Nile reauines hi northern course.
It passes through a ercat alluviaJ pUin, sLretchlng from the spurs of
the Abyssiniar hijihland?* in the easi t to the hilly districts of Kordofan
in the west, and co^tmwI with high grait and scattered bush. The
swamps still bound it on cither b^nk, but the river again flows
in a well-marl:iril channel »itb dtftm^ banks. About 56 m. below
the $obat moi'Ji. in ^^ 55' N„ lies (on the left Ij.ink) Fashoda (re-
named in 1904 K«:*dok), an t^gyptian town fnundtMl in 1867 on the site
of Denab, the otd *' capital '^ of the ShilLuks, and famous for the
crisis between Knfjbnd and France in t&qS through its occupation
by the French (-fficcr Marchand. For ihe next 170 m. the scenery is
very monoton< ms Th^ river flows in a wide channel between broad
swamps borderiMi by a belt of forest on either bank. At Abu Zcid
(about 13* 5' N ) for a distance of nearly 4 m. the river is extremely
broad and shallow, being fordable at to* water. Fifteen miles lower
down, at G02 Abti Go ma —which h the northern limit of the sudd
vegetation — the r[\vr h -1 v-'H ="■ m- -i-^r -i^by ^bi^ Island.
wooded, narrc' A L[ii1 .- id uved, for some
years before !&!>>. M^i.vr.».uixl <VJi.%icU. i.;c Ala^idi.
. ^ «. - »r.f- iri — u — j-^ — J * .., „,£!„ below the Sobat
eNile
rBlue
. . lof
the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, whilst on the western bank of the" White
Nile is Omdurman. the former Mahdist capital. The Blue Nile, or
Abai as it is called in Abyssinia, rises in the Gojam highlands in
1 1 • N. and 37* E», and flowing northwards 70 m. enters Lake Tsana
(g.v.) near its south-west corner, to issue again at the south-east end.
The Abai and its tributaries drain a s^t part of the Abyssinian
plateau. The complicated river system u best understood by a study
of the map.-f. The Abai itself on leaving Lake Tsana makes a ^reat
semicircular sweep S.E. to N.W.. from the highlands of Ethiopia to
the plains of Sennar. In this section of its course its swirling waters
rush over a lorig series of cataracts and rapids, descending from a
height of $770 ft. at the outlet to about 1400 ft. at Fazokl orFamaka
(11^ IT* N., 35* lo* E.). where it crosses the Abyssinian frontier,
and flows through the plains of Sennar to its confluence with the
White Nihi at Kjiartum» 1300 ft. above sea-level. Of the tributaries
» At Khartum the water of the one river is of a greenish-grey
colour, that of the other u clear and blue, except when in flood,
when it gains a chocolate brown from its itlluvial burden.
of the Abai the fnajority toin it on its left bank. The Bashilo, Jam ma
and Muger,. which reach (he Abai in the order named. dr<im the
country east of the main stream between the ba»ins of the Taka2ze
and tlue Hawash. The Guder, with a south to north course, rises
in the mountains which form the watershed between the Nile and
the Lake Rudolf basin. Next comes the Didessa. a large stream
rising near the head-waters of the Baro (the main upper branch of
the Sobat) and flowing N.W. to the Abai. the cunifluence being
in about 10* N., 35* 40' E. ' It has an early riiie and a long flood
period, being by far the most important tributary of the Blue Nile.
The Dabus or Yabus rises about 9* N., 34* y>' E.. and flowing north
joins the Abai near the spot wbere that nver breaks through the
Abyssinian hills. . All these affluents are perennial, as is the Bolassa
or Vesien, a right-hand tributary which reaches the Abai below the
Yabus. Four miles below Famaka the river is joined on its left bank
by the aurif#rou» Tumat, an liiiermlttent sireani, fti Sennar it
receives on its right ttank two eon&iderable ttibtjtarit« from the
Abyssinian height a, the Dinder, a very tc^n^ btU not perennial
stTiim. and the K^ihad, waterlei^ in the dry fleaj^nt copious and
ri( ]ily ch^rf^ed whk sediment during the rain> ttom June to Sep-
tciijl>er At thi» period the diurharge of the Blue NiJc ri^cs (rom
less [han jod to over 10,000 cub. metres per j^trnnd, thus (treaily
exceeding: th^t of the White Nile itself, whii^h h 01^ Fy about iOD cub.
metreir during the nood:, above the tonfltjence^ The bngth of the
Blue Nile is about 850 m. The cDuntry, til Geiira. en€lc»«J in the
triangle ft^rmed by the junction of the White and Blue Niles forms
the ma»t fertile portion of the Sudan. U aniy tequires irrigation to
render it one of the fine&t grain -jprudLicing areas in the nvorld.
Tht ,4/Aflfa.^-Two hundred miles below Khaauni^^t Ed^Damef
—I he Nile is joined by the last of its. tribuiary &i reams — the Atbara
or Bahf-eKA&wad [Black river}. The Atbara, iuifne Soo m. long^
riw* in the ubteland north of Late Ttana^ beine formed by the
junc^tian of the An^rrb, BaUziin, Aradcb, Goan^ ana 01 her mountaia
strr^ma. Making it» vay towards the Nubian plains, the river flo*i
in .1 riunh-weaterly direction, joining, in 14' 10 N., 36* E., the Babr
Sei IT ur Takafjc (»e Aiivs^rMA], a river coming fmm the east And
h&vKig a volume o^f waier as large as, if not brger than, ihc Atbara*
^he united stream preserves, huweve^^ the name of Atbara^ and at
U% confluence «Hth the Nile has a breadth in flood time of o'k'er
600 yd&. The Atbara and it>$ trihutaries, like man^ ot those which
ted «he Blue Nile, rapidly dwiiKlle after the rain* into the fmalleet
liniiis. In ill lower course the Atbara runs cnmpEetely dry, but
hi^^Ev'T up waler may be found in deep pools, hoUctwrd out of the
san<i tied of the stream by the river when in Hood- Th«p pools are
fuU ijf fish, turtles, crocodiles and hippopoiami, whiih remain im-
i^MfiCii until the return of tbe llood. The country comprised
_ twcen the Nile proper, the Aibara and the Blue Nile is idcntihed
with the island of MeroS of ancient history.
The Cataracts. — Downstream of the Atbara junction the Nile
continues its course to the Mediterranean, traversing a distance of
ovrr 1600 m. without receiving a single tributary on either bank.
B< l<iw Kh3:rrum the river makes a great S-shaped bend, and leaving
behiind the tuitavable Land pierces the Nubian desert. In its progress
the voEun^F of waler suffers continual diminution from evaporation,
owing to the extreme dryness of the air. The valley of the river is
here very narraw, and the desert land in places comes right to the
wau-f's cd^c. Elsewhere high and barren cliffs shut in the valley.
Bciwoen Khartum and Wadfi Haifa (the northern end of the great
brctd), a dial a nee ol over goo m.. occurs a series of cataracts, known
as the indn jrd^ 4tli, ^th and 6th (the 1st cataract is lower down the
river at A'c^ii^n), Thit first met with on descending the river from
KH^nutn is the 6th (tir Shabluka} cataract. The river here (53 m.
bel'iiv Khartum ] is narrow and picturesque. The rapid is 11 m. in
leii>:thH in which di&tance the Nile falls some 20 ft.* After 188 m.
of ^miKith u.';)r(^r Fh.- ^th cataract is reached. It begins 38 m. below
B( rhnr r.i iM right bank at the head of a caravan route to
the l^■ 'J Nm h three principal rapids extends for too m. —
the drop m ! hi _!. ... ce being rather more than 200 ft. At the foot
of this cacarat-t iii iln; town of Abu Hamed, at the eastern end of
the middle of the S L>end. The 4th cataract begins 60 m. down
stream from Abu Hn^ined. It is 69 m. lon^ and has a drop of 160 ft.
Between ihe ath an^t 3rd cataracts there is a stretch of 194 m. on a
very gTjnile slope ( , - kvv)' This reach constitutes the province of
DongnLi, jnd here flu cultivable land on the western side of the river
is at greater extern ik^n usual in the desert zone. The 3rd cataract,
45 m. long, has a drop of some 36 ft. After another smooth reach
extending 73 m. the 2nd cataract, which ends just above Wadi
Haifa, the northern frontier town of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, is
inched. This cataract b 12a m. long and has a fall of 216 ft.
Between the 2nd cataract and Assuan are 214 m. of smooth water
with a scarcely perceptible slope, -nkw The average breadth of
the river here is 1640 ft. It runs through a sandstone bed. and the
current is guided in many places by spurs of masoiuy built by the
ancient Egyptians.
Lower Rtver and Delta. — ^For some distance above Assuan the river
is studded with islands, including those of Philae and Elephantine.
The rapids south of the town used to form the ist cataract, where,
* The fall in the river-bed. as given in these pages, is an approxi«
mation derived from barometric readings only.
c;
696
NILE
in a length of ^ m., the river fell 16} ft. Since the completion of the
E^at dam ana locks at the head of these rapids (Dec 190a) they
ve to a certain extent disappeared, and a navigable channel has
been formed. The dam, pierced by 180 sluices, stretches across the
river— a wall aooo yds. bng and 26 ft. wide at the top. Below the
water rudies between rocks in many channeb (thu being the relics
of the cataract). Upstream from the dam a lake some 100 m. in
lensth has been formed. The Assuan Dam was opened on the loth
almost levd depresnon in a limestone plateau — the area of ferulity
ends where the land ceases to be irrigated by the river. At Edfa,
68 m. below Assuan. a barrage, known as the Esna barrage, regulates
the fbw of the water, and at Assiut, 274 m. bebw Edfu, is another
barrage fulfilling the aame purpose. Curo, the capital of Egypt, is
built on the eastern bank of the Nile za m. north of the apex <m the
delta.
p At the beginning of the delta the Nile separates into two channels,
the Rosetta and the Damietta, which join the Mediterranean at its
south-east angle. At the bifurcation is a double barrage, by means
of which the water can be dammed to the height required for forcing
the river into toe canals which irrigate the delta. Of the two
branches the Damietta is the more easteriy. Both are about the
same length — 146 m.* Behind the coast<line, which is low and sandy,
are a number of salt marshes or lagoons. Whilst the Damietta
branch is gradually silting up, the Kosetta branch is scouring out
a wider channel. In time ci full flood the depth of the water in
cither branch b about 33 ft.
Hydrography. — ^The fertility and prosperity of Egypt and the
northern part of the Sudan being entirely dependent on the irrigation
of the land by the waters of the Nile, the variation in the supply at
different seasons of the year is of vital importance. (In Egypt the
height of the flood has been recorded annually, as the chief event of
the year, since at least a6oo b.c.) Above the Sobat confluence the
Nile traverses a region ofheavy rainfall and the water-supplv is super-
abundant. It is m>m Victoria, Albert and Albert Edward Nyansas
and their fecdera, and in a lesser degree from the Bahr-el'Ghazal, that
this river obt^ns its constant supply of water throughout the year.
The great lakes and the region ot swamps, retaining a large propor-
tion of the water they receive, act as natural reservoirs and prevent
the lower Nile from ever running dry in summer. The Abydsinian
affluents are the chief cause of the Nile flood. In the equatorial
regions rainfall varies from 30 to 80 in. ddring the year with a mean
of about 50. It is heaviest in the months of January, February,
March and April, and again in October and November. The most
rainy portions of the lake plateau (where alone occurs a rainfall of
60 in. and over) lie along the eastern edge of the Albertine Rift
valley, and west and north of Victoria Nyanza. These rains feed
Albert Edward and Albert Nyanzas, and, through the Kagera,
supply a great part of the water of Victoria Nyanza. The water in
the Victoria N)^nza begins to rise in January, the rise becomes
marked in June, is at its height in July, the level of^the water reaching
its lowest at the end of November. Tne Bahr-el<Jebel m at its lowest
in March and April and at its highest in September. The seasonal
supply of the Bahr-cl-Ghazal does not varyvery greatly^ the maxi-
mum levels occurrinff in November and December. The Ghazal
has but a slight discharge. The Sobat, from December to March,
is at its lowest, and is in flood from June to October, during which
period the water (milky coloured) which it pours into the Nile equals
in volume that of the main stream. It is the colour of the Sobat
water which gives its name to the White Nile. The Blue Nile, at
its confluence at Khartum, begins to rise in June and is in flood from
July to October; the Atbara is also in flood during ^he same months.
The great diflcrence in the supply of water from the equatorial
regions and from Abyssinia arises from the fact that the first-named
district is one of heavy rain practically all the year round; whereas
in Abyssinia the season of heavy rain is usually limited to the
months of June to September. Reduced to its simplest expression,
the Nile system may be said to consist of a great steady flowing river
fed by the rains of the tropics, controlled by the existence of a vast
head reservoir and several areas of repose, and annually flooded by
the accession of a great body of water with which its eastern tribu-
taries are flushed.
At Khartum the Nile is lowest in April and May and highest in
August and September. Its minimum depth is 18 ft. and its maxi-
mum depth 35 ft. At Assuan the Nile is at its lowest at the end of
May, then rises slowly until the middle of July, and rapidly through-
out August, reaching its maximum at the b^inning of September;
it then falls slowly Uirough October and November. At Cairo the
■ In ancient times the delta was watered by seven branches; five
of these branches are now canals not always navi^ble. The andent
branches were, beginning at ' the west, the Candpic, Bolbitine,
Scbennytic, Phatnittc, Mcndesian, Tanitic and Pelusiac, of which the
modem Rosetta and Damietta branches represent the Bolbitine
and Phatnitic
lowest level b reached about the middle of June, after which the riie
b dow in July and fairiy rapid in August, reaching the maximum at
the beginning of October. By usine the water stored by the Asuan
dam in the months foUowins[ high Nile, the river k>wer down hss beea.
since 1903, replenished at tunes of bw water to meet the needs of
cultivators (see Irrigation: Egypt). At Assuan the averase rise
of the Nik b 36 ft., at Cairo it b 33 ft. Ariseof H ft.onlyatAssaan
b a " bad Nile "; on the other hand, a rise of 30 ft. causes a danger
<^ flood, or rather it used to do so previous to the building of the
dam. When the Nile bebw the swamps b at its lowest, the «ter
acc^uires a green colour and a putrid taste and smell. This is caused
by innumerable microscopic green algae, which are broi^ht into the
white Nile from the marshes of tne Bahr-el-Jebel and Babr-d-
Ghazal, and descend the river when it b clear <^ aU suspended matter.
Thb " green wato- " b seep at Cairo about the cmd of June or
beginning of July, and passes 4way with the first rbe in the later
month, the algae being unable to live in turbid water. By Ai^ust
the river in lower Egypt b full of dark red-brown sediment brousfat
down by the Blue Nile and the Atbara from the plateaus of Abys-
sinia. It b estimated to be then carrying 8 cub. yds. per seoood:
by September thb has been reduced to half the amount, and ibes
dimimshes rapidly. It has been cakubted* that the time taken by
the water to travel from Khartum to the delta barrage varies from
14 days in September to ^ in May. On the tsland of Elediantioe
at Assuan b the famous Kibmcter, dating from andent Egv-pttas
times, altered and extended in Roman times and repaired in 1870 bv
the Khedive IsmaiL It b a well built of hewn stones, marked vith
scales to record the level of the water, which rises and faUs vitK that
of the river. The remains of other ancient Nibme t er s exist at Phibe,
Edfu and Esna, tc»ether with inscriptbns recording aboat forty
high Niles in the XX Vth Dynasty, dbcovered on a quay wall of the
tcmpk <^ Kamak. The data furnished by these give about 4! ia.
per century as the rate at which the Nile is silting up its bed north
of the zst cataract. The level of high Nile at Uie Semna rapids,
between the 3nd and 3rd cataracts, b 34ft. bwer than that indicated
by the marks sculptured c. 3^00 B.C. Thb fall b attributed to the
erosive action of the water as it passes over the hard gneiss which at
Semna forms a barrier across Uw stream. The vertical extent of
such erosion b equal to about two millimetres a year.
It is noteworthy that from the mouth of the Sobat to the Mediter-
ranean the current of the Nile is generally deepest and stroi^est
on its right (eastern) bank; the Nile in thb respect fesemUiog otbcr
grcat rivers of the northern hemisphere. The pressure of the water
on the right bank b attributed to the prevailins N.W. winds.'
There are now gauges for registering the rise 01 the water at Cains
Assuan, Berber and Khartum on the main river; at Wad Mcdani.
Sennar and Roseires on the Blue Nile; El Duem and Taufikia or
the White Nile; Nasser on the Sobat; Condokoro on the Bahr-d-
Jebcl; and Ugowe, Jinja and Entebbe on Victoria Nyanxa.
Navigation. — ^At high Nile there b uninterrupted water-
communication from the sea to Fort Berkeley in 4" 40^ N.^a
dbtance of 3900 m. Owing to the cataracts, navigatkm between
Assuan and Khartum b impossible during bw Nil^ and from the
ist of March to the xst of Augtist the upper courses of the
Damietta and Rosetta branches 91c dosed to navigarion; the
water bdng utilized for summer irrigation in the delta. As ixt
as Mansura (60 m.) on the Damietta branch and Kafr-d^y^t
(70 m.) on the Rosetta branch, and between Khartum and Fort
Berkeley (1090 m.) the river b navigable all the year round,
though between the Sobat confluence and Bor, navigatbn i&
dependent on the channel being kept dear of sudd. Above Fort
Berkdey navigation is interrupted by the rapids and cataracts
which extend to Dufile, but from the last-named town to Fajao
at the foot of the Murchison Falb(a distance of 150 m.) the river
b navigable throughout the year. There b a further navigabfe
stretch between Fowdra (just above the Karunut rapids) and
the southern end of Lake Kioga. The Blue Nile b navigabW
for steamers during flood Ume from its confluence at Kbartuia
to Roseires at the foot of the Abyssinian hiUs, a dbtance of
426 m. At low water small boats only can go up stream. The
Atbara b never nairigable, the current during flood time being
too swift for boats. Induding the Sobat and the Bahr-el-Ch3xai
the navigable waters of the Nile and its aflluents exceed 4000 m-
Owing to the cataracts and the partial dosing of the Damktta
and Rosetta branched for irrigation purposes, the Nile bdo*
Khartum b subsidiary, as a means of oommunicatioB, t^
the railways and highroads.* Above Khartum the river is
■ By Sir Hanbury Brown, inspector-general of brigatioii, Uf*^
Egyptian Imgalion (p. 39). by Sir W. Willcocks (London, i^^
Between Assuan (Shellil) and Wadi Haifa the river b. howc^
the main highway, there being no railway between the places t
^&^
NILE
697
the chief channel o£ trade and conunerce. Steamen first
ascended the Nile above the cataracts (to Korosko) in 1820.
It was not till 1846 that a steamboat was placed on the White
Nile. (W.E.G.; F.R.C.)
Stcry of Discovery.— Few problems in geographical research
exercised for so long a period so potent an influence over the
imaginationsof man as that of the origin of theNile. Theancient
Egyptians, as is apparent from the records on their monuments,
were acquainted with the main stream as far south as the junction
of the White and Blue Niles. They appear also to have known
the Blue Nile up to iu source and the White Nile as far south
as the Bahr-el-Ghazal confluence. Beyond that point the sudd
probably baned progress. The knowledge acquired by the
Egyptians passed to the Persians and Greeks. Herodotus (about
457 B.C.) ascended the Nile as far as the First Cataract. He was
led to believe that the source of the river was far to the west-~
in the region of Lake Chad. Eratosthenes, superintendent of the
Alexandrian library, in a map made about 350 B.C., showed,
with fair accuracy, the course of the riverasfar as where Khartum
now stands. He ^owed also the Atbara and Blue Nile. Eratos-
thenes was the first writer to hint at equatoria' hikes as the
sources of the river. Juba II., king of Mauretania (who died
about AJ). 20), in his LibycOj quoted by PUny, makes the Nile
rise in western Mauretania, not. far from the ocean, in a lake
presenting characteristic Nile fauna, then pass underground for
several days' journey to a similar hike in Mauretania Caesariensis,
again continue underground for twenty days' journey to the
source called Nigris on the borders of Africa and Ethiopia, and
thence flow through Ethiopia as the Astapus. This remarkable
story received -considerable credence, and may be connected
with the theory which made the Niger a branch of the Nile (see
twlow). Strabo (a contemporary of Juba), who ascended the
river as far as Syene, states that very early investigators had
connected the inundation of the Lower Nile with summer rains
on the far southern mountains, and that their theory had been
confirmed by the observations of travellers under the Ptolemies.
About the same time Dalion, a Greek, is believed to have ascended
the White Nfle. Nero despatched two centurions on an ex-
pedition for the express purpose of exploring the Nile, and Seneca
states that they reached a marshy impassable region, which may
be easily identified with the country of the White Nile above the
mouth of the Sobat. To what they referred when they reported
a great mass of water falling from between two rocks is not so
readily determined. During this period more accurate knowledge
concerning the Nile sources was obtained from the reports of
Greek traders who visited the settlements on what is now called
the Zanzibar coast. A merchant named Diogenes returning
(about AJ>. 50) from the east coast of Africa told a Syrian
geographer, Marinus of Tyre, that journeying inland for twenty-
five days he reached the neighbourhood of two great hikes and
a range of snow mountains whence the Nile drew its sources.
Marinus published this report in his geographical works. This
book is lost, but the information is incorporated in the writings
of Ptolemy, who in his book and map sums up all that was
known or surmised of the Nile in the middle of. the 2nd century
of the Christian era. Ptolemy writes that two streams issuing
from two bkes» (one in 6* and the other in 7" S.) unite in 3' N.
to make the Nile, which, in 13° N., receives the Astapus, a river
flowing from Lake Coloe (on the equator). His two southern
lakes, he conceived, were fed by the melting of snows on a
range of ipountains running east and west for upwards of 500 m.
— ^the Mountains of the Moon, rd ryjs ocXV^t ipos, Lunae
Monies. It will be seen that, save for placing the sources too
far to the south, Ptolemy's statements were a near approximation
to the facts. The two southern hikes may be identified with
Victoria and Albert Nyanzas, and Lake Coloe with Lake Tsana.
The snow-capped range of Ruwcnzori occupiesr— at least in part —
the position assigned to the Mountains of the Moon, with which
chain Kilimanjaro and Kenya may also be plausibly identified.
On a4 the subsequent history of the geography of the Nile
> The two bkes afterwards received the names Lake of Crocodiles
and Lake of CaUiacts.
Ptolemy's theory had an enormous influence. Medieval maps
and descriptions, both European and Arabian, reproduce the
Mountains of the Moon and the equatorial lakes with a variety of
probable or impossible modifications. Even Speke (see below)
congraCuUted hunself on identifying the old Ptolemian range
with the high lands to the north of Tanganyika, and connected
the name with that of Unyamweai, the " country of the moon."
In the fourteen centuries after Ptolemy yulually nothing was
added to the knowledge of the geography of the Upper Nile.
Arab writers of the X2tb and 13th centuries make mention of the
great hikes, And their reports served to revive the interest of
Europe in the problem of the Nile. Idrisi made both the Nile
and the Niger issue from a great lake, the Niger flowing west,
the Nile north. Hence arose much confusion, th; Senegal
estuary being regarded by its discoverers (1445) as the mouth of
a western branch of the Nile. Even until the early years of the
19th century the belief persisted in a connexion between the Nile
and the Niger (see further Nigek). Portuguese expk>rers and
missionaries, who in the xsth and i6th centuries visited the east
coast of Africa and Abyssinia, gained some informatidn about
the equatorial lake region and the Nile,* the extent of the know-
ledge thus acquired being shown in the map of Africa of Filippo
Pigafetu, Italian traveller and historian (x 533-1603) published
in X580. It was not, however, till the X7th centuiy that the
sources of the Blue Nile were visited by Europeans. In 1615
Pedro Paez, a Portuguese priest, was shown them by the
Abyssinians. Ten years later another Portuguese priest,
Jeronimo Lobo, also visited the sources and left a vivid descrip-
tion of the rise of the river and its passage through Lake Tsana.
An English version of the accounts of Paez and Lobo— written by
Sir Peter Wyche— was published in X669 by order of the Royal
Society, of which Sir Peter was ah original FcUow. Between
1625 (the date of Lobo's visit) and 1770, some attempts were
made by French and other travellers to explore the Blue Nile, but
they ended in failure. In the last-named year James Bruce {q.v.)
reached Abyssinia, and in November 1773 he arrived in Egypt,
having visited the source of the Blue Nile and followed it, in
the main, to its confluence with the White Nile. On returning
to Europe Bruce was mortified to find that whilst he was still in
Egypt the French geographer D'Anville had (1772) issued a new
edition of his map of Africa in which by a careful study of the
writings of Paez and Lobo he had antidpated Brace's discoveries,
D'Anville's map is singuUirly accurate, if we remember the
scanty information at his disposal. To Brace, nevertheless,
belongs the honour of being the first white man to trace the
Blue Nile to its confluence with the White Nile. He himself,
considering that the Blue Nile was the main branch of the river,
claimed to be the discoverer of the long-sought caput NHL*
From the time of Brace, interest in the Nile problem grew
rapidly. The Englishman W. G. Browne ig.v.) when in Darfur
(i 794-1796) heard that the Abiad rose far south in the MounUins
of the Moon, but he makes no mention of the great lakes, and in
Major RenncU's map of 1802 there is no hint of equatorial lakes
at the Abiad sources. During the French occupation of Egypt
the river from the sea to Assuan was accurately surveyed, the
results being embodied in Jacotin's Atlas de P^gyple (1807).
In X813-1814 J. L. Burckhardt, the Orientalist, went up the
Nile to Korosko, travelled thence across the desert to Berber
and Shendi, and crossing the Atbara made his way to the Red
Sea. It was, however, due to the initiative of Mehemet Ali,
Pasha of Egypt, that the While Nile was explored. In 1820-
22 a military expedition under Ismail Pasha, a son of Mehemet
Ali, which was joined by the French scientist Fr£d6ric CaiUiaud
(who had visited MeroC in 1819) ascended the river to the
* Francisco Alvarez, a priest, who was in Abyssinia 1520-1526.
afterwards wrote (about 1550) an account of Abyssinia in which he
refers to the Atbara as the main Nile.
' Bruce, however, acknowledged in his Travds that the Abiad
(White Nile) at its confluence with the Blue Nile was the larger river.
The Abiad, he writes, " preserves its stream always undiminished,
because rising in latitudes where there are continual rains, it
therefore suffers not the decrease the Nile does by the six months' dry
weather."
698
NILE
confluence of the White and Blue NQes, founded the dty of
Khartum, and ascended the Blue Nile to Fazokl. In xSa; Adolphe
Linant, a Belgian in the service of the British African Attociation,
ascended the White Nile 132 m. above Khartum, being th^ first
white man to do so since the ist century aj>. Then followed
three Egyptian expeditions sent in X839-41 and 1843 by
Mchemet All up the White Nile. The first expedition reached,
on the aSth of January 1840, a point 6* 30' N., the second and
third pressed further south, reaching 4° 4a' N. — or the foot of the
rapids above Gondokoro. A Turkish officer, Selim Bimbashi,
comnumded the expeditions, and among the members were the
Frenchmen Thibaut (a convert to Islam and for neariy forty
years French consular agent at Khartum), D'Amaud and
Sabatier, and a German, Ferdinand Weme. The last-named
wrote a scientific account of the second expedition and drew
a map of the Nile between Khartum and Gondokoro. An
Austrian Roman Catholic mission was established in the Sudan,
and in 1850 one of its members, Dr Ignatz Knoblecher, sent to
Europe reports, gleaned from the natives, of the existence of
great lakes to the south. About the same time two Protestant
missionaries, Ludwig Krapf and John Rebmann, stationed on the
Zanzibar coast, sent home reports of a vast inland sea in the
direction where the Nile sources were believed to be. This* sea
was supposed to extend from ©• 301' N. to 13* 30 • S. These
reports revived interest in Ptolemy's Geography. The exploration
of the Bahr-el-Ghazal by John Petherick, Miss Tinne and- her
companions, and others followed the opening up of the White Nile
(see Bahe-el-Ghazal). The general result of the work carried
on from the north was that by 1858 the Nile system was known
as far south as the rapids at Bedden.
On the 3rd of August 1858 the EngUsh explorer J. H. Speke
ig.v.) discovered the large nyattMa Q^ke), which he rightly con-
ceived to be the head reservoir of the Whitie Nile, and which in
honour of the queen of England he named Vlaoria Nyanza.
Capuin (Sir Richard) Burton and Speke had gone inland from
2^nzibar to investigate the reports concerning the vast lake
which Rebmann and Krapf had called the Sea of Unyamwezi.
These reports proved to be exaggerated accounts of three dis-
tinct lakes— Nyasa, Tanganyika and Victoria Nyanza. In
x86o Speke returned to Zanzibar accompanied by J. A. Grant
ig.v.)t bent on solving the problem of the Nile. In spite of great
difficulties he made his way to Uganda, on the north-west of
Victoria Nyanza, and (without exploring the lake) succeeded
in reaching its outlet. On the 38th of July 1862 Speke stood by
the Ripon Falls— the birthplace of the Nile. In bis journey he
had discovered the Kagera river, now known to be the most
remote headstream of the Nile, a fact of which Speke was un-
certain, though he recognized that it was the largest river entering
the nyanza. Speke and Grant paddled down the Nile a short
distance, but before reaching Lake Kioga they were stopped
by hostile natives and compelled to go westward to Unyoro.
There they heard of another great lake further west, but the king
of Unyoro refused them permission to visit it. In the end they
descended the Kafu river to its confluence with the Nile and then
down the main stream to the Karuma Rapids. Here Speke and
Grant left the river, and travelled overland east of the stream,
which they did not strike again until just above the Ausa con-
fluence. Thence they travelled down the Nile to Gondokoro,
reached on the xsth of February 1863.
This remarkable journey virtually solved the Nile problem so
far as the source of the main stream was concerned, but there re-
mained much to be done before the hydrography of the whole Nile
basin was made known. At Gondokoro Speke and Grant met
Mr (afterwards Sir Samuel) Baker' and his wife— a Hungarian
lady — who had journeyed thither to afford the explorers help.
To Baker Speke communicated the news he had heard con-
cerning the western lake, and this lake Baker determined to find.
On the 26th of March 1863 Baker and his wife left Gondokoro,
and despite much opposition, especially from slave-dealers,
followed, in the reverse direction, the route of Speke and Grant as
> Baker and his wife had in 1861-1862 explored the Atbara (to its
ucper waters) and other eastern tributaries of the Nile.
faras Unyoro, whence they journeyed west. Onthe i4tbof March
1864 they struck the lake (Albert Nyanza) on its S.E. aide.
They paddled up the lake to the point where a large river comiikg
from the east poured its waters into the lake. This stream,
which they rightly conjectured to be Speke*8 Nik, they followed
up to the Murchison Falls. Thence they went overland to the
Karuma Rapids, and so back to Gondokoro by their old tracks.
It fell to the lot of General C. G. Gordon (when that officer
administered the Egyptian Equatorial provinces) and his
assistants to fill up the gap left by Speke aiid Baker in the coarse
of the main stream. In 1874-75 two English engineer officers —
Lieut, (afterwards Colonel Sir Charles M.) Watson'and Lieut. H.
Chippendall— followed the river between Gondokoro and Albert
Nyanza; in 1876 an Italian,' Romolo Gessi Pasha, dream*
navigated that lake, proving Baker's estimate of its size to be
vastly exaggerated; Gordon in the same year traced the river
between Murchison Falls and Karuma R^ids, and an American,
Colonel C. ChiiIl£-Long followed (1874) the Nile from the Ripon
Falls to the Karuma Rapids, discovering in his journey Lake
Kioga (which he named Ibrahim). In this manner the identity
of the Victoria Nile with the river which issued from the Albert
Nyanza was definitely established.
In 1874 H. M. Stanley (^.t.) went to Africa with the object ci
completing the work left unfinished by David Livingstone,
who believed, erroneously, that the ultimate sources of the Kile
were far to the south (see Congo). Stanley, in 1875, drctun-
navigated Victoria Nyanza, setting at rest the doubt thrown
on Speke's statement that it was a huge sheet of water,* bat
proving Speke mistaken in believing the nyanza to have move
than one outlet. On the same journey Sunley encamped at the
foot of the Ruwenzori range, not knowing that they were the
" Mountains of the Moon," whose streams are the chid feedexs of
Albert Nyanza. (At the time of hb visit the snow-peaks and
gladers were hidden by heavy clouds.) In 1888, however.
Stanley saw the mountains in all thdr g^ory <A snow and ice,
discovered Albert Edward Nyanza, and traced the river (Seml&i>
which connects it with Albert Nyanza. The Semliki had been
discovered, and its lower course followed in 1884 by Emin Faaha.
Thus at length the riddle of the Nile was read, though much was
still to do in the matter of sdentific survey, and in the exploration
of the valley of the Sobat (f.v.). The Kagera had been partly ez>
plored by Sunley (1875), by whom it was called the Alexandra
Nilei and between 1891-98 its various branches were traced
by the German traveller^ Oscar Baumann, Richard Kandt
and Captain H. Ramsay, and by Liond D£cle, a Freadunaa.
A British officer, Colonel C. Dehn£-Radcliffe, made the first
accurate survey (1900-1901) of the Nile between Albert Nyanza
and Gondokoro. In 1903 an Anglo-German commission under
Colond Delm£-Radcliffe and Captain Schbbach made a detailed
survey of the Kagera from 30° E. to its mouth. The Kioga
system was surveyed in 1907-1908 by Lieut. C. E. Fishboame.
A trigonometrical survey of the upper river was begun by Colonel
M. G. Talbot, director of Sudan surveys, in 1900, and other
surveys were made by Captain H. G. Lyons, director-general of
the Egyptian survey department. A fish-survey of the waters of
the Nile was also undertaken.
The Removal of Sudd.— -As already stated, the sudd above the Sobat
confluence seems to have stopped the Roman ceniurions sent by the
emperor Nero to explore the Nile. When the river above the aofaat
was again reached by white men (1840) the stream was clear of sudd,
and so continued until 1863-1864. when both the Bahr-el-Jebel and
the Bahr-d-Zcraf became blocked by floating masses of vct^etation.
When Baker proceeded to Gondokoro in 1870 he thus dcscnbed the
increase that neglect had caused in the obstruction : " The immectae
number of floatmg islands that were constantly pasung down the
stream of the While Nile had no exit ; thus they were sucked under
the original obstruction by the force of the stream, which piamed
through some mjrsterious channel, until the subterranean passage
became choked ^th a wondrous accumulation of vegetable matter.
The entire river became a marsh, through which, by the great pressufr
of water, the stream oozed through innumerable small channels.
In fact, the White Nile had disappeared." Baker, who had to cot
through 50 m. of sudd in his passage to Gondokoro, urged to Khedive
* In the map issued in 1873 to illustrate Schwcinfurth^s book,
TU Heart of Africa^ Victoria Nyanaa is shown as five small lakes.
NILE, BATTLE OF THE
699
Ismail to reopen the Nile. This Work was efficiently done b/ Ismail
Ayub Pasha, and the White Nile was clear for large vessels when
Gordon reached Khartum in 1874. The river did not long remain
free, for in 1878 Emin Pasha was unable to ascend the Bahr-el-Iebel
from the touth on account of sudd. It was cleared in 1879-1880 by
ofiBciab in the Egyptian service, but had again accumulated in 1884.
In ^consequence of the Mahdist movement nothing could then be
done to dear the ri\'er, and the work was not taken in hand again
until 1899, when, bv direction of Sir William Garstin, the Egvptian
inspector>geneial 01 irrigation, an expedition under Major Malcom
Peake, R.A., was sent to cut through the sudd, which then extended
from the BaJir-el-Ghazal confluence almost to Gondokoro. During
1000 a channel was cut through the northern and heaviest portion
of the sudd. The work was one of much difficulty, some of the blocks
bcing^ X m. long and 20 ft. deep; the water beneath flowed with great
veloaty. To remove the obstruction the surface was first burnt;
then trenches were cut dividing the sudd into bk)cks 10 ft. square,
and each of these was hauled out with wire hawsers and chains
bv gunboats working from below. For a distance of 17a m. N. of
Soambe («.«. about midway between the Ghasal confluence and
Gondokoro) the true bed of the river could not, in many places, be
found, but Major Peake forced a passa^ to Gondokoro through a
spill channel or series of shallow lakes lymg west of the main stream.
In ISK>I Lieut. Drury, a British naval officer, removed many of the
remaining blocks of sudd, owning to navigation a further 1^7 m.
of the river. Beyond this pomt for a distance of 35 m. the Banr-eU
Jebel could not be traced, so coinpletcly was the channel choked by
sudd. In 1^3, however. Major G. E. Matthews discovered the true
bed of the river, which b)r 1904 was completely freed from obstruc-
tions, and freedom of navigation between Khartum and Gondokoro
was permanehtlv secured. The effect of the sudd-cutting operations
on tne supply of water available for irrigation purposes m the lower
river was slight. Nevertheless, Sir William Garstin re^rted that
the removal of the sudd " undoubtedly checked the fall m the river
levels which would otherwise have taken place."
PdUical RdtUions. — Explored in part oy Egyptian government
expeditwns; the upper Nile as far south as Albert Nyanxa became
subject, between 1840 and 1883, to Egypt. Possession of the greater
ert of the river above Wadi Haifa then fell to the followers of the
ahdL In 1896-08 an Anglo-Egyptian army reconquered the
country, and from Victoria Nyanza to the Mediterranean the main
river came under British or Egyptian administration. The west
bank of the Bahr-el- Jebel, as far north as 5* 30' N., was in 1894 taken
on lease from Great Britain by the Congo Free State during the
sovereignty of Leopold II., the territory leased being known as the
Lado ^clave (g.v.). The Kagcia, the main headstream, lies almost
wholly in German East Africa.
Authorities. — For the storv of exploration see the works of
Bruce, Speke, Grant, Baker and other travellers (whose books are
roentioneid in the biographical notices). Their achievements, and
those of andcnt and medieval explorers, are ably summarized in
Tkt Story cf Africa^ vols. ii. and iu., by Dr Robert Brown (London,
1893-1894), and The Nile Quest, by Sir Harry Johnston (London^
1903). See also T. Partsch, Des Aristetefs Buck: **Vber das
Sletien des Nil " (Ldpziff, 1909). For the Kasera region consult
Capia Nili, by Richard Kandt (Berlin. 1904). Latest additions to
«ographical knowled^ are recorded in the Geographical Journal
CLondon) and the Cairo Scientific Journal. For the hydrography,
ecology and climate see: The Physiography ef the. River Nile and its
Bofm, by Captain H. G. Lyons, director-general, survey department,
Egypt (]uairo, 1906), an authoritative woik, and numermi^ cither
publications of tat Siirvcy and Public Worki Dcpartmptitj.; " Ni ites
on the History of the Nile and its Valley." by W. F. HumF» in Geog.
Jnl.Ujia. 1906): Egyptian Irrigation Und ed., LoniJDiit 1^99) ^nd
the Nile Reservotr Dam at Assuan and After (Landan, i^otji, both
by Sir William Willcocks; the Annual Rrporii iti^ zn6 stUcr) of
the Egyptian Public Woria Departme^nt* by Sir William Car$i in and
others, and those on Egypt and the Su>kn by \^rd Crorticr and Sir
Eldon Gorrt (London; official publico tinrL^). Of ^pcrbt value h the
Blue Book Egypt No. 2, IQ04, whkh is a in^part bv Sir Wiflbm Garritin
on the basin 01 the upper Nile, dealing at Tengtii with the bke aiiia,
the Nile affluents and the main ri^'ef .:i? Fir ^uth a-; Khn.irt<:/m,
from the toponaphical as well as t' ' ' '>ir
W. Gantin and Captain Lyons rive fu_. ^x_,i._„._^...w^ .iw--.
The study of the zoology of uie Nile valley was the special object
of a Swedish scientific expedition in 1901, under the direction of
Prof. L. A. JSgerskifild. The Results were published at Upsala.
pt. tii. appearing in 1909. For the botanical and other as^ts of
the Nile valley, jee the works of Petherick, Heuriin, Schweinfurth.
Junker and Emin. An orographical map of the Nile basin was pub-
lished by the Survey Department, Cairo, in 1908. It is in six sheets
on a scale of i : 3,^00.000, with inset maps showing politkal divisions,
distributioa of rainfall and of vegetation. (F. R. C.)
MILi, BATTLE OF THB. This was fought between the British
axid French fleets on the ist of August 1798 in the roadstead of
Abonkir. The peace of Campo Fonnio, signed on the 17th of
October 1797, had left France without an opponent in arms on
the continent. War with Great Britain still continued, and for
A time the Directory appeared to be intent on its schemes for
an invasion of Ireland. Napoleon, fresh from his Italian vic-
tories, was appointed to command^ and he made a round of
inspection of Brest and the Channel ports. But all this show of
activity' was designed to. cover the preparations for an attack on
Great Britain " ^m behind "—in India and by way of Egypt.
The French naval forces at Toulon were got ready slowly in spite of
Napoleon's urging and with the defects ineviuble in the impover-
ished state of the arsenaL Thirty-six thousand soldiers, including
the best of the army of Italy, were to be embarked from the
southern French pdrts, from Italy and from Corsica. Information
that a great offensive movement was a^ut to be made by the
French reached both Earl St Vincent, the commander-in-chief of
the Mediterranean fleet, and the British government. Since Spain
ha<i entered into alliances with France in 1796, the British fleet
had not cruised in the Mediterranean but had been occupied
in blocking the Spanish ships at Cadiz. On the snd of May 1 798
St Vincent detached Nelson, then the junior rear-admiral, with
his flag into the Mediterranean, with three sail of the line and
frigates to make a reconnaissance at Toulon. On the 17 th of
May a small French corvette was captured near Cape Sici£,
and from the crew Nelson learnt that the French were still in the
harbour. He could gain no information as to the aim of the
armament. Napoleon enforced strict secrecy by not letting
even the most important* officers of the dockyard know whither
he was bound. On the and of May the British government had
written to St Vincent stating their wish that a part of bis fleet
shoidd be sent into the Mediterranean. The first lord of the
admiralty, Lord Spencer, told him that he might either go him-
self or send a subordinate. If the latter course was followed
Nelson was indicated as the officer to be chosen. Reinforcements
were sent to him to enable him to provide both for the cruise in the
Mediterranean and for the blockade of Cadiz. St Vincent had
already selected Nelson, and when the reinforcements arrived
he despatched Captain Troubridge with the inshore squadron
engaged in watching Cadis — " the choice fellows," as he described
them, of his fleet— to join Nelson at Toulon. The ships were
replaced by others similarly painted, so that the Spaniards might
see no difference and therefore be unable to send news to their
ally. Troubridge left on the 24th of May with as many vessels
as would bring Nelson's whole command up to thirteen 74's
and one 50-gun ship.
While these measures were being taken to intercept him.
Napoleon had put to sea on the X9th of May with fifteen sail of
the line, twelve frigates and some two hundred transports.
He sailed down the eastern side of Corsica and Sardinia to pick
up the detachments which were to join him from the first-named
island and from Civita Vecchia. On the evening of the 20th
a gale from the N.W. brought some confusion on his flock of
ships, but it also drove Nelson to the S.W. His flagship the
** Vanguard " (74) was dismasted and compelled to anchor at
San Pietro to refit. His frigates were separated from him by the
weather, and the captains made for Gibraltar, concluding that
the admiral would go there to refit. The departure of his frigates
left Nelson without vessels for scouting and had a materiid in-
fluence on the campaign. The " Vanguard " was made ready
by the 27 th of May, and resumed her station off Toulon. On
the 7 th of Jime Nelson was joined by Troubridge. Calms
hampered his pursuit of the French, whom he now knew to be
at sea, but on the 14th he was off Civita Vecchia; on the 17th
he was at Naples, where he heard that the French bad been seen
going south, and made arrangements to obtain water and stores
in the Neapolitan ports. On the 20th he was at Messina, where
he first got definite information of the movements of the enemy.
The French had appeared off Malta on the 9th and had occupied
the island, which was surrendered to them on the lath by the
t reachery of the French and Italian members of the order. Push-
ing on in the hope of finding them on the coast of the island.
Nelson was off ciape Passaro on the a 2nd, and there learnt that
the French had sailed from the island. His instructions directed
him to guard against possible French attacks on Sicily, or even
an attempt to pass the Straits of Gibraltar and sail for Ireland,
700
NILE, BATTLE OF THE
But Nelson knew that the Neapolitan government had no fean
for Sicily and that the westerly winds would prevent the French
from going to Gibraltar. On a view of all the circumstances,
and after consultation with those of his captains in whose judg-
ment he had the most confidence, he came to the just conclusion
that they were bound for Egypt. He therefore sailed for Alex-
andria on the most direct route eastward along the coast of Africa.
The information given him at Cape Passaro was that the French
had left Malta on the x6th; the actual date was the 19th.
Napoleon, whose frigates had sighted the British squadron,
and who knew that he might be pursued, did not take the direct
route, but steered to the north-east along the south shore of
Crete. Thus it happened that on the night of the 3 and of June
the fleets crossed one another's tracks. Want of look-out vessels
prevented Nelson from detecting the neighbourhood of his
enemy. The French with their convoy going more slowly on
the longer route to the north, and the active British sqimdron
on the direct route to the south, both headed for Egypt, with
barely 60 m. of sea between them, but neither aware of the
position of the other.
On the 28th of June Nelson reached Alexandria to find the
port occupied only by a few Turkish ships. It was from Nelson
that the Turkish authorities gained their first knowledge of the
impending invasion. Nelson, misled by the false date given him
at Cape Passaro, and being unable to reconnoitre the position
of the enemy, came to the erroneous conclusion that he waa
mistaken in supposing that the French were on the way to Egypt,
and that they must be bound for some other part of the eastern
Mediterranean. On the 29th of June he sailed from Alexandria,
standing to the north-east. His topsails were still in sight to
the north-east when the French appeared coming from the north-
west. They sighted the coast on the a9th to the west of Alex-
andria, and on the ist of July they occupied the anchorage and
town. While Nelson was ranging along the coast of Asia Minor,
seeking for news of them and finding none, on his way back to
Sicily, the French were landing their army. The British squadron
reached Syracuse on the 19th of July. Here Nelson was able to
obtain water and stores and clear indications that the French
had gone to Egypt. On the 24th he sailed, and on the xst of
August was again off Alexandria. The battle of the Pyramids
had been fought on the 31st, and Napoleon was master of Egypt.
The fear of the British admiral was that the French fleet had left
the coast in the interval of his absence. Brueys, the French
admiral, had had a choice of three courses open to Mm— to enter
the old harbour of Alexandria, to sail for Corfu then occupied
by the French or to take a strong anchorage on the coast and
prepare to repel attack. To enter the harbour was difficult for
large ships, and to leave it by its one narrow entrance in the
presence of even an inferior force would have been impossible.
Brueys therefore decided against that course. He did not sail
for Corfu, partly because some of the army stores were still
in his ships and partly because his squadron, ill fitted from
the first, was short of provisions, and no more could as yet be
obtained from the shore. He therefore stationeid himself with
thirteen of his ships of the line in the roadstead of Aboukir,
some X5 m. north-east of Alexandria, between the island of
Aboukir and the Rosetta mouth of the Nile. Here he was found
on the evening of the ist of August when the British fleet came
in sight. The French line of thirteen ships was anchored to the
east of Aboukir, now called Nelson's Island, in a curve stretching
to the south-east. It consisted of the " Guerrier " (74), the
" Conqufeant " (74), the " Spartiate " (74), the "Aquilon "(74),
" Souverain Peuple " (74), " Franklin " (80), " Orient " (iSo),
Admiral Bniey's flagship " Tonnant " (80), " Heureux " (74),
" Timol&m " (74). " GuOlaume Tell " (80), " Mercure " (74) and
" G£n6reux " (74), counting from the west end. The French
ships had begun the voyage short-handed and many men were
absent on shore filling the water-casks. They fought with a
half to two-thirds of their complements, which suffered from the
bad training and inexperience of the French republican navy.
A council of flag oflicers and captains was being held in the
" Orient " when the British squadron appeared.
When the enemy was sighted Nelson, at once gave the order
to attack. All the possibilities of battle had been fully diadissed
between him and his captains. Much controversy of a rather idle
character has taken place as to assigning the credit for the actual
course adopted; it was almost dictated to men so experienced
and capable as the British captains and their admiral by the
position of the enemy. If the French had been anchored so near
the shore that it was not possible to pass between them and it,
the British ships, coming from the west with a westerly wind,
would have passed outside of them, endeavouring to andsor
one on the bow and the next on the quarter of oicfa Frendi ship
in succession. Those in the van might have been crushed before
the ships in the rear and to leeward could come to their assistaiice.
As it was, the French were so placed that there was room for the
British ships to pass between them and the land. Therefore it
was possible for the first comers of the British squadron to pass
inside the French ships, to anchor there, and to allow the nat
comers to anchor outside so as to put the enemy's van between
two fires. This deposition was not without its drawbacks, for it
entailed the risk that the British ships might fire into one
another while directing their guns on an object bet w een then.
The risk was the greater because the battle began at sundown
and was continued in the dark. Yet it had the advantage that it
produced an intense concentration of fire. In the drcumstances
it had the peculiar advantage, of which, however, the Britisli
captains may not have been aware, that as the French were vcty
short-handed they were unable to work both broadsides to the
fuU. It is to this fact that we must attribute the comparativdy
small loss suffered by the British ships in an attack wfaicli, if
made against a well-appointed enemy, must have been eztremdy
costly. Whether by previous arrangement with Ncfanm, or
because he acted on the facts before him, the first British captain
to come into action, Captain Foley of the " Goliath ** (74),
passed inside the French, and anchored abreast of the second
of them, the " Conqu^rant." The "Zealous" (74), under
Captain Hood, anchored on the bow of Ihe first Frenchman,
the " Guerner." The " Audacious " (74), under Captain Davidge
Gould, anchored between the "Zealous" and "Gdiath."
The " Theseus " (74), under Captain Miller, anchored inside of
the third French ship, the " Spartiate." The " Orion " (74).
under Captain Saumares, anchored abreast of the fifth Fiench
vessel, the " Souverain Peuple." Then Nelson, in his flagship
the "Vanguard" (74), the sixth British ship to come into
action, anchored on the outside of the French line abreast of the
"Spartiate" already engaged with the "Theseus." The
" Minotaur " (74), under Captain Thomas Louis, and the
" Defence " (74), under Captain Peyton, anchored next to
the " Vanguard " and opposite the fourth French ship, the
"Aquilon," and the "Souverain Peuple," already engaged
with the " Orion." Thus eight British 74*3 which had only to
fight one broadside at a time were thrown on five undermanned
French 74's, which had to fight both and were speedily crashed.
One British vessel, the " CuUoden " (74), under Captain Troa-
bridge, grounded on the shoal at Aboukir, and could not get
into action. She served as a beacon to the vessck coming bchiDd
her. As the French van was silenced, and the fresh vessds came
up from the British rear, the attack was carried down the French
line. About 9.30 p.m. the " Orient " was seen to be in flames, and
at 10 P.M. she blew up. The explosion imposed a brief siispensoa
of battle, but the fire was soon renewed. By midnight the battk
was over. In the course of the next day the " Guillaamc TeB."
the " G€n4reux " and two frigates succeeded in escaping, but they
were the only survivors of the fleet attacked in the roadstead
of Aboukir.
The destruction of the French fleet, which isolated Napoleon ia
Egypt, had profound political influence in Europe. The total
loss of the British squadron was 218 killed and 678 wounded
The k>ss of the French was never exactly ascertained, hat it
was certainly very much greater. Admiral Brueys was killed
on the quarter-deck of his flagship, and Nelson recdved a wovad
in the head from a langridge shot which disabled him.
Sec Captain Mahan'sLt/e ofNtUou (and. cd., 1899). (D. H.)
NILES— NIMES
701
MIUBt a dty of Thimbnll county, Ohio, tJ.S.A., on the
BCahoning river, at the mouth of the Meander and Mosquito
creeks, about 55 m. E.S.E. of Cleveland. Pop. (1890) 4289;
(1900) 7468 (9104 fordgn-bom); (19x0) 8361. It is served by the
Baltimore k Ohio, the Erie and the Pennsylvania railways,
and by an intenirban electric system. Coal and iron-ore are
abundant in the vicinity, and the city's prindpal manufactures
are sheet stcd, sheet iron, tin, metal lath, boilers and railway cars.
The munidpality owns and operates its waterworks and electric-
Kghting phint. Niles was settled in 183a, laid out in 1834,
inooiporated as a village in 1865 and chartered as a dty in 1895.
It was named (1834) in honour of Hesekiah Niles (1777-1839),
the founder and editor of the weekly Niks's Rtgiskr (i8x 1-1849).
NILOAI, or Nylghau ("blue bull")» the largest antelope
{Bosdapkus Iragocamdtu) found in India, where it represents
the kudu and dand group of Africa. Only the buUs have
boms, and these are short and insignificanL The general
colour of the old bulls is bluish grey, but younger buUs and
cows are browner. The nilgai is about the size of a mule (see
Antelope).
NILOIRIS, THE, or Neelqh£SXIS9 (Blue Mountains), a
range of hills in southern India, which gives its name to a district
of the Madras Presidency. The Nilgiiis are really a plateau
rather than a range, rising abruptly from the plains on most
sides, with a general elevation of about 6500 ft. above the
sea.
The Dsnicr or the Nxloisxs is the smallest administrative
district in Btadras. It formerly consisted exdusivdy of a moun-
tain plateau lying at an average elevation of 6500 ft., with an area
of about 72s KI« m* In 1873 this was increased by the addition
of the Ochterlony valley in the south-east Wynaad, and sgain, in
1877, by other portions of the Wynaad, making a total area of 958
sq. m. The administrative headquarters is at Ootacamund,
which is also the summer capital of the government of Madras.
The summit of the Nilgiri hills is an undulating 'pbiteau, fre-
quently breaking into bfty ridges and steep rocky eminences.
The descent to the plains is sudden and abrupt, the average fall
from the crest to the general level bdow being about 6000 ft.,
save on the north, where the base of the mountains rests upon
the devated land of Wynaad and Mysore, standing between aooo
and 3000 ft. above sea-leveL The Oditerlony valley and Wynaad.
country consist of a series of broken valleys, once forest-dad
throughout, but now studded with tea and coffee-gardens.
The highest mountain peaks are— Dodabetta, 8760 ft.; Kudia-
kad, 8502; Bevoibetta, 8488; Makurti, 8402; Davarsolabetta,
8380; Kunda, 8353; Kundamoge, 7816; Ootacamund, 7361;
Tambrabetta, 7292; Hokabetta, 7267. There are six well-
known passes or ghats by which the district communicates
with the ndghbouring plains, three of which are practicable to
wheeled traffic The chid rivers are the Moyar, Paikara and
Calicut, none of which are navigable. The forests consist of fine
timber trees, such as sOl {Shorea robusla), kino {Pttrocarptu
Marsupium), jack (Artocarpus inUgrifolia), blackwood (Dalbergia
laiifolia) and teak. Eucalyptus and Australian wattle have bo^n
extensivdy planted in the higher grounds of the Wynaad. The
hills were first explored by British officers in 18x4, and in 182 1
the first English house was built on the plateau. The hill tribes
indude the Todas, the 'Badagas, the Kotas, the Kurumbas
and the Irulas (q.v.). The total population of the district in
xQoi was iix,437i showing an increase of iX'7% in the decade.
The commercially important products are coffee, tea and
dncbona. Coffee cultivation was introduced about X844. One
of its chid seats is the Ochterlony valley. The Madras govern-
ment commenced the experimental cultivation of cinchona
on the Nilgiris in i860, and several private dnchona gardens were
laid out, owing to the success of the government experiment.
The climate of the Nilgiri hiUs is almost unrivalled for equability
of temperature. The average b 58" F. The approach from the
plains is by the branch of the Madras railway from Podanur to
MettapoUiem, whence a metre-gauge line on the rack principle has
been constructed to Coonoor, with an extension to Ootacamund.
The chid educational institution is the Lawrence Asylum at
Ootacamund maintained by government. The military quarters
are at Wellington.
See NUiiris District GoMOteer (Madras, 1908).
NIL880N, CHRISHNB (1843- ), Swedish singer, was bom
at Wedersldff, near Wexitt, Sweden, on the 20th of August 1843.
Her father was a poor working man, and she used as a girl to
sing and perform on the violin at popular gatherings. In 1857
a wealthy man, M. Tomfrhjelm, percdving the unusual beauty
of her voice while she was performing at a fair in Ljungby,
provided the means for giving her a proper musical education,
and in x86o she was heard in theconcert haOs in Stockholm and
UpsaU, and then went to Paiis, where, after four years' study,
she made her d£but in the r61e of Violetta at the Th6fttre Lyrique
on the 27th of October X864. Between that date and 1872, when
she married M. Auguste Rouzaud, she was the leading prima
donna. Her first appearance in London was in X867. A year
Uter, on the 9th of March, she made her first appearance m the
Paris Opera House as Ophdie in Hamlet; and she visited the
United Sutes in x87a She sang in St Petersburg in X872;
in America in 1873-1874 and in X882; in Germany and
Austria between 1876 and 1877; and in the next few years in
Spain and Scandinavia; but after her marriage her appearances
in public were rare. M. Rouzaud died in x882, and five years
afterwards Madame Nilasoo married 0>unt A. de Casa Miranda,
and finally retired from the stage.
NIMAR, a ^strict of British India, in the Nerbudda division
of the Central' Provinces. The administrative headquarters are
at Khandwa; but the capital in Mahommedan times was
Burhanpur. Area, 4273 sq. m. Pop. (X90X) 329,6x5, showing
an increase of 14*3% in the decade. The district consists of two
portions of the Nerbudda and Tapti valleys, separated by a
section of the Satpura range, about 15 m. in breadth. On the
highest peak, about 850 ft. above the plain and x8oo above
sea-levd, stands the fortress of Asir^h, commanding a pass
which has for centuries been the chid highway between Upper
India and the Deccan. The district contains extensive forests,
but the only tract reserved by government is the Punasa forest,
which extends for about 120 m. along the south bank of the
Nerbudda, and contains young teak, besides s&f {Ttrminalia
tomentosa) and anjan {Hardwickia binata). The staple crops are
cotton and millet; ganja or Indian hemp is also allowed to be
grown under govenmient supervision. The Great Indian Penin-
sula railway runs through the district, and a branch of the
Rajputana line bom Indore joins it at Khandwa. There are
factories for ginning and pressing cotton at Khandwa, and
manufaaure of gold-embroidered doth at Burhanpur.
The name Nimar, derived from that of the andcnt province, is
also applied to a district in the state of Indore, lying W. of the
British district on both banks of the Nerbudda. Area, 387 x
sq. m.; pop. (1901) 257,1 la From 1823 onwards this tract,
then belonging to Sindhia, was under British management; in
1 86 X it was ceded in full sovereignty to the Britidi, but in 1867
it passed to Holkar as the result of an exchange of territory.
See Nimar District Caxetteer (Allahabad, 1908).
NtMES, a dty of southern France, capital of the department
of Gard, X74 m. S. by W. of Lyons on the Paris-Lyon railway,
between Avignon and Montpdlier. Pop. (1906) 70,708. Nfmes,
important alike for its industries and for its archaeological
treasures, lies at the foot of the Garrigucs, a range of stony and
barren hills which limit it on the north and west. The most
prominent of these is the Mont Cavalier, the summit of which is
crowned by the Tour Magne, a ruined Roman tower commanding
a fine view of the town and its surroundings. To the south and
east the town overlooks the monotonous plain traversed by the
Vistrc, and for the most part given over to the cultivation of the
vine. Nlmes covers a large area, owing to the fact that its
population u housed in low buildings, not in the lofty tenements
which are found in most of the industrial towns of France. The
central and oldest part is cndrcled by shady boulevards, which
occupy the site of the old fortifications. Here are to be found the
majority of the Roman remains for which Nfmes b remarkable.
The most celebrated is the amphitheatre, the best preserved
7oa
NIMES, COUNCILS OF
thottfl^ not the largest in France. It dates from the ist or and
centuiy AJ>./and was used as a fortress for some time during
succeeding centuries. Occupied' during the middle ages by a
special quarter, with even a church of its own, it was cleared
in x8o9, and since then has been well kept in repair. Itisbuiltof
large stones iitted together without mortar. In form it is ellip-
tical, measuring approximately 440 by 336 ft. externally; the
arena is aa? by za6| ft. The elevation (70 ft. in all) consisU of
a ground story of 60 arches, an upper story of 60 arches and an
attic with consoles pierced with holes for supporting the vdarium
or awning. The building, which was capable of holding nearly
a4,ooo persons, has 4 main gates, one at each of the rardinal
points; and 124 doorways gave exit from the 35 tiers of the
amphitheatre to the inner galleries. Originally designed for
gladiatorial shows, naval spectacles, chariot races, wolf or boar
hunts, the arena has in recent times been used for bull-fights.
The celebrated Maison Carr6e, a temple in the style of the
Parthenon, but on a smaller scale, 8a ft. long by 40 wide, is one
of the finest monuments of the Roman period, and according
to an inscription is dedicated to Gaius and Ludus Caesar,
adopted sons of Augustus, and dates from the beginning of the
Christian era. It contains a collection of antique -sculptures
and coins. The so-called temple of Diana, which adjoins the
Fountain Gardens, was probably a building connected with the
neighbouring baths of which remains are visible. Two Roman
gates, the Porte d'Auguste, consbting of two large archways
flanked by two smaller ones and dating from a.d. 16, and the
Porte de France are still preserved. The Tour Magne (Turris
Magna) is still 9a ft. in height, and was formerly a third higher.
Admittedly the oldest monument of Ntmes, it has been variously
regarded as an old signal tower, a treasure house or a mausoleum.
Attached to the ramparts erected by Augustus, and turned into
a fortress in the middle ages by the counts of Toulouse, the Tour
Magne was restored about x84a Near the Tour Magne has been
discovered the reservoir from which the water conveyed by the
Pont du Gard (see Aqueduct) was distributed throughout the
dty.
When it still possessed its capitol, the temple of Augustus,
the basilica of Plotina erected under Hadrian, the temple of
Apollo, the baths, the theatre, the drcus, constructed in the
reign of Nero, the Campus Martins and the fortifications built
by Augustus, Nlmes must have been one of the richest of the
Roman dties of Gaul. The cathedral (St Castor), occupying, it
is believed, the site of the temple of Augustus, is partly Roman-
esque and partly Gothic in style. The church of St Paul, a
modem Romanesque building, is adorned with frescoes by
Hippolyte and Paul Flandrin; St Baudile (modem Gothic) is
of note for the two stone spires which adom its facade; and the
court-hOuse has a fine Corinthian colonnade and a pediment.
Other buildings of note are the old dtadd (dating from 1687,
and now used as a central prison), and the former lycfe, whidi
contains the public library and the museums of epigraphy, of
archaeological models of the Roman and Romanesque periods,
and of natural history. The town also has a collection of paint-
ings. The espUnade in front of the court-house has in the
centre a handsome fountain with five marble statues by James
Pradier. The Fountain Gardens, in the north-west of the town,
owe their peculiar character as well as their name to a spring of
water which after heavy rains is copious enough not only to fill
the ornamental basins (constructed, in. the i8th century with
balustrades and statues on andent foundations) but also to form
a considerable stream. Neither the spring, however, nor the
Vistre into which it discharges, is sufficient for the wants of the
dty, and water has consequently been brought from the Rhone,
a distance of 17 m. A beautiful avenue, the Boulevard de la
R^publique, runs south for nearly x m. from the middle walk
of the garden. Nimes has erected monuments to the " Children
of Gard " (by A.. Merci&), to Alphonse Daudet and to the
Provenc^ poet Jean Reboul, natives of the town.
The city is the seat of a bishop, a prefect, a court of appeal and
a court of assises, and has tribunals of first, instance and of
commerce, a board of trade-arbitrators, an exchange, a chamber
of commerce and a branch of the Bank of France. Its edu-
cational establishments indude lycbes and training coUegei Ibr
both sexes, and schoob of music and art.
At the dose of the middle ages the industries of Nlmes «cx«
raised to a sute of great pro^>erity by a colqny from Lombardjp
and Tuscany; and, though the plague, the Wars of Rd^joni
and the revocation of the edict of Nantes were all sufficiently
disastrous in their effects, before the Revolution about half of Use
whole conununity, or from xo,ooo to xa.ooo persons, had come
to be engaged in manufactures, chiefly that of silk. Upholsteiy
materials, shawls, carpets, handkerchiefs, tapes and braidiiie»,
brandy, hosiery, leather, clothes, candles, machinery and boots
and shoes are now manufactured, and there are a number of
foundries. Nlmes is, besides, one of the great southern markets
lor wine and brandy, and there is a good tnde in grain, grooeiies
and colonial wares. Quarries of hard limestone, used as the
material for the amphitheatre and other buildings by the Romans,
are still worked in the vicinity.
Nlmes, the andent N^mcusuSt derived its name from the
sacred wood in which the Volcae Areoomid (who of their own
accord surrendered to the Romans in xax B.c) were wont to
hold their assemblies. Strabo states that it was the metropcdis
of a district containing twenty-four dependent towns, and that
it was independent of the proconsuls of Gallia Narbonensis.
Constituted a colony of veterans by Augustus, and endowed
with numerous privileges, it built a temple and stmck a medal in
honour of its founder. The medal, which afterwards famished
the type for the coat of arms granted to the town by Francis I^
bears On one side the heads of Caesar Augustus awi Vipaanios
Agrippa (the former crowned with laurd), while on the other
there is a cnxodile chained to a palm-tree, with the legend Col.
Nek. It was Agrippa who built the public baths at Nlmes, the
temple of Diana and the aqueduct of the Pont du Gard. The
dty-walls, erected by Augustus, were needy 4 m. in circuity
30 ft. high and 10 ft. broad, flanked by ninety towers and pierced
by ten gates. Hadrian on his way back from Britain erected at
Ntmes two memorials of his benefactress Plotina. In the very
height of its prosperity the dty was ravaged by the Vandals;
the Visigoths followed, and tumed the amphitheatre into a
stronghold, which at a later date was set on fire along with the
gates of the dty when Charles Martd drove out the Sancens.
Nimes became a republic under the protection of Pippin the
Short; and in 1x85 it passed to the counts of Toulouse, who
restored its prosperity and enclosed it with ramparts whose
enceinte, less extensive than that of Augustus, may still be traced
in the boulevards of the present day. The dty took part in the
crusade against the Albigenses in iao7. Under Louis Vm. it
received a royal garrison into its amphitheatre; under Louis XL
it was captured by the duke of Burgundy, and in X430 was
recovered by the dauphin (Charles VII.). On a visit to Nlmes
Francis L enriched it with a university and a school of arts.
By 1558 about three-fourths of the inhabitants had become
Protestants, and in 1567 a massacre of Catholics took place on
St Michad's day. From the accession of Henry IV. till the revo-
cation of the edict of Nantes (1685) the Protestant oommnnity
devoted itself to active industry; but after that disastrous event
great numbers went into exile or joined the Camisards. Loms
XIV. built a fortress (1687) to keep in check the disturbances
caused by the rival religious parties. Nlmes passed unhnn
through Uie storms of the Revolution; but in x8is TrestaiUoo
and his bandit followers pillaged and burned and plundered and
massacred the Bonapartists and Protestants. Since then the
dty has remained divided into two stron^y marked factions —
Catholics and Protestant*— though with no rqwtition of sock
scenes.
See H. Barin. Ntmes GaUo-Rcmain (Ntmes. i8qi): L. Menard,
Hisloireemh,eceUsiasHqMeetlittirairtdelavilUdeNismtsi R. Peyre,
Ntmes, Aries ei Onsngs (Ntmes. 1903).
NtMBS, COUNCILS OF {Concilia Nemausensia). Of the four
councils held at Nlmes those of 886 and x 284 are relatively
unimportant. The synod of 394 adopted seven canons on
disdpline, which were first printed in 1743 ukI have not as yet
NIMROD— NINEVEH
703
made their way into the great collections. At the council of
July Z096 Pope Urban II. presided, and sixteen disciplinary
canons were aidopted, which have many points of contact with
the canons of the council of Clermont.
See. for the first council of Ntines, Lauchert. pp. 18V185; for the
others, Hardouin vL I. 397, vL a. 1747 ff., viu 903 R. ; full titles
under Council. CW. W. R.-)
NIMROD {-t^h -frff; Septuagint, Nc^p^: varicras reading
in Gen. x. 8, N^pdnr: Vulg. Nemrod). Nimrod is only mentioned
in three passages in the Bible; in Micah v. 6 Assyria is called
" the land of Nimrod," and z Chron. L 10 quotes a portion of the
third, the most important reference, Gen. x. 8-13. The last-
named is ascribed to one of the oldest writers of the Pentateuch,
the Yahwist; but not perhaps to the oldest stratum of his work
(Ball, Sacred Books of the Old Testament), In Gen. x. 8, as Jabal
was the inventor of music, so Nimrod was the first warrior,
gibUr, the first hunter, " he became a mi^ty hunter, pbhdr
qayidky before Yahweh, so that it is said, A mighty hunter before
Yahweh like Nimrod "; the first builder of cities and ruler of a
widespread dominion, " the beginning of bis kingdom was Babel,
Erech, Accad and Calneh in the land of Shinar. Out of that
land he went forth into Assyria,* and built Nineveh, Rchoboth-
Ir, Calah and Rescn between Nmeveh and Calah (the same is
the great dty)." The general statement that Assyria was
originally an offshoot and dependence of Babylon is substantially
in accordance with Assyrian and Babylonian authorities. As
the chapter stands, Nimrod is a descendant of Ham, cf. verses
6 and 8; but as Babylon and Assyria were Semitic, cf.
verses ax, 2a, and as verses 6, 7, on the one hand, and verses
8- 1 a, on the other, come from different documents, we must
dissociate the two consecutive paragraphs, and regard the
'* Cush " of verse 8 as the Babylonian Cash or Cassites, a people
quite distinct from the Cush of verse 6, which is Ethiopia; the
text and interpretation of portions of Gen x. 8-Z3 are doubtful.*
The "mighty hunter before Yahweh" has been variously
expbined as " a divinely great hunter " (Spurrell); " a hunter
in defiance of Yahweh " (Holzinger); " a hunter with the help
of Yahweh " or " of some deity whose name has been replaced by
Yahweh " (Gunkd, Genesis^ p. 8a).
The name Nimrod has not been found in any ancient (say
older than 500 B.C.) non-Israelite document or inscription; and
there is no conclusive evidence for identifying Nimrod with any
of the names found in such docimients. In the absence of
evidence, the theories are naturally endless, especially as both
the legendary and the historical heroes of the ancient East
were often ** mighty hunters." Nimrod would suggest to a Jew
or Syrian the idea of " rebel," mri-rebel; but this is not
likely to be the etymology. By regarding the " N " as per-
formative, Nimrod has been identified with Merodach, the god
of Babylon (Pinches, Hastings's Bible Diet), He has also been
identifiied with Gilgamesh, the hero of the epic which contains the
Babylonian Deluge story (Jeremias, Das A.T. im LkkU des alien
Orients), with various historical kings of Babylonia, with Orion,
&c., &c. As the name Nmrt (Pctrie, Nemart) frequently occurs
in Egyptian documents of the XXIInd Dynasty, c. 972-749
{Vetn^Hist. of Egypt, iii. 242, &c.),the story of Nimrod is some-
times (E. Meyer ap. Holzinger, Genesis) conjectured to be of
Egyptian origin. Some support might be obtained for this
view by supposing Cush in verse 8 to be Ethiopia as in verse 6;
but it seems impossible to reconcile it with the sutemcnts in
Genesis and Micah which connect Nimrod with Babylon and
Assyria. It is possible that the Nebrod of the Septuagint
(siinilajly PhOo and Josephus) is the more ancient form of the
name (Cheyne, Ency. Bibl.),
*So Revised Version text with Kautzicb, Dlllmann, Gunkel.
Holxinger, &c.; Revised Version roars.. " Out of that land went
forth ^Asshur'." less probably following Septuagint, Vulgate,
Authorised Vernon, &c.
* Dr Cheyne's reconstructions in Ency. Bibl., article " Nimrod,"
are generally regarded as far too sweeping. Ball, Sacred Books of
the Old TestamnU, marks verse 9, which describes Nimrod as " a
miffhty hunter." as a later addition, giving a mistaken explanation
of the flftMr of vcne 8.
Many later legends gathered round Nimrod : Pbtlo, De giionlffnts,
{ 15, allegorises more suo. Nimrod stands for treachery or desertion,
according to the derivation from mrd mentioned above. According
to Josephus, Ant. I. iv. 2, vL 2, Nimrod built the Tower of Babel.
Accordmg to the Rabbis (Txeenah u Reenah, Hersbon's tr., p. to),
Nimrod cast Abraham into the fire because he refused to worship
idols God, however, delivered him.
Nimrod, in the form Nimmd or Nimroud, is an element in many
modem place-names in western Asia. (W. H. Bb.)
NINB MSN'S MORRIS, known also as MoreOes and liereUes,
an ancient English game played with 9 counters a side on a board
marked with four squares, one within the other. The middle
points of the three inside squares are connected by straight lines,
and, in a variation of the game, the comers also. The players,
whose counters are of different colours, place these alternately
one by one upon the intersections of the lines, the object of each
being to get three of his own men in line, in which case he has
the privilege of pounding, ».e. removing from the board, any one
of his opponent's men; although he may not take one of a row
of three, unless there are no others. When all z8 counters have
been placed on the board they are moved to adjacent unoccupied
mtersections. When all but three of a player's men have been
captured he is allowed to jump or hop to any vacant point he
chooses. As soon as a player is reduced to two men he loses.
In the time of Shakespeare {Midsnmmer Nigbt*s Dream, Actxi.
Scene i) the game was commonly played out of doors.
NINEVEH (Heb. i^Th in classical authors Nivof, Ninus;
LXX. Nuvviy, Krpfoni: Assyrian Nind or Ninila), the best known
and highly renowned capital of the Assyrian empire. There was
a quarter or suburb of the old Babylonian city of Lagash whose
name was written in the same way; this may possibly have been
the home of those settlers from Babylonia who gave its name to
the Assyrian dty. The mune was carried elsewhere, probably by
Atfyrian settlers, and we meet with Ninoe in Asia Minor (Th.
Ndldeke, Hermes, v. 464, n. 2). Philostratus caUs a Hierapolis,
^ dpxcud NTyof but it must not be confounded with the. Egyptian
N!-y, Assur-bani-pal Nl, the frontier city to the east of Egypt's
greatest extension, where Tethmosis (Thothmes) III. hunted
elephants, probably situated on the Euphrates. This, however,
may be the origin of Ctesias's statement {ap. Diod. ii 3) that
Nineveh stood on the Euphrates; the Arabic geographer Yaqut
places a Nineveh on the lower Euphrates near Babylon, and this
may be a colony from the great Nineveh, or possibly the Nini
of Lagash.
The derivation of the name is uncertain. The name Nini was
home also hy the goddess Ishtar, whose worship was the special
cult of Nineveh, and NinOa may well be a hypocoristioon of
N ing. The ideogram for Nineveh, as also for the Lagash city,
r ^??<J . is a fish enclosed in the sign for house, possibly indi-
cating a fish-pond, sacred to Ishtar. As the Semitic nUnu means
a fish, a play upon nHnu and Nind is suggested, but the name
may be pre-Semitic. A derivation from the root *u with a mean-
ing like " lowland " is doubtful, unless we are sure that the name
is Semitic, and that the Lagash city also lay low.
Nmeveh was situated at the N.W. angle of an irregular
trapezium of land which lay between the rivers Husur (Khausar,
Choser) on the N.W., GOmal on the N.E. and E., Upper Zftb on
the S.E. and S. and Tigris on the S. and W. In extent this plain
is 25 m. by 15 m., and contains the ruins of Nineveh at Kuyunjik
and Nebi YOnus, of DOr Sargon at Khorsabad to the N.E. of
Calah at Nimmd to the S. as well as of other towns not yet
identified. The whole plain has a gradual slope from the low
range of Jebel Maqtub and the hill of Ain-es-safra on the N.E.
to the Tigris on the S.W. This plain was, for those days, amply
protected on three sides by the two rapid broad streams of the
Tigris and its tributary ZAb, by the hills on the N.E. and the
river GSmal at their base. The weak N.W. side was partly
covered by the Husur, an impassable flood in winter but easily
fordable in sunmier. Tlie floods caused by the Husur were
frequent and destmctive, on one occasion sweeping away the
palace terrace at Nineveh and exposing the tombs of the kings,
on another isolating Khorsabad. A great series of dams was
therefore constraaed (mapped and described m " Topography
704
NINEVEH
of Nineveh," J.HAS, ziv. 3x8 ff.) which controlled the floods
and filled the ditches and moats of Nineveh. One of these
ditches can be traced over a m. with a breadth of 200 ft., and was
lined with a rampart on the city aide.
The city on the river side of the Tigris extended about ai m.,
its north wall measured 7000 ft., the eastern wall was nearly
3 m. long and the southern about xooo ft. The city thus formed
a long narrow strip along the Tigris, pierced at right angles by the
Husur, the waters of which, by closing the great dam in the
eastern wall, could be sent round the moats to the N. and S.
The Tigris may have swept the western wall, though now a wide
belt of sand has accumulated between the ruins and iu present
channel which is perpetually shifting. The actual extent of the
city may be reckoned at about 1800 acres, or about two*thirds
the size of Rome within Aurclian's WalL At the rate of 50 sq.
yds. to a person, it woidd have held a population of 175,000;
but the extent of the palaces, gardens, &c., forbid us to imagine
any such multitude except as refugees during a siege. Outside
this dty proper lay wide outskirts {kablu) whidh were divided into
quarters each with a separate governor (iaknu) . Further afield
lay the RCbit-NinOa, in which some have recognized the Reho-
both-Ir of Gen. x. 1 1 (NinOa is often repUced by if or a/11 in the
inscriptions), a less closely popubted area which extended to
and included the site of Khorsabad, before Sargon II. built his
city of DQr-Sargon there. Across the Tigris, connected by a
bridge, lay an extensive district, probably now replaced by
Mteul. As Esarhaddon entered Nineveh, on his triumphal
return from Sidon, through RCbit-NinOa, it is probable that this
name covered the western suburbs. The walled dty formed
a sort of Acropolis, and it is difficult to say Exactly how far the
name of Nineveh should be extended. Few traces of private
bouses have been found within the walls, but as deeds of sale speak
of houses in Nineveh, which were bounded on three sides by other
houses, there must have been continuous streets within the area
denoted by that name. Great emphasis has been laid on the
agreement of a tetrapolis, formed by Nineveh, Khorsabad, Calah
and Keramlis, with the dimensions given by Diodorus and with
the phrase " an exceeding great dty of three days' journey "
(Jonah iiL 3). Admitting that this whole area was thickly
inhabited and might be regarded by those at a distance as one
dty, and that the district may well have had a common name,
which could hardly be Assur, there is yet no native'evidenoe that
Nineveh extended so far. There is no trace of a common wall,
each dty was as strongly fortified towardsthe interior as on the
outside. Each had its own iaknu, and the governor of Nineveh
stands bdow the governors of Assur and Calah in official lists.
In deeds of sale " the road to Calah " is as often named as the
" king's highway " to Arbela or Assnr.
The history of Nineveh is, of course, bound up with that of
Assyria in general. Later Assyrian writers professed to carry
back its foundation to the creation of the world, but we lack
any historical evidence of its age or eariy history. We may
conjecture that it was founded by settlers bom Babyloida Ninfi,
and the statement that Nimrod founded it from Babylonia, along
with Calah, Rehoboth-Ir and Resen, shows that this opinion
was early held. We are, however, still without evidence that
this was its first occupation. The mention of Gudea's building
a temple for Ishtar in NinS (2800 b.c) nuiy refer to the Lagash
dty and an inscription of Dungi, king of Ur (2700 B.C.), said to
have been found at Nineveh, might have been carried there by
some antiquary king. We reach firm ground with the statement
of Khammurabi (2285 B.C.) that he" made the watersof Ishtar to
be glorious in Nineveh in E-k^meI," the temple of Ishtar there
(Code IV. 60-62). As he had just spoken of " returning the
gradous protecting god to Assur," and spells the name Ni-nu^,
there can be no doubt that Nineveh is meant. Shalmaneser I.,
in his Mikdli inscriptions (L. W. King, Records of the Reign ojf
Tukulii'Ninib I. p. 131), e. 1300 B.C., records his restoration of
the temple of Ishtar of Nineveh, which had been built by Samsi-
Hadad (Shamshi-Adad) and restored once before by Assur-
uballit. Which Samsi-Hadad (out of six at least) this was,
and which Assur-uballit we are not toM; the first of the former
name known to us was a contemporary of Khammurabi and,
if he built the temple first, Khammurabi nuiy have plundered
it and then restored it again; but an even earlier Samsi>Hadad
may be meant. Dushratta, king of Mitanni, about 1400 b.c, in
the Tell d-Amama letters offers to send to the king of Egypt
an image of Ishtar of Nineveh; from which it has bttn inferred
that Nineveh was then under foreign rule. The same letters
mention Shauahbi as goddesiTof Nineveh. A statue of a female
nude figure found at Nineveh bears an inscription showing it
to have been in the palace of Assur-bti-kala (xoSo bjc), who is
therefore supposed to have resided in Nineveh. Assur-rEsh-iaki,
Mutakkil NuskuandTiglath-pileser I. restored a temple of Ishtar,
probably in Nineveh. Assur-naxsin-apll (885 b.c.) restored tbe
temple C-ma^-maS of Ishtar at Nineveh, but removed his resi-
dence to Calah. Shalmaneser 11. set out on several of his expe-
ditions from Nineveh, but in the latter part of his reign resided at
Calah, and when rebellion broke out under his son Assur-danin-
apli Nineveh sided with the rebd prince. Sennacherib records
that several of his royal ancestors had been buried in Ninevds
and they presumably had resided there. At the commencement
of his reign Sennacherib foimd Nineveh a poor {dace. A store-
house,thc andcnt and renowned temple, an armoury or storehouse,
were the chief buildings. Two lofty platforms along tlie Tigris
front had served as foundations of the palaces hitherto built, but
the platforms had been wrecked and the palaces were in decay.
Sennacherib restored and enlarged the northern platform now
covered by the Kuyunjik mound and built his palace on the
south-western portion of it. It has been only partially excavated,
though seventy-one rooms were opened, and it is the grandest
architectural effort of Assyria. The bas-reliefs with which the
walls are adorned are unrivalled in antiquity, for variety of
subject, breadth of composition, truth of presentation and
artistic treatment. The accuracy with which buOding operations
are portrayed, and a sense of landscape, are great advances even
on the superb work of Sargon's palace at Khorsabad. On the
adjoining platform to the south, now Nebi-Yunus, Sennacherib
erected an arsenal for military supplies. Nineveh was badly
supplied with water for drinking; the inhabitants bad to " turn
their eyes to heaven for the rain/' but Sennacherib conducted
water by eighteen canab from the hills into the Husnr and
distributed its waters round the moats and into store tanks, or
ponds, within the dty. He laid out a fine park or Paradise, for
pleasure and the chase, to the east of his palaces, and built op a
magnificent " triumphal way" sixty-two cubits broad and forbade
any householder to encroach upon the street. Sennacherfl) made
Nineveh his court residence and, after his destruction of Babylon
and the influx of the enormous booty brought back from his cos-
quests, it must have been the most magnificent and wealthiest
dty of the East.
Esarhaddon biigan to rebuild Babylon and so departed from
his father's purpose to make Nineveh the metn^>olis of the
empire, but he did not altogether neglect the dty. He rebmlt
the temple of Assur at Nineveh, and a palace for himself now
covered by the Ncbi-Yunus mound and so inefficiently explored.
Thither Assur-bani-pal brought the rebd Egyptian vassals
Necho and Sharru-ludari, the Elamite kings, the booty and
captives of his continual conquests. He tebuilt the tempfcs
and a palace for himself north of Sennacherib's 00 the site of
the latter's harem; which was adorned with extraordinaiy
variety and richness. His sculptures are at the highest range
of original and effective delineation in . antiquity. Especially
is his palace famous for the cdebrated library, of which Senna-
cherib had made a commencement. Tens of thousands of day
tablets, systematically arranged on shelves, contained the
classics of the Babylonian literature for which his scribes ran-
sacked and copied the treasures of all then knowii centres of
literary life.
Very little trace is left of the fortunes of Ntnevdi during the
reigns of the sons of Assur-bani-pal. Nineveh, according to
Herodotus, was besieged by Cyaxares and the Medes but savtd
by Madyes and the Scythians some twenty or more years beloi*
the Medes in alliance with Nabopolassar, king of Babyiai^
NING-PO— NINIB
705
finally took it, c, 606 B.c Much conjecture has been lavished
upon the varying accounts which have reached us of the capture,
but it seems probable that a heavy flood or the besiegers burst
the great dam and while thus emptying the moats launched a
flood against the west wall on the inside and thus breached the
defences.
It may be of interett to record the names of the govemora of
Nineveh: Nergal-mudammik. 84« B.C.; Ninib*mukin*ahi, 790-761
B.C.; Mahde, 725 B.C.; Nabfl-dmi-epuih, 704 B.C.; Ahi-ilai, 649
B.C., o£5ciated aa Eponyms for the year.
If, 'as generally admitted, the ruins of Mespila and Larissa
''described" by Xenophon, Anah. iii. 4, 7 sq. were those of
Kuyunjik and Nimrud, we may conclude that there was no
inhabited city on the spot at the time of the march of the Greeks
with Cyrus (cf. Strabo xvi. p. a4s). The name of Nineveh
(Syriac Nlnw€; Arabic Ninawft, NOnawi) continued, even in the
middle ages, to be applied to a site opposite MCsuI on the east
bank of the Tigris, where huge mounds and the traces of an
ancient dty wall bore witness of former greatness. Copious
references to these mentions are collected in Tuch, Dt Nino Urbe
(Leipzig, 2845). Ibn Jubair, p. 237 sq., followed by Ibn Batuta,
u- 13 7f pves a good description of the ruins and the great shrine
of Jonah as existing in the 12th century. The name of Ninawi
^pb'ed, not to the ruins, but to the Rustak (fields and hamlets)
on the site (Bal&dhurl, p. 331; Ibn Haukal, p. 145; Yaqut,
iL694).
A veiy complete summary of the traditions will be found in Lincke,
" Assynen und Nineveh," in CesckkkU und Sage der MiUdmeervdlker
nach 601-606.
The, explorations of Sir A. H. Layard at Kuyunjik (1845-
1847 Bnd X849-18S1) definitely located the city, in confirmation
of andent tradition and the identifications of Rich and others.
Excavations were carried on by RawUnson, 1853-1855; H.
Rassam, 1854; G. Smith, 1873-1874 and 1876; Rassam again,
1877-1883; £. A. Wallis Budge, 1 888-1 889; and King, 1902.
The enormous mound of Kuyunjik now separated from that
of Nebi'Yunus by the deep and riipid Khausar, marks the site
of the palace of Sennacherib and Assur-bani-pal. The mound
of Nebi-Yunus is crowned by the " Tomb of Jonah," a sacred
shrine to the modem inhabitants, and could not be explored;
but by sinking a shaft within the walls' of a private house, some
sculptured slabs were recovered, and the Turkish government
later opened out part of a palace of Esarhaddon. Excavations
at two of the great city gates showed them to have beex) erected
by Sennacherib.
BiBLiocRAl^Y.— The architecture of these palaces is exhaustively
treated in Fei^uson's Paiacts 0/ Nineveh and Persepoiis Restored,
and in Perroi and Chipiez. Art in Ckatdea and Assyria. Each palace
was in itself a fort, and the external walls are still 80 ft. high in
places. The man;^ topographical deuils furnished by exploration
when compared with the building inscriptions and the indications
given by deeds of sale will doubtless enable us ultimately to map
out the principal features of the andent city, but much more sys-
tematic exploration is needed, as well as further publication of exist-
ing documents. (C. H. W. J.)
MIlfG-PO (Nmc-Po-Fu, i.e. City of the Peaceful Waves), a
great dty of China, the principal emporium of trade in the
province of Chehkiang, standing in a fine plain bounded by
mountains towards the west, on the left bank of the Ning-po
river, about 16 m. from its mouth, in 29* 49' N., X2i* 35* E. It
was visited by Portuguese traders as early as 1522, and is one of
the five seaports which were thrown open to foreign trade in
1842 by the treaty of Nanking. The population of the dty and
suburbs is estimated from 400,000 to 500,000. Ning-po is
surrounded by a fine old wall, 25 ft. high and 16 ft. broad, pierced
by six gates and two passages for ships in its circuit of 4 to 5 m.
Just within the walls there is a considerable belt of open ground,
and in many places the ramparts are thickly covered with
jasmine and honeysuckle. In ascending the river a stranger's
eye is first caught by the numerous huge ice-houses with high
thatched roofs and by a tall white tower— the Tien-fCng-t'a or
Ning-po pagoda or obelisk— which rises to a height of 160 ft.
and has fourteen stories and seven tiers of "windows, but has
unfortunately been stripped of its galleries and otherwise
damaged. Another striking structure in the heart of thfe dty
is the Drum Tower, dating from before the 1 5th century. As is
natural in a place long celebrated for its religious and edu-
cational pre-eminence, there is no lack of temples, monasteries
and collegesiy hot few of thefie are of any architectural significance.
Brick is the ordinary building material, and the dwelling-houses
are mostly of ona storey. Silks, cottons, carpets, furniture,
white-wood carvings and straw hats are the chief products of
the local industry. Large salt-works are carried on in the
vidnity, and thousands of fishermen are engaged, mainly between
April and July, in catching cuttle-fish. In spite of the powerful
competition of Shanghai, Ning-po has a valuable foreign trade.
It is regularly visited by the vessels of the China Navigation
Company and the Chinese Merchants' Steam Navigation Com-
pany. From 216,191 register tons in 1873 the tonnage of the
port had increased to 303,109 in 1880, and in 1904 the figures
rose to 533,869 tons. The value of the trade passing through the
custom house in 1904 was £3,052,629, as compared with £2,3 1 2,000
in 1900 and £3^405,000 in 1880. Straw or grass hats, straw mats,
samshu (from the Shao-sing district), Chinese drugs, vegetable
tallow and fish are among the chief exports; in 1904 the hats
numbered 2,125,566, though in 1863 they had only amounted to
40,000, and the mats, mainly despatched to south ChinU, average
from 1 ,000,000, to 2,000,000. Missions are maintained in Ning-po
by the Roman Catholic church, by the Church Missionary Society
(1848), th^ American Presbyterians, the Reformed Wesleyans,
the China Inland Mission (1857), &c. A mission hospital was
instituted in 1843. After the storming of Chenhai— the fortified
town at the mouth of the river— on the loth of October 1841,
the British forces quietly took possession of Ning-po on the Z2th.
In 1864 the Taip'ings hdd the town for six months.
NINIAN, ST, a Briton, probably from Strathclyde, who was
trained at Rome and founded a church at Whithorn on the
west side of Wigtown Bay. Whithorn has been identified with
the Leukopibia of Ptolemy, but this is uncertain. Bede, writing
three centuries after Ninian, ascribes the name Ad Candidam
Casam to the fact that the church of Ninian was built of stone.
We are told by Bede that St Ninian dedicated his church to St
Martin of Tours, who died between 397 and 400, but Ailred of
Ricvaulx is our only authority for the statement that St Martin
supplied him with masons. The population of the north shore
of the Solway Firth at the beginning of the 5th century were
probably either Picts or Goidels or a blend of both, and naturally
hostile to the Romanized Britons. Bede recorcU that Ninian
preached among the Picts within the Mounth, which indicates
that he was acquainted with the Pictish language. The legends
of his work in Ireland probably arise from the influence exercised
in that country by the churchof Whithorn. Thedateof Ninian's
death is given by Archbishop Ussher as 432, but there is no
authority for this statement.
See Bede. Hist. Eccl. (cd. C. Plummer, Oxford. 1896). iii., iv.:
Ailred of Ricvaulx. " Life of St Ninian," in the Historians ojf Scotland
vol. V. (Edinburgh. 1874); W. F. Skene, Celtic Scotland (Edinburgh,
1877), ii. 2 ff.; and J. Rhys. Celtic Britain (London, 1904), p. 173.
NINIB, the ideographic designation of a solar deity of Baby-
lonia. The phonetic designation is uncertain — ^perhaps Annshit.
The cult of Ninib can be traced back to the oldest period of
Babylonian history. In the inscriptions found at Shirgulla (or
Shirpurla, also known as Lagash), he appears as Nin-girsu, that
is. " the lord of Girsu," which appears to have been a quarter of
Shirgulla. He is closely associated with Bel iq.v.), or £n-lil of
Nippur, as whose son he is commonly designated. The com-
bination points to the amalgamation of the district in which
Ninib was worshipped with the one in which Bel was the chief
deity. This district may have been Shirgulla and surrounding
places, which, as we know, fell at one time under the control
of the rulers of Nippur.
Ninib appears in a double capadty in the epithets bestowed
on him, and in the hymns and incantations addressed to him.
On the one hand he is the healing god who releases from sickness
and the ban of the demons in general, and on the other he is the
god of war and of the chase, armed with terrible weapons. It is
not easy torecondle these two phases, except on the assumption
•job
NINUS— NIORT
that he has absorbed in his person various minor solar deities,
representing different phases of the sun, just as subsequently
Shamash absorbed the attributes of practically all the minor
sun-deities.
In the systematized pantheon, Ninib survives the tendency
towards centralizing all sun cidts in Shamash by being made the
symbol, of a certain phase of the sun. Whether this phase is
that of the morning sun or of the springtime with which bene-
ficent qualities are associated, or that of the noonday sun or of
the summer solstice, bringing suffering and destruction in its
wake, is still a matter of dispute, with the evidence on the whole
in favour of the former proposition. At the same time, the
possibility of a confusion between Ninib and Nergal {q.v.) must
be admitted, and perhaps we are to see the solution of the
problem in the recognition of two diverse schools of theological
speculation, the one assigning to Ninib the r61e of the spring-tide
solar deity, the other identifying him with the sun of the summer
solstice. In the astral-theological system Ninib becomes the
planet Saturn. The swine seems to have been the animal sacred
to him, or to have been one of the symbols under which he is
represented. The consort of Ninib was GulaC^.v.). (M. Ja.)
NINUS, in Greek mythology, the eponymous founder of
Nineveh (9.v.),and thus the city itself personined. He was
said to have been the son of Belos or Bel, to have conquered
in seventeen years the whole of western Asia with the help of
Ariaeus, king of Arabia, and to have founded the first empire.
During the siege of Bactra he met Semiramis, the wife of one
of his officers, Onnes, whom he took from her husband and
married. The fruit of the marriage was Ninyas, i.e. " The
Ninevite." After the death of Ninus, Semiramis, who was
accused of causing it, erected to him a temple-tomb, nine stades
high and ten stades broad, near Babylon. According to Castor
{ap. Syncell. p. 167) his reign lasted fifty-two years, its commence-
ment falling 2189 B.C. according to Ctesias. Another Ninus
is described by some authorities as the last king of Nineveh,
successor of Sardanapalus.
See J. Gtlmore, Fragments of the Persika of Klesias (1888).
NIOBB, in Greek mythology, daughter of Tantalus and Dione,
wife of Amphion, king of Thebes. Proud of her numerous
family, six daughters and six sons, she boasted of her superiority
to her friend Leto, the mother of only two children, Apollo
and Artemis. As a punishment, Apollo slew her sons and
Artemis her daughters. Their bodies lay for nine days unburied,
for Zeus had changed the people to stone; on the tenth day
they were buried by the gods. Out of pity for her grief, the gods
changed Niobe herself into a rock on Mount Sipylus in Phrygia,
in which form she continued to weep (Homer, Iliad, xxiv.
602-6x7; ApoUodorus iii. s; Ovid, Metam, vi. 146-3x2). The
names and number of her children, and the time and place
of their death, are variously given. This " Niobe," described
by Pausanias (i. 21) and Quintus Smymaeus (i. 293-306), both
natives of the district, was the appearance assumed by a cliff on
Sipylus when seen from a distance and from the proper point
of view (see Jebb on Sophocles, Antigone, 83X). It is to be
distinguished from an archaic figure still visible, carved in the
northern side of the mountain near Magnesia, to which tradition
has given the name of Niobe, but which is really intended for
Cybele.
According to some, Niobe is the goddess of snow and winter,
whose children, slain by Apollo and Artemis, symbolize the ice
and snow melted by the sun in spring; according to others,
she is an earth-goddess, whose progeny— vegetation and the
fruits of the soil — ^is dried up and slain every summer by the
shafts of the sun-god. Burmeister regards the legend as an
incident in the struggle between the followers of Dionysus and
Apollo in Thebes, in which the former were defeated and driven
back to Lydia. Heffter builds up the story round the dripping
rock in Lydia, really representing an Asiatic goddess, but taken
by the Greeks for an ordinary woman. Enmann, who interprets
the name as " she who prevents increase " (in contrast to Leto,
who made women prolific), considers the main point of the myth
to.bc Niobe's loss of her children. He compares her story with
that of Lamia, who, after her children had been slain by ZeQ%
retired to a lonely cave and carried off and killed the children
of others. The appearance of the rock on Sipylus gave rise to
the story of Niobe having been turned to stone. The tragedians
used her story to point the moral of the instability of human
happiness; Niobe became the representative of human nature,
liable to pride in prosperity and forgetfulness of the respect and
submission due to the gods.
The tragic story of Niobe was a favourite subject in literature
and art. Aeschylus and Sophocles wrote tragedies upon it;
Ovid has described it at length in his Metamorphoses. In art,
the most famous representation was a marble group of Niobe
and her children, taken by Sosius to Rome and set up in the
temple of Apollo Sosianus (Pliny, Not, Hist, xxzvi. 4). What
is probably a Roman imitation of this work was found in x 583
near the Lateran, and is now in the Uffizi gallery at Florence.
In ancient times it was disputed whether the original was the
work of Praxiteles or Scopas, and modem authorities are not
agreed as to its identity with the group mentioned by Pliny.
On the whole subject see C.E. Burmeister, Defabuia quae de Nicbe
eiusaue liberis agtt (Wismar, 1836): L. Curtze, FabtUa Ifw&es
Tkebanae (Corbach. 1836): W. Hcflter in Zeitsckrift fur CymmamJ-
wesen, ix. (18^5); C. B. Stark, Niobe und die Niobiden (186^. the
standard work; E. Thr&mer, Perpunos (1888); C. -Friedericbs.
Praxiteles und die Niobetruppt (1865): A. MayerbOfer and H.
Ohlrich, Die Florentiner Ntobegruppe {iSSi and 1888): for the Niobe
on Mount Sipylus. tec C. B. Stark, Nach dem grieckiscken Oneut
(1874); G. WeSer. Le Sipylos et ses monuments (1880) ; W..RaxDsa\\
"Sipytos and Cxbele," in Journal of Hellenic Studies, in. (188^):
Frazer's Pausanias, iii. 555; for vaae-paintinn, see H. Hc>-de-
mann, Niobe und Niobiden auf griechiscken Vasenbildem (1875).
For further literature on the subtcct. see A. Preuner's mytholog^al
bibliography in C. Bursian's Jakresberickt uber die FortstkritU da
klassiscken AUertumswissensckaft, vol. xxv. (1891); the varicjus
derivations of the name and interpretations of the legend are givt»
in Enmann's article in Roscher's Lexikon der Mj^kelogie.
In GaxBK Art, fig. 29 (from an Orvieto vase) repxesents the
slaying of the children of Niobe by ApoUo and Arteous; fi^. 76
(PI. VI.), Niobe shielding her youngest daughter.
NIORT, a city of western France, chief town of the department
of Deux-S£vres, 42 m. E.N.E. of La Rochelle on the railway
to Saumur. Pop. (1906) 20,538. Niort is situated on the kit
bank of the Sevre Niortaise, partly in the valley and partly on
the slopes of the enclosing hills. The tower of the church of
Notre-Dame (15th and i6th centuries) has a spire 246 ft, high,
with bell-turrets adorned with statues of the evangelists, and
at the base a richly decorated dais in the Renaissance styk;
and the north doorway shows a balustrade, of which the balusten
form the inscription O Mater Dei, memento mci. St Andi^,
with a fine window in the apse, and St Hilaire, which contains
some beautiful frescoes, both date from the 19th century. Of
the old castle, whose site is partly occupied by the prefecture,
there remains the donjon*— two large square towers united by
a central building, flanked by turrets, built, it is said, by Henry
II. of England or Richard Coeur de Lion. The pbtform on the
top affords a fine view of the public garden (one of the most
picturesque in France) and the valley of the Sivre. The old
town-hall, Renaissance in style, is wrongly known as the Ali^zior
palace, after Eleanor of Guienne; it contains a collection cT
antiquities. The house is still shown in which Madanse dr
Maintenon is erroneously stated to have been bom. Near Kicrt
are the fine feudal ruins of the fortress of Coudray-Salbatt.
Niort is the seat of a prefect and a court of assizes, and has
tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a board of trade-
arbitration, lyc6es for both sexes, a school of drawing, a chair faer
of commerce and a branch of the Bank of France. Tanning.
currying, shammy-dressing, glove-making and the manufactcie
of brushes and boots and shoes are the staple industries.
Up to the 7th century the Niort plain formed part of the Ctl?
of Poitou; and the mouth of the Sivre lay at the foot of the hits
now occupied by the town which grew up round the cas:>
erected by Henry Pkntagenct in X15S. The place was captured
by Louis VIII. in X224. By the peace of Br^tigny it was ceded
to the English; but its inhabitants revolted against the Black
Prince, and most of them were massacred when his tr«^
recovered the town by assault. In 1373 Duguesdin regaiiifd
NIPIGON— NIPPUR
707
posftsaion of the town for the French. Protestantism made
numerous proselytes at Niort, and Oaspard de CoUgny made
himself master of the town, which successfully resisted the
Catholic forces after the Battle of Jamac, but surrendered without
striking a blow after that of Moncontour. Henzy IV. rescued
it from the League. It suffered severely by the revocation of
the edict of Nantes.
NIPIGON [NzEPicoN, OR NEPiC0N],a kke and river of Thunder
Bay district, Ontario, Canada. The lake is 30 m. N. of the bay
of the same name on Lake Superior, at an altitude of 852 ft.
above the sea. It is 70 m. long and 50 m. wide; contains over
1000 islands, is very deep, and has a much-indented shore-line
measuring upwards of 580 m. The river, which drains the lake,
descends several hundred feet in the 40 m.of its course and is the
largest stream flowing into Lake Superior. It is widely known
for the excellence of its trout fishing.
NlPISSmO, a lake of the district of the same name in Ontario,
Canada, situated nearly midway between Lake Huron and the
Ottawa river, at an altitude of 644 ft. above the sea. It is of
irregular sliape, with bold shores, and contains many islands;
from the north it receives the waters of Sturgeon river. It is
so m. in length and ao in breadth; discharges its waters by
French river into Lake Huron, and is separated by a low water-
shed from the Mattawa river, a tributary of the Ottawa. It has
been proposed as the summit level of the projected Ottawa and
Georgian Bay canal, an important project rendered difficult by
the numerous rapids both on French river and on the Ottawa.
With the Otuwa, MatUwa and French, it formed the old
vay ageur route from Montreal to the Great Lakes.
NIPPUR, one of the most andent of all the Babybnian cities
of which we have any knowledge, the special seat of the worship
of the Sumerian god, £n-lil, k>rd of the storm demons. It was
situated on both sides of the Shatt-en-Nil canal, one of the
earliest courses of the Euphrates^ between the present bed of that
river and the Tigris, almost 100 m. S.E. of Bagdad, in 32' 7' N.
45** 10' £. It is represented by the great complex of ruin mounds
kJDOwn to the Arabs as Nuffar, written by the earlier explorers
Niffer, divided into two main parts by the dry bed of the old
Shatt-en-Nil (Arakhat). The highest point of 'these ruins, a
conical hill rising about 100 ft. above the level of the surrounding
plain, N.E. of the canal bed, is called by the Arabs Bint el-Amir
or "prince's daughter." Here very brief and unsatisfactory
excavations were conducted by Sir A. H. Layard in 185 1, which
served, however, by means of the inscribed bricks discovered,
to identify the site. The university of Pennsylvania began
^stematic excavations in 1889 under the directorship of Dr John
P. Peters. With some intermissions these excavations were
continued until xgoo under theoriginal director and his successors,
Dr John Heniy Haynes and Dr H. V. Hilprccht. The result of
their work is a fairly continuous history of Nippur, and especially
of its great temple, £-kur, from the earliest period.
Originally a village of reed huts in the marshes, similar to many
of those which can be seen in that region to-day, Nippur under-
went the usual vicissitudes of such villages—floods and conflagra-
tions. For some reason habitation persisted at the same spot,
and gradually the site rose above the marshes, partly as a result
of the mere accumulation of debris, consequent on continuous
habi^tion, partly through the efforts of the inhabitants. As
these began to develop in civilization, they substituted, at least
so far as their shrine was concerned, buildings of mud-brick for
reed huts. The earliest age of civilization, which we may
designate as the clay age, is marked by rude, hand-made pottery
and thumb-marked bricks, flat on one side, concave on the other,
gradually developing through several fairly marked stages. The
exact form of the sanctuary at that period cannot be determined,
but it seems to have been in some way connected with the burning
of the dead, and extensive remains of such cremation arc found
in all the earlier, pre-Sargonic strata. There is evidence of the
succession on this site of different peoples, varying somewhat
in their degrees of d vilization. One stratum is marked by painted
pottery of good nuike. similar to that found in a correspond! rtg
stratum in Susa, and resembling the early pottery of the Aegean
region more closely than any later potteiy found in Babylom'a.
This people gave way in time to another, markedly inferior in
the manufacture of pottery, but superior, apparently, as builders.
In one of these earlier strata, of very great antiquity, there was
discovered, in connexion with the shrine, a conduit bi^t of bricks,
in the form of an arch. Somewhere, apparently, in the 4th
millennium b.c, we begin to find inscriptions written on clay,
in an almost linear script, in the Sumerian tongue. The shrine
at this time stood on a raised platform and apparently contained,
as a characteristic feature, an artificial mountain or peak, a
so-called uggurat, the precise shape and size of which we are,
however, unable to determine. So far as we can judge from the
inscriptions, Nippur did not enjoy at this time, or at any later
period for that matter, political hegemony, but was distinctively
a sacred dty, important from the possession of the famous shrine
of £n-Ul. Inscriptions of Lugal-zaggisi and Lugal-kigub-nidudu.
kings of Erech and Ur respectively, and of other early pre^mitic
rulers, on door-sockets and stone vases, show the veneration in
which the andent shrine was then held and the importance
attached to its possession, as giving a certain stamp of legitimacy.
So on their votive offerings some of these rulers designate them-
selves as paUsis, or over-priests, of £n-lil. Early in the 3rd
millennium B.C. the dty was conquered and occupied by the
Semitic rrilers of Akkad, or Agadc, and numerous votive objects
of Alu-usharsid (Urumush or Rimush), Sargon and Naram-Sin
testify to the veneration in which they also hdd this sanctuary.
£n-lil was in fact adopted as the Bd or great lord of the Semitic
pantheon. The last monarch of this dynasty, Naram-Sin,
rebuilt both the temple and the dty walls, and in the accumula-
tion of d6bris now marking the ancient site his remains are found
about half way from the top to the bottom. To this Akkadian
occupation succeeded an occupation by the first Semitic dynasty
of Ur, and the constructions of Ur-Gur or Ur-Engur, the great
builder of Babylom'an temples, are superimposed immediately
upon the constructions of Naram-Sin. Ur-Gur gave to the temple
its final characteristic form. Partly razing the constructions of
his predecessors, he erected a terrace of unbaked bricks, some
40 ft. high, covering a space of about 8 acres, near the north-
western edge of which, towards the western corner, he built a
zigguratt or stage^tower, of three stages of unbumed brick, faced
with kiln-burned bricks laid in bitumen. On the summit of this
artificial mountain stood, apparently, as at Ur and Eridu, a small
chamber, the special shrine or abode of the god. Access to the
stages of the tiggurai, from the court beneath, was had by an
inclined plane on the south-east side. To the north-east of the
tiggurai stood, apparently, the House of Bel, and in the courts
bdow the ziggurat stood various other buildings, shrines, treasure
chambers and the like. The whole structure was roughly
orientated, with the comers towards the cardinal points of the
compass. Ur-Gur also rebuilt the walls of the dty in general on
the line of Naram-Sin's walls.
The restoration of the general features of the temple of
this and the immediately succeeding periods has been greatly
facilitated by the discovery of a sketch map on a fragment of
a day tablet. This sketch map represents a quarter of the city
to the eastward of the Shatt-en-Nil canal, which was enclosed
within its own walls, a city within a city, forming an irregular
square, with sides roughly 2700 ft. long, separated from the other
quarters of the dty, as from the surrounding country to the north
and east, by canals on all sides, with broad quays along the walls.
A smaller canal divided this quarter of the dty itself into two
parts, in the south-eastern part of which, in the middle of its
S.E. side, stood the temple, while in the N.W. part, along the
Shatt-en-Nil, two great storehouses are indicated. The temple
proper, according to thb plan, consisted of an outer and inner
court (each covering approximately 8 acres), surrounded by
double walls, with ziggurai on the north-western edge of the
latter.
The temple continued to be built upon or rebuilt by kings of
various succeeding dynasties, as shown by bricks and votive
objects bearing the inscriptions of the kings of various dynasties
of Ur and Isin. It seems to have suffered severely in some
7o8
NIPPUR
manner at or about the time of the Elamite invasions, as shown
by broken fragments of statuary, votive vases and the like,
from that period, but at the same time to have won recognition
from the Elamite conquerors, so that Eriaku (Sem. Rim-Sin^
biblical Ariock), the Elamite king of Larsa, styles himself " shep-
herd of the land of Nippur." With the esUblishment of the
Babylonian empire, under Khammurabi, early in the 2nd pre*
Christian millennium, the religious as well as the political centre
of influence was transferred to Babylon, Mardiik became the
Bel or lord of the pantheon, many of En-lil's attributes and
myths were transferred to him, and E-kur was to some extent
neglected. Under the succeeding Cossaean dynasty, however,
shortly after the middle of the 2nd millennium, E-kur was
restored once more to its former splendour, several monarchs of
that dynasty built upon and adorned it, and thousands of in-
scriptions, dating from the time of those rulers, have been
discovered in its archives. After the middle of the X2th century
follows another long period of comparative neglect, but with the
conquest of Babylonia by the Assyrian Sargon, at the close of the
8th century B.C., we meet again with building inscriptions, and
under Assur-bani-pal, about the middle of the 7th century, we
find E-kur restored with a splendour greater than ever before,
the tiigurat of that period being 190 ft. by 128 ft. After that
E-kur appears to have gradually fallen into decay, until finally,
in the Scleucid period, the ancient temple was turned into a
fortress. Huge walls were erected at the edges of the ancient
terrace, the courts of the temple were filled with houses and streets,
and the ziggural itself was curiously built over in,a cruciform shape,
and converted into an acropolis for the fortress. This fortress
was occupied and further built upon until the close of the
Parthian period, about a.d. 250; but under the succeeding rule
of the Sassanids it in its turn fell into decay, and the ancient
sanctuary became, to a considerable extent, a mere place of
sepulture, only a little village of mud huts huddled about the
ancient ziggurai continuing to be inhabited. The store-house
quarter of the temple town had not been explored as late as 1909.
As at Tello, so at Nippur, the clay archives of the temple were
found not in the temple proper, but on an outlying mound.
South-eastward of the temple quarter, without the walls above
described, and separated from it by a large basin connected with
the Shatt-en-Nil, lay a triangukr mound, about 25 ft. in average
height and 13 acres in extent. In this were found large numbers
of inscribed clay tablets (it is estimated that upward of 40,000
tablets and fragments have been excavated in this mound alone),
dating from the middle of the 3rd millennium B.C. onward into
the Persian period, partly temple archives, partly school exer-
cises and text-books, partly mathematical tables, with a consider-
able number of documents of a more distinctly literary character.
For an account of one of the most interesting fragments of a
literary or religious character, found at Nippur, see below.
The great complex of ruin mounds lying S.W. of the Shatt-cn-
Nil canal, larger in extent and mass than the N.E. comolex,
had not up to 1909 been so fully expbred as the mounds to
the N.E. Almost directly opposite the temple, however, a large
palact was excavated, apparently of the Cossaean period, and in
this neighbourhood and further southward on these mounds
large numbers of inscribed tablets of various periods, including
temple archives of the Cossaean and commercial archives of the
Persian period, were excavated. The latter, the " books and
papers " of the house of Murashu, commercial agents of the
government, throw light on the condition of the city and the
administration of the country in the Persian period, the 5th
century B.C. The former give us a very good idea of the admini-
stration of an ancient temple. The whole city of Nippur appears
to have been at that lime merely an appanage of the temple.
The temple itself was a great landowner, possessed of both farms
and pasture land. Its tenants were obliged to render careful
accounts of their administration of the property entrusted to their
care, which were preserved in the archives of the temple. We
have also from these archives lists of goods contained in the
temple treasuries and salary lists of temple ofllicials, on tablet forms
specially prepared and marked oS for periods of a year or less.
On the upper surface of these nuyunds wis found a coosidersblc
Jewish town, dating from about the beginning of the AxUbk
period onward to the xoth century aj>., in the houses of i^ch
were large numbers of incantation bowls. Jewish names,
appearing in the Persian documents discovered at Nippur, ^v,
however, that Jewish settlement at that dty dates in fact from
a much earlier period, and the discovery on some <^ the taUeis
found there of the name of the canal Kabari suggests that the
Jewish settlement of the exile, on the canal Chebar, to which
Ezeklel belonged, may have been somewhere in this nd^bour-
hood, if not at Nippur itself. Hilprecht indeed believes that the
Kabari was the Shatt-en-Nil. Of the history and conditioos of
Nippur in the Arabic period we learn little from the exctvatioiis,
but from outside sources it appears that the city was the seat
of a Christian bishopric as late as the xsth century aj>.
The excavations at Nippur were the first to reveal to us the
extreme antiquity of Babylonian dvilixation, and, as already
stated, they give us the best consecutive record of the devck^
ment of that civilization, with a continuous occupancy from a
period of tmknown antiquity, long ante-dating 5000 b.c, onward
to the middle ages. But while Nippur has been more fully ex-
plored than any other old Babylonian dty, except Babyfea and
Lagash, still only a small part of the great ruins of the andeot site
had been examined in 1909. These ruins have been paiticnkrlv
fruitful in inscribed material, especially clay tablets, many of
them from the very earliest periods; but Lttle of artistic or
architectural importance has been discovered. Excavatioo at
Nippur is partioilarly difficult and costly by reason of the in-
accessibility of the site, and the dangerous and unsettled con-
dition of the surroimding country, and still more by reason of tk
immense mass of Utter d6bris under which the earlier and more
important Babylonian remains are buried.
See A. H. Layard. Nineveh and Babylon (1853): John P. Peten.
Nippur (1807); H. V. Hilprecht, Excavaiians in Assyria and Bekj-
lonta (1904); Clarence S. Fisher, Excavations at Ntppnr (ist part
1905. and part 1906); Babylonian Expedition ef the Unitersitj «f
Pennsykama^ a monumental edition of the cundform texts (ottin
at Nippur, with brief introductions and notes of a more seaenl
character (1893 foU.). For a plan of the Parthian psbce not
AacuiTBCTURB, vol li. p. 381. (J. P. Pb.)
The Nippur Deluge Fragnunl.—Trom among the many
tablets and fragments of tablets discovered at Nippur one of more
than ordinary interest was published in 19x0. lliough mutilated
portions of only a few of its lines have been preserved, and
the text contains no proper name, it is clear that the tablet
represents part of a Babylonian version of the Deluge LegessL'
The portion of the story covered by the text relates to ibe
warning given by Ea to Ut-napishtim, the Babylonian equivalent
of the Hebrew Noah. The god here states that he Ss about to
send a deluge, which will cause destruction to all mankind, and
he gives directions for the building of a great ship in which " tbe
beasts of the field and the birds of heaven " may be saved, aloog
with Ut-napishtim and his family; he fixes the sixe of the shipand
directs that it should be covered with a strong roof or deck. The
text bean a general resemblance to the two well-known Assynaa
versions on tablets in the British Museum, but it has been djosxd
that its phraseology presents a closer parallel to the biblkal
version of the Deluge story in the " Priestly Code." For sevtal
years the existence of Babylonian versions of the legend had been
detected among collections of tablets dating from tbe ear&er
historical periods. A fragment of one such version bekmgs to
the period of the First Dynasty of Babylon,* and part of a siS
earlier Semitic version of another portion of the Gilgaicesl!
Epic has also been recovered.* The new fragment from Nippsr
has given rise to considerable discussion, in view of the Ugbt it
* See Hilprecht, The Babylonian Expediiion of the Unaetsi^ ^
Pennsj^stanuif aer. D, vol. v. fasc I.
« It is dated in the reign of Ammizaduga; cf. Schetl. *«wy
travaux, xx. 55 ff. For another fragment of the Atar-Uiaab kje^
of the same period, see Cuneiform Texts in the BriUsk Musnau, pc *^
and cf. Zimmern, Zeils. fUr Assyr. xiv. 278 f.
> See Metssner. Miltal. der Vorderas. Geselluhafi (1902). 1. F«
other Semitic legends of this eariy period, see Cumeiform Tctfs «
the British Museum, pt. xv. (1902). Pis. l.-VI., and d. Kiss. T^
Seven Tablets of Creahon, p. Ixxvii. f.
NrRiZ— NISH
709
is said to throw upon a disputed problem of biblical criticism.
According to its duicoverer it represents the oldest account of the
Babylonian Deluge story extant; and he considers it of funda>
mental importance for determining the age of Israel's earliest
traditions, since he would regard it as having been written
** before Abraham had left his Babylonian home in Ur of the
Chaldees.**
Beyond the fact that it was found at Nippur during the fourth
of the American expeditions, there does not appear to be any
exact record of its provenance; and, in order to determine its
date, it is necessary to rely on the external and internal evidence
furnished by the Ublet itself. A number of hymns and prayers
addressed to the chief Babylonian gods, and written throughout
in the Sumerian language, have been found at Nippur, and these
may be dated in the era of the kings of Ur and Isin, since some
of them are mentioned by name in the petitions. To the latter
part of this period Professor Hilprecht would assign the new
Deluge fragment. It b natural that under the Sumerian revival,
which characterized the united kingdom of Sumer and Akkad, the
ancient ritual should have been revived and the Sumerian service-
books adapted for the use of the reigning monarch. Sumerian, in
fact, predominated, not only on the historical monuments, but
also throughout the religious literature, a fact which xhilitates
against assigning the newly discovered Semitic legend to the
period of these early Sumerian texts. It has already been noted
that the earliest deluge-fragment previously recovered dates from
the latter half of the First Dynasty of Babylon, when the Western
Semites had succeeded in establishing their authority through-
out the greater part of the country. But, to judge from the
photographic reproduction of the Nippur tablet, the characters
upon it do not appear to resemble those in use at the time of the
First Dynasty, nor those of the period of the Dynasties of Ur and
Isin. On purely epigraphic grounds the suggestion has indeed
been made that it should be assigned to the Kassite period (not
earlier than 1700 B.C.), during which a very large number of the
tablets found at Nippur were inscribed.*
But, even so, the fragment is one of the most interesting that
has been recovered on the site of Nippur. For it strikingly
illustrates the fact that the temple of £n-lil, like that of the
Sun-god at Sippar and the other great temples in Babylonia,
possosed a body of mythological and religious texts, which
formed subjects for study and comment among the priestly
scribes. It was by the collection and reproduction of such
documents, preserved in the ancient religious centres, that Assur-
bani-pal was enabled to form his unique library of tablets at
Nineveh. The temple of E-kur thus formed no exception to the
nde that the great temples of Babylou'a were centres of literary,
as well as of religious, activity.
The text of this DcIukc fra^ent also furnishes one more proof of
the existence of parallel versions of the same legend. In some in-
stances, as in the great Creation Series of Babylon, the later scribes
subjected the difierent versions to processes of editing, with the
result that the earlier forms gave place to the redactions of a militant
priesthood. But where no theological nor local prejudices were
involved, the tendency to a faithful reproduction of the earlier texts
prevailed. Thus the resemblances which have been claimed between
the Nippur Deluge fragment and the version of the " Priestly Code "
in Genesis, in themselves furnish no significant evidence as to the
latter's date. The possibility that Hebrew traditions were subject
to Babykmian inflaence from the period of the Canaanite conquest
luis Ions been recognixed, and to the Exilic and post-Exilic Jew
the mythology of Babylon may well have presented many familiar
features. (L.W.K.)
MIrIZ, or NairIz, a district and town in the province of Fars,
Persia. The district has 24 villages and extends from near
Istahbaomt, south of the Bakhtegan lake, to about 50 m. E.
Water is scarce and the plain is not much cultivated in con-
sequence. The produce consists of some grain, cotton, tobacco,
&c., but fniit is more abundant. Here, as in the neighbouring
Darab district, villages situated in the hills are called madan
(mine), and some travellers have in their luneraries indicated a
mine in localities where there is none.
> It has also been pointed out that the employment of the «gn PI
for DPS and the use of t for s, cited in support of the earlier date,
survived in the Kassite period.
The town of Ntalz Is situated in a plain 7'm.'from the south-
eastern point of the lake, and about 130 m. from Shiraz, and has
a population of about 9000. The people of Nlrlz «rere stanch
foUowers of the Bib (see BAbzism), and rose against the govern-
ment in 1850 and in 1852, with disastrous results. NMz was
formerly known for its manufactureof steel from iron ore brought
fromtParpa, 40 m. E.
NIRVANA, the term in Buddhist theology, meaning literally
" blowing out "or" dying out," Skt. ntrvi/* to blow," for a calm
or sinless state or condition of the mind reached by a dying out or
extinction of sin (see Bin>Diustf).
NISARD, JEAN HARIB NAPOLEON DfiSIKft (i8o6-x88$),
French author and critic, was bom at Chitillon-sur-Seine on the
2oth of March 1806. In 1826 he joined the staff of the Journal
dcs Dihats, but subsequently transferred his pen to the National.
Under the empire he was inspector-general of education (1852)
and director of the £cole normaU (1857-1867). His literary
reputation was effectually established by his Histoire de la
lUlirature franqaise (1844-1861), which secured his election to
the Academy (1850). His other works include £tudes d'kisioire
et de lUtirature (1859-1864), and Let Quatres gratids kistoricns
latins (1875). In all his books he vigorously supported the
claims of classicism against romanticism. He died at San Remo
on the 27th of March 1888.
NISBETT, LOUISA CRANSTOUN (18x2-1858), English actress,
was the daughter of Frederick Hayes Macnamara, an actor, whose
stage name was Mordaunt. As Miss Mordaunt she had con-
siderable experience, especially in Shakesperean leading parts,
before her first London appearance in 1829 at Drury Lane as
Widow Checrly in Andrew Cherry's (i 762-1 81 2) Soldier* s
Daughter. Her beauty and high spirits made her at once a
popular favourite in a large number of comedy parts, until in
183X she was married to Captain John Alexander Nisbett and
retired. Her husband, however, was killed the same year by a
fall from his horse, and she was compelled to reappear on the
stage in 183 2, She was the original Lady Gay Spanker of London
Assurance {i^\i). In 1844 she withdrew again from the stage
to marry Sir William Boothby, Bart., but on his death (1846),
returned to play Lady Teazle, Portia, Constantine in the Love
Chase, Helen and Julia in the Hunchback. It was in the first of
these parts that she made her final appearance in 1851. She
died on the 15th of January x8$8.
NISH (also written Nisch and NiS), the capital of the Nish
department of Servia, lying in a plain among the southern
mountains, on the left shore of the Nishava, a tributary of the
Morava. Pop. (1900) 24,45x. Among Servian cities, Nish is
only surpassed by Belgrade in commcreial and strategic import-
ance; for it lies at the point where several of the chief Balkan
highroads converge, and where the branch railway to Salbnica
leaves the main line between Belgrade and Constantinople.
The administration of the Servian railways has its factory for
repairing engines and principal store of materials in the dty,
which also possesses an iron foundry. The king and the govern-
ment reside for at least three months in the year in Nish, where
also the national assembly, before the constitution of X901, was
regularly held. It is the see of a bishop, the seat of the district
prefecture and a tribunal, and the headquarters of the territorial
militia corps, having besides a large number of regular troops
in garrison. There is a small obsolete fortress on the right bank
of the Nishava, believed to have been erected on the site of
the Roman Naissus.. The surrounding hills (Vinik, Goritsa,
Kamenitsa) were, after x886, fortified by modem earthworks.
After the Turks were driven from the dty in X878, it was in
many respects modernized; but something of its former character
is preserved in the andent Turkish palace, mosque and fountain,
the maze of winding alleys and picturesque houses in the older
quarters, and, on market days, by the medley of peasant costumes
— Bulgarian, Albanian and Runumian, as well as Servian.
The andent Roman dty Naissus was mentioned as an im-
portant place by Ptolemy of Alexandria. Under its walls was
fought in A.D. 369 the great battle in which Emperor Claudius
jdestroyed the army of the Goths. It was at Naissus that
7IO
NISHAPUR— NISUS
ConsUntine the Great was bom in a j>. a 74. Though the emperor
Julian improved its defences, the town was destroyed by the Huns
under Attila, in the 5th century, but Justinian did his best to
restore it. In the 9th century the Bulgarians became masters of
Naissus, but had to cede it to the Hungarians in the nth century,
from whom the Byxantine emperor Manuel I. reconquered it in
II 73. Towards the end of the 1 2th century the town was in the
hands of the Servian prince Stephen Nemanya, who there received
hospitably the German emperor Frederic Barbarossa and his
Crusaders. In 1375 the Turks captured Naissus for the first time
from the Servians. In 1443 the allied armies of the Hungarians
under Hunyady and the Servians under George Brankqvich,
retook it from the Turk^, but in 1456 it again came under Turkish
dominion, and remained for more than 300 years the most
important Turkish military station on the road between Hungary
and Constantinople. In the frequent wars between Austria and
Turkey during tbie 1 7th and i8th centuries the Austrians captured
Naissus twice (in 1689 and 1737), but were not able to retain it
long. The Servians having^n the beginning of the 1 9th century,
successfully cleared Servia of Turks, were emboldened to attack
Nisb in 1 809, but were repulsed with great loss. The Turks raised
as a monument of their victory a high tower composed entirely
of the heads of the Servians slain in ^he battle of Nish. The
remnants of this monument are still kept up. It stands half a mile
to the east from Nish, and is called to. this day by the Turkish
name " Tyele-Koula," " the Tower of Skulls." In the Russo-
Turkish War the Servian army, under the personal command
of King Milan, besie^^ Nish, and forced it to capitulate on the
loth January 1878. The Berlin cqngress decided that it shduld
remain with Servia. (C. Mi.)
NUHIpOR, a province of Persia, situated between Meshed and
Sabzevar, in norUiem Khorasan. The older name of the district
was Abanhehr. It has a population of from 130,000 to 140,000,
b divided into twelve districts, and pays a yearly revenue
of about £ia,ooo. It produces much grain and cotton, and is
considered one of the most fertile districts of Persia. One of its
subdivisions is that of Bir-i-MAdan, with chief place Midan
(situated 3a m. N.W. of the dty of NishftpQr, at an elevation of
Sioo ft., in 36^ 28' N., 58* ao' E.), where the famous mines are
which have supplied the world with turquoises for at least aooo
years. Th« province used, to be one of the administrative
divisions of Khoraftan, but is now a separate province, with a
governor appointed by the shah.
NISHAPUR (Old Pers. Nthshdptbr^iOv, New Pers. fii», ntt"
good; Arab. NGisdbHf), the capitsj of the province of Nishiptkr,
Persia, situated at an elevation of 39ao ft., in 36^ la' N., and
58' 40' E., about 49 m. west of Meshed. The second element of
the name is that of the traditional founder ShftpQr, or Sapor of
the Western historians. Someaccounts name the first (a4 1-37 a),
others the second ShIpQr (309-379)* It was once one of the four
great cities of Khorasan, rivalUng Rai (Rhages), " the mother
of cities," in importance and population, but is now a small
and comparatively unimportant place with a population of
barely 1 5 ,000. It has post and telegraph offices and a lively trade
in wool, cotton and dry fruiu (almonds, pistachios).
Eastward of the present dty, amongst the mounds and ruins
of the old town, in a dilapidated chamber adjoining a blue-
domed building over the grave of an imamzadeh, is the tomb
of the astronomer-poet Omar Khayyftm, an unkightly heap of
plaster without inscription, and probably fictitious. Near it is
the grave of the celebrated poet and mystic Faild ud din Attlr,
who was killed by the Mongols when they captured the dty
c. iaa9.
Nishftpdr was an important place during the 5th century, for
Yasdegerd II. (438-457) mostly resided there. During the latter
Sassanids it is seldom mentioned, and when the Arabs came to
Khorasan (641-64 a) it was of so little importance that, as
Tabari relates, it did not even have a garrison. Under the
Tahirids (8ao-87a) it became a flourishing town and rose to
great importance during the Samanids (874-999)- Toghrul, the
first ruler of the Seljuk dynasty, made Nishapur his residence
in 1037. In 1 1 53 the Ghun Turkomans overran the country
and partly destroyed town and suburbs. In iao8 most of the
town was destroyed by an earthquake. The town was hardly
rebuilt when it was again destroyed, this time by the Moo^ob
(April laai) and so effectually that, completely levelled to the
ground, it was turned into a vast bariey field. The dty was again
rebuilt, suffered again at the hands of the Mongols (1269) and
from another great earthquake (ia8o), and never again rose to
its former greatness. (A. H.-S.)
NI8IBI8 {Nasibina in the Assyrian inscriptions), an aodent
city and fortress in the north of Mesopotamia, near the point
where the Mygdonius (mod. Jaghjagha) leaves the mountaiDS
by a narrow defile. The modem Nedb or Nasibin consists of
some 4000 inhabitants, largdy Jews, who pay tribute to the
Shammar Bedouins. The neighbourhood, we are informed hy
Arab writers, was at one time richly wooded, but is now soroevbat
marshy and unhealthy. According to the Arabian geographer.
Yaqut, Persian scorpions were thrown into the {^ace what it was
besieg^ by Anushirwan; hence their number to-day. The
church of St James, belonging to a small community of Jacobite
Christians, and a few pillars and blocks of masonry are the only
remains of the former greatness of the town.
'niir ^ite of NKibis on the great road between the Tigris and the
M^-<Ji[erranc^Tn, nrjrj commanoing alike the mountain country to the
north (}nd the ci: ■. ^'^{ile plain to the aouth, gave it an importance
which b<^n <1 ■ cSe Assyrian period aiKTcontinued uade' the
' ' ' 1 149 B.C. to^.D. 14 Ntsibis was the rcsideace
, 1 ■ ! I'luiL- Tij^rinci \\,i*; 'iu-^ Trciwjrc-rn:-'.'-**^:-.
er , ii a froritn^ lunrL-4« in the vantf ttsp
lu ', it A brick wallii bting unusually ihsvk
_ fO..H. Ced«l to tht PirthUn* by H*dri=ift,
it brcamt a Roma^i ooltiny (Sq>timb ColonU NLMta) u»ieT
Septlmiuft Sevtruw- [t mm heroically dtfeiKM anifM Sfcipiir
(S.iwjr)' 11.^ whn liiMKr-esAfullybeaiDf^c^ it thrice. Ja Ube peace saite
by lovmn. hifj^(.> r !; p : - a into the handi of th< Pcnifeah wha
est Jill ii^hcid a ^^: < loi r iherc {au. J64). Ni±ibi4 ^urly becape
the VC2X of a Jai \ :.'.■> liii i..'p and o( a Nestortsn otctrnpoiitaB* aad
under tht Arata (whiirn itnonimucd toflouri&h imd became Ibtcfi^rj.'
of ihe dibrrtct qf Diyi'r Rcbi'a} the population of the ta»v3 i:ii
Hteu'htMiurhoQd wa* ttiCl pioslly Chriiitidn, and included auffur: .
mfTi.^>ii>rit^. Arub i^eogra^heis and tnivrtkrrs of the mijJJW i,;. i
spuiL in high teriua» oi the ^rden» of Nit! bit, and the luagn.t.vr .:
returns obtained by the aKriLulturist, According to KlolcMkUu u-*,
loa^), acorns, preserved tnjitA and nunufactuixdi &rtick^ Hicb m
carnages and inkstands wrero exported. The town was 10 hcmtriiy
taxed Dv the Hamdanid crincr-^ nf M.-.^ut thjt tlir ;\nib !n"t* oUH
Banu Habib. although bioc : ; 1
into Bysantine temtory, v^ I
Christianity, attracted othci cnugc^ut^ l i ^iu .\ .^ui^ «kxul ^s. \ — ^ — \
to avenge themselves by yeariy raids upon their old hoae.
Haukal goes on to say that finally the Hanidaiuds took possi
of the town, confiscated the estates of those who had em^ratcd. aad
compdled those who remained to substitute com for then* pco6tabk
fruit crops. This destroyed the prosperity oC Nisabis, and the di»>
trict, no tonf^ protected against nomad tnbes, became a wiklenieak.
SeLcucid empiTi
oC the kinE* i"t
The pUcc fiiiiri
and ita citadel
[b«
Nisibis (Nenb) appeared for the last time in history in 183O, 1
the Egyptians under Ibrahim Pasha defeated the Turkish anay
under Hafia Pasha on the 24th oC June in a battle at wfaicb voa
Moltke was present.
NISI PRIU8, in English law, a term used to denote generalljr
all actions tried before judges of the king's bench divisioa.
Forthehistory and meaning of this term see Assize. Asarak
actions only are tried at nisi prius^ and a judge is said to sit at
nisi prius when he sits, tisually in the king's bench division, iu
the trial of actions. By a resolution passed by the judges of the
king's bench division in 1894 it was declared of the utmost
importance that there should be at least three courts of mist pnn
sitting continuously throughout the legal yeai^— one for spcdai
jury causes, one for common jury causes, and one for causes with-
out juries (see the Annual Practice).
Ntsi Prius Rtcord was before the Judicature Acts the name of tht
formal copy of proceedings showing the history of the caae up to ^
time of tnal. After the trial it was endorsed with the ^e«fca, shov-
ing the result of the trial, and delivered by the officer of tkecoen
to the successful party, whose possession of the fiostea w^s his utW
to judgment. Since the Judicature Acts there u no nisi prius rrctfi
in civu actions, the nearest approach to it being the deposit d
copies of the pleadings for the use of the judge, and there b no
posiea, the certificate of the aasodate or master as to the reaak d
the trial superseding it.
NISUS. in Greek mythology, king of Megara, brother of Aegeoi.
king of Athens. When Minos, king of Crete, was on his way ts
KITHARD^NITRIC.ACID
711
attack Athens to avenge tbe murder of his son Androgeus, for
which Aegeus was directly or indirectly responsible, he laid siege
to Megara. He finally gained possession of the city through the
treachery of the king's daughter Scylla, who, enamoured of
Minos, pulled out the golden (or purple) k>ck from her father's
head, on which his life and the safety of the city depended (for
similar stories, see Frazer, Cotdtn Bough, ui. 1900, p. 358).
Megara was captured, and Nisus, who died fighting (or sJew
himselOf was changed into a sea-eagle. Minos, disgusted at
Scylla's treachery, tied her to the rudder of his ship, and after>
wards cast her body ashore on the promontory called after her
Scyllaeum; or she threw herself into the sea and swam after
Minos, constantly pursued by her father, until at last she was
changed into a ciris (a bird or a fish). In Virgil, Scyllo, the
daughter of Nisus, is confused with the sea-monster, the daughter
of Phorcys. Nisus was the eponymous hero of the harbour of
Nisaea, and k>cal tradition makes no mention of his betrayal by
his daughter. According to Roscher (in his Lexikon dor Mytfuh
logic), who identifies the ciris with the heron, the story of Nisus
and Scylla (like these of A&lon, Procne, Philomek and Tereus)
was invented to give an aetiological explanation of the char-
act erist ics of certain birds. The birds were regarded as originally
human beings, whose acts and characters were supposed to
account for certain habits of the birds into which they had been
changed. £. Sieckc, De Niso d Scylla in aves mutatis (progr.
Berlin, 1884), holds that the purple or golden hair of Nisus is the
sun , and Scylla the moon, and that the origin of the legend is to be
looked f<Mr in a very ancient myth of the relations between the two,
which he endeavours to explain with the aid of Indian and
German parallels.
NITHARD (d. 844), Prankish historian, was the illegitimate
son of Angilbert, the friend of Charlemagne, by Bertha, a
daughter of the great emperor. He was educated at the imperial
court and became abbot of St Riquier in commendam, never taking
the vows. Little else is known about his life, but he appears
to have served his cousin, Charles the Bald, on peaceful errands
and also on the field of battle. He fought for Charics at Fontcnoy
in June 841, and died as the result of wounds received whilst
fighting for him against the Northmen near Angoul£roc. The
date of his death was probably the X4th of June 844. In the
iitb century his body, with the fatal wound still visible, was
found in the grave of his father, Angilbert. Nithard's historical
work consists of four books on the history of the Carolingian
empire under the turbulent sons of the emperor Louis I., especi-
ally during the troubled period between 840 and 843. This
Histariae or De dissensionibus filiorum Ludovici pii is valuable
for the light which it throws upon the causes which led to the
disintegration of the Carolingian empire. Although rough in
style, partisan in character and sometimes incorrect in detail,
the books are the work of a man who had an intimate knowledge
of thc«events which he relates, who possessed a clear and virile
mind, and who above all was not a recluse but a man of action.
They are dedicated to Charles the Bald, at whose request they
were written.
The Historioi has been printed several times. Perhaps the best
edition b in Band ii. of the Monumenla Cermaniae kislorica. Serip-
tores'^ it has alio been edited by A. Holder (Freiburg. 1882). It
has been tnnslated into German t>y J. von Jasmund (Berlin. 1851 ;
new edition by W. Wattenbarh, Leipzig, 1889); and into French
in lomc iii. of Cuizot's CaUeclioH des mimoires (Paris, 1834).
Sec O. KuntzrmQllcf, Nitha d und sein CeschutUstotrk (Jena,
1 873) : C Meyer von Knonau. Ober Nithards vier Bucker Cesckichlen
(Leipzig. 1866); and W. Wattenbach, DeutscUands CesckitktsquelUn,
Band i. (Bcriin, 1904).
HITHSDALB. WILUAH HAZWBU.. 5TH Eakl or (1676-
1744), Jacobite leader, was a member of the family of Maxwell
<^.r.),belngasonof Robert the4tk earl (d. 1696) and a collateral
relation of Robert Maxwell (d. 1646) who was created earl of
Kitbsdale in 1620. He became famous by his loyalty to the
royalist tradition of his family, and by the heroism of his wife
Winifred, daughter of William Herbert, ist marquess of Powis.
/\jier beo>ming earl in 1698 he served the exiled house of Stuart
in secret, was suq>ected as a Jacobite conspirator, and was much
molested on that account.' In 171a he resigned his estate to his
son William (d. 1776), reserving a life rent to himself. When the
Jacobite rising took pUce in 17x5 he Joined his friends in the
north of England and was taken prisoner at Preston, being sent
to London for trial. The countess of Nithsdale, who was at
Terregles when she heard of the capture of her husband, followed
him to London, making part of the journey on horsebatk in bitter
winter weather. The earl and the other Jacobites were brought
to trial in Westminster Hall on the 19th of January 17 16, and
condemned to death on the 9th of February.. The execution was
fixed for the 34th. The countess presented a petition to George I.
which he refused to receive, and when she knelt before him and
took hold of the skirts of his coat he dragged her half across
the room before he could break away. Finding that no pardon
could be obtained the countess laid a plan to rescue her husband
from the Tower of London. With the help of two Jacobite
ladies, Mrs Morgan and Mrs Mills, she very cleverly extricated
her husband from his cell on the night before the day fixed for
the execution by disguising him as a woman. The earl escaped
from England and was followed by the countess, but not till
she had gone back to Scotland to rescue important legal papers
which proved the transfer of the estate to their son. The earl
and countess went to Rome after a short stay in France. In
Rome they were attached to the court of the Pretender and lived
in poverty and obscurity. The earl died on the 30th of March
1744, and the countess in 1749. Their son, William Maxwell,
regained the possession of the family property after his father's
death In 17441 since the government could only confiscate his
father's life-interest; but the title was forfeited, and he died
childless.
Sec Sir A. Frascr, Tki Book of Carlaoerock (Edinburgh, 1873).
NITRE,- the name given to naturally occurring potassium
nitrate; " cubic nitre " is sodium nitrate. The word is adapted
from Lat. niirum, which is itself adapted from Gr. vlrpop. Thtae
words were originally applied to the naturally occurring sodium
carbonate; the connexion with potassium nitrate (sal pttrae
or sal petrosum) may be traced to Raimon Lull's name sal nitri,
which substance, however, he distinguished from nitrum. In
the i6th century the ancient nitrUm became altered to natron,
a term still used for native sodium carbonate, while nitrum, and
its adaptation nitre, were retained for potassium nitrate or salt-
petre iq.v.),
NITRIC ACID (aqua fortis), HNQi, an important mineral add.
It is mentioned in the De itneutione veritatis ascribed to Geber,
wherein it is obtained by calcining a mixture of nitre, alum and
blue vitriol. It was again described by Albert le Grand in tbe
X3th century and by Raimon Lull, who prepared it by heating
nitre and clay and called it " eau forte." Glauber devised the
process in common use to-day, viz. by heating nitre with strong
sulphuric acid. Its true nature was not determined until the
xSth century, when A. L. Lavoisier (1776) showed that it con-
tained oxygen, whilst in 1785 H. Cavendish determined its
constitution and showed that it could be synthesized by passing
a stream of electric sparks through moist air. The acid is found
to exist to a slight extent in the free condition in some waters,
but chiefly occurs in combination with various metals, as nitrates,
principally as nitre or saltpetre, KNOi, and Chile saltpetre,
NaNOs. It is formed when a stream of electric sparks is passed
through moist air, and in the oxidation of nitrogenous matter
in the presence of water.
For experimental purposes it is usually obtained by distilling
potassium or sodium nitrate with concentrated sulphuric acid.
The acid so obtained usually contains more or less water and
some dissolved nitrogen peroxide which gives it a yellowish red
colour. It may be purified by redistillation over barium and
silver nitrates, followed by treatment of tbe distillate with a
stream of ozonized air. The product so obtained is then redistilled
under diminished pressure and finally distilled again from a sealed
and evacuated apparatus (V. Veley and Manley, Phil. Trans.,
1898, A. 291, p. 365). On the large scale it is obtained by distil-
ling Chile saltpetre with concentrated sulphuric acid in horizontal
cast iron stills, the vapours being condensed in a series of
712
NITROBENZENE
Stoneware Woulfe's bottles. In practice the theoretical quantity
of add and Chile saltpetre is not used, but the charge is so
regulated that the mixture of add and neutral sodium sulphate
formed in the retort remains liquid at the temperature employed,
and consequently can be readily removed. Various modifica-
tions have been made in the form of the condensing apparatus, the
Guttmann condenser {J&ur. Soc, Ckem, Ind., 1893, p. 203) being
now frequently employed. This consbts of a series of vertical
earthenware condensing tubes through which compressed air is
passed in order to reduce the quantity of nitrogen peroxide to
a minimum. The temperature of the condenser is so regulated
as to bring about the condensation of the nitric add only, which
runs out at the bottom of the pipe, whilst any lucondensed
steam, nitrogen peroxide and other impurities pass into a Lunge
tower, where they meet a descending stream of water and are
condensed, giving rise to an impure add. F. Valentiner [£ng.
Pat. 6x0 (1892), 19192 (1895)] recommends distillation and
condensation of nitric add in a partial vacuum. For the
production of nitric add from air see Nitrogen. Fuming nitric
add consists of a solution of nitrogen peroxide in concentrated
nitric add and is prepared by distilling dry sodium nitrate with
concentrated sulphuric add.
Nitric add is a colourless strongly fuming liquid, having a
specific gravity of x- 50394 (u-a* C.) (V. Vcley, Proc. Roy. Soc., 6a,
p. 323). It is exceedingly hygroscopic and corrosive. On dis-
tillation, the pure add begins to boil at 78*2^ C. (W. Ramsay),
partial decomposition into water, oxygen and nitrogen peroxide
taking place. The add solidifies when strongly cooled, the solid
melting at - 47' C. Concentrated nitric acid forms with water a
constant boiling mixture which boils at 120*5* C, contains 68%
of add and possesses a specific gravity of i-4X4 (is-s* C.).- If
a more dilute acid than this be distilled, water passes over in
excess and the residue in the retort reaches the above composition
and boiling point; on distillation of a stronger add, excess of
add passes into the distillate and the boiling point rises imtil the
values of the constant boiling mixture are reached. On the
hydrates of nitric add see V. Veley, Jour. Chan. Soc.f 1903, 83,
p. 1015, and F. W. Kuster, Zeil. anorg. Ckem. 1904, 41, p. x. On
mixing nitric add with water there is a rise of temperature and
a contraction in volume. The add is a powerful oxidizing agent.
It attacks most metals readily, usually with production of a
nitrate or hydrated oxide of the metal and one or other of the
oxides of nitrogen, or occasionally with the production of
ammonium salts; magnesium, however, liberates hydrogen from
the very dilute add. Its action on metals depends in most cases
on the temperature, strength of the acid, and the nature of the
products of reaction. Thus in the case of copper, it is found that
the dilutedadd acts very slowly upon the metal at first, but as the
reaction proceeds the copper dissolves more rapidly up to a
certain point and then the rate of solution again diminislies.
This is possibly due to the accelerating action of the nitrous add
which is produced in the direct action of the copper on the nitric
add and which, when a certain amount has been formed in
the system, begins to decompose, thus 3HN0f-HN0j+
2NO-f-H80 (V. Vcley, Phil. Trans., 1891, 182, p. 279; G. O.
Higley, Amer. Chem. Jour.t 1893, 15, p. 7i» 1895, 17, p. 18,
1896, 18, p. 587). Iron when brought into contact with nitric
acid under certain conditions, remains passive to the acid.
Thus at 55' C. it is passive to an add of specific gravity 1-42,
and at 31* C. to an acid of specific gravity "x 38. No satis-
factory explanation .of this passivity has been given (see J. B.
Senderens, BuU. Soc. Chem., X896 [3], 15, p. 691; A. Finkelstein,
ZeU. phys. Chem., 190X, 39, p. 9x; W. J. Miiller, ibid. 1904,
48, p. 577). Nitric add is without action on gold, platinum,
iridium and rhodium.
The salts of nitric add, known as nitraUs, are mortly readily
soluble in water and crvstalliic well. They are all decompcMed when
heated to a sufficiently high tentperature, with evolution for the most
part of oxyeen and nitrogen peroxide, leaving a residue of oxide
of the meui. They may be recOEnized by the fact that on the
addition of a solution of ferrous sulphate, followed bjr that of con-
rentrated sulphuric acid (the mixture being kept quite cold), the
ferrous sulphate solution becomes of a deep brown colour, owing
to the reducing action of the ferrous sulphate on the nitric add
which is liberated by the action of the sulphuric acid on the nitnic.
As an alternative method the nitrate may be w arm ed with some
fragments of copper and sulphuric acid whKh has been dflutcd vith
its own volume 01 water, when characteristic brown vapouis will be
seen.
Nitric add finds extensive application in the manufacture of
sulphuric add, certain coal-tar colouring matters, exploiivcs, and in
the production of various nitrates.
In roedichte, nitric add is used externally ill a pure state as a
caustic to destroy chancres, warts and phagadenic ulcers; and dSuted
preparations are employed in the treatment of dyspepsia, &c.
Poisoning by strong nitric add produces a widespread pstio-
enteritis, burning pain in the oesopnagus and abdomen and bloody
diarrhoea. There may also be blood in the urine Death occurs
from collapse or from secondary destructive changes in the tntcst'ual
canal. Characteristic vcllow staining of the akin round the mouth
from the formation 01 xanthoproteic acid 'serves to distinguish it
from poisoning by other acids. The antidotes axe mild aUoliv
together with the use of opium to relieve pain.
NITROBENZENE, C4I»N0t, the simplest aromatic nitro
compoimd. It was first isolated in 1834 by £. Mitscheriicli
{Pogg. Ann., X834, 3x, p. 625), and is prepared commercially
by the gradual addition of benzene to a well-cooled mixture of
concentrated nitric and sulphuric adds, the oily product bring
separated, washed with alkali, and then distilled. It also nsxAis
in the oxidation of aniline by monopersulphuric add (H. Caro.
ZeU. angew. Chem., X898, p. 845) or by potassium permanganate
(E. Bamberger, Ber.; X893. 26, p. 496); by the oxidati(» cl
nitrosobenxene (below) with atmospheric oxygen; or by the
decomposition of benzene diazonium nitrate mercury nitrite.
Hg(N0t)f2CaitNrNQ>, with copper powder (A. Hantcch.
Ber., X900, 33, p. 2551). It is a yellowish liquid possessing a
strong smell of oil of bitter almonds. It boils at 209*6., and melts
at 3-6° C. (C.E. LJnebargcr, Amer. Chem. Jour., 1896. 18, p. 437)-
The products of its electrolytic reduction vary with the coo-
ditions: in sulphuric add solution it yields para-aminopbeool
(L. Gattermann, Ber., 1893, 26, p. 1844); in alcohofa'c alkaline
solution it yields azoxybeiizene; in acid alcoholic solutiofl,
benzidine; in ammoniacal alcoholic solution, phenylbydrazine.
With chlorine, in the presence of iodine or antimony chloride, it
yields meta-chlomitrobenzene. Hydrobromic acid at xSs^-ipoT.
converts it into di- and tri-bromaniline. It occasionally acts as
an oxidir'ng agent, as in the preparation of qtunollne and fuch&ine.
It is used commercially for the preparation of aniline and of
benzidine; and in perfumery (oil of mirbane).
Dinitrehensenes, C«H«(N02)a. — Ortho-dinitrobenxene is fonncd is
small quantity in the preparation of meta-di nitrobenzene, and 2U0
results from tne action of nitro-sulphuric acid on bismuth triphcrn\|
(A. Gillmcistcr. Ber., 1897. 30, |>. 2844). It forms colourlr«s cr> ^al»
which melt at Ii6'^* C. and boil at 319* C. (773 mm.). On boi«-;
with aqueous caustic soda, it yields on ho- nil rophcnol. Meta<diBitr>
benzene is formed by the direct nitration of nitrobenzene «i:h
fuming nitric acid, the product bdng poured into water and tt>-
crystallized from dilute alcohol. It forms practicany colouTtns
needles which melt at 89-7* C, and boil at 302-8' C. It is wr^! for
the preparation of meta-phenylene diamine. Para-dinitrobefuirar
results from the action of nitrogen peroxide on an ethereal solot^jo
of quinone dioxime (R. OHveri-Tortorici, Cats., 1900. 30, i. p. 5331
It crystallizes in colourless needles, which melt at 171-172 C. It
is only slightly soluble in cold water and cold alcohol.
Trtnitrobenzenes, C|H|(N0»)|.— Asyrmmctrical (1.2^) trir.itn>
benzene results from the action of fuming nitric and sulfuric ^.ti-
on para-dinitrobcnzcne. It forms yellow crystals, which inr!t *'
57-5* C. When boiled with dilute aqueous caustic soda it >irVl>
2*4 dinitrophenol. Symmetrical (i .3.5) trinitrobenxcne is fomrd K
the further nitration of meta-dinitrobenzene with fuming sulp^urc
and nitric acids; by the action cS hydrochloric acid on bod.c^
malonyl aldehyde (H. B. Hill and J. Torray. Ber., 1895, »8. p. jv**
or by the action of water on 2.4.6-trinitrobenzotc acid iOrr.^*
patent 77353). It crystallizes in prisms which melt at I2i* C
It yields addition compounds with aniline arxl naphthalene, ar'
combines directly with ootas^um methylate, sodio-malotuc e*f
and h)rdrocyantc ester. AlkaUne potassium fcrricyanllte oobdiAM '
to picric acid.
Nitrosobensene, CiHtNO. was first obtained by the action of mtI?^^ •
bromide or chloride on mercury diphenyl (A. Bae>er. Ber^ 1874 7
p. 1638). It results, with other products, in the oxidatioa of i:^-*-
diazonium chloride with alkaline potasaum ferricyaiude: ot f
phenylhydroxylamine with chromic acid mixture (E. B*mbeTir''.
Ber., 1893, 26, pp. 473. 483. 1894, 27, p. t349). cr of ariHar M
monopersulphuric aad (German patent 1 10^75)- 1^ exists is t««
crysuUine lonns. Nitric add passed into its chlorofom ^tijom
NITRO COMPOUNDS
713
gives phenyl diasonium nitnte. With aiuttne and acetic add it
yields axobeniene. It combines with aromatic amines to form axo-
corapounds, with arylhydroxylamines to form asoxy compounds,
and with hydroxylamine it gives iaodiasobenxene.
NITRO COMPOUNDS, ia organic chemistiy, compounds
containing the monovalent ndioal -NQs directly combined
with carbon.
Aipkatic NUro Compounds.— The nitroparaffins may be
\>btained by the action of the alkyl iodides on silver nitrite
(V. Meyer, Ann. 1874, 171, p. x et seq.). When methyl iodide
is used, nitromethane is the sole product, but the higher homo-
k>gues give more or less of the isomeric nitrous esters. Nitro-
paraffins may also be obtained by the action of sodium nitrite on
the a-halogen fatty acids, the a-nitro fatty acids first formed
readily eliminating carbon dioxide (H. Kolbe, Jour, prak, Ckem.,
187 3 [3] 5, p. 437). Tertiary nltro compounds may also be
obtained by the oxidation of the corresponding amino-, hydroxyl-
amino-, and nitroso-hydrocarbons with monopersulphuric add
(E. Bamberger, Ber., 1903. 36. p. 385):
The nitro compounds of the lower members of the paraffin series
caimot be prepared by the direct action of nitric add on the
hydrocarbons themselves, but, in the case of some of the higher
members of the seriesdirect nitration is possible (M. Konowalow,
Comptes rendus, 1893, X14, p. 36; Ber., 1895, 38, p. 1853; R. A.
Worstall, Amcr, Chem^ Jour., 1898, 30, p. 303).
The nitro compounds are colourless, somewhat pleasant smell-
ing liquids, which distil without decomposition and possess
boiling points much higher than those of the isomeric nitrous
esters. Reduction with acid-reducing agents gives amines.
The primary and secondary nitro compounds (i.«. those con-
taining the groupings 'CHaNOa and >CHNOi) form metallic
derivatives; for example, sodium salts, which according to A.
Hantzsch {Ber., 1899, 33, pp. 577 et seq.) are probably derived
from the isomeric iso-niiro compounds R : NO(OH), and thus
the nitro derivatives are to be lookeid upon as pseudo-ccids.
These sodium salts are crystalline solids which are readify soluble
in water and are very explosive. Stannous chloride and hydro-
chloric add reduce the nltroparaf&ns to^-alkyl hydrotylamines,
amines and some ammonia being simultaneously produced (V.
Meyer, Ber., 1891, 34, p. 3530), whilst the primary nitro com-
pounds on heating with hydrochloric add yield hydroxylamine
and an add:
CH,.CHr NOi-fHiO - CH,CO,H -»-NH/)H
(V. Meyer, Ann., 1876, 180, p. 163). When reduced by the
Sabatier and Senderens' method {Comptes rendus, 1902, 135,
p. 335) they are converted into amines, provided the temperature
be kept at 150^-300^ C, a higher temperature leading to the
formation of paraffins and ammonia. The hydrogen in the
primary and secondary nitro compounds which is attached to
the same carbon atom as the nitro group is readily replaced by
bromine in alkaline solution. The reactions of the nitroparaffins
with nitrous add are very characteristic and have been used as a
method for discriminating between the primary, secondary
and tertiary alcohols iq.v.) (V. Meyer, Ann., 1875, X7S» P* 93)*
The primary compounds form nitrolic acids of the type
R-C(:NOH)NO, the secondary yield pseudo^Uroh of the type
RR*: C(NO)(NOi), whilst the tertiary nitro compounds are not
acted upon by nitrous add. The primary nitroparaffins combine
with nitric oxide in the presence of sodium ethylate, to form
nitroalkylisonitramines, R'CH(NOi)NiC)iH (W. Traube, Ann.,
1898, 300, p. 95).
Nilromethatu, CH«NO^ Is a colouriesi oil which boils at 101* C.
Fuming sulphuric add decomposes it into carbon monoxide and
hydroxylamine. It comlnnes with aromatic aldehydes in the pres-
ence of alcoholic potash to form addition products which are con-
verted by adds into styrol derivatives 0* Thiele, Ber., 1899. 33,
p. 1391). NUro€tkan4t CtH»NOi. is a colourless liquid which boils
at 114^ C. Niirqform (trinitromethane), CH(NOi)», is obtained in
the form of its ammonium salt by the decomposition of trinitro-
acetonitrile with water (L. Schiachkoff, i4ffii., l8«7, 103, p. 361).
Ic is a colourless crystalline solid which mdu at ly C. and has the
pctiperties of a strong add. The potassium salt is formed by tlw
Kction of potassium ethylate on tetranitromethane (A. Hantxsch.
Btr., 1899, 3s, p. 631). It is a deep yellow coloured solid, which
bicadtlv soluble In water. It explodes when heated. The silver salt,
obtained by shaking an ether solution of nitroform with freshly
prepared, slightly moist silver oxide, reacts with methyl iodide to
form trinUroetkane, a crystalline solid which mdts at 56* C. Concen-
trated caustic potash decomposes the latter compound, forming the
potassium salt of dinitroethane, CHrC(NO0sK. Tetranitromctkano,
C(N0s)4, obtained by adding nitroform to a hot mixture of nitric
and sulphuric adds, is a crystalline solid which melts at 13* C.
Chhrpicrin, CCUNOa, b a liquid of suffocating odour obtained by
the action of nitric add and chloride of lime on many organic com-
pounds. It boils at iia".
Aromatic Nitro Compounds.— Tht aromatic nitro compounds
are generally obtained by the direct action of nitric add.
Substitution takes place usually in the nudeus and only
rarely in the side chain, and according to the conditions of
the experiment and the nature of the compound acted upon, one
or more nitro groups enter the molecule. The reaction is gener-
ally carried out in the presence of sulphuric acid, which is used to
absorb the water formed during the process of nitration. Nitro
compounds have also been prepared by the action of cuprous
oxide on diaxonium salts (T. Sandmeyer, Ber., 1887, 30, p. 1494);
by the action of copper powder on the double salt formed
by the addition of potassium mercuric nitrite to diazonium
nitrites; and by the oxidation of primary aromatic amines (E.
Bamberger, Ber., 1893, 36, p. 496). The mono-nitro compounds
are stable and distil without decomposition; they have a pale
yellow colour and possess an agreeable odour. Most of the poly-
nitro compounds are not volatile, but undergo decomposition
on heating. The nltro group in the aromatic series is bound very
firmly in the molecule and is not readily exchanged for other
groups. Several different products may be obtained by the
reduction of the aromatic nitro compounds, the substances
formed in any particular case depending on the conditions of
experiment. In add solution, amines are obtained, in alkaline
solution, axoxy, azo and hydraxo compounds, and in neutral
solution hydroxylamino compounds. The electrolytic reduction
of the aromatic nitro compounds gives rise to substituted
hydroxylamines which are immediately transformed into
aminophcnols or amines
For the nitrobenienes see NixaoBBNZBNB. Nitrotoluaus,
C«H4(CH)a(N0)i. Three isomers exist, the ortho- and para-com-
pounos being the chief products of the direct nitration of toluene.
They mav be separated by fractional distillation. The ortho-
compound melts at io«^* C. and boib at 3 18* C, the para-compound
melts at 54* C. and botis at 330* C. Meta-nitrotoluene (roeltmg at
16** C.) is obtained by nitrating acetparatoluidide and then rei^adng
the amino group by bydroffen.
PhenjlnUromahan*, Cjlt*ChrNQi, isomeric with tlw nitro-
toluencs, is prepared by the action of benzyl chloride on silver
nitrite. It b a colourless oily liquid which botis at 335'*-337* C, is
somewhat soluble in water, and does not give a coloration with ferric
chloride. It readily forms a sodium salt, from the a9ueous solution
of which on the addition of a mineral aad an isomeric solid form of
the nitro compound (melting at 8^* C.) b predpitated. Thb solid
form gradually paasesi on standing, into the oily variety. It b probably
a hydroxy-compound, since it gives a red-brown colour with feme
chloride, reacts with phenyl isocyanate and with phosphorus penta-
chloride, and with bcnxoyl' chloride yields dibenzhydroxamic acid,
C,H»CO-NH'OCOC«I^». Thus the solid form is'orobably to be
represented asCH.CH: NOOH or CH».CH<^'""(8ee further,
A. Hantzsch on Pseudo-adds, Ber., 1899, 3», P- S75> 1903, 35, pp.
3i0b 236, looi, 1906, 39, pp. 139, 1073 et seq.).
The niirolic acids, RC(:NOH)NO», may be prepared by the
action of nitrous add on the primary nitroparaffins; by the
action of hydroxylamine on the dibromnitroparaffins; and by
the action of nitrogen peroxide on the a-isonltroso fatty adds
(G. Ponxio, Cos., 1903, 33 (x), p. 508). They are colourless solids
which are readily soluble in water and possess the character of
weak adds. They are characterized by the deep red colour of
their solutions in alkalbi When strongly heated they decom-
pose, forming fatty adds, nitrogen peroxide and nitrogen. By
passing hydrochloric add gas into an ethereal solution of the
acids, the nitro group b eliminated and the hydrochloride of an
oximido-add b obtained (A. Werner and H. Buss, Ber., 1895, 38,
p.x383):CH,.C(:NOH)NO,-H2Ha-HNOi-»-CH,C(:NOH)Cl.Ha.
When heated with water and mineral adds, the nitrolic adds are
completely decomposed, srielding fatty adds and nitrous oxidfr
7'+
NITROGEN
A. Huitflch ind O. Granl (Btr. 1898, 31, p. 9854) described
several aeries of salts of the nitrolic adds, with |>articttlar refer-
ence to ethylnitrolic add. They discriminate between the red
or ery^Aftf-saits, which are well crystallised, very explosive and
unstable compounds, and which regenerate the colouriess
nitrolic add on the addition of dilute mineral adds, and the
leuco-saltM, which are colourless salts obtained by warming the
erythro-salts or by exposing them to direct sunlight. These
salts cannot be converted dther into the red salts or into the free
acid. An intensely ydlow add salt is described, as is also a very
unstable colourless salt which could not be examined further
owing to its very labile nature. The following structural formulae
are assigned to these compounds: —
R.C<
.NOH
nitrolic add;
'»<^<^'J'>o
R.C<~O.K
erythro<falt; leuco-salt.
The add salts are obtained by the addition of one molecule
of alkali to two molecules of the add in concentrated alcoholic
solution at a low temperature. They are unstable compounds
which readily split into the red salt and the free add on standing.
The pseudo-nitrols, RR':C(NO)(NOi), may be obtained by the
action of nitrous add on the secondary nitroparaffins; by the
action of sflver nitrite on such bromnitrosoparaffins as contain
the bromine and the nitroso group united to the same carbon
atom (O. Piloty, £fr., 190a, 35, p. 3093); and by the action of
nitrogen peroxide on ethereal solutions of ketoximes (R. Scholl,
Ber., 1888, 31, p. 508; G. Bom, Ber. 1896, 39, p. 93). They
exhibit an intense blue colour when in the liquid condition or
dissolved in alkali and possess a very sharp smell. On oxidation
with chromic add they yield dinitrohydrocarbons, and on
reduction with hydroxylamine (in alkaline solution) or with
potassium sulphydrate give ketoximes, RR':C:NOH (R. Scholl
and K. Landstdner, 5er., 1896, 39, p. 87). «
RR':C(NO).NO«->RR':C(NH.OH),->RR':C:NOH+NHiOH.
NUrosokydrocarhatu have been prepared in the aliphatic series
by the oxidation of the corresponding hydroxylamino compounds.
Nitroso-tertiary butane, (CHs)sC-NO, is formed when the corre-
sponding hydroxylamine is oxidized by sulphuric monoper add
(E. Bambcarger, Ber., 1903, 36, p. 686). A nitrosooctane
(CH,),C(NO)[CHjiCH(CH>)t, has been obtained by O. Piloty
and O. Ruff {Ber., 1898, 31, p. 457) from nitro-di-isobutyl by
reducing it to the corresponding hydroxylamino compound with
aluminium amalgam and oxidizing this with chromic acid
mixture. It is a colourless solid which mdts at 54* C. to a deep
blue liquid. Numerous nitroso compounds are met with in the
aromatic series.
NITROGEN (symbol N., atomic weight X4-ox, 0-16]. A
non-metallic chemical dement, first isolated in 1772 by D.
Rutherford, who showed that on removing oxygen from air
a gas remained, which was incapable of supporting combusUon
or respiration. Nitrogen forms approximately 79% by volume
<or 77% by weight) of the atmosphere; actual values are:
% by volume— 79-07 (Regnault), 79-30 (Dumas); %by weight—
7687 (Regnault), 77*<» (Dumas), 77003 (L^wy), 76900 (Stas),
77-OIO (Marignac). No absolutely accurate determinations
appear to have been made recently. Free nitrogen is also
found in some natural waters and has been recognized in certain
nebulae. In the combined sUte nitrogen is fairly widely dis-
tributed, being found in nitre, Chile saltpetre, ammonium salts
and in various animal and vegeuUe tissues and liquids. It is
invariably present in soils, where oompounds are formed by
nitrifying bacteria.
Nitrogen may be obtained from the atniaq>here by the removal
of the oxygen with which it is there mixed. This may be effected
by burning phosphorus in a confined volume of air, by the action
of an alkaline solution of pyrogallol on air; by passing air over
heated copper, or by the action of copper on air in the presence
of ammoniiifsl solutions.
It is also prepared fay heating ammonium nitrite (or a mixture
of sodium mtrite and ammonium chloride): NH4NOt-2H|0+Nt:
by heating a mixture of ammonium nitrate and dUoride (the chlorine
which is iimuluneoualy produced being absorbed by milk of lime or
by a solution of sodium hydroxide): 4NH4NOi+2NH/n-5Ni
-fClfl-f 12H|0; by beating ammonium dichromate (or a mixture
of ammonium chkxide and potamium dichromate): (NH4)iCr40r
*CrjK>a+4HiO+Ns; by paaaii^ chlorine intoaoonoemrated Mlutuw
of ammonia (which should be present in cooaidcnble acai):
8NHa+SCla-6NH«a+Nt: by the action of hypochlorites or h>T»-
bromitcs on ammonia: 3NaOBr+2NHB-3NaBr-f3H^+Ns: and
by the action of manganese dioxide on ammonium nitntc at
180-300" C It is also formed by the reduction of nitric and nitrous
lysu of hydnunne and its salts (E. Ch.
1900, 77. p. 603).
', Jomr. Chtm. Sec^
The chief importance of nitrogenous oopipounds depends
upon thdr assimilation by living plants, which, in their devdop-
ment, absorb these compounds from the soil, wherein they are
formed mainly by the action of nitrifying bacteria. Since these
compounds are essential to plant life, it becomes necessary to
replace the amount abstracted from the soil, and hence a demand
for nitrogenous manures was created. This was met in a voy
large measure by deposits of natunl nitre and the products
of artificial nitriires, whilst additional suppUes are available ia
the anmioniacal liquors of the gas-manufacturer, 8cc Tht
possible failure of the nitre deposits led to attempts to convtrl
atmospheric nitrogen into manures by processes permitting
economic success. Combination can be made in five directions,
viz. to form (i) oxides and nitric adds, (2) ammonia, (3) readily
decomposable nitrides, (4) cyanides, (5) cyanamidea. The fizst
three will be treated here; for the others see Paussic Acid kdA
Cyanamide.
The combhiation of m'trogen with oxygen was first effected
by Cavendish in 1785, who employed a spark discharge. Tlic
process was developed by Madame Lefebre in 1859; by Meissner
in 1863, who found that moist gases gave a better result; and
by Prim in 1883, who sparked the gases under pressure; it was
also used by Lord Rayldgh in his isoUtlon of argon iq.t.). It
was not, however, a commercial success, and the same resdt
attended Siemens and Halake's application of the silent discharge.
More effective was the electric arc In 1893 Sir W. Crookes
showed that the arc brought about combination ; and in 1897 Lord
Rayldgh went into the process more fully. But the first careful
working-out of the conditions was made in 1900 by A. McDoogall
and F. Howies, who, employing a high tension alternating arc,
showed that the effectiveness depended upon the tempecatuic.
The commerdal manufacture of nitric add was atten^pted by
C. S. Bradley and D. R. Lovejoy at Niagara FaOs, who passed
atmo^>heric air, or air enriched with oxygen, about a hi|^ tension
arc nruule as long as possible; but the company (the Atmospheric
Products Company) was a failure. Better resulu have attended
the process of K. Birkeland and S. Eyde, which b being worked
on a large scale at Notodden, Norway. The arc is produced by
leading a current of about 5000 volts equatorially between the
poles of an dcctromagnet; this produces what is practically a
disk of flame, 6} ft. in diameter and having a temperature of
about 3000". The disk really consists of a series of sacoessiw
arcs which increase in size'until they burst. The first product of
the reaction is nitric oxide, which on cooling with the reskhal
gases produces nitrogen peroxide. The cooled gases are then
led into towers where they meet a stream of water coming in the
contrary direction. Nitric add (up to 50%} is formed in the
first tower, and weaker adds in the successive ones; the last
tower, contains milk of lime which combines with the gases to
form caldum nitrite and nitrate (this product, behig unsoitable
as a manure, is decomposed with the add, and the evolved poes
sent back). It was found advantageous not to work for add
but for a basic caldum nitrate (nmmal calcium nitrate being
very deh'quescent); for this purpose the add is ticated with
the requisite amount of milk of Ihne. In the procesi d tl«
Badische AniUn- und Soda-Fabrik, the arc, which is said to be
30 to so ft. long or more, is formed in a long tube, and the gsses
are sent round the are by obliqudy injecting them. A 30%
add is said to be formed. I. Mosdcki and J. von Kowalaki have
patented a process wherein the arc is formed at two vertical
NITROGEN
oonoentTic copper electrodes and rotated by an electromagnet;
it is worked at Vevey, Switzerland. The Rankin process, of
which voy little is known, produces the arc with much lower
current.
The convernon of nitrogen into ammonia by electricity has
received much attention, but the commercial aspect appears to
have been first woriced out by de Hemptinne in 1900, who used
both the spark and silent discharge on mixtures of hydrogen and
nitrogen, and found that the pressure and temperature must be
kept low and the spark gap narrow. J. Schlutius in 1903 em-
ployed Dowsoh gas as a source of hydrogen, and induced com-
bination by means of platinum and the lilent discharge. Several
non-dectrical processes have been devised. In 1862 Fleck passed
& mixture of steam, nitrogen and carbon monoxide over led-hot
lime, whilst in 1904 Woltereck induced combination by passing
steam and air over red-hot iron oxide (peat is used in practice).
In de LambQIy's process air and steam is led over white-hot
coke, and carbon dioxide or monoxide removed from the escaping
gases according as ammonium formate or carbonate is wanted.
The residual gas is then passed through a tube containing porous
materials, such as wood- or bone-charcoal, platinised pumice or
spongy pUtinum, then mixed with steam and again forced
through the tube. The reactions are represented as
(I) Ns-H3Ht+2CO -|-2H40-2HCOiNH« (Ammonium formate),
(a) Nt+3H.-|-2C(>i-|-2H^«2HOCOiNH« CAmmonium carbonate).
The best temperature for the first reaction is between 8o*C. and
i30*C. and for the second between 40* C. and 60'* C. In another
process, which originated with C. Kaiser {Abst. /.C.5., 1907,
ii. p. 862), calcium is heated in a current of hydrogen, and
nitrogen passed over the hydride so formed; this gives ammonia
and (^dum nitride, the latter of which gives up iu nitrogen as
ammonia and reforms the hydride when heated in a current of
hydrogen.
The fixation of nitrogen as a nitride has not been attended
with commercial success. H. Mehncr patented heating the
oxides of silicon, boron or magnesium with coal or coke in an
electric furnace, and then passing in nitrogen, which forms, with
the metal liberated by the action of the carbon, a readily decom-
posable nitride.
For sn extended bibliography see Bulletin Na 63 of the Bureau
of Soils, VS. Department of Agriculture (Washington, I9ro).
Nitrogen is a colourless, tasteless and odourless gas, which
is only very slightly soluble in water. It is slightly Ughter than
air. Lord Rayleigh in 1894 found that the density of atmospheric
nitrogen was about } % higher than that of chemically prepared
nitrogen, a discovery which led to the isolation of the rare gases
of the atmosphere (see Akgom). The values obtained are shown
beb>w.
Atmo^heric Chemical
Nitrogen. Nitrogen.
0-97309 0-96737 Lord Rayldgh, Chem. News, 1897, 76.
0-9730 0-9671 A. Leduci CompUs rendus, 1896, 123,
p. 805.
Nitrogen is a very inert gas: It win neither bum nor support
the combustion of ordinary combustibles. It combines directly
with lithium, calcium and magnesium when heated, whilst
nitrides of the rare earth metals are also produced when their
oxides are mixed with magnesium and heated in a current of
nitrogen (C. Matignon, Comples rendus, 1900, 131, p. 837).
Nitrogen has been liquefied, the critical temperature bdng
— 149^ C. and the critical pressure 27-54 atmospheres. The
liquefied gas boils at -X9S-5^ C, and iU specific gravity at its
boiling point is 0-8103 (£• C. C Baly and F. G. Donnan, Jour,
Chem, Soc.t 1902, 81, p. 9x3).
Compatmds,
Nitrogen combines with hydnwen to form ammonia, NHi, hydra-
sine, NtH«. and azoimide, N|H Im.v.); the other known hydrides,
N«H4and N»H», are salts of axoimide. vis. NHrNiand NtH<-N«H.
NUrcten trieUoride, NO*, discovered by P. L. Dulong in 181 1
iSckmetu- Jonm., ^811, 8, p. 303), and obtained by the action of
chlorine or sodium hypochlorite on ammonium chloride, or by the
electrolysis of ammonium chloride solution, is a very volatile yellow
otf. It pcits se s an extremely pun^nt smell, and its vapour b
extremely irritating to the eyes. It is a most dangerous ei^ilosave
isitrogen lorms nve oxioes, vu: mtrous oxioe,
NO, nitrogen trioxide, NiOi, nitrogen peroxide, 1
pentoodde, NiOi. whilst three oxyacids of mtr
nyponttrous add, HtN^ nitrous add, HNCV
715
(see D. L. Chapman and L. Vodden, Jour. Chem. Sac., 1909. 95,
p. 138). Chkmne aside, Cl-Ni, was discovered by F. Raschtg m
IQ08 (see AzDiMiDB) ; the corresponding iodine compound had been
obtained in 1900 by A. Hantxsch {Ber., 33, p. 533). For the so-called
nitrogen iodide lee AiCMOmA.
Nitrogen forms five oxides, via: nitrous oxide, N«0, nitric oxide,
'" • • " -"V *le, N0», and nitrogen
mtrogen are known:
-JJOi. and nitric acid,
HNOi (g.s.)* The first four oxides are gases, the fifth is a solid.
Nitrous oxide, NA isolated in 1776 by J. Priiestley, who obuined
it by redudng nitroeen peroxide with iron, may be prep a red by
heating ammonium mtrate at 170-360* C.,or by redudng a mixture
of nitnc and sulphuric add with sine It is a colourless gas, which
U practicaUy odourless, but p ossct e a sweetish taste. It is some-
what soluble in water. When liquefied it boils at -89-8* C. and by
further cooling may be solidified, the solid melting at -103-)* C
(W. Ramsay, CkoM. News, ite^ 67, p. 140). It does not burn,
but supports the combustion of nested substances almost as well rs
— ^en. It b used as an anaesthetic prindpally in dentistr;-.
. Judi^ when inhaled a condition of hysterical exdtcment often
accompanied by loud kughter, whence it is sometimes called
laugning gas.
Nitric oxuie, NO, first obtained by Van Hdmont, b usually pre-
ired by the action of dilute nitric add (sp. gr. i-3) on copper.
_ ills method does not ^ve a pure gas, varying amounts of nitrous
oxide and nitrogen bdng present (see Nixaic Acio). In a purer con-
dition it may be obtained by the action of sulphuric add on a
mixture of potassium nitrate and ferrous sulphate, or of hydrochloric
add on a mixture of potassium mtrate and ferric chloride. It b
also formed by the action of concentrated sulphuric add on sodium
nitrite in tlw pretence of mercury. It b a colourless gas which b
only sparingly soluble in water. It ma^ be liquefied, iU qitical
erature bdn " ' "
pared
Thbi
>ng -93'S"> And the liquid boib at -IS3*6* C. It
is not a supporter 01 combustion, unless .the sustance introduced
temperature 1
sesqui
b at a sufluaently high temperature to decompose the gss, when
combustion will continue at the expense of the liberated oxygen.
combustion will continue at the expense of the lib
If the gas be mixed with the vapour 01 carbon disulphide, the mixture
burns with a vivid bvender-ooloured flame. Nitnc oxide b soluble
in solutions of ferrous salts, a dark brown solution bdng formed,
which b readily decomposed by heat, with evolution of nitric oxide.
It combines with oxygen to form nitrogen peroxide. Nascent
hydrogen reduces it to hydroxylaroine (g.v.), whilst solutions of
hypocnlorites oxidise it to nitric add. In some instances it reacu
as a reducing agent, e.g. nlver oxide is reduced to metallic silver at
170* C., lead dioxide to the monoxide and manganese dioxide to
luioxide.
_ 'itrogm trioxide, NAi was first mentioned by j. R. Gbuber in
1648 as a product of the reaction between nitric aad and axsenious
oxide. Sir W. Ramsay {Jour. Chem. Soc., 1890, s^ p. 590), by distil-
ling aisenioos oxide with nitric add and coding tlw distUbte.
obtained a green liquid which consisted of nitrogen trioxide and
peroxide in varying proportions, and concluded that the trioxide
could not be obtained jnire. He then tried the direct combination
of nitric oxide with liquid nitrogen peroxide. A dark blue lii^uid b
produced, and the first portions of gas boiling off from the mixture
correspond fairiy dosefy in composition with nitrogen trioxide.
H. B. Baker {Jour. Chem, Soc, 1907, 91, p. 1863) obtained nitrogen
trioxide in the gaseous form by volatilising tlw liquid under speoal
conditions. L. Francesconi and N. Sdacca (Goss., 1904, 34 (i.),
p. 447) have shown that liquid nitric oxide and oxygen, or gueous
nitric oxule and liquid oxygen, mixed in all proportions and yielded
nitrogen trioxide, whilst gaseous nitric oxide mixed with excess of
oxygen always gave the trioxide if the mixture was kept bdow
-I ro* C They also state that nitrogen trioxide b stable at ordinary
pressure up to ~3i" C. N. M. v. Wittorf (ZeiL anorg. Chem., 1904,
41, p. 85) obtained blue crystab of the trioxide (melting at -ro3* C.)
on saturating liquid nitrogen peroxide with nitric oxide and cooling
the mixture. The liquio prep a red by Baker b green in colour,
and has a spedfic gravity i-ii at ordinanr temperature, but bdow
' C. becomes oTa deep indigo blue colour. It forms a mass of
deep blue crystab at the temperature of liquid air. It b exceedingly
soluble in concentrated sulphuric add.
NitrogeH peroxide, NOt or NK>«« may be obtained by mixing
oxygen with nitric oxide and passing the red gas so obtained through
a treedng mixture. The production of this red gas when air is
mixed with nitric oxide was mentioned by R. Boyle in 1671. Nitrogen
peroxide b also prep a re d 1^ heating lead nitrate and passing the
products of deoompontion through a tube surrounded bjr a freed ng
mixture, when the gas liquefies. At tow temperatures it b a colour-
less crystalline sdid which melts at -10-14* C. (W. Ramsay, Chem.
News, 1900. 61, p. 91). As the temperature increases the liquid
density, and b explained by the fact that nitrogen peroxide
consists of a mixture of a cofnuricss compound NiO«, and a red-
brown gas NOi, the btter increasing in amount at the expense
of the former as the temperature b raised (G. Salet. Compies reiidus,
1868, 67,p.488;aeeaboE.andL. Natanson, Wiol Anm., 1889. 24*
7i6
NITROQLYCERIN
p. 454; 1S86. 27, p. 606). M. Bcrthelot and J. Osier (Bull. Soe.
Cktm., 1882 [a], 37. p. 434; 38, p. 60) have also shown that the
specific heat of the gas decreases with increase of temperature until
it reaches a minimum at about i98-ai^* C. Cryoscopic determina-
tions of the molecular weight of mtroeen peroxide dissolved in
ffladal acetic add show that tt corresponds to the molecular formula
NiO«at low temperatures (W. Ramny, Jour, Ch*m. Soc. 1888, 53,
p. 621). Nitrogen peroxide b the most stable oxide of nitrogen.
It b decomposed by water, giving at o^ C. a mixture of nitric and
nitrous adds: 2N0i+H^«HN0«+HN0s. It combines with
sulphuric add to form nitro-sulphonic add, SOi(OH)(NOs). It does
not support the combustion of a taper, but burning pho^horus and
red-hot carbon will continue to bum in the gas. Tt converts many
metallic oxides into mixtures of nitrates and nitrites, and attacks
many metab, formin|; nitrates and being itself reduced to nitric
oxide. It b an energetic ff? ri dj**"g agent.
Nitrogen pentoxide, NiO», was first obtained in 1849 by H. Sainte-
Claire-Deville (Ann, Chtm. Phys., 1850 (3I, a8, p. 241) by the action
of dry chbrine on silver nitrate: 4AgNOs-H2Clt-4AgCI+2NtO»
+0t. It may also be obtained by distilling nitric add over phosphorus
pentoxide. It crystallixes in large prisms which mdt at 29-30* C.
to a yellowish liquid, which boib at 45-50* C. with rapid decomposi-
tion. It b very unstable, decomposing slowly even at ordinary
temperatures. It dissolves m water, formmg nitnc add.
Hyponitrous acid. HtNiQi, was first obtained in the form of its
salts by E. Diven m 1871 \Chem. News, 23, p. 206) bv reducing a
solution of potassium nitrite with sodium amalgam, ana subsequent
precipitation as silver salt. Hyponitrites also result when hydroxy-
amtdo-sulphonates. e.t. HO'NH«SOiNa. are hydrolysed by caustic
alkaUs (E. Divers and T. Ha|(a, Jottr. Clum, Soc., 1880, 55, p. 760),
or when benzsulphohydroxamic acid, C«HtSOi>NH'OH, b treated in
the same manner (O. Piloty, Ber., 1896, 29, p. 1560). They may
also be prepared by the action of mercuric or cupric oxides on alkaline
aolutions of hydroxylamine (A. Hantzsch, Ann., 1896, 292, p. 317) ;
by the action of hydroxylainine sulphate on alkaline nitrites in the
presence of lime or calaum carbonate, the mixture bdng rapidly
lieated to 60* C. ; or by the hydrolysb of dimethyl nitroso-oxyurea,
<CHs)sNCON(NO)OH (A. Hantxsch, Ber., i89;r, 30. p. 2356).
The free add, which oystallixes in brilliant scales, ts best prepared
by decomposing the silver salt with an ethereal solution of hydro-
chloric aad. ft b very expkxnve, dissolves readily in water and
behaves as a dibasic acid. It does not liberate iodine from potassium
iodide, ndther does it decok>ri2e iodine solution. Bromine oxidixes
it to nitric add, but the reaction b not quantitative. In add
solution, potasrium permanganate oxidises it to nitric add, but
in alkaline solution only to nitrous acid. It decomposes slowly
on standing, yielding water and nitrous oxide. The silver salt b a
bright yellow solid, soluble in dilute sulphuric aiul lutric acids, and
may be crystallized from concentrated solutions of ammonia. It
slowly decomposes on exposure or on heating. The calcium salt,
CaNiOk-4H|0, formed by the action of caldum chloride on the silver
salt in the presence of a small quantity of nitric add, b a lustrous
crystalline powder, almost insoluble in water but readily soluble in
dilute adds. It b decomposed by sulphuric add, with evolution of
nitrous oxide.
Nitrous acid, HNOs, b found to some extent in the form of its
salts in the atmosphere and in rain water. The pure add has not yet
been obtained, since in the presence of water it decomposes with
formation of nitric acid and liberation of nitric oxide: 3HN0i
-HNO1+2NO-I-H1O. Its salts may be obtained in some cases by
heating the corresponding nitrates, but the method does not give
good results. Sodium nitrite, the most commonly used salt of the
add, b generally obtained by heating the nitrate with metallic lead ;
by heating sodium nitrate with sulphur and sodium hydroxide,
the product then being fractionally crystallized (Read. HoUiday &
Sons): 3NaNOs-fS+2NaOH-Na,SO«-i-3NaNO,+HiO: by oxidiz-
ing atmospheric nitrogen in an electric fuc, keeping the gases above
300** C, until absorption in alkaline hydroxide solution b effected
(German Pat. 188188) ; or by passing air. or a mixture of oxygen
and ammonb, over heated metallic oxides (ibid,, 168272). The salu
of the add are coburless or faintly yelk>w. In aqueous solution the
free add acts as an oxidizing agent, bleaching indigo and liberating
iodine from potassium iodide, or it may act as a reducing agent since
it rcddily trnds ta pas^ into nitric acid : eonsequcntly it discharves
lh^ cottnur of acid foliitk>n5 of perimiD|;a,natc& and cSiromates. The
arid ftndi roneidrrablc uk in QrE;3,mc chemistry, trying employed to
discriminate bctwpcn thir d^iETctcnt cypc» of alrohoh nnd cm amines,
and al'so in the productiofi of dlaio, iU4 n^fl diajo-MLmlno compounds,
tt may be recogtiift^ij by the bluccsobur it f^hcs vith diphenylamine
aulphateand by it^fcac^lu'n with potu^ium iipdide-starch paper.
Nitrcfs^ chhruk, NOCIj i^ obtained by the tltft-ct union of nitric
oxide with chlorine j or by diatilling; a tnintun? of concentrated
-NtM:t + NsHSOi IW. A. Tilde n, />j«r. Ckrm. Sx., i860, p. 630).
It ii also pre|>artd by the net ion of phoiphorun pcntachloride on
potassium nitrite or on nitrogen peroxide. It b an oranjge-coloured
gaa which may be readily liqueoiBd and by further cooling may be
solidified. The Uquidbotbat -s^CandthesoUdradtsat -6s C
It forms double compounds with many .metallic chlorides, and finds
considerable appluation as a means of separating various members
of the terpene croup of compounds. It » readfly decorapoced by
water and alkauine hydroxides, yielding a mixture of nitrite and
chloride. On treatment with silver fluoride it yields nilrosyl fiMoriit,
NOF (O. Ruff, Zeit. anorg. Chem., 1905, 47, p. 190). JVt&urjf
finoride, NOsF, b formed by the action of fluorine on nitric oxide at
the temperature of liquid oxygen (H. Moissan and P. Lebeau. CompUi
rendus, 1905, 140, pp. 1573. 1621). It b a gas at ordinary tempera^
ture; when liquefica it Sous at — 63'5* C. and on solidification melta
at —139* C. Water decomposes it into nitric and hydrofluonc
adds. Nitramide, NHtNOi, ts obtained by the action of sulphuric
and nitric adds on potassium imidosulphonate, or by the actioo of
ice<old suli^uric acid on potasnum nitro-carbamate (J. Thieleaad
A. Lachmann, Ann., 1895, 288, p. 297): NOsNKCC\K-|-H«SO«
- NHtNOi-i-KiSO>-i-COi. It crystallizes in prisms or teaflets which
melt at 72-75*0. and are readily soluble in water and in aD osiganic
solvents except ligroin. It b somewhat volatile at ordinary tempera-
ture, and its aqueous solution possesses a strongly add reactioo.
It b very unstable, decomposing into nitrous oxiae and water vbra
mixed with copper oxide, lead chromate or even powdered gjaM.
On reduction it etves a strongly redudng substance, probably
hydrazine. According to A. Hantzsch {Ann., 1896, 292, pp. 340 eC
seq.) hyponitrous add and nitramide are to be regarded as stereo*
isomers, being the anti- and syn- forms of the same compooiKL
Thiele, however, regards nitramide as imidonitric acid, HN :N(>(OH).
Nitrogen stdpkide, US*, firrt obtained by W. Gregory (Jeur.
pharm., 1835, 21, p. 315) by the action of ammonia on solpfaur
chloride, has beat investigated by O. Ruff and E. Geisd (Ber..
1904* 37t P« 1573: I905' 30, p. 2659), who also obtained it by dis-
solving sufphur in liquid ammonia. It b a reddish-yellow crysulline
solid, insoluble in water and melting at 178* C. It explodes rtadity
when melted or subjected to shoes. Dry h^rdrochloric add gives
ammonb but no nitrogen; with ammonia it ^^ves NzSNHi and
S :S(NH|)i ; and with secondary amines it fcMtns thiodiamiaes, S(NR«}j,
nitrogen and ammonb bdng liberated. When heated with C^ to
100* C. under pressure, it forms liquid nitrogen sulphick, NtSt. a
mobile red liquid which solidifies to an Iodine-like mass of cn-sub
which melt at lo-i i * C. Water, alkalb and adds decompose tt into
sulphur and ammonb (W. Muthmann, Zeit. anorg, Ckem., 1897, 13,
p. aoo).
For sulphonic adds containing nitrogen see Ammonia.
Numerous determinations of the atomic weight of nttrojeen have
been made by different observers, the values obtained varying some-
what according to the methods used. These methods have been
purdy chemical (either gravimetric or volumetric), physical (deter>
minations of the density of nitrogen, nitric oxide^ Ac,) or physko*
chemical. P. A. Guye has given a critical discusaton of the i^tiv«
accuracy of the gravimetric and phydco-chemical methods, and
favoun the Utter, giving for the atomic weight a value less tfaaa
14*01. The more important papen dealing with the subject are:
J. Stas, (Zuores computes, L pp. 342 et seq.; Lord Rayksgh, Pfoc
W S<K. (1894). 55. p. 340: (1904) 73. p. «53; G. Dean, /wr.
Chem. Soc. (1901). 79, p. 147; R. W. Gray. Jour. Ckewt, Soc. (1906),
88, p. 1 174; A. Scott, Proc, Ckem. Soc (1905), 21. p. 309: P. A.
Guye, Chem. News (1905), 92, pp. 261 et seq.; (1906) 93. p. 13 ct
seq.; D. Berthelot, Compies rendus (1907), 144, p. 269.
NITROGLTCERIN, CsH»(NOi)s or CHiNOt • CHNQi • CHsNOb
glyceryl trinitrate, an explosive first obtained in 1846 by Ascanio
Sobrero (Mem. Acad. Torino , 1847) by acting with a mixture
of strong nitric and sulphuric ados on glycerin at the ordinary
temperature. The reaction proceeds in several stages, ]zioik>>
di- and finally tri-nitrate bdng produced, the final stage requiring
sulphuric add as a dcnydrator. When pure it b a very pak
yellow oil of sp. gr. x*6i4 at 4* C. and x*6o at 15* C One gram
requires for solution between 800 and xooo c.c of water, 4 cc
of absolute alcohol or 18 cc. of wood spirit, and it b scaicdy
at all soluble in glycerin itself, but mixes in all proportioiiis with
ether, acetone, ethyl acetate and benzene.
In the manufacture glycerin b dropped in a very dtin stream isto
a mucture of 3 parts of nitric (sp. gr. i •5) and 5 parts of sulphuric ackl
(sp. gr. 1*8^}. the containing vcssd being cooled by a water jacket
aiid die add mixture agitated by a stream of cooled air, the tempen-
ture being kept at about 15* C A considerable excess of acsds is
necessary for the completion and safety of the reaction, ttsuafi^
about 8 parts of the acid mucture to z of glycerin. The higher tie
strength of the adds the higher the yidd of nitroglycerin and riie
smaller the loss by solution tn the waste adds. In recent pcaaice
some sulphin trioxide, or fuming sulphuric add, b added, so that
the mucture of adds contains less than i % of water. The actioa is
very rapid, and the product, which rises to the top of the adds,
is separated and washed successively with ccJd and then tepid water,
and finally with water made slightly alkaline with sodium carbonate
or hydroxide, to remove all adhering or dissolved adds which would
otherwise render the product very unstable. Nitroglycerin diasolvA
a little water and then appean thick or milky. Generally it is dthtx
NITZSCH, G. W.— NITZSCH, K. I.
717
uter being Kparated irom the wash water, by means 01
n salt, upon a Uver of which the moist nitrcwlycerin ts gently
1 allowed to drain or filter through, or it is hitered through a
dried after being
common 1 *'
ran and i- _
mass of dry sponge or similar dry and porous material.
Under ordinary pressure it boils at above 200* C. (L. de Brayn).
If gradually heated it begins to vaporise and decompose at about
130*, and as a rule it detonates when heated slightly above this
temperature, previously giving off some red fumes. A little vapour
is given off at ordinary temperatures and pressures, and when under
a few millimetres prenure only it rapidly vaporizes below 100* C.
The freering-point is uncertain, owing perhaps to the existence of
two modifications, as suggested by Kast (Zetls. f. ges. SchUss- v.
Sprengstoff. I-23|^; see aho S. Nauckhoff, Zeils. J, ang. Ckem., 18,
Fleft I and i). It is frequently given as 43* to 46* F. (about 6* to
8* C). and it u stated to be more sensitive to percusMon when frozen
(Beilstein). It crystallizes Qxi long needles) more easily when gently
agitated during the cooling, or when mixed with such substances as
loesclguhr. At one time it was transported all over America in a
frozen condition without serious accidents, and according to Sir
F. Nathan {Jour. Soc. Ckem, Jtid., 1908, 27, p. 5) it is safer to export
in the frozen state. To prevent the freezing of nitroglycerin in
dvnamite it has been proposed to add various substances, such as
cfilordinitro^ycerin, nitrated diglycerin or tetranitrodiglycerol.
and also mono-and di-nitroglycerin. The latter two have been studied
by C. W. Will {Ber.t 1008, 7, p. 407), who obtained two isomeric
dinitroglycerins, one of^ which is eminently crystallizable and the
other fund. Both are sensitive to percussion, but a little less so than
nitroglycerin. The mononitrogiycerin also exists in two forms,
neither of which is strictly speaking explosive. It appears that an
addition of dinitroglycerin to nitroglycerin woukl materially retard
its freering or lessen its sensitiveness (see also C Qaessen, Ckr.
Pat. 310990 (1909)).
Melting-point . .
Boiling-point 18 mm.
Solubaity . .
Mono.
Di.
Tri.
155-iJo*
70%
1-47
« hydrate, 26*
fi hydrate (fluid)
145* about
7-7%
1-6
Ubfle. 2.2»
stable, I2-2''
i6o»
•16%
' The liquid when soaked into a porous combustible substance like
bloCting-papcr burn^ rapidly and quieUy, and when struck with a
hammer on a hard surface violently detonates; when a little of the
liquid b spread on an anvil and strack, the portion immediately
under the hammer only will, as a rule, detonate, the remainder being
scattered. Some solutions of nitroglycerin (in ether, acetone, &c)
bum quietly, and the same is the case when it is held in solution or
su«)ension m a colloid substance, as gelatinized guncotton, &c.
Stiong sulphuric ackl dissolves nitroglycerin, and this solution on
being poured into water vields dinitroglycerin (see Will. loc. cit.)
and also some mononitrogiycerin. When the solution in the strong
acid is allowed to stand, some nitric acid is first evolved, and as the
temperature rises this is followed by a general decomposition of the
sub<^ance, though not necessarily an explosive one. Shaken with
mercury and sulphuric acid, nitroglycerin yields its nitrogen as nitric
oxide; the measurement of the volume of this gas is a convenient
oiode of estimating nitroglycerin. Ammonium hydroxide has no
appreciable action at ordinary temperatures, but strong solutions of
sodium or potassium hydroxides start a decomposition, with rise of
temperature, in which some nitrate and always some nitrite is pro-
duce. Some glycerin may be re-formed, but with very strong
alloline solutions little of the glycerin molecule escapes destruction,
oxalic acid and several other products resulting. Akpholic solutions
of the alkalis also produce much nitrite along with some formate
and acetate. Cakaum or potassium sulphides and potassium hydro-
sulphides completely reduce nitroglycerin to glvcerin, some of the
sulphur being oxicuzed and some precipitated. Hydriodk: acid
reduces it to glycerin and nitric oxide. Aniline and similar bases are
oxidized and partially nitrated by nitroglycerin, with the production
of non-explosive compounds.
The first attempts to utilize the explosive power of nitro-
glycerin were made by Nobd in 1863; they were only partially
successful until the plan, first stalled by General Pictot in 1854,
of developing the force of gunpowder in the most rapid nuinner
and to the maximum extent, through initiative detonation, was
applied by Nobel to nitro^ycerin. Even then, however, the
liquid nature of the substance, though advantageous in one or two
directions, constituted a serious obstacle to its safe transport and
storage and to its efficient employment; it was therefore not
until Nobel produced plastic solid preparations by mixing the
liquid with porous substances, such as gunpowder, or carbon and
sulphur, and finally kieselguhr in a fine state of division, capable
of absorbing and letaining considerable quantities of it, that it
could be emptoyed as a 'blasting agent (see Explosives, Dyna-
um, COBOITE). (W. R. E. H.)
r*«ra^«i/i«.— Nitroglycerin has a sweet burning taste and is
decidedly poisonous. lu vapour produces violent headache, and
the same effect is often caused by handling compositions con-
taining it. Prior to its use as an explosive, its alcoholic solution
found application in medicine under the name of glonoin.
Although a nitrate, its pharmacological actions resemble those
of nitrites such as amyl nitrite, taken internally. The explana-
tion is that in an alkaline medium at body heat nitroglycerin
yields a nitrite, probably as a preliminary stage of resolution.
Nitroglycerin shaken up with warm very dilute alkaline solutions,
as sodium carbonate, for a few minutes only, always yields
sufficient nitrite to give the diazoreaction; and, as stated, strong
alkaline solutions always produce some nitrite as one of the
decomposition products. This gradual conversion in the tissues
is a valuable property of nitroglycerin, as its effects take longer to
nmnifest themselves than is the case with amyl and other nitrites.
Nitroglycerin is valuable as a preventive in cases of cardiac
pain, such as angina pectoris, and it is also used in other condi-
tions where it is desirable to reduce the arterial tension. The
British Pharmacopoeia contains a liquor trinitrini (1%), and
tablets made up with chocolate, each containing one-hundredth
of a grain.
NITZSCH, OREGOR WILHEIJI(i790-i86i), German classical
scholar, brother of Karl Immanuel Nilzsch, was bom at
Wittenberg on the 22nd of November 1790. In 1827 he was
appointed professor of ancient h'terature at Kiel, but in 1852
was dismissed by the Danish government for his German sym-
pathies. In the same year he accepted a similar post at
Leipzig, which he held till his death on the 22nd of July 1861.
Nitzsch is chiefly known for his writings on the Homeric epic.
In opposition to Wolf and Lachmann, he maintained that the
Iliad and Odyssey were not an aggregate of single short poems,
but long complete poems, composed by one and the same author
according to a uniform plan wdth a central dramatic idea.
His son,KARL Wilhelu Nitzsch (1818-1880) .became professor
of history at Kdnigsberg in 1862, and at Berlin in 2872.
The most important of his works were: ErklSrende Anmerkungen
zu Homer's Odyssee, i.-xii. (i 826-1 840); Die Sagenpoesie der Griechen
(1852); BeitrUge zur Gesckickte der epischen Poesie der Griechen
(pub. 1862, cd. C W. Nitzsch). See memoir by F. LQbker (1864);
C. Bursian, Gesckickte der klassiscken Pkilolotie in Deutsckland (1883)
and J. E. Sandys. Uisl. of Class. Sckol. iii. (1908), p. 105.
NITZSCH. KARL IMMANUEL (1787-1868), Lutheran divine,
was bom at the small Saxon town of Borna near Leipzig on
the 2ist of September 1787. His father, Karl Ludwig Nitzsch
(175 1-183 1), who at that time was pastor and superintendent
in Borna, and afterwards (1790) became professor at Wittenberg
and director (181 7) of the senu'nary for preachers, has also left
a name of some distinction in the theological world by a number
of writings, among which may be mentioned a work entitled
De discrimine revelationis imperatoriae et didocticae prdusionei
academicae (2 vols., 1830). Theologically, he represented a
combination of supematuralism and rationalism (supernatural
rationalism or a Kantian rational supernaturalism). Karl
Immanuel was sent to study at Schulpforta in 1803, whence
he proceeded to the university of Wittenberg in 1806. In 1809
he graduated, and in x8io he became a Privaidozent at the
university. Having become diaconus at the Schlosskirche in
181 1, he showed remarkable energy and zeal during the bombard-
ment and siege of the city in 18 13. In 18x7 he was appointed
one of the preceptors in the preachers' seminary which had been
established at Wittenberg after the suppression of the university.
From 1820 to 1822 he was superintendent in Kemberg, and in the
latter year he was appointed professor ordinarius of systematic
and practical theology at Bonn. Here he remained until called
to succeed Marheinekeat Berlin in 1847; subsequently he became
university preacher, rector of the university, provost of St
Nicolai (in 1854) and member of the supreme council of the
church, in which last capacity he was one of the ablest and most
active promoters of the Evangelical Union. He died on the 2 ist
of August 1868. He represented the VermittdungsUudogit
of the school of Schleicrmacher.
7i8
NIU-CHWANG— NIVERNAIS
His SOD, FuEOixcB August Ntkscr (b. 183a}, was made
professor ordinarius of theology at Giessen in x868 and at Kid
in 1873. He was the author of GrundrisM der chruU. Dogmen-
gesckickle (1870, incomplete) and Das System des B^thius
(i860), amongst other works.
Kar! Nitzach's principal works axe: Sy^em der ckrisdicken Lekre
E9; 6th ed.. 1851: Eng. trans., 1849). Prakiische Tkeologte
7-1860; and ed., i9ibi-mA), Akademtsche Vortrdg^ Hber ckrut-
Ciaubenslekre (1858) and several scries of Predigttm. " He took
as his starting-point the fundamental thought of Schleicrmachcr.
that religion is not doctrine but life, direct conscMusness, feeling.
At the same time he sought to bring religious feeling into closer
connexion with knowledge and volition than Schlcicrmacher had
done; he laid special stress — and justly — on the recognition of a
necessary and radical union of religion with morality, treating both
dogmatics and ethics together accordingly in his System der ckrtsi-
liclen Lekre" (Otto Pfleiderer. Development of Tieolory, p. 123).
His Protestantiscke Beantwortung, a reply to the Symte/tir of Johann
Adam Mfthler (1796-1838), which originally appeared in the Studten
u. Kriliken, of which he was one of the founders, may also be men-
tioned.
See Hcrsog-Hauck. Realetuykhpddie, and the AUgemeiue deutscke
Bioarapkiex ¥. Lichtenberger, History of German Tkeology in the
Nineteenth Century ^ pp. 185-196.
NIU-CHWANQ, a city of China, in the Manchurian province
of Sh£ng-king (Liao-tung), in 40*" 53' N. and 122^ 7' E., about
35 m. (90 m. by water) from the coast of the Gulf of Liao-tung,
on what is now a small branch of the main eastern affluent of the
Liao-ho. The population is estimated at 80,000. The city
proper is a comparatively unimportant place with broken-down
walls, but it is surrounded by a number of large and flourishing
suburbs. About the beginning of the Ta-ts*ing dynasty (1644)
Niu-chwang was the chief port on the river, but in the reign of
K'ien-lung, owing mainly to physical changes, it was supplanted
by Tien-chwang-tai farther down the stream, and towards the
close of the i8th century this had in turn to give place to Ying-tsze
still nearer the mouth. In ignorance of these facts Niu-chwang
(now^ scarcely to be reached by a flat-bottomed river boat) was
chosen as one of the ports to be opened to foreign trade by the
treaty of Ticn-tsin; and, though Ying-tsze. had of necessity
to be adopted as the site of the foreign settlements, Europeans
still continue to speak of it as the port of Niu-chwang. Ying-tsze
(otherwise known as Ying-k*ou, Niu-k*ou and in Mandarin as
Muh-k*ou-ying) lies on the left bank of the Liao-ho on the lowest
dry portion of the plain, not much above high-water mark.
The British settlement immediately above the town has a river
frontage of 1000 yds. opposite the deepest of the reaches, and runs
back to the highway leading to Niu-chwang. Off the mouth of
the river there is an extensive bar of hard mud which can only
be crossed by certain channels at high tide, when it is covered
by from z8 to 20 ft. of water; and the port is altogether closed
by ice for four or five months of the year, between November
and May. Niu-chwang has shown considerable vigour as a port
of trade, sharing in the general prosperity of the provinces
of Manchuria, of which it is the outlet. It was opened to foreign
trade in 1858. In 1864 the total value of trade was £q34.374>
in 1878 £3,606,134, in 1898 £4i634.470t while in 1904 the figures
reached £s,9SO|89S- The principal exports (29%) are beans,
bean-cake, bean-oil and wild silk. The bean-cake is a popular
article of food with the natives of Kwang-tung and Fuh-kien,
and is also largely employed for manuring the rice and sugar
fields in the neighbourhood of Shanghai, Amoy, Swatow, &c.
Of imports (71 %) the principal are cotton yam and cotton cloth,
most of the latter being drawn from the Um'ted States in prefer-
ence to English-made goods. The number of resident foreigners
is about 150. Railways connect the port with Tientsin and
Peking on the one hand, and with the Russian territories lying
to the north on the other. In 2895 Niu-chwang was occupied
by Japanese troops, and the town was included in the cession of
territory originally granted by the treaty of peace. By a supple-
mentary convention it was retroceded by the Japanese under
pressure of France and Russia. Niu-chwang suffered considerably
from the disturbances of 1900 and again during the Russo-
Japanese war. In 1900 the Russians defeated the Chinese
troops who attacked the town, and took possession of the port,
and administered affairs untQ they in their turn were driven
out by Japanese. At the conclusion of the war the Japanese
restored the port to China.
NIU^ (Savage Island or Niui-FsKAt, as the natives call it).
an island in the South Padfic Ocean, 14 m. long by ro m wide,
in 19" 10' S., 169** 47' W. The entire island is an old ctoral reef
upheaved 200 ft., honeycombed with caves and seamed with
fissures. The soil, though thin, is, as in other Umestone islands,
very rich, and coco-nuts, tara, yams and bananas thrive. There
is an abundant rainfall, but owing to the porous nature of the
soil the water percolates into deep caves which have cooununica-
tion with the sea, and becomes brackish. The natives, a mixed
Polynesian and Melanesian people of Samoan speech, are the most
industrious in the Pacific, and many of the young men go as
labourers to other islands. The consequent minority of men has
been destructive of the sexual morality of the women, which
formerly stood high. The natives are keen traders, and though
uncouth in manners when compared with their nearest neigh-
bours, the Tongans and Samoans, are friendly to Europeans.
Their hostility to Captain Cook in 1774, which earned from him
the name of Savage for the island, was due to their fear of foreign
disease, a fear that has since been justified. The populatioa
(4079 in 1901) is slightly decreasing. The natives are all Chris-
tians, and the majority have learned to read and write, and to
speak a little English, under the tuition of the London Mtsskmary
Society. They wear European clothes. The island became
a British protectorate on the 20th of April 1900, and was made
a dependency of New Zealand in October 1900, the naii\T
government, of an elected '* king " and a council of headmen,
being maintained. In 1900 there were thirteen Europeans 00 the
island The exports arc copra, fungus and straw hats, wticfa
the women plait very cleverly.
See T. H. Hood, NoUs of a Cmise in HM.S. ''Fawn "(Edinburgh.
1863): J. L. Brenchley, Jottings during the Cruise of the " Cmnfoa"
(London. 1873); B. H. Thomson. Saoag^ Island (London, 190a).
NIVELLES (Flcm. Nyvel), a town of Belgium in the pioviooe
of Brabant, situated on the Thines 19 m. S. of Bnissek. Popu
(1904) 12,109. It is a busy little pUce with many industries*
notably the manufacture of parchment. T^e*town is supposed
to owe its origin to the foundation of a convent on the spot by
Itta or Iduberge, wife of Pippin of Landen. The Romanesqse
church of St Gertrude, named after Itta's daughter, dates
from the nth century, but has been badly restored and is db-
figured by a heavy tower. On the top of the tower is the effigy
of a man in iron who strikes the hours with a hammer.
He is called by the townspeople Jean de Nivelles, a celebiated
baron of the 15th century whose title eventually became raciged
in that of the count de Homes (Horn). The church is supposed to
occupy the site of Itta's convent. Gose to NiveQes b SeocSe,
where Cond£ defeated William of Orange in 1674, and at Nivdks
itself the French under Maroeau defeated the Austiiaiia ia
1794.
NIVERNAIS. LOUIS CHARLES BARBON HANCINI HAZ-
ARINI, Dt^c DE (i 716-1 798), French diplomatist and writer,
was bom in Paris on the x6th of December 1716, son of Philippe
Jules Francois, due de Nevers, and Maria Anne Spindla, and great-
nephew of Cardinal Mazarin. He was educated at the CoO^
Louis le Grand, and married at the age of fourteen. He served
in the campaigns in Italy (1733) and Bohemia (1740), but had
to give up soldiering on account of his weak health. He was
sut»equently ambaaoador at Rome (i748-i752)> Berlin (17SS-
1756) and London, where he negotiated the treaty of Paris (loth
of February 1763). From 1787 to 1789 he was a member ol the
(Council of State. He did not emigrate during the Revolntias:,
but lost all his money and was imprisoned in 1 793. He re covei e d
his liberty after the fall of Robespierre, and died in Paris cm the
25th of February 1798. In 1743 he was elected to the Academy
for a poem entitled DUie, and from 1763 he devoted the greater
part of his time to the administration of the duchy of Nevers and
to beUes4eUres. He wrote much and with great facility; bat
his writings are of little value, his PabUs being his be^ pro>
NIXIE— NIZAMi
719
ductlons. His (Enma computes were published in Paris in 1796;
an edition of his OSuvres postkumes was brought out in Paris by
Francois de NeufchAteau in 1807, and his Correspondance
secrite was published in Paris by de Lescure in 1866.
See L. Percy (pKud. for Mile. Luce Herptn), Un Petit-Neveu de
Masarin (Paris. 18QO) ; La Fin du XVIII* sthde: U ducde Nwmais
fParis, 1891), by tne same writer; Saince-Beuve, Cauteries du lundi
(vol. xiii.); Dupin, Eloge du due de Nivemais (1840); Abb^ Blam-
p^non, LeDuede Nieernais, d'apris sa correspondance inidUe (1888).
NIXIE, or NzxY, a female water-sprite. The word is adapted
from Ger. Nixe, the male water-sprite being Nix. The general
term covering both the male and female is " nicker," a kelpie.
This also appears in Dutch nikker. The Old Teutonic nikus
may be connected with the root which appears in Gr. vi^€a> or
virrtof, " to wash."
NIXOff. JOHN (1815-1899), English mining engineer and
colliery proprietor, was born at Barlow, Durham, on the loth
of May 18 1 5, the son of a farmer. He was educated at the village
school, and at an academy in Newcastle-on-Tyne, where he
distinguished himself in mathematics. Leaving school at
fourteen, he worked on his father's farm for two years, and then
apprenticed himself to Mr Joseph Gray, one of the leading
mining engineers in the north of England, and agent to the
second marquis of Bute; subsequently he obtained employment
as " overman '* at one of the Bute collieries in Durham. In
1839 an advertisement drew him to the South Wales coalfield,
where he was engaged in mine-surveying, and whence he pro>
ceeded to France as engineer to a coal and iron company.
Returning to England, he noticed while travelling on one of the
Thames steameis that the Welsh coal in use gave off no smoke
and was preferred to north country coal both on this gpund
and because of its greater power-producing efhciency. His
experience in France now suggested to him that a profitable
market for this coal might be established among the French
iron-founders and manufacturer generally who had hitherto
imported English north country coal. For some time he was
unable to procure any of this special Welsh coal. Eventually,
however, by expending all his small savings he secured a cargo,
freighted a small craft, and sent it across to Nantes, where with
some difficulty he persuaded the local manufacturers to try it on
the understanding that he bore the expense of the experiments.
These tests, carried out under Nixon's personal directions,
proved highly successful, and in due course the French govern-
ment gave him a contract for Welsh coal for the French navy.
Nixon'^ visit to Nantes laid the foundations of the Welsh steam-
coal trade, English manufacturers and shipowners imitating the
example of their French rivals. At first Nixon only sold the
coal on commission, but eventually acquired what appeared
to him a prospective field for steam-coal in the Aberdare valley,
and after seven years' working at last struck a'rich seam. This
property is now known as Nixon's Navigation Collieries. Nixon
subsequently acquired or developed other South Wales steam
collieries, which yielded him a considerable fortune. He was
also the inventor of many mechanical improvements in colliery
working. He died in London on the 3rd of June 1899.
See J. E. Vincent, John Nixon, Pioneer of the Steam Coal Trade in
South Wales (London. 1900).
NIZAM, the hereditary title of the reigning prince of Hyderabad
iq.v.) in India, derived from an Arabic word meaning order, or
administration. The same word is found in Nazim, applied to
the Nawab of Bengal, and in Nizamat^ the old term for criminal
jurisdiction. Nizam-ul-MuIk ( » " administrator of the kingdom")
was the title of Asaf Jah, the founder of the dynasty, a very
able soldier and minister of the court of Aurangzeb, who was
appointed governor of the Deccan in 17 13, and established his
independence before his death in 1748.
NIZAMl (1141-1203). NizSm-uddin AbQ Mahommed Ilyfts
bin YQsuf, Persian poet, was bom 535 a.r. (1141 a.d.). His
native place, or at any rate the abode of his father, was in the
hills of Kum, but as he spent almost all his days in Ganja in
ArrSn (the present Elizavettpol) he is generally known as
Nizftml of Ganja or GmnjawL The early death of his paxents,
which illustrated to him in the most forcible manner the unstable-
ness of all human existence, threw a gloom over his whole life,
and fostered in him that earnest piety and fervent love for
solitude and meditation which have left numerous traces in his
poetical writings, and served him throughout his literary career as
a powerful antidote against the enticing favours of princely
courts, for which he, unlike most of his contemporaries, never
sacrificed a tittle of his self-esteem. The religious atmosphere of
Ganja, besides, was most favourable to such a sUte of mind;
the inhabitants, being zealous Sunnites, allowed nobody to
dwell among them who did not come up to their standard of
orthodoxy, and it is therefore not surprising to find that NizflmI
abandoned himself at an eariy age to a stem ascetic life, as full
Qf intolerance to others as dry and unprofitable to himself.
He was rescued at last from this monkish idleness by his inbom
genius, which, not being able to give free vent to its poetical
inspirations under the crushing weight of bigotry, claimed
a greater share in the le^timate enjoymenU of life and the
appreciation of the beauties of nature, as well as a more
enlightened faith of tolerance, benevolence, and liberality. The
first poetical work in Vvhich Niz£ml embodied his thoughts on
God and man, and all the experiences he had gained, was neces-
sarily of a didactic character, and very appropriately styled
Makfuanul Asrdr, or " Storehouse of Mysteries,** as it bears the
unmistakable stamp of Sufic speculations. It shows, moreover,
a strong resemblance to Nftsir Khosrau's ethical poems and
San&'i's Hadikal-ulhakikal, or '' Garden of Truth." The date
of composition, which varies in the different copies from 553 to
582 A.11., must be fixed in 574 or 575 (i 178-1 179 a.d.). Although
the Makhzan is mainly devoted to philosophic meditations,
the propensity of Nizftml's genius to purely epic poetry, which
was soon to assert itself in a more independent form, makes
itself felt even here, all the twenty chapters being interspersed
with short tales illustrative of the maxims set forth in each.
His claim to the title of the foremost Persian romanticist he
fully esublished only a year or two after the ifakfuan by the
publication of his first epic masterpiece Kkosrau and Shirin,
composed, according to the oldest copies, in 576 a.h. (i 180 a.d.).
As in all his following epopees the subject was taken from what
pious Moslems call the time of " heathendom "—here, for
instance, from the old Sassftnian story of Shilh Khosrau Parwiz
(Chosroes Parvez), his love affairs with the princess Shirin
of Armenia, his jealousy against the architect Ferhild, for some
time his successful rival, of whom he got rid at last by a very
ingenious trick, and his final reconciliation and marriage with
ShIrIn; and it is a noteworthy fact that the once so devout
Nizftml never chose a strictly Mahommedan legend for his
works of fiction. Nothing could prove better the complete
revolution in his views, not only on religion, but also on art.
He felt, no doubt, that the object of epic poetry was not to teach
moral lessons or doctrines of faith, but to depict the good and
bad tendencies of the human mind, the struggles and passions of
men; and indeed in the whole range of Persian literature only
FirdusI and Fakhr-uddin As*ad Jorjftnl, the author of the older
epopee Wis m. Rdmin (about the middle of the nth century),
can compete with Niz&ml in the wonderful delineation of
character and the brilliant painting of human affections, especially
of the joys and sorrows of a loving and beloved heart.
Khosrau and Shirin was inscribed to the reigning atabeg
of Azerbaijan, AbQ Ja'far Mahommed Pahlavin, and his brother
Kizil Arslan, who, soon after his accession to the throne in 582
A.H., showed his gratitude to the poet by summoning him to
his court, loading him with honours, and bestowing upon him
the revenue of two villages, Hamd and Nijan. NizSm! accepted
the royal gift, but his resolve to keep aloof from a servile court-
life was not shaken by it, and he forthwith returned to his quiet
retreat Meanwhile his genius had not been dormant, and two
years after his reception at court, in 584 a.h. (1188 A.D.), he
completed his Diwdn, or collection of kasldas and ghazals
(mostly of an ethical and parenetic character), which are said
to have numbered 20,000 distichs. although the few copies
which have come to us contain only a very small number of
720
NIZHNE-TAGILSK— NIZHNIY-NOVGOROD
verses. About the same time he commenced, at the desire of
the ruler of the neighbouring Shbv&n, his second romantic
poem, the famous Bedouin love-story of LaiUi and MajnUn,
which has so many points in common with Ariosto's Or/an^
Furioso, and finished it in the short space of four months. A
more heroic subject, and the only one in which he made a certain
attempt to rival FirdousI, was selected by our poet for his third
epopee, the Iskandarn&ma, or " Book of Alexander," also called
Skarafndma or Jqbdlndma-i-Iskandari ("The Fortunes of
Alexander"), which is split into two divisions. The first or
semi-historical part shows us Alexander the Great as the con-
queror of the world, while the second, of a more ethical tendency,
describes him in the character of a prophet and philosopher,
and narrates his second tour through the world and his adven-
tures in the west, south, east and north. There are frequent
SOfic allegories, just as in the Makkzan; and quite imbued
with pantheistic ideas is, for instance, the final episode of the
first part, the mysterious expedition of Alexander to the fountain
of life in the land of darkness. As for the date of composition,
it is evident, from the conflicting statements in the different
MSS., that there must have been an earlier and a later recension,
the former belonging to 587-589 A.H., and dedicated to the prince
of Mosul, 'Izz-uddin Mas'Qd, the latter made for the atfibeg
Nusrat-uddin AbQ Bakr of Azerbaijan after 593 a.h., since we
find in it a mention of NizAml's last romance Uafi Paikar, or
the " Seven Beauties," which comprises seven tales related
by the seven favourite wives of the Sass&nian king Bahr^mgOr.
In this poem, which was written 593 A.H., at the request of
NQr-uddln Arslan of Mosul, the son and successor of the above-
mentioned 'Izz-uddin, Nizftml returned once more from his
excursion into the field of heroic deeds to his old favourite
domain of romantic fiction, and added a fresh leaf to the laurel
crown of immortal fame with which the unanimous consent of
Eastern and Western critics has adorned his venerable head.
The most interesting of the seven talcs is the fourth, the story
of the Russian princess, in which we recognize at once the
prototype of Gozzi's well-known Turandot, which was afterwards
adapted by Schiller for the German stage. The five mathnawfs,
from the Makkxan to the Haft Paikar^ form Niziml's so-called
"Quintuple" (Kkamsa) or "Five Treasures" (Panj Canj),
and have been taken as pattern by all the later epic poets in the
Persian, Turkish, ChaghatAi and Hindust&nl languages. NizSml
died at Ganja in his sixty-fourth year, 599 a.h. (1203 a.d.).
The fullest account of NizSmi ts given in Dr W. Bachcr's Ntx/MTs
Leben und Werke (Leipzig, 1871; English translation by S. Robinson,
London, 187^; reprinted in the same author's Perstan Poetry for
English Readers, 1883. pp. 103-344). All the errors of detail in
Bacher's work have been corrected by Dr Rieu in his Catalogue of
the Persian AfSS. in the British Museum (1881), ii. 563 aoq.
Principal Editions. — ^The whole Khamsa (lithographecl, Bombay,
1834 and 18^8; Teheran, 1845); Makhaan-ul Asrdr (edited by N.
Bland, London, 18^4; lithographed, Cawnpore, 1860; English
translation in MS. oy Hatton Hindley, in the British Museum
Add. 6961); Khosrau and Shirin (litho^phcd, Lahore. 1871;
German translation by Hammer in Skirin, etn persisches romantisches
Cedicht, ' ' ' - ' -
1879; 1 „
Paikar (lithographed, Bombay, 1849; Lucknow, 1873
tale in German by F. von Erdmann, Behramtur una ^
FUrstentochter, Kasan, 1S44) r" Iskandamdma, first part, with com-
(Calcuf - • - . - . . -«-
\jcrTnan imnsiaiivn uy naiiimci ui »^n9rtn, Ktn ycr*y»%.nc* rtnrntn»t*%,/tm»
Cedicht, Leipzig, 1809); Laila and Majn&n (lithographed. Lucknow,
1879; English translation by J. Atkinson, London, 1836): Haft
Paikar (lithographed, Bombay, 1849; Lucknow, 1873; the fourth
tale in German by F. von Erdmann, Behramtur una die russische
FUrstentochter. Kasan, 1S44) r" Iskandamdma, first part, with com-
mentary (Calcutta, 1812 and i82<(; tekt alone, Calcutta. i8m;
lithographed with marginal notes, Lucknow, 1865; Bombay. 1861
and 1875: English translation by H. Wilberforce Clarke, London,
1 881; compare also Erdmann, De expeditione Russorum Berdaam
versus, Kasan, 1826. and Charmoy, Expidition d'Alexandre eonlre
Us Russes, St Petersburg. 1820); IskandamOma-i-Bahfl, second
part, edited by Dr Sprenger (Calcutta, 1853 and 1869). (H. E.)
NIZHNE-TAGILSK, popularly known as TAca, a town and
ironworks of Russia, in the ^vernment of Perm, stands in a
longitudinal valley on the eastern slope of the Ural Mountains,
within a few miles of the place where the Tagil, cutting through
the eastern wall of the valley, escapes to the lowlands to join
the Tura, a tributary of the Tobol. The southern part of this
valley is occupied by the upper Tagil, and its northern portion
by the upper Tura, from which the Tagil is separated by a
low watershed. Pop. (1897) 30,000, all Great^Ruisians and
chiefly Nonconformists. The town is connected by xaihray
(the first in Siberia) with Perm and Ekaterinburg, the latter
distant 88 m. to the S.S.E. It was founded in 1725 by the
Russian mine-owner Demidov, and is still the property of his
family. Nizhne-Tagilsk is a central fotmdzy for a number of
iron-mines and other works scattered in the valley of the Tagil
.and its tributary the Salda. Gold, platinum and copper are also
mined at Nizhne-Tagilsk. The town carries on a brisk corn
trade. The inhabitants make wooden boxes and trays, which
are sent to the fairs of Irbit and Nizhniy-Novgorod.
NIZHNE-UDIN$K, a town of East Siberia, in the govenunent
of Irkutsk, 315 m. by rail W.N.W. of Irkutsk, on the Siberian
railway, and on the Uda river. It is a centre for the Biryusa
gold mines, and in winter the head of a Une of commuakation
with the Lena and Bratsky Ostrog, on the Angara. Pop. (1897)
5803.
NIZHNIY-NOVQOROD or Nijni-Novcorod, abbreviated into
NiZHEcoaoD, a government of Central Russia, bounded by the
governments of VUdimiron the W., Kostroma and Vyatka
on the N. and N.E., Kazan and Simbirsk on the £., and Penza
and Tambov on the S., with an area of 19,792 sq. m., two-thirds
being on the right and the rest on the left bank of the Volga.
The smaller portion, with the exception of the better-drained
lands close to^he river, is a low, flat, marshy region, covered
with thick forests and sandy hills, and thinly peopled. The
space between the Oka and the Volga, m the west, ts abo flat
and forest-grown. The best part of the government is that to
the east of the Oka; it is hilly, trenched by deep ravines and
better drained, and has patches of fertile black earth in the south.
The government is drained by the Volga with its tributaries,
the Kerzhenets and the Vetluga on the left, and the Sura (with
the Pyana) and the Oka on the righL These and their numerous
tributaries offer great facilities both for navigati<m and for the
transportation of timber. Numerous small lakes dot the govern-
ment, especially in the north, and close upon two-fifths of its
entire surface is still covered with f(»ests, which occupy nearly
the whole of the Zavolyi (to the north of the Volga), and extend
without a break for 50 and 80 m. to the west and south-west
respectively. The climate is seve^, especially in the Zavolyi,
where the average yearly temperature is 5-6* Fahr. lower than
at Nizhniy. Besides the Carboniferous, Permian and Triassk
deposits (" variegated marls "), Jurassic deposits are found in
patches, chiefly in the south-east, as also in the south-west and
north. They are overlain with Cretaceous black da3n and
sandstones. Thick strata of Tertiary sands, containing petrified
wood, are found in the Ardatov district, and over the whole
lie Glacial deposits, sandy gravels and days.
Black earth, known as the "black earth of the plateau,**
prevails on the high plains between the river valleys is the
south-east; the "valley bbck earth," even more fertile than
the former, covers the gently-sloping portions of the territory,
also in the south-east. More or less sandy clays are aoet with
elsewhere, and there are large patches of sand. Iron ores (bfrowa
and spherosideritic), alabaster, limestone, sand (used for gjass),
salt and phosphorites are the chief useful minerals. Tbere are
also extensive deposits of peat.
The population increased from 1,376,000 in z88o to 1.602^392
in 1897; of these 841,245 were women, and 140,347 lived ia
towns. The estimated pop. in 1906 was 1,823,600. lliey ooesst
of Russians, to the extent of 88%; Mordvinians, to the number
of 53,100; Cheremisses, 6700; with Tatars and Cbuvashcs.
Of the total number in 1897 1,525,735 were Orthodox and Old
Believers, 75,848 Raskolniks (Nonconformists), 51,336 Mussul-
mans and 3388 Jews. Both the birth-rate (53 in 1000) and the
death-rate (42 in 1000) are high. A little over 53 % of the area is
available for agriculture, and of this 59% is owned by Doblemea
and x6% only by the peasantry, the remainder being owned hf
merchants and others. Of the odtivable land owned by the
pcssuitry 55% is under crops, but of -similar land owned bjr
noblemen only 30 % is cultivated. The principal crops are wheat,
rye, oats, barley, pease and potatoes. In some years the yield is
quite insufficient for the population, and every year over loo^oos
NIZHNIY-NOVGOROD
72X
persons quit their villages in quest of temporary work in neigh-
bouring governments. The zemstoo or district council of Nizhniy-
Novgorod supports an agricultural school, an experimental farm
and an agency for the purchase of improved seeds and machinery.
The live-stock industry is inferior, as many as 41 % of the peasant
families having no horses, and 24% no cows. Hie domestic
trades, such as the making of cutlery, felu, woollens, leather
goods, wooden wares (sledges, spoons, boxes, window-frames,
&c), gloves, wirework, hardware, mats and sacks, are widely
practised; 70% of the male working population among the
peasants earn their livelihood in this way, as well as by shipping.
This last is an industry of considerable magnitude, goods being
shipped and unshipped to the annual value of over £5,000,000.
Many of the villages and towns have each its own speciality,
those in the district of Semenov being famous for wooden spoons,
in Gorbatov for cutlery and locks, in Balakhna for spindles, in
Makaryev for fancy boxes, in Arzamas, Knyaginin and Sergach
for furs and leather goods. The Mordvinians and Cheremisses keep
bees. Fruit and vegetables are cultivated along the Oka and the
Volga. The factories are steadily developing, iron and machinery
works, flour-mills, potteries, tanneries, shipbuilding yards, saw-
mills and distilleries are the more important. Education, owing
to the efforts of the zemstoo, is in a better condition than in many
other governments of Russia. (P. A. K.; J. T. Bb.)
NIZHNIT-NOVGOROD, or simply Nizhnxy, a town of Russia,
capital of the above government, situated at the confluence of
the Oka and the Volga, 27a m. by rail E. of Moscow. It occupies
an advantageous position on the great artery of Russian trade,
at a place where the manufactured and agricultural products of
the basin of the Oka meet the metal wares from that of the Kama,
the com and salt brought from the south-eastern governments,
the produce of the Caspian fisheries, and the various wares
imported from Siberia, Central Asia, Caucasia and Persia. It
has thus become the scat of the great Makaryevskaya fair (see
below), and one of the chief commercial centres of Russia.
Its importance was still further increased during the latter part
of the 19th century in consequence of the growth of manufactur-
ing industry in the Oka basin, the rapid development of steam-
boat traffic on the Volga and its tributaries, the extension of the
Russian railway system and the opening of Central Asia for
trade.
Nizhniy-Novgorod consists of three parts: the upper city,
including the Kremlin; the lower town, or Nizhniy Bazaar;
and " the Fair," with the suburb of Kunavino. The upper city
is built on three hills, which rise as steep crags 400 ft. (490 ft.
above sea-level) above the right bank of both the Oka and the
Volga. The Kremlin, or old fort, occupies one of these hills
facing the Volga. It was begun in the second half of the Z4th
century, but was erected chiefly in the beginning of the x6th,
on the site of the old palisaded fort, and has a wall 2300 yds. long,
and 65 to 95 ft. high, with eleven towers; it contains the law-
courts, the governor's residence, the arsenal, barracks, the
military gymnasium of Count Arakch6ev (transferred from old
Novgorod), a small museum and two cathedrals, Preobrazhenski
and Arkhangehki. These last were erected in 1225 and 1222
respectively, and have been rebuilt more than once; the present
structures, in somewhat poor taste, date from 1829-1834 and
1 73 a respectively. The Fteobrazhenski cathedral retains several
relics of the past, such as holy pictures of the Z4th and Z7th
centuries and a Bible of 140S; Minin, the hero of Nizhniy (see
below) lies buried there. The Kremlin is adorned with a square,
containing a monument to Minin and Pozharsky erected in 1826,
and pretty boulevards haw been laid out along its lower walL
Tlie view from the Kremlin of the broad Volga, with its low-
lyinS and far-spreading left bank, is very striking. The Pechersky
nionastery, close by, is archaeologically interesting; it was built
In the first half of the i6th century — ^instead of the old monastery
founded in 1330 and destroyed by a land-slip in 1596— and has
aeveraJ antiquities and a library which formeriy contained very
valuable MSS., now at St Petersburg. Another monastery,
that oi Blagovyeshchensk (1370, rebuilt 1647)1 is situated on the
risbt bank of the Oka. Its old churches have been destroyed by
fire, but it has a very ancient holy picture— probably the oldest in
Russia, datuig from 993, which attracts many pilgrims. In
1904 a town-house and a monument to Tsar Alexander II. were
built in the principal square of the upper town. Besides the
Kremlin, the upper town contains the best streets and public
buildings. Five descents lead from it to the lower town, planted
on the alluvial tertace, 30 to 35 ft. above the banks of the Oka
and the Volga, and in the centre of a very lively traffic. Piles
of salt line the salt wharves on the Oka; farther down are the
extensive storehouses and heaps of grain of the com wharves;
then comes the steamboat quay on the Volga, opposite the
Kremlin, and still farther east the timber wharves. The fair is
held on the flat sandy tongue of land between the Oka and the
Volga,' connected with the town by only a bridge of boats, 1500
yds. long, which is Uken to pieces in winter. The shops of the
fair, 4000 in number, built of stone in regular rows, are surrounded
by a canal, and cover half a square inile. Outside this inner
fair are nearly 4000 more shops. Several buildings have been
erected, and institutions established, in connexion with the fair,
e.g. the house of the committee (1890), banks, a theatre, a circus,
a new semicircular canal and a second floating bridge, under-
ground galleries, a water-supply, an electrical tramway, temper-
ance tea-shops and restaurants kept by the Society of Tradesmen.
The Siberian harbour b conspicuous during the fair on account
of its accumulations of tea boxes and temporary shelters, in
which the different kmds of tea are tried and appraised by
tasters. The pomt of the peninsula is occupied by the store-
houses of the steamboat companies, while metal wares and corn
are discharged on a long island of the Oka, at the uron harbour
and in Grebnovskaya harbour. An island in the Volga is the
place where various kinds of rough wares are landed. The rail-
way from Moscow has its terminus dose to the fair buildings,
to the south of which is the suburb of Kunavino, widely known
throughout the East as a place for amusements of the lowest kin4
during the fair. On the fair side the Alexander Nevski cathedral
was erected in 1881, and there too is the older " Fair " cathedral
of 1822.
The dlmate of Nizhniy is harsh and continental, the yearly
average temperature being 39^ Fahr. (lo-d** m January and 64^
in July), and the extreme thermometric readings -40** and
Z04'' Fahr. The town has a settled popuhition of (1897) 90,053
inhabiUnts, who are nearly all Great-Russians, and many of
them Nonconformists. The mortality exceeds the birth-rate.
The educational institutions indude a military school, a technical
school, a theological seminary, and two schools for sons and
daughten of the dergy.
The manufactures indude steam flour-mills, iron and
machinery works, manufactories of ropes and candles, distil-
leries and potteries. Shipbuilding, especially for the transport
of petroleum on the Caspian Sea, and steamboat building, have
recently advanced considerably. Nizhniy is the chief station of
the Volga steamboat traffic The first steamer made its appear-
ance on the Volga in z82z, but it was not till Z845 that steam
navigation began to assume large proportions. The merchants
carry on a brisk trade, valued (apart from that of the fair) at
more than £2,000,000 of purchases and £x ,800,000 of sales;
the prindpal items are com (£200,000 to £500,000), salt, uron,
tea, fish, groceries and manufacturol goods.
The diief importance of the dty is due to its fair, which is
hdd from the 29th of July to the zoth of September. From
remote antiquity Russian merchants were wont to meet in
summer with those from the East at different places on the Volga,
between the mouths of the Oka and the Kama— the fair changing
its site with the increasing or decreasing power of the nation-
alities which struggled for the possession of the middle Volga.
Bolgari, Nizhniy-Novgorod, Kazan and Vasilsursk have succes-
sively been its seat since the zoth century. From 1641 its seat
was at a monastery 55 m. bdow Nizhniy and dose to Makaryev
(whence its present name). The situation, however, being in
many ways inconvenient, and a conflagration having destroyed
the shops at Makaryev, the fair was transferred in z8z7 to its
present locality at Nizhniy-Novgorod.
722
NOAH— NOAILLES
The foods moftly desk in are cotton, wooden, linen and nlk atufft
(35 to 38 % of the whole), iron and iron wares, furs and sldns, pottiny,
salt, corn, fish, wine and all Idnds of manufactured goo<u. The
Russian goods constitute four-fifths of the whole trade; those
l»oueht from Asia— tea (imported via Kiakhta and via Canton
and Sues), raw cotton ana silk, leather wares, madder and various
manufactured wamr-do not exceed 10 or 11%. Manufactured
wares, groceries and wines are the goods principally imported from
western Europe. The total turnover of goods sold and " ordered "
amounts to nearly a6| millions sterling annually. The former
category dropped, oowever, from 36 millions in 1881 to 14 millions
in I9QS*
In 1880, the Russian manuiacturere depending chiefly on the
barter-trade in tea at Kiakhta, their production was regulated
principally by the pikes of tea esublished at the fair; but now
cotton Ukes the lead, and the prospective output for the year of the
miUs of central Russia b determined at the fair by the price of raw
cotton imported from Asia, by that of madder, and by the results of
the year's crop, which became known during the fair. The same
holds good with regard to all other stuffs, the prices of wool (pro-
visionally esublished at the earlier fairs of south-western Russia)
being ultimately settled at Nishniy, as well as those of raw silk.
The whole of the iron production of the Urals depends also on the
same fair. The " caravans '* of boats laden with iron-ware, starting
from the Unb works in the spring, reach Nizhniy in August, after a
stay at the fair of Laishev. which supplies the lower Volga; and the
purchases of iron made at Nizhniy for Asia and middle Russia deter^
mine the amount of credit that will be granted for the next year's
business to the owners of the ironworksL on which credit most of
them entirely depend. The fair thus mfluenoes directly all the
leading branches of Russian manufacture. It exer ci ses a yet greater
influence on the com and salt trades throughout Russia, and still
more on the whole of the Indt in Siberia and Turkestan, both de-
pending entirely on the conditions of credit which the Siberian and
vTurkestan merchants obtain at the fair.
The Makaryevskaya fair attracts no fewer than 400,000 people
from all parts of Russia, and partly from Asia.
Two other fairs of some importance are held at Nizhniy— one for
iVOoden wares on the ice of the Oka, and another, in June, for hones*
History.— Tht confluence of the Oka and the Volga, inhabited
in the xoth century by Mordvinian tribal began to be coveted
by the Ruaaians as soon as they had occupied the upper Volga,
and as early as the xxth century they esubli^ed a fort,
Gorodets, ao m. above the mouth of the Oka. In 1221, the
people of Suzdal, under Yuri Vsevolodovich, prince of Vladimir,
erected a fort on the hill now occupied by the Kremlin of Nizhniy.
Until the beipnning of the 14th century Nizhniy-Novgorod,
which grew rapidly as the Russians colonized the banks of the
Oka, remained subject to Suzdal; it enjoyed, however, ahnost
complete independence, being ruled by its popular assembly.
In ^e X4th century, until X390, it elected its own princes. Ill-
protected by iu palisaded walls, it was plundered in 1377 and
1378 by the Tatars, supported by the Mordvinians. In 1390
Prince Vasili of Moscow, in alliance with Toktamish, khan of the
Golden Horde of the Mongols, took Nizhniy and established his
own governors there; in 14x7 it was definitely annexed to
Moscow, becoming a stroni^old for the further advance of that
principality towards the east It was fortified in X508-X5XX,
and was able to repel the Tatars in 15x3, 1520 and X536. The
second half of the x6th centuxy was for the city a period of
peaceful and rapid development. It became a dep6t for all
merchandize brought from the south-east, and even English
merchants established warehouses there. With the fall of
Kazan, and the opeung of free navigation on the Volga, it
became the starting-place for the " caravan " of boau yearly
sent to the lower Volga under the protection of a military force,
whilst the thick forests of the neighbourhood favoured the
devetopment of shipbuilding. In x6o6-i6ix the trading cUsses
of Nizhniy took an active part in the expeditions against the
revolted serfs, and it was a Nizhniy dealer in cattle, Kozma
Minin Sukhorukov, who took the initiative in sending an army
for the delivery of Moscow from the Poles in x6xa. In X667 the
robber chieftain, Stenka Razin, made an unsuccessful attempt
to capture the dty. During the x 7th century the country around
Nizhniy became the seat of a vigorous religk>us agitation, and
in iu forests the Raskolnlks esublished hundreds of their
monasteries and communities, those of the Kerzhenets playing
an important part in the history of Russian Nonconformity
even to the present time.
Nizhniy-Novgorod had at one time two academies, Greek and
Slav, and took some part in the literary movement of the end of
the i8th century; its theatre also was of some importance in the
history of the Russian stage. (P. A. K; J. T. Bb.)
HOAH (o), rest; Septuagint, New Testament, Philo, Josephus,
Hut, Nfa^of, Nwcoi: Vulg. Not). According to Gcn.v.-z. the
tenth patriarch in direct descent from Adam, counting Adam
as the first; the son of Lamech; the father of Shem, Ham and
Japheth; and the builder of the Ark, in wliich he and hit
family, &c. &c., were saved from a universal flood (see Dzlcce).
After the flood subsided God made a covenant with Noah per-
mitting the use of animal food, on condition that the flesh is not
eaten with the bk>od; and forbidding homidde Qx. 1-7, cf.
L 29 f., both P.). Noah was the first to cultivate the vine and to
experience the consequences of over-indulgence in its products, aa
occasion which called forth the filial respect of two of his sons
and the irreverence of the third. Through his sons be became
the ancestor of the whole human race. The name is mcntioBed
in the genealogy in i Chron. L 4; the " waters of Noah ** occur
in Isaiah 11 v. 9; and Noah is mentioned with Danid and Job
as an ancient worthy in Ezek. ziv. X4, 20. The story is refeoed
to in the New Testament in Matt. zxiv. 37 f.; Luke iii. 36,
zvii. 26 f.; Heb. zi. 7; x Pet. iii. 20; 2 Pet. iL 5.
The name Noah is explained in Gen. v. 29 as connected with
the root nkm "comfort," but this is etymok>gicaUy imposriMf.
As a Hebrew word it might connect with nAak, " rest "; and the
Septuagint has, " he will give us rest," instead of ** he viH
comfort us "; and this is sometimes accepted as the original
reading.
As the tenth patriarch Noah corresponds to the tenth !»«•
historic Babylonian king, Xisuthros in Beroasus, Ut-oapistim
or Atrahasis in the cuneiform tablets, the hero of the Babylosiaa
flood stoiy.
Gen. is. 20-27 is a distinct episode,.and has no necessary con-
nexion with the narrative of the Deluge. Probably, as Gunkd,
Dillmann and others suggest, it came originally from a cyde of
stories different from that which contained the account of the
Flood. There are some apparent inconsbtencics. Noah is called
" the husbandman," The proper rendering of verse ao is ** and
Noah, the husbandman, was the first to plant a vineyaid" the
E.V.: " And Noah began to be an husbandman, and he pbntcd
a vineyard," is incorrect. It seems, therefore, that in the origisal
context Noah had been described as " the husbandman," a tiik
in no way suggested by Gen. vi. 9-iz. X9. Moreover, even aiter
making allowance for lack of experience as to the effect of the
new product, drunkenness and exposure hardly tally with the
statement that " Noah was a just man and perfect in hisgeneca-
tions, and Noah walked with God," vi. 9. This indeed comes
from the late Priestly Code; but we are also told in the earikr
story that " Noah found favour in the eyes of the Lord,** vi 8.
The name also occurs in the Bible {psi, N00&, Noa) for the
daughter of Zebphehad, of the tribe of Manasseh. Zelophehtd
having only daughters, the case is made the occasion of layisg
down the law that where there are no sons daughters inherii.
but must marry within their own tribe (Num. xzvi. 33, zzvu. i.
xxxvi. X X ; Josh. xvii. 3, aU Priestly Code). (W. H. B^)
NOAILLES, the name of a great French family, derived free
the castle of Noailles in the territory of Ayen, between Brive
and Turenne in the Limousin, and claiming to date back to the
xxth century. It did not obtain fame until the i6th ccatuiy.
when its head, Antoxne de Noailles (x 504-x 562), became adnuni
of France, and was ambassador in En^nd during three ix-
portant years, X553-X556, maintaining a gallant but unsucctssfJ
rivalry with the Spanbh ambassador, Simon Renaid. Hess:
(i554~i633)f >on of Antoine, vas a commander in the rchpRs
wars, and was made comte d* Ayen by Henry IV. in 1 593. Axsi
(d. X678), the grandson of the first count, played an importast
part in the Fronde and the early years of the reign of Louis XIV-
became captain-general of the newly won province of Rouss&^
and in x 663 was made due d' Ayen, and peer of France. The srs
of the first duke raised the family to its greatest fame. 1^
eldest son, Anne Jules (1650-1 708). was one of the chief geocnk
NOAKHALI— NOBEL
723
off France towards the end of the reign of Louis XIV., and,
after raising the regiment of Noallles in X6S9, he commanded
in Spain during the war of the Spanish succession, and was made
marshal of France in 1693. A younger son, Louis Antoine
(1651-1729), was made archbishop of Paris in 1695, holding this
high dignity until his death; he was made a cardinal in 1699.
The name of Noailles occurs with almost confusing reiteration
throughout the i8th century. Adsien Mauucz (i67ft-i766),
the third duke, served in all the most important waxs of the reign
of Louis XV. in Italy and Germany, and became a marshal
in 1734* His last conunand was in the war of the Austrian
succession, when he was beaten by the English at the battle of
Dettingen in 1743. He married Fransoised'Aubign£, a niece of
Madame de Maintenon and two of his sons also attained the rank
of marshal of France. The elder, Louis (1713-1793), who bore
the title of due d'Ayen till his father's death in 1766, when he
became due de Noailles, served in most of the wars of the x8th
century without particular distinction, but was nevertheless made
a marshal ini775. He refused to emigrate during the Revolution,
but escaped the guillotine by dying in August 1793, before the
Terror reached its height. ()ii the 4th Thennidor (July 27)
the aged duchesse de Noailles was executed with her daughter-in-
law, the duchesse d'Ayen, and her granddaughter, the vicomtesse
de Noailles. Jean Paul Francois (1739-1834), the fifth duke,
was in the army, but his tastes were scientific, and for his emin-
ence as a chemist he was elected a member of the Academy of
Sciences in 1777. He became due d'Ayen in 1766 on his grand-
father's death, and due de Noailles on his father's in 1793.
Having emigrated in 1792, he h'ved in Switzerland imtil the
Restoration in 1814, when he took his seat as a peer of France.
He had no son, and was succeeded as due de Noailles by his
grand-nephew, Paul (1802-1885), who won some reputation
as an author, and who became a member of the French Academy
in the place of Chateaubriand in 1849. The grandfather of
Paul de Noailles, and brother of the fifth duke, Ehuanuel
Masie Louis (1743-182 2), marquis de Noailles, was ambassador
at Amsterdam trom 1770-1776, at London 1776-1783, and at
Vienna 1783-1792.
One other bianch of the family deserves notice. Philippe (1715-
1794), comte de Noailles, afterwards due de Mouchy,' was a younger
brotner of the fourth duke, and a more distinguished soldier than his
brother. He served at Minden and in other campaigns, and was
made a marshal on the same day as his brother. He was long in
great favour at court, and his wife was first lady of honour to Marie
Antoinette, and was nicknamed by her Madame £tiquette. This
court favour brought down punishment in the days of the Revolution,
and the old marsmU and his wife were guillotined on the 27th of June
1794. His two sons, the prince de Poix and the vicomte de Noailles,
were members of the Constituent Assembly.
Phiuppb Louis Marc Antoine, duke of Noailles and prince of
Poix (x7S2-i8i9)t was born on the 21st of November 1752. In 1789
he was elected deputy of the States-General by the nobility of the
baiUiaeu of Amiens and Ham, but was compelled to resign in
consequence of a duel with the commander of the Garde Nationalc
at Versailles. He left the country for some time, but returned to
Kranoe and took part in the revolution o( the loth of August 1792.
He was, however, forced to ouit the country once. more to evade
the fate of his father and motner. Returning to France in 1800, he
lived quietly at his residence at Mouchy dunng the empire. At the
Restoration he was brought again into favour and became a peer of
France. He died at Paris on the 17th of February 18 19.
Louis Marib (1756-1804), vicomte de Noailles, was the second
son of the marshal. He served brilliantly under La Fayette in
America, and was the officer who concluded the capitulation of York-
town. He was elected to the States-General in 1789. He began the
famous " ofgie," as Mirabeau called it, on the 4th of August, when all
privileges were abolished, and with d'Aituillon proposed the abolition
of titles and liveries in June 1790. When the revolution became
rnon pronounced he emigrated to America, and became a partner
in Bingham's bank at Philadelphia. He was very successful, and
might nave lived happily had he not accepted a command against
the English in San Domineo, under Rochambeau. He made a
tirilliant defence of the mole St Nicholas, and escaped with the
esftrrison to Cuba; but in making for Havana his ship was attacked
by an English frigate, and after a long engagement he was severely
grounded, and died of his wounds on the 9th of January 1804.
NOAKHAU, a town and district of British India, in the
Oliittagong division of eastern Bengal and Assam. The town,
aliso known as Sudharam, is on a small river channel 10 m. from
the sea. Pop (1901) 6s2a The Distsict of Noaxhau has
an area of 1644 sq. m.; pop. (igbi) 1,141,728. The district
consists of an alluvial tract of mainland, together with several
islands at the mouth of the Meghna. In general, each home-
stead is surrounded by a thick grove of betel- and coco-nut
palms, and in the north-western tracts dense forests of betel-nut
palms extend foi miles. Rice is the great staple of cultivation.
The district is very fertile; and, with the exception of some
sandbanks and recent accretions, every part of it is under con-
tinuous cultivation. The process of alluvion is gradually but
steadily going on, the mainland extending seawards. Noakhall
is peoUiarly liable to destructive floods from the sea, generally
caused by southerly gales or cyctones occurring at the time when
the Meghna is swollen by heavy rains, and at flood-tides— the
tidal bore being sometimes 20 ft. high, and moving at the rate
of 15 m. an hour. The cyclone and storm-wave of the 31st of
October 1876 was terribly disastrous, sweeping over the whole
delta of the Meghna. The loss of human life was estimated at
100,000. The east of the district is served by the Assam-Bengal
railway.
The Mahommedan population of the islands at the mouth of the
M^hna practised piracy up to a comparatively recent date, and
at the beginning of the 17th centuzy Portuguese pirates, under
Sebastian Gonzales, occupied Sandwip. They were ultimately
reduced to subjection by Shaista Khan, the governor of Bengal,
about the middle of the centuzy; and their descendants have
sunk to the level of the natives surrounding them, whose dress,
customs and language they have, for the most part, adopted.
They are Christians, and retain the old Portuguese names.
About 1756 the East India Company established factories in
Noakhali and Tippera, the ruins of some of which still remain.
NOBEL, ALFRED BBRNHARD (1833-1896), Swedish chemist
and engineer, was the third son of Enunanud Nobel (1801-1872),
and was bom at Stockholm on the 21st of October 1833. At
an early age he went with his family to St Petersburg, where
his father started torpedo works. In 1859 these were left to the
care of the second son, Ludvig Emmanuel (i 831-1888), by
whom they were greatly enlarged, and Alfred, returning to
Sweden with his father, devoted himself to the study of ex-
plosives, and especially to the manufacture and utilization of
nitroglycerin. He found that when that body was incoTix>rated
with an absorbent, inert substance like kleselguhr it became
safer and more convenient to manipulate, and this mixture he
patented in 1867 as dynamite. He hext combined nitro-
glycerin with another high explosive, gun-cotton, and obtained
a transparent, jelly-like substance, which was a still more
powerful explosive than dynamite. Blasting gelatin, as it
was called, was patented in 1876, and was foUowed by a host
of similar combinations, modified by the addition of potassium
nitrate, wood-pulp and various other substances. Some
thirteen years later Nobel produced ballistite, one of the earliest
of the nitro^ycerin smokeless powders, containing in its
latest forms about equal parts of gun-cotton and nitroglycerin.
This powder was a precursor of cordite, and Nobel's claim that
his patent covered the latter was the occasion of vigorously
contested law-suits between him and the Briti^ Government
in 1894 and 1895. Cordite also consists of nitroglycerin and
gun-cotton, but the form of the latter which its inventors wished
to use was the most highly nitrated variety, which is not soluble
in mixtures of ether and alcohol, whereas Nobel contemplated
using a less nitrated form, which is soluble in such mixtures.
The question was complicated by the fact that it is in practice
impossible to prepare either of these two forms without ad-
mixture of the other; but eventually the courts decided against
Nobel. From the manufacture of dynamite and other explosives,
and from the exploitation of the Baku oil-fields, in the develop-
ment of which he and his brothers, Ludvig and Robert Hjahnar
(1829-1896), took a leading part, he amassed an immense
fortune; and at his death, which occurred on the loth of
December 1896 at San Remo, he left the bulk of it in trust for
the establishment of five prizes, each worth several thousand
pounds, to be awarded annually without distinction of nationality.
724
NOBILI— NOBILITY
The fizst three of these prizes are for eminence in physical
science, in chemistry and in medical science or physiology;
the fourth is for the most remarkable literary work dans U sens
tPidialisme; and the fifth is to be given to the person or society
that renders the greatest service to the cause of international
brotherhood, in the suppression or reduction of standing armies,
or in the establishment or furtherance of peace congresses.
See Les Prix Nobd em tgot (Stockholm, 1904).
HOBIU. LBOFOLDO (z784>i83s), Italian physicist, bom at
Reggio nell' Emilia in 1784, was in youth an oflker of artillery,
but afterwards became professor of physics b the archduc^
museum at Florence, the old habitat of the Accademia del
Cimento. His most valuable, contributions to science consist
in the suggestion of the astatic combination of two needles for
galvanometeis, and m the invention of the so-called thermo-
multipUer used by him and M. MeUonL In 1826 he described
the prismatically-coloured films of metal, known as Nobili's
rings, deposited electrolytically from solutions of lead and other
salts when the anode is a polished iron plate and the cathode is
a fine wire placed vertically above it. His papers were mostly
published m the Bibliolhtqiie unitersdU of Geneva. He died
at Florence in August 1835.
HOBIUOR. MARCUS FULVIUS, Roman genetal, a member of
one of the most important families of the plebeian Fulvian
gens. When praetor (193 B.C.) he served with distinction in
Spain, and as consul in 189 he completely broke the power of the
Aetolian league. On his return to Rome, Nobilior celebrated a
triumph (of which full detaib arc given by Livy) remarkable
for the magnificence of the spoils exhibited. On his Aetolian
campaign he was accompanied by the poet Ennius, who made
the capture of Ambracia, at which he was present, the subject
of one of his plays. For this Nobilior was bitterly attacked by
Cato the Censor, on the ground that he had compromised his
dignity as a Roman general. He restored the temple of Hercules
and the Muses in the Circus Flaminius, placed in it a list of
Fasti drawn up by himself, and endeavoured to make the
Roman calendar more generally known. He was a great en-
thusiast for Greek art and culture, and introduced many of its
masterpieces into Rome, amongst them the picture of the
Muses by Zeuzis from Ambrada.
NOBIUTY. To form a true undeistanding of what is strictly
implied in the word ^ nobility," in its social as opposed to a
purely moral sense, it is needful to distinguish its meaning from
that of several words with which it is likely to be confounded.
In England nobility is apt to be confounded with the peculiar
institution of the British peerage. Yet nobility, in some shape or
another, has existed In most places and times of the world's
history, while the British peerage is an institutkm purely k>cal,
and one which has actually hindered the existence of a nobility
in the sense which the word bears in most other countries.
Nor is nobility the same thing as aristocracy. This last is a word
which is often greatly abused; but, whenever it is used with
any regard to its true meaning, it is a word strictly political,
implying a particular form of government. But nt^ility is
not necessarily a political term; the distinction which it implies
may be accompanied by political privileges or it may not. Again,
it b sometimes thought that both nobility and aristocracy are
in some special way connected with kingly government. To
not a few it would seem a contradiction to speak of nobility
or aristocracy in a republic. Yet, though many republics have
eschewed nobility, there b nothing in a republican, or even in a
democratic, form of government inconsistent with the existence
of nobility; and it is only in a republic that aristocracy, in the
strict sense of the word, can exist. Aristocracy implies the
existence of nobility; but nobility does not imply aristocracy;
it may exist under any form of govemmenL The peerage,
as it exists in the three British kingdoms, is something which
b altogether peculiar to the three British kingdoms, and which
has nothing in the least degree like it elsewhere.
Nobility, then, in the strict sense of the word, b the hereditary
handing on from generation to generation of some acknow-
ledged pre-eminence, a pre-eminence founded on hereditary
succession, and on nothing ebe. Such nobQity nuy be imn»>
morial or it may not. There may or there may not be a power
vested somewl^re of conferring nobility; but it b q^^^^^^^
essential to the true idea of nobility that, when once
acquired, it shall go on for ever to aU the desccodaats— or.
more commonly, only to all the descendants in the male line--
of the person first ennobled or first recorded as noble. The
pre-eminence so handed on may be of any kind, from substantial
political power to mere social respect and precedence. It docs
not seem necessary that it should be formally enacted by law
if it b universally acknowledged by usage. It nuy be marked
by titles or it may not. It b hardly needful to prove that
nobility does not imply wealth, though nobility without wealth
runs some risk of being forgotten. Thb definition seems to
take in all the kinds of nobility which have existed in different
times and places. They have differed widely in the origin of
the noble class and in the amount of privilege implied in member-
ship of it; but they all agree in the transmission of some
privilege or other to aU the descendants, or to all the male
descendants, of the first irable.
In strictness nobility and gentry are the same thing. This
fact b overshadowed in England, partly by the habitual use of
the word " gentleman " {q.v.) in various secondary
uses, partly by the prevalent confusion between ZijMC^.
nobility and peerage. But that they are the same
is proved by the use of the French word getttilkomme^ a word
which has pretty well passed out of modem use, but which,
as long as it remained in use, never lost iu trae meaning. There
were very wide dbtinctions within the French ncbUsse, but
they all formed one privileged class as distinguished from the
roturia. Here, then, b a nobility in the strictest sense. If
there b no such class in England, it b simply because the dass
which answers to it has never beni able to keep any universally
acknowledged privileges. The word " gentleman " has kist its
original meaning in a variety of other uses, while the wonJ
" nobleman " has come to be confined to members of the pcenge
and a few of their immedbte descendants.
That the English peerage does not answer to the true idea
of a nobility will be seen with a very little thought. There is no
handing on of privilege or pre-eminence to perpetual gcneratioos.
The peer holds a great position, endowed with substantial povcn
and privileges, and those powers and privileges are handed 00 by
hereditary succession. But they are handed on only to one
member of the family at a time. The peer's rhildrrn, in some
cases hb grandchildren, have titles and precedence, but tbcy
have no substantial privileges. His remoter descendants have
no advantage of any kind over other people, except their dunoe
of succeeding to the peerage. The remote dcsceiulant of a duke,
even though he may chance to be heir presumptive to the duke-
dom, b in no way distinguished from any other gentleman,
it b even possible that he may not hold the social rank of gentle^
man. Thb b not nobility in the true sense; it b not nobility as
nobility was understood either in the French kingdom or in the
Venetian commonwealth.
Nobility thus implies the vesting of some hereditary priviks^
or advantage in certain families, without deddtng in what soch
privilege or advantage consbts. Its nature may differ wkldjr
according to the causes which have led to the cstabUshmeni
of the distlnctioii between family and family in each pMxtkvbx
case.
The way In which nobility hat arisen m different times uA
places b very various, aiKi there are several nations whose
history will supply lis with examples of a nobility _
of one kind giving way to a nobility of another kind. SSSL
The hbtory of the Roman commonwealth fllustrates
thb perhaps better than any other.' What we may call the
nobility of earlier occupation makes way for the oobiiiiy af
office. Our first glimpses of authentic Roman history set Max
us two orders in the same state, one of which it dbtinguishrd
from the other by many exclusive privileges. The privScged
>Por the ethnokigical problems raised by the rcbiioosof i
and ^ifefa, see Rons: History, 1 1.; also PATaiOANS.
NOBILITY
72s
order— the po^ms, PalreSt pfttridu>--lias all the characteristics
which we commonly expect to find in a privileged order. It is a
minority, a minority strictly marked out by birth from other
members of the commonwealth, a minority which seems further,
though this point is less clearly marked, to have had on the whole
the advantage in point of wealth. When we are first entitled
to speak with any kind of certainty, the non-privileged dass
possess a certain share in the election of nuqpstrates and the
making of laws. But the privileged class alone are eligible to the
greatest offices of the state; they have in their hands the ex-
clusive control of the national religion; they have the exclusive
enjoyment of the common land of the state— in Teutonic phrase,
the falkland, A little research shows that the origin of these
privileges was a very simple one. Those who appear in later time^
as a pri^eged order among the people had once been the whole
people. The patricians, patreSt housefathers, goodmen— so
lowly is the origin of that proud name— were once the whole
Roman people, th^ original inhabitants of the Roman hills. They
were the true poptdus Romanus, alongside of whom grew up
a secondary Roman people, the plebs or commons. As new
settlers came, as the people of conquered towns were moved to
Rome, as the character of Romans was granted to some allies
and forced upon some enemies, this pUhs, sharing some but not all
of the rights of dtizens, became a non-privileged order alongside
of a privileged order. As the non-privileged order increased in
numbers, while the privileged order, as every exclusive hereditary
body must do, lessened, the krger body gradually put on the
character of the nation at large, while the smaller body put
on the character of a nobility. But their position as a nobility
or privileged dass arose soldy because a class with inferior rights
to their own grew up around theuL They were not a nobility
or a privileged class as long as there was no less privileged class
to distinguish them from. Their exdusive possession of power
made the commonwealth in which they bore rule an aristocracy;
but they were a democracy among themselves. We see indeed
faint tncea of distinction among the patricians themselves,
which may lead us to guess that the equality of all patricians may
have been won by struggles of unrecorded days, not unlike those
which in recorded days brought about the equality of patridan
and plebeian. But at this we can only guess. The Roman
patricians, the true Roman popidmSt appear at our first sight of
them as a body democratic in its own constitution, but standing
out as an order marked by very substantial privileges indeed
from the other body, the pkhs, also democratic in its own con-
stitution, but hi every point of honour and power the marked
inferior of the poptdus.
The old people of Rome thus grew, or rather shrank up, hito a
nobUity by the growth of a new people by their side which they
f,^^!^^ dediiied to admit to a share in their rights, powers
and poasessions. A aeries of struggles raised this
new people, the pUbs^ to a level with the old people, the
poptdus. The gndual character of the process is not the least
instructive part of iL There are two marked stages in the
struggle. In the first the plebeians strive to obtain relief from
laws and customs which were actually oppreaaave to them, while
they were profiuble to the patridans. When this relief has been
gained by a series of enactments, a second struggle follows, in
which the plebeians win political equality with the patridans.
In this second strugi^e, too, the ground is won bit by biL No
general law was ever passed to abolish the privileges of the
patridans; still less was any law ever passed to abolish the dis-
tinction between patridan and plebeian. All that was done was
done step by step. First, marriage between the two orden was
legalixed. Then one law admitted plebeians to one office, another
law to another. Admission to military command was won first,
then admission to dvU jurisdiction; a share hi religk>us functions
was won last of aU. And some offices, diiefly those religious
offices whidi carried no political power with them, always
remained the exdusive property of the patridans, because no
special law was ever passed to throw them open to plebeians.
In this gradual way every practical advantage on the part of the
patridana waa taken away. But the result did not lead to the
abolition of all distinctions between the orders. Patridans and
plebeians went on as orders defined by law, till the dbtinction
died out in the confusion of things under the empire, till at last
the word " patrician " took quite a new meaning. The distinc-
tion, in truth, went on till the advantage turned to the side of
the plebeians. Both consuls might be plebeians, both could not
be patricians; a patrician could not widd the great powers vested
in the tribunes of the commons. These were greater advantages
than the exdusive patrician possession of the offices of int^rex,
rex sacrorum and the higher flamens. And, as the old distinction
survived in law and reUgfon after all substantial privileges were
abolished, so presently a new distinction arose of whidi law
and reUgion knew nothing, but which became in practice nearly
as marked and quite as important as the older one.
This was the growth of the new nobility of Rome, that body,
partly patridan, partly plebeian, to whom the name nobilUas
strictly bdongs in Roman history. This new nobility gradually
became as well marked and as exdusive as the old patriciate.
Bat if differed from the old patriciate in this, that, while the
privileges of the old patriciate rested on law, or perhaps rather
on immemorial custom, the privileges of the new nobility
rested wholly on a sentiment of which men could remember
the beginning. Or it would be more accurate to say that the new
nobility had really no privileges at all. Its members had no
legal advantages over other dtizens. They were a social caste,
which strove to keep, and which largely succeeded in keeping,
all high offices and political power in its own hands. Such
privileges, even of an honorary kind, as the nobles did enjoy
by law belonged to them, not as nobles, but as senators and
senators' sons. Yet practically the new nobility was a privileged
dass; it fdt itself to be so, and it was fdt to be so by others.
This nobility consbted of all those who, as descendants of curule
magistrates, had the jus imaginum^thai is, who could point
to fordathcrs ennobled by office. That is to say, it consisted
of the remains of the old patriciate, together with those plebeian
families any members of which had been chosen to curule
offices. These were naturally those families which had been
patrician in some other Italian dty, but which were plebeian
at Rome. Many of them equalled the patridans in wealth
and antiquity of descent, and as soon as inter-marriage was
allowed they became in all thmgs their social equals. The
practical result of the Lidnian reform was that the great plebeian
families became, for all practical purposes, patrician. They
separated themselves from the mass of the plebeians to form
a single body with the surviving patridans. Just as the oM
patricians had striven to keep plebeians out of high offices,
so now the new nobles, patridan and plebeian alike, strove to
keep " new men," men who had not the jus imaginum, out of
high office. But there was still the difference that in the old
state of things the i^ebeian was shut out by law, while in the
new state of things no law shut out the new man. It neieded
a change in the constitution to give the consulship to Lucius
Sextius; it needed only union and energy hi the electors to
give it to Gaius Marius.
The Roman case is often misunderstood, because the later
Roman writers did not fully understand the case themselves.
Livy could never get rid of the idea that the old struggle between
patrician and plebeian was something like the struggle between
the nobility and the people at large hi the hiter days of the
commonwealth. In a certain sense he knew better; at any rate,
he often repeats the words of those who knew better; but the
general impression given by his story is that the plebeians were
a low mob and their leaders factious and interested ringleaders
of a mob. The case is again often misunderstood because the
words *' patridan " and " plebeian," like so many other technical
Roman and Greek words, have come in modem language to
be used In a way quite unlike their origmal sense. The word
" plebeian," in its strict sense, is xk> more contemptuous than
the word commoner m England. The plOs, like the English
commons, contained families differing widdy m rank and social
positwn, among them those families which, as soon as an artifidal
barrier broke down, joined with the patricians to form the new
726
NOBILITY
nobility. The whole lesson is lost if the words "patrician"
and " plebeian " are used in any but their strict sense. The
Catuli and MctelU, among the proudest nobles of Rome, were
plebeians, and as such could not have been chosen to the purely
patrician office of interrext or fiamen of Jupiter. Yet even in
good writers on Roman history the words " patrician " and
" plebeian *' are often misapplied by being transferred to the
later disputes at Rome, in which they are quite out of place.
We may now compare the history of nobility at Rome with
its history in some other of the most famous city<ommonweaIths.
^ Thus at Athens ' its history is in its main outlines
pJH^ very much the same as its history at Rome up to a
utwmm certain point, while there is nothing at Athens which
RommaaaizX all answers to the later course of things at Rome.
^oSmUL ^^ Athens, as at Rome, an old patriciate, a nobility of
older settlement, a nobility wUch had once been the
whole people, was gradually shorn of all exclusive privilege,
and driven to share equal rights with a new people which
had grown up around it. The reform of Cleisthenes {q.v.)
answers in a general way to the reform of Lidnius, though the
different circumstances of the two cities hinder us from carrying
out the parallel into detail. But both at Rome and at Athens
we see, at a stage earlier than the final reform, an attempt
to set up a standard of wealth, either instead of or alongside
of the older standard of birth. This same general idea comes
out both in the constitution of Servius and in the constitution
of Solon, though the application of the principle is different
in the two cases. Servius made voting power depend on income;
by Solon the same rule was applied to qualification for office.
By this change power is not granted to every citizen, but it is
put within the reach of every citizen. No man can change his
forefathers, but the poor man may haply become richer. The
Athenian tbwarpiiaiy who were thus gradually brought down
from their privileged position, seem to have been quite as proud
and exclusive as the Roman patricians; but when they lost
their privileges they lost them far more thoroughly, and they
did not, as at Rome, practically hand on many of them to a new
nobility, of which they formed part, though not the whole.
While at Rome the distinction of patrician and plebeian wa^ never
wiped out, while it remained to the last a legal distinction even
when practical privilege had turned the other way, at Athens,
after the democracy had reached its full growth, the distinction
seems to have had no legal existence whatever. At Rome
down to the last it made a difference whether the candidate for
office was patrician or plebeian, though the difference was in
later times commonly to the advantage of the plebeian. At
Athens, at any rate after Aristides, the eupatrid was neither
better nor worse off than another man.
But, what is of far greater importance, there never arose at
Athens any body of men which at all answered to the nobUUas of
Rome. We see at Athens strong signs of social distinctions,
even at a late period of the democracy; we see that, though
the people might be led by the low-bom demagogue— using that
word in its strict and not necessarily dishonourable meaning —
their votes most commonly fell on men of ancient descent.
We see that men of birth and wealth often allowed themselves
a strange licence in dealing with their low-born fellow-dtizens.
But we see no sign of the growth of a body made up of patricians
and leading plebeians who contrived to keep ofike to themselves
by a social tradition only less strong than positive law. We
have at Athens the exact parallel to the state of things when
Appius Gaudius shrank from the thought of the consulship of
Gaius Lidnius; we have no exact parallel to the state of things
when Quintus Metdlus shrank from the thought of the consulship
of Gaius Marius. The cause of the difference seems to be that,
while the origin of the patridate was exactly the same at Rome
and at Athens, the origin of the commons was different. The
four Ionic tribes at Athens seem to have answered very dosdy
to the three patrician tribes at Rome; but the Athenian dtmos
grew up in a different way from the Roman ^bs. If we could
believe that the Athenian demos arose out of the union of the
> See further Athens: History, and Eupatudab.
other Attic towns with Athens, this would be an exact analogy
to the origin of the Roman ^s; the wrarpiiai would be the
Athenians and the demos the Atticans ('ArruBot). But from
such glimpses of early Attic history as we can get the unioB of
the Attic towns would seem to have been completed before the
constitutional struggle began. That union would answer rather
to the union of the three patrician tribes of Rome. Such faints
as we have, while they set before us, just as at Rome, a sute
of things in which small landed proprietors are burtbened with
debt, also set before us the Attic demos as, largdy at least, a
body of various origins which had grown up in the dty. Ods-
thenes, for instance, enfranchised many ^aves and strangas,
a course which certainly formed no part of the platform of
Lidnius, and which reminds us rather of Gnaeus Flavius some-
what later. On the whole it seems most likdy that, while the
kemd of the Roman plebs was rural or bdonged to the small
towns admitted to the Roman franchise, the Attic dewias, largdy at
least, though doubtless not wholly, arose out of the miud setilos
who had come together in the dty, answering to the tikrouok of
later times. If so, there would be no place in Athens for those great
plebeian houses, once patrician in some other commonwnlth,
out of which the later Roman nobUitas was so laigdy formed.
Thus the history of nobility at Athens supplies a doK anakiQr
to the earlier stages of its history at Rome, but it has nothing
answering to its later stages. At Sparta we have a third instance
of a people shrinking up into a nobility, but it is a people whose
position differs altogether from anytl^g dther at R<Mne or at
Athens. Sparta is the best case of a nobility of conquest. This
is true,whether we look on the m^plouoi as Achaeans or as Domes,
or as belonging some to one race and some to the other (s«e
Pesioeci). In any case the Spartans form a ruling body, and a
body whose privileged position in the land is owing to conquest.
The Spartans answer to the patricians, the trtfAouaoL to t^
pkbs\ the hdots are below the position of pUhs or demos. The
only difference is that, probably owing to the fact that the
distinction was due to conquest, the local character of the dis-
tinction lived on much longer than it did at Rome. We hardly
look on the Spartans as a nobih'ty among the other Lacedae-
monians; Sparta rather is a ruling dty b^ng sway over the
other Lacedaemonian towns. But this is exactly what the original
Roman patricians, the settlers on the three oldest hills, were in the
beginning. The so-called dties (ir6Xets) of the Ttfiouooi answered
pretty well to the local plebdan tribes; the difference is that the
v^pLcMoi never became a united corporate body like the Rckbu
plebs. Sparta to the last remained what Rome was at the
beginning, a city with a populus (59/u») but no pMs, And. £s
at Rome in early times, there were at Sparta distinctions wiihis
the populus ] there were Bfunoi and broiidopts, like the wujoas
and minores gentes at Rome. Only at Rome, where there was a
plebs to be striven against, these distinctions seem to have had &
tendenQT to die out, while at Sparta they seem to have had a
tendency to widen. The Spartan patridate could afford to
disfranchise some of its own members.
The other old Greek dties, as well as those of medieval Italy
and Germany, would supply us with endless examples <d the
various ways in which privileged orders arose. Venice, a dty
not exactly bdonging to any of these classes, essentiaOy a dtj
of the Eastern empire and not of the Western, gives us an ^-^t*^
than which none is more instructive. The renowned patrician
of Venice was as far removed as might be from the character dther
of a nobility of conquest or of a nobility of older settlement.
Nor was it strictly a nobility of office, thou|^ it had mote a
common with that than with dther of the other two. As Atbos
supplies us with a paralld to the older nobility of Rome withoU
any paralld to the later, so Venice supplies us with a panBd to
the later nobility of Rome without any paralld to the eazikr:
Athens has Fabii and Claudii, but no Catuli or MetcDi; Vcskz
has Catuli and Metelli, but no Fabii or ClaudiL
In one point, however, the Venetian nobility differed fraa
either the older or the newer nobility of Rome, and also hon Ox
older nobilities of the medieval Italian dties. Nowhere dse dsi
nobility fo distinctly rise out of wealth, and that wealth gsivd
NOBILITY
727
by commerce. In the origmal island territory of Venice there
conld be no such thing as landed property. The agricultural
plebeian of old Rome and the feudal noble of contemporary
Europe were both of them at Venice impossible characters. The
Venetian nobility is an example of a nobility which gradually
arose out of the mass of the people as certain families step by
stq> drew all political power into their own hands. The plebs
did not gather round the patreSf neither were they conquered by
the patres; the patres were developed by natural selection
out of the pUbSf or, more strictly, out of the andent poptdus.
The c4nnMttnt of Venice, the ancient style of the common-
wealth, changed into the seigniory of Venice. Political power
was gndually confined to those whose forefathers had held
political power. This was what the later nobility of Rome
was always striving at, and what they did to a great extent
practically establish. But, as the exclusive privileges of the
nobility were never recognized by any legal or formal act, men
like Gaius Marius would ever and anon thrust themselves in.
The privileges which the Venetian nobility took to themselves
were established by acts which, if not legal, were at least formal.
The Roman nobility, resting wholly on sufferance, was over-
thrown by the ambition of one pf its own members. The Venetian
nobility, resting also in its beginnings on sufferance, but on
sufferance which silently obtained the force of law, lasted as long
as Venice remained a separate state.
The hereditary oligarchy of Venice was established by a series
of changes which took place between the years 1297 and 1319.
All of them together really go to make up the " Shutting of the
Great Council," a name which is formally given to the act of the
first of those years. In 1x73 the Great Council began as an
elective body; it gradually ousted the popular assembly from all
practical power. It was, as might be looked for, commonly filled
by members of distinguished families, descendants of andent
magistrates, who were already beginning to be looked on as noble.
The series of revolutions already spoken of first made descent
from former councillors a necessary qualification for election
to the council; then election was abolished, and the council
consbted of all descendants of its existing members who had
reached the age of twenty-five. Thus the optimatef of Venice
did what the optimaies of Rome strove to do: they established
a nobility whose one qualification was descent from those who
had hdd oflSce in past times. This is what the nobility of office,
if left unchecked, naturally grows into. But the particular way
in which oligarchy was finally established at Venice had some
singular results. Some of the great families which were already
looked on as noble were not represented in the council at the
time of the shutting; of others some branches were represented
and others not. These families and branches of families, however
noble they might be in descent, were thus shut out from all the
political privileges of nobility. When one branch of
VHrtmtsmd ^ family was admitted and one shut out we have an
tt» anmi analogy to the patridan and plebeian Claudii, though
the distinction had come about in quite another way.
And in the Great Council itsdf we have the lively
image of the aristocratic popular assembly of Rome, the
assembly of the poptdus^ that of the cwiae^ where every
man of patrician birth had his place. The two institutions are
tbe same, only the way in which they came about is exactly
opposite. The assembly of curiae at Rome, originally the
democratic assembly of the original people, first grew into an
Aristocratic assembly, and then died out altogether as a new
Roman people, with its own assembly, grew up by its side.
It was a primitive institution which gradually changed its
character by force of dromistances. It died out, supplanted
by other and newer powers, when it became altogether unsuited
to the times. The Great Council of Venice was anything but a
primitive institution; it was the artifidal institution of a late
a^, which grew at the expense of earlier institutions, of the
prince on the one side and of the people on the other. But the
t-e^o different roads led to the same result. The Great Coundl of
Venice, the curiae of Rome, were each of them the assembly of
ft privileged class, an assembly in which every member of that class
had a right to a place, an assembly which might be called popular
as far as the privileged dass was concerned, though rigidly
oligarchic as regarded the excluded classes. But, dose as the
likeness is, it is merely a superficial likeness, because it is the
result of opposite causes working in opposite directions. It is like
two men who are both for a moment in the same place, though
their faces are turned in opposite ways. If the later nobiliias
of Rome had established an assembly in which every one who had
the jus imaginum had a vote and none other, that would have
been a real paralld to the shutting of the Venetian Great Coundl;
for it would have come about through the working of causes
which are essentially the same.
The nobility which was thus formed at Venice b the very
modd of a dvic nobility, a nobility which is also an aristocracy.
In a monarchy, despotic or constitutional, there j-
cannot in strictness be an aristocracy, because the „„^gny^
whole political power cannot be vested in the noble VmIcv
dass. But in the Venetian commonwealth the nobility JJjJ^***"
was a real aristocracy. All political power was vested *'*^'
in the noble class; the prince sank to a magbtrate, keeping
only some of the outward forms of soverdgnty; the mass of
the people were shut out altogether. And, if no government
on earth ever fully carried out the literal meaning of aristocracy
as the rule of the best, these civic nobilities come nearer to it
than any other fOrm of government. They do really seem to
engender a kind of hereditary capadty in their members. Less
favourable than dther monarchy or democracy to the growth
of occasional great men, they are more favourable than dther
to the constant supply of a succession -of able men, qualified
to carry on the work of government. Their weak point lies in
their necessary conservatism; they cannot advance and adapt
themsdves to changed circumstances, as either monarchy or
democracy can. When, therefore, their goodness is gone, their
corruption becomes worse than the corruption of either of the
other forms of government.
All this is signally shown in the history both of Venice and of
other aristocratic cities. But we arc concerned with them now
only as instances of one form of nobility. The dvic
aristocrades did not all arise in the same way. Venice SJto*
is the best type of one way in which they rose; but enehM,
it is by rK> means the only way. In not a few of the
Italian cities nobility had an origin and ran a course quite unh'ke
the origin and the course which were its lot at Venice. The
nobles of many dties were simply the nobles of the surrounding
country changed, sometimes greatly against their will, into
dtizens. Such a nobility differed far more widely from either
the Roman or the Venetian patridate than they differed from
one another. It wanted the element of legality, or at least of
formality, which distinguished both these bodies. The privileges
of the Roman patridate, whatever we nuy call them, were
not usurpations; and, if we call the privileges of the Venetian
nobility usurpations, they were stealthy and peaceful usurpa-
tions, founded on something other than mere violence. But in
many Italian dties the position of the nobles, if it did not begin
in violence, was maintained by violence, and was often over-
thrown by violence. They remained, in short, as unruly and
isolated within the walls of the dties as they had ever been
without. A nobility of this kind often gave way to a democracy
which dth» proved as turbulent as itself, or else grew into an
oligarchy ruling under democratic forms. Thus at Florence
the old nobles became the opposite to a privileged class. The
process which at Rome gradually, gave the plebeian a political
advantage over the patrician was carried at Florence to a far
greater length at a single blow. The whole noble order was
disfranchised; to be noble was equivalent to being shut out
from public office. But something like a new nobility presently
grew up among the commons themsdves; there were popaiani
grossi at Florence just as there were noble ptebeians at Rome.
Only the Roman commons, great and small, never shut out the
patricians from office; they were satisfied to share office with
them. In short, the shutting out of the old nobility was, if
not the formation of a new nobility, at least the formation of a
728
NOBILITY
new privileged class. For a oertaiii dass of dtkeos to be con-
demned, by virtue of their birth, to political disfranchisement
is as flatly against every principle of democracy as for a certain
dass of dtizens to enjoy exdusive rights by reason of birth.
The Florentine democracy was, in truth, rather to be called an
oligarchy, if we accept the best definition of democracy (see
Thucydides vL 39), namdy, that it is the rule of the whole,
while oligarchy is the rule of a part only.
It is in these aristocractic dtles, of which Venice was the most
fully developed modd, that we can best see what nobility
really is. It is in these only that we can see nobility in its purest
form — ^nobility to which no man can rise and from which no
man can come down except by the will of the noble class itself.
In a monarchy, where the king can ennoble, this ideal cannot
be kept. Nor could it be kept in the later nobility of Rome.
The new man had much to strive against, but he could some-
times thrust himself through, and when he did his descendants
had ihdtjus imaginum. But at Venice ndther prince nor people
could open the door of the Great Council; only the Great Council
itself could do that. That in the better times of the aristocracy
nobility was not uncommonly granted to worthy persons, that in
its worse times it was more commonly sold to unworthy persons,
was the affair of the aristocratic body itself. That body, at
all events, could not be degraded save by its own act. But these
grants and sales led to distinctions within the ranks of the noble
order, like those of which we get faint glimpses among the
Roman patricians. The ducal dignity rarely passed out of a
drde of specially old and dbtinguished families. But this has
often been the case with the high magbtradcs of commonwealths
whose constitutions were purely democratic.
From this purest type of nobility, as seen in the aristocratic
commonwealths, we may pass to nobility as seen in states of
greater extent — that is, for the most part in monarch ies.
gHofy. There are two marked differences between the two.
They are differences wfiich seem to be inherent
in the difference between a republic and a monarchy, but
which it would be truer to say are inherent in the difference
between a body of men packed d<»e together within the walls
of a city and a body of men— if we can call them a body —
scattered over a wide territory. The member of a dvic nobihty
is more than a member of an order; he is a member of a corpora-
tion; he has no powers, he has hardly any being, apart from
the body of which he is a member. He has a vote in making
the laws or in choosing those who make them; but when they
are made he is, if anything, more strictly bound by them than
the citizen of the non-privileged order. To be a fraction of the
corporate sovereign, if it had its gains, had also its disadvantages;
the Venetian noble was fettered by burthens, restrictions and
suspicions from which the Venetian dtixen was free. The noble
of the large country, on the other hand, the rural noble, as he
commonly will be, is a member of an order, but he is hardly
a member of a corporation; he is isolated; he acts apart from
the rest of the body and wins powers for himself apart from the
rest of the body. He shows a tendency — a tendency whose
growth will be more or less checked according to the strength
of the central power— to grow into something of a lord or even
a prince on his own account, a growth which may advance to
the scale of a German dector or stop at that of an English lord
of a manor. Now many of these tendencies were carried into
those Italian cities where the dvic nobility was a hxdf-tamed
country nobility; but they have no place in the true dvic
aristocrades. Let us take one typical example. In many
parts of western Europe the right of private war long remaJned
the privilege of every noble, as it had once been the privilege
of every freeman. And in some Italian cities, the right, or at
least the privilege, of private war was continued within the dty
walls. But no power of imagination can concdve an acknow-
ledged right of private war in Rome, Venice or Bern.
The other point of difference is that, whatever we take for
the origin and the definition of nobility, in most countries it
became something that could be given from outside, without
the need of any consent on the part of the noble class itsdf.
In other words, the king or other prince can ennoble. We have
seen how much this takes away from the true notion of nobility
as understood in the aristocratic commonwealths. The nobility
is no bnger all-poweriul; it may be constrained to admit within
iu own body members for whose presence it has no wish. Where
this power exists the nobility is no longer in any strictness an
aristocracy; it may have great privileges, great influence, even
great legal powers, but it is not the real ruling body, like the true
aristocracy of Venice.
In the modem states of western Europe the extsting nobility
seems to have for the most part had its origin in personal service
to the prince. And this nobility by personal service
seems commonly to have supplanted an older nobility,
the origin of which was, in some cases at least, strictly
immemorial In this way the later nobility of the
thegns was in England substituted for the older nobility
of the eorts. Now the analogy between this change and the
change from the Roman patriciate to the later Roman
HobilUas is obvious. In both cases the older nobility gives way
to a newer; and in both cases the newer nobility was a nobility
of oflice. Under a kingly government office bestowed by the
sovcrdgn holds the same place which ofiice bestowed by the
people holds in a popular government. This new nobility of
office supplanted, or perhaps rather absorbed, the older nobility,
just as the later nobililas of Rome supplanted or absorbed the
old patriciate. In our first glimpse of Teutonic institutions, as
given us by Tadtus, this older nobility appears as strialy
immemorial (see Waitz, Deutsche Verjassungsgcxkichtt, i. 185 sq.),
and its immemorial diaracter appears also in the well-known
legend in the Rigsmal-saga of the sq>arate creation of jarl, kari
and thralL These represent the three classes of mankind
according to old Teutonic ideas— the noble, the simple freeman
and the bondman. The kingly house, where there is one, is not
a distinct dass; it is simply the noblest of the noble. For,
as almost everywhere else, this Teutonic nobility admits of
degrees, though it is yet harder to say in what the degrees of
nobility consisted than to say in what nobility consisted itself.
The older nobility is independent of the possession of land;
it is independent of office about the sovereign; it is hard to say
what were the powers and privileges attached to it; but of its
existence there is no doubt. But in no part of Europe can the
existing nobility trace itself to this immemorial nobility of
primitive days; the nobility of medieval and modem days
brings from the later nobility of office. The nobles of modem
Europe are rather thegnas than eorlcs. The eorl of the old system
would doubtless commonly become a thegn under the new, as
the Roman patridan took his place in the new nobilUas; but
others could take thdr place there also. The Old-Eng^ lavs
point out ways by which the churi might rise to tbegn's nnk,
and in the centuries during which the change went on we find
mention— compkuning mention— ^both in England and d s c w hei e,
at the court of Charles the Simple and at the court of i£thdred, of
the rise of new men to posts of authority. The story that Ead
Godwine himself was of chturlish birth, whether true or &lse,
marks the possibility of such a rise. A still wilder tale spoke
of Hugh Oipet as the son of a butcher of Paris. Stories like
these prove even more than the real rise of Hagano and Eadric
In England the nobility of the thegns was to a greait extent
personally displaced, so to speak, by the results of the Nocmaa
Conquest. But the idea of nobility did not greatly ^^-^
change. The English thegn sometimes yidded to, ^V***>
sometimes changed into, the Norman baron, using that word
in its widest sense, without any violent alteration in his positiac
The notion of holding land of the king became more promiaest
than the notion of personal service done to the king; but, as
the land was hdd by the tenure of personal service, the actcsl
relation hardly changed. But the connexion between nobility
and the holding of land comes out in the practice by which the
brd so constantly took the name of his lordship. It is in tkis
way that the prefixes de and ton, descriptions in thcmsehts
essentially local, have become in other lands badges of nobiihy.
This notion has died out in England by the droppisg of t)^
NOBILITY
729
preposition; but it long lived on wherever Latin or French
was used. And before long nobility won for itself a distinguishing
outward badge. The device of hereditary coat-armour, a growth
of the 1 2th century, did much to define and mark out the noble
class throughout Europe. As it could be acquired by grant of
the sovereign, and as, when once acquired, it went on from
generation to generation, it answers exactly to the jus imaginum
at Rome, the hereditary badge of nobility conferred by the
election of the people. Those who possessed the right of coat-
armour by immemorial use, or by grant in regular form, formed
the class of nobility or gentry, words which, it must again be
remembered, are strictly of the same meaning. They held
whatever privileges or advantages have attached in different
times and places to the rank of nobility or gentry. In England
indeed a variety of causes hindered nobility or gentry from ever
obtaining the importance which they obtained, for instance,
in France. But perhaps no cause was more important than
the growth of the peerage. That institution at once set up a
new standard of nobility, a new form of the nobility of office.
The peer— in strictness, the peer in his own person only, not
even his children — became the only noble; the ideas of nobility
and gentry thus became divorced in a way in which they arc
not in any other country. Those who wpuld elsewhere have been
counted as the nobility, the bearers of coat-armour by good
right, were hindered from forming a class holding any substantial
privilege. In a word, the growth of the peerage hindered the
existence in England of any nobility in the continental sense
of the word. The esquires, knights, lesser barons, even the
remote descendants of peers, that is, the noblesse of other countries,
in England remained gentlemen, but not noblemenr-aimple
commoners, that is, without legal advantage over iheir fellow-
commoners who had no jus imaginum to boast of. There can
be no doubt that the dass in England which answers to the
noblesse of other lands is the class that bears coat-armour, the
gentry strictly so called.' Had they been able to establish and
to maintain any kind of privilege, even that of mere honorary
precedence, they would exactly answer to continental nobility.
That coat-armour has been lavishly granted and often assumed
without right, that the word " gentleman ** has acquired various
secondary senses, proves nothing; that is the natural result
of a state of things in which the status of gentry carries with it
no legal advantage, and yet is eagerly sought after on sOdal
grounds. If coat-armour, and thereby the rank of gentry, has
been lavishly granted, some may think that the rank of peerage
has often been lavishly granted also. In short, there is no real
nobility in England; for the class which answers to foreign
nobUity has so long ceased to have any practical privileges that
it has long ceased to be looked on as a nobility, and the word
nobility has been transferred to another dass which has nothing
answering to it out of the three British kingdoms.* This last
>This statement it matnlY interesting aa expreMing the late
Professor Freeman's view; it is, however, open to serious criticism.
Coat-annour was in itsdf not necessarily a badge of nobility at all;
it could be, and was, worn by people having no pretensions to be
" gentlemen,*' and thu is true both of England and the continent.
In its origin it was a mere personal mark of distinction, in the
primary sense of thu word. No " erant " was necessary; it was
assamed by aU and sundiy who had occasion to use it, though a
reasonable convention forbade one man to assume the device of
another. Later arose the custom of i^nting arms as a mark of
penonal favour or gratitude. This agam was not at the outset an
exclusive right of the cr|>wn; it was common for a leader in battle
to grant to some
himself, the r' '
differenced or unditferenced. Un the other hand, many
" gentlemen " never assumed arms at alL The claim 01 the herakls
to make " gentry " depend on the bearing of coat-armour, and the
right to this depend on grant or recognition by themselves as officers
oithc crown, is of comparativdy late growth. See further the article
Gbktlbman.— W. A. P.
* Compare e.g. the social conditions of Great Britain and Germany.
In Germany there are two classes of nobility: (i) the koker Adel,
members of the mediatized, formeriy sovereign families, who rank
as the equals in blood iebenbHrtig) of the royal houses of Europe;
(a) the mederer Adel, to which every one having the nobiliary prefix
SON belongs. In England " presentation at court " is the privilege
of no particular daat as such; and the wives of ministers of the
class in strictness takes in only the peers personally; at the
outside it cannot be stretched beyond those of their children
and grandchildren who bear the courtesy titles of lord and lady.
No attempt has been here made, to trace out the history of
nobility in the- various countries and, we must add, dties of
Europe. All that has beenattempted hasbeento point
out some general truths, and to refer to some specially
striking instances. Once more, it must be borne in mind that,
while it is essential to the idea of nobility that it should carry
with it some hereditary privilege, the nature and extent of that
privilege may vary endlessly. In the z8th century the nobility
of France and the nobility of PoUnd alUse answered to the very
strictest definition of nobility; but the political positions of the
two were as broadly contrasted as the positions of any two
classes of men could be. The nobility of France, keeping the
most oppresuve sodal and personal privileges, had been shorn
of all political and even administrative power; the tyrants
of the people were the slaves of the king. In Poland
sixty thousand gentlemen, rich and poor, famous and
obscure, but all alike gentlemen, rode out to choose a king by a
unanimous vote, and to bind him when chosen by such conditions
as they thought good. Those sixty thousand, like the populus
of Rome, formed a narrow oligarchy as regarded the re^t of the
nation, but a wild democracy among themselves. Poland, in
short, came nearer than any kingdom or coimtty d luge extent
to the nature of an aristocracy, as we have seen ari3tocracy in
the aristocratic dties. The chief power of the state was phiced
ndther in the prince nor in the nation at large; it was held by a
noble dasB. The kingly power in Poland, like the ducal power
at Venice, had been so narrowed that Poland, though she still
kept a king, called herself a republic no leas than Venice. And
whatever was taken from the king went to the gain of the noble
order. But the nobility of a large country, even though used to
act politically as an order, could never put on that orderly and
legal character which distinguishes the true dvic patridatcs.
It never could come so nearly as a dvic patriciate could to being
something like the rule of the best in any sense of those words.
The tendency of modem times has been towards the breaking
down of formal hereditary privileges. In modem common-
wealths, above all, they have been thought to be essentially
inconsistent with republican institutions. The trath of the
matter is rather that the circumstances of most modem common-
wealths have been unfavourable to the preservation, and still
more to the growth, of privileged bodies. Where they existed,
as in Switzerland, they have been overthrown. Where they did
not exist, as in America, everything has made it more and more
impossible that they should arise. And, as modem changes have
commonly attacked the power both of kings and of nobles, the
common notion has come that kingship and nobility have some
necessary connexion. It has seemed as if any form of nobility
was inconsistent with a republican form of government, while
nobility, in some shape or other, has come to be looked on as a
natural, if not a necessary, appendage to a monarchy. And as
far as regards the social side of kingship this is trae. A court
seems more natural where a chain of degrees leads gradually
up from the lowest subject to the throne than when all beneath
the throne are nearly on a leveL And from one point of view,
that from which the kingly house is but the noblest of the noble,
kingship and nobility are dosdy allied. But in the more strictly
crown, even if of quite humble origin, are " commanded '* to court
functions with their husbands. The strictness of the principle of
admission or exclusion differs at the various German courts, and has
tended to be modified by the growth of a new aristocracy of wealth ;
but a single Instance known to the present writer may serve to
illustrate the fundamental divergence of German (a fortion Austrian)
ideas from Engluh in this matter. A wealthy publisher of European
reputation attended the court of his native town, the capital of a small
erand-duchy. in virtue of the honorary title Hofrat; his wife, not
being noble, did not accompany him. His elder daughter married a
cabinet minister, but. as he was not a noble, this did not confer on
her the^ right to go to court. His younger daughter married a sub-
altern in a line regiment, belonging to the k»ser nobility; as en-
nobled by marriage (according to the liberal rule of this particular
court), she was duly " presented." — ^W. A, P.
730
NOBtEwNOCERA UMBRA
political view monarchy and nobility are strongly opposed.
Even the modified form of absolute monarchy which has existed
in some Western countries, while it preserves, perhaps even
strengthens, the social position of a nobility, destroys its political
power. Under the fully-developed de^wtisms of the East a real
nobility is impossible; the prince raises and thrusts down as he
pleases. It is only in a commonwealth that a nobility can really
rule; that is, it is only in a commonwealth that the nobility can
really be an aristocracy. And even in a democratic common-
wealth the sentiment of nobility may exist, though all legal
privilege has been abolished or has never existed. That is to
say, traditional feeling may give the members of certain families
a strong preference, to say the least, in election to office. We
have seen that this was the case at Athens; it. was largely the
case in the democratic cantons of Switzerland; indeed the
nobility of Rome itself, after the privileges of the patricians were
abolished, rested on no other foimdation. (E. A. F.)
AuTBORiTiBS. — ^Selden's TiUes of Honor fl^ndon, 1673) remains
the best comparative account in the English language of the nobility
of various countries up to his date. For England ace E. P. Shirley,
NobU and GenOe Men (i 860) ; Gneist, Addnnd RiUerschafl in England
(Berlin. 1853); Sir Geonre Sitwcil,
the Ancestor (No. i, Apru iQoa); and J. H. Round's works, fasi
A. C. Fox-Davies's Armoria* Families (Edinburgh, 1895; ana subte.
quent editions) represents an unhistorical attempt to create the idea
of a nMesse in the United Kingdom. For the origin and growth of
the nobility in France, see A. Luchaire, Manim des institutions
Jranqaises (Paris. i89i), and P. Guilhiermoa, Essai sur Vorigine de la
" " ^ ' M for their later status and
Ugime et la RisolutioH (18^6
ritines de la France contemporaine, pt. u,
L'Aneien Rigime (1875 ff.Xi r or the German and Austrian nobility,
see v. Strantz, Gesck. des deutscken Adds (and ed., Waldenburg.
1851): von Maurer, Vher das Wesen des 6ltesten Adels der deutscken
St^mme (Munich, 1846); Rose. Der Add Deutscklands und seine
Stellung tm deutscken Keick (Berlin, 1883): G. Meyer. Lekrbuek des
deutscken Staatsreckls (sth ed., Leipzig, 1899), and the Gotha
Cenealogiscke TasckenhOcker. For the Italian nobility see the eight
magnificent folio volumes of Count Pompco Litta, Cdebri famiglie
itaStane, continued by various editors (Milan, 1819^1^); Tor
Spanish, Fernandez dc B6thcncourt, Hist. genealSgica^ t. i.-vii. (1897-
1907). The authoritative manual for the royal houses and the
" higher nobility " of Europe is the Almanack de Cotka, published
yearly. See also the articles Titles of Honour, Peeracb,Tbddal-
ISM, Gentleman, Duke, Count, &c.
NOBLE, SIR ANDREW (1832- ), British physicist and
artillerist, was bom at Greenock on the zsth of September 1832,
and was. educated at Edinburgh Academy and at the Royal
Military Academy, Woolx^ich. In 1849 he entered the Royal
Artillery, attaining the rank of captain in 1855, and in 1857 he
became secretary to the Royal Artillery Institution. About this
time the question of the supersession of the old smooth-bores by
rifled guns was coming to the fore, and on the appointment of
the Select Committee on Rifled Cannon in 1858 to report on the
matter, he was chosen its secretary, a capacity in which he
devised an ingenious method for comparing the probable accuracy
of the shooting attainable with each type of gun. In 1859 he
was appointed Assistant-Inspector of Artillery, and in the
following year he became a member of the Ordnance Select
Committee and of the Committee on Explosives, serving on the
latter for twenty years, imtil its dissolution. About the same
time he was prevailed upon by Sir William, afterwards Lord,
Armstrong to leave the public service and take up a post at
Elswick. Here, in the first instance, he was put in charge of
the ordnance department, but it was not long before his organiz-
ing and administrative ability and scientific attainments enlarged
the sphere of his influence, until finally he became chairman of
the company. Immediately on his appointment he began a
systematic investigation of the phenomena which occur when a
gun is fired, some of his first experiments being designed to
discover with accuracy the pressures attained in the largest
guns of that time. About 1862 he invented his chronoscope for
the measurement of exceedingly small intervals of time, and
began to apply it in ballistic experiments for ascertaining the
velocity with which the shot moves along the barrel of a gun
with different powders and difTerent charges. Then he joined
Sir Frederick Abel in a classical research on " Fired Gunpowdo,"
the experimental work being laigdy carried on at Elswick, and
the conclusions they arrived at had a great e£Fect on the progress
of gunnery, for they showed how increased muxzle \'dodties u-eie
to be attained without increased pressures in the gun. These
inquiries, in fact, enabled Ebwick in 1877 to turn out the 6-i0.
and 8-in. guns, with velocities of over 2000 ft. per second, that
obliged the British government finally to give up the antiquated
muzzle-loaders to which it had so obstinately adhered. Later,
when the era of nitro or "smokeless" powders had begun.
Captain Noble was an early advocate of their advantages, ar^
when at length the British government awoke to the necessity
of selecting a powder of that character for the naval and military
services of Great Britain, Elswick extended its hospitality to
the committee that invented cordite, and gave the members
facilities. Which were not offered by the government, for the
necessary experimental work. Even after the powder was in-
vented and the committee dissolved, inqiuries — ^whidi it was
nobody's official business to make, and which therefore were not
made offidall^r— were continued at Elswick to ascertain how by
suitable modifications in form, composition, &c., cordite might
the better perform the varied duties required of it. Koble
became a member of the conmiittee appointed in 1900 by Lord
Lansdowne to consider, among other things, the excessive erosicHi
alleged by some of the powder's critics to be produced by it in
the barrels of the guns in which it is used. He was made C.B.
in x88x, promoted to be K.C.B. in 1893, and was created a baranct
among the Coronation honours in 1902; he was also the recipient
of many foreign decorations and scientific honours, including a
Royal medal from the Royal Society in x88o, and the Albert
medal of the Society of Arts in 1909. He published a number of
his scientific papers in a collected form as Artillery and Exphsiva
in 1906.
NOBLESVILLB, a city and the cotmty-seat of Hamiltaa
county, Indiana, U.S A., on the White river, about 20 m. N. by
E. of Indianapolis. Pop. (1890) 3054; (1900) 4793 (226 ne-
groes); (19x0) 5073. It is served by the Lake Erie k Weston,
the Central Ind^na and the Indiana Union (electric) Traction
railways. It is in the natural gas region of the state, and has
various manufactures.. It was settled about X825 and incor-
porated as a town in 1851.
NOCERA INFERIORB, formerly Nocera oei Pacaxi (anc.
Nuceria AlfatcmOf g.v.), a town and episcopal see of Campania.
Italy, in the province of Salerno, at the foot of Monte AUhoo,
23 m. E.S.E. of Naples by rail, X35 ft. above sca-lcveL Fop.
(190X) XI. 933 (town); 20,064 (commune). Nocera is connected
with Codola on the line from Naples to AveUino by a branch
railway (3 m.). In the old castle Helena, the widow of Manfred,
died after the battle of Benevento, and here Urban VI. imprisoned
the cardinals who favoured the antipope Clement MI. Tvo
miles to the E. near the village of Nocera Superiore is the dmilar
church of Sta Maria Magglore, dating from the 4ih century. Its
chief feature is its dome, celled with stone IntemaUy, but covered
externally with a false roof. It is supported by 40 aKicQt
columns, and in its construction resembles S Stefano Rotondo ia
Rome. The walls are covered with frescoes of the X4th centuir.
At an early date the city became an episcopal see, and in the
x?th century it sided with Innocent II. against Roger of Stdly
and suffered severely for its choice. A colony of Saracens
introduced by Frederick II. probably gave rise to the epithet
(" of the pagans ") by which it was so long distinguished, as
well as to the town of Pagani, which lies about i m. to the vest-
In ^385 Pope Urban VI. was besieged in the castle of Chaxks <d
Durazzo. Nocera was the birthplace of Solimena the paifitfr
.and of Hugo de' Pagani, the founder of the Templars, and in ibe
list of its bishops appears the name of Paulus Jovius.
NOCERA UMBRA (anc. Nuceria Camdlaria), a town aad
episcopal see in the province of Perugia, Italy, 12 m. by ra2 N-
by E. of Foligno, 1706 ft. above sea4evel. Pop. (1901) 56SS
(town), 7848 (commune). It has some old churches, contaisiss
pictures and frescoes; in the cathedral is a large altarpiece hy
NIcolo Aluimo. Three miles to the south-east of the town aic
mineral springs.
NCKJTURN— NOEGGERATH
731
MOCTUKM, or NocnmNE (Lat. noctumuSf of or bdonging to
the Bb^t, nox), in the Roman Church, one of the three divisions
of the office of matins, corresponding with the vigils, beginning
at 9 P.M. midnight and 3 a.m. respectively. The service consists
of psalms, lessons and antiphons (see Breviary). The term
"nocturne" is applied to a musical composition, answering
to the earlier " serenade, " of a quiet, dreamy and romantic
character. The name and style are said to have originated with
John Field (1782-1837). The best-known compositions of this
kind are the pianoforte pieces of Chopin. J. McNeill Whistler
also introduced the term into painting by using the name for some
of his night-pieces. A " nocturnal " is an instrument for finding
the hour of the night by observation of the relative positions of
the 'pole-star and other stars, generally the pointers of Ursa
Major. The British Museum contains a fine nocturnal made
about 1560 by Humfray Cole (see Navigation).
NODDY, the name applied, originally by sailors, to a sea-bird,
from its showing so little fear of man as to be accounted stupid.
It is the Sterna stdida of Linnaeus, and the Anous stclidus of
modem ornithology, having the figure of a Tern (7. v.), and
belonging to the sub-family Stcminae, but is heavier in flight,
with shorter wings and the tail less deeply forked. The plumage is
of a uniform sooty hue, excepting the crown of the head, which is
light grey. The Noddy is very generally distributed throughout
the tropical or nearly tropical oceans, but occasionally wanders
into colder climates, and has been met with even in the Irish Sea.
It breeds, often in astounding numbers, on low cays and coral-
islets, pommonly making a shallow nest of sca-wecd or small twigs.
Howard Saunders {Proc. Zool. Society, 1876, pp. 669-672) admits
four other species of the genus: Anous tenuvrostrtSf supposed
to be confined to the southern part of the Indian Ocean, from
Madagascar to West Australia; A. melanogenys, often con-
founded with the last, but having nearly as wide a range as the
first; and A. leucocapSluSf hitherto known only from Torres
Strait and the Southern Pacific. These three have much
resemblance to A, sUdidiu, but are smaller in size, and the two
latter have the crown white instead of grey. The fourth species,
A. caendtus (with which he includes the A. cinereus of some
authors), differs not inconsiderably, being of a dove-colour,
lighter on the head and darker on the back, the wings bearing a
narrow white bar, with their quill-feathers blackish-brown, while
the feet are reddish and the webs yellow. Three more species —
A. supcrcUiosus from the Caribbean Sea and Gulf of Mexico.
A. plumbeigularis from the Red Sea, and A. galapagensis from
the Galapagos— have been added by R. Bowdler Sharpe {PhUos.
Transactions, dxviii. pp. 468, 469), according to whom {Proc.
Zool. Society, 1878, p. 272) A, cinereus of the Eastern Pacific
is distina from A. caeruleus of Australia and the Western
Pacific. (A. N.)
NODE (Lat. nodus, a loop), in astronomy, one of two opposite
points at which a heavenly body passes through the principal
co-ordinate plane to which its motion is referred. In the case of
the heavenly bodies this plane is commonly that of the ecliptic,
but. in special cases, the plane through the origin parallel to the
earUi's equator or the plane of a planet's orbit is used. The
ascending node is that at which the body moves from the south
or negative towards the north or positive side of the plane.
The moon's nodes are the points in which its path intercepts the
plane of the ecliptic. In the geometry of curves, a node is the
name given to the loop formed by a continuous curve crossing
itself, the point of crossing is termed a " double point," and at
it there are two non-coincident tangents to the curve; the
remaining species of double points, termed " acnode," " spinode "
or " cusp," admits of two coinddent tangents (see Citrve).
NODIER, CHARLES (i78»-x844), French author, was bom
on the 29th of April 1780 at Besancon. His father, on the out-
break of the Revolution, was appointed mayor of Bcsangon and
consequently chief poUce magistrate; he seems to have rather
lent himself as an instrument to the tyranny of the Jacobins
than to have shared their principles; but his son was for a time
an ardent dtSzen, and is said to have been a club member when he
could at the most have been twelve years old. In 1 793 Charles
saved the life of a lady guilty of sending money to an imigri,
by declaring to his father that if she were condemned he would
take his own life. He was sent to Strassburg, where he lived in
the house of Eulogius Schndder, the notorious Jacobin governor
of Alsace, but a good Greek scholar. During the Terror his father
put him under the care of Girod de Chautrans, with whom he
studied English and German. His love of books began very
early, and he combined with it a strong interest in natural
science. He became librarian in his native town, but his exertions
in the cause of suspected persons brought him under suspidon.
An inspection of his papers by the police, however, revealed
nothing more dangerous than a dissertation on the antennae of
insects. Entomology continued to be a favourite study with him,
but he varied it with philology and pure literature and even
political writing. For a skit on Napoleon, in 1803, he was im-
prisoned for some months. He then quitted Paris, whither he
had gone after losing his position at Besan^on, and for some
years lived a very unsettled life at Besan^n, D6Ie, where he
married, and in other places in the Jura. During these wander-
ings he wrote Le Peintre de Salzhourg, journal des tmotions d*un
ccatr soufrant, suivi des MidUalions du clottre (1803). • The hero,
Charles, who is a variation of the Wcrther type, desires the
restoration of the monasteries, to afford a refuge from the woes
of the world. In x8ii Nodier appears at Laibach as editor of
a polyglot journal, the lUyrian Telegraph, published in French,
German, Italian and Slav. On the evacuation of the Illyrian
provinces he returned to Paris, and the restoration fpund him a
royalist, though he retained something of republican sentiment.
In 1824 he was appointed to the librarianship of the Bibliolhdque
de I'Arsenal. He was elected a member of the Academy in 1833,
and made a member of the Legion of Honour in 1843, a year
before his death on the 27th of January 1844. These twenty
years at the arsenal were by far the most important and fruitful of
Nodier's life. He had much of the Bohemian in his composition.
But he had the advantage of a settled home in which to collect
and study rare books; and he was able to supply a centre and
rallying place to a knot ofyoung literary men of greater individual
talent than himself— the so-colled Romanticists of 1830— and
to colour thdr tastes and work very deddedly with his own
predilections. Victor Hugo, Alfred de Musset and Sainte-Beuve
all acknowledged their obligations to him. He was a passionate
admirer of Goethe and of Shakespeare, and had himself con-
tributed to the personal literature that was one of the leading
traits of the Romantic schooL
His best and most characteristic work, some of which is exquisite
in its kind, consists partly of short talcs of a more or less fantastic
character, partly 01 nondescript articles, half bibliographic, half
narrative, the nearest analogue to which in English is to be found
in some of the papers of De Quincey. The best examples of the
bttcr arc to be found in the volume entitled Milanges tiris d'une
petite biUiolhtque, published in 1829 and afterwards continued.
Of his tales the best are Smarra, ou Us demons de la nuit (1821):
Trilby, ou le tuiin dArgail (1822); Histoire du roi de Bokhne et de
ses sept chdteaux (i8to); La Fie aux mietUs (1832): Inks de las
Sierras (1838); LiKude $e Seeur Biatrix (1838), together with some
fairy stories published in the year of his death, and Franciscus
Coiumna, which appeared after it. The Souvenirs dejeunesse (1832)
arc intcrcstine; but untrustworthy, and the Dictionnaire universel
de la langue fianfaise (1823), which, in the days before Littr6, was
one of the most useful of its kind, is said to have been not wholly
or mainly Nodier's. There is a so-called collection of CEuvres
eompttUs, in 12 vols. (1832), but at that time much of the author's
best work had not appeared, and it included but a part of what
was actually published. Nodier found an indulgent biographer in
Prosper Morimte on the occasion of the younger man's admission
to the academy. •
An account of his share in the Romantic movement is to be found
in Georg Brandes's Main Currents in Nineteenth Century Literature.
His Description raisonnie dune jolie collection de livres (1844)* which is
a catalogue of the books in his library, contains a life by Francis Wcy
and a complete bibliography of his numerous works. See also Sainte-
Beuve. Portraits littiraires, vol. ii.; Prosper M«rim^. Portraits
kistoriques et littiraires (1874); and A. Estignard, Correstondance
inidite de Charles Nodier, 1796-1844 (1876), containing his letters to
Charies Wdss.
NOEOOERATH.'^JOHANN JACOB (i788-i877),''German
mineralogist and geologist, was bom at Bonn on the xoth of
732
NOEL— NOGENT-LE-ROTROU
October 1788. In x8i4'i8i5 he became commissioner of mines
for some of the Rhine Provinces, and in xSiS professor of minera-
logy and afterwards professor of geology, director of the
Museum of Natural History and chief of the mining department
in the university at Bonn. He obtained a very fine collection of
minerals for the museum, was eminently succenful as a teacher,
and achieved a wi(|e reputation among mining engineers. The
following are his more important publications: uber aufreckt
im Gtbirgsgestein eingescUossene JossUe BaumsUtmme und andcre
VegtUMlien (xSx^-zSsi); Das Cebirge in Rkeinland-Westphalen,
nach mneralogUckem und chemisckem Bauge (4 vols., 1822-1826) ;
Die Enistekung der Erde (1843); and Der Laacher Su und seine
Vfdkaniscken Umgebungen (1870). The Carboniferous plant
Noeggeraikia, allied to the Zamias and Cycads, was named after
him. He died at Bonn on the 13th of September 1877.
NOEU RODBK BERKELEY WRIOTHESLET (1834-1894).
English poet, son of Noel, Lo«xi .Barham, afterwards earl of
Gainsborough, was bom on the 27th of August 1834. He was
educated at Trinity College, Cambridge, where he graduated
M.A. in 1858. He then Spent two years travelling in the East.
He married in 1863 Alice de BroC, daughter of the director of the
Ottoman Bank in Beirout. The third child of this marriage,
Eric, who died at the age of five, is commemorated in Roden
Noel's best-known book of verse, A Utile Child's Monument
(i88z). His other volumes are Behind the Veilf and other Poems
(1863), not included in his collected works, Bcatriu^ and other
Poems (1868), The Red Flag (1872), Livingstone in Africa (1874),
Songs of the Heights and Deeps (1885), A Modem Faust, and
other Poems (1888), Poor Peofie's Christmas (1890) and My Sea,
and other Poems (1896). Roden Noel> versification was unequal
and sometimes harsh, but he has a genuine feeling for nature,
and the work is permeated by philosophic thought. The latter
part of his life was q?ent at Brighton, ^t he died at Mainz,
on the 26th of May 1894. His other works include a drama in
verse, The House of Ravensburg (1877), a Life of Byron (1890,
" Great Writers " series), a selection of Thomas Otway's plays
(1888) for the " Mermaid " series, and critical papers on literature
and philosophy.
Hi% CoUecUd Poems were edited (1902) by his sister. Victoria
Buxton, with a notice by J. Addington Symondt, which had origin-
ally appeared in the Academy (19th of Jan. 1899) as a review of The
Modem FausL The selection (1 892) in the aeries of Canterbury Poets
has a n int roduction by Robert Bucnahan.
N0ETU8, a presbyter of the church of Asia Minor about
A.D. 230, was a native of Smyrna, where (or perhaps in Ephesus)
he became a prominent representative of the particular type of
Christology now called modalistic monarchianism or patri-
passianism. His views, which led to his excommunication from
the Asiatic Church, are known chiefly through the writings of
Hippolytus, his contemporary at Rome, where he settled and had
a large following. He accepted the fourth Gospel, but regarded
its statements about the Logos as allegorical. His disciple
Cleomenes held that God is both invisible and visible; as visible
He is the Son-
NOOARET, Onn«LAnME DE (d. 13x3), councillor and keeper
of the seal to Philip IV. of France, was bora between X260 and
X27a His father was a citizen of Toulouse, and was, so it was
claimed, condemned as a heretic during the Albigensian crusade.
The family held a small ancestral property of servile origin at
Nogaret, near Saint Felix de Caramon, fzonii which it took its
name. In 1291 Guillaume was professor of juri^>rudence at the
university of Montpellier, and in X296 he became a nnember of
the Curia Regis at Paris. His name is mainly connected with the
quarrel of Philip IV. with Pope Boniface VIII. In 1300 he was
sent with an embassy to Boniface, of which he has left a pic-
turesque but highly coloured account. His real ascendancy over
the king dates from February 1303, when he persuaded Philip
to consent to the bold plan of seizing Boniface and bringing him
forcibly from Italy to a council in France which should depose
him. On the 7th of March he received, with three others, a
secret oommission from the royal chancery to "go to certain
places . . . and make such treaties with such persons as seemed
(ood to them." On the X2th of March a solemn royal assembly
was held in the Louvre, at which Guillaume de Nogaret read a
long series of accusations against Boniface and demanded the
calling of a general council to try him. Soon afterwards be
went to Italy. By the aid of a Florentine spy, Nogaret gathered
a band of adventurers and of enemies of the Gartani (B<miface's
family) in the Apeimines. The great Cdoxma house, at bitter feud
with the Gaetani, was hu strongest aUy, and Sciarra Colonna
accompanied Nogaret to Anagni, Boniface's birthplace. On
the 7th of September, with their band of some sixteen hundred
men, Nogaret and Colonna surprised the little town. Boniface
was taken prisoner. Sciarra wished to kill him, but Kogaret's
policy was to take him to France and compel him to summon a
general coundL The tide soon turned, however. On the 9th
a concerted rising of the townsmen in Boniface's favour put
Nogaret and his aUies to flight, and the pope was free. His
death at Rome on the xith of October saved Nogaret. The
election of the timid Benedict XI. was the beginning of that
triumph of France which lasted through the Avigivm captivity.
Eariy in 1304 Nogaret went to Langucdoc to report to PhOip
IV., and was rewarded by gifts of land and money. Then be
was sent back with an embassy to Benedia XI. to demand
absolution for all concerned in the struggle with Boniface VIIL
Benedict refused to meet Nogaret, and excepted him from the
general absolution which he granted on the X3th ol May X3Q4t
and on the 7th of June issued against him and his associates at
Anagni the bull Flagiliosum scelus. Nogaret replied by apologies
for his conduct based upon attacks upon the memory of Booifscc,
and when Benedia died on the 7th of July 1304 he pointed to his
death as a witiuss to the jtistice of his cause. French influence
was successftU in getting a Frenchman, Bertrand de Got (donent
V.) elected as Benedict's successor. The threat of proceedings
against the memory of Boniface was renewed to force dement
to absolve Nogaret, and Clement had given way on this point
when the ftuther question of an inquiry into the condition of the
Templars was ^nought forward by Philip as a preliminary to
their arrest and the seizure of their property in Oaober 1307.
Nogaret was active in getting the renegade members of the order
to give evidence against their fellows, and the whole proceedings
against them bear traces of his .unscrupulous and merciless pea.
Clement's weak and ineffective resistance to this still further
delayed the agreement between him and Philip. Nogaret had
become keeper of the seal this year in succession to Pierre de
Belleperche. His talents as an advocafus diaboli were ^ven stiH
further emplo3rment in the trial of Guichard, bishop of Troycs»
charged with various crimes, including witchcraft and incon-
tinence, which was begun in X308 and lasted till 13x3. Tiae trial
was a hint to Gcment as to what might happen if the oft repeated
threat of a trial of Boniface were fulfilkd. Absolution was
obtained from Clement on the 27th of April 13x1. Guilbnme dc
Nogaret was to go on the next crusade and visit certain places of
pilgrimage in France and Spain as a penance, bat itever did so.
He died in 13x3 " with his tongue horribly thrust out," according
to the chronicler Jean Desnouclles. He retained the seals till his
death and was occupied with the king's affairs concgraim
Flanders as late as the end of March 13x3.
See E. Rcnan in Histoirt littiraire de la France, nvS. S33: R.
Holzmann, Wilkdm von Nogard (Freiburg. 1808). For the aowcts
consult Dom Bouquet, Recueil de historiens des Gaules eidelm F^uaa,
vols. xx.-xxiii. ; Annales regis Edwardi primi in Rishaiwer (** RoBs "
series), pp. 483-491* which gives the fullest aooount of the affair at
AnagnL
lfOOEllT-LE>R0TROn, a town of northern France, formerly
capital of the district of Perche and now caiHtal of an arroocfisse-
ment in the department of Eure-et-Loir on the HuisDe, 38 ol
W.S.W. of Chartres by rail. Pop. (1906) 6884. In the early
part of the X7th century the overlordship was acquired by \ht
duke of Sully, financial minister of Henry IV. In the coeityird
of the hospital, originally founded at the end of the xath ccntaiy.
there is a small building containing the tomb of Sully and Ui
wife. On the hill overiooking the town stands the diAtean of tbe
counts of Perche, of which the donjon dating from the first \a&
of the X ith century is the oldest portion. To Rotrou I., fotwdrr
of the chAteau, the town ogives the second part of its Dsae.
NOGENT-SUR-MARNE— NOLA
733
Nogent preserves three Gothic churches and the remains of the
old priory of St Denis» and there are sUtues of General St Pol,
killed at Sevastopol, and of the poet R^my BcUcau (i6th century),
a native of the town. The town has a sub-prefecture, a tribunal
of first instance, a communal college and institution for deaf
mutes.
NOGENT-SUR-HARIVE, a town of northern France, in the
department of Seine, on a hill on the right bank of the Mame,
6 m. E. of Paris by rail. Pop. (1906) 11,465. The Eastern
railway here crosses the Mame valley by a viaduct 875 yds. in
length. Nogent has a Gothic church, with a tower of the Roman-
esque period, in front of which there is a monument to Watteau,
who died here in 1721. Chemical products are manufactured.
The fine situation of the town gained it the name of Beaut6, and
Charles V. built a ch&tcau here (demolished in the x8th century)
which was presented by Charles VII. to Agnes Sorel with the
title of Dame de Beaut6. An island in the Mame to the south of
the town is still known as the lie de Beaut6.
lfOGENT-SUR-SEINS> a town of north-central France, capital
of an arrondissement in the department of Aube, on the left
bank of the Seine, 35 m. N.W. of Ttoycs on the Paris-Belfort line.
Pop. (1906) 3791. The river at this point forms an island,
which supports a stone bridge of the 17th century. The chief
building is the church of St Laurent (143X-X554). A lateral
portal in the flamboyant style and the Renaissance tower at the
west end are of great beauty. The town is the seat of a sub-
prefect and has a tribunal of first instance. There is trade in
grain, flour, fodder, wood and cattle. Nogen-«ur-Scine was in
18x4 the scene of fighting between the French and Austrians.
IfOOI. KITEN, Count (1849- ), Japanese general, was
bom in Choshu. He commanded a brigade at the battle of
Kinchow (1894) and the subsequent capture of Port Arthur
from the Chinese; but the most memoraUe events of his career
were the siege of Port Arthur by the third army corps of Japan
under his command in the Russo-Japanese War (1904-5), and
the great flanking march made by the same army in the battle of
Mukden.
NOIRHOUTIER, an island of western France, belonging to
the department of Vendue, and protecting the Bay of Bourgneuf
on the south-west. Pop. (1906) 8388. The area amounts to
23 sq. m., one-axth dunes. Between the island and the mainland
is a sandbank laid bare at low water, and crossed by an embank-
ment and carriage road some 2^ m. long. It was not till about
X766 that it was found possible to walk across to the island,
which lies from N.N.W. to S.S.E, and is X2 m. long, its breadth
varying from x m. in the south part to 3 or 4 m. in the north.
It appears to be formed of allu^^ deposits gradually accumu-
lated round a rock of no great size situated at the meeting-place
of the Gascony and Brittany currents. Fishing, agriculture,
oyster-breeding and work in the salt marshes also occupy the
inhabitants. There are two communes, Noirmoutier and
Barb&tre. Noirmoutier, which has a small port, has about
3165 of its 6644 inhabitants gathered together in a little town
with narrow and winding streets. Its castle was once the residence
of the abbot of Her. In the church (i3th, X4th and X9th
centuries) there is a crypt of the xxth century. A mile to the
north of the town lies a pleasant watering-place, rendered
picturesque by the La Chaise woods (evergreen oaks and pines),
and a grand confusion of rocks, among which lie charming
beaches. A dolmen, several menhirs, and the ruins of a Gallo-
Roman villa with its hot baths show that the island must have
been occupied at an eariy date; but the first fact in its recorded
history is the foundation of the Benedictine monastery of Her
by St Philibert about 680. From this monastery the name
Noirmoutier {Heri monastmum, Hermouiier) is derived. It had
already attained to great prosperity when it was pillaged by the
Normans in 835 and 843. In x 205 the abbey of Notre Dame la
Blanche was buUt at the north extremity oif the bland to take
the place of a Cistercian convent established in the tie du Pilier,
at that time attached to Noirmoutier by a dike. This abbey was
ruined by the Protestants in xs63. In the 15th, i6th and 17th
centuries the island belonged to the family of La TremoUle, and
in X650 the territory was made a duchy. In 1676 the island was
captured by the Dutch. Having been seized by Charette during
the war of Vend^, it was recovered by the Republican genera^
Haxo, who caused the Vendcan leader, d'Elbfe, to be shot.
NOISE (a word of doubtful origin; O. Fr. nogse or nose;
Prov. nausa, which points to Lat. nausea^ sickness, as the origin;
others take Lat. noxht harm, as the source), an excessive, offen-
sive, persistent or startling sound. By the common hiw of
Enji^d freedom from noise b essential to the full enjoyment
of a dwelling house, and acts which affect that enjoyment may
be actionable as nuisances. But it has been laid down that a
nuisance by noise, supposing malice to be out of the question,
b emphatically a question of degree {Gaunt v. Finney, 1873,
8 Ch. Ap. 8). The noise must be exceptional and unreasonable.
The ringing of beUs, building operations, vibration of machinery,
fireworks, bands, a circus, merry-go-rounds, collecting disorderly
crowds, dandng, singing, &c., have been held under certain
circumstances to constitute nuisances so as to interfere with
quiet and comfort, and have been restrained by injunction.
Noise occasioned by the frequent repetition of street cries b
frequently the subject of local by-laws, which impose-penalties
for infringement.
NOISOME, harmful, offensive, especially of that which causes
physical disgusL "llie word b formed from the obsolete " noy,"
trouble, a shortened form of " aimoy," now only used as a verb,
to cause trouble, the usual substantive being "aimoyance."
The O. Fr. anoi, anui (modem ennut) b an adaptation of Lat.
in odio esse, tcnire or lud>ere, to be sick, tired of anything {odium,
disgust, hatred). The word has no connexion with Lat. nocere,
to hurt.
HOKBS (NozE, NOAX, Noakes), JAMES (d. X692), an English
actor, whose laughter-arousing genius is attested by Cibber and
other contemporaries. Sir Martin Mar-all, Sir Davy Dunce
and Sir Credulous Easy were among hb favourite parts. His
success as the Nurse in Nevil Payne's Fatal Jealousy was so
great that he was thereafter nicknamed " Nurse Nokcs."
NOLA, a dty and episcopal see of Campania, Italy, in the
province of Caserta, pleasantly situated in the plain between
Mount Vesuvius and the Apennines, x6| "m. E.N.E. of Naples,
X3X ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) 11,927 (town); X4>5ri
(commune). It b served by the local railway from Naples to
Baiano, and b 33 m. from Naples by the main line via Cancello.
The more conspicuous buildings are the ancient Gothic cathedral
(restored in 1866, and again in X870 after the interior was
destroyed by fire), with its lofty tower, the cavalry barracks,
the ex-convent of the Capuchins at a little distance from the
city, and the seminary in which are preserved the famous
Oscan inscription knowii as the Cippus Abellanus (from AbcUa,
the modem Avella, q.v.) and some Latin inscriptions relating
to a treaty with Nola regarding a joint temple of Hercules.
Two fairs are held in Nola, on the X4th of June and the X2lh
of November; and the 36th of July b devoted to a great festival
in honour of St Paulinus, one of the early bishops of the city,
who invented the church bell {campana, taking its name from
Campania). The church erected by him in honour of St Felix
in the 4th century b extant in part. There b a monument
(restored in 1887) to Giordano Bruno, the free-thinker, who
was bom at Nola in X548.
Nola (NwXa) was one of the oldest cities of Campania, variously
said to have been founded by the Ausones, the Chalddians and
the Etruscans. The List-named were certainly in Nola about
500 B.C, At the time when it sent assistance to Neapolb against
the Roman invasion (338 B.C.) it was probably occupied by Oscans
in alliance with the Samnites. The Romans made themselves
masters of Nola in 313 B.C., and it was thenceforth faithful to
Rome. In the Second Punic War it thrice bade defiance to
Hannibal; but in the Social War it was betrayed into the hands
of the Samnites, who kept possession till Marius, with whom
they had sided, was defeated by Sulla, who in 80 B.C. subjected
it with the rest of Samnium. Seven years later it was stormed
by Spartacus. Whatever punishment Sulla may have inflicted,
Nola, though it lost much of its importance, remained a
73+
NOLDEKE— NOLLET
munidpium with its own institutions and the use of the Oscan
language. It became a Roman colony under Augustus, who
died at Nola. Saclced by Genseric in 455, and by the Saracens
in 806 and 904, captured by Manfred in the 13th century, and
damaged by earthquakes in the 15th and x6th, Nola lost much
of its importance. The revolution of 1820 under General Pepe
began at Nola. The sculptor Giovanni Marliano was a native of
the dty; and some of his works are preserved in the cathedral.
Nola lay on the Via Popillia from Capua to Nuceria and the
south, and a branch road ran from it to Abella and Abcllinum.
Mommsen {Corp. inscr. Lot. x. 142) further states that roads
must have run direct from Nola to Neapolis and Pompeii, but
Kiepert's map annexed to the volume does not indicate them.
In the days of its independence it issued an important scries
of coins, and in luxury it vied with Capua. Its territory was
veiy fertile, and this was the principal source of its wealth.
A large number of vases of Greek style were manufactured here
and have been found in the neighbourhood. Their material
is of pale yellow clay with shining black glaze, and they are
decorated with skilfully drawn red figures. Of the ancient city,
which occupied the same site as the modem town, hardly any-
thing is now visible, and the discoveries of the ancieAt %treet
pavement have not been noted with suffident care to enable
us to recover the plan. Numerous ruins, an amphitheatre,
still recognizable, a theatre, a temple of Augustus, &c., existed
in the x6th century, and have been since useS for building
material. They are described by A. Leone, De Nola (Venice,
1514). A few tombs of the Roman period are preserved. The
neighbourhood was divided into pagi, the names of some of
which are preserved to us (Pagus Agrifanus, Capriculanus,
Lanitanus). (T. As.)
NOLDEKE, THEODOR (1836- ), German Semitic scholar,
was bom at Harburg on the 2nd of March 1836, and studied
at G6ttingen, Vienna, Leiden and Berlin. In 1859 his history
of the Koran won for him the prize of the French Academic dcs
Inscriptions, and in the following year he rewrote it in German
(GeschickU des Korans) and published it with additions at
Gdttingen. In i86x be began to lecture at the university of
this town, where three years later he was appointed extraordinary
professor. In z868 he became ordinary professor at Kiel, and
in 1872 was appointed to the chair of Oriental languages at
Strassburg, which he resigned in 1906. Ndldeke's range of studies
has been wide and varied, but in the main his work has followed
the two lines already indicated by his prize essay, Semitic
languages, and the history and dvilization of Islam. While
a great deal of his work (e.g. his Gramtnatik der neusyrischcn
Sprache, 1868, his Manddische CrammaUk^ 1874, and his transla-
tions from the Arabian of Tabaxi, x88x-x882) is meant for
specialists, many of his books are of interest to the general
reader. Several of his essays first appeared in the Encydopadia
Britannica, and his article on the Koran, with some others, was
republished in a volume called Oriental Sketches. The articles
dealing with Persia were republished in a German volume,
AufsdtMe tur persischen Geschichte (Ldpzig, 1887). Among his
best-known works are: Das Leben Uohatnmeds (1863); Beitrdge
tur Kenntnis der Poesie der alien Araber (1864); Die aUtestamenl-
liche Literatur (x868) ; Untersuchungenzur KrUik des Alien Testa-
ments (1869); Zur Grammalik des klassiscken Arahisch (1896);
FUnfMo*aUaqatfiiberset£tund erkUtrt (1899-1 901); and Beitrdge
Mur semitiscken Sprackmssenschaft (1904). He has contributed
frequently to the Zeitschrift der deutschen morgenldndiscken
Cesdlschaft, the CdUingiscke gdekrU Anseigen and the Expositor.
NOLI, a coast village of Liguria, Italy, in the province of Genoa,
from which it is 36 m. S.W. by rail, X3 ft. above sea-level. Pop.
(x90x) X985. It is a town of considerable antiquity, now
deca}^, and has an andent church of S. Paragorio, once the
cathedral, a Romanesque basilita dating from the xith centuiy,
with interesting works of art. The diocese has been united
with that of Savona.
See A. d'Andrade, RdaaUme idF Ufficio Reponaleper la conser-
vaaone dei monumenti del PiemonU e deUa Ltguria (Turin, 1699).
100 teq.
VOLLEKENS, JOSEPH (i 737-1823) British sculptor, was bora
on the xxth of August X737 in Dean Street, Sobo, London,
where his father, a native of Antwerp, the " old NoUekeos '* of
Horace Walpole, was a painter of some repute. In his thirteenth
year he entered the studio of the sculptor Peter Scbeemakeis,
and practised drawing and modelling with great assiduity,
ultimately gaining various prizes offered by the Society of Aits.
In 1760 he went to Rome, and he executed a marble bas-relief,
" Timodea before Alexander," which obtained a prize of fifty
guineas from that society in 1762. Garrick and Sterne were
among the first English visitors who sat to him for busts; among
his larger pieces bdonging to this early period perhaps the most
important is the " Mercury and Venus chiding Cupid." Having
returned to England in x 7 70, he was admitted an associate of the
Royal Academy in x 771, and elected a member in x 7 72, the year
in which he married Mary, the second daughter of Saunders
Welch. By this time he had become known to Georse IIL,
whose bust he shortly afterwards executed, and henceforward,
until about i8z6, he was the most fashionable portrait sculptor
of his day. He himself thought highly of his early portrait of
Sterne. Among many others may be spedally zuzned those of
Pitt, Fox, the prince of Wales (afterwards George IV.), Canning,
Perceval, Benjamin West and Lords Castlereagh, Aberdeen.
Erskine, Egremont and Liverpool. He elaborated a number of
marble groups and statues, amongst which may be mentioned
those of " Bacchus," " Venus Uking off her Sandal," ** Hope
leaning on an Um," " Juno," " Paetus and Arria," " Capid and
Psyche " and (his own favourite performance) " Venus anointing
Herself"; all, however, although remarkable for delicacy of
workmanship, are defident in vigour and originality, and the
drapery is peculiarly weak. The most prominent pexsonil
characteristic of NoUekens seems to have been his frogality,
which ultimately developed into absolute miserliness. Mrs
NoUekens died in 181 7, and the sculptor himself dkd is
London on the 23rd of April 1823, leaving a large fortune.
NOLLE PROSEQUI (sometimes shortened into im^. pm.),
a technical term of English law, the meaning of which varies
as it is used with reference to civil or criminal cases. In dvi)
cases it applied only to actions in the king's bench division, and
there signified a formal undertaking by the plaintiff that be
intended to proceed no further with the action (se tdterius vdk
prosequi). The more modem practice in such cases is to proceed
by way of discontinuance. In proceedings either'by indictment
or by information, a nolle prosequi or stay of proceedings may
be entered by the attorney-general. The nolle prosequi is a
matter purely for his discretion, and will not be granted unless
very good ground be shown for his interference. The object
of it generally is to obtain a stay of proceedings against an
accomplice in order to procure his evidence. This object is.
however, more usually effected by the prosecution offering
no evidence and the judge directing an acquittal.
In the United States the term bears the same meaning as in
England, with one exception. The attorney-general has not tlx
same discretion with which English law invests him. Altboush
in son\e states the prosecuting officer may enter a nolle prosequi
at his discretion, in others the leave of the court must be
obtained.
NOLLET. JEAN ANTOINE (X700-X770), French physicist,
of peasant origin, was bora near Noyon (Oise) on the X9th of
November 1 700. He entered holy orders and ultimately attained
the rank of abb£; but his tastes all lay in the direction of
experimenUl research, espedally on the subject of dectxidty.
In X734 he was admitted a member of the London Royal Sockty,
four years latet he entered the Academy of Sciences at Paxis, and
in X 7 53 he was appointed to the newly-instituted chair of experi-
mental physics in the CoU^ de Navarre. In addition to roisy
memoirs he wrote Leions de physique expirimenSale (1743), Essoi
sur Vilectriciti des corps (1747)1 ^"*''**" *"'' ^^ causes parHat-
litres des phinomhtes ilectriques (1749 and 1754), ReauU ii
lettres sur VHectriciU (1753), VArt de /aire les chapeasa (1764)
and VArl des experiences (1770). He died at Pazis on the 24^
of April 1770.
NOMAD— NONCONFORMIST
735
HOMAD (Gr. fom^, 9cii&Set, wanderuig), a w&nderer. The
word is particularly used of tribes who shift continually from
place to place in search of pasture (Gr. pipxw). The poniukt of
ancient Greek writers meant particularly the pastoral tribes of
North Africa; hence the latin name of the Numidians (see
Numidza).
[ . NOME, a mining town about z 3 m. W. of Cape Nome, on the S.
shore of Seward Peninsula, Alaska, in 1900 the largest settlement
in the district. Pop. (1900) 1^,488; (19x0) 260a Gulch gold was
found near Nome on Anvil Creek in September 1898, and diggings
in the ocean beach were first worked in July 1899. The rush to
Nome in 1900 was one of the most remarkable stampedes in
American mining history; the town soon had hotels, banks,
stores, several newspapers and weekly mails from the States,
and for part of the year there were, it was estimated, 30,000
inhabitants. This rapidity of growth and the isolation of the
settlement raised prices to extraordinary heights, and in other
respects created economic conditions remarkable even among
Alaskan mining camps. By 1903 the population had greatly
decreased, and in subsequent years the winter population
averaged about 3500, the summer p<^ulation from 7000 to 8000.
In 1905 the gold output of the Nome region amounted to about
$3,500,000, nearly all from placers, though some quartz mining
was done. A municipal government and local police force were
early organized after the fashion of American mining communities,
and United States soldiers from the St Michael reservation aided
in the preservation of order. The greatest drawback to the
town's prosperity is the lack of any good harbour nearer than
Point Oarence, 80 m. W. The winter ice-floes, sometimes 30 ft.
high on the beach, rendet harbour improvements at Nome
almost impossible. There is connexion with Seattle by steamer
(since 1904) in about 8| days. In 1901 the town was incorporated
under the laws of the United States. It is the north-western
terminus of the United States military telegraph. It was first
called Anvil City; the name " Nome " is derived from Cape
Nome, first so called on a chart dated 1849, and said to have been
a draughtsman's mistake for the query " ? Name " on the
original chart.
. NOMENOfi, or NoicxNoe(d. 851), duke of Brittany. The date
of his birth is not known, and his origin is obscure; all that is
known is that he was of Breton race. In the hope of pacifying
Brittany, Louis the Debonair named him coUnt of Vannes in
8x9 and governor or duke of Brittany in 826. Throughout the
reign of Louis, NomenoC's fidelity to the emperor never flagged ;
he put down several attempted insurrections, and maintained
peace in Brittany for fifteen years. But in 84X he resolved to
make himself independent of Charles the Bald. In 843 Charles
made a vain attempt to subdue Brittany. In 844 NomenoS
invaded Maine, and in 845 the emperor was completely defeated
at Ballon near Bain-de-Bretagne. In the following year Charles
recognized the independence of Brittany. Having resolved to
detach the duchy from the ecclesiastical province of Tours,
NomenoS accused the Prankish bishops of Vannes, (^imper,
Dol and Lion of simony at the council of CoStlouh in 848,
replaced them by Bretons,.and erected Dol into a metropolitan
Bee. In 849 NomenoS attacked the Prankish county of Anjou.
Charies retaliated by establishing a garrison at Kennes; but
NomenoS seized Rennes,-Nantes and, finaUy, the whole of Upper
Brittany, and ravaged Maine. In 851 he seized Anjou and
invaded Beauce; but he died suddenly, leaving as his successor
his son ErispoS.
See A. de la Borderie, Histoire ie Bretagne, vol. ii. ( 1 898) ; R. Mcrlet,
" Goerres d'indlpendance de la Bretagne," in the Revue de Breiapu,
de VendU d d* Anjou (1891).
VOMENTAKA, VIA« an andent road of Italy, leading N.E.
from Rome to Nomentum (9.9.), a distance of X4 m. It originally
bore the name Via Ficulensis, from the old Latin village of
Piculea, about 8 m. from Rome. It was subsequently prolonged
to Nomentum, but never became an important highroad, and
merged in the Via Salaria (see Salasia, Via) a few miles beyond
Nomentum. It is followed as far as Nomentum by the modem
highroad, but some traces of its pavement still exist.
See T. Aahby in Papers of Brit. School at Rome, iii. 38 aqq. (T. As.)
NOMENTUM (mod. MetOana), an ancient town of Italy, 14 m.
N.E. of Rome by the Via Nomentana. It was a Latin town,
but was by some considered to be Sabine, and, like Fldenae
and Piculea, was excluded from the first region by Augustus,
who made the Anio its northern boundary. Nomentum received
the cioUas sine sujfragio after the last war of the Latins
against Rome (338 b.c.); in its municipal constitution the chief
magistrate even in imperial times bore the title of dictator.
Pliny and Martial often praise the fertility of its neighbourhood.
The site of the town is well protected by ravines except on the
east; no ancient remains exist in sitUf but inscriptions and
other relict have been found.
See T. Aahby in Papers of the British School at Rome, iU. 68 iqq.
(T.As.)
NOMINALISM (from Lat. noment name), the name of one
of the two main tendencies of medieval philosophy, the other
being Realism. The controversy between nominalists and
realists arose from a passage in BoSthius' t ranslation of Poxphyr/s
Introduction to the Categories of Aristotle, which propounded the
problem of genera and species, (i) as to whether they subsist
in themselves or only in the mind; (2) whether, if subsistent,
they are corporeal or incorporeal; and (3) whether separated
from sensible things or placed in them. The Realists held that
universals alone have substantial reality, existing ante res;
the Nominalists that universals are mere names invented to
express the qualities of particular things and existing post res;
while the Conceptuallsts, mediating between the two extremes,
held that univeisals are concepts which exist in our minds and
express real similarities in things themselves. Though a strong
realist tendency is evident in the system of Erigena (9tb century),
the controversy was not definitely started till the 11 th century:
it lasted till the middle of the X2th, when the first period of
scholastic phOosophy ends. Under an appearance of much vain
subtlety the controversy about universals involved issues of the
greatest speculative and practical importance: realism repre-
sented a spiritual, nominalism an anti-spiritual, view of the world ;
while realism was evidently favourable, and nopiinalism unfavour-
able, to the teaching of the Church on the dogmas of the Trinity
and the Eucharist. Nominalism was a doctrine of sceptics and
suspected heretics, such as Berengar of Tours and Roscellinus.
Even Abelard's mediating doctrine of conceptualism (q.v.) was
sufficiently near to obnoxious ideas to involve him in lifelong
persecution. The principles of the great orthodox philosophers
of the later scholastic period which begins in the X3th century,
Albertus Magnus and Thomas Aquinas, were those of moderate
realism. When nominalism was revived in the X4th century
by the English Franciscan, William of Occam, it gave evidence
of a new tendency in thought, a distrust of abstractions and an
impulse towards direct observation and inductive research, a
tendency which had its fulfilment in the scientific movement
of the Renaissance. Occam's dictum " Entia non multiplicanda
sunt praeter necessitatem " was inspired by a spirit similar to
that of Bacon. Though nominalism is properly a medieval
theory, the tendency has passed over into modem philosophy:
the term " nominalist " is often applied to thinkers of the
empirical, sensationalist school, of whom J. S. Mill may be
taken as the chief representative. (H. St.)
NONCONFORMIST, a term denoting historically (a) those
peisons who at the beginning of the 17th century refused to
conform to certain practices, e.g. the wearing of the suiplice,
kneeling at the reception of the Sacrament, &c., of the Church
of England; (6) those who, after the passing of the Act of
Uniformity x66a, refused to conform to that act and ceased
to be members of the church. In current usage the term " non-
conformist " is applied in Great Britain to any member of a
church not conforming to the ceremonies, worship and doctrines
(forms") of the Church of England, but is generally used of a
member of the so-called Free Churches, or Protestant Dissenters,
and is not usually applied to Roman Catholics. The name can
also be applied, in other countries, to those who do not belong
to the established religion. Strictly a " dissenter ** is one who
dissents from the church as an " established " body, or who
736
NONCONFORMITY— NONJURORS
dissents from the establishment of a state church, while conform-
ing or not to its forms, ceremonies or practice.
HONOOHFORHITY, LAW RBLATIHQ TO. For the history
of the gradual relief of nonconformists in England from their
disabilities see English Histoby, Baptists, Congbegatiokal-
iSM, Methodism, Fuends, Soobty of, &c.; also Oath. It is
proposed here to note simply the present legal aspecu of non-
conformity apart from its history, that is, the matters in vhich
the law as to nonconformists still differs from that applicable
to members of the Church of England. The differences may be
conveniently gtoiMptd under six heads.
(i) Judicial NoUa.-'Tht courts, both temporsl and spiritual,
take judicial notice of the tenets and authorities of the Church of
England, the crown being head of the law and of the church. Where
the tenets and authorities of a nonconformist body come in question,
they must be proved by evidence. By Lord Lyndhurst's act, the
Nonconformist Chapels Act 1844. where no particular religious
doctrine or mode ot wonhip has been prescribed by the deed or
instrument of trust the usa^ of the congregation for twenty-five
years u to be taken as conclusive evidence 01 the doctrine nnd wraship
which may be property observed in such meeting-houses. (3)
rrtMiiMJ.— Offences against the law ecclesiastical (not bdng crimes)
committed by deivy oTthe Church of England as a rule come by lettera
of request from the bishop of the diocese before the arches court of
Canterbury or the chancery court of York (of both of ivhich the
same person is jud^). Similar mattere arising in nonconformist
bodies can only be tned by the ordinary secular courts, and generslly
defxnd upon the question whether a minister has done any act
which u not in accordance with the rules governing the partKular
body of which he is a minister. A nonconformist Dody u in bw
nothing more than a voluntary association, whose members may
enforce discipline by any tribunal assented to by them, but must be
subject in the last degree to the courts of the realm. Brawling in
a church was an offence which formerty fell solely under the cogniz-
ance of the miritual courts, but by the Ecclesiastical Courts Juris-
diction Act i860 any person guilty of brawling in churches or clupeb
of the Church of Eiwbnd or Irdand, or in any chapel of any religious
denomination, is liable on conviction to a fine or unprisonmcnt (sec
Brawung), while clefBymen of the Church of England may also be
dealt with under the Ctefgy Discipline Act 189a. (t) Status of
Ministers. — ^A nonconformist minister is not in holy orders, and his
chapel is not a consecrated building. Hb status is, however, recog-
nized to a limited extent By the Toleratk>n Act, i Will. & Mar.,
c. 18, a minister, preacher or teacher of a nonconformist congregation
b exempt from certain parochial offices, as that of churchwarden. He
b also exempt from serving in the reserve forces or on a iury. These
privileges only attach where the oboe of worship of wnicn he b a
minister has been duly regbtered (the Places of Worship I^egistratk>n
Act I 8m), unless in the case of bodies subject to special legisbtion.
as Quakora. Registration b not required in the case of conaecrated
buildings. By the Municipal Corporations Act 1883, s. 12, a noncon-
formist minbter (as b a do'k in holy orders) b disqualified from being
elected an alderman or Gouncilk>r of a town council, but under the
Local Government Act 1888 a clerk in holy orders, or other minister of
religion, may be a councillor or alderman of a county council, and,
uncfer the London Government Act 1809, of a metropolitan borough.
He cannot take a degree in divinity at Oxford, Cambridge or Durham
(Universities Tests Act 1871), and so b debarred from holding any
professorship of divini^ in those univenities. (4) Marriage. —
Marriage by a person m holy ordera was probably necessary at
common bw, at any rate from the Reformation up to 1836. (See
Marriage.) And from the date of Lord Hardwkke's Marriage Act,
I753t up to 1836 the ceremony must have been performed in a
consecrated building. The first act of paribmcnt that relieved
dissenters (other than Jews and Quakers) from these restrictions
was the Marriage Act of 1836. By tnat act the ceremony of marriage
might be performed in a nonconformist place of worship, but it must
be after due notbe to the superintendent registrar and in his presence
or in that of a regbtrar, and the building must be one that is duly
certified for mamages. The Marriage Act 1898 dispensed with the
necessity of the attendance of a regbtrar at mamages celebrated
at a nonconfcMinist place of worship, substituting in iMace thereof a
person duly authorized by the trustees of the place oTworship, if the
penons intending to be married so desire; but the parties may, if
they wish, still require the presence of the registrar. Marriage by
banns, licence or specbl licence cannot take place except in a church.
(5) Burial.— By the Burial Laws Amendment Act 1880 burial may
take place in a churchyard without the rites of the Church of Enelano.
But in such a case notice must be given in a specified form, which is
unnecessary where the burial service is conducted by a clr
of the Church of Engbnd. (6) Parish Offius.— By 1 Will. & Mar.
c. 18, s. 5, a dissenter chosen churchwarden and scrupling to take
the oaths may execute hb office by deputy. His acceptance of office
is made optional by the act; there is nothing to prevent his dis-
channngitif heseefittodoso. This seems to be still the bw, although
a declaration was substituted for the oath by the Statutory Dccbra-
tkms Act 1835, s. 9.
BrUuk Colonies.— In crown cok>nies ecclesiastical inrbdicdoo may
be conferred by the sob authority of the crown. In oolomes whkfa
have parlbmentary representation the crown cannot give to a
mMropoliUn bbhop jurisdktion or coerdve legal authority over
suffragan bishops or over any other person. In oolonbs of the
former land the Church of Engbnd may still preserve the privikgcs
which attach to her in the mother oountiy; in ookmies of the btier
kind she b in the same positbn as any other religious body, simply
a volunury assocbtion. Since the Irish Church Act 1 869 the Churdi
of Irebnd has been practically in the same position as the Choich
of England in cokmies which have representative govcnuaeflt.
V0NPBA8AMCB. Mbfeasancb, MamASANCB. Tlie ex-
pressions " nonfeasance " and " inisfeasaoce,*' and occasionally
" malfeasance," are used in English law with reference to the
discharge of public obligations existing by common law, custom
or sUtute. The rule of law laid down b that no action lies for
nonfeasance, i.e. for failure or refusal to perform the obligation,
but that an action does lie for mbfessance or malfeasance, i.e,
for negligently and improperiy performing the obligation.
The doctrine was formeriy applied to certain callings canied
on publicly (see R, v. KUderhy, 1669, i Will. Saund. 311, 312c).
At present the terms misfeasance and nonfeasance are of tencst
used with reference to the conduct of municipal authorities
with reference to the dbchaige of their statutory obligalioiB;
and it b an established rule that an action lies in favour of
persons injured by misfeasance, ix, by ne^igenoe in discharge
of the duty; but that in the case of nonfeasance the remedy
b not by action but by indictment or fMM^MMtt or by the
particular procedure prescribed by the statutes. Thb rule b
fully established in the case of faHure to repair public hi|^ways;
but in other cases the courts are astute to find evidence of
carelessness in the discharge of public duties and on that basb
to award damages to individuab who have suffered thereby.
Misfeasance b also used with reference to the conduct of directors
and officers of joint-stock companies. The word malfeasance
b sometimes used as equivalent to wuUa praxis 1^ a medical
practitioner. (W. F, C)
IfONIUS MARCELLUS, Latin grammarian and lezicoKrapber.
flourished at the end of the 3rd or the begiiming of the 4th
century A.O. He b often called the " Peripatetic of Tbubur-
sicum" (in Numldia, probably hb birth-pUce). He b the
author of a sort of lexicon allied Do eompendiosa ioctrima^
in 30 sections or chapters, the first twelve of which deal with
Unguage and granunar, the remaining eight with special subjects
(navigation, costume, food, arms). The work b a compilation
from commentaries on the authors quoted (whom Nonius only
knows at second hand) and from existing dictionaries and
grammars. Nonius b especially indebted to Verrius Flaccus
and Aulus Geliius. The Doctrina b valuable as preserving
fragments from old dramatists, annalists, satirists and anti-
quarian writers. It b remarkable that in the quotations from
the authors dted Nonius always follows the same order, beginning
with Plautus and ending with Varro and Cato. The grammarians
Priscian and Fulgentius borrowed largely from hb book; and
in the 5th century a certain Julius Trypfaonianus Sabims
brought out a revised ami annotated edition.
Ecfitwns by L. MaUer (1888); J. H. Onkma. bka. L-iU. (1895):
W. M. Lindsay (1903) (reviewed in Classical Renew, October t90<).
See also articles in the Classical Rtoiew (Dec. 1888. June and July
1889); J. H. Onions (Oct. 1890, Oct. 1895, Feb. 1896, Feb. 1902):
W. M. Lindsay; Jounud ofPlulology, zvL (1888), xvuTdSgo). q7h.
Onions), xxi. (1893). (" The Printed Editk>ns of Nooios," by H.
Nettleship); P. Mooceaux. Les Africaisu. Etude sur la tUttratmn
latine d^Ajrique (1894): Teuffel, Hist, of Roman Lileraimre (Eng.
trans.), 404A; M. Schant, Cesekickte der rdmisckem Uieralmr, iv. i
(1904).
H OH JURORS, the name given to those beneficed dergy of the
Church of England who refused to take the oaths of aUcsiancc
to William and Mary in 1689. They were about four hundred in
number, and included William Sancroft, archbishop of Canter-
bury, and four others of the " Seven Bishops," Thomas Ken cf
Bath and Welb, John Lake of Chichester, Thomas White of
Peterborough and Francis Turner of Ely, together with three
other bishops, Robert Frampton of Gloucester, Willian Tlioraas
of Worcester and William IJoyd of Norwich (who b somctincs
confused with his namesake, the bishop of St Asaph, one of the
NONNUS— NONPAREIL
737
" Seven Biahops ")• Other disUngnisbed nonjurors among the
dergy were: William Sherlock, master of the Temple, Jeremy
Collier, the ecclesiastical historian, Charles Leslie, the contro-
versialist, George Hickes, dean of Worcester, Nathanael Spinckes,
John Fitawilliam, canon of Windsor, and John Kettlewell, the
devotional writer. The most famous nonjurors among the laity
were Henry Dodwell, Camden professor of history at Oxford,
Robert Nelson, Henry Hyde, second earl of Clarendon, and
Roger North, the lawyer. Afterwards their number was aug-
mented by the refusal of William Law, author of Tke Serious
Coil, Thomas Carte, the historian, Thomas Heame, the antiquary,
and others, to take the oaths of allegiance to George I. Ken,
the most eminent of the nonjurors, disapproved of their sub-
sequent proceedings, and Sherlock and Dodwcll afterwards took
the required oaths, the former becoming dean of St Paul's.
Believing in the doctrine of non-resistance to establisned
authority, the nonjurors argued that James IL was still the
rightful king, and likened the position of William to that of
Cromwell. Taking examples from the Old Testament and from
the practice of the early church, their antagonisu traversed
these arguments, and a long and voluminous controversy
followed. Many have thought that the position of the nonjurors
was inconsistent, and Dr Johnson said, " I never knew a non-
Juror who could reason," although he appears to have excepted
Leslie from this general condemnation. The government did
not treat the nonjurors harshly. With the approval of William
m., Gilbert Burnet, bishop of Salisbury, attempted to reconcile
them to the new order; and it was only when the generous terms
offered by Burnet had been refused, that, in February 1690, they
were deprived of their sees and other benefices. Although they
had only a small following among the mass of the people, who
were not required to take the oaths of allegiance, Sancroft and
his colleagues claimed to represent the true Church of England,
and requested James II. in his exile to nominate two new bishops
to carry on the episcopal succession. James chose Hickes and
Thomas Wagstaffe (1645-17x2), who were consecrated in 2694
as bishops of Thetford and Ipswich respectively. A further
consecration took place in 17x3 when Collier, Spinckes and
Samud Hawes (d. 1722), were consecrated " bishops at large."
In 17x8 the introduction of a new communion ofiice with some
"usages" taken partly from primitive liturgies, and partly
from the first prayer-book of Edward VL caused a schism among
the nonjurors, dividing them into "Usagers" and "Non-
Usagers." The four "usages" were: The mixed chalice,
prayers for the faithful departed, prayer for the descent of the
Holy Ghost on the consecrated elements, and the Oblatoiy
Prsyer, offering the elements to the Father as symbob of His
Son's Body and Blood. Accepting the " usages " the two bodies
united in 1731, but other dissensions followed, although the
episcopal succession was maintained until the death of a bishop
named Charles Booth in 1805. The last xionjuror is supposed to
have been James Yeowell, who died in x87S. Public worship
was conducted in chapels or "oratories," and sometimes in
private houses.
In Scotland the nonjurors included the greater part of the
dergy of the Episcopal Church, which ceased to be the state
church in X689. Many of these men and some of their English
colleagues were ardent Jacobites, and were punished for sharing
in the xisings of x 7x5 and 1745, and in other Jacobite movements.
The Scottish dergy maintained their attitude of resistance to
the government until the death of Prince Charies Edward Stuart
in 1788^ when the bishops met at Aberdeen, and unanimously
agreed to submit to the government of King George IIL A
large number of the Presbyterians in Scotland, prindpally found
among the Cameronians, also refused to take iht oaths of allegi-
ance to William and Mary; but as their reasons for this refusal
iTere quite different from those of the episcopalian nonjurors,
they are not usually referred to by this name (see Camexoniams).
For the history of the nonjurori, tee Macaulay, History of En^ond
..... - ); T. Lachburv, History of the Nonjurors
vol. iL (London, i»
(London,' 184X); ai . .
U«odoo. 1909). a ddence of the Kct.
especially J. H. Overton, Tke Noniuron
(A.W.H.*)
MOmrUS (Egyptian for " saint "), Greek epic poet, a native of
Panopolis (Akhmim) in the Egyptian Thebaid, probably lived
at the end of the 4th or the beginning of the 5th century a.d.
His prindpal work is the Dionysiaca, an epic in forty-eight books,
the main subject of which is the expedition of Dionysus to India
and his return. The earlier portions treat of the rape of Europa,
the battle of the giants, the mythical history of Thebes, and it
is not until the eighth book that the birth of the god is described.
Other poets had already treated the subject, and since the lime
of Alexander it had gained popuhrity from the favourite com-
parison of the king with the |^ and of his enemies with the giants.
In its vast and formless luxuriance, its beautiful but artificial
versification, its delineation of action and passion to the entire
neglect of character, the poem resembles the epics of India.
Like his countryman Claudian, Nonnus is a writer of copious
learning and still more copious fancy, whose faults are those of
the age in which he lived. His chief merit consisU in the syste-
matic perfection to which he brought the Homeric hexameter.
But the very correctness of the versification renders it monoton-
ous. His influence on the vocabulary of his successors was
likewise very considerable.
We also possess under his naxne a paraphrase (jimafioK^) of
the Gospel of St John, which is chiefly interesting as apparently
indicating that Noimus in his later years was a convert to
Christianity. The style is not inferior to that of his epic, but,
employed in embellishing the simple narrative of the evangelist,
it produces an impression of extreme bombast and want of taste.
According to an epigram in the Palatine Anthology (ix. X98),
Nonnus was also the author of a BaUle of the Giants, and four
lines of the Bassarica (also on the subject of Dionysus) have been
preserved in Stephanus of ByzantiuuL.
Editio prioceps (1569) : H. K6chly (" Teubner " series, with critical
introduction and full mdex of names, 1858); the most eenerally
useful edition is that by the comte de Marceilua (1856), with notes
and prolegomena, and a French prose translation. On the metre,
. G. •" ^
[ennann, Orpkica (1803). p. 690; A. Ludwich, Beilrdn
Us Nonnus \1873), critical, grammatical and metrical:
C Lehrs, Quaestiones epicae (1837). pp. 255-3<»i chiefly on metrical
questions; on the sources, R. K6hler, uber die Dionysiaka des
Not . . ..... ^ ..
^onnus (1853), a short and connected analyab of the poem, with a
>mpariaon ot the earlier and later myths: aee also I. Negrisoli,
tudio critico . . . Nouuus Panopolita, with short bibUc^raphy
(1903). The parai^rase on St John (editio princeps, e. 1505) is
edited by F. Pasaow (1834) and A. Schdndler (1881), with complete
St\
MONPARBIL, the name under which, from its supposed ntatch-
less beauty, a little cage-bird, chiefly imported from New Orleans,
has long been known to Enj^ish dealers (cf . Edwards, Geanings,
i. X32). It is the Emberiza ciris of Linnaeus, and the Cyano-
spisa ciris of most recent ornithologists, bdonging to a small
group, now induded with the buntings and finches, although
some authors have regarded it as a tanager (q.v.). The cock
has the head, neck and lesser wing-coverts bright blue, the
upper part of the back yellow, deepening into green, and the
lower parts generally, together with the rump, bright scarlet,
tinged on the latter with purple. This gorgeous colouring is not
assumed until the bird is at least two years old. The hen is
green above and yellow beneath; and the younger cocks present
an appearance intermediate between the adults of both sexes.
The spedes, which is often also called the painted bunting,
after wintering in Central America or Mexico, arrives in the
Southern states of the American Union in April, but does not
ordinarily proceed to the northward of South Carolina. In
Louisiana, where it is generally known to the French-speaking
inhabitants as the Pape—as it was to the Spaniards of Florida
as the Mariposa piniada (painted butterfly)— it is said to be very
abundant; and on iu appearance in spring advantage is, or was,
taken of the pugnadous disposition of the males to capture them
alive in great numbers by means of the stuffed skin of one so
placed in connexion with a cage-trap that they instantly fall into
the latter on attacking what they concdve to be a rival. Belong-
ing to the same genus as the nonpareil is the indigo-bird, Cyano-
spiza cyasua, which, as a summer visitant, is widdy diffniied from
the Missouri to the Atlantic, and extends into the provinces of
738
NONPAREU^-NORCIA
Ontan3 and New Brunswick, being evexywhere regarded with
favour. Though wanting most of the bright hues of its congener,
the indigo-bird lias yet much beauty, the adult cock being nearly
all over of a deep blue, changing, according to the light, to green.
The hen is brown above and ochreous-white beneath. The
"pintailed nonpareil" of aviculture {Erytkmra prasina) is a
somewhat similarly coloured but really very different bird;
the male has a long sharp tail, and the spedes bebngs to the
Ploceidae (see Weaver-Bisd).
NONPAREIL (Fr. non, and pareU, like, Lat. par), having
no equal, unrivalled. Apart from its uses as a descriptive name
for particularly fine kinds of fruit, &c., and of certain birds,
moths and butterflies, the chief application of the word in English
is, in printing, to a size of type between " emerald " and ** ruby,"
in the United Slates of America between " mimon " and " agate "
(see Typography).
NONSOIT (Fr. non suit, he does not pursue), in law the name
given to a judgment whereby an issue is determined against
the plaintiff. It was a term peculiar to the English common-law
courts before the Judicature Acts, and was simply the expression
of the opinion of the court that, apart from the merits, the
plaintiff's case was incomplete. It did not in any way act as
a bar to his bringing another action for the same cause. It
might be entered either at the wish of the plaintiff himself
(to whom it was of course much more beneficial than judgment
for the defendant) or by direction of the court against the will
of the plaintiff. Although judgment of nonsuit still exisU,
it has, since the Judicature Acts, the same effect as a judgment
on the merits, unless the court otherwise directs. Tliis effect
of a nonsuit was specially provided for by the rules of the
Supreme Court of 1875.
NOODT, GERHARD (1647-1735), Dutch jurist, was bom at
Nijmwegen in 1647. Educated at Leiden, Utrecht and Francker,
he became a professor of law at Leiden. As a writer on juris-
prudence he acquired a wide reputation. His Latin style was
modelled after the best writers, and his numerous works soon
rose to the rank of standard authorities. Two of his political
treatises were translated into French by Jean Barbeyrac, and
appeared at Amsterdam in 1707 and 1714, under the respective
titles of Pouvoir des sounerains and LiberUde conscknce.
The first edition of his collected works was published at Leiden in
1734 and the last in 1767. That of 1735 and thoae subeequent
contain a life of the author by Barbeyrac
NOON, midday, twelve o'clock. The O. Eng. n6n. Nor. non,
Dutch noen, are all from Lat. nana sc. hora, the ninth hour,
i.e. according to the Roman system, three o'clock p.m. (see Day).
The early uses of noon till the 13th and X4th centuries are either
as translating the Latin, especially with reference to the Crud--
fixion, or as equivalent to the canonical hour of " nones " (see
Beevxary). The ordinary word for twelve o'clock was middag,
midday, also the equivalent of the canonical hour "sext."
Both the office and the meal taken about that time were shifted
to an earlier hour, and by the X4th century the ordinary use of
" noon " is that current to-day.
For " nones " (>.<. nonae, sc. dies) in the Roman calendar, see
Calendar.
NORA, an ancient town of Sardinia, aa m. by road S.S.W.
of Carales. It was founded, according to Pausanias (x. 17. 5),
by the Iberians under Norax, son of Hermes, and was the mosr
ancient town in the island. The discoveries made on the site
have, however, shown that it was certainly of Phoenician origin.
In Roman times too, we find the milestones on the road from
Nora to Bitia and even on that from Nora to "Carales reckoned
from Nora {Corp. inscr. Lat. x. 831; Ephemeris epigrapkica,
viii. 180); but the authors and Uie sepulchral inscriptions
found here give us no information as to iu juridical condition.
The town occupies a characteristically Phoenician site, a small
peninsula joined to the mainland by an isthmus, low, narrow,
and sandy. Excavations have led to the discovery of a few
Phoenician buildings, the foundations of a temple of Tanit,
of a road, of quay waUs at the water's edge and of a watch-tower
on the extremity of the peninsula, which rises to some 150 ft.
above the sea. Two cemeteries were found, one of the 7th-6th
century B.C., consisting of tombs cut in the rock for inhnmatimn,
while in the other, going down to the 4th century b.c, cremation
is the rule; there are ossuaries placed in boles in the sand, with
a sculptured stele over each. A quantity of small objects,
gems, ivories, glass, vases, terra-cottas, &c, were found; in
some of them Egyptian, in others Greek, influence and importa-
tion are apparent. To the Roman period belong an aqueduct,
bringing the water from the neighbouring hills — one pier of it
rests upon a destroyed nuragke—'aczniy remains of an amphi-
theatre, a theatre, considerable ruins of concrete foundations
(perhaps of villas by the sea) and a watch-tower on the promon-
tory close to the Phoenician tower. A full description of the
site and the excavations is given by G. Patroni in Monmmndi
dei Lincei, xiv. (1Q05), 1x1. On the isthmus is the curious small
old church of S Efisio, with a nave and two aisles divided by
heavy square pillars. At the festival of the saint (May x-4),
his body is brought in procession from the cathedral at Cai^iari;
the festival is much frequented by people from all parts of
Sardinia. (T.AS.)
NORBA, an ancient town of Latium {Adjectum), Italy. It is
situated x m. N.W. of the modem Norma, 1575 ft. above sea-le\'d,
on the west edge of the Volsdan Mountains or Monti Lepim,
above a predpitotis cliff, with a splendid view over the Pompiine
Marshes. It was a member of the Latin League of 499 B.C.,
and became a Latin colony in 49a b.c, as an important fortress
guarding the Pomptine Marshes. It served in 199 as a place
of detention for the Carthaginian hostages, and was captured
and destroyed by Sulla's troops during the civil wars at the
end of 8a B.C Some revival in prosperity took place later.
From excavations begun in X90X it seems dear that the remains
now visible on the site are entirely Roman. The well-preaerved
walls are in the polygonal style, i| m. in drcuit, and are entirely
embankment walls, not standing free above the intenul ground
level Remains of a massive tower, and of several gateways
(notably the Porta Grande, defended by a tower) exist. Within,
the remains of several buildings, induding the substructions
of two temples, one dedicated to Juno Ludna, have been
examined. At the foot of the diff are the picturesque ruins of
the medieval town of Nainfa (i2th-X3th centuries) abandoned
owing to the malaria. The remains of a primitive settlement,
on the other hand, have been discovered on the mountain-side
to the S. E., above the 13th-century abbey of Valvisdolo, where
there is a succession of terraces supported by waUs of polygonal
work, and approached by a road similarly supported. Here
a quantity of primitive Latin pottery has been found. The
necropolis of this settlement was probably the extensive <»nc
situated at Caracupa (8th-6th certury B.C.), near the railway
station of Sermoneta, which belongs also to the 8th-6th century
B.C., terminating thus at the precise date at which the Roman
dty of Norba began to exist.
See L.' Savignioni and R. Mcngafclli in Notisie degli scan (1901).
M4; (1903) a99, a89: (1904) 407; and Atti del Congresso Sicnco
(Rome, 1903)1 vol. v. (Archacologia) 355. (T. As.)
NORBANOS, 0AIU8, sumamed Bulbus (or Balbcts), Roman
politidan, was a seditious and turbulent democrat. In 103 B.C.,
when tribune of the people, he accused Q. Servilius Caepio
of having brought about the defeat of his army by the Cimfan
through rashness, and also of having plundered the temple
of Tolosa. Caepio was condemned and went into exile. About
ten years later Norbantis himself was accused of trtaaoo on
account of the disturbances that had taken place at the trial of
Caepio, but the doquence of M. Antonius, grandfather oC the
triumvir, procured his acquittal. In 89 Norbanua as pcactor
successfully defended Sicily against the Italian aocxi. Doiiog
the dvil war between Marius and SuHa be sided with the f oma.
but was defeated by SuUa at mount TifaU near Capos, and
again by Metellus at Faventia in Cisalpine Gaul (8s). He fled
to Rhodes, where he committed suidde, while the Rhodians woe
debating whether to hand him over to Sulla.
See Mommsen, HisL of Rome, bk. iv. ch. v.; Gteenidgc, SisL <f
Rome.
NORCI A (anc. Nnrsia) , a town and episcopal see of the pttnrincc
of Perugia, Italy, 39 m. E.N.E. of Spdeto by road, and 40 m. W.
NORD— NORDAU
739
of Aacoli Piceno, 1980 ft. above sea-level, on tlie loutli-west
foot-slopea of the Monti SibUlini, still sanroonded by oM walls.
Pop. (zgoi) 4a6z (town), 9584 (commune). Tbeze are a cathedral,
the church of St Benedict and other churches, with Romanesque
14th-century facades; the town-hall; and the prefecture,
with Romanesque arcades. Much injury was done by earth-
quakes in Z730 and 1859. The andent Nursia was a Sabine
dty, though dose to the Umbxian border. Its inhabitants fought
in 43-41 B.C. against Octavian, and were punished by him for
erecting a monument in honour of those who felL It was
governed by oUaviri like -other Sabine towns and became a
munkipiuM under the empire. . At Ancarano near Norda was
situated a smaU pogus; remains of a temple were found there in
1880, which from the character of the objecU seems to have been
destroyed in the 5th century B.C. The tombs of the district have
also [voduced interesting early bronzes, &c., some of which go
beck to the 7th century B.a, and a fine funeral couch decorated
with sculptured pieces of bone. M. Guardabasd in NotisU degli
sam, 1878, 13 sqq.; x88o, 6 sqq.; A. Pasqui in Monumenti
d€i Lincei, i. (1891) 239. The town was the birthplace of Q.
Sertorius (d. 7 a B.c.)> of Vespasia, mother of the emperor
Vespasian of Plotina, wife of the emperor Tkajan, and of St.
Benedict, founder of the Benedictine order, and of his sister
Scholastics. The town is famous for iu pork and its doth (the
term nercineria for a pork butcher's shop is indeed used in Rome)
and produces bricks and earthenware.
See F. Patrid Forti, Memoric storiche di Norcia (Norcia, 1869).
IIORD* the most northern of the departments of France,
formed chiefly out of Flanders, French Hainault and the district
of Cambrai (Cambr^sis). Area 2229 sq. m. Its population
(1,895,861 in X906), which indudes a large proportion of Belgians,
ranks next to that of Seine among French departments. Its
length from south-east to north-west is 112 m.; iU breadth
nowhere exceeds 40 m., and contracts to 4 where it is crossed by
the Lys. Bounded N.W. and N. for 2z m. by the North Sea,
it has Belgian territory on the N.£. and £., the departmenU
of Aisne and Somme on the S. and Pas-de-Calais on the W.
The FUnden portion west of the Schddt is very flat, the isolated
hill at Cassel, only 535 (t. high, looking north towards Dunkirk
over a stretch of fertile lowlands, the Wateringues and the
MoCres, separated by a line of sand-dunes from the sea, by
which about a thousand years ago they were still covered.
The reclamation of this district, now covered by a network of
canals, was begun as early as the 12th century. South-east of
the Scheldt the country resembles the neighbouring Ardennes,
is better wooded, and contahis the highest point in the depart-
ment (873 ft.). The greater part of Nord is in the Scheldt basin,
but certain portions bdong to those of the Sambre (Meuse),
the Oise (Seine) and the little coast-streams the Aa and the Yser.
The Scheldt, flowing by Cambrai, Bouchain, Valenciennes and
Cond£, recdvcs the Scarpe, which touches Douai, Marchiennes
and St Amand. The Lys, which docs not join the Schddt till it
has entered Belgium, passes Armentiires, and receives the Deule,
on which Lille, the capital, is situated. The Sambre passes
Landredcs and Maubeuge. The Aa falls into the port at
Gravelines. The climate of Nord is colder than that of France in
general, the mean temperature being 49" or 50' F. The average
annual rainfall is about 28 in.
In agriculttual and industrial importance Nord b the first of
French departments. In the hilly region of the south-east stock-
raising flourishes; in the central zone beetroot is the character-
istic CTop, while mixed farming prevails in the north-west.
Cereab (especially wheat and oats) and potatoes are grown in
abundance. Among minor crops, flax, tobacco, chicory and hops
may be mentioned. Maricet-gardening and horticulture are
practised on a considerable scale in some localities. The mineral
wealth of the department lies principally in iU coal mines
forming part of the Valenciennes basin, the most important
in France, which extends into Belgium and Pas-de-Calais.
The textile industry is particulariy active around Lille, Roubaix
nnd Tourcoing wluch spin and weave cotton and wool, as also
around Fourmies which is especially a weaving town. Other
important centres anM^entiiret (doth-weaving), Dunkirk
(flax, jute and hemp-spinning), Cambrai (batiste and other
delicate fabrics), Douai, Avesnes, le Cateau and Caudry. Other
great industries are brewing, flour-milling, glass, brick, pottery
and sugar manufacture, alcohol-distilling, dyeing, iron-founding
and sted production and other branches of the metallurgical
industry carried on at Denain, Hautmont, Maubeuge, Valen-
dehnesy Douai, Raismes, &c. Dunkirk and Graveliiies equip
fleets for the cod and hezxing fishrries. Dunkirk is the
chief port of the department, which is served by the Northern
railway. Its system of inland navigation is highly devdoped
and attains a length of 320 m., comprising a line of waterways
from the ScheMt to the North Sea at Dunkirk, with which the
coal basin of Valenciennes is linked up by way of the canalized
Schddt and the textile region of Lille by means of the De<Ue
canal and the canalized Lys. To these must be added the
canalized Sambre and other less important waterways.
The department is divided into seven arrondissements (Avesnes,
Cambrai, Douai, Dimkirk, JIazebrouck, LOle, Valendennes)
with 67 cantons aind 667 communes. It forms the archiepiscopal
diocese of Cambrai and part of the region of the I. army corps
(headquarters at Lille) aind of the educatioiud division of Idlle.
Its court of appeal is at Douai. The most noteworthy places
are Lille, Cambrai, Douai, Dunkirk, Valendennes and Anzin,
Tourcoing, Roubaix, Avesnes, Halluin, Armentiires, Maubeuge,
Cond6-sur-Escaut, Fourmies, Hazebrouck, Gravelines, St Amand-
Ics-Eaux, Bergues, Le Cateau, Comines, Denain, Cassel and
Bavai, which are separately noticed. Other populous industrial
towns not mentioned above are Loos (pc^. 9294) and Haubourdin
(7897) near Lille, Caudry (10,947), near Cambrai, and Aniche
(7855)1 a coal mining centre, near Dotiai. Other places of interest
are Bailleul (pop. in 1906, 7x28), Bavai and Bergues, which have
fine bdfries of the 16th century, structures characteristic of the
architecture of the department; Hondschoote, scene of a victory
of the French over the allies in X793, which has a church of the
Z5th and x6th centuries with a fine tower and spire; and Famars
which preserves a curious ruined stronghold of the period of the
Roman occupation.
NORDAU, MAX 8III0X (1849*- ^), German author and
philosopher, was bom of Jewish parents at Budapest on the
29th of July X849. He studied medidne and travelled widely
through Europe imtil 1878, when he settled down as a practitioner
in his native town. In x88o he removed to Paris, and in addition
to his professional work took up the study of art, literature
and social questions. His investigations were marked by a
critical accuracy which endeavoured to wdgh data and deduce
results with a fearless disregard of conventional ideas. In his
Entartung he applied the theory of physical degeneration to the
intellectual side of civilized man, and endeavotued to show that
in art, literature and social evolution there is decadence and
hysteria; confused aesthetic theory, mysticism in thought,
so-called " realism '* in art, all alike indicate the vain spasmodic
struggling of an effete civilization. In Die komentionellen
iMgen der Kvlturmenschkeit (1884), the same destructive method
is applied to politics and to social science. Yet Nordau was not
a pessimist. In the Paradoxes psychohgiques (1885) he expressed
his profound and reasoned conviction that the " Degeneration "
of the time was only temporary. This optimism was seen in his
enthusiastic support of Dr Herd's Zionist movement. In
connexion with the British govenmtent's offer of land for a
Jewish settlement in East Africa, there was a fundamental
difference of opinion among the various Jewish sodeties. Herzl
and Nordau were accused of giving up the idea of returning to
Palestine, and substituting the African scheme. This idea
provoked great hostility, and at a Zionist Ball in Paris (X9th of
December X903) a Jew named Louban Chain Selik fired two shots
at Nordau unsuccessfully. The outrage drew from Herd a
letter (The Times, 22nd of December) which clearly set forth the
view hdd by himself and Nordau as to the ultinuite destiny of
the Zionist Movement.
WoaKS.— Novels and Stories: Seifenblasen, Fedeneidmuni0t
und CesekickUm (1879); Die Krankheit des JakrkunderU (1889);
7+0
NORDEN— NORDENSKIOLD
GefMskomddit (189a); DU DroknenscUaekt (1897): UormnaUuk
iiocu). Dramas: Die neuen Joumalisten (in collaboratjon with
'. Grow, 1680) ; Der Krieg lUr MiUionen (1882) ; Das JUeki au lieben
(3nd ed.. 1894): Die Kugd (1894): and Doktor Kokm (1898). He
published also Vom Kteml tar Alkambra (1880), an account of his
travels, and three works descriptive of niris and the Pftrisiana—
Pariser Studien aus dem wakren MiU^ttrdtnlande (1878) ; Paris unler
der drittem RepuHik (1881); AusfpffdUU Pariser Briefs (1887):
two further volumes of criticism. ZeUtfen6ssisehe Frauaosen, literatur-
geschichtUche essays (Berlin, 1901); and Km Kunsi und KinsUeru
(Ldpaag, I905)«
MOBDBII, JOHN (xs4&-x6357), EngUah topographer, was the
first Fngli«hman ^ho designed a com[^ete series of county
histories and geographies. His earliest known work of import-
ance was the Speculum Britanniae, first part . . . Middlesex
(1593); the MS. of this in the British Museum (HarL 570) has
corrections, &c., in Lord Burleigh's handwriting. In 1595 he
wrote a Ckarograpkical Deseripiian of , » , Middlesex, Essex,
Surrey, Sussex, Hampshire, Wight, Cumuey and Jersey, dedicated
to <>ieen Elizabeth; the MS. of this is in the British Museum,
Addit. MSS. 3i,Ssi. In 1596 he published his Preparative
to . , . Speculum BriUumiae, dedicated to Burleigh, and in 1598
his Hertfordshire (Lambeth Libr. MSS. 521). Before his death
he had completed in manuscript his account of five other counties;
three of these studies were printed long after his death, vis.
Essex, edited for the Camden Sodety in 1840 by Sir Henry Ellis
from a MS. at Hatfield (see also British Museum Addit. MSS.
33f 7^); Northamptonshire, known to have been finished in
x6io, but only published in 1720; Cornwall, likewise finished in
1610, published in 1728 (see Harl. MSS. 6252). Of Kent and
Surrey even the MSS. are now lost; parts of the latter are perhaps
identical with sections of the Chorog;raphical Description of 1595.
In x6oo Norden was appointed surveyor of the crown woods and
forests in Berkshire, Devon, Surrey, &c.; in 2605 he obtained
the surveyorship of the duchy of Cornwall; in 1607, after a
careful survey, he composed his valuable Description of the
Honour of Windsor, with fine maps and plans in colour, dedicated
to James I. (see HarL MSS. 3749). In x6o8 he was mainly
occupied with the surveying of crown woods, especially in Surrey,
Berkshire and Devon, and with the writing of his works on forest
cvltun— Considerations touching . . . raising » , , of Coppices,
and . . . Relation of , , , Proceedings upon . . . Commission
concerning new forests, to which he added in x6x3 his Observations
concerning Crown Lands and Woods (see Egerton MSS. 806;
Ashmole MSS. X148; and Lansdowne MSS. X65). In 161 2
he was made surveyor of the royal castles in Kent, Surrey,
Sussex, Hampshire, Berkshire, Dorset, Wiltshire, Somerset,
Devon and Cornwall; in x6i6 and 16x7 he appears surveying
the soke of Kirkcton in Lindsey, as well as various manors and
lands belonging to Prince Charles, afterwards Charles I. (see
Cambridge University Library, Ff. iv. 30; London, British
Museum Addit. MSS. 6027); his last works were a survey of
Sheriff Hutton manor, Yorks, in 1624 (HarL MSS. 6288), and
England, an intended guide for English travellers, ar series of tables
to accompany Speed's county maps, executed in X625, shortly
before his death.
Norden's maps of London and Westminster (in his Speculum
Britanniae of 1 593) are the best representations known of the English
metropolis unoer the Tudors; his maps of Middlesex (also from the
Spec. Brit, of 1593)» of Essex (ift^. 1840), of Hertfordshire (1598.
1723) and of Cornwall (published in 1728; see above) are also note-
worthy; in the last-named the roads are indicated for the first time
in English topoaraphy. Norden also executed maps of Hampshire.
Hertfordshire, Kent. Middlesex. Surrey and Sussex, for the fifth
edition , (1607) of Camden's Brilauniat also maps of Middlesex,
Essex, Sussex. Surrey and Cornwall for J. Speed (1610). Several
important cartographical works of his are lost : e.g. his Map „ , , ef
. . . BaUles fought in Engfand from . . . William the Conqueror to
. . . Elimbeth, in 16 sheets, formerly in the Bodleian Gallery. Oxford,
of which some part is probably preserved in the Invasions ofEmj^nd,
an appendix to the Prospect of the most Famous Parts of the world,
by J. Speed (1635): and his View of London, in 8 sheets, made c.
1604-1606. and View of London Bndgfi, published in 1624; in the
Crace collection at the British Museum is an earlier View of Loudon
by Norden (1600). and an 1804 reprint of the View of London Bridge:
a map of Surrey bv Norden, said to have been copied by Speed
and Kip in Camden s Britannia of 1607, has also disappeared.
Besides the works notked above, see the accooats of Norden by
C. Bateman in Speculum Britonniae, pars CorwwaU (1728). and
by Sir H. Ellis in Spu. Brit., pars Essex (Camden Society. 1840):
also H. B. Wheatley in Harrison's Description of Entftuid (New
Shakspere Society, X877), and C. H. Cooce's artick in the DicL
Nat, Biog, (C R. B.)
MORDBHf a town of Gemumy, in the Prussian province of
Hanover, 4 m. from the North Sea and so m. by xafl N. d
Emden. Pop. (X905) 67x7. It has a x6th-centuxy town hall
and its parish chtirch was built in X445. Gin, sugar, chocolate,
yeast, bieer, tobacco and machinexy are manufactuxvd. Nord-
ddch, a small port 4 m. N. W., is the shipping place for passcngns.
bound for Nordemey. Norden was first mentioned in 842.
NORDENSKIOLD, nils ADOLP EBIK. Baxon (x83»-i90xT,
geographer and Arctic explorer, was bom at Helsingfors, xStli
November x83a. His ancestors came originally from Sweden,
but for some generations had been settled in Finland. His
father. Nils GusUv NordenskiOld, was both a mineralogist and
a traveller. NordenskiSld entered the univeisity of Udsingfon
in X849, and applied himself specially to chemistxy and miner-
alogy. In X 853 he accompanied his father to the Ural Mountains
and studied the iron and copper mines at Tagilsk. On Us return
he received minor appointmenu both at the university and the
mining office, but an unguarded speech at a convivial entertain-
ment in 1855 drew the attention of the Russian antboritics
to his politicfd views, and led to his dismissal. He then vkited
Berlin, continuing his mineralogical studies, and in 1856
obtained the Alexander travelling stipend at the mivenity
of Helsingfors and planned to expend it in ge<dogica] research
in Siberia and Kamchatka. Before starting he took his masur's
and doctor's degrees (X857), but he again aroused the snspidoa
of the authorities, so that he was forced to leave the ooontxy
and was deprived of the right of ever holding office in the onivcr-
sity. Settling at Stockholm he thenceforward became practically
a Swedish citizen. He soon received an offer from Otto Tofcll,
the geologist, to accompany him on an expedition to Spitsbctsea.
To the observations of Torell on glacial phenomena NordeD-
skifild added the discovery at Bell Sound of remains of Teitiaiy
plants, and on the return of the expedition he received the
appointment of professor and curator of the mineralogical
department of the Swedish State Museum. In x86x be took
part in Torell 's second Spitsbergen expedition, which yidded
even more important geological results. Of the further expedi-
tion to the same quarter proixMted by the Swedish academy
of science in X864, NordenskiQld was the leader. Tbree years
later, chiefly through the support of the Swedish government
and Oscar Dickson, who contributed largely towards tbe later
expeditions of 1872 and X875, he headed a well-orgaaised
expedition in the iron steamer " Sofia," and reached tbe Ugfacst
northern latitude (8x" 42O then attained in the eastern bemi-
sphere. Arctic exploration had now become his all-absorbing
object in life, and in X870, with three young naturalists, he
visited the vast inland ice-sheet of Greenland. His next expedi-
tion in 1872 did not answer expectation, for the tenders were
caught in the ice, and tbe crews of the three vessels were forced
to winter in Spitsbergen. In 1875-1876, however, a succestfol
voyage eastwards, including the ascent of the Yenisei, led bio
to attempt the discovery of the long-soug)it Nortb-East Passage.
This he accomplished in the voyage of the *' Vega," navigaiiog
for the first time the northern coasts of £urope and Alia.
Starting from Karlskrona on the 22nd of June 1878, tbe ** Vega **
doubled Cape Chelyuskin in the following August, and after
being frozen in at the end of September near Bering Stiait,
completed the voyage successfully in the following summer.
He edited a monumental record of the expedition in five ocuvs
volumes, and himself wrote a more popular summary in two
volumes.
On his return to Sweden be received an enthusiastic w Umm.
and in April x88o was made a baron and a commander ol tbe
Order of the Nordstjema. In 1883 he again visited tbe cast
coast of Greenland, and succeeded in taking hb ship through the
great ice barrier, a feat attempted in vain during more than three
centuries. Baron NordenskiSld also made a nouble reimtatiaB
NORDERNEY— NORDLINGEN
741
In the field of historical geography by his FacsimiU Atlas
(1889) and Periplus (1897). The former contains reproductions
of the most important geographical documents printed during
the X5th and x6th centuries, and the latter, a work of far
greater research, deals with the history of early cartography and
the sailing charts in use among mariners during.the middle-ages.
He died at Stockholm on the zath of August igoz.
MORDBRMBY (i.e. " northern island "), azi ishmd of Germany,
in the North Sea, the largest of the East Friesland group,
belonging to the Prussian province of Hanover. Pop. (Z905)
3888. It is 8 m. long and about z} m. broad, and supports a
seafaring and fishing population. It is reached by steamer
from GeestemOnde, Emden, Bremen or Hamburg, and at low
tide by road from the mainland. The village at the S.W. end
of the island is one of the most popular sea-bathing places
in Germany, and is visited aimually. by some a6,ooo visitors.
On the S. side rises a lighthouse Z75 ft. high, while the £. end
of the island is filled with sand dunes ranging in height from
50 to 75 ft. Nordemey is imnaortalized by its association with'
Heinrich Heine's NordstchUder,
See Berenbers:, Das Nordseehad Nordemey (Norden, 1895);
C. Herquet, CeschichU der Inset Nordemey jjpS'jyii (1890); and
the ankle Frisian Islands.
NORDFJORD» an inlet of the west coast of Norway, penetrat-
ing the land for 50 m in an easterly direction, its mouth being
lis m. by sea N. of Bergen (6i* 50' N.). No part of Norway
affords finer scenery than the inner ramifications of this fjord
among the snowy mountains of the northern Jostedalsbrae.
Driving-roads penetrate the mountains from Visnaes eastward
to the Gudbrandsdal, from Utvik southward to Vadheim on
the Sogne Fjord, and from Faleide northward to Hellesylt
(Geiranger Fjord) and Oje (Jorundsfjord). Nordfjordeid is a
hrge village on the outer fjord, at the mouth of Homindalen.
Olden and Loen are other favourite centres on the inner part of
the fjord. A small but powerful breed of hoziscs is peculiar to
the Nordf jord district.
NORDHAUSEN, a town of Germany, in the province of
Prussian Saxony. It is situated on the Zorge at the south base
of the Harz Mountains, and at the west end of the Goldene Aue
(Golden Plain), a fruitful vaDey watered by the Helme, 60 m.
by Tail W. of Halle, on' the main line to Frankfort-on-Main and
Cassel, and at the junction of railways to Eriurt and Blankenheim.
Pop. (1885) 27,083; (1905) a9,88a. It is built partly on the
slope of the mountains and pvtly on the plain, and the upper
and lower parts of the town are connected by flights of steps.
Among its eight churches the most noteworthy are the Roman
Catholic cathedral, late Gothic with a Romanesque crsrpt, and
the Protestant church of St BUstus, containing two pictures
by Lucas Cranach. Near the medieval town hall stands a
Roland's column, the ancient symbol of free commercial inter-
course and civic liberty. The town has a museum of antiquities
and various public monuments, notably a fountain by Ernst
Rietschd in the com market, and another to Luther in the
market square. There are statues of the emperor Frederick III.
and of Prince Bismarck. The chief importance of the place
arises from its distilleries, which annually yield about Z0|00o,ooo
gallons of " Kom Schnapps," a spirit somewhat akin to whisky.
The breweries are also important and there are manufactures
of leather, tobacco and dgars, cotton, linen goods, carpets,
chicory, znalt and chemicals. Nordhausen is sometimes called
the Cincinna'tl of Germany on account of its extensive export
f rade in pork, corned beef, ham and sausages. There is also a
large trade in com.
Nordhausen is one of the oldest towns in North Germany. It
possessed a royal pakce in 874 and a convent was founded here
in 96a. It was destroyed by Henry the Lion, duke of Saxony,
in iz8o, but was soon rebuilt and was made a free imperial town
in z 353. In this and the following century several diets and other
assemblies were held here. The protector {Vogt) of the town
was the elector of Saxony and later for a few years (z7oa-z7Z5)
the elector of Brandenburg. Nordhausen accepted the reformed
doctrines in isaa. It was aimexed by Prussia in 1803 and again
in z8z5, having in the meantime belonged to the kingdom of
Westphalia.
See Ffintemann, Urkundluhe CeschichU der Stadt Nordhausen
bis xaKO (Nordhausen, I8a8-i840)and Kleine Schriften tur Ccschichte
der Stadt Nordhausen (Nordhausen, 1855); Lesser, Historische
Naehrichlen von Nordhausen, edited by Fdrstemann (Nordhausen
i860}: J. Schmidt, Bau- und Kunstdenkmdier der Stadt Nordhausen
(Halle, 1886); T. Eckart, Cedenhbldtier aus der CeschichU der
ehemaligen freien Reichsstadt Nordhausen (Leiprig, 1895); Heine.
Nordhausen und Preussen (Nordhausen. 190a); and Ginchner.
LohalfOhrer fUr Nordhausen und Umgetmnt (1891).
NORDICA. LILIAN (1859- ), American operatic soprano,
nte. Norton, was bom at Farmington, Maine, and trained as a
singer at Boston, and later at Milan. As Madame Nordica she
made her operatic d6but at Brescia in 1879, and from that time
took high rank among the prima dozmas, appearing in all the
principal capitals in Europe, and also in America.
XORDIK, CARL GU8TAF (z74^z8ia), Swedish sUtesman,
historian and ecclesiastic. In 1774 he was made docent of
Gothic antiquities at Upsala University in consequence of his
remarkable treatise, Monumenta nia^gotkica vetustioris aevi
falsa meritaque suspecta. Summoned to Stockhohn in xjBa by
, Gustavus III. to edit a Swedish Corpus dipUmaticum, half an
hour's private conversation with the young priest convinced
Gustavus that Nordin's proper place was by his side in the
political arena. But he employed Nordin quite differently from
his episcopal coUeague Olaf Wallqvist. While the bishop
publicly defended the royal measures, Nordin became the king's
private adviser. In politics Nordin was a royalist from pure
conviction. To him a parliament seemed little better than a
mob. He was one of the king's secret managers during the
troublesome and dangerous rik^agol 1789, but advised caution
and compared the estate of clergy, which at one time held the
balance between the jarring orders, to ice which might be walked
upon but could not be driven over. He was appointed a member
of an ecclesiastical commission for reforming the church in 1787,
in which capadty he was virtually minister of public worship.
In Z79i-z79a he became a leading member of the financial and
general committees of the riksdag. After the king's death
Nordin shared in the general disgrace of the Gustavians and
lived in retirement at the little town of Hem&and, where he
held the post of le^or at the gymnasium. But he reappeared
prominently on the political scene during the riksdag of z8oo,
and in Z805 was consecrated bishop of Hem^Ssand. Though he
lacked the brilliant qualities of his rival Wallqvist, Nordin had
the same alertness and penetration, and was infinitely more
stable and disinterested. One of the most learned men of his
day, he devoted his spare time to histoiy, and discovered that
many of the oldest and most cherished Scandinavian MSS. were
clever forgeries. Like Jean Hardouin he got to believe that a
great deal of what is called classical literature was compiled by
anonymous authofs at a much later date, and he used frequently
to startle his colleagues, the Gustavian academicians, by his
audacious paradoxes.
He left behind him a colossal collection of MSS., the ao-called
Nordinsha SanUingama^ which were purchased and presented to
Upsala university by Charles XIV. and form the groundwork of the
well-known Scriptares rerum Suecicarum medii aevi. Nordin pub-
li^ed during his lifetime Handlingar till uplvsning af svenska krigs-
historien (Stockholm, 1787-1788). His academical addresses came
out at Stockholm in 181 8 under the title Minnen 6fver nana^nniga
svensha mdn. His Dagboh did not appear till 1868.
See Sverius histeria (Stockhohn, 1877, &cX vol. v. ; C. T. Odhncr,
Sveriges politiska kistoria under Gustaf JII.'s regering (Stockholm.
1885, Ac!) ; R. N. Bain, Custaaus III. vol. a (London, 1896).
XORDLINOEir, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Bavaria,
on the Eger, 40 m. N. of Augsburg by rail and at the junction
of lines to Buchloe and Dombtihl. Pop. (1905) 851 a. It was
formerly a free imperial town, owning a territory 35 sq. m. in
extent, and is still surrounded with walls and towers. The
Evangelical church of St George is a Gothic stmcture erected
in the zsth century and restored m z88a It has paintings by
Hans Schftufdein, who was a native of NOrdlingen, and a tower
a9o ft. high. The Late Gothic town hall has a collection of
pictures and antiquities. The chief manufactures of the town
7+2
NORE— NORFOLK, EARLS OF
are lioen goods, soap, malt, and agricultural implenlents, and a
brisk trade is carried on in cattle, grain and geese. From 898,
when first mentioned, to 1215 NOrdlingen was subject to the
bishops of Regensburg, but about 12x5 it became a free dty of
the Empire. It was annexed to Bavaria in 1803.
Ndrdlingen was the scene of two great battles in the Thirty
Years' War (^.r.). In the first, which was fought on the 5th and
6th of September 2634, the hitherto invincible Swedish army,
commanded by Duke Bemhard of Saxe Weimar and Marshal
Horn, was defeated with great loss by a somewhat superior
army of Imperialists and Spaniards under General GaUas, Horn
and 3000 men being made prisoners and 6000 killed or mortally
wounded. In the second battle, fought eleven years later
(3rd August 1645), Cond6 (then duke of Enghien) and Turenne
were the leaders on the one side, and Mercy and Johann von
Weert, the dashing cavalry commander whose onset had decided
the battle of 1634, on the other. The Germans were posted
some 5 m. to the east of Ndrdlingen, about Allerheim, with their
right resting on a hill and the left on a castle, the guns with an
infantry escort being placed on these points, and the village
itself in the centre being also garrisoned and entrenched. In
rear of the village the plain was occupied by Mercy's army in the
customary two lines, foot in the centre, horse in the wings. The
French army, similarly arrayed, but with a few battalions
attached to the cavalry wings, was more heterogeneous than the
German, being composed of French, Hessian, German mercen-
aries, and Li6geois. After a cannonade in which it suffered
more severely than its entrenched enemy, the French centre
furiously attacked the village of Allerheim; the fighting here
was very heavy, and on the whole in favour of the Germans,
although Mercy was killed. The right wing of the French
cavalry was swept of! the field by Johann von Weert's charge,
but the German troopers, intoxicated with success, dispersed
to plunder. On the French left, meanwhile, Turenne saved the
day. Fighting cautiously at first with his leading line to gain
time for his second to come up, he then charged and broke up
the hostile right wing of cavalry, while some battalions of infantry
scaled the hUl and captured the Bavarian gims. Unlike Weert
the marshal kept his troops in hand, and swung round upon the
Bavarian infantry behind Allerheim, who were at the same time
cannonaded by their lost guns. A prolonged fight now ensued,
in which the Bavarians had the worst of it, and Weert, returning
at last to the field, dared not attempt to engage afresh. The
armies faced one another all night with their sentries fifty paces
apart, but in the morning the Bavarians were found to have
retreated. Nothing was gained by the victors but the trophies
and the field of battle, and the losses of both sides had been
enormous. Enghien had only 1500 of his foot in hand next day.
Ndrdlingen, therefore, is a classical instance of the unprofitable
and costly bataiUe rangie of the 17th century.
See BeyBchlag, Geschichte der Stadt Ndrdlingen (Ndrdlingen, 1851).
and Mayer, Die Stadt Ndrdlingen^ ihr Leben und ihre Kunst tm Lichlt
der Vorteii (Ndrdlingen, 1856}.
NORE, THE. a sandbank at the mouth of the river Thames,
England, marked by various buoys and by a lightship, with
revolving light. This ship lies 3 m. from the nearest point on
the Kent coast, about the same distance from the Essex coast,
and 47 i m. below London Bridge. The first light was placed here
as an experiment by Mr Hamblin, its patentee, in 1731. In
1797 the neighbouring anchorage was the scene of a mutiny in
the British fleet then lying here, well known in history as the
Mutiny of the Nore.
NORFOLK. EARLS AND DUKES OF. The 1st earl of Norfolk
was Ralph de Guader, a follower of William the Conqueror,
who forfeited the earldom when be revolted against William
in 1075; the and was Hugh Bxgoo (d. ix77)> one of Stephen's
supporters, to whom the earldom was granted by this king
before xx4X. Hugh's grandson, Hugh (d. 1225), the 3rd earl
of this line, married Matilda, daughter of William Marshal,
earl of Pembroke, and from the Marshals their son Roger
X270), the 4th earl, inherited the office of marshal of
England. This powerful family of Bigod retained the
earldom until Roger, the 5th earl, died childless in December
1306.
The next earl of Norfolk was Thomas of Brotheston (130^
^33^)1 & younger son of Edward I., to whom the earldom was
granted in 1312 by his half-brother, Edward II. In addition
to the estates which had formerly belonged to the Bigods Thomas
received the office of marshal He joined Queen I&abella when
she landed in England in X326, and was one of the group of
nobles who brought about the deposition of Edward II. He
died in August X338, leaving no son. The survivor of his t»t>
daughters, Margaret {c. 1320-1400), who was countess of Norfolk
in her own right, married John de Segrave, 3rd Lord Segrave
(d. X353), and their only child Elizabeth (d. c. 1375) became
the wife of John de Mowbray, 4th Lord Mowbray (d. 1368),
and the mother of two sons John and Thomas. In 1397 the
countess Margaret was created duchess of Norfolk, and at the
same time her grandson Thomas Mowbray was made duke of
Norfolk.
Thomas Mowbray, xst duke of Norfdk (c. 1366-1399),
became Baron Mowbray and Baron Segrave when his elder
brother John died in February X382; about the same
time Richard II. created him earl of Nottingham, SnT"
a title held by his dead brother, and in 1385 made him
marshal of England for life. For some yeais he enjoyed the
favour and companionship of the king, but diffetences arose
between them, and in 1387 Nottingham began to act with
Thomas of Woodstock, duke of Gloucester, his own brother-in-
law, Richard Fitzalan, earl of Arundel, and the party oi nobles
who wished to deprive the king of his power, lliey routed the
royal favourite Robert de Vere, earl of Oxford, at Radcot
Bridge, and Richard was at their mercy. Owing partly to
Nottingham's moderate counsels the suggestion to dqpose him
was not carried out, but in the " merciless parliament " of 1388
his favourites were " appealed " of treason and were sentenced
to death. For nearly two years the chief power was in the hands
of the lords appellant, as Nottingham and his friends were
called, but in 1389 the king regained his authority. He detached
Nottingham from his colleagues and made him warden of the
Scottish marches; later he became captain of Calais and the
royal lieutenant in the north-east of France. Richard took
him to Ireland in X394 and soon afterwards sent him to arrange
a peace with France and his marriage with Isabella, daughter
of King Charles VI. But the earl's supreme service to the king
was in 1397 when Richard took a tanly but severe vengeance
upon three of the appellants. In their turn these lords were
" appealed " of treason before the parliament, and as on the
former occasion Nottingham was one of the accusers. He was
present when Gloucester was arrested at Pleshey, and FrolsBait
says that he actually beheaded Arundel himself. Gkraccster
was entrusted to his keeping at Calais, and in September X307
he reported that his prisoner was dead. The duke had bcea
murdered, and Nottingham was probably responsible, although
the evidence against him is not conclusive. As a reward be
received most of Arundel's lands in Surrey and Sussex, aztd was
created duke of Norfolk. He now began to fear for his owa
safety, and took the duke of Hoeford, afterwards King Henry
IV., into his confidence. Hereford carried his words to the king,
who summoned him to his presence, and at Oswestry Norfoft
accused Hereford of speaking falsely. A court of chivalry
decided that the dispute should be referred to the * arbitraaMol
of single combat and Coventry was the place appointed for the
duel; but when on the x6th of September 1398 everything was
ready for the fight Richard interposed and ordered botli com-
batants into banishment. NorfoUc was deprived of his offices,
but not of his titles; his " heavier doom " was exile for life, and
he was ordered to confine himself to Germany, Hungaxj and
Bohemia. At once he left England for Dordredbt, aaod after
passing some months in wanderings he reached Venice, wrlieie be
died on the 22nd or a7th of September X399. The conducSog
scene of the duke's life in England forms the staple material of
act i. of Shakespeare's Rkkard II. Norfolk left estates in nesrir
all the English counties. His wife was Elisabeth (c. X372-1415),
NORFOLK, DUKES OF
daughter of Richard Fitxahm, earl of Arundel, by whom he
had two sons, Thomas and John, and two daughters.
His elder son, Thomas Mowbsay (1385-2405), became earl
of Nottingham and earl marshal on his father's death, but he
was not allowed to assume the title of duke of Norfolk. He
quarrelled with Richard Beauchamp, earl of Warwick, over the
precedence of their respective earldoms, and left the court in
anger when Henry IV. decided in favour of Warwick. At this
time (1405) Richard le Scrope, archbishop of York, and other
northern potentates were preparing to rise against the king.
The earl marshal joined them, was taken prisoner at Shipton
Moor, and was beheaded at York on the 8th of June 1405.
John Mowbsay (1390-1432), and duke, brother of the last-
named, now i)ecame earl marshal and earl of Nottingham. He
sat in judgment upon Richard, earl of Cambridge, and the other
rebels in 1415, and went to France with Henry V.. He took part
in the siege of Harfleur, but illness prevented him from fighting
at Agincourt. He saw service in France in subsequent years, and
after Henry's death he was a member of the English governing
council. In 1424 he followed Humphrey, duke of Gloucester, on
his campaign in Hainaut, and in 1425 he secured his recognition
as duke of Norfolk. He died on the 19th of October 143a at
Epworth, where his father had founded a Cistercian priory.
By his wife Catherine, daughter of Ralph Neville, xst earl of
Westmorland, he left an only son, the 3rd duke.
John Mowbsay, 3rd duke (1415-1461), became warden of
the Scottish marches; he also served as a soldier and an
ambassador in France. Upon the outbreak of the fierce rivalry
between the houses of York and Lancaster about 1450 he joined
Richard, duke of York, to whom he was related; he aided the
Yorkist cause in Norfolk and in London, and it was he who
in November 1453 demanded an inquiry into the administration
of Edmund Beaufort, duke of Somerset. In 1459 he appeared on
the Lancastrian side and took the oath of allegiance to Henry VI.
and to his son Edward at Coventry, but soon he was again-
figuring as an active Yorkist. He was a member of the deputa-
tion which in March 1461 asked the duke of York (Edward IV.) to
Uke the crown, and he fought at the second battle of St Albans
and also at Towton, where one authority says he saved the day
for the Yorkists.
John Mowbray, 4th duke (X444-Z476), who had already been
created earl of Surrey, a title formerly held by his ancestors,
the Fitzalans, was the only son of the preceding. The names
both of John and of his father appear frequently in the Paston
Letters, as both dukes in turn seized Caister castle, which had
been left by Sir John Fastolf to John Paston, and the 4th duke
held it against the Pastons for some years. On his death in 1476
the dukedom became extinct, but the earldom passed to his
daughter Anne (1472-1481), who married Richard, dukeof York,
the younger son of Edward IV. Richard was created duke of
Norfolk and made earl marshal, but when he was murdered in
X483 the dukedom again became extinct, the earldom having
reverted to the crown on the death of Anne.
The illustrious family of Howard (g.v.), members of which
have been dukes of Norfolk from 1483 to the present
2JJJ' day, with the exception of two periods during which
the title was forfeited, was connected with the family
of Mowbray.
John Howard, ist duke of Norfolk (c. 1430-1485), was
the son of Sir Robert Howard by his wife Margaret, daughter of
Thomas Mowbray, the first duke of that family. In 1455 John
Howard was sent to parliament as member for Norfolk, although
he " hadde no lyvelode in the shire "; in 1461 he was knighted;
and in 1470, although he appears to have been a consistent
Yorkist, he was created a baron by Henry VI. He was treasurer
of the royal household from 1467 to 1474, and went to France
with Edward IV. in 1475. After Edward's death, however,
he supported Richard III., who created him duke of Norfolk
and made him earl marshal of England in June 1483. He was
killed at Bosworth whilst fighting for this king on the 2and of
August 1485, and the title thus suffered attainder. He is
frequently mentioned in the Piut<m Letters.
743
His son, Tboicas Howard, afterwards and duke (1443-1524),
shared his father's fortunes; he fought at Barnet for Edward IV.
and was made steward of the royal household and created earl
of Surrey in 1483. Taken prisoner at Bosworth he was attainted
and remained in captivity until January 1489, when he was
released and restored to his earldom but not to the dukedom
of Norfolk. He was then entrusted with the maintexumce of
order in Yorkshire and with the defence of the Scottish borders;
he was made lord treasurer and a privy councillor in 1501,
and he helped to arrange the marriage between Margaret, the
daughter of Henry VII., and James IV. of Scotland. Henry
VIII., too, employed him on public business, but the earl grew
jealous of Wolsey, and for a short time he absented himself
from court. He commanded the army which defeated the Scots
at Flodden in September 15x3, and was created duke of Norfolk
in February of the following year, with precedency as of the
creation of X483. In his later years Norfolk worked more
harmoniously with Wolsey. He was guardian of England
during Henry's absence in France in X520, and he acted as
lord high steward at the trial of his friend Edward Stafford,
duke of Buckingham, in X521. Among his sons were William,
ist Lord Howard of Effingham, and Sir Edward Howard (c. 1477-
1513)1 loid high admiral, who defeated the French fleet off
Brest in August 15x2, and lost his life during another engagement
in April 15x3.
Thoicas Howard, 3rd duke (i473-iSS4)» eldest son of the
and duke, married in 1495 Anne (x475-i5ia), daughter of Edward
IV., thus becoming a brother-in-law of Henry VII., who had
married Anne's sister Elizabeth. He became lord high admiral
in X5Z3, and led the van of the English army at Flodden in
September, being created eari of Surrey in February X5X4. In
15 13 he took for his second wife Elizabeth (d. X558), daughter
of Edward Stafford, duke of Buckingham. In X530 Surrey
went to Ireland as lord-deputy, but soon vacated this post to
command the troops whidx sacked Morlai* and ravaged the
neighbourhood of Boulogne in X5aa'; afterwards he raided and
devastated the south of Scotland. He succeeded his father
in May X5a4, and as the most powerful nobleman in England he
headed the party hostile to Cardinal Wolsey. He favoured the
divorce of Henry VUI. from Catherine of Aragon, and the
king's marriage with his niece Arme Boleyn. In x 5 29 he became
president of the council, but in a few years his position was shaken
by the fate of Anne Boleyn, at whose trial and execution he
presided as lord high steward. But his military abilities rendered
him almost indispensable to the king, and in X536, just after
the rising known as the Pilgrimage of Grace had broken out,
he was despatched into the north of England; he temporized
with the rebels until the danger was past, and then, as the first
president of the council of the north, punished them with great
severity. Sharing in the general hatred against Thomas Crom-
weU, Norfolk arrested the minister in June 1540. He led the
English army into Scotland in 1543 and into France in 1544;
but the execution of Catherine Howard, another of his m'eces
who had become the wife of the king, had weakened his position.
His son Henry Howard, earl of Surrey (q.v.), was arrested on a
charge of treason; Norfolk himself suffered the same fate as
accessory to the crime. In January 1547 Surrey was executed;
his father was condemned to death 'by a bill of attainder, but
owing to the death of the king the sentence was not cacried out.
Norfolk remained in prison throughout the reign of Edward VI.,
but in August X553 he was released and restored to his dukedom.
Again taking command of the English army he was sent to
suppress the rebellion which had broken out under Sir Thomas
Wyat, but his men fled before the enemy. He acted as lord high
steward at the trial of John Dudley, duke of Northumberland;
and he died on the a5th of August 1554. Norfolk was a brutal
and licentious man, but was a supporter of the Roman church,
being, as he himself admits, " quick against the sacramentaries."
As a soldier he was serviceable to Henry VIII., but as a diplo-
matist he was a failure, being far inferior to Wolsey and to
Cromwell. He had two sons, Henry, earl of Surrey, and Thomas
(c. 1528-X582), who in X559 was created Viscount Howard of
744
NORFOLK
Bindon, a title which became extinct in z6xz. His only daughter
Mary (d. 1557) married Heniy, duke of Richmond, the natural
son of Heniy VIII.
Thomas Howard, 4th duke (1536-2572), son of Henry Howard,
earl of Surrey, was bom on the xoth of March 1536. His tutor
was John Foze, the martyrologist. Soon after Elizabeth
became queen in 1558 she sent th^ young duke to take part in
the war against the Scots and their French allies, but the conclu-
sion of the treaty of Edinburgh in July 1560 enabled him to
return to the court in London. Having married and lost three
wives, all ladies of wealth and position; Norfolk was regarded
as a suitable husband for Mary queen of Scots, who had just taken
refuge in England. He presided over the commission appointed
by Elizabeth to inquire into the relations between the Scottish
queen and her subjects; and although he appears to have
believed in Mary's guilt he was anxious to many her. Among
the Scots Maitland of Lethlngton favoured the proposed union;
Maiy herself consented to it; but Norfolk was unwilling to
take up arms, and while he delayed Elizabeth ordered his arrest
and he was taken to prison in October 1569. In August 1570,
after the suppression of the rising in the north of England, the
duke was released; but he entered into communication with
Philip II. of Spain regarding the proposed invasion of England
by the Spaniards. After some hesitation Norfolk placed himself
at the head of the conspirators; and in return for his services
he asked the king of Spain " to approve of my own marriage with
the Queen of Scots." But the plot failed; Norfolk's treacheiy
was revealed to Lord Burghley, and in September 1572 he was
arrested. He was beheaded on the 2nd of June 2572. It is
noteworthy that he always regarded himself as a Protestant.
Norfolk's first wife, Mary (1540-2557), daughter and heiress
of Henry Fitzalan, 22th earl of Arundel, bore him a son, Philip,
who in consequence of his father's attainder was not allowed
to succeed to the dukedom of Norfolk, but became 13th earl of
Arundel in succession to his maternal grandfather in 2580.
Norfolk left two other sons, Thomas Howard, created earl of
Suffolk in 2603, and Lord William Howard iq.v.).
In 2660 the dukedom was restored by act of parliament to
Thomas Howard, 4th earl of Arundel (2627-2677), a descendant
of the 4th duke. The 5th duke was succeeded by his brother
Henry (2628-2684), the friend of John Evelyn, who had been
already created earl of Norwich; in 2672 he was made earl
marshal, and this dignity was entailed on his male heirs.
Charles Howard, rxth duke (2746-2825), was the son of
Charles Howard (2720-2786), who succeeded his cousin, Edward
Howard (2686-2777), ^ loth duke of Norfolk in 2777, and who
wrote Historical Anecdotes oj some of the Howard Family (2769
and 28x7). Bom in March 2 746, the earl of Surrey, as Charles
was called from 2777 until he became duke of Norfolk in 2786,
represented CarUsIe in the House of Commons, where he acted
with the Whigs; unlike his father he was a Protestant. In 27^
he was a lord of the treasury. In 2789 at a dinner held in
London the duke gave the toast " Our sovereign's health— the
majesty of the people "; this greatly offended George III., who
deprived him of some of his public offices.
When he died on the 26th of December 2825 he left no sons,
and the dukedom passed to his kinsman, Bernard Edward
Howard (2765-2842), a descendant of the 4th duke.
BeroaFd's only son, Henry Charles Howard (2792-2856),
became 23th duke in 2842. As earl of Surrey he was the first
Roman Catholic since the Reformation to sit in the Hoyse of
Commons, of which he was a member from 2829 to 2842; as
duke of Norfolk he was piaster of the horse from 2846 to 2852
and lord steward from 2853 to 2854. The second of hid three
sons, Edward George Fitzalan ^2828-2883), was a member of the
House of Commons from 2848 to 2868, and was created Baron
Howard of Glossop in 2869. Lord Howard rendered great
service to the cause of Roman Catholic education.
The 23tlk duke's eldest son, Henry Granville Fitzalan
Howard (2815-2860), succeeded to the title. He was a devoted
Roman Catholic, left the Liberal party and resigned his seat in
parliament rather than support the EicdesiasticaJ Titles Bill of
285a He edited the Lives of Philip Howard, eari of Anmdd^
and of Anne DacreSf his wife (2857 and 2862). He was suc-
ceeded by his son Heniy Fitzalan Howard, X5th duke (b. 2847),
who was post2naster-general from 2895 U> 2900, first Lord Mayor
of Sheffield in 2895, went out to the &>uth African War in 1900,
and whose position as head of the English Roman Catholics
and as premier duke and Eari Marshal made him for many
years con^icuous in public life. His only son by his first wife,
a daughter of Baron Donington, died in eariy life; bat by ha
second marriage (2904) to the daughter and heiress of Lord
Herries he had a son bora in 1908.
NORFOLK, an eastern county of England, bounded K. and
E. by the North Sea, S.E. and S. by Suffolk and W. by Caxn-
bridgeshire and Lincolnshire. The area is 2044*4 *4« nL.t the
county beixig the fourth in size in England. The surface falls
into two divisions. The eastern and central portions consist
of an undulating plain with rising ground skirting the xxver
valleys and low chalk downs in the no2th. For the most part this
section is fertile and well wooded, but there are some expanses
of heath land. The principal rivers are the Yare and its tribo-
taries the Wensum, Bure and Waveney, the last fonning a
large part of the boundary with Suffolk. In the west the county
includes part of the Fen country (f.v.), where the priikdpal
rivers are the Great Ouae and its tributaries the Little Dose or
Brandon river, which also forms part of the Suffolk boondaiy,
the Wissey and the Nar. The flat fens are crossed by i2uiuiner-
able drainage channels. They are comprised within that
portion of the whole district known as the Bedfcnrd Lend, and
extend from Welney and Hilgay Fens near the junctioa ol the
Great and Little Ouse northward to the Wash.
The watershed is nearly in the centre of the county. The
middle eastern portion is a low-lying flat area lifted altgfatly
towards the coast in such a way that some of the trfl>ataiy
streamy of the Bure rise very near the sea but flow at first inland
or parallel to the coast. Here occur the well-known Norfolk
Broads, shallow meres, having their low banks massed with
luxuriant reeds and other water-pknts, and possessiitg much
quiet beauty of an individual character. Most of them abound
with pike, bream and other coarse fish, and harbour innmncrable
waterfowl, including the water-hen, heron, bittern, king-fisher,
mallard, teal and snipe. They are thus frequented by tpotXa-
men, but still more by boating parties, and at Yazmouih.
Wroxham Bridge, Ade and elsewhere sailing boats with cabins,
and other boats, are hired in large numbers. Armual regattas
are held on several Broads. The Broads are generally not
widenings of the main river, but ate connected with it by short
channels. Their formation is probably due to a slight uprising
of the land, whereupon the depressions in the undulated surface
continued to carry water. The average depth of the Bioads is
only some eight feet, and their tendency is to become cLoked
with sedges and bulrushes and to decrease in size. Th« Bute
Joins the Yare at Yarmouth, at the seaward end of Breydon
Water, which does not rank among the Broads. Following the
Bure upwards, a small stream is fourid uniting it with FOby,
Rollesby and Ormsby Broads to the north, which form one
sheet of water of irregular shape. The Thurae stream then
enters from the same direction, draining Heigham Sooisd,
Hickling Broad, Horsey Mere and Martham Broad. The second
of these is the largest of all, measuring some 3 m. in length by
one at its widest part. The next tributary, the Ant, drains
Barton and Stalham Broads. Closely adjoining the upper Bore
itself, there are Ranworth Broad, Horning Broad, and Salhonv,
Hoveton and Wroxham Broads almost adjoining. South of
Ranworth, on a tributary, is South Walsham Broad. Adjacest
to the Yare towards Norwich is Rockland Broad. Between the
Waveney and Lowestoft Oulton Broad is formed (in Suffolk;
see Lowestoft).
Nearly two-thirds of the boundary of the county is formed by
tidal water. There are few bays or inlets, and on the noflbcRi
coast no river mouths. For the most part the coast-line Is flat
and low, and has been greatly encroached on by the sea, several
villages having been engulfed since the Conquest. From the
NORFOLK
745
mouth of the Yare to HappUburgh the shore is skirted by sand-
banks. Thence for 20 m. it is formed of cliffs consisting of clay
and masses of embedded rocks, the average height being
about 50 ft., although in some cases an altitude of aoo ft. is
reached. These cliffs are succeeded by a low shingly or sandy
coast stretching as far as St Edmund's Point. The shores of the
Wash are formed of mudbanks, which are left dry at low water.
West of Lynn a considerable- extent of land has been reclaimed
from the sea in modem times, and farther south an old Roman
emb^^ment stretches into Lincolnshire. At various points off
the coast there are submarine forests, especially in Brancaster
Bay and in the neighbourhood of Cromer .and Happisburgh.
Fossilized remains of large mammals are sometimes dragged
up by the nets of fishermen, and mammoth tusks measuring
from 6 to 9 ft. have been found at Knole Sand off Happisburgh.
The fine sandy beaches and healthy climate have contributed
to the growth of such popular watering-places as Cromer,
Yarmouth and Hunstanton, while Mundesley and Wells-next-
thc-Sea are lesser resorts.
Ceohgy.— The prevailing rock formation in Norfolk is the CKalk.
which occupies a oroad tract in the central and western portions of
the county and ur^ "- '*— '^-rtnn- -* '- '— -•- r^^'^^ rt,
the general dip of ne
beds predominate ... . ,^ .,,.!.,,. l. ,,.-.; ^^t -. — ^>^., ,,,,-. >w
belt of Lower Crci:..i t'.jin and Junissic rtick* ik-s iikjn^ the wv^-'.-.m
border. Oxford C'-iv .^nd CDrjlllAn Ln.'fl? havr been proved by tKinng
at Lynn, but the '.'idc'st form.itioTi t(t> appear at the ^Kjrf^cc 'a the
Kimeridge Clay, \^ tuvh ttreiichei alonK the coast of ihe Waush from
Hunstanton to Kinj'ei Lynn and south to DDMrrthim, vtKcrc it has
been dug for bricks .in d t ilei. The Lo wef Greertsand^ w hith f prms ihc
picturesque cscari<iiiL nt, overlooking the Fen-Und and the W^«h. b
represented In its tr^cr [slrt^y the LT*j*ii»iroft-fltained sand rtonr, ihc
Carstone (up to a<.i It), localfy Icnown a* thti " Giflgcrbft:ad sirme,"
I is quarried at SDettl*hiin and elsewhere a* a buildiris sjtgne.
which i
and Grimston Con
Clay whkh exter
where it begins t
;Rcd Chalk U ft.),
same cliffs the Lc
Below the Carstone are the Sncui^hani CUy b'd". duft fof brick-
roaking at that vilLij^e and at CVrsinifham ami Ikaffum; those
pass southwards in i >> -^i nd*t one* an d irLtnsi onM, TIh^ towii^it d! v'< - ton
of the Greensand, Ui-- Sandrtnghiim beds, hl^hly-criloured sand': ;>nd
sandstones, are cx^ c[ at ^ndringham Wamen, Oawnham M/jtIkji
' ■' - -lyino the Lqwct Grc?eii4anc! i% the Gj ult
I 'fuldnam northwards to Der&in^li im.
! ehio'-Ti'T L-rnd finijllv ™^w? intin "he
, ;.. .. ,,:... .. 1... :..... ^^^ |„,|^p
ri._,:.: i, . -.i- ■■■ _ - ■i/^ V. . iK^ Red Cialk
(which does not belong to the Chalk proper but the Gault) ; it is a
hard grey or white limestone; at Marham and other places it is
quarried for building and for lime. The M iddle Chalk (about 300 ft.),
with flints in the upper part and occasional marl beds, b exposed at
Docking, Hillington and Mcthwold. The Upper Chalk (about 800
ft.) b much BOiter, with many flints, including the peculiar forms
known as " paramoudras " ; it has been largely exploited for lime
and whiting, and the flints have been worked from prehistoric times.
Dressed flints are still used for facing walls in churches and other
buildings. At Trinungham occurs the highest horizon of the Chalk
known m England. Eocene strata, Reading Beds (46 ft.) and London
day (310 ftO> have been proved to lie beneath younger deponts at
Yarmouth, rliocene depomts, sands, gravels and clays are exposed
along the coast from Weyboume and Cromer to Happisburg and in
the nver valley over most of the eastern part of the country. The
lower subdivision, the Norwich Crag Series (as^ioo ft.), exhibits
numerous local peculiarities to which distinctive names have been
applied, as the Fluvio-Marine .beds " of Bramerton and Thorpe,
the " mammaliferous crag," the " Weyboume Crag " and the
" Chillesford Clays," &c. The upper subdivbion, the Cromer Forest-
Bed (10*30 ft.), contains the bones of the mammoth, rhinoceros,
giant beaver, sabre-toothed tiffer and many others, as well as the
transported stumps of trees. Next in order come the glacial clays,
•ands and gravels, which cover and obscure so much of the older
stratified rocks of the county and hence greatly influence the scenery.
There b a lower " till " with boulders and an upper chalky boulder
clay, sometimes with sands and graveb between; glaciu gravels
overlie the clays in large sheets as at Norwich, Mouschold Heath,
Dereham, Fakenham. The drift is thicker in the east than in the
west — very interesting exposures occur on the cliffs about Cromer.
Later valley graveb occupy some of the stream courses, and among
the more recent deposits are the Fen beds and blown sands.
Climate and Agycidture,—On account of the exposed position
of the coast to east and north-east winds, the climate, especially
in winter and early spring, b much colder than in the adjacent
counties. The air is, however, generally dry, and unhealthy
fogs are not common, except in the nuu^y dbtricts. The
cynd b a characterbtic mbt which sometimes rolls up like
smoke from the sea over the eastern parts. Norfolk contains a
greater variety of soO than any other county in England. In the
north and west the soil is generally chalky; towards the south-
east it b a light sand, assuming occasionally the form of blowing
sand, but elsewhere capable of cultivation and of average
fertility. In the centre and east the prevailing soil b loam,
chiefly light and workable, but sometimes composed of stiff
chalky boulder day. Alluvial clays and loams occur on the
borders of Lincolnshire and Cambridgeshire, and stretch along
the river valleys. The marsh lands along the coast are subject
to inundation, but afford capital pasturage. Farming b in an ad-
vanced condition, and, by means of draining, subsoil ploughing,
&c., excellent crops are raised. The farms are for the most part
large and the farm buildings superior. About four-fifths of the
total area b under cultivation. Of thb area com crops occupy
some two-fifths and consbt mainly of wheat and barley, but in
the production of oats also Norfolk b one of the first counties in
England. As much attention b paid to the grazing of cattle
and to the rearing and fattening of sheep, turnips and swedes
are extensively grown. Large nimibers of lean cattle, princi-
pally Irish shorthorns, are brought into the county mainly for
winter grazing. The old Norfolk polled stock b recognized as a
dbtinct breed. Good pasture lands are found in many districts
of the county, especially along the river-beds and near the fens.
A large acreage b under beans and a fair quantity of small
fruit b grown.
Other Industries. — At an early period Norfolk was one of the
principal seats of the cloth trade in England, worsted deriving
its name from having been first manufactured at Worstead.
The weaving of silk and wool b still carried on at Norwich and
also shawl weaving, although the staple trade of the town b
now boots and shoes. Silk is also manufactured at Yarmouth,
Wymondham and North Wabham. Flour-milb are numerous
all over the county, and there are agricultural implement works
at Norwich, Lynn, Thetford, East Harling, North Wabham,
Wabingham, and East Dereham. Lime-burning, brick-making,
tanning, malting and brewing are carried on in various dbtricts.
There are extensive mustard and starch works at Norwich.
One of the chief liindrances to commercial progress b the danger-
ous nature of the sea-coast, and the lack of harbours. A large
trade, however, b carried on at Yarmouth. The other principal
port b Lynn, and there is a small trade at Cromer and Wells.
Railway communication b provided principally by the Great
Eastern railway, the j^ncipal lines of which are those from London
and Ipswich to Norwich and Yarmouth, from Ely to Norwich and
Yarmouth, Ely to Lynn, Lynn to Swaffham and Dereham, Norwich
branch lines. The Midland & Greiat Northern joint line, from Lynn,
serves Cromer, Norwich, North Wabham and Yarmouth. The
eastern rivers afford water communication with the port of Yar-
mouth and the Great and Little Ouse, with many of the drainage*
cuts which are navigable, with Lynn.
Population and, Administration. — ^The area of the ancient
county b 1,308,439 acres, with a population in 1891 of 454>5x6>
and in xgoi of 460,120. • The area of the adminbtrative county
is 1,314,612. The county contains 33 hundreds. The mimidpal
boroughs are — King's Lynn (pop. 20,288); Norwich, a dty and
county bdrough and the cotmty town (xi 1,733); Thetford
(46x3); and Yarmouth, properly Great Yarmouth, a county
borough (5x,3i6). The lurban districts are Cromer (378X),
Diss (3745)) Downham Market (2472), East Dereham (5545)1
Hunstanton (1893), North Wabham (3981), Sheringham (2359),
Swaffham (3371), Walsoken (3250), Wells-next-the-Sea (2494).
Among other towns may be mentioned Fakenham (2907), Holt
(X844), Wjrmondham (4733). The county b in the south-
eastern circuit, and assizes are hdd at Norwich. There are two
courts of quarter sessions, and 25 petty sessional divisions.
Each of the four mimidpal boroughs has a separate commission
of the peace and a separate court of quarter sessions. The total
number of dvil parishes b 700. Norfolk b mainly in the diocese
of Norwich, with small parts in those of Ely and Lincoln; it
contains 607 ecclesiastical parishes or dbtricts, wholly or in
part. For parliamentary purposes the county b divided into
six divbions (North-Westem, South-Westem, Northern,
Eastern, Mid, and Southern), and also indudes the parliamentaij
746
NORFOLK
boroughs of Ring's Lynn and Norwich, and part of the parlia-
mentary borough of Great Yarmouth; each returning one
member, except the dty of Norwich, which returns two members.
History.— The district which is now Norfolk was invaded in
the second half of the 5th century by Angle tribes from north
Germany, who, having secured the coast districts, worked their
way inland along the river valleys. In the 7th century the land
of the North-folk formed the northern half of East Anglia
which at the time owned the supremacy of Kent, and later
appears successively as a dependency of Merda and Northumbria,
until in 827 the whole land was united under the rule of Ecgbert.
In 867 the Danes under Inguar and Ubba defeated and killed
King Edmund at Tbetford, but, although it formed an integral
part of the Danelaw, Norfolk remained thickly settled by an
almost exclusively Teutonic population. In the renewed
Danish attacks of the xzth century Norwich and Thetford were
destroyed. At the time of the Norman invasion Norfolk formed
part of Harold's earldom, but it offered no active resistance to
the Conqueror, who built a castle at Norwich, and bestowed the
earldom of East Anglia on Ralf Guader. The forfeited estates
of Earl Rail had paued at the time of the Domesday Survey to
Roger Bigod, ancestor of the earls of Norfolk, whose line expired
in Z306. The Norfolk fief of Count Alan later formed part of
the honour of Richmond; Robert Malet's fief became the
honour of Eye; Herroer de Ferridre's fief became the barony
of Wormegay, afterwards held by the Bardolfs; Hugh de Mont-
fort's fee, as the honour of Haughley, was afterwards attached
to the office of constable of Dover. The Howards were settled
in the county from the xjth century, Thomas Howard being
created duke of Norfolk for his services at Flodden. Castle Acre
was a seat of the earls of Warenne; Paston of the Pastons;
Attleborough of the Mortimers; Caister of the Fastolfs.
The shire-system was not definitely established in East
Anglia before the Conquest, but the Domesday boundaries of
Norfolk were practically those of the present day. The thirty-sfic
Domesday hundreds were subdivided into leets, of which no
trace remains, and the boroughs of Norwich and Thetford
ranked as separate hundreds, while Yarmouth was the chief
town of three hundreds. The Domesday hundred of Emneth
is now included in Freebridge, and Docking in that of Smithdon,
and the boundary between Brothercross and Gallow hundred
has been considerably changed. Norfolk and Suffolk were
united under one sheriff until the reign of Elizabeth, the shire
court for the former being held at Norwich. The hundred court
of Humbleyard hundred was held in the parish of Swardeston;
that of Clackdose at Clackclose hill on Stradsett common;
Taverham at Frettenham Hill; Grimeshoeat a tumulus between
Brandon and Norwich; Forehoe in the parish of Carleton
Forehoe'; Greenhoe by the tumuli on the London road to
Swaffham; Smithdon in the parish of Bircham Magna; Free-
bridge at Flitcham Burgh, afterwards at an oak at Gaywood
and still later at an oak at Wiggenhall St German's; Gallow in
the x5th century at Fakenham; in the x6th century at Longfield
Stone; Brothercross, at the cross by the ford over the Bumham;
Eynsford at Reepham; Depwade, at the Deep ford over the
Tas; Mitford, in 1639, at " Brokpit "; North Erpingham, at
Guneby Gate, near Gunton; South Erpingham, at Cawston
Park Gate; Launditch, at the crossing of th^ Norwich road with
the long ditch between Longham and Beeston;.Earsham, at an
encampment near the churcL
Norfolk formed part of the diocese of East Anglia from its
foundation in 630, and in 207 5 the bishop's. see was placed at
Thetford, whence it was transferred to Norwich in Z093. In
XI ax the Norfolk portion of the diocese included the x a deaneries
of Norwich (or Taverham), Blofield, Ingworth, Sparham, Holt,
Walsingham, Toftrees, Brisley, Breckles, Lynn, Thetford and
FIcgg— all in the archdeaconry of Norwich, and the xa deaneries
of Repps, Humbleyard, Depwade, Waxham, Brooke, Redenhall,
Rockland, Cranwidi, Fencham, Hitcham, Bumham and Hengham
— in the archdeaconry of Norfolk. From thb date the deaneries
underwent little change, until the creation of the ardideaconry
of Lynn in X894, when th^ were entirely reconstituted.
In the wars between John and his baxons Roger Bigod sari!-
soned Norwich castle against the king, who in x a 16 on his xctreat
from Lynn lost his baggage in the Wash. In the rising of 1381
Norwich was plundered by the insurgents under Sir Roger
Bacon of Baconsthorpe, and in the rising of 1549 against en-
dosures Norwich was again captured by the rebels under Ket.
In the Civil War of the 17th century Norfolk as a whole adhered
to the parllamentaxy cause, forming one of the six counties of
the Eastern Association. Lynn, however, was held for the
king by Sir Hamon Lcstrange, and Norwich was one of the first
dtles to wdcome back Charles II.
At the time of the Domesday Survey sheep-faiming iloarxsbed
almost throughout Norfolk, a flock of X300 being mentioiied at
Walton, and horses were extensively bred; nuxnerons bee-
hives, nearly 600 water-mills and valuable river-fisheries are
mentioned; and salt was made in the hundreds of Freebridge
and East Flegg. The worsted trade was introduced by Flemish
immigrants as early as the xath century, and the woollen trade
became especially prosperous in the hundreds adjoizung the
Wash. Linen was noanuf aetured at Aylsham in the X4th century.
Fuller, writing in the X7th centuiy, describes Norfolk as abouixi-
ing in all good things, and especially rabbits, herrings and
worsteds., The leather industry flourished in Norman tixncs.
Norfolk returned members to parliament in X290, and in 1298
the county and the boroughs of Lynn, Norwich and Yarmouth
returned each two members. Thetford acquired representation
in I5a9, and Castle Rising in 1558. Under the Reform Act of
183 a the county returned four members in two divisions, and
Castle Rising was disfranchised. Under the act of x868 the
county returned six members in three divisions, and Thetford
and Yarmouth were disfranchised, the latter for notorious
corruption.
AniiquUies, — ^Thereare few traces of Saxon architecture in
the county, unless the towers of Dunham-Magna and Newton-
by-Castleacre be assigned to this period. The rouxKi towers
which are specially characteristic of the district are probably
Norman. Although there are several fine spedmezis of Nonnan
architecture in the county in addition to Norwich cathedral,
and a few good examples of Early English, the xzujority of the
churches are Decorated or Perpendladar, or a mixture of both
styles. The most notable features of the churches are the fllint
and stone panels, the fine rood screens and the numerous
brasses. The churches of the marshes in the N.W. are note-
worthy, especially those of Tilney All Saints and Walsoken
(Norman) and West Walton (Early English); the rich Nonnan
church of Castle Rising should also be mentioned. At Northwold
remains one of the rare Easter sepulchres. Apart from the
churches in the towns, those of Worstead, Hingham, Cawston
and Terrizigton St Clement may be quoted as typical examples
of the numerous fine later Gothic village churches. Norfolk
possessed an unusually large number of moziastic fouxtdations,
but of these the remains are few andcomparativdy unimportant.
The cathedral diurchof Norwich was originally coimectedwith
a veiy richly endowed Benedictine mozzastezy. A foundatloa
of almost equal importance was that of Augustiniaa caaoos at
Walsingham, where there are remaizis of an Early Kngjiih and
Decorated diurch, a Decorated refectory and a PerpeMlicniar
gateway. The shrine of Our Lady of Walsingham was the
resort of great numbers of pUgrizns. Other moziastic remaiiss
are Broz^olm Prioiy near North Walsham; slight Early
English fragznents of Beeston Augustinian prioiy, W. of Cromer:
go<xl Norzzian and later remaizis at Biziham (Benedictine) N^ of
Walsingham; the Benedictine nuzinery of Canow ziear Norwich;
the fine church (Nonnan and later) of the Benedictizxe priory at
Wymondham; and the remains at Castle Acre and Thetford.
Of Norman keeps there are remaizis of the building at Castk
Acre; there is a magnificent ruin at Castle Rising N.E. of Lynn;
and Norwich Castle is kept in restoration. There are several
old mansions of interest, such as the Jacobean brick boHdrng
of Blickling Hall, Bamingham Hall (161 a), Hunstanton, the
moated Oxburgh Hall, and Cressingham Manor, both of the Z5th
century. The larger mansions, however, such as Sandringfaaai
NORFOLK— NORFOLK ISLAND
7+7
(a seat of King Edwaxd VII.), HoIUiam, Rainham, Costessey,
Gunton, Houghton and Shadwell, are of more modem date.
The Holkham estate was the scene of the agrictiltural work of
Thomas Wflliam Coke, earl of Leicester (d. 1842)* who success-
fully proved that wheat could be profitably grown in this part
of the county, and also made great improvements in live stock.
Among sites of other various interests are Bumham Thorpe, the
birthplace of Nelson; Paston and Oznead, successive seats of
the Paston family whose Letters are famous; and Ket's Oak
near Hethersett, W. of Norwich, where Robert Ket took oath
as leader of the agrarian rebellion of 1549.
See Victoria County History; Norfplk; F. Blomefidd, Essay
towards a Topo^aphical History of . . . Norfolk (London, 1739-
1775 and 1805-1810); W. Rye, History of Norfolk (London, 1885);
P. H. Emerson, Pictures of East Anglian Life (London, 1888), and
other works; Rev. A. Jeaaopp, Arcaay (London, 1887), and other
works; Quarterly Reoiew (London, 1897), where other literature is
cited; G. C. Davies, Norfolk Broads and Rivers (Edinburgh, 1884).
NORFOLK, a city of Madison coimty, Nebraska, U.S.A., on
the north branch of the Elkhom river, a m. from its mouth,
and about 75 m. S.W. of Sioux City. Pop. (1900) 3883 (622
foreign-bom) ; (i 9x0) 603 5. It is served by the Union Pacific, the
Chicago & North Western (of which it is a division headquarters),
and the Chicago, St Paul, Minneapolis & Omaha railways. The
city Is the seat of the Northern Nebraska Insane Asylum.
Cereals, alfalfa and fruit are raised in the surrounding country.
The site was first permanently settled in xS66. Norfolk was
incorporated as a village in x88x and chartered as a city in
x886; it became a dty of the first class in 1909.
JfORFOLK, a city and port of entry of Norfolk county, Virginia,
U.S.A., on the northern side of the Elizabeth river (an arm of
the Chesapeake Bay) and at the mouth of its eastern branch,
and on the Albemarle and Chesapeake and the Dismal Swamp
canals, about 90 «m. S.E. of Ridimond. Pop. (1890) 34*871;
(1900) 46,624, of whom 1705 were foreign-bora and 20,230 were
negroes; (19x0 census) 67,452. It is served by the Atlantic
Coast Line, the Seabostrd Air line, the Southern, the New York,
Philadelphia & Norfolk, the Chesapeake & Ohio, the Norfolk &
Western, the Norfolk & Southern and the Virginian railways,
by many steamship lines, by ferry to Portsmouth (immediately
opposite)^ Newport News, Old Point Comfort and Hampton,
and by electric lines to several neighbouring towns. The Norfolk
and Portsmouth Belt Line encircles the two cities, and connects
the various trunk lines. Among the prominent buildings and
institutions are the Custom House, the Federal Building, Marine
Hospital, St Christopher's Hospital, St Vincent's Hospital,
Norfolk Protestant Hospital, Sara Leigh Hospital, Norfolk
Public Library, Norfolk Academy, Cotton Exchange, City
Market, Bank of Commerce Building, Citizens' Bank Building,
Board of Trade Building, Law Building, Virginia Bank & Trust
Company Building, Norfolk National Bank, Atlantic Hotel,
MonticeUo Hotel, Lynnhaven Hotel, Norfolk Mission College
(Presbyterian) for negroes and the historic St Paul's church,
which was built in 1737 and was struck by a cannon-ball and
partly bumed in x 776; in the yard is one of the oldest cemeteries
in the country. Norfolk is the see of a Protestant Episcopal
bishopric. The city has a public park of iio acres and various
smaller ones, and in the vicinity are several summer resorts,
noubly Virginia Beach, Ocean View, Old Point Comfort, Pine
Beach and Willoughby Beach. The " Norfolk " navy yard is
in the southern part of the city of Portsmouth. The harbour
is deep, easily accessible through a channel 30 ft. in depth,
and well protected by forts Monroe and WooL The city has
immense coal piers. It is the largest peanut market in the
world, is in a great track-gardening region, and makes large
shipments of cotton (822,930 bales in 1905), oysters, coal,
fertilizers, lumber, grain, fruits, wine, vegetables, fish and
live stock. Noriolk is combined with Portsmouth in one
customs district, the foreign trade of which in 1908 amounted
to 1x1,326,8x7 in exports and $1,150,044 in imports. One of
the most important manufacturing industries is grading, roasting,
cleaning and shelling peanuu (in X905 valued at $791,760).
In X900 the value of the factory products was $4,691,779; in
X905 it was $5,900,129, the dty ranking third among the cities
of the state in value of factory products.
Norfolk was founded in 1682 in pursuance of an act of the
Virginia Assembly passed in x68o to establish towns for the
encouragement of trade; it was incorporated as a borough in
1736 by a royal charter, was chartered as a dty in 1845, its
charter being revised in 1882 and 1884, and recdved a new
charter in X906 (amended in 1908), under which there are a
mayor (elected for four years), a common council, a board of
aldermen and a board of control of three members, which has
charge of public works, streets, sewers, drains and water supply,
the police and fire departments, the work of the board of health,
&c. Norfolk is administrativdy independent of Norfolk county.
In X906 the town of Berkley (incorporated in X890; pop. in
1900, 4988) was annexed. During the War of Independence
Norfolk was bombarded on the xst of January 1776 by the
British under John Murray, 4th earl of Dunmore (X732-
1809); much of the town was bumed by the American troops
to prevent Dunmore from establishing himself here. In 1855
it suffered severely from yellow fever. At the outbreak of the
Civil War the dty was abandoned, and the navy yard was
bumed by the Federals in April x86i ; Norfolk was then occupied
until the 9th of May x862 by Virginia troops, first under General
William Booth Taliaferro (X822-X898) and later under General
Benjamin Huger (1806-X877). Five miles from Norfolk and
with Norfolk as its headquarters was hdd from the 26th of
April to the 30th of November 1907 the Jamestown Ter-Cen-
tennial Exposition, cdebrating the first permanent English
settlement in America at Jamestown, Virginia.
NORFOLK ISLAND, an island in the Pacific Ocean, about
800 m. E. of the nearest point of New South Wales, in 29*" S.,
X67* 56' £. It stands on a submarine tableland extending
about 18 m. to the N. and 25 m. to the S., and has itself an area
of 8528 acres or lyi sq. m. The islets of Nepean and Philip
lie near it. Its high diff-bound coast is difficult of access. With
a general devation of 400 ft. above the sea the island rises in
the N.W. to X050 ft. in the double summit of Mount Pitt. The
soil, of decomposed basalt, is wonderfully fertile. The rich
undulating pasture-knd with dumps of trees and copses resembles
a park. Oranges, lemons, grapes, passion frait, figs, pine-apples,
guavas and other f raits grow abundantly; while potatoes,
onions, maize and arrowroot can be cultivated. The Norfolk
Island pine (Araucaria excdsa) is a magnificent tree, with a
height sometimes exceeding 200 ft. and a girth of 30. A small
spedes of palm is known as the Norfolk Island cabbage. Tree-
ferns are abundant. The flora is most closely assodated with
that of New Zealand, and the avifauna indicates the same
connexion rather than one with Australia, as those birds which
belong to Australian genera are apparently immigrants, while
those which occur on the island in common with New Zealand
would be incapable of such distant migration. The climate
is healthy, the thermometer rarely sinking below 65** F. The
island is a station of the British Pacific cable. It was discovered
in 1774 by Captain Cook, and was taken by Philip Riiig of the
" Stirling " and twenty-four convicts from New South Wales.
This settlement was abandoned in 1805, but in 1826 the island
was made a penal settlement from New South Wales. In 1856,
X94 Pitcaim islanders took the place of the convicts. Forty
of them soon returaed to Pitcaim Island, and the remainder
deteriorated owing to intermarriage. The administration of
justice by an dccted magistrate was unsatisfactory. Crime
was rarely punished, and debts were not recoverable. A remedy
was attempted in X896 by an improvement in the government.
The island was brought under the immediate administration
of New South Wales; a chief magistrate, appointed by the
govemor of New South Wales, took the place of the dected
magistrate^ and an elected council of twdve elders superseded
the general gathering of the adult population. In 1867 a Melan-
esian mission station was established at St Barnabas, and in
1882 a church was erected to the memory of Bishop Patteson,
with windows designed by Bume-Jones and executed by William
Morris.
7+8
NORICUM— NORMANBY
MORICUM (Noricus ager)^ in andent geography, a district
bounded on the N. by the Danube, on the W. by Raetia and
Vindelida, on the £. by Pannonia, on the S. by Pannonia and
Italy, corresponding to the greater part of the modem Styria
and CarintMa, and part of Austria, Bavaria and Salzburg.
The original populatibn appears to have consisted of Illyrians,
who after the great emigration of the Gauls became subordiaate
to various Celtic tribes, chief amotagst them being the Tauriad,
probably called Norid by the Romans from thnr capital Noreia
(Neumarkt). The country is mountainous and the soil poor,
but it was rich in iron, and supplied material for the manu-
factories of arms in Pannonia, Moesia and northern Italy.
The famous Noric steel was largely used for the Roman weapons
(" Noricus ensis," Horace, Odes, L i6. 9). The inhabitants
were a brave and warlike people, who paid more attention to
cattle-breeding than tO; agriculture, although it is probable that
the Romans, by draining the maxshes and cutting down timber,
increased the fertility of the soil. Gold and salt were also found
in considerable quantities; the plant called sdiunca (the wild
or Celtic nard) grew in abundance, and was used as a perfume
(t^liny, Nat. Hist, zxi. 20. 43). Noricum was the southern outpost
of the northern or Celtic peoples and the starting-point of thdr
attacks upon Italy. It is in Noricum that we first hear of almost
all these Celtic invaders. Archaeological researches, particularly
in the cemeteries of Hallstatt (7.9.), less than 40 m. from Noreia,
have shown that for centuries before recorded histoiy there
was a vigorous dvilization. The Hallstatt cemeteries contained
weapons and ornaments from the Bronze age, through the period
of transition, up to the fuUy-devdoped Iron age. Professor
Ridge way {Early Age of Greece, i. ch. 5) has made out a strong
case for the theory that in Noricum and the neighbouring
districts was the cradle of the Homeric Achaeans. For a long
time the Noricans enjoyed independence under princes of their
own, and carried on commerce with the Romans. In 48 B.C.
they took the side of Caesar in the civil war against Pompey.
In 16, having joined with the Pannonians in invading Histria,
they were defeated by Publius Silius, proconsul of lUyricum.
From this time Noricum is called a province, although not
organized as such, but remaining a kingdom with the title
regnum Noricum. It was under the control of an imperial-
procurator. It was not until the reign of Marcus Antoninus
that the Legio II. Pia (afterwards called Italica) was stationed
at Noricum, and the commander of the legion became the
governor of the province. Under Diodetian, Noricum was
divided into Noricum ripense (along the Danube) and mediUr-
raneum (the southern mountainous district). Each division was
under a praeses, and both bdonged to the diocese of Illjrria
in the prefecture of Italy. The Roman colonies and chief towns
were Virimum (near Mariasaal), Ovilava (Wcls), Celda (Cilli),
Juvavum (Salzburg), Lauriacum (Lorch, at the mouth of the
Enns, the andent Anisus).
Sec A. Muchar, Das r&miscke Norikum (Grftts. 1 825) ; T. Mommaen,
Corpus inscriplionum Laiinarum, iii. 587; J. Marquardt, Rdmiscke
Staatsverwallung, i. (3nd ed., 1881) p. ajK): Bmtth'a Dia. of Ck. and
Roman Ceog. (187^); Mary B. Peaks. The General Cvril and Military
Administration of Noricum and Raetia (Chicaeo, 1907) ; full references
to ancient authorities in A. Holder, AU^eUiuher Sprachschats, ii.
(1904). a.H.F.)
NORMAN, SIR HENRY WTUE (1826-1904). fidd-marshal
and colonial governor, was bom on the 2nd of December x8a6,
and entered the Indian army at the age of seventeen. In 1840
bis father, who had been for many years a merchant in Cuba,
became a partner in a mercantile house in Calcutta, where he
was joined by his son in 1842. In 1844 the latter obtained a
cadetship. He went through the second Sikh campaign and
having attracted the favourable notice of Sir Colin Campbell
was selected by him to accompany an expedition against the
Kohat Pass Afridis in 1850 as officiating brigade-major. The
subaltem of tweniy-four was given a substantive appointment
in this capadty for a splendid deed of gallantry, which is recorded
by Sir Charles Napier in the foUowltig terms: " In the pass of
Kohat a sepoy picket, descending a predpitous mountain under
fire and the rolling of large stones, had some men killed and
wounded. Four of the latter, dreadfully hurt, crept under
some rocks for shelter. They were not m^sed until tbe picket
reached the bottom, but were then discovered by our passes,
high up and helpless. Fortunatdy the enemy did not set
them, and some sepoys volunteered a rescue, headed by Nonnaa
of the 3X8t Native Infantry and Ensign Murray of the Totk
Native Infantiy. These brave men— would that the names of
all were known to me for record!— ascended the rocks in defiance
of the enemy, and brought the wounded men down." Noraaa
served in numerous frontier expeditions between 1850 and 1854,
and in the suppression of the Sonthal rebellion of X855-5&
In the Mutiny campaign he was constantly engaged, being
present at the siege of Delhi, the relief of Lucknow and a number
of other affairs. As adjutant-general of the Delhi Fidd Force,
he was one of the leading spirits of the siege, and afterwards
became its chief chronicler. Altogether he was mentioDed
twenty-five times in despatches. He afterwards became sfsiVsm
militaiy secretary for Indian affairs at the Horse Guards,
military secretary to the government of India, military member
of the viceroy's council and member of the secretary of state
for India's coundL In 1883 Sir Henry began hb colonial
career as governor of Jamaica, an appointment from which
he was transferred in x888 to the govemonhip ol Queeadand.
Here he remained imtil 1895, when he came home to act as
agent-general for the colony in London. In 1893 be was offered
the viceroyalty of India, but, after first accepting, dedined it.
Is 1897 he was chairman of the royal conmiission of inquiry
into the condition of the West Indies. In April xgor he was
appointed governor of the Royal Hospital, Chelsea, in sooceaiioB
to Sir Donald Stewart. In 1902 he was made a fidd-marshaL
He died on the 26th of October 1904.
See Sir William Lee Warner, Memoirs of Field-marskai Sir Bemrj
Wylie Norman (1908).
NORMAN, a dty and township (coextensive) and the county-
seat of Cleveland county, Oklahoma, U.S.A., about a m. N. of
the Canadian river, and x8 m. S. by E. of Oklahoma Cty.
Pop. (1890) 787; (X900) 2225; (19x0) 3724. It is aerved by
the Atchison, Topeka & Santa F6 railway. It Is the seat of
the university of Oklahoma (chartered, 1892; opened 1894;
coeducational), which indudes a college of arts and sciences,
schools of applied sdence,medidne, pharmacy, mines and fine arts,
and a preparatory school, and in 1908 had 56 instructors and 790
students. The Oklahoma Insane Asylum is in the dty. Cotton-
seed oil, flour and ice are manufactured, and the ndghbooriag
region produces much cotton, Indian com, oats, alfalfa and wheat.
Hogs, cattle and sheep are raised. The first settlement here was
made in 1889, and Norman was chartered as a dty in 1902.
NORMANBY, CXINSTANTINB HENRY PHIPPS, xst Marquxss
OP (i 797-1863), British statesman and author, son of Henry,
xst eari of Mulgrave (1755-1831), was bom on the xsth of May
1797. The xst eari (who was created baron in 1794 aixl earl
in 18x2), was a distinguished soldier, and Pitt's chief military
adviser; and he held the offices of chancellor of the duchy of
Lancaster (1804), secretary for foreign affairs (1805), first lord
of the admiralty (1807-X810), and master of the ordnance
(x8xo-x8x8). In X792 he inherited the eariier Irish barony of
Mulgrave — created in X767 for his father, Constantine (1722-
X775) grandson of Sir ConsUntine Phipps (1656-X723), tbe
lord chancellor of Ireland— from his dder brother Constantine
(X744-X792), a distinguished xiaval captaixL His son, the future
marquess, passed through Harrow and Trinity College, Cam-
bridge, and sat for the family borough of Scarborou^^ as sooa
as he attained his majority. But, speaking in favour of CathoGc
emandpation, and dissenting in other points from the fanalr
politics, be resigned his seat, and went to live in Italy for some
two years. Returning in X822, he was elected for Higiban
Ferrers, and made a considerable reputation by political
pamphlets and by his speeches in the house. He was returned
for Mai ton at the general election of X826, becoming a supporter
of Canning. He was already known as a writer of romantic
talcs, The English in Italy (1825); in the same jrear he made kb
appearance as a opvelist with Matilda, and in 1828 he (voduced
NORMANDY
749
another novel, Yes and No. Succeeding his father as earl of
Fa'tlgrave in 183 1, he was sent out as governor of Jamaica,
and was afterwards appointed lord-lieutenant of Ireland (1835-
1839). He was created marquess of Normanby in 1838, and
held successively tfie offices of colonial secretary and home
secretary in the last years of Lord Melbourne's ministiy. From
1846 to 185 a he was. ambassador at Paris, and from 1854 to
1858 minbter at Florence. The publication in 1857 of a journal
kept in Paris during the storm/ times of 1848 (A Year of Reoolu-
lion), brought him into violent controversy with Louis Blanc, and
he came into conflict with Lord Palmcrston and Mr Gladstone,
after his retirement from the public service, on questions of
French and Italian policy. He died in London on the a8th
of July 1863. He had married in 1818 the daughter of Lord
Ravensworth, and was succeeded as and marquess by his son
George (1819-1890), a liberal politican. who became governor of
Queensland (z87x~x874), New Zealand (z874-z879)| and Victoria
(1879-18S4).
NORMANDY, a province of old France, bounded on the N.E.
by the river Brcsle, which falls into the Channel at Triport and
separates Normandy from Picardy, and then roughly by the
Epte, which divides the Vexin into two parts. From the con-
fluence of the Epte and Seine to Ivry, the boundary between
Normandy and the Ilc-de-7rance is artificial; it is afterwards
practically determined by the course of the Eure and the Sarthe.
But from there to the sea Normandy is separated by no natural
boundary either from Maine or afterwards from Brittany;
it lies fairly regularjy in the direction from E. to W. The
boundary between thfe coast of Normandy and that of Brittany
is formed by the mouth of the Couesnon. Normandy is washed
by the English Channel and lies opposite to England. The
northern part of the coast consists of cliffs, which cease at the
mouth of the Seine, the estuary of which is za km. wide from
Havre to Trouville; the coast of Calvados consists of rocks and
beaches; that of the peninsula of Cotentin is sandy on the
eastern side and granite on the west; in the north it forms
between the point of Barfleur and the cape of La Hague a kind
of concave arc in which lies the harbour of Cherbourg.
Historical CMfrapfty.— In the time of Caesar the country which
has since gone to form Normandy was inhabited by several tribes of
the Gaub, the Caleti, who lived in the district of Caux, the Velio-
cassit in the Vexin, the Lextmii^ in the Lieuvin, the UntUi in Cotentin ;
these are the only ones whose names have been preserved for us by
Caesar. At the beginning of the 5th century, When the Notilta
procirutarum was drawn up, Normandy corresponded to the Pro-
vincia LujMiunensis Seeunda, the chief town of which was Rouen
iCivitas Rolomagensium); it included seven civitaUs with that of
Rouen: those of Baycux (C. Bajocassium), Lisicux (C. Lexotriorum),
Coutances (C ConstatUia), Avranchcs (C. Abrincatum), S6cx (C.
Saeiorum) and Evreux (C. Ebroicorum). For ecclesiastical purposes
it formed the ecclesiastical province of Rouen, with six suffragan
•CCS. For civil purposes, the province was divided into a number
of ^gi: the civitas of Rouen formed the paeus Rotomagensis (Rou-
mots), the p. Caletus (pays de Caux), the p. Vikassinus (Vexin), the
p. Teilaus iTalou); that of Bayeux the pams Bajocassinus (Bessin),
and the OUinga Saxonia; that of Lisieux the pagus Lexarinus
(Lieuvin) : that of CouUnoes the p. CoriUnsis and p, Constantinus
(Cotentin); that of, Avninches the p. Abrincatinus (Avranchin);
that of S^ the p. Oximensis (Hi^mois), the p. Sagensis and p.
Corbonensis (Corbonnais) ; and that of Evreux the p. Ebroicinus
(Evrecin) and p. liadriaeensis (pays dc Madric). It b to the settle-
ment ol the Normans in the country that Normandy owes its name;
from the loth century onwards it formed a duchy, roughly coextensive
with the ecclesiastical province of Rouen. Under the feudal regime,
the enefgy of the Norman dukes prevented the formation of many
powerful lordships, and there are few worthy of note, save the
countships of Eu, Harcourt, Le Pcrche and Mortain.
rhe duchy of Normandy, which was confiscated in tao4 by King
Philip Augustus of France, formed in the i6th century the gouveme-
ment of Normandy; the extent of this gottvemement did not. as a
matter of fact, correspond exactly to that of the duchy, for Le Perche,
which had been part of the duchy, was annexed to the gowernemeni
of Maine, while the Thimeraia, which had belonged to the countship
of Blob, was joined to the gottvernement of Normandy. In the I7tn
century thb geuvemement was divided Into three ginlralitls or
inUndamees'. those of Rouen, Caen and Alen^on. For judicial pur-
Normandy was under the jurisdiction of the parlement of
.,„ n. creatMl m \MI9. Since 1791 the territory of the old duchy
has composed, roughly speaking, the departments of Seine-Inf6rieure,
Eure, Calvados, Manche and Ome.
poses r
Rouen.
History. — ^The prosperity of Normandy in Roman times b
proved by the number and importance of the towns which
existed there at that time. The most important was Lillebonne
{Juliobona)y chief town of the Caletes, the itoman antiquities
of which are famous. The evangelization of Normandy did
not take place before the 3rd century: the first bbhop of Rouen,
about a6o, seenu to have been St Mallonus; it b possible,
however, that before thb date there were a few Christian com-
munities in Normandy, as seems to be proved by the exbtence
of St Nicasius, who was martyred in the Vexin.
The province of Lugdunensis Secunda, which at the end of
the 5th century formed part of the kingdom of Syagrixis, was
conquered by Clovb before 506, and during the Merovingian
limes followed the fortunes of Neustria. In the 9th century
this country was ravaged by the Northmen, who were constantly
going up and down the Seine, and later on it was formally
ceded to them. During these incuzsions Rouen was occupied
several times, notably in 876 and 885.
The definitive establishment of the Normans, to whom the
country owes iu name, took place in 911, wheii by the treaty
of Saint-Clair-sur-Epte, concluded between King Charles the
Simple of France and Rolf or RoUo, chief of the Normai», the
territory comprising the town of Rouen and a few pagi situated
on the sea-coast was ceded to the latter; but the terms of the
treaty are ill-defined, and it b consequently almost impossible to
find out the exact extent of this territory or to know whether
Brittany was at thb time made a feudal dependency of Normandy.
But the chronicler Dudo of Saint-C^uentin's statement that
Rollo married Gisela, daughter of Charles the Simple, must be
considered to be Irgendary. In 934 RoUo received from the
king of France Bessin and Maine. Although baptized, he seems
to have preserved certain pagan customs. The hbtory of
Normandy under Rollo and his immediate successors is very
obscure, for the legendary work of Dudo of Saint-(^entin is
practically our only authority.
RoUo died in 937, and was succeeded by his son William
" Long Sword," bom of hb union more danico with Poppa,
daughter of count B6renger; he showed some attachment to
the Scandinavian language, for he sent his son William to
Bayeux to learn Norse. The first two dukes also dbplayed
a certain fidelity to the CarolJngian dynasty of France, and
in 936 William " Long-Sword " did homage to Loub IV.
d'Outremer. He died on the Z7th of December 94a, assassinated
by the count of Flanders.
During the minority of hb successor, Duke Richard, King
Louis IV., who was making an expedition into Normandy, was
captured by theinhabitanU of Rouen and handed over to Hugh
the Great. From thb time onwards the dukes of Normandy
began to enter into relations with the dukes of France; and in
958 Duke Richard married Hugh the Great's daughter. He
died in 996. ' At the bcgizming of the reign of his son, Richard II.
(996-zoa6), there was a rising of the peasants, who formed
assemblies with a view to establishing fresh laws for the manage-
ment of the forests. Thb attempt at insurrection, described
by William of Jumiiges, and treated by many hbtorians, on
the authority of the poet Wace, as a sort of democratic move-
ment, was put down with a fizin band. Richard III. reigned
from zo26-zoa7; he seems to have been poisoned by hb brother,
Robert the Magnificent, or the Devil (zoa7-zo35), who succeeded
him. In Z03Z Robert supported King Henry I. of France against
his brother Robert, who was laying daim to the throne, and in
return for hb services received the French Vexin. The duke
died on a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, leaving as hb hdr an illegiti-
mate son, William, bom of hb union with the daughter of a
tanner of Falabe.
William was very young when hb father started for the Holy
Land, leaving him under the protection of the king of France.
In t047 Henry I. had to defend the young duke against an army
of rebellious nobles, whom he succeeded in beating. at Val-^
dunes. In the following year the king of France was in hb turn
supported by the duke of Nonnandy in hb straggle against
Geoffrey Martd, count of Anjou; the two allies besieged
750
NORMANDY
MouUherne (1048); and the war was continued between the
duke of Normandy and the count of Anjou 6y the siege of
Alengon, which was taken by Geoffrey Martel, then retaken by
Wiliiam, and that of Domfront, which in Z049 had to surrender
to Duke William.
In 1054 William the Bastard married Matilda, daughter of
Baldwin V., count of Flanders, in spite of the opposition of
Pope Leo IX., who only gave his consent on condition that
William and Matilda should each build an abbey: under these
conditions were built the Abbaye-auz-Hommcs and the Abbaye-
aux-Damcs at Caen. The king of France had at first protected
William, but before long became alarmed at his ambitions;
the first sign of his feeling of rivalry with the duke was the
encouragement he gave to the revolt of William Busas, count
of Eu and Montreuil, who claimed the ducal crown. In 1054
he invaded Normandy with his brother Odo and this count,
but Odo was beaten at Mortemer. In Z058 the king of France,
joined by Geoffrey Martel, count of Anjou, tried to revenge
himself, but was beaten at the ford of Varaville (1058).
Towards the same time took place the annexation of Maine
to Normandy, for a short period only. Herbert II., the young
count of Maine, who was a vassal of the count of Anjou, did
homage to William the Bastard between 1055 and xo6o, perhaps
after the defeat of Geoffrey Martel; he promised to marry one
of William's daughters, and betrothed his sister Margaret to the
duke's son, Robert Curthose, on the understanding that, if he
died leaving no children, the countship was to fall to William.
After his death, the people of Maine revolted (1063), choosing
as their lord Walter of Mantes, cotmt of Vexin; but William
the Bastard, after one campaign, succeeded in imposing the
authority of Normandy. Three years later, William took posses-
sion of England, of which he was crowned king in xo66.
Normandy now became the scene of William's quarrels with
his son, Robert Curthose, who laid claim to Normandy end
Maine, and with the aid of King Philip I. of France succeeded in
defeating his father at Gerberoi in 1079.
William the Conqueror died on the 7th of September X087,
and was buried in the church of St Etienne at Caen. After
his death his eldest son, Robert Curthose, kept Normandy and
Maine, and his second son, William Ruf us, became king of England.
In X091 William Rufus made a vain attempt to recover Nor-
mandy; but in 1096 Robert departed on a crusade and pledged
the duchy to his brother for xo,ooo livres. When Robert
returned, William Rufxis had just died, and his youngest brother,
Henry Beauderc, had already taken possession of the crown.
Henry was ambitious of uniting Normandy to England; in
1 105, with the aid of Hellas, count of Maine, and the son of
Geoffrey Martel, count of Anjou, he took and burnt Bayeux,
but failed to take Falaise. On the aSth of September zxo6, by
the help of William, count of Evreux, .Robert, count of Meulan,
Robert de Varenne, and Helias, count of Maine, he defeated
his brother at Tinchebrai, took him prisoner, and seized Nor-
mandy. Duke Robert passed the rest of his life in captivity
and died in Z134.
From 1x06 to xao4 Normandy remained united to England.
According to Ordericus Viulis, whose Historia tuUsiasUca is
a chronicle of the greatest interest for the history of Normandy
in the xith and X2th centuries, Henry Beauderc governed
the two kingdoms wisely, checking the nobles, and protecting
the Church and the common people. He carried on hostilities
against the king of France and William Clito, son of Robert
Curthose, whose claim to the duchy of Normandy was uphdd
by Louis VI., and won an important victory over his opponents
at Br6mule in Normandy (11x9). After the disaster of the
White Ship (xx2x), in which the Atheling William lost his life,.
Henry's only surviving child was a daughter, Matilda, widow
of the emperor Henry V. In 1x27 Matilda married Geoffrey the
Fair, ddest son of Fulk V., count of Anjou. After the death
of Henry I. in 1x35, a struggle arose between Matilda, who
claimed the kingdom of England and the duchy of Normandy in
the name of her son Henry Plsntagenet, and Theobald, count
of Champagne, grandson of William the Conqueroron the aide
of his mother Adda, the caiididate of the Normans' of Konnudy,
while the Norman party in England supported Stephen, brother
of Theobald. In 1x44 Theobald, whose position bad been
much weakened since the taking of the castle of Rouen, gave up
his rights in Normandy to Matilda's husband Geoffrey, coad
of Anjou, in favour of Henry Plantagenet. Between X139 and
X145 Geoffrey, with French and Flemish help, gradually subdued
Normandy, and on his death, in xx5x, his son Henry Plantageoet
was master of Normandy as well as count of Anjou. In 115},
by his marriage with Eleanor, duchess of Aquitaine»the divorced
wife of Louis VII. of France» Aquitaine also was -secured to
himself and his descendants. Finally, in x 153, he was recognized
by Stephen of Blois as heir to the throne of England. The
duchy of Nomuindy, though nominally in feudal depeiKlence on
the king of France, thus became part of the great Angevia
empire, of which the power and resources were more than equal
to that of the French kings. The perennial struggle, dating
from this period, between the kings of England and France is
dealt with elsewhere (see Fsamce: History, and £.vcush
History).
From the first the French kings were fully conscious of the
menace of the Angevin power. The reign of Louis VII. was
occupied by the struggle against Heniy II. In x 158 he com-
mitted the blunder of conduding a treaty with Henry, by which
he was to give his daughter Margaret in marriage to Heniy
Short Mantle, ddest son of Henry II., with the French Vexin
as her dowry. The Vexin was consequently the scene of
hostilities in 1x59 and 1x65. In XX73 Louis VII., resuming the
policy of his grandfather and father, took advantage of the
strife which broke out in the family of the king of England,
and took the part of Henry II.'s sons who were in revolt against
their father. He negotiated with Henry Short Mantle, duke of
Normandy, as though he were king of England, but owing to
his weakness did not gain any serious advantage. In x 173 he
abandoned the siege of Vemeuil, in X174 that of Rouen, and was
no more successful in 1x76.
Philip Augustus (ix8o-xa33) pursued the same policy «ith
greater tenadty and success. He began by taking part against
Henry II. with his son and successor, Richard Coeur de Lion,
who obtained the throne on the death of Henry IL in 1 189.
From the point of view of Normandy, the most important events
of Richaid's reign were: the truce of Issoudun, by which
Philip Augustus kept the Norman Vexin which he had just
conquered (X195), the building by Richard of Ch&teau-Gaillard
(1x96), and finally the defeat of Philip Augustus by Richard at
Courcelles, near Gisors (X198). On the death of Richard at
Chains in 1x99 the position of Philip Augustus was critical
This situation was modified under the rdgn of John Lackbnd,
Richard's brother, who had himsdf crowned duke of Nomundy
at Rouen (April 25, XX99). Philip Augustus set up in oppositioa
to him Arthur of Brittany, son of Geoffrey and graiidson of
Henry II., and the first phase of the strug^e between the kin^
of France and England continued until the treaty of Goulet
(1200). But in X202 Philip made a fresh attempt to seize the
continental possessions of the kings of En^and. An excuse for
reopening hostilities offered itself in the abduction, by John,
of Isabel of Angoul£me, the betrothed of Hugh le Brun, son of
the count of La Marche. The barons appealed to Philip Augustus,
who summoned John to appear before the royal judges; be
failed to appear, and was consequently condemned by default,
as a disloyal vassal, to have all the fiefs which he held in France
confiscated (April X202). The confiscation, a purdy legal and
formal operation, was followed by the actual conquesL
In June 1202 Philip Augustus invaded Normandy and
besieged the castle of Arques, near Dieppe; at the same tijoe
Arthur of Brittany was taken prisoner by John at Mlxebeau ia
Poitou, and imprisoned in the castle of FaLuse, from whick
he was lemoved to Rouen and died, probably assassinated by
John's orders. The conquest of Normandy b^gan with the
occupation of Ch&teau-Gaillard after an eight months* siegr
(September x 203- April X204); the rest of Normandy was takes
during the following months, Rouen surrendering in 1104 bat
NORMANS
751
obtaining a guarantee of her privileges. The conquest of
Normandy by the French was not, however, recognized officially
till the treaty of Paris (1259).
Normandy enjoyed a time of c«nparative prosperity under
French rule, up to the time of the Hundred Years' War. The
institution of the Estates of Normandy even assured her a sort
of independence. In 1329 the duchy of Normandy was revived
in favour of John, son of Ring Philip VI.
Owing to her geographical position, Normandy siiffered
heavily during the Hundred Years' War. In 1346 Edward III.,
at the instance of Godefroi d'Harcourt lord of Saint-Sauveur,
invaded Normandy, landing at Saint- Vast-la-Hougue (July xa);
and arriving at Caen on the 25th of July, he laid waste the
country as far as Poissy. After the accession of John II. (1350),
Normandy was again separated from the crown and given as
an appanage to the dauphin Charles. The treaty of London
(1359) stipulated for its cession to England, but the provisions
of the treaty were modified by those of the treaty of Br£tigny
(1360), and it remained in the possession of France.
John II. died in 1364, and was succeeded by his son Charles V.
One of the chief feudatories of Normandy, Charies the Bad,
grandson of Louis X. le Hutin, and a claimant to the crown of
France, was in 1365, owing to his continued treachery, deprived
of the countship of Longueville, and in 1378 of all his other
possessions in Upper and Lower Normandy. The most striking
event of the war between the French and English which took
place in Normandy during the reign of Charles V. was the siege
of Saint-Sauveur-le-Vicomte, which was occupied by the En^ish,
and only surrendered after a siege of several years.
The opening years of the reign of Charles VI. (x38o-X4a2)
were disturbed by a revolt which broke out at Rouen against
the aid^ which the royal government had tried to impose
(x38x>^ cloth-merchant was proclaimed king of Rouen, and
Charles was obliged to go in person to Rouen to put down the
insurrection. In 141 5 the war with Etigland was resumed:
an English army of 60,000 men landed on the X4th of August at
the mouth of the Seine, took Harfleur on the x6th of September,
and finally defeated the army of the king of France at Agincourt.
During the following years the whole of Normandy was occupied,
Rouen holding out for nearly six months (July 29, 14x8- January
13, 1 4 19), and Henry V. of England entrusted theadininistration
of Normandy to a special council. In spite of the moderation
of the duke of Bedford's government, Normandy, ruined by the
war, was in a state of great distress, and in thcL years following
the treaty of Troyes (X420) there was a continiial resistance
offered to the English. This resistance became general after the
expeditions of Joan of Arc and the treaty of Arras; at the end of
1435 the whole district of Caux, and in 1436 that of the Val de
Vire revolted; Mont-Saint-Michel, which had never been
taken by the English, continued to resist, and in order to keep
guard over it the English built Granville. But Normandy was
not recovered by the French till after the sack of Fougdres (X449).
Cotentin was reconquered by Richmond (see Aathur, duke of
Brittany) and the duke of Brittany; Rouen surrendered on the
29th of October 1449. In face of these successes of the French,
an English army was sent into Normandy under the leadership
of Thomas Kyriel; it hinded at Cherbourg and marched across
Cotentin to Bayeuz, but was met at Formigny (April X5, 1450)
by the count of Clermont and utterly routed. Shortly after-
wards Caen, and finally Cherbourg, capitulated.
After the French conquest, the history of. Normandy is less
eventful.. In 1465 Normandy was given as an appanage to^
Charles, brother of King Louis XI., who was deprived of it i
X467. The kings of France tried to win the support of Nort^
mandy by certain favours, such as maintaining the provincial
Estates and the University of Caen, founded by the kings of
England, and transforming the Exchequer of Normandy into
a permanent court of justice (1499) which was called the Parle-
inent of Normandy and sat at Rouen in the famous Palais de
Justice. Among the measures which contributed to the increase
of the prosperity of Normandy should be noted the construction
in X 7 52 of the H&vre de Grace.
During the i6th century the Protestant Reformation met
with some success in Normandy, where the Wars of Religion
caused a certain amount of disturbance. The Reforming
movement began with Pierre Bar in X528, and the first apostle
of the Reformation at Rouen was Francois Legay, called Bois-
normand. In X562 the town of Rouen was taken by the
Calvinists, but retaken in the same year by the Catholics.
Caen received the Reformed religion in X531, and Alenpon in
X582. In the massacre of Saint Bartholomew's day (1572)
more than 500 victims were slaughtered by the Catholics.
In spite of the success of Protestant ideas, however, the
Catholic party of the League succeeded after x 588 in establishing
itself in Normandy, and King Henry IV. had to conquer it by
force of arms. The most famous engagements during this
expedition were the victories of Henry IV. at Arque^ and Ivry,
but he failed to take Rouen, which was defended by Alexander
Famese, duke of Parma, and only surrendered after the abjura-
tion of the king.
The history of Normandy in the X7th and i8th centuries
contains few events of note, except for a few attempts at landing
made by the English during the Seven Years' War (17S6-X763);
in 1758 the English admiral Anson attacked Cherbourg, and in
X7S9 Admiral Rodney bombarded Havre. From X790 dates
the creation of the departments, when Normandy ceased to
have a separate political existence, and her history becomes
one with that of France.
See G. Dcpping, Histoire de la Normandie (2 vols., 1835); Fr.
Palgravc, The History of Normandy and of Enaand (a vols., 1851-
1857); E. A. Freeman, The History of the Norman Conquest of
England (3rd cd., •; vols., Oxford, 1877); Joh. Stcenntnip, Les
Normands (1880); Ilouis du Bois, Jliniratre descriptif, htstorique
et monumental des cinq dipartements composant la Normandie <t828);r^ >.
'^-:
Uk>pold Dclisle, Etude sur la condition des classes atricoles en N<^
mandie (reprinted 1906). La, Normandie iUustrie (2 vols., 1 852-1 8^5]||~ '
A. Duchesne, Historiae Normanorum scri^ores antiqui (1619); £.^« >
Tardif, Les Coutumiers de Normandie (1881-1896); Edouard Frcij^
Manud de bibtiographie normande (18^8-1860): Artur du Mon5tief)>
Neustria pia (1663); N. OurscI, Nouvdle Biographie normanjk %
(3 vols.. 1886-1888). Publications of the learned societies of tJle ^
province analysed in the BiUiographie of Robert de Lasteyric. ^ ' *^ ■
(R.LA.f. i
NORMANS, the softened form of the word^Jforthma^^' t'
applied first to the people of Scandinavia in •^ • -
wards specially 10 the people of Norway,
man " {Norihmannu^^ ^ormannust Nortm
of tho^ colDnists ttQtn ScandiQAvia "whi
Gaul, who fotindcd Ncrmandy, who ad^
and French manners, and who from
new errands of conqucstj chiefly
southern Jlsily and Sicily. From
tions of the Normans may
expeditions of the Northmed.
same, so the people a\ '
led by ibe old spirit of
general hi story _Noi
distinguished,
change, if not
position. Thi
but they }m%
system gdby
mattQtt,
efforitlof
V6att~ ^
like
the «t&cfi>ir . ^ .
|t'wav*el;^ i^ sUently. To aU outward appearance the
llbi^an *«q"«t of England was an event of an altogether
different '^^'^'c' from the Danish conquest. The one was a
conqueslfjy * people whose tongue and institutions were still
palpably**" to those of the English. The other was a conquest
by a pe<f * whose tongue and institutions were palpably different
from tli^ of the English. The Norman settlers in England felt
no «<yA»unity with the earlier Danish settlers in En^nd. In
pre ^m ^
view of
r '^V^
L^onUp
cjtpflif .
n[sons of ihc
io]ogicall>^hf
they qri
But in tht ^
be carefully
thesignofathorouEh
yrt in thtjr hisTorird
F remains largely the same;
jod, a new liingiiagc, a new
thoughts and fcpJings on all
n still is to the Northman, the
ansareuttcrly different from the
Northmen. There can be no doubt
of the Norman power in England was,
>f the Danish power, greatly helped by
! of Normans, Danc5 and liEglieh. But
752
NORMANS
fact the Normans met with the steadiest resbtance in a part of
England which was largely Danish. But the effect of real,
though unacknowledged, kindred had none the less an important
practical effect. There can be no doubt that this hidden working
of kindred between, conquerors and conquered in England, as
compared with the utter lack of all fellowship between conquerors
and conquered in Sicily, was one cause out of several which made
so wide a difference between the Norman conquest of England
and the Norman conquest of Sicily.
These two conquests, wrought in the great island of the Ocean
and in the great island of the Mediterranean, were the main
works of the Normans after they had fully put on the
character of a Christian and French-speaking people,
in other words, after they had changed from Northmen
into Normans. The English and the Sicilian settle-
ments form the main Norman history of the xxth century. The
loth century is the time of the settlement of the Northmen in
Gaul, and of the change in religion and language of which the
softening of the name is the outward sign. By the end of it, any
traces of heathen faith, and even of Scandinavian speech, must
have been mere survivals. The new creed, the new speech, the
new sodal system, had taken such deep root that the descendants
of the Scandinavian settlers were better fitted to be the armed
missionaries of all these things than the neighbours from whom
they had borrowed their new possessions. With the zeal of new
converts they set forth on their new errand very much in the
spirit of their heathen forefathers. If Britain and Sicily were the
greatest fields of their enterprise, they were very far from being
the only fields. The same spirit of enterprise which brought the
Northmen into Gaul seems to carry the Normans out of Gaul
to rvcry corner of the worlds Thdr character Is well painted
contemporary histomn of their Mploita.' He scla the
;in3 before us els a mcc special ly markircl by cunriin^» dcspls-
their own inhcritanct in ihe hope of winning a greater, eager
tr both gam and doniinion, given to imitaUon of all kmJs,
Iding n certain mean bct^'een lavi$hne:&& and grecdine^^that
perhaps uniting, as they certainly did, ihc^ two accminKly
te qualities. Their chief nien, he adds, were specially
thrtiuKh their desire of good report. They were, moreover,
akitful in flattery, given to the study of eloquence, 50 that
very bo™ weri? orators^ a race altogether unbridled unless
hrmlj^^a^n by the yoke of justice. They were enduring
^n[l,^pijf|{i^|^d cold whenever fortune laid it on them, p^en
k\n^, delighting in the pleasure of horses,
I garb of war^ Several of these features
Norman history. The cunning of the
is their impatience of restraint,
master. T-ovc of imitation is also
ntion can be traced to any strictly
: ever more eager to adopt
service and fricndshtp from
^^^—^^^^^— li'l^ s^^l eminence of every
:ind^ To this Q^^^^^I^^B^^Al attributed the fact that
"^ d conquered in 10 large
the Tace of the
an>T\htre, it is
^uicient duthy
"^es. Else-
man soun
other na
I from t
"nt% from
^Tf to
a people who did
a part of Europe, has pi
earth. If Normans^ as
ccrtninly only in that ii
which still cleaves to the
where, as ihe set tiers in Gaul be
Gaul became EnRlish, Irish, Scot!S
call the pre^nt inhabitants of Skily
I Geoffftry Mabt*:rra, i. p " Est qyi
juriarum uitrix, sne alias nfus luerartdi. pal
qu^-entus ct dominationis avida, cujiJihbci
Uruitatcm ct avariiiam qnoddam medium [>* __ ,
deliM'i-iitione borvae famae largissims. Ren* sidulai\%.^
in stud sis inser^i^n* In unlum^ ut ctiam ip^m pij<f» |ir3>^iHitoig
est; laboris, inediac, algoris. ubi fortuna expedit. p«t»e,^ vcnatK)ni
accipitrum exercitio inacrvicns. Equorum, caeteronin,u^ militiae
instrumentorum. ct vestium luxuria dclecUtur. tx ai,inc iuque
suo terrae nomen indiderunt. North quippe Angiica lu^^ aquflo-
naris plaga dicitur. Et quia tpsi ab aquilone venerant ^p^m ip^„
etiam Normanniam appellarunt.
where they gradually lost themselves among the people wbom
they conquered; they adopted the language and the national
feelings of the lands in which they settled; but at the same time
they often modified, often strengthened the national usages
and national life of the varidtis nations in which they were finally
merged.
But Geoffrey hardly did justice to the Normans if he meant to
imply that they were simple imitators of others. Tbeir position
was very like that of the Saracens. Hasty writers who jj. ^^
forget the existence of the eastern Rome are apt to g^emHrtt
claim for the Saracens of Bagdad, or more commonly «tfM<»
for those of Cordova, a monopoly of science and art ^***'
at some time not very dearly defined by dates. In so doing
they slur over the real position and the real merit of the Saracens
with regard to science and art. In neither department did any
Saracen, strictly speaking, invent anything; but they learned
much both from Constantinople and from Persia, and what they
learned they largely developed and improved. The Normans
did just the same. They adopted the French tongue, and were
presently among the first to practise and spread abroad its
literature. They adopted t he growing feudal doctrines of France,
and worked them, both in Normandy and in England, into a
harmonious system. From northern Italy, as it would seem, they
adopted a style of architecture which grew in their hands, both
in Normandy and in England, into a marked and living form ci
art. Settled in Gaul, the Scandinavian from a seafaring man
became a landsman. Even in land-warfare he cast aside the
weapons of his forefathers; but he soon learned to handle the
weapons of his new land with greater prowess than they had
ever been handled before. He welcomed the lore of every
stranger. Lanfranc brought law and discipline; Ansclm brought
theology and philosophy. The gifts of each were adopted and
bore fruit on both sides of the Channel. And no iifWili ever
better knew how to be all things to all men. The Normaff'^wer
in England was founded on full and speedy union with the one
nation among whom they found themselves. The Norman power ^
in Sicily was founded on a strong distinction between the ruling '
people and the many nations which they kept in peace aznl
prosperity by not throwing in their lot with any one among them.
The quality which Geoffrey Malaterra expresses by the word
" effrenatissima " is also clearly marked in Norman history.
It is, in fact, the groundwork of the historic Norman character.
It takes in one case the form of ceaseless enterprise, in another
the form of that lawlessness which ever broke out, both in
Normandy and in every other country settled by Normans,
when the hand of a strong ruler was wanting. But it was balanced
by another quality which Geoffrey does not speak of, one which
is not really inconsistent with the other, one which is very promi-
nent in the Norman character, and which is, no less than the
other, a direct heritage from their Scandinavian forefathers.
This is the excessive litigiousness, the fondness for law, legal
forms, legal processes, which has ever been characteristic ol
the people. If the Norman was a bom soldier, he was also a
bom lawyer. Ranulf Flambard, working together the detached
feudal usages of earlier times into a compact and logical system
of feudal law, was as characteristic a type of the people as any
warrior in the Conqueror's following. He was the organizer
of an endless ofllicial army, of an elaborate technical system
of administration, which had nothing like it in England before,
but which grew up to perfection under Norman ralers.* Bat
nothing so well illustrates this formal side of the Norman char-
acter as the whole position of William the Conqueror bimsdf.
^is claim to the crown of England is something without earitrr
^cedent, something as far as possible removed from the open
^ ^olence of aggressors who have no pretexts with which to dis-
^^'guise their aggression. It rested on a mass of legal assumptions
and subtleties, fallacious indeed, but ingem'ous, and, as the
result proved, effective. His whole system of government, his
*This ^ew of Ranulf FUmbard's work, which on Freemaa's
authority^ superseded the older view, which attributed the feudal
organization of England to the Conqueror himself, was subjected to a
destructive criticism by Mr J. H. Round in hu Femdal EMffi »l, (Ed.)
NORMANS
753
; did, was a logical deduction
legal principles, arbitrary certainly in their
conc^BlS^iJt^' strictly carried out to their results. Even
l^ssness in some sort took a legal shape. In the
archy, in the minority of William or under the
kobert, the robber-baron could commonly give
_ ons for every act of wrong that he did.
ftps less wonderful that this characteristic should
out in a picture of the Normans in Apulia and
[ it had been left out in a picture of the Normans
^ and England. The circumstances of their Apulian
r conquests certainly did not tend to bring out this
Iheir character so strongly as it was brought out by
Iianccs of their English conquest. Possibly the same
] have kept the chronicler from enlarging on their
aracter; yet in Sicily at least they might pass for
[ Crusaders in fact they were before crusades were
Morman warriors had long before helped the Christians
I their warfare with the Saracens of the Peninsula,
' it was from the same enemy that they won the
lerranean island. Others had done a kindred work
jstant field as helpers of the Eastern emperors against
I Asia. All these might pass for religious wars, and
[ really be so; it needed greater ingenuity to set
1 of England as a missionary enterprise designed
lual good of the benighted islanders. The Norman,
^trict observer of forms in all matters, attended to
forms of religion with special care. No people
e more bountiful to ecclesiastical bodies on both
I of the Channel; the foundation of a Benedictine
the nth century, of a Cistercian monastery in
ned almost a matter of course on the part of a
The Conqueror beyond doubt sincerely aimed
jious reformer both in his duchy and in his kingdom,
heedless to say that his immediate successor was
lally ungodly, whether among Normans or among other
: among their countrymen generally strict attendance
I observances, a wide bounty to religious foundations,
t down as national characteristics. On the other hand,
; less inclined to submit to encroachments on the part
^lesiastical power, the Conqueror himself least of all.
( see in the Scandinavian settlers in Gaul, after they
Ion the outward garb of their adopted country, a people
restless and enterprising above all others, adopting
and spreading abroad all that they could make their
own in their new land and everywhere else — ^a people
in many ways highly gifted, greatly affecting and
modifying at the time every land in which they settled,
but, wherever they settled, gradually losing themselves
[the people of the land, libe Norman, as a visible
in the country, has vanished from England, and
I vanished from Sidly. The circumstances of his settle-
i his two great fields of conquest were widely different;
lition when he was fully established in his two insular
[was widely different; but the end has been the same
t cases. Neither island has for ages been in any sense a
In land, and the tongue which the Norman brought with
]to both has not for ages been spoken in either. Norman
;e has been far stronger in England than in Sicily, and
l>( Norman presence are far more easily recognized. But
the Norman, as a distinct people, is as little to be seen in the
one island as in the other. His disappearance in both cases
is an illustration of one of the features which we have spoken
of in the Norman character, the tendency which in fact made
Normans out of Northmen, the tendency to adopt the language
and manners of the people among whom they found themselves.
But, as far as outward circumstances are concerned, we may
say that the same effect has been brought about by different
and almost opposite causes. The whole circumstances of the
conquest of England constrained the conquerors to become
englishmen in order to establish themselves in the conquered
land. Vh William's theory, the forcible conquest of England
by strangers was an untoward accident. The lawful heir of
the English crown was driven against his will to win his rights
by force from outside. But he none the less held his crown
as an English king succeeding according to English law. More-
over, every Norman to whom he granted lands and offices held
them by English law in a much truer sense than the king held
his; he was deemed to step into the exact position of his
English predecessor, whatever that might be. This legal theory
worked together with other causes to wipe out all practical
distinction between the conquerors and the conquered in a
wonderfully short time. By the end of the X2th century the
Normans in England might fairly pass as Englishmen, and they
had largely adopted the use of the English language. The
fashionable use of French for nearly two centuries longer was
far more a French fashion than a Norman tradition. When
the tradition of speaking French had all but died out, the practice
was revived by fashion. Still the tradition had its effect. The
fashion could hardly have taken root except in a land where the
tradition had gone before it.
The Normans in England therefore became Englishmen,
because there was an English nation into which they could be
absorbed. The Normans in Sicily could hardly be said to become
Sicilians, for there assuredly was no Sicilian nation for then
to be absorbed into. While the Normans in England were lost
among the people of the land, the Normans in Sicily were lost
among their fellow-settlers in the land. The Normans who
came into Sicily must have been much less purely Norman
than the Normans who came into England. The army of Duke
William was undoubtedly very far from being wholly made up
of Normans, but it was a Norman army; the element which
was not Norman, though considerable, was exceptional. But
we may doubt whether the Norman invaders of Sicily were
Norman in much more tlian being commanded by Norman
leaders. They were almost as little entitled to be called pure
Scandinavians as the Saracens whom they found in the island
were entitled to be called pure Arabs. The conquest of England
was made directly from Normandy, by the reigning duke, in
a comparatively short time, while the conquest of Sicily grew out
of the earlier and far more gradual conquest of Apulia and
Calabria by private men. The Norman settlements at Aversa and
Capua were the work of adventurers, making their own fortunes
and gathering round them followers from all quarters. They
fought simply for their own hands, and took what they could
by the right of the stronger. They started with no such claim
as Duke William put forth to justify his invasion of England;
their only show of legal right was the papal grant of conquests
that were already made. The conquest of Apulia, won bit by
bit in many years of what we can only call freebooting, was
not a national Normaa enterprise like the conquest of England,
and the settlement to which it led could not be a national
Norman settlement in the same sense. The Sicih'an enterprise
had in some respects another character. By the time it began
the freebooters had grown into princes. Sicily was won by a
duke of Apulia and a cotmt of Sicily.' Still there was a wide
difference between the duke of the Normans and the duke of
Apulia, between an hereditary prince of a hundred and fifty
years' standing and an adventurer who had carved out his
duchy for himself. And, besides this, warfare in Sicily brought
in higher motives and objects. Though crusades had not yet
been preached, the strife with the Mussulman at once brought
in the crusading element; to the Christian people of the island
they were in many cases real deliverers; still, the actual process
by which Sicfly was won was not so very different from that by
which Apulia had been won. Duke William was undisputed
master of England at the end of five years; it took Count Roger
thirty years to make himself undisputed master of Sicily. The
one claimed an existing kingdom, and obtained full possession
of it in a comparatively short time; the other formed for
himself a dominion bit by bit, which rose to the rank of a kingdom
' Roger de Hauteville, the conqueror of Sicily, was a brother of
the first four dukes or counts of Apulia, and was invested with the
countship of Sicily by the pope before starting on his adventure.
la
75+
NORMANS
in the next generation. Wlien Count Roger at last found himself
lord of the whole island, he found himself lord of men of various
creeds and tongues, of whom his own Norman followers were
but one class out of severaL And the circumstances of his
conquest were such that the true Normans among his following
could not possibly lose themselves among the existing inhabitants
of the island, while everything tended to make them lose
themselves among their fellow-adventurers of other races,
among whom, by the time the conquest was ended, they could
hardly have been even a dominant element.
As far then as concerned the lands in which the settlements
were made, the difference lay in this, that, as has been already said,
while there was an English nation, there was no Sicilian nation.
The characteristic point of Norman rule in Sicily is that it is
the rule of princes who were foreign to all the inhabitants of
the island, but who were not more foreign to the inhabitants of
the island than different classes of them were to one another.
The Norman conqueror found in Sicily a Christian and Greek-
speaking people and a Mussulman and Arabic-speaking people.
The reUtions between the two differed widely in different parU
of the island, according to the way in which the Saracens had
become poss»sed of different towns and districts. In one place
the Christians were in utter bondage, in another they were simply
tributary; still, everywhere the Mussulman Saracen formed the
ruling class, the Christian Greek formed the subject class. We
speak of the Saracen very much as we speak of the Norman;
for of the Mussulman masters of Sicily very many must have
been only artificial Arabs, Africans who had adopted the creed,
language and manners of Arabia. In each case the Arab or the
Norman was the kernel, the centre round which all other elements
gathered and which gave its character to the whole. Besides
these two main races, Greek and Saracen, others came in through
the Norman invasion- itself. There were the conquerors them-
selves; there were the Italians, in Sicily known as Lombards,
who followed in their wake; there were also the Jews, whom
they may have found in the island, or who may have followed
the Norman into Sicily, as they certainly followed him into
England. The special character of Norman rule in Sicily was
that all these various races flourished, each in its own fashion,
each keeping its own creed, tongue and manners, under the
protection of a common sovereign, who belonged to none of them,
but who did impartial justice to all. Such a state of things
might seem degradation to the Mussulman, but it was deliverance
to the native Christian, while to settlers of every kind from outside
it was an opening such as they could hardly find elsewhere.
But the growth of a united Sicilian nation was impossible;
the usual style to express the inhabitants of the island is" omnes "
or " universi Sidliae populi." In the end something like a
Sicilian nation did arise; but it arose rather by the dying out
of several of the elements in the country, the Norman element
among them, than by any such fusion as took place in England.
That is, as has been already said, the Norman as such has
vanished in two different ways. In England the Norman
duke came in as a foreign intruder, without a native supporter
to establish his rule over a single nation in its own land. He
could not profess to be, as the count of Sicily could honestly
profess to be, a deliverer to a large part of the people of the land.
But, coming in by a title which professed to be founded on English
law, establbhing his followers by grants which professed no less
to be founded on English law, he pUnted a dynasty, and esUb-
lished a dominant order, which could not fail to become English.
The Normans in England did not die out; they were merged
in the existing nation. The Normans in SicOy, so far as they
did not die out, were merged, not in a Sicilian nation, for that
did not exist, but in the common mass of settlers of Latin speech
and rite, as distinguished from the older inhabitants, Greek
and Saracen. The Norman conquest of England was at the
moment a curse; the Norman conquest of Sicily was at the
moment a blessing. But the gradual and indirect results of
the Norman conquest of England are easily to be seen to this
day, and they have been largely, though indirectly, results for
good. Its chief result has been, not so much to create anything
new as at once to modify andTtS ItiMJ^i
up older institutions to a new life under
whatever it has done it has done silently; there I
any time any violent change of one set of instiluti
In Sicily and southern Italy there 's hardly any
influence, except the great historic fact which «
creation of Sicily and southern Italy in their
The coming of the Norman ruled that these land
neither Saracen nor Creek, nor yet Italian in the |
as northern Italy, but that they should political!:
the same group of states as the kingdoms and prii
feudal Europe. William assuredly did not create t1
of England; Roger assuredly did create the kingdoi
And yet, notwithstanding all this, and partly
this, real and distinct Norman influence has beeni
extensive and far more abiding in England than it
Sicily.
In Sicily then the circumstances of the conqi
Norman settlers to remain far more distinct from the
of the land than they did in England, and in the
themselves, not in those older races of the land,
settlers of other races who accompanied and foUo'
So far as there ever was a Sicilian nation at all, it mii_
to be called into being by the emperor-king Frederii
his day a Latin element finally triumphed; but it
Norman or French-speaking element of any kind,
of the Lombards at last got the better of Greek,
French; how far its ascendancy can have been
survival of an earlier Latin speech which had lived oi
of Greek and Arabic this is not the place to inquire.
The use of language and nomenclature during the tii..
rule in the two countries forms a remarkable contrast, ai
the circumstances of the two as they have just
sketched. The chroniclers of the conquest of Apulia
and Sicily use the Norman name in every pase as the nai
of the followers of the conquerors from Hauteville.
was the natural name for a body of men who must, _^
the time the conquest of Sicily was over, have been
very mixed, but whose kernel was Norman, whose si
feelings and traditions all came from a Nonnan source,
turn to Hugo Falcandus, the historian of Sicily in the li-
the Norman name is hardly found, unless when it b used
to point out (as in Muratori vii. 260) that the royal bouse
was of Norman descent. Of the various " Sictliae populi." '
Greeks, Saracens, Lombards, sometimes of Franci, for by
there were many French-speaking settlers in Sicily who
Norman descent. There is a distinction b e t w ee n Cht
Saracens : among Christians there seems to be again a
between Greeks and Latins, though perhaps without any
use of the Latin name; there is again a further distioctioD
" Lomfaardi '* and " Frand '*; but Normans, as a scoarat
do not appear. In England there b no room for sucn su
The narratives of the conquest of England use both the Nohl
the French names to express the followers of William. In the
chronicles " French " is the only name used. It appears abo
Baycux Tapestry, and it b the only word used when an]
d»tinctk>n had to be drawn between classes of men in the '
kingdom. " Franct " and " Angli " are often opposed in F
andother documents, and the formula went on m charters
all real dbtinction had passed away. That b to say. tl
several purposes for whicn it was convenient todUtingutsh * _
and " French " — the last name taking in all the wOamen
Conqueror; there were no purposes for which there was any l
dbtinguish Normans as such, either from the general mass
people or from others who spoke the French tongue. We (
also that, though several languages were in use in England
the time of Nonnan rule, yet England was not a land of
languaees in the same sense in which Sicily was. In the 12th gl .^ ,
three bnguages were certainly spoken in London; yet London
could not call itself the " city of threefoM speech," as Palenno did.
1
English, French, Latin, were all in use in England: but the (
tion was rather that they were used for three different porposes
than that they were used by three distinct races or even classes.
No doubt there was a class that knew only Ei^lidi: there saay have
been a much smaller class that knew oiuy French; any man who
Bretended to high cultivation would speak all as a matter of ooory ;
ishop Gilbert Foliot, for insunce, was efequent in all three. But in
Sicily we see the quite different phenomenon of three, four, fivedaascs
of men living side by side, each Keeping its own lutionality and apeak-
ing its own tongue. If a man of one people knew the speech oil as?
of the others, he knew it strictly as a foreign language. Before the
Norman Conquest England had two ofBciat tongues: dnnimfntt
NORMANS
755
vere dnwn up soraetimcs in English, soraetinies in Latin, now and
then in both. And the same usage went on after the Conquest;
the use of English becomes gradually rarer, and dies out under the
first Angevins. but it b in favour of Latin that it dies out. French,
the language which the Normans broueht with them, did not become
an official language in England till after strictly Norman rule had
passed away. French documents are unknown till the days of French
fashion had come in, that w, till deep in the 13th century. So it was
in Sicily also; of all the tongues of Sicily French was the most
needful in the lung's court (" Francorum lingua quae maxime
necessaria esset in curia," says Hugo Falcandus, 321); but it was
not an official tongue. The three tongues of Palermo are Greek,
Arabic and Latin. King Roger's clock u commemorated in all
three. Documents were drawn up in such and so many of these
tongues as was convenient for the parties concerned; not a few
private documents add a fourth tongue, and arc drawn up in Greek.
Arabic. Latin and Hebrew. In neither case is the actual speech of
the conquerors one of the tongues in formal use. French, as a separate
tongue from Latin, already existed as a literary speech, and no
people had done more than the Normans to sprcaO it as a literary
raccch, in both prose and verse. But neither in England nor in Sicily
did official formalism acknowledge even French, much less Italian,
as a fit tongue for solemn documents. In England, English, French,
Latin, were the three tongues of a single nation; tScy were its
vulgar, its courtly and its learned speeches, of which three the courtly
was fast giving way to the vulgar. In Sicily, Greek, Arabic, Latin
and its children were the tongues of distinct nations; French might
be the politest speech, but neither Greek nor Arabic could be set
down as a vulgar tongue, Arabic even less than Greek.
The different positions then which the conquering Nomian
took in his two great conquests of England and of Sicily amply
illustrate the way in which he could adapt himself
to any circumstances in which he found himself,
the way in which he could adopt whatever suited
his purpose in the institutions of any other people,
the way in which he commonly lost his national being in that
of some other people. From England, moreover, he spread into
Scotland, Wales and Ireland, and in each land his settlement
put on a somewhat different character, according to the circum-
stances of the land. In Scotland he was not a conqueror, but
a mere visitor, and oddly enough he came as a visitor along
with those whom he had himself overcome in England. Both
Normans and English came to Scotland in crowds in the days
of Margaret. Edgar and David, and Scottish national feeling
sometimes rose up against them. In Scotland again the Norman
settlers were lost in the mixed nationality of the country, but
not till they had modified many things in the same way in which
they modified things in England. They gave Scotland nobles
and even kings; Bruce and Bolliol were both of the truest
Norman descent; the true Norman descent of Comyn might
be doubted, but he was of the stock of the Froncigenae of the
Conquest. In Wales the Norman came as a conqueror,
more strictly a conqueror than in England; he could
not claim Welsh crowns or Welsh estates under any fiction of
Welsh law. The Norman settler in Wales, therefore, did not to any
perceptible extent become a Welshman; the existing relations
of England and Wales were such that he in the end became
an Englishman, but he seems not unnaturally to have been
somewhat slower in so doing in Wales than he was in England.
At least Giraldus Cambrensis, the Norman Welshman or Welsh
Norman, was certainly more alive to the distinction between
Normans and English than any other of his contemporaries. In
Ireland Xht Norman was more purely a conqueror
than anywhere else; but in Ireland his power of
adaptation caused him to sink in a way in which he sank nowhere
else. While some of the Norman settlers in Ireland went to swell
the mass of the English 6f the Pale, others threw in their lot
with the native Irish, and became, in the well-known saying,
HibcmU ipsis Hiberniora (see e.g. the article Burgh).
There is yet one point in which we may profitably go back to our
comparison between England and Sicily. Both countries are rich
in works of architecture raised during the time of Norman
"J*f rule. And the buildings of both lands throw an instructive
"r*^ light on the Norman rutiorul character, as we have
J/j^ described it. Few buitdincs. at least few buildings raised
^fj* in any reasonable style of architecture which makes use
of the arched construction, can be less like one another
than the buildings of the Norman kinf^ in England and
the buildings of the Norman kings in Sicily. In Sicily the Normans
found the two most outwardly civilized of the natrons of Europe,
the two which had as yet carried the arts to the highest pitch. The
Greek had created the column; the Roman had developed it; the
Roman Greek or Greek Roman had taught the column to bear the
cupola; the Saracen had taught it to bear arches of his own favourite
pointed shape. Out of these elements the Saracens of Sicily had
formed a noble and beautiful style, grand and simple in its con-
struction, rich and graceful in its characteristic detail. With the
Saracen and the Greek as his subjects, the Norman had really no
need to innovate; he had simply to bid the men of the land to go on
working for him instead of for any other. The palaces and churches
of the Norman kinnat Palermo and Monreale and Cefalu and Messina
are in style simply Saracenic; they were most likely the work ol
Saracen builders; they were beyond doubt built alter Saracenic
models. I n these buildings, as in those of Aguitaine, the pointed arch
is the surest sign of Saracenic influence; it must never be looked
on as markins the approach of the Gothic of the North. With that
form of art the pointed style of Sicily has nothing in common. A
Sicilian church has nothing in common with a French or an English
church; it n sometimes purely Oriental, sometimes a basilica with
pointed arches. But, if the ^racen gave the lines of the building,
the Greek gave the mosaic decorations of its walls. In such a case
the ruling people, rather the ruling dynasty, had really nothing to
add to what they found ready for them. Tney had simply to make
Saracen and Greek work in partnership. In £ngland, on the other
hand, the Normans did really bring in a new style of their own, their
own form of Romanesque, differing widely indeed from the Saracenic
style of Sicily. This Norman form of Romanesque most likely had
its origin in the Lombard buildings of northern Italy. But it took
firm root on Norman soil; it made its way to England at an early
stage of its growth, and from that time it went on developins and
improving on both sides of the Channel till the artistic revolution
came by which, throughout northern Europe, the Romanesque styles
gave way to the Gothic. Thus the history of architecture in England
during the nth and 12th centuries is a very different story from
the history of the art in Sicily during the same time. There were no
Greeks or Saracens in England; there was no Greek or Saracen
skill. England indeed had, possibly in a somewhat ruder form, the
earlier style of Romanesoue once common to England with Italy,
Gaul and Germany. To this style it is no wonder that the Normans
preferred their own, and that style therefore supplanted the older
one. A comparison of Norman buildings in England and in Nor-
mandy will show that the Norman style in ICnglandreally was affected
by the earlier style of England; but the modification was very slight,
and it in no way affected the general character of the style. Thus,
while the institutions of England in the 12th century were English
with very considerable Norman modifications, the architecture of
England in that century was Norman with a very slight English
modification. The difference then b plain. Where, as in Sicily,
the Normans felt that they could not iniprove. they simply adopted
the style of the country, where, as in England, they felt that they
could improve, they substituted for the style of the country their
own style — that is, a style which they had not created but which
they had adopted, which they had made thoroughly their own, and
which they went on improving in England no lew than in Normandy.
That is, the discerning Nomun, as ever, adapted himself, but
adapted himself in an intellieent way, to the circumstances of each
land in which he found himself. And this comes out the more clearly
if we compare Norman work in England and in Sicily with Norman
work in at krast some parts of Apulia. At Bari. Trani and Bitonto
we see a style in which Italian and strictly Norman elements are
really mingled. The great churches of those cities are wholly unlike
those of Sicily; but. while some features show us that we are in
Italy, while some features even savour of the Saracen, others dis*
tinctly carry us away to Caen and Peterborough. It w plain that the
Norman settlen in Apulia were not so deeply impressed with the
local style as they were in Sicily, while they ttioueht much more of
it than they thought of the local style of England. In each of the
three cases there is adaptation, but the amount of adaptation differs
\n cjfii c^?e accordlni^ to local circumstances. In Normandy itself.
I ! rrr I he »rp;imion from England, architecture becomes French, but
LE b Fruncti d a remarkably good type. The buildings of the latest
l-ftrvch »tyle keep n ftrtain purity and sobriety in Normandy which
ificy do n-nf Vcrp cl-y^irhere. (E. A. F.)
tar a biMiiRraf-iiy of the Normans ana Northmen see Ulysse
ChevaWcr. Rrp^rtaire des sources hist, du moyen-dge. Topoffibttofr.
(MDnibilliifid, 1901). ii. 2 1 40; also, for sources for the Norman in-
i;j*ii ni iL^f FrHaricc, Ktolinier, Sources de FhisL de Franu (Paris, 1901).
I - : r lor the history of the Normans were collected
b> .ii.^iu Du Cliusjic ii: his Hisi. Normannorum scripiores antiqui . . .
8j8-1220, &c (Paris, 1619). Of modem works may be mentwned
H . Dondorff , Die Normannen mid ikre Bedeulung fur das europdische
Kulturieben im MiUehUer (Beriin, 1875); A. H. Johnson, The
Normans in Europe (1877); E. A. Freeman, Hist. ^ the Norman
Conquest (Oxford. 1867-1879) and HisL of SicUy (1891-1894):
O. Delarc. Les Normands en llalie, 85^1073 (Paris. 1883); J. W.
Bariow. Short Hist, of the Normans in S. Europe ^London. 1886) ;
A. F. von Schack. Cesch. der Normannen in Sictlien (Stuttgart.
1889): L. von Heinemann. Gesch. der Normannen in Unteritalien
und Sicilien (Leipzig. 1894): W. Vogel. Die Normannen und das
756
NORMANTON— NORRIS, JOHN
frdnkische Reich, 799-Qti (1906): F. Chalandon, La Dominion
normande en Itaiie et Stciie, looQ-agd (Paris. 1907): F. Lot, " La
Grande Invasion normande, 856-862, in t. 69 of the BUdiolhijue
del'EcoUdes Charles (Paris, 1908).
NORMANTON, a town of Normanton county, Queensland,
Australia, on the river Norman, 25 m. E. by S. of the Gulf of
Carpentaria, and 1382 m. direct N.W. of Brisbane. Pop. (1901)
838. It is the centre of the Carpentaria district, one of the
chief sheep and cattle farming districts in the colony. Nor-
manton is also the outlet of the Croydon and Etheridge goldfields,
and of the Cloncurry copper mines. It is the terminus of the
railway to Croydon, and has large meat-packing works.
NORMANTONt an urban district in the Normanton parlia-
mentary division of the West Riding of Yorkshire, England,
on the river Calder, 3 m. N.E. of Wakefield on the Midland,
>7orth Eastern and Lancashire & Yorkshire railways. Pop.
(1901) 12,352. The church of All Saints is Norman and Per-
pendicular, with a square tower rebuilt in 171 7, and contains
a number of interesting monuments; the ancient stained glass
is good. The grammar-school was founded about the end of the
1 6th century. Traces remain of a moat surrounding the town.
A mound in the neighbourhood called Haw Hill is supposed
to be a barrow. Altofts, a neighbouring parish, was the home of
Sir Martin Frobisher in the i6th century. There are numerous
collieries in the nciglibourhood.
NORNS (O. Norse, Nornir), m Nortbem mythology, tne
female divinities of fate, somewhat similar to the Gr. Moipcu
and the Roman Parcae. Like them they are generally repre-
sented as three in number, and they are said to spin, or weave,
the destiny of men. Their dwelling is beside the " Spring of fate,"
beneath the " world-tree," Yggdrasil's ash, which they water
with draughts from the spring. In some cases the Noms are
not easily to be distinguished from the Valkyries {q.v,). Some-
times again they appear as prophetesses {vdlur) at the birth of
children, whose destiny they foretelL The most famous of
these stories is contained in the TkdUr af Nornagesii, and has
a curious resemblance to the Greek legend of Althaea and
Mcleager. Similar beings seem to have been known among
other Teutonic peoples in early times. (See Teittonic Peoples,
§ 7). (H. M. C.)
NORRIS. PRANK (1870-1902), American novelist, was bom
in Chicago, Illinois, on the 5th of March 1870. He studied art
in Paris in 1887-1889; studied at the University of California
(1890-1894), and at Harvard University (1894-1895); in 1895-
1896 served in South Africa as war correspondent for the
San Francisco Ckronicle; in 1896-1897 was associate editor of
the San Francisco Wave; and in 1898 was sent to Cuba as
war correspondent for McClure*s Magazine. He died in San
Francisco on the 35th of October 1902. He wrote A Deal in
Wheat, and Other Stories (1903), RtsponsibUities oj the Novelist,
and Other Literary Essays (1903), and the following novels:
Moran of the Lady Lctty (1898), a story of adventure off the
California coast; McTeague (1899), a story of the San Francisco
slums; Blix (1899), a love story; A Man*s Woman (1900);
The Octopus (1901) and The Pit (1903). The last two were
powerful stories, which made his reputation. The Octopus deals
with wheat-raising in CaUfornia and with the struggle between
the growers and the railroad trust; The Pit with wheat-specula-
tion in the Chicago market. His complete works were published
in seven volumes in 1903.
NORRIS. HENRY NORRIS or Norbeys, Babon (c. 1 525-1601).
belonged to an old Berkshire family, many members of which
had held positions at the English court. His father, Henry
Norris, was a grandson of Sir WiUiam Norris, who commanded
the royal troops against Lambert Simnel at the battle of Stoke
in 1487. Like his brother John (d. 1564), the elder Henry
Norris obtained a post at the court of Henry VIII.; he gained
the king's favour and was rewarded with many lucrative offices.
He belonged to the party which favoured the elevation of
Anne Boleyn; but in May 1536 he was arrest c<l on the charge
of intriguing with her, and though he was probably innocent
of any serious offence he was beheaded on the 17 th of May 1536.
His son Henry regained some of his father's lands and entered
upon court life, being a member of parliament under Edward
VI. During Mary's reign he was one of those who were eoi rusted
with the custody of the princess Elizabeth, and when the princess
became queen she amply repaid the kindiness which Norris had
shown to her when he was her guardian at Woodstock. In
1566 he was knighted and was sent as ambassador to France,
where he remained until 1570, and in 1572 he was created
Baron Norris of Rycote. He died in June 1601. By his wife
Margaret (d. 1599)1 daughter of John, Lord Williams of Thame,
Norris had six sons, all of whom distinguished themselves in
the field. The Norris monument, with figures of Lord and Lady
Norris and their six sons, is in St Andrew's Chapel in Westminster
Abbey.
The eldest son. Sir William Nobris, died in Irdand ia
December 1579, leaving a son Francis (1579-1623), who succeeded
to his grandfather's barony and also to the esUtes of his unck Sir
Edward Norris. In 1621 Francis was created earl of Berkshire.
He left no sons and the earldom became extinct, but the barcuiy
descended to his daughter Elizabeth (d. 1645), the wife of Edward
Wray (d. 1658). Their daughter Bridget (1627-1657) married
as his second wife Montagu Bertie, 2nd earl of Lindsey, and
their son James Bertie (1654-1699) became Baron Norris (or
Norreys) in 1657, and was created earl of Abingdon in 1682.
His descendants the Berties, earb of Abingdon, still hold this
barony, and are the present representatives of the family d
Norris.
Sir Edward Norris (d. 1603), the ist Lord Norris's third
son, served with the English troops in the Netherlands from 1585
to 1588. He b chiefly remembered owing to his fierce quand
with Phih'p, count of Hohenlohe (1550-1606), called Hoilock
by the English, in August 1586 at Gcrtruydenberg (sec J. L
Motley, The United Netherlands, vol. ii.). In 1589 he saikd
with his brother Sir John and Sir Francis Drake on the expedi-
tion to Spain and Portugal, and from 1590 to 1599 be was
governor of Ostend.
Sir Thomas Norris (1556-1599), another son of the first brd.
went as a soldier to Ireland in 1579 and acted for a few months
as president of Connaught. He fought against the Fitzgcralds
and also in Ulster; in 1 585 he became vice-president <rf Munster,
and in 1597 he succeeded his brother. Sir John Norris, as presi-
dent. TTje three remaining brothers were: Sir Henry Norris
( 1 554-1599), who fought in t^e Netherlands and then in Ireland,
where he was killed in 1599; Maximilian Norris, who was
killed in Brittany in 1593, and Sir John Norris (9.V.).
Two other members of another branch of this family remain to be
mentioned, namely, Sir William Norris and hi& brother Sir jolin.
Sir William Norris (e. 1657-1703). having been cfvaicd a
baronet, was sent in 1699 to the Mogul emperor in India to secure
trading privileges for the new company which had been just formed
to compete with the old East India Company. He reached India ia
Septcmlx;r 1699, and after overcoming many difficulties he arrivrd
at the emperors residence in April 1701. The embassy. bowc-v«7.
was a total failure: Norris was unable to make terms, and he died
on the voyage to England.
Sir John Norris (c. 1660-1749) entered the navy and saw a good
deal of service during the war with France under William III. and
Anne. Under Gcoive I. he was sent several times with a fleet into
the Baltic Sea to forward the policy of this kii^ by giving the
northern nations some idea of tne strength of EnRland. In 1734
he became an admiral and commander-in-chtcf. Norris, who was
known as " foul-weather Jack," was a member of p&rliament fraca
1708 until his death.
NORRIS, JOHN (1657-171O. English philosopher aod divine,
was born at Collingbourne-Kingston in Wiltshire He vas
educated at Winchester and £xeter College. Oxford, bong
subsequently elected to a fellowship at All Souls'. His 6rst
original work was An Idea of Happiness (1683), in which, with
Plato, he places the highest happiness or fruition of the aool
in the contemplative love of (jod. Malebranche's RtcAercke dt
la viriti, which had appeared in 1674, made a strong impression
upon him. Malebranche, he says, *' b indeed the great Galileo
of the intellectual world." He had also studied the works of
Descartes himself, and most of what had been written for and
against Cutcsianism. Of English thinkers, More and Cudworth.
NORRIS, SIR J.— NORRIS, W. E.
the so-called Cambridge Platonists, had influenced him most;
and in 1685 his study of their works led to a correspondence
with the former, published after his death by Norris as an
appendix to his Platonically conceived essay on The Theory
and Regulation of Lave (1688). He also corresponded with Mrs
Astell {q.v.) and Lady Masham, the friend of Locke, to whom
he addressed his Refleciions upon the Conduct of Human Life
(1689). Some time before this Norris had taken orders, and in
1689 he was presented to the living of Newton St Loe, in Somer-
setshire. In 1690 he published a volume of Discourses upon
the Beatitudes, followed by three more volumes of Practical
Discourses between 1690 and 1698. The year 1690 is memorable
as the year of the publication of Locke's Essay, and the book
came into Norris's hands just as his volume of Discourses was
paiwing through the press. He at once appreciated its import-
ance, but its whole temper was alien from the modes of thought
in which he had been reared, and its main conclusions moved
him to keen dissent. He hastened to " review " it in an appendix
to his sermons. These Cursory Refiections constitute Norris
the first critic of the Essay; and they antidpate some of the
arguments that have since been persbtently urged against
Locke from the transcendental side. Though holding to the
*' grey-headed, venerable doctrine " of innate ideas as little
as Locke himself, Norris finds the criticism in the first book
of the Essay entirely inconclusive, and points out its incon-
sistency with Locke's own doctrine of evident or intuitively
perceived truths. He also suggests the possibility of subconscious
ideation, on which Leibnitz laid so much stress in the same
connexion. He next complains that Locke neglects to tell us
" what kind of things these ideas are which are let in at the
gate of the senses." In other words, while giving a metaphorical
account of how we come by our ideas, Locke leaves tmconsidered
the intellectual nature of the ideas or of thought in itself. Unless
we come to some conclusion on this point, Norris argues, we
have little chance of being right in our theory of how ideas
" come to be united to our mind." He also saw the weakness
of Locke's doctrine of nominal essences, showing how it ignores
the relation of the human mind to objective truth, and instancing
mathematical figures a& a case " where the nominal essence
and the real essence are all one." The last twenty years of
Norris's life were spent at Bemerton, near Salisbury, the former
home of George Herbert, to the living of which he had been
y transferred in 1691. In 1691-1692 he was engaged in con-
troversy with his old enemies the " Separatists," and with the
Quakers, his Malebranchian theory of the divine illumination
having been confounded by some with the Quaker doctrine
of the light within. In 1697 he wrote An Account of Reason
and Faith, one of the best of the many answers to Toknd's
Christianity not Mysterious. Norris adopts the distinction
between things contrary to reason and things above reason,
and maintains that the human mind is not the measure of truth.
Reason, according to him, is nothing but the exact measure of
truth, that is to say, divine reason, which differs from human
reason only in degree, not in nature. In 170X appeared the
first volume of the systematic philosophical work by which
be is remembered. An Essay towards the .Theory of the Ideal
or Intelligible World. The first volume treats the intelligible
world absolutely; the second, which appeared in 1704, considers
it in relation to human understanding. It is a complete ex-
position of the system of Malebranche, in which Norris refutes
the assertions of Locke and the sensualists. In 1708 Norris
wrote A Philosophical Discourse concerning the Natural Im-
mortality of the Soul, defending that doctrine against the assaults
of DodweU. After this he wrote little. He died at Bemerton,
and a monument was erected to his memory in the parish
church, with an inscription in which he is spoken of as one who
" bene latuit."
Norris was neither an original thinker nor a master of style. His
philosophy b hardly more than an English version of Malebranche,
enrichol by wide reading of '* Platonic ' thinkers of every aee and
countfV. His style is too scholastic and self-involved. His Theory
of the iHtdliffMe World is an attempt to explain the objective nature
of truth, which he blamed Locke for leaving out of regard. By the
757
intelligible world Norris understands the s]^tem of ideas eternally
existent in the mind of God, according to which the material creation
was formed. This ideal system he identifies with the Logos — the
second |)erson of the Trinity, the light that lighteth evenr man that
Cometh into the world. For it is these ideas and their relations that
are abne the object-matter of science; whenever we know, it is
because they aire present to our mind. Material thin^ are wholly
dark to us, except so far as the fact of their existence is revealed in
sensation. The matter which we say that we know b the idea of
matter, and bcr1onc:s, like other ideas, to the intelligible world.
Will n strippc?il of its semi-mythical form of statement, Norris's
em[ haUc aiscnlon of the ideal nature of thought and its complete
dij I iriction rmiq sense as such may be seen to contain an important
tn;-^i. A^ the eJb:<ple and correspondent of More, he is, in a sense,
thi- l< ^r 4<r \\iK i.^mbridge Platonists, while, as the first critic of
Lo. I • . 1' u y, h. may ot said to open the protest of the chureh
asi I ' rh' ii i;>li 1 1 tendencies of that work. He occupies a place,
tn< ! -• , l;i ili.^ iccession of churehly and mystical thinkers of
wh < I I .,1, r i :,^ i , r:he last eminent example.
SvL V, .. .1. .1 i<:.>: le Oxonicnses (ed. Bliss), iv.; Biographia Britan-
nicm Lcblic Sciiilien in Dictionary of National Btofraphy; j.
TuiliDch, RcJioniil Theology and Christian Philosophy tn England
in the ipk Cmiury (1874), who calls Norris " as strudna and signifi-
cant 1 ^-"f- ir? '.'le history of English philosophy as another
id< ! ^
MORRIS, SIR JOHN (c. 1^47-1597), English soldier, was the
second son of Henry Norris, Baron Norris of Rycote, and gained
his earliest military experience in the civil wars in France. In
1573 he went to Ulster with Walter Devercux, earl of Essex,
winning fame by his conduct in the guerilla wars against the
Irish, anc^ being responsible for the massacre on the island of
Rathlin in July 1575; and in July 1577 he crossed over to the
Netherlands to assist the Dutch against the Spaniards. Having
added to his reputation by his valour at the battle of Rymenant,
Norris returned to England in March 1584, and in the following
July he was sent to Ireland as lord president of Munster; he
accompanied the lord deputy. Sir John Perrot, on a campaign
in Ulster, and spoke eloquently in the Irish parliament; but
he disliked his work and soon obtained his recalL In August
1585 he was again in the Netherlands, commanding the English
army of 4400 men which Elizabeth had sent to serve against
the Spaniards. During his successful relief of Grave in April
X586 he was wotmded, and just after this event he was knighted
by the governor-general, the earl of Leicester; but he and
Leicester were soon at variance, and many complaints of his
conduct were sent to England. After taking part in the battle
of Zutphen in October 1586 Sir John was recalled to Enghind,
but in 1587 he went again to the Netherlands and was soon
qtiarrelling with his new superior. Peregrine Bertie, Lord Wil-
loughby de Eresby, and with Sir William Stanley. In 1588,
when the Spanish Armada was expected, he was marshal of the
camp at Tilbury; later in the same year he served the queen as
ambassador to the Dutch sutes, and in 1589 he and Sir Francis
Drake led the fleet which ravaged the coasts of Spain and
Portugal In 1591, and again in 1593, he aided Henry IV. of
France in his struggle with the L«^e in Brittany; and in
May 1595 he landed again in Ireland, where he was still lord
president of Munster. But this, time he was entrusted with
more extensive powers and was tQ assist the lord deputy. Sir
William Russell, in subjugating Ulster. He did not, however,
work harmoniously with Russell; his health was failing and
the gigantic task was too much for him. After fighting and
negotiating with the O'Neills in Ulster, and warring in Connaught,
he asked for his recall. This was not granted, but he was sup-
planted in his military command; and he retired to Munster
and died at Mallow on the 3rd of July 1597. His monument
is in the church of Tattendon, Berkshire.
Sec j. L. Motley, The United Netherlands, vol. ii. (1904); and
R. Bagwell. Ireland under the Tudors, vol. ill. (1890).
MORRIS, WILUAM EDWARD (1847- ), English novelist,
was born on the 18th of November 1847, the son of Sir W. Norris,
chief justice of Ceylon. He was educated at Eton, and called
to the bar at the Inner Temple in 1874. His first story. Heaps
of Money, appeared in 1877, and was followed by a long series
of novels, many of which first appeared in the Temple Bar and
Cornhill magazines. The best of his numerous novels are
Mademoiselle de Mersac (1880), Matrimony (1881), No New
758
NORRISTOWN— NORTH, SIR D.
Thing (1883). My Friend Jim (1886). The Rogue (1888), The
Despotic Lady (i8q$), MaUhew Austin Ui9S), The Widower (iS^),
Naiure^s Comedian (1904). Pauline (1908).
MORRISTOWlf. a borough and the county-seat of Mont-
gomery county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., on the Schuylkill river,
at the mouth of Stony Creek, opposite Bridgeport, and about
18 m. N.W. of Philadelphia. Pop. (1910 census) 27,875.
Norristown is served by the Pennsylvania, the Philadelphia &
Reading and the Stony Creek railways, by interurban electric
railway to Philadelphia and Reading, and by the Schuylkill
canal, and is connected by bridge with the borough of Bridge-
port (pop. in 19x0, 3860), where woollen and cotton goods
are nuinufactured. Norristown is a residential suburb of
Philadelphia, and commands fine views of the Schuylkill Valley.
It has a Sute Hospital for the Insane (opened x88o), a fine
County (^urt House, a general hospital, a Friends' Home, a
home for aged women, St Joseph's Protectory (Roman Catholic)
for girls, and the Norristown and McCann public libraries; in
Montgomery cemetery are the tombs of General Winfield Scott
Hancock and General John Frederick Hartranft (183&-1889);
a distinguished Federal officer in the Civil War and governor
of Pennsylvania in 1873-1879. Valley Forge is less than 6 m.
distant to the W. The borough has a large trade with the
surrounding country, which is well adapted to agriculture and
abounds in limestone. Among Norristown's manufactures are
hosiery and woollen goods; in 1905 its total factory product was
valued at $5,925,243, an increase of 44-3% over the value in
X900. Norristown was foimded in 1785, and was named in
honour of Isaac Norris (c. 1 671-173 5), a friend of William Pcnn
and a member of the Pennsylvania legislature, who had owned
the land on which the borough is built. Norristown was incor-
porated as a borough in x8ia, and its boundaries were extended
in X853.
NORRKOPING. a town and port of Sweden, in the district {Idn)
of OstergOtland, 113 m. S.W. of Stockholm by the Malmd
railway. Pop. (1880) 26,735; (iQ^o) 41,008. It occupies both
banks of the Motala,the wide and rapid emissary of lake Vettcr,
close to its outlet in the Br&vik, an inlet of the Baltic. Having
been burned by the Russians in 17x9 and visited by further
fires in 181 a, 182 2 and 1826, the whole town has a modem
appearance, with wide and regular streets. Among the more
conspicuous buildings are St OlaTs church (erected by Gustavus
Adolphus in x6i6 and rebuilt in 1765-1767); St Hedvig's,
built by the German colony in 1670; the town hall, dating from
the beginning of the X9th century; the high school (1868), and
technical and weaving schools. NorrkOping is the fourth town
in population and industrial importance in SwedexL The falls
in the river afford motive power to the cloth and cotton mills
(spinning and weaving) — the staple industries— and to faaories
for sugar, paper, lithography, tobacco and carpets, joinery
works and breweries. There are also shipbuilding yards and
docks. Fine granite is quarried at Grafversfors, 7} m. N. The
inlet of Br&vik affords excellent harbour accommodation, with
from 33 ft to X7I ft. of water below the bridges in the town.
The town tetums two members to the second chamber of the
Rihsdag (parliament).
A bull of Pope Lucius m. shows that Norrk5ping existed in
1 185. At the meeting of the states in 1604 Duke Charles assumed
the Swedish crown as Charles DC.; and not long afterwards
Duke John, of OstexgQtland introduced German craftsmen into
NorrkOping, and thus originated its industrial activity. Under
Charles XII. the town suffered not only from war but from
pestilence, 2700 of its inhabitants perishing in 17x0-1 7x1.
After the Russian invasion of 171.9 the population was only
a6oo. ^
NORTH, BARONS. The English tide of Lord North of
Kirtling was created for Edward North (c. 1496-1564), son of
Roger North, a London citizen, in X554; he was a successful
lawyer, clerk of the parliament (i 531) and chancellor of the court
of augmentations (i 545). His second son was Sir Thomas North
(9.9.) » and he was succeeded as and baron by his son Roger (i 530-
1600), a prominent courtier and soldier of Queen Elizabeth's
day, who married the daughter of Lord Chancellor Rkfa, and
whose eldest son, Sir John (c. 1 551-1597), predeceased him. -
Dudley North, 3rd Baron North (i 581-1666), son of Sir
John North and of Dorothy, daughter and heiress of Sir Vakntioc
Dale, was bom in 1581 and succeeded his grandfather, fhe »d
Baron North, at the age of nineteen. He was educated at
Cambridge, and married in 1599 Frances, daughter of Sir John
Brockett of Brockctt Hall in Hertfordshire. He travelkd in
Italy, took part in the campaign of x 602 in the Netherlands,
and on his return became a conspicuous figure at court, excdling
in athletic exercises as well as in poetry and music, and gaining
the friendship of Prince Henry. In x6o6, while returning from
Eridge to London, he discovered the springs of Tunbridge WelU,
which cured North himself of a complaint and quickly became
famous. He also recommended the Epsom springs to the public
He supported and subscribed to the expedition to Guiana made
by his brother Roger North (c. X582-C. X652) in 16x9, and when
Roger departed without leave Dudley was imprisoned for two
days in the Fleet. In X626 he attached himself to the party of
Lord Saye and Scle in the Lords, who were in sympathy with the
aims of the Commons; and when the dvil war broke out be vas
on the side of the parUament. In 164 x he was a member of the
Lords' committee on Religion, and served on the committee to
consider Laud's attainder in 16441 finally voting for the ordinance
in January X645. He was placed on the adiniralty commisEum
in 1645, and aaed as lord lieutenant for Cambridgeshicc He
was one of the small group of Lords who continued attendance
in the House of Peers, and on the X9th of December 1648, with
three others, visited Fairfax, when they " cast down their hooouzs
at his Excellency's feet " and protested their desire not to retain
any privileges prejudicial to the public interest.* He passed
the rest of his life in retirement at Kirtling in Cambridgeshire,
with his sons, daughters and grandchildren, finding " emptoy-
ment with many airy entertainments as poetry, writing essays,
building, making mottoes and inscriptions as wdl as in music'*'
He wrote A Foresi of Varieties (1645), a miscellany of essays and
poems, another edition of which was published in 1659 under
the title of A Forest promiscuous of various Seasons^ FroducHoHs.
He died on the x6th of January x66^ North is described as
" full of spirit and flame," of imperious temper but of well-
balanced judgment. Lord Holland declaring that " he knew no
man less swayed with passion and sooner carried with reason and
justice." He left, besides one daughter, two sons, the elder of
whom, Sir Dudley, succeeded him as 4th Baron North.
Dudley Norih, 4th Baron North (1602-1677), increased
the family fortune by marrying the daughter of Sir Charles
Montagu, brother of the xst earl of Manchester. He was an
accomplished man, of studious bent, and had fourteen children,
of whom the third son, Francis, became lord chancellor as
Lord Guilford; the fourth was Sir Dudley North (f.*.), the
economist; the fifth, John (1645-X683), nkaster of Trinity,
Cambridge, and professor of Greek in the university; and the
sixth, Roger {g.v.), the lawyer and historian.
The eldest son, Charles (d. 169X), was created Lord Grey
of Rolleston during his father's life, and succeeded bn father
as 5th Baron North; and on the death of his son, WUliara,
6th Lord North, without issue, in 1734, the barony of North
wtnt to a cousin, Francis North, 3rd baron, afterwards itt
cari of Guilford. The title of Lord North is that by which the
2nd. earl of Guflford, prime minister from 1770 to 1782, is best
known in history (see GinxiOKD, Bakons akd Eaxis or).
George Augustus, 3rd earl of Guilford (d. 1802), left three
daughters, and the barony of North fell into abeyance till 1841
when it vested in Susan, Baroness. North (x79^x884), wife of
John Sidney Doyle, who took the name of North; at her death
her son William Henry John North (b. 1836) succeeded as itth
baron, the .title now being separate from that of GuHfotd.
NORTH, SIR DUDLBT (X641-X691), English econonnsi.
was 4th son of Dudley, 4th Lord North, who published,
besides other things, Passages relating lo lk$ Long ParUaaumit
1 Gardiner's CM War. Iv. 285.
* Roger North's Autobtograpky, ed. by A. Jeasopp, 6&
NORTH, MARIANNE— NORTH, SIR THOMAS
759
ol which he had himsdf been a member. He was bom on the
i6th of May 1641. In his early years he was carried o£f by
gipsies and recovered with some difficulty by his family — an
incident curiously similar to that which befell Adam Smith in
hb infancy. He engaged in foreign trade, especially with
Turkey, and spent a number of years at Constantinople and
Smyrna. Some notices of the manners and customs of the east
were printed from his papers by his brother. Having returned
to London with a considerable fortune, he continued to prosecute
trade with the Levant His ability and knowledge of commerce
attracted the attention of the government, and he was further
recommended by the influence of his brother Lord Guilford.
During the Tory reaction under Charles IL he was one of the
sheriffs forced on the dty of London with an express view to
securing verdicts for the crown in sute trials. He was knighted,
and was appointed a commissioner of customs, afterwards of
the treasury, and again of the customs. Having been elected
a member of parliament under James II., "he took," says
Roger North, " the place of manager for the crown in all matters
of revenue." After the Revolution he was called to account
for his alleged unconstitutional proceedings in his office of
sheriff. He died on the jxst of December 1691.
. His tract entitled Discourses upon Trade j principally directed
to the cases of the interest, coinage, dipping and increase of money,
was published anonymously in 1691, and was edited in 1856 by
J. R. M'CulIoch in the Sdecl Collection of Early English Tracts
on Commerce printed by the Political Economy Qub of London.
In this thorough-going and emphatic assertion of the free-trade
doctrine against the system of prohibitions which had gained
strength by the Revolution, North shows that wealth may
exist independently of gold or silver, its source being human
industry, applied either to the cultivation of the soil or to
manufactures. It is a mistake to suppose that stagnation of
trade arises from want of money; it must arise either from a
glut of the liome market, or from a disturbance of foreign
commerce, or from diminished consumption caused by poverty.
The export of money in the course of traffic, instead of diminish-
ing, increases the national wealth, trade being only an exchange
of superfluities. Nations are related to th^ world just in the
same way as cities to the state or as families 10 the dty. North
emphasizes more than his predecessors the value of the home
trade. With respect to the intei^est of capital, he maintains thaC
it depends, like the price of any commodity, on the proportion
of demand and suf^ly, and that a low rate is a result of the
relative increase of capital, and cannot be brought about by
arbitrary regulations, as had been pn^Msed by Sir Josiah Child
and others. In arguing the question of free trade, be urges that
every advantage given to one interest over another is injurious
to the public. No trade is unprofitable to the public; if it
were, it would be given up; when tra^. ,^ thrive, so does the
public, of which they form a part. Prices must determine
themselves, and cannot b6 fixed by kiw; and all forcible inter-
ference wiUi them does harm instead of good. No people can
become rich by state regulations,— only by peace, industiy,
freedom and unimpeded economic activity. It will be seen
bow dosdy North's view of things approadi to that embodied
tome dghty years later in Adam Smith's great work. North
is named by Wflhelm Roscher as one of that ** great triumvirate "
which in the X 7th century raised the English school of economists
to the foremost place in Europe, the other members of the
group being Locke and Petty.
NORTH, VARIANNB (1830-1890), English naturalist and
flower-painter, was bom at Hastings on the 34th of October 1830,
the eldest daughter of a Norfolk landowner, descended from
Roger North (1653-1734). She trained as a vocalist under
Madame Sainton Dolby, but her voioe faflcd, and she then devoted
herself to painting flowers. After the death of her mother in
1855 she constantly travelled with her father, who was then
member of parliament for Hastinipi; and on his death in 1869
she resolved to realize her early ambition of painting the flora
of distant countries. In 1871-1872 with this object she went
to Canada, the United Sutes and Jamaica, and spent a year
in BrazO, where she did much of her work at a hut in the depths
of a forest. In 1875, after a few months at Teneriffc, she bc^
a journey round the world, and for two years was occupied m
painting the flora of California, Japan, Borneo, Java and Ceylon.
The year 1878 she spent in India, and after her return she
exhibited a number of her drawings in London. Her subsequent
offer to present the collection to the botanical gardens at Kew,
and to erect a gallery for their reception, was accepted, and the
new buildings, designed by James Ferguson, were begun in the
same year. At Darwin's suggestion At went to Australia in
1880, and for a year painted there and in New Zealand. Her
gallery at Kew was opened in x88a. In 1883, after a visit by
her to South Africa, an additional room was opened at the Kew
gallery, and in 1884-1885 she worked at Seychelles and in Chile.
Miss North died at Alderly in Gbucestershire on the 30thof August
189a The scientific accuracy with which she represented plant
life in all parts of the world gives her work a permanent value.
NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734), English lawyer and biographer,
was the sixth son of the 4th Baron North. He acquired a good
practice at the bar, being helped by his dder brother Francis,
who became lord chancdlor and was created Baron Guilford
{q.9.), and in 1684 he became solidtor-generaL But the Revolu-
tion stopped his advancement, and he retired to his estate of
Rougham in Norfolk, and increased his fortune by marrying
the daughter of Sir Robert Gayer. He collected books, and
was constantly occupied in writing. But he is best known
for his Lives of the Norths, published after his death, together
with his own autobiography (see the edition in Bohn's Standard
Library, xSgo, by Jessopp), a classic authority for the period.
He died at Rougham on the ist of March 1734, leaving a family
from whom the Norths of Rougham are descended.
He is to be distinguished from Roger North (1585-1652), brother
of the 3rd baron, one of the captains who sailed with Raleigh in 1617,
who projected the plantation of Guiana with an EngUsh colony.
NORTH, SIR THOMAS (i535?-i6oi?), English translator of
Plutarch, second son of the ist Baron North, was born about
153^5. He is supposed to have been a student of Peterhouse,
Cambridge, and was entered at Lincoln's Inn in 1557. In 1574
he accompanied his brother. Lord North, on a visit to the French
court. He served as captain in the year of the Armada, and was
knighted about three years later. His name is on the roll of
justices of the peace for Cambridge in 1592 and again in 1597,
and he recdved a small pension (£40 a year) from the queen
in x6ox. A third edition of his Plutarch was published, in
1603, with a supplement of other translated biographies. He
translated, in 1557, Guevara's Rdcj de Principes (commonly
known as Libra Aureo), a compendium of moral counsels chiefly
compiled from the Meditations of Marcus Aurelius, under the
title of Diall of Princes, The English of tliis work is one of the
earliest spedmens of the ornate, copious and pointed style for
which educated young Englishmen had acquired a taste in their
Continental travels and studies. North translated from a French
copy of Guevara, but seems to have been well acquainted with
the Spanish version. The book had already been translated
by Lord Bemers, but without rcprodudng the rhetorical artifices
of the originaL North's version, with its mannerisms and its
constant use of antithesis, set the fashion which was to culminate
in Lyly's Euphues. His next work was The MoraU Philosophic
of Doni (1570), a translation of an Italian collection of eastern
fables. The first edition of his translation of Plutarch, from the
French of Jacques Amyot, appeared in 1579. The first edition
was dedicated to Queen Elizabeth, and was followed by other
editions in 1595 and 1603, containing in each case fresh Lives.
It is almost impossible to over-estimate the influence of North's
vigorous English on contemporary writers, and some critics have
called him the first master of English prose. The book formed
the source from which Shakespeare drew the materials for his
Julius Caesar, Coriolanus and Antony and Cleopatra, It is in
the last-named play that he follows the Lives most dosdy,
whole speeches being taken direct from North.
North's Plutarch was reprinted for the "Tudor Translations **
(1895), with an introduaion by George Wyndharo.
760
NORTH ADAMS— NORTH AMERICA
NORTH ADAMS, a city of Berkshire county, Massachusetts,
U.S.A., mtuated at the junction of the N. and S. branches of the
Hoosac river, and the Boston & Maine (at the W. terminus
of the Hoosac Tunnel) and the Boston & Albany railways, in
the extreme N.W. part of the state. Pop. (1905) 22,150; (1910)
32,019. Area, 19-9 sq. m. In the city are the villages of North
Adams, Greylock and Blackinton. Within the city limits are
a natural bridge across Hudson Brook, 50-60 ft. high, and ruins of
Fort Massachusetts, which was captured in 1 746 by French and
Indians under the command of Pierre Francois de Rigaud,
Chevalier de Vaudreuil ( 1 704- 1772). North Adams is the seat of
a state Normal School (1897). Among its manufactures are
cotton (especially print) and woollen goods, and boots and shoes.
In i<)oo the factory products of the dty were valued at
$10,741,495, and in 1905 at $8,035,705. North Adams secured
incorporation as an independent township in 1878. Township
government was abandoned and dty government was organized
in 1895; in 1900 part of Williamstown was annexed.
NORTHALLERTON, a market town in the Richmond parlia-
mentary division of the North Riding of Yorkshire, England,
30 m. N.N. W. from York by the North Eastern railway, on which
it is an important junction. Pop. of urban district (1901)
4909. It lies In a plain west of the Cleveland and Hambleton
Hills, on the Sun Beck, a small tributary of the river Wiske.
The church of All Saints is a large cruciform structure, Norman,
Early English and Perpendicular, with a central tower 80 ft. in
height. There is a grammar-school. Among the charities arc
a hospital founded in 1476 by Richard Moore. There are no
traces of the fortified palace of the bishops of Durham, of the
White Friars' monastery founded in 1354, or of the Austin priory
founded in 1341. The town has a considerable agricultural
trade, and there are motor-engineering works. In the neighbour-
hood of Northallerton is the priory of Mount Grace, a Carthusian
foundation of 1397. It consists of an outer court entered through
a gatehouse, the church and chapter-house, with other buildings
lying on the north side, partly surrounded by monastic dwelling-
houses. These houses, with gardens attached, also surround three
sides of the doister court, which lies north of the outer court.
In the vicinity are a monks' well and a ruined chapd of the 16th
century.
Northallerton (Alvetune, Allerton) is said to have been a
Roman station and afterwards a Saxon " burgh," but nothing is
known with certainty about it before the account given in the
Domesday Survey, which shows that before the Conquest Earl
Edwin had hdd the manor, but that the Normans had destroyed
it so utterly that it was still waste in zo86. Soon after his
accession William Rufus gave it to the bishop of Durham, whose
successors continued to hold it until it was taken over by the
ecclesiastical commissioners in 1865. As a borough by pre-
scription Northallerton returned two members to the parliament
of 1 298, but was not represented again tmtil 1640, when its ancient
privileges were restored. The Munidpal Reform Act of 1832
reduced the number of members to one, and in 1885 the town was
disfranchised. The first account of the borough and its privileges
is contained in an inquisition taken in 2333 after the death of
Anthony, bishop of Durham, which shows that the burgesses
held the town with the markets and fairs at a fee-farm rent of 40
marks yearly, and that they had two reeves who sat in court
with the bishop's bailiff to hear the disputes of the townspeople.
This form of government continued until 1851, when a local board
was formed, which in 1894 was superseded by an urban district
council. A weekly market on Wednesday was granted by King
John to the bishop in 2205. A subsequent bishop obtained a
grant of a fair on St Bartholomew's day, which according to
Camden (circa 1585), had become almost " the most thronged "
cattle fair in England, but is no longer held. In 2327 the town
was burnt by the Scots under Robert Bruce, althou^ the bur-
gesses paid 3000 marks that it might be spared. In consequence
they were exempted from taxes in 2319.
See Victoria County History. Yorkshire; C. J. D. Ingledew. The
History and Antiquities of Northallerton in the County of York (1858) ;
J. L. Say well. The History and Annals of Northallerton (1885).
NORTH AMERICA. In the artide America a brief geoKraphi-
cal survey is taken of the two continents which bear this name;
and their poinU of similarity and contrast are broadly
indicated. When North America is compared with
the northern continents of the Old World, an important
correspondence is found between it and the greater
part of Eurasia; but here the corresponding parts are
reversed, right and left, like the two hands. The Lauren-
tian highlands agree with Scandinavia and Finlaixl, both having
escaped deformation since very ancient times. A scries ct water
bodies (the Great lakes in North America; the 80uther2i Baltic,
with Onega, Ladoga, &c. in Europe) occupy depressions that
are assodated with the boundary between the very andent lands
and their less ancient covering strata. The old worn-down aiul
re-elevated Appalachian mountains of south-eastern North
America agree well with the Hercynian mountains of similar
history in middle Europe (Ardennes, Slate mountains of the
middle Rhine, &c.), each range entering the sea at its Atlantic
end (in Nova Scotia and Newfoundland; in Brittany, Waks and
Irdand), and dipping under younger formations at its inlaixl end.
Certain younger range»--sddom recognized as mou2itains
because they are mostly submerged in the American mediter-
raneans (Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean Sea), but of great absolute
relief and with crests rising in the larger West Indian isla2ids—
may be compared with the younger ranges of southern Europe
(Pyrenees, AJps, Caucasus) bordering the dassic Mediterranean
and the seas farther east. The central plains of North America
correspond well with the plains of Russia and western Siberia;
both stretch from great enclosed water bodies on the south to the
Arctic Ocean, and both are built of undisturbed Palaeozoic strata
toward the axis of symmetry and of younger strata away from it.
Finally, the Western highlands of North America 2nay be ohb-
pared with the great mountain complex of central and eastern
Asia. In this remarkable succession of resemblances we find
one of the best proofs of the continental unity of Eurasia. More-
over, the resemblances thus described controvert the idea,
prevalent when geology was less advanced than to-day, that the
New World of dvi^zed discovery is an " old world " geokgicaily,
and that the Old World of history is geologically " new." Both
worlds are so old, and both share so well the effects ci soccessive
geological changes from the most andent to the most modern
periods, that neither can regard the other as older or younger than
itself.
There are several dimatic si2nilarities between North Anocrica
and Eurasia. The Appalachians and the Hercjmian monntains
of middle Europe both contain extensive coal deposits of simSar
geological age, thus indicating a climatic and geografJiic r&>
semblance at a time of great antiquity. The Laurentian high-
lands and the Scandinavian highlands were both heavily and
repeatedly gladated in recent geological times, and the ke
sheets that crept out on all sides from those centres ^»ead far
over the lower lands to the south and away from the axis of
symmetry towards the continental interior, scouring the hi^
lands and leaving them rocky and barren, strewing extensive
drift deposits over the peripheral areas, and thus significantly
modifying their form and drai2iage; while the much loftier
mountain ranges of western America and central Asia suffered,
singularly enough , a far less extensive glaciation. At the present
time, the plentiful and well-dbtributed rainfall of the coiktinental
border on either side of the Atlantic is succeeded by an iriaeasing
aridity towards the continental interior, until the broad plains
that rise towards the distant mountain complexes are com-
paratively barren or even desert. Within each great er 2noantain
area extensive interior drainage basins are found holding salt
lakes, a'nd the recently detcr2nined former extension of these
lakes in Central Asia agrees with the well-proved extension of
Pleistocene lacustrine conditions in western North Ameika.
The following sketch of the geological development of Noc4
America considers the larger phytiographic diviaioos already
indicated.
The extensive area of ancient crystalline rocks (Ardieafi).
stretching from Labrador past Hudson Bay to the Arctic Ocean,
is of greatly disordered atructure, and hence muM have once had a
NORTH AMERICA
761
mountainous form. Moreover, the crystalUne texture and deformed
foliation of the rocks prove that the surface now seen was once buried
deep beneath the surface of an earlier time, for only at neat
depths can such texture and foliation be acquired. Both
these lines of evidence lead to the^ conclusion that the
moderatereliefprevalentovertheexistingLaurentianrbgion
is the work of porsevcring erosion during a long oontiuuanoe of dry
land conditions, and hence that the region must be regarded as
a worn-down mounuin system. The worn-down old land is gently
overlapped, chiefly around the south and west, and south of Hudson
Bay, by very early P^eocoic strata which rest upon the eroded
surface of the cirsuUines, thus proving that Che destruction of the
ancient mountains had already been accomplished before some of
the oldest fossiliferous formations of the worfd had been deposited.
All the evidence goes to prove that from then to now the Laurentian
region has been relatively quiescent. In all subsequent time there
have been here only moderate oscillations of level, one of which
allowed the transgression of the ancient sea in which the overlapping
strata were deposited, while another of much more modem date gave
the region its present highland altitude (1000 toaoooft.; mountains
near the Labrador coast) 8000 ft.), again offering it to the forces of
erosion.
It is this ancient Laurentian area that the earlier geologists named
the " Continental Nucleus," as if it had been the first part of North
America to rise from the primeval waters of an assumed universal
ocean. The " Archcan V, formed by the two arms of the Lauren-
tian oldland stretching from Labrador to the Arctic, between
which Hudson Bay is included, has been repeatedly described as the
oldest area of the continent, the beginning around which many later
additions have built the existing outlines; and as such it has been
adduced in favour of the theory of the permanence of continents.
But when thus stated, the half of the stoiy in favour of this theory
is not toJd. Hudson Bay is not due to a pnmitive failure of elevation
between the arms of the " Archean V "; it is not a deep basin
whose floor has never emerged from the primeval ocean, but an
andent and comparatively shallow depression in a pre-«xistent land,
over which the sea flowed as the surface sank below sea-level. South
and west from the " Archean Nucleus/' the Cambrian strata of the
medial {Jains of North America are found to lie, wheiever their base
is discovered, on a foundation that possesses all the essential features
of the Laurentian oldland. Thb relation is found all around the
Adirondack mountains in New York, alon^ the Apoalachians
southward to Georgia, through the Mississipp basin in Wisconsin
and Missouri, and Beyond In Texas, and farther west in the Black
Hills, as well as certain points in the Rocky Mountains region.
Hence the pre-Cambrian land surface of the continent must have had
not only a vastly grater area than was formerly attributed to it,
but aleo an earlier origin; for at the time when it was thought by
the older geologists to be first riung from the primeval ocean, it is
now proved to have been slowly sinking| after a prolong land exist-
ence. The civstalline Archaean rocks m the Laurentian re^on and
iu scattered fellows cannot possibly be explained as a primitive sea
bottom, riang above sea-lewel to make the beginning of a continent
and receiving Cambrian strata upon its still submerged borders,
but only as portions of an already old and deeply-denuded land area,
which was in pre-Cambrian time much larger than the visible
Laurentian area of to-day, and which was reduced to perhaps half
its primeval dimensions by a gradual submergence beneath the trans-
gressing sea in which the Cambrian scdimenu were laid down.
We are thus led to believe that much of the continent of to-day was
a continent in the earliest geological times, and that the seas which
partly covered it in Palaeozoic and Mesozoic time were due to
partial submergence, not to partial emergence. Furthermore, all the
marine strau that now stretch over a large part of what is believed
to have been the ancient continental surface are of relatively shallow
water ori^n; none of them bears any close resemblance to the
deposits « the deep oceans that have oeen so well studied of late
years. Hence the Palaeozoic and Mesozoic seas of North America
were not deep oceans, and as far as this continent b concerned it
is by no means admissible to assume, as some of the earlier geo-
logists did, that the position of continents and oceans have repeatedly
changed {daces. Tne testimony of the rocks is decidedly in favour
of Dana's view that continental masses are rcLitively {Krmanent.
The early history of the Laurentian rcsion has been dwelt U()on
because of its great importance in the history of the continent,
and because its history has so generally been misunderstood. To
these reasons may be added a third: through Palaeozoic and
Mesozoic time the history of the Laurentian region is for the most
part a blank. Records are wanting from the early Palaeozoic to
the PleutocenCj when the Laurentian uplands became the centres
from which the loe sheets of the Glacial period spread out on all sides.
As a result of this late cha{>ter in the history of the region, the
weathered soils of earlier periods were swept away along with an
unknown amount of firm rock, leaving bare ledges, scattered boulders
and gravelly drift to-day u(X)n a nigged upland without mountains
(exoe()t in north-east Labrador), but diversified by innumerable
knc^ and hollows. The drainage of the region has thus been thrown
into disorder; large and small lakes and marshy hollows abound:
Che streams are repeatedly interrupted by rapids, and frequently
split into two or more channels, enclosing islands many miles
in length. They are the only highways of this thinly inhabited
re^on.
The Appalachian province is a generally hilly and mountainous
belt, stretching from Newfoundland to Alabama. It seems for the
most {nrt to have belonged in the eariiest times to the
ereat (xe-Cambrian land area, <^ which the Laurentian ^{V
highland is the more manifest re{>resenutive; for where- JJJJILit
ever the basal members of the Palaeozoic sedimentary ««««■•«»•
series are found in the Ap(>alachians, they rest ufwn a floor of
denuded Archean rocks, and the lowest layere are laigely comixMed
of Archaean detritus. This i>rovince must, however, be set aside
from the undisturbed Laurentian region because of the re{ieated
movements of depression, deformation and elevation that it has
suffered, generally along a nonh-east south-west trend, causing the
successive alternations df heavy de{)06ition, and almost equally heavy
denudation that have prevailed with varying intensity during the
whole stretch of geotogical time covered by the fossiliferous record.
The earliest important mountain-making disturbances interru{}ted
the conditions of deposition in Cambrian time, and produced what
has been called the Green Mountain system. A later, and probably
greater, disturbance, with its climax at the c\ok of Carboniferous
time, established the Appalachian Mountain system; but, as under-
stood to-day, the " Appalachian revolution " of the older geologists
should be regarded as a Ions-lasting {vocess, {)erhaiM intermittently
enduring as lon^ as the whole of Carboniferous time. A subordinate
(Kriod M deposition and deformation occurred early in Mesozoic
time, marked by the accumulation and disturbance 01 several basins
of the Newark formation, roughly corresfxinding to the Triassic of
£uro()e.
The Apfialachian mountains of to-day were formerly regarded as
the unconsumed remnants of the chief Appalachian uplift ; but it
is now generally agreed that Mesozoic erosion reduced the greater
pan of the range to a lowland of moderate or small relief, feaving
only isolated groups of subdued mountains in the areas of the most
resistant rocks, and that the altitude and form of the mountains
of to-day are chiefly the result of the Tertiary elevation and dis-
section of the previously worn-down mass — the additional height
thus given in Tertiary time to the pre-existent subdued mountain
groups making them now the loftiest areas of the range, as in the
White Mountains of New Hampshire (Mount Washington, 6293 ft.)
and the Black Mountains of North Carolina (Mount Mitchell, 671 1
ft.). It is interesting to note that the axis of Tertiary elevation
is nearly {nrallel to and ck)8ely associated with the axes 01 the earlier
disturl»nces, but it lies somewhat to the north-west of iu prede-
cessors, and therefore involves considerable areas of flat -lying
Palaeozoic strata on the inner side of the previously disturbed belt
from New York to Alabama, thus produang what is known as the
Alleghany plateau (altitudes, 3000 to 4000 ftO* It should be added
that the Ozark plateau of Missouri and the Ouachita mountains on
the south, in Arkansas and farther west, are related to one another
in much the same way as the Alleghany plateau and the middle
ranges of the Appalachians— the two {nira corresiwnding to a
remarkable degree m regard to conditions of ancient accumulation,
medieval deformation and denudation, and more modem uplift
and dissection; it is, therefore, admissible to classify this western
group of ui>lifts as an annex to the normal Ap{)alachians. Numerous
and extensive coal seams occur in the worn-down Appalachians of
Nova Scotia, Pennsylvania and Alabama, as well as in the Alleghany
plateau from Pennsylvania to Akibama, and in the extension of the
same strata through the Ohio and middle Mississip{)i basins.
The eastern coast of the continent has a rocky and ragged shore
line from Maine to Greenland, with numerous submerged lowlands
and valleys forming bays, and aTmany uplands and ridgi
*i promontories and islands; this being the i
summation of many movements of the land, whose total gives an
stretching in 1
idges out-
lult of the
increasing measure of depression to the north, where an archipelago
at last replaces what was probably once a comer of the continent ;
but the measure of the depression is uncertain, because of the doubt
regarding the depth beneath sea-level to which the Pleistocene
eladcra may have worn the pre-Gladal valleys. South of New
England, along the Atbntic coast, and around tlie border of the gulf
into Mexico, the dominating movement of the land in late geological
periods has been upward with rcsfxct to sea-level, whereby a former
sea bottom, on which the land waste of Cretaceous and Tertiary
times had been outspread, was revealed as a coastal plain, across
which the rivera of the former land area now extend tneir courses,
from the old shore line to the new. Part of the same plain, still sub-
mer^, forms the " continental shelf " of the mid-Atlantic border.
Flonda seems to be a {>rojecting swell of this shelf, around who5«
extremity coral reefs have been added, but whose greater mass is still
under a shallow sea cover. Along the ragged coast in the north a
moderate and very modem movement <» elevation has laid bare
clay-floored lowlands that were lately beneath the sea, as in the plain
of the lower St Lawrence valley, while along the coastal plain of the
south a slight movement of depression has drowned a number of low
valley floors, producing shallow arms of the sea. as Chesa{)eake Bay,
Albemarle and Pamlico Sound and Mobile Bay. All the coast south
of New York is low, and a great part of it is fringed with wave-built
sand-reefs.
The great complex of mountains in the Western highlands.
762
NORTH AMERICA
sometimes styled the Cordfllaas of North America (the Rocky
Mounuins being the eastern members of the svstem in the
yii^^ United States and Canada), differ from the Laurentian
dmbnsA/ *"^ Appalachian regions m having suffered numerous
^r*^ disorderly movements at dates so recent that the existing
\^~^ relief of the rcg;ion bears a signified nt relation to its irregular
'*'"•'*■• u plif ts ; a relation that doubt less once obtained in the older
mountain areas of the east, where it has now been obliterated by
erosion. It is not, however, only in modern eeological periods that
mountain-making disturbances have prevaikain the regions of the
Western highlands; their geological history is one of repeated and
long<ontinued movement — the ruins of the more ancient upheavals
supplying materials for the strata of newer ranges. For example, in
Canada an axial belt of ancient rocks is bordered on the cast and
west by stratified formations of enormous thickness (40,000 to 60,000
ft.), those on the west including a large share of contemporaneous
volcanic materials; all three belts having been deformed and up-
heaved, as well as deeply dissected in the later chapters of geological
time. It is, however, important to note that the interval between
Palaeozoic and Mesozoic time, in which mountain-making disturb-
ances were so general in western Europe and eastern North America
that the older geologists thought them to be of world-wide extent,
was here generally passed over in relative quiet, so that continuous
sedimentation produced in certain districts a conformable series
of depoHts from Silurian to Cretaceous time. Furthermore, the
Carboniferous period, which gained its name from the extensive coal
deports that were then formra in western Europe and eastern North
America, was a marine limestone-making period in the Cordilleran
region.
There b here exemplified, as might be expected in a region extend-
ing over 3000 m. from Alaska to southern Mexico, and measuring
over 1000 m. in breadth at its middle, a great variety of plateau
and mountain structures. The broad upheaval of adiacent blocks
of earth-crust without significant tilting or disturbance has produced
the plateaus of Arizona and Utah. Some of the simplest and
youngest mountain ridges in the world are to be found in tne broken
and tilted lava blocks of southern Oregon. Tilted blocks on a larger
scale, much more affected by processes of sculpture, are found in the
lofty St Elias Alps of Alaska, the ute of some of the greatest glaciers
in the world. The wall of a huge fracture, now elaborately carved,
constitutes the western slope of the Wahsatch range, facing the desert
basin of Utah. Rang;es of a relatively simple arch structure are seen
in the Uinta mountams of Wyoming and Utah. Arched upheavals
also characterize the front range of the Rockv Mountains proper in
Colorado and Wyoming and m the Black Hills of South Dakota,
bending up the strata of the adjacent plains in the simplest fashion,
and producing dome-like mountains, now deeply dissected by out-
flowing consequent streams. A remarkable change in the structure
of the Rocky Mountains occurs north of the Missouri river in Montana
and northward into Canada, where the front range is of synclinal or
trough structure, with the younecst instead of the oldest rocks along
the axis, while the strata of the plains are bent down and over-
ridden in the most abnormal manner. Indeed, mountain structure
occurs of so great divcrsityr in various parts of the Cordilleran region
as to elude general description. The disturbances extend directly
to the western coast line, including not only the coast range of Cali-
fornia, but the peninsular area of Lower California (belonging to
Mexico) and the detached mountainous islands of BritiJah Columbia
and Alaska.
Volcanoes of commanding form here and there dominate the
plateaus and mountains. (Mzaba, Popocatepetl and their neiph-
Dours, terminating the Cordilleran system in Mexico; Mount San
Francisco, bearing snow and Arctic plants above the nearly desert
plateau of Arizona; Mount Shasta, with small je;laciers in northern
California: Mount Rainier, with extensive glaciers surmounting the
Cascade range of Washington; Mount Wrangell in Alaska, and
farther on the many cones in the curved chain of the Aleutian
islands: all these have been heaped up around vents through which
their lavas rose from some deep source. Vast lava floods have been
poured out at different times. The southern part of the Mexican
plateau is built up in large measure of lava sheets, capped with
volcanoes. Extensive lava beds, barren and rugged, cover larige
areas in north-eastern California. The basins of Snake and Columbia
rivers in Idaho and Washington are flooded with older and more
extensive lava sheets, whose borders bp around promontories and
islands of the " mainland." Still older lava-flows in British Columbia
are now deeply dissected by the branches of Frazer river, and remain
only in disconnected upland areas. High pbtcaus in Utah are pro-
tected by a heavy I%va capping, the result of great eruptions before
the plateaus were uplifted. Here and there rise dome-like mountains,
the result of the underground intrusion of lavas in cistern-like s^ces,
forming " laccoliths," and blistering up the overlying strata. Thus,
by mountain upheaval or volcanic eruption, great altitudes have
been gained. Where the uplift has been strong, ranges of truly
Alpine form with extensive snow-fields and glaciers occur, as in the
Selkirk range of Canada (now traversed by the Canadian Pacific
railway), and again in Alaska. Heights of 12.000 and 14,000 ft. are
exceeded by numerous summits in the central part of the system ;
but the dominating peaks are found far in the north-west and in
the south. Several mountains in Alaska exceed 18,000 ft. (Mount
McKinley, 20,300 ft.; Mount Logan, 19.540 ft.: Meant St ESas.
18,000 ft.): and the great Mexican voteanoes nse nearly as high
(Orizaba, 1 8,250 ft.). Widespread plateaus maintain uplaad akitwks
of more than a mile over vast areas.
As in all regions of great altitude, the erodoa of valleys has
progressed on a magnificent scale in the Cordilleran regiaia. and the
actual form of many of its parts is more the result oi aculpturizqc
than of uplifting. The plateaus of Arizona are traversed by toe deep
ca lions 01 the Colorado river and its branches, at places i m. deep,
and with elaborately carved walU. Upon the plateaus themsd>-c&,
long and ragged cliffs of recession attest an even greater work of
erosion than the cajtons. In all the mountain ranges except those
of youngest uplift, valleys have been actively eroded, aometime*
producing steep peaks as in Mount Aasiniboine (11.500 ft.) in the
Canadian Rockies, rivalling the Swiss Matterhom in sharpness of
form; but the greater number of summits have been worn to roughly
pyramidal form between wide-flaring valleys, and the mountain
flanks have thus come to be extensively covoed with rock waste
lyin|; on slopes of relatively uniform declivity. Some of the ranges
are in a second cycle of dissection, having been once worn domm to
moderate relief and now being elevated for renewed eroaion ; the
Sierra Nevada of California is believed to be, in part, of this history,
having at least in its central and northern parts been well reduced
and now again enjoying a mountainous character in virtue of a later
slanting uplift en tioc, with rapid descent on its eastern fracturtd
face. Other ranges almost completely worn down. Aill remain
tow, as in south-eastern California, where they are now r cpr eae n ttd
by gently sloping rock floors veneered with sravel and retaining only
small remnants of their original mass stiU unconsumed; thus the
end, as well as the beginning, of the cycle of erooon. together with
many complications ot its progress, are illustrated in different pans
of this great and varied mountain system. In the fjorded coast of
Alaska, as well as in the higher northern ranges, signs ci intense
glacial ero«on are seen in the cirques at the vaUey heads and in the
discordant junction of the "hanging" lateral valleys and the deep
trunk valleya— the floon of the former being cut off 00 the walb
of the latter.
Fitting complements of the deeply-eroded mountains are found ia
the great accumulations of mountain waste now occupying basins
of depression between the various ranges, as in Mexico. Utah.
Nevada, Montana and elsewhere. Erosion and transportatioQ bete
combine to build up the floors of the basins with the waste of the
surrounding highlands; a result that is peculiariy benefici a l ia
Mexico where the climate of the plateau basins is rendered rehtivdy
temperate by reason of its altitude, and where the surface is easily
habitable by reason of its small relief. In the Iw^ denressioRs, as
along the boundary of the United States and Mexico, isolated raises
frequently rise like islands over the plain of waste that has bees
built up on their flanks. Shallow saline lakes or pbyas (wet-«ieatber
lakes) without outlets lie on the lowest parts of the %/aste-fidled
basins; their failure to overflow in riven discharging to the sea
being less the result of enclosure by banien than of dcfideocy of
rainUll; for it is chiefly in the arid region that the waste-flo^vd
basins are best developed. Indeed, the rainfall is often soecaaty
that the streams from the mountains — where most of the little
precipitation occurs — often fail even to form lakes, withering away
on the waste plains. In all these cases, the wash of rock waste frcxa
the mountains remains on the continent and builds up the basis
plains, instead of being carried away from the land to form stratified
sediments on the sea floor. The habit of gathering mountain waste
in interior basins that characterizes so much of the Cordilleraa
region to-day^ is only the continuation of an cariier practice, for
extensive basin depoats of Tertiary date are found in many pans
of the Cordilleran region; some of them are famous for preserving
vertebrate fossils, sucn as those of the many-toed ancestors of the
horse.
Between the loftier western highlands and the lover eastern
highlands (Laurentian and Appalachian) lies a great crtentann of
medial plains, stretchine in moderate altitude from the -^^^
Arcric (Jcean to the Gulf of Mexico, and having in their JJ^^^^
middle a breadth of 1500 m. They are composed'*"^
throughout of neariy horizontal strata and made a re^oa locx
exempt from stronj^ disturbance. Although for the most part floored
by marine formations, their structure and composition indicate, as
has already been said, relatively shallow water. The ancient sra
that once occupied the middle belt of the continent therefore had
little likeness to the abyanal oceans, but resembled rather the shalio*
ocean margins that to-day overlap various continental masEes—
the largest example of this idnd now existing being between Asia and
Australia. The eastern part of the plains u underlaid by Paheozoic
strata, already mentioned as having been laid down upon the sub*
siding Archaean continent or folded in the roakins 01 the Ap
achians; coal beds are here included in the Ohb and middle 1
sippi basins. The area of the western plains remained submerced
to a later date, preserving a stretch of marine waters to the end of
Mesozoic time, and thus resembling the bwland belt of western
Asti, which was similarly covered by a broad and a shallow sra
of the ocean extending from the Arctic to the European raedter-
raneans until a late geological date. The surface of the medial pUtm
is not always so even as might be inferred from their name. Both
762
NORTH AMERICA
aometimea styled the Cordilleras of North America (the Rocky
Mountains being the eastern members of the system in the
United States and Canada^, differ from the Laurentian
and Appalachian regions in having suffered numerous
diaordcrlv movements at dates so recent that the existing
relief of the region bearsa significant relation to its irregular
uplifts; a relation that doubtless once obtained in the older
mountain areas of the east, where it has now been obliterated by
erosion. It is not, however, only in modern geological periods that
mountain- making disturbances nave prevailed in the regions of the
Western highlands; their geological history is one of repeated and
Iong<ontinucd movement — the ruins of the more ancient upheavals
supplying materials for the strata of newer ranges. For example, in
Canada an axial belt of ancient rocks is bordered on the east and
west by stratified formations of enormous thickness (40,000 to 60,000
ft.), those on the west including a large share of contemporaneous
volcanic materials; all three belts having been deformed and up-
heaved, as well as deeply dissected in the later chapters of geological
time. It is, however, important to note that the interval between
Palaeozoic and Mesozoic time, in which mountain-making disturb-
ances were so general in western Europe and eastern North America
that the older geologists thought them to be of world-wide extent,
was here generally passed over in relative quiet, so that continuous
sedimentation produced in certain districts a conformable series
of deposits from Silurian to Cretaceous time. Furthermore, the
Carboniferous period, which gained its name from the extensive coal
deposits that were then formra in western Europe and eastern North
America, was a marine limestone-making period in the Cordilleran
i is here exemplified, as might be expected in a region extend-
ing over 3000 m. from Alaska to southern Mexico, and measuring
over 1000 m. in breadth at its middle, a great variety of plateau
and mountain structures. The broad upheaval of adjacent blocks
of earth-crust without significant tilting or disturbance nas produced
the plateaus <A Arizona and Utah. Some of the simplest and
youngest mountain ridges in the world are to be found in tne broken
and tilted lava blocks of southern Oregon. Tilted blocks on a larger
scale, much more affected by processes of sculpture, are found in the
lofty St Elias Alps of Alaska, the site of some of the greatest glaciers
in the world. The wall of a huge fracture, now elaborately carved,
constitutes the western slope of the Wahsatch range, facing the desert
u-.:- .r iT^.v D._«^ ^t > ix!..^!.. -: i^ . C ^ .
basin of Utah. Rang;es of a relatively simple arch structure are seen
in the Uinta mountains of Wyoming and Utah. Arched upheavals
also characterize the front ran^e of the Rocky Mountains proper in
Colorado and Wyoming and in the Black Hills of South Dakou,
bending up the strata 01 the adjacent plains in the umplest fashion,
and producing dome-like mountains, now deeply dissected by out-
flowing consequent streams. A remarkable change in the structure
of the Rocky Mountains occurs north of the M issouri river in Montana
and northward into Canada, where the front range is of synclinal or
trough structure, with the youngest instead of the oldest rocks along
the axis, while the strata of the plains are bent down and over-
ridden in the most abnormal manner. Indeed, mountain structure
occurs of so great diversity^ in various parts of the Cordilleran region
as to elude general description. The disturbances extend directly
to the western coast line, including not only the coast range of Cali-
fornia, but the peninsular area of Lower California (belonging to
Mexico) and the detached mountainous islands of Britidi Columbia
and Alaska.
Vokanoes of commanding form here and there dominate the
plateaus and mountains. (Mzaba, Popocatepetl and their neigh-
bours, terminating the Cordilleran system in Mexico; Mount &n
Francisco, bearing snow and Arctic plants above the nearly desert
plateau of Arizona; Mount Shasta, with small jglaciers in northern
California: Mount Rainier, with extensive glaciers surmounting the
Cascade range of Washington; Mount Wrangell in Alaska, and
farther on the many cones in the curved chain of the Aleutian
islands: all these have been heaped up around vents through which
their lavas rose from some deep source. Vast lava floods nave been
poured out at different times. The southern part of the Mexican
plateau is built up in large measure of lava sheets, capped with
volcanoes. Extensive lava beds, barren and rugxed, cover large
areas in north-eastern California. The ba«ns of Snake and Columbia
rivers in Idaho and Washington are flooded with older and more
extensive lava sheets, whose borders bp around promontories and
islands of the " mainland." Still older lava-flows in British Columbia
are now deeply dissected by the branches of Frazcr river, and remain
only in disconnected upland areas. High plateaus in Utah are pro-
tected by a heavy Uva capping, the result of great eruptions before
the plateaus were uplifted. Here and there rise dome-like mountains,
the result of the underground intrusion of lavas in cistern-like spaces,
forming " laccoliths," and blistering up the overlying strata. Thus,
by mountain upheaval or volcanic eruption, great altitudes have
been gained. Where the uplift has been strong, ranges of truly
Alpine form with extensi\'e snow-fields and glaciers occur, as in the
Selkirk range of Canada (now traversed by the Canadian Pacific
railway), and again in Alaska. Heights of 12,000 and 14.000 ft. are
exceeded by numerous summits in the central part of the system ;
but the dominating peaks are found far in the north-west and in
the south. Several mountains in Alaska exceed 18,000 ft. (Mount
McKmtey, 30,yx> ft.; Mount Logon. 19,540 f^; Mount St ESos.
18.000 ft.); and the great Mexican vokanoes rise nearly as hijdi
(Orizaba, 1 8,250 ft.). Widespread plateaus maintain upland »Hi?^KVt
of more than a mile over vast areas.
As in all regions of great altitude, the erosioa of valleys has
progressed on a magnificent scale in the Cordilleran region, and the
actual form of many of its parts is more the result 01 aculpiuring
than of uplifting. The plateaus of Arizona are traversed bv the deep
cailons of the Colorado river and iu branches, at places x m. deep,
and with elaborately carved walU. Upon the plateaus themsdves»
long and ragged cliffs of recession attest an even greater work of
erosion than the caitons. In all the mountain ranges except those
of youngest uplift, valleys have been actively eroded, scmietioves
producing steep peaks as in Mount Assinibotne (11,500 ft.) in the
Canadian Rockies, rivalling the Swiss Matterhom in sharpness of
form; but the greater number of summits have been worn to roughly
pyramidal form between wide-flaring valleys, and the moantaia
flanks have thus come to be extensively covcarcd with rock waste
lyini; on slopes of relatively uniform declivity. Some of the ranges
are in a second cycle of dissection, having been oooe worn down to
moderate relief and now being elevated for renewed croskxt ; the
Sierra Nevada of California is believed to be, in part, of thb history,
having at least in its central and northern ports been well redncni
and now again enjoying a mountainous character in virtue of a later
slanting uplift en Hoc, with rapid descent on iu eastern fracturad
face. Other ranges almost completely worn down, still remain
low, as in south-eastern California, where they are now represented
by gently sloping rock floors veneered with gravel and retainii^ only
small remnants of their original mass still unconsonaed; thus the
end, as well as the beginning, of the cycle of erouon. twcther witb
many complications ot its progress, are illustrated in dilicrent parts
of this great and varied mountain system. In the fiordcd coast of
Alaska, as well as in the higher northern ranees, signs of intense
glacial erosion are seen in the cirques at the valley heads and in the
discordant junction of the "hanging" lateral valleys and the deep
trunk valleys— the floors of the former being cut off on the walls
of the latter.
Fitting complements of the deeply-eroded mountains are foond ia
the great accumulations of mountain waste now occupying basias
of depression between the various ranges, as in Mexico, Utah.
Nevada. Monuna and elsewhere. Erosion and transportation here
combine to build up the floors of the ba«ns with the waste of the
surrounding highlands; a result that is peculiarly ben^cial ia
Mexico where the climate of the plateau basms is rendered relatiwly
temperate by reason of its altitude, and where the surface u eaaty
habitable by reason of its small relief. In the lari^ depressions, as
along the boundary of the United States and Mexico, isolated raiifc»
frequently rise like islands over the plain of waste that has ben
built up on their flanks. Shallow saline lakes or plavas (wet-veather
lakes) without outlets lie on the towest parts of the waste-fiUed
basins; their failure to overflow in rivers discharging to the set
being less the result of enclosure by bauiiers than of dc6c>eocy of
rainfall; for it is chiefly in the arid region that the waste-floored
basins are best developed. Indeed, the rainfall is often soacanty
tlut ''-^ -'■ :- ff^m t*ie r—rntntn?, -Tihere roost of thcUttk
prvi.iiriLjii'jtL (ALLiia — uiLlu i^di t'.iLji tu a.3sjj lakes, withering away
on Lhc \iaAXc pbiria. In atl these cas», the wash of rock waste fro«
th« gtiQuntatna remains on (he cootinent and builds up the basaa
plfilrii^ Liiiicad ol being carried away from Uie land toformstrati&rd
selirrienti on the sea floor. The habit of g.JtherinK mountain waste
in iimcrlar baaina that charactertEes BO much of the CordiQcraa
re^li'-^n. to-<b,y ia only the continijatlon of an earlier practice, for
ex[i'n<J\'e ba^In deptOi^Lts of Tertiary date are found in many ports
of tdc! CDrdlLleran region; some of Lhcjn are famous for preserving
vertebrate fo^iiCs, »uch as those ol the many-toed aooeators of the
boj'!^H
Quiwccn the bfticr western highlands and the lower casters
hi|^li1.3rL(.U [Laurentian and Appalachian) lies a great •'nmwffn of
m( t in^. ■siretcJiiin(t in nwderate altitude f ittm the ,
m ,
th:- ut^h^jt i^l nearly horizontal scrata and mark a region loor
ex( nipt rram strong disturbance^ Although for the most part fkMred
by nkarinc brcruitioris, their stmcture and compontion indicate, as
ha- already been sajd. rcUitivtly shall ov water. The ancient an
th ft once occupted the itiidiJle belt ol the continent therefore had
litt Ic [jkcncss to the la^bysrruil oceans, but resembled rather the shaJk^v
octan rTurglns that tcMjay overlap various continental nttsse^—
th'. lj.ETei^t example of Lhts kind now exiting being between Asia asd
Ai:-=f ralia. The eastern part of the plains i^ underlaid by PabeoKnc
str '- - I ^ — . ^ ■' -.- ^ / -^ y..-- iny down upon the sub-
sic-o i.^: — . — .^.-....j.i w.. au.au.uu um uic makinr oi the Appal-
achians; coal beds are here included in the Ohio and middle Mi9ss»-
sippi basins. The area of the western plains remained submerced
to a later date, preserving a stretch of marine waters to the end of
Mcsozoic time, and thus resembling the lowland belt of wcstere
Asii. which was similarly covered by a broad and a shallow arm
of the ocean extending from the Arctic to the European m c di tct-
raneans until a late geological date. The surface of the medial (dbifis
is not always so even as might be inferred from their name. BoA
n c < iKe CttU of MexioDt. luid having in their ]
I n^^ilih of 1590 m. They are composed
\
\
am
th;
wa
of
Ca
do,
An
re^
inj
of
th.
yo
an
9C1
k>f
in
CO
b)
in
ah
C<
bo
an
fl.:
of
to
fo
M
NORTH AMERICA
763
the eastern and the western areas have been extensively denuded,
even to the point of being reduced to peneplains. Their present
altitude is not so much the result of their original uplift from the
sea as of a later elevatory movement. The great river basins, for
which North America is famous, have thus been formed between
the eastern and western highlands — the Mississippi receiving
the drainage of a vast area (about 1,340,000 sq. m.) tor discharge
to the south, while the Saskatchewan and Mackenzie gather theu-
waters from somewhat less extensive axeai in the north. Pleistocene
glaciation covered the plains of the Ohb, upper Mississippi and
Winnipeg districts with extensive deposits of ice-laid or water-laid
drift, furnishing^ a generally smooth surface and a fertile soil: here
are the true prauies— treeless, but richly erasscd.
The traditional continuity of the Cordilleras of North and South
Ajnerica has been broken by investigations in the isthmian oortion
. of the northern continent. The structural peculiarities
?""?'_ of the western highlands of North America may be traced
^^^'rj only to the east and west belt of great volcanoes by
f^*f** which the plateau of central Mexico is terminated on the
r^- south. The ranges of the Andes fail to reach Panama.
"^^ from which the nearest one is separated by the valley of
the Atrato. The two Cordilleras are out of line with each other,
and their ends are some I300 m. apart. Central America, the West
Indies and various submarine ridges by which the islands are con-
nected with one another and with the mainland to the west, as
well as certain ran^ along the northern mamn of South America,
all betong together in what has been termed the AntUlean mountain
system, in which east and west trends of late geological date pre-
dominate, with abundant vokxmic additions on the Pacific border
of Central America, and along the eastern end of the system in the
Windward islands of the Leswr Antilles. The unity ol this system
has been until recently overlooked partly because the Antillean
ranges are for the most part still under water, and yet further because
the volcanoes which form the strongest reliefs of the isthmian region
are so arranged along the Pacific coast as to suggest the continuity
of the Cordilleran systems on the north ano^south; but these
volcanoes are really only superadded to a foundation of quite another
kind. Geokwical studies on the mainland and on the islands have
shown that both fundamental structure and surface form are not
Cordilleran; and numerous soundings in the adjacent mediterraneans
suggest that the islands are best interpreted as the somewhat
denuded crests of great crustal ridges. The warm waters that bathe
the West Indies come with a high temperature from the eouatorial
Atlantk:, and favour the growth of corals along the shores. Fringing
and elevated reefs are known on many of the islands. The Bahamas
are the slightly overtopping parts ota broad platform of coral and
other cak:2ueous marine deposits, of which the greater area constitutes
ejctensive shallow banks, which descend by a steep slope on the
north-east to great depths in the Atlantic The lowlands of Yucatan
resemble Florida in being the emerged part of a much larger mass,
of which an ec|ual portion is still under water in the shdf around the
Gulf of Mexica All this region is luxuriantly productive and is
advantageously surrounded by waters which would be barren and
desert, like the Sahara, if replaced by bwlands. The active volcanoes
on the Pacific slope have built many cones and uplands, some of
their historic eruptions having been of terrible violence. Thus Lake
Nicaragua, once a bay of the Pacific, has been cut off by volcanic
deposits, leaving only the Gulf of Fonseca open to the western ocean,
raising the level of the lake behind the barrier and turning its dis-
charge eastward to the Caribbean Sea across what was once the
inter-oceanic watershed.
The successive crustal movements by which the land area of what
we now know as North America has Seen increased and connected
-|, have determined the growth of several great river systems
*"•"• through which the broader part of the continent is drained.
The movements that resulted in the emergence of the Plains had the
effect of engrafting many ancient rivers of moderate size upon trunks
of unusual dimensions. The Mississippi system, some of whose
eastern branches probably date from early Mcsozoic time, received
great reinforcements by the addition of many long western branches
m Tertiary time, roughly contemporaneous with the uplift of the
Gulf coastal plain by which the lower trunk of the river was extended
to the sea. The present headwaters of that river-trunk to which the
name of Mississippi is applied, and which for that reason have gained
an undue subjective importance, arc of relatively modem date, as
they are controlled by the abundant glacial deposits of northern
Minnesota. The evolution of the Mackenzie resembles that of the
Mississippi in a very general way, although some of its eastern
branches may be the descendants c^ ancestors more ancient than
those flowing westward from the Appalachians; but the regime of
the great northern river is strikinjgly unlike that of its still greater
southern analogue on account of its course bein^ from a warmer to
a colder climate: hence ice-<iams, obstructed discharge, and over-
flows recur every spring. The Nelson and the St Lawrence systems,
draining eastward to Hudson Bay and St Lawrence Gulf, receive
drainage from areas that would belong to the Mackenzie and the
Mississippi systems under a simpler plan of continental growth;
and there is much rrason for thinking that this simpler plan obtained
until the occurrence of those changes, in association with the Glacial
period, whereby sea waters gained access to the deptcssions that now
ti . 1 1. 1 1 He tKiy ^ .1 n rl sou n (ia of the northeastern coast. 1 o oiemplillca*
tii<n> qf the- mk that the Iae^^t ctccan rooeives the dmins]^ of the
smalli^r continental area, the rivtn that flow Into the FaciGc tank
l..-l(>w ihoit U-bngirtg \o the Atlantic The ereatcin: i* the YukcMi^
CiF J;irth«- Canada and irincr Atasfca, one of the great rivtrs of the
vnHil, littio known until the active expioniion oRt* baain for aold-
fu ],U The FtTOcr draim much of the mountainoiii arts of souiKpm
liniish CylumbJa. as the Columbb driina that ol the north-wc^ti-m
IniSf-d States; the bttcr is pn-cuiiar In that one of iis hcadv^iiicn
ri '^ & .It the easi€m ba^ of the Kocky Mount aiot in northern l^lontana
ftn] flews westward through the mnj^f^ The Colo>nbdo discharge*
s nuiddy current into the Gulf of Caltfomia; but for the aridity of
it-i ku^fi drainage area its volume would be much largier^ The sainc
b tnic of the Rio Clrande, whose name would be better jtistiA^ if so
much of its basin were not 9cnii-andi
The most rrmarkablc lacustrine rt£k»n of the continent, rivulling
that of Central Africa^ forma a belt around the border of the Lauren-
lian highland; here, in addition to ten la.Tg'^ lakct, there i,M*mm.
ar? hundreds of nullum size, and many thousand small
laltcfl^^ They ar? peculiar in ofxrupyLn? a region of mademte relief,
in which no strong di^ocatlons have taken puce in recent gcologkal
time (unless in urn case of Lake Superior), and thus in contrast ino
with the Freat African lake^ which occup^^ rift-vallcvs or z^tiben «
ComparatsvcEy recent Iracture. The L^urentian tabes arc further
charaetcriied by an intimate aMoeiation with the icC'Ehceti of the
Glacial period; hut while Eclaciaf erosion and drift obstruction
sufFicc to account for the smaller Lakes^ it is very probable that broad
crustal varping ajid drainag:e reversal have b«?n potent aids to the
C'thcT processes in producing the i^reat lakes. The northern Cordil-
Ut.m region cont^ns it^any oeautiful lakes of moderate size in d<!ep
\'.Lll4^y!ii amon? the crowdef] ranees of the narrowed mountain bt'lt.
'II. "ir ^irii'iin has not beers cltfiiM^ly studied. The basins amonf^ the
(; .. 'I 1: H .:;i'-a of the middle and aouiht^rn CordilleniSv in the United
I- :.L^ ■ ii 1 Mi'xicOi contain many Lakes that occupy shallow depres-
f.'^i-.i-. LiL ck'$L-rt plains; they are usually without outlet and saline;
many of the basins uxrt ftjrmerly occupied by lakes of much grmter
si^e^ some of which ovcrJlo^ctiK irri plying a clinuite moister than
that Ejf to-day, probably com^latcii with the glacial dimate of the
ntTi^fin^ farther northx L»ikt-s \n vqlcanic cratEirs or behind volcanic
i .irritTi^ occur in Ci-ntral Ami^rica, while Florida possesses many
ftmiill Likes \n limestone b-isin^*- The following table is taken from
riu^sK^Hj Lakii ttj Nerlh Am^ki$: —
Lake.
/Vltitude.
Area.
Uepih.
Ontario
Eric
Huron .......
Michif^an .....
Superior
Ft.
57i
5q. m.
9,900
JI^OOO
1 Ft.
73B
aio
750
tooS
The rlimatie foa lures of North America are brat appreciated
when ccnsldtrwl as cshihitin^ modifications gf those general diniatic
conditions which prevail in conscouence of the globular tSmat*
Ivfm of the earth a* a whole. In January^ when the bo-
ihvtms t>f 65* to 75" F* stretch at most directly across land and sea in
the north tomd 100^ a mean temperature of xero or less invades the
p^j^ion n Of th'wcst of Hudson Bay, which thus rtsemhles north-easicrn
Asia in depiarting gf^atly from the mean prevailing in similar la tit udes
on the northern oceans^ and in bringing upon the morthem lands a t^
extension of frigid condiliong^lhai; have no anaii^ue in thi:- southern or
oceanic hemisphere. In July, when the Uoibcrm* of 40^ and 50*
have a tolerably direct course around the latitude cirrks that border
the continent on the north, a ijreat middte arm of North Arfserica
becomes w.irmer tlian the teas on the east and west, havirig a mean
of over fio'i, a r\4 in pan ovc r 90 '. 1 n J a nua ry the H ud so d Bay resion
h 30° coldef than the mean of its own latitudcn alwul 60° colder than
the mean fnf the corresponding southern latitude; while in July the
AriitjnA-Mt'Jtitan region is 20 above the mean of its own lalitude,
or nboui 40° above Uic mean of the corresponding southern Latitude,
in Wh winter and &ummer the i^therms are rnore closely crowded
while crossing the continent th,in white crossing the adjacent oceans;
or, in other words, the poleward teptiperature gradient is stronser
on the land than On the oceans; acid all thej* features should be
regarded as inherent tharactcristks of ihe climate of North America
in V'inue of its befng^a continent chiefly in temiienite latitudes.
An asyiciated feature of continental climate h found in ihe strong
annual range of tempcf*turc of the central land arra^ The range
bem^en the means of lanuar^' and July exceeds 40*" for the bretit
part of the lands, and 70" fur much of the northern lands; the range
fif extreme temperatures is much eTcalCT On correspondinE oceanic
areas in the northern hemisphcit the ranEC- h little more tTian lo',
and in the ^luihern hemi^phcFe it is proh.ilily tess than 10*. It
must app<:ar from thii that if the largest part of North America is
said to be in the nofth tempente rone, " temperate " must be taken
as having litiTe of the meansng origmally given to k in southern
Europe, for I he winter cold is ^^vere and i he summer heat is excessive
over much of the North American continent.
The several members of the terrestnal wind system, including
76+
NORTH AMERICA
therein the trade winds of a broadened torrid zone, the stormy
westerly winds of middle latitudes and the irrcsular winds of the
polar regions, are well exemplified over North America; but, as is
usually the case on land, the systematic movement of the atmosphere
is better seen in the drift^of tke clouds than in the movement of the
surface winds, which arc much modified by the changes from Hill to
valley, from mounuin to plain.' Nevertheless the prevalence of the
general atmosphere currents has much to do with the control of
certain values of annual temperature range, as well as with the
distribution of rainfall. The former are small (about ao") along a
great stretch of the Pacific coast, even as far north as Alaska, where
the moderating influences of the ocean are brought upon the land
by the westerly winds; while a range appropriate to a continental
interior ^* or 40*) is experienced over most of the eastern side of
the continent in temperate latitudes, and even upon the North
Atlantic ocean near the American coast, where strong seasonal
changes of temperature are carried forward by the westerly winds.
It is particularly in this respect that the general climatic resemblances
between North America and Eurasia, above rcfcrrod to, are broken;
for eastern Canada and western Europe are strikingly unlike in
seasonal variations of temperature. Labrador is about 10* cooler
than northern Germany in luly, but nearly 40* cokler in January.
The distribution of rainfall is m ffeneral controlled by the prevaihng
course of the winds. The West Indies receive abundant rain from
the passing trades. In Mexico and Central America the eastern slopes
are tor the most part better watered than the western, because the
winds there come chiefly from the east (maximum over 100 in. in
Guatemala and adjacent parts). Farther north the reverse holds true ;
the Pacific slope north of 40* latitude has an abundant rainfall (maxi-
mum over 100 in.), and ite mountains are clothed with dense forests.
There are large areas of deficient rainfall (less than 30 in.) in the interior
of the continent, iR^ere the intermontane basins and the piedmont
plains that slope eastward from the Rocky Mountains in middle lati-
tudes are treeless. The areas afflicted with dryness are unsymmetri-
cally distributed, being west of the medial mendian (95^, because of
the ranges near the Pacific by which rain is withheld from the basins
and from the plains farther east. The dryness is induced not only
by light precipitation, but also by active evaporation in the warm
season — a rule that holds true until a high latitude is reached.
East of the medial meridian great profit is received from the warm
and moist winds that are drawn inland from the water surface of the
mediterraneans (Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean Sea) which so advan-
tageously occupy the latitudes that are given up to the Sahara in
the Old World. It is largely on this account that the central and
eastern parts of the Mississippi basin enjoy a sufficient and well-
distributed rainfall, producing forests or fertile prairies over grtAt
areas (rainfall over 40 in.). Regions of prevailing snowfall are chiefly
in the north-west and north-east; the former includes the higher
ranges of the western highlands in Canada and Alaska, where the
snowfall from the Pacific winds is heavy, and extensive snowfields
and glaciers are formed; the former includes Greenland, where a
heavy ice-sheet shrouds the land, the snowfall of moderate measure
being probably supplied mostly from the North Atlantic. In the
northern contmental interior snow covers the ground during; the
winter season, not that the snowfall is heavy but that the persistent
cold weather preserves the moderate amount that falls.
The extetision of the continent across the belts of the terrestrial
wind system tends to turn branch winds from the westeriics toward
the trades on the Pacific border, and from the trades toward the
westerlies on the Atlantic border. This effect is strengthened in
summer, when the higher temperature prevalent over the continent
causes the air to flow away from above the lands, and to accumulate
over the neighbouring oceans, on each of which a vast anticyclone
is thereby established — the circulation of the atmosphere over the
North Atlantic and North Pacific thus coming to simulate the circu-
lation of the surface waters of the oceans themselves. It is partly
on account of this deflection of the summer winds up the Mississippi
valley that the eastern interior of the continent receives a beneficent
rainfall as already stated. In winter when the inflow from the south
is replaced by an outflow, httle rain or snow would fall but for the
indraft winds of cyclonic storms by which the outflow appropriate
to the cold season of the continent is temporarily reversed. The
free play of the cyclonic winds north and south over the great medial
plains permits indrafts from torrid and frigid sources, which some-
times succeed each other rapidly, producing abrupt and frequent
weather changes. Something of the same contrasts is produced by
winds drawn in upon the eastern coast alternately from over the moist
and warm waters of the Gulf Stream, and from over the moist and
cold waters of the Labrador cuaent. '
The southerly flow of the branching-grinds along the Pacific coast
gives them a drying quality, and thus still further broadens the
western arid region towards the ocean until it reaches the coast in
southern California and north-western Mexico (rainfall less than 10
in.), there joining the arid belt of western Mexico and presenting a
strong contrast to the rainy forested coast farther north; but
although unfavourably dry, the southern California coast is one of
the most truly temperate regions of the world, in respect of mildness
and constancy of temperature. The drying winds cover all California
in summer, but they migrate southward in the winter, giving place
to the stormy westeriics. Thus California has a subtropical climate
of wet winters and dry summers: while north in British Columbia
and Alaska there is plentiful rainfall all the year round, and farther
south there is persistent aridity.
The fauna of North America (Nearctic) is more cbnely related to
that of Europe-Asia (Palacarctic) than to that of any other 200-
geographical province; the two being united by many
writers in one faunal province (Hobrctic). The rdmlccr '■""'■
(caribou), beaver ana polar bear are common to both piovinoes.
The mooae» wapiti, bison and grinly bear of North America, are
closely related to the elk, red deer or stag, aurochs and brown
bear of Eurasia; and the following groups are wcU represented in
both provinces: cats, lynxes, weasels, bears, wolves, foxes, seals,
hares, squirrels, marmots, lemming, sheep and deer. On the other
hand the following forma are characteristic of North America:
(rodents) pouched rats or gophers, musk rat, prairie dog, Canadian
porcupine; (camiwra) raccoon and skunk; (ungulates) musk ox,
bighorn, Rocky Mountains goat, pronghorn; {manutttiJ) opoasam.
Among birds there is a close resemblance to those 01 Eurasia, with
some admixture of South American forms, as in the humming birds.
The forms especially characteristic of the northern continent are the
Baltimore oriole, bobolink, cowbird, flycatchers, wood-warblers,
Californiaiiquail, tree grouse, sage grouse, wild turkey and turkey
buzsard. The house sparrow of Europe has been introduced, and
has become very common, especially in the cities, where it is known
as the English sparrow. Reptilian and amphibian groups are well
represented: turtles are especially numerous; salamanders are
varied and large; rattlesnakes are among the more peculiar forms.
Among fish, the characteristic forms are the cyprinoids (carp).
Btur^n, salmon, pike and especially the suckers, sunfish, mud^li
(A mia) and gar pike {Lepidosteus) . The roost characteristic group of
invertebrates u the Unionklae or river mussels.
The floral areas of North America, limited by the nograpluc
divisions of the continent, may be divided into five bdta: the
eastern forested area, the western forested area, the -,^
interior unforestcd area, the northern barren lands and '«■'■>
the Gulf coast. The eastern forested area extends from the Laaren-
tian highland in Canada to the Great Lakes, and southward east of
the Mississippi to the Gulf coast. In the north and idoi» the moun-
tains southward, the forests are largely coniferous, witn a mixture
of birches, poplars and maples. Southward, especially in the interior
and at low altitudes, the conifers largely disappear, and oaks,
hickories, plane-trees, tulip-trees, walnuts ana other valuable
deciduous species abound. The western forested area begim in the
eastern Rocky Mountains and extends to the Pacific. Eastward in
the mountains the forests are interspersed with arid dtstikts wluch
increase in area southward. Northward, in Canada, the mountains
of the mkldle Cordilleras arc densely wooded with continuous forest
up to the timber line. Near the middle Pacific coast the forests
attain a luxuriant development, the redwood {Sequoia) of Cafifomia
and Oregon sometimes reaching a height of from 300 to 400 ft. The
unforested area of the interior consists of two very diasimilar por-
tions. The vast fertile prairies extend from the Great Lakes west-
ward to the Great Plains, and southward west of the Misiiasippi,
with occasional eastward lobes at low altitudes. On these plains
grasses and other herbaceous vegetation abound, and throiKlioat
this fertile belt aprnculture is largely followed, the grain and hay
crops being especially important. Northward in Canada the plains
become wooded, the western mountains and the eastern higluands
being thus connected by a narrow strip of forest. South-westward
and westward the fertfle prairie gives way to a vast arid Rgioo
beginning on the Great Plains and extending as far as south-eastern
California, and thence southward into Mexico. On this broad desert
few trees are found, although piflons grow on the cliffs and ledges,
and cottonwoods occur along the watercourses; but the vanoos
ranges that surmount the desert frequently carry forests. The desert
vegetation as a whole consist^of cacti, a^ves, sage-brush (^rfesasiia)
and other plants adapted to arid conditions. North of the eastern
forested area and east of the northern Cordilkras are the ** barren
lands," with frozen subsoil, extending to the Arctic coast. The
growing season here is short and the climate forbidding, so that trees
cannot develop, although birches, poplars, willows and other gcnefa.
which southward attain large size, are present as dwarf shrubs.
The vegetation of this northern barren district, like that of bleak
mountain summits southward, is very similar in character to that of
other extreme boreal regions. Blueberries, crowbcnics and some
other small fruits are abundant, but the brief summer will not mature
most crops of the temperate zone. The Gulf coast, on the other hand,
supports a vceetadon decidedly tropical in its nature. Somewhat
developed in Fbrida and the other southern states, this flora be c omes
the prevailing one on the coast of Mexico and Central America,
especially from the region of Vera Cruz southward, where the forests
are largely composed of palms and live oaks, and where giant
bamboos often attain a height of 40 ft. In these tropical forests
many orchids and other showy plants of northern conservatories are
native.
North America, with an area of about 8,000,000 sq. m. (16%
of all the lands, or 4*12% of the whole earth's surface), and a
mean altitude of about 2000 ft., at present plays a part io
human histoxy that is of greater importance than is wamraatcd
NORTHAMPTON, EARLS OE
765
by its size alone, although it has not in this rcsp«ct the
extxaordinary importance of Europe. The continent has the
good fortune to lie chiefly in a temperate rather
than a torrid sone, and in temperate latitudes to be
rro# much nearer to Europe than to Asia. Whatever may
'^*f^ have been the first home of the aboriginal inhabitants,
' the dominating people of to-day are derived from the
leading countries of the Old World. Not only so; temperate
North America has become the most progressive part of the
continent because of receiving its new population chiefly from the
most advanced nations of middle western Europe — Great Britain,
France and Germany; while the torrid islands and the narrowing
southern mainland of North America have been settled chiefly
from the less energetic peoples of southern Europe; and the
inhospitable northern lands are hardly entered at all by new-
comers, except in the recently discovered goldfields of the
far north-west. From the plantation of colonies on the eastern
coast, the movement inland has been governed to a remarkable
degree by physiographic factors, such as form, climate and
products. The cities of the Atlantic harbours and of the adjacent
lowlands still take a leading part in industry and commerce,
because of their longer establishment and of their relation to
Europe. The uplands, ridges and mountains of the Appalachian
system— the " Backwoods " of a century ago— remain rather
thinly occupied except at certain centres where coal or other
earth-product attracts an industrial population. Beyond the
Appalachians the middle interior contains a very large proportion
of habitable land. It was long ago recognized as a land of great
promise, and it is to-day a land of great performance, covered
with a network of railways, yielding an enormous product of grain,
and developing industries of all kinds. Indeed, within and closely
around an area marked by the St Lawrence system on the north,
the Ohio on the south, and stretching from the Atlantic coast
between the Gulf of St Lawrence and Chesapeake Bay inland to
the middle prairies, there is a remarkable concentration of the
population, industry, progress, wealth and power of North
America — the focus of attention from all other parts of the
continent. The regions of the far north and north-east, including
the greater part of the Laurcntian highland and the extreme
northern stretch of the medial plains and the western highlands,
remain and will long remain thinly populated. The furs of wild
animals are their characteristic product. Timber b taken from
their more accessible forests; but only in mining districts does
the population notably increase, as in the iron region around
Lake Superior and in the Klondike gold region.
In the south-eastern United States lies a belt of coastal
lowlands skirting the Appalachians, still affected by negro slavery
and its consequences. The descendants of the early French
settlers of Canada stand in political rights as well as in loyalty
to the Government on an equal footing with the British citizens
of the Domim'on. The Italians of the cities, the Hungarians
of the mines, the Scandinavians of the northern prairies, the
Irish and Germans everywhere are " Americanized " in the second
or third generation, rapidly entering local and national politics,
and hardly less rapidly attaining an honourable social standing
as tested by intermarriage with English and other stocks. But
the negro is set aside, even though he has adopted the language
and the religion of his former masters: political and social
rights are denied him, and intermarriage with whites is practically
excluded, although Illegitimate mulattos are numerous. Thus
has slavery left upon a people, amongst whom political rights
and social opportunities should be equal for all, the heavy burden
that always retards progress where strongly contrasted races
are brought together. Farther south still are the tropical
islands and the narrowing mainland, rich in possible productive-
ness, but slowly developed because of a prevailing diversity and
instability of government and lack of progressive spirit among
the people. Here also there is a considerable proportion of
negroes, but they live under less unhappy conditions than those
now obtaining in the United States. In Mexico and Centra]
America, the proportionate number of aborigines is much greater
than farther north.
West of the Mississippi in middle latitudes the population
rapidly decreases in density, and over a large extent of the semi-
arid plains it must long remain sparse. The settlements bordering
the plains on the east for a long time marked the " Frontier "
of civilization, for the vast stretch of dry country was a serious
barrier to farther advance. But the plains are now crossed by
many railways leading to the Cordilleran region — the " Far
West "—in large part too nigged or too arid for occupation,
but rich in minerals from one end to the other, the seat of many
mining camps of unstable population, and containing numerous
permanent settlements in the intermontane basins. Great
irrigation enterprises, conducted under the National Reclamation
Service of the United States, are employing all available water
supplies for agriculture; but large areas must remain permanently
desert. On nearing the farther ocean the climatic conditions
improve, and the population is rapidly increasing in number and
wealth; this district not being content to take its name with
respect to the east, not considering itself as included in the
" Far West," but choosing the distinctive designation of the
" Pacific Slope," and, while maintaining an active intercourse
all across the breadth of the continent, already opening relations
with the distant Orient by a new approach. Among the earliest
results of the latter movement was the arrival of Chinese labourers,
a humble, industrious and orderly class of men, but one which
stands apart in language, religion and race from the dominant
population, lives largely without domestic ties, and gains neither
political nor social standing in the New World.
Two centuries ago the aboriginal population of North America
would have deserved deacriptbn before the immigrant population.
To-day the aborigines are displaced from ncariy all the valuable
parts of the continent. Never very numerous, they are now decreas-
ing; many tribes are already extmct, many more are almost 00.
Those which remain less dimmisned are b the Far North or North-
West where nature is rigorous; or in the tropical forests of Central
America where nature is over bounteous; or in the more desert
parts of the Middle West where nature is arid. The replacement
of the native races by the foreign has too often been harsh, cruel
and unjust ; yet it has resulted in an advance of civilization. Many
savage tribc»j speaking many different languages, holding little
intercourse with each other, and frequently engaged in intertribal
wars, have given place in little more than two centuries to a great
population of European oriein, whose dominant parts speak one
language, whose arts are hignly advanced, whose home intercourse
is most active, and whose foreign commerce had attained unexpected
proportions at the opening of the aoth century. (W. M. D.)
NORTHAMPTON. BARL8 AND MARQUESSES OF. The
Northampton title has been held in various English families.
About X080 Simon de Senlis (d. 1x09), a Norman noble, and the
builder of Northampton Castle, was created earl of Northampton
as well as earl of Huntingdon by William the Conqueror; his
son Simon (d. Z153) was also recognized in the title about 1141,
though his stepfather, David, king of Scotland (1084- 11 53),
had meanwhile obtained the earldom in right of his wife. The
second Simon died childless. In 1 33 7 William dc Bohun (c. 13 10-
1360), a distinguished soklier, son of Humphrey de Bohun, 4th
eari of Hereford and 3rd earl of Essex, was created earl of
Northampton; and his son Humphrey, who succeeded, fell heir
in 1361 to the earldoms of Hereford and Essex, which thus
became united under that of Hereford. The titles, however,
became extmct at his death in 1373.
In 1547 William Parr (15x3-1571), son of Sir Thomas Parr
and brother of Catherine Parr, was created marquess of North-
ampton, and though attainted in 1553 was recreated marquess
in 1559. He took part in suppressing the rising in the north
of England in X537, and after serving as member of parliament
for Northamptonshire was made Baron Parr in X539. In
December 1543, just after his sister had married the Idng, he
was created earl of Essex, a title formeriy held by his father-in-
law, Henry Bourchier, who had died in March X540. Under
Edward VI., who called him "his honest uncle," Parr was
equally prominent, being lord-lieutenant of five of the eastern
counties, and being great chamberlain from 1550 to X553. He
favoured the claim of Lady Jane Grey to the Engh'sh throne and
consequently the accession of Queen Mary was quickly followed
by his attainder. Although sentenced to death he was pardoned
766
NORTHAMPTON, EARLS OF
and released from prison at the end of 1553. After enjoying
the favour of Queen Elizabeth, Northampton died at Warwick on
the 96th of October 1571. He left no ciiildren and his mar-
quessete became extinct. In 1604 Heniy Howard (see below)
was created earl of Northampton, his title dying with him.
It next passed into the Compton family, whore it has since
remained. The xst earl of Northampton in this line, William
Compton (d. 1630), who received the title in x6i8, was a great-
grandson of the Sir William Compton (1482-1528) who was
with Henry VIII. at the Field of the Cloth of Gold, and his son
the and earl ia noticed below. The gth earl, Charles Compton
(1760-1828), was created a marquess in 181 2, receiving at the
same time the titles q{ Earl Compton and Baron Wilmington.
His son Spencer Joshua Alwyne, the 2nd marquess (1790-X8S1),
was president of the Royal Society from J838 to 1848; the
latter'sson Lord Alwyne Compton (1825-1906) was bishop of
Ely from z886 to 1905. The 5th marquess (b. 1851), 'son of the
4th marquess (1818-1897), was, as Earl Compton, a Liberal
member of parliament from 1889 to 1897.
Hbnsy kowAXD, earl of Northampton (1540-16x4). was
the second son of Henry Howard, earl of Surrey, the poet,
and of Lady Frances Vere, daughter of the z 5th earl of Oxford,
and younger brother of Thomas Howard, 4th duke of Norfolk.
He was educated first by Foxe the martyrologist, afterwards
by John White, bishop of Lincoln, with whom he acquired
Romanist opinions, and finally at the charge of Queen Elisabeth
at King's College and Trinity Hall, Cambridge, where he obtained
his M.A. degree in 1 564, subsequently in 1568 being incorporated
M.A. at Oxford. The discovery of his brother's plot to nuirry
Mary, Queen of Scots, and of his own correspondence with her,
deprived him of Elizabeth's favour, and he was arrested more
than once on su^icion of harbouring treasonable designs. In
1583 he published a work entitled A Defcnsaiivt against the
Poyson of supposed Prophecies, an ostensible attack upon
astrology, which, being declared to contain heresies and treason,
led to his imprisonment. On regaining his liberty he is said to
have travelled in Italy. His flattery of the queen in lengthy
epistles met with no response, and his offer to take part in the
national defence against the Spanish invasion was refused. He
attached himself, however, both to Essex and to Robert Cecil,
and through the influence of the latter was in 1600 again received
by Elizabeth. At the dose of the queen's reign he joined with
Cecil in courting the heir to the throne in Scotland, the main
object of his long letters of advice, which James termed " Asiatic
md endless volumes," being to poison the royal mind against
Sir Walter Raleigh and other rivals, whom he at the same time
hoped to ensnare into compromising relations and correspondence
with Spain. These methods, which could not influence Elizabeth,
were completely successful with James, and on the latter's
accession Howard received a multitude of favours. In X603
he was made a privy councillor, on the xst of January 1604
lord warden of the Cinque Ports, and on the X3th of March earl
of Northampton and Baron Howard of MarnhuU in Dorset;
on the 24th of February X605 he was given the Garter and on
the 29th of April was appointed Lord Privy Seal. In X609
he was elected high steward of the university of Oxford, and in
1 6 1 2 chancellor of Cambridge university. The same year he was
appointed one of the commissioners of the treasury.
He was one of the judges at the trials of Raleigh and Lord
Cobham in 1603, of Guy Fawkes in X605, and of Garnet in x6o6,
in each case pressing for a conviction. In 1604 he was one of
the commissioners who composed the treaty of peace with Spain,
and from that date he received from the Spanish Court a pension
of £tooo. The climax of his career was reached when he assisted
his great-niece, Lady Essex, in obtaining her divorce from her
husband in order to marry the favourite Somerset, whose
mistress she already was, and whose alliance Northampton was
eager to securo for himself. He obtained the divorce by the
decree of a special commission, and when Sir Thomas Overbury's
influence seemed likely to prevent Somerset completing the
marriage project, he caused the former to be imprisoned in the
Tower. Shortly afterwards Overbury died from the effects of
poison administered by the direction of Lady Essex; and the dose
intimacy which existed between the latter and Northan^kton,
together with his appointment of Sir Gervase Elwes or Helwys,
a friend of his own, as the keeper of the victim, leaves his name
tarnished with the blackest suspicions. The discovery of the
crime was not nutde till some little time after Overbuiy had
succumbed, and meanwhile Northampton's own death antici-
pated his fall, together with that of Somerset, from power.
He advised against the summoning of parliament in x6i4» aiul
then fomented dilutes to compel James to dissolve it. He
died unmarried on the 15th of June 1614, when his title became
extinct, and was buried in the chapd of Dover Castle, the
monument erected above his grave being subsequently reonovcd
to the chapel at Greenwich College. His will shows that he died
a Roman Catholic.
Northampton, who was one of the most unscrupulous and trcadncr-
0U8 characters of the age, was nevertheless distioKutshcd for his
learning, artistic culture and his public charities. He built Nonh-
umberiand House in London and superintended the construction
of the fine house of Audley End. He founded and planned several
hotpitals. Bacon included three of his sayings in hb " Ap<»htbcKms,"
and chose him as " the leamedcst councillor " in tlw kingdom to
present to the kinff his Adaancenunt of Learning. He was the author
of a Treatise of Natural and Moral Phitosopky (1569: MS. in the
Bodleian Library); of a pamphlet supportmg the union between
Elizabeth and the duke of Anjou (isiSo; Harlcian MSS. 180): A
Defensatioe a^inst Ae Poyson of supposed Prophecies (1S83): a
reply to a pamphlet denouncing femak: govenuncnt (1589; Hariieian
MS. 702X) ; Duello Foiled, printed in T. Hcame's CoUectton of Curious
Discourses (i77S). ii< 33S> and ascribed there to Sir Edward Coke:
Translation of Charles V7s Last Adnee to Philip IL, dedicated with a
long epistle to the queen (Hari. 836, 1906 and daewhere in Stowe 9s,
King's MSS. 106): devotional writings fAnindcl MSS. 300):
speeches at the trials of Guy Fawkes and Garnet in SuUe Triels,
vol. i. In Somers Tracts («]. 1809), ii. 136, hu opinions <m the
unbn between England and Scotland are rco>rdcd.
See the life in Surrey's and WyaU's Poems, ed. by G. F. Nott
(1815), and Sidney Lee's article in the Diet. NaL Biog.
Spencer Compton, 2nd earl of Northampton in the Compton
line (160X-1643), was the son of William, xst earl, kwd presi-
dent of the marches, whose father had been created Baron
Compton by Elizabeth, and of Elizabeth, daughter and heir
of Sir John Spencer, lord mayor of London. On the 3rd of
November x6i6 he was created a Knight of the Bath, and
was elected for Ludlow in the parliamoit of 1621, the same
year being appointed master of the robes to the prince of Wales
and attending the latter in the adventure to Spain in 1623.
He warmly supported the king in the Scottish expeditions,
at the same time giving his advice for the summoning of the
parliament, which " word of four syllables " he declared was
" like the dew of heaven."^ On the outbreak of the Civil War
he was entrusted with the execution of the commission of array
in Warwickshire. After varying success and failuie in the
Midlands he fought at Edgehill, and after the king's xetum to
Oxford was given, in November 1642, the military supcrviaoa
of Banbury and the neighbouring country. He was attacked
in Banbury by the parliamentary forces on the 22nd of December,
but relieved by Prince Rupert the next day. In March 1643
he marched from Banbury to relieve Lichfidd, and having,
failed there proceeded to Stafford, which he occufHcd. Thence
on the 19th of March, accompanied by three of his sons, he
marched out with his troops and engaged Sir John Gell and Sir
William Brereton at Hopton Heath. He put to flight the enemy's
cavalry and took eight guns, but in the moment of victory,
while charging too far in advance, he was surrounded by the
parliament soldiers. To these who offered him quarter be
answered that " he scorned to take quarter from sudi base
rogues and rebels as they were," whereupon he was despatched
by a blow on the head. Clarendon describes his loss as a great
one to the cause. Northampton married Mary, daughter of
Sir Francis Beaumont, by whom besides two daughters he had
six sons, of whom the eldest, James (1622-168X), succeeded
him as 3rd earl of Northampton, Henry (x632-X7t3) became
bishop of London, and Charles, William and Spencer all dis-
tinguished themselves in the king's cause. The 3rd eail's thiid
1 Hardvncke State Papers, ii. 2 to.
NORTHAMPTON
767
Km Spencer (1673-1743) was a favourite of George 11. and in
1728 was created earl of Wilmington, a title which became
extinct at his death.
See the article in the Diet, cf Nai. Bieg. by C. H. Firth; E. B. G.
Warburton's Life of Prince Rupert: S. R. Gardiner's Hist, of England
and of the Cxsil War\ Tkomason Tracts. E 99 (18) [Hopton Heath
and Northampton's death]. E 103 (11) [elegy], E iii (il), E no
(8) 1643 (Proceedings at Banburyl, E 83 (47) [speech].
VORTHAMPTON* a municipal, county and parliamentaty
borough and the county town of Northamptonshire, England,
66 m. N.W. by N. from London by the London & North Western
railway; served also by a branch of the Midland railway. Pop.
(1891) 75>o75> (tpoi) 87,021. It lies in a slightly undulating
district mainly on the north bank of the river Nene. The main
roads converging upon the town meet near the centre in a
q>adous market-place, where stands a fountain on the site of
the ancient cross destroyed by the fire of 1675 which levelled
a great part of the town. There were formerly seven andent
parish churches, but only four remain. Of these All Saints
church was rebuilt after the fire of 1675, but retains its Decorated
embattled tower, with which the style of the later building
scarcely harmonizes, the principal feature being the. fine Ionic
portico. The church of St Giles was originally a cruciform
strucLure of the beginning of the 12th century, but has been
greatly changed, and besides a rich Norman doorway contains
specimens of Early English, Decorated and Perpendicular work.
St Peter's, near the site of the ancient castle, is supposed to be
of the same date with it, and its interior is a fine specimen of
Norman architecture. St Sepulchre's, one of the four round
churches still remaining in England, may have been built by
the Knights Templars at the close of the nth century. There
are several modem parish churches. Northampton is the seat
of a Roman Catholic bishop, and there is a pro-cathedral,
designed by A. W. Pugin (1864). In the neighbourhood of the
town there were a Cluniac priory of St Andrew, a house (Delapr6)
for nuns of the same order, and one for Augustinian canons
dedicated to St James; but the first has disappeared, the site
of the second is occupied by a modem mansion, and of the third
there are only slight fragments. Some portions of the castle
were re-erected on a new site after their destruction when the
Castle station was built by the London & North Western Railway
Company. In the populous parish of Hardingstone, S. of the
town, is one of the original Eleanor crosses, of which only three
remain out of twelve erected by Edward I. to mark the resting-
places of his queen's body on its way from Harby (Nottingham-
shire) to burial at Westminster. The chief public buildings of
Northampton are a town hall, county hall, county council
room, com exchange, antiquarian and geological museum, free
library and barracks. The free grammar school was founded
in 1552; the Northampton and county modem. and technical
schools were incorporated with it in 1894. There are a Roman
Catholic convent with schools, and various charity schools. The
charitable foundations include St John's hospital, founded in
the X3th century; St Thomas's hospital, founded in 1450 in
honour of Thomas k Becket, an infirmary, asylum, dispensary,
&c. There b a race-course north of the town. The staple trade
is the manufacture of boots and shoes, which b very large.
There are also considerable currying and tanning works,
breweries, iron foundries, and brick and tile works. The cattle
market is extensive. The county borough was created in 1888.
The municipal borough is under a mayor, 8 aldermen and 34
councillors. Area, 3469 acres.
British and Roman remains have been discovered near
Northampton (HamtunCf NorthanUme)^ and it became the chief
settlement of the Angle tribes who pushed their way up the Nen
in the early part of the 6th century. It was occupied by the
Danes in the reign of Edward the Elder and is said to have been
burnt by Sweyn in loia In the reign of Edward the Confessor
there were 60 burgesses in his demesne, and, although the
number had decreased to 47 in 1086, a new borough containing
40 burgesses had been formed. The burgesses rendered yearly
to the sheriff £30, xos. "which belonged to his farm," and
was probably the beghining of the fee farm which they were
allowed to pay directly to the king in 1185 and which was then
increased from £100 to £120. Forty marks of this farm were
pardoned by Ridiard III. in 1484 because " the town had come
to such ruin " that the bailiffs had to pay more than £53 from
their own goods. The mayor was the chief officer in the i3tb
century, and Henry VI. granted the incorporation charter in
X460 under the title of mayor, bailiffs and burgesses. The town
has been represented by two members since 1395. Tanning
was an industry of Northampton m the time of Edward I. and
in X675 a law was made by the corporation forbidding strangers
to purchase hides in the town except on fair-days. Boots and
shoes are known to have been made here in the reigns of John
and Edward I., although probably only for the use of the towns-
people, and by the X7th century Northampton was one of the
most noted places in Engkind for their manufacture.
Northampton has been the meeting-place of several important
councils and parliaments. In the wars between John and his
barons the castle withstood a siege by the latter, but in 1264
it was occupied by the barons under the earl of Leicester. In
the Wars of the Roses it was the scene of the battle in which
Henry VI. was defeated and taken prisoner in X46a During
the CivO Wars of the X7th century it was held for the parliament
by Lord Brooke. In X675 the town suffered severely by fire,
600 houses being destroyed.
See VicUnia County History, Northampton; C. H. Hartshorn.
Historical Memorials of Northampton (1848).
NORTHAMPTON, ASSIZE OF, a short code of English laws
issued in XX76, is drawn up in the form of instructions to six
committees of three judges each, which were to visit the six
circuits into which Engkind was divided for the purfXMe. Though
putxwrting to be a reissue of the Assixe of Qarendon (xi66),
it contains in fact many new provisions. As compared with
the earlier assize it prescribes greater severity of punishment
for criminal offences; arson and forgery were hencdforth to be
crimes about which the jurors are to enquire; and' those who
failed at the ordeal were to lose a hand as well as a foot. In what
is perhaps the most important section we may probably see the
origin of the possessory action of mori d*ancestorf an innovation
scarcely less striking than the. institution of the novel disseisin
in the winter of xi66. The jtistices were also ordered to try
proprietary actions commenoed by the king's writ for the
recovery of land held by the service of half a knight's fee or less.
In their fiscal capacity they were to enquire into escheats,
churches, hmds and womeii in the king's gifL The royal baih'ffs
were to answer at the exchequer for rents of assixe and all the
perquisites which they made in their offices, and apparently
the duty of enforcing this provision was entrusted to the justices.
As a result of the rebellion of XX73-XX74 it was provided that an
oath of fealty should be taken by all, " to wit, barons, knights,
freeholders and even villeins {rustici)"^ and that any one who
refused should be arrested as the king's enemy, and the justices
were to see that the castles whose demolition had been ordered
were completely razed.
AtTTHORiTiKs.— Sir F. Pbllock and F. W. Maitland, History of
Endish Law before the Time of Edward I. (Cambridge. 1808); W.
Stubbs, Constiltttional History of England (Oxford. 189*^). The text
of the Assize occurs in Cronica Rogert de Howden (Rolls Series), ii. 89,
and Gesta Henrici Regis Secundi TRolls Scries), i. 108. It has been
reprinted from the latter by W. Stubbs in Select Charters (Oxford.
1895). (G.).T.)
NORTHAMPTON, a dty and the county-seat of Hampshire
county, Massachusetts, U.S.A., situated on the Connecticut
river, about x6 m. N. of Springfield. Pop. (19x0 census)
19,431. The city has an area of 35*3 sq. m. The chief village,
Northampton, is on the New York, New Haven & Hartford,
and the Boston & Maine railways. It lies on the border of the
meadow-land, and with its irregular, semi-rural streets, and
venerable trees is conndered one of the prettiest villages in New
England. About 2 m. S.E. of Northampton is Mount Holyoke
(954 ft.), which may be ascended by carriage road and mountain
railway, and the summit of which commands a magnificent
view. The dty is the seat of a state hospital for the insane;
768
NORTHAMPTONSHIRE
of the Clarke School for the Deaf (1867, founded by John
Clarke of Northampton); of Smith College, one of the foremost
colleges for women in the country; of the Mary A. Bumham
School for Girls (1877), a preparatory school chiefly for Smith
College, founded by Miss Mary A. Bumham; and of the Miss
Capen School (preparatory) for girls. Besides the college library,
there are in Northampton two public libraries, the Clarke (1850)
and the Forbes (1894). The Forbes library was esUblished
with funds left by Charles E. Forbes (i 795-1881), from 1848
to 1881 a justice of the state supreme court. The People's
Institute was started as a Home-Culture Clubs movement by
George W. Cable, who became a resident of Northampton in
1886. The Smith Charities is a peculiar institution, endowed by
Oliver Smith (1766-1845) of Hatfield, who left an estate valued
At $370,000, to be administered by a board of three trustees,
chosen by electors representing the towns of Northampton,
Hadley, Hatfield, Amherst and Williamsburg in Hampshire
county and Greenfield and Whatcly in Franklin county— the
beneficiaries of the will The will was contested by Smith's
heirs, but in 1847 was sustained by the supreme judicial court
of Massachusetts. Of the total sum, $200,000 was to accumulate
until it became $400,000. Of this $30,000 was to found Smith's
Agricultural School at Northampton, which opened for instruction
in 1908; an income of $10,000 was to be paid to the American
Colonization Society, but this society failed to comply with
the restrictions imposed by the will, and the $10,000 was in-
corporated with the Agricultural School fiind; and $360,000
was devoted to indigent boys and girls, indigent young women
and indigent widows. The remainder of Smith's property was
constituted a contingent fund to defray expenses and keep the
principal funds intact. Fference, a village on the Mill river in
the city limits, is a manufacturing village, silk being its principal
product, and cutlery and brushes being of minor importance.
The value of the city's factory products increased from $4,706,820
in 1900 to $5>756>38i in 1905, or 22-3%. Northampton was
first settled in 1654, became a township in 1656, and was in-
corporated as a city in 1883. In September 1786, at the time of
the Shays Rebellion, the New Hampshire GaulU (still published;
daily edition since 1890) was established here in the interest
of the state administration. Jonathan Edwards was pastor
here from 1727 to 1750. Caleb Strong (1745-1819), a member
of the Federal Constitutional Convention of 1787, and governor
of Massachusetts in 1800-1807 and 1812-1816; Joseph Hawley
( 1 723-1 788), one of the most prominent patriots of western Massa-
chusetts; Timothy Dwight; Arthur (1786-1865), Benjamin,
and Lewis (i 788-1873) Tappan, prominent philanthropists and
anti-slavery men; and William D. Whitney were natives of
Northampton.
See J. R. Trumbull, History of Northampton (a vols., Northampton,
1898-1902).
NORTHAMPTONSHIRE, an east midland county of England,
bounded N. by Lincolnshire, N.W. by Rutland and Leicester-
shire, W. by Warwickshire, S.W. and S. by Oxfordshire, S.E.
by Buckinghamshire, and E. by Bedfordshire, Huntingdonshire
and Cambridgeshire. The area is 10031 sq. m. The surface
is undulating and somewhat monotonous, notwithstanding
that the country is richly cultivated and in some parts finely
wooded. Elevations over 700 ft. are few. The most picturesque
scenery is found in the western and south-western districts.
For long Northamptonshire has been famed for its ash trees,
and there are also some very old oaks, such as that associated
with Cowper's posthumous poem " Yardley Oak," in Yardlcy
Chase near Northampton, as well as a few fine avenues of elm.
The north-eastern extremity belongs to the great Fen district.
The county forms the principal watershed of central England,
nearly all the more important rivers of this region having their
sources within its boundaries. The Avon, with a westward
course, forms for some distance the northern boundary of the
county, till near Lilboume it passes into Warwickshire. The
Ncne passes southward past Northampton, whence it takes
an easterly course, skirting the eastern boundary of the county.
The Welland flows in an easterly direction, forming the boundary
of the county with Leicester, Rutland and Lincoln. Tlie
Cherwell, rising in a spring at Charwelton, where it is crossed
by a very ancient bridge, passes into Oxfordshire, and then
forms for a considerable distance the southernmost portion of
the boundary of Northamptonshire with that county; the
Leam forms a portion of the boundary with Warwickshire.
The Ouse, which rises near Brackley, soon afterwards leaves
the county, but again touches it near Stony Stratford, separating
it for some distance from Buckinghamshire.
Gfffofy.— With the exception of the superficial glacial and river
deposits, all the rocks exposed in the county are of Jurassic age;
they all dip in a general way towards the 5.E., the strike of the
outcrops being from south-west to north-east. The oldest rocks
exposed belong to the Liassic formation; they come to the surface
over a large area in the south-west and centre, around Banbur>'.
Daventry and Market Harborough.andby the removal of the over-
lying Oolitic strau they are exposed alons the rivers and stream
ccifRM near TowcmtCT, N-rT^-'^^'-^, WelUngborough and Kcttcr-
in^^. Ihe La^xt Lm». I i limestone bands and cement
Bt(jnM, has few exposures; it hai t^-: a cut through by the railways
at Kilsby and Cstcsby, and at Dnunston it is dug for brick-making.
The Middle Lias coruiitB of gri^y micaceous mans. sandstoiKS and
clav^H often femifinous; ironstone appears near King's Sutton';
at [Ho top 14 the marUtonc or " rc^k bed," used as a budding stone
ar] for road m^taU The Upper Lias is again a blue argillaceous
•erlxa ol *lnH3t with limc^^lonca and cement stones; it is cmfdoyed
for hrick-making. Through the middle of the county from north-
east to south'we^t h aii clt-vattd tract o( Oolitic rocks which contra<^ts
stn 1 nftly wi t h t he low^lying gra t^-co ve red Liassic ground. The lowest
su'ailvifiian of the Inferior Oolite, sands, sandstone and calcareous
be i*., is an imporunt uufte of imn ore, with from 9 to 12 ft. of
worLiblt bfds at Bliiwonli, Kttiering, Northampton, Thrapstone.
TrwctMter and Wellingborough. The flaggy sandstone of Dust 00
(C»Ci^ron slate) bi-Tongs lo this terics. The upper part of the Nonb-
ar.Mun sands ia known m the Lo»Tr Estuarine Beds; these are
wl I rcddiih cby« and ^andEi. In the north-eastern part of
thu c vjiuy tmrn about Maldmil. the Lincolnshire Limestone is
developed at the expense of the Northampton Sand: the wrll-
known building stone of Bamack (Bamack Rag) and Wcldon bctong
to this horison ; a hard shelly variety is known as Wcldoa or Stam-
ford marble. Locally at the base is a scries of fla«y strata, the
Collyweston slates. The Great Oolite scries comprise the Upper
Estuarine Beds, the Great Oolite Limestone, Great Oolite Clav.
Forest Marble and Combrash (very fo&silifcrous at Rushden). (in
the south-east border a belt of Oxford Clay occupies the surface;
good exposures occur in the brick-fields about Peterborough. Glacial
sands and gravels, including the great Chalky Boulder Clay, occur in
patches on the older rocks, as at Hillmorton. and fill up old channels
of the rivers sometimes to a considerable depth, as in the c4d valley of
the Ouse at Furtho, where the Boulder Clay is 100 ft. thick. Bonnes
have revealed the existence of Rhaetic and Kcuper rocks restini:
on an ancient quartz-porphyrite beneath the Lias at Orton ; and at
Gayton and Northampton the Carboniferous and possibly Old Red
Sandstone strata have been proved, but no Coal Measures were en-
countered. The water-beanng strau of Northamptonshire include
the nuristone of the Lias, the Lincolnshire Limestone, Collyweston
beds and ironstone beds of the Inferior Oolite, and the Combrash
and Great Oolite Limestone.
Climate and Agriculture. — The climate of Northamptonshire
is mild and genial, while the absence of lofty hills renders it much
drier than many other inland districts. The mean annual
rainfall at Wellingborough is 27-2 ins. The prevailing soil is a
rich brown but light and crumbling mould, sometimes with a
rocky subsoil. Tlie richest soil is the black mould of the fen
district, which is specially suited for grass, as are all the heavier
soils. Nearly all the land is capable of cultivation, although
there is some stiff wet soil on the slopes of the hills. Nearly
nine-tenths of the total area, a high proportion, is under cultiva-
tion, and of this considerably over three-fifths is in permanent
pasture, the acreage devoted to this use increasing steadily.
Less than one-fifth is under grain crops, and the area decreases.
Wheat and bariey are the principal grain crops. The fattening
of cattle is the chief occupation of the Northamptonshire farmer.
The favourite stock for breeding purposes is the shorthorn, but
the most common custom is to buy in Hereford, Scotch, Wcbh
and Irish cattle in the spring and fatten them on the rich pastures,
a few being retained and fed for the Christmas market. In
autumn additional cattle are bought in to eat the coarse grass
off the pastures, and these are usually retained during winter.
The most common breed of sheep on the rich pastures b the
improved Leicester, which is preferred on account of its lengtk
NORTHAMPTONSHIRE
769
of wool; but the Southdown, on account of its superior flesh,
is also largely kept.
Manufactures. — The iron industry is of considerable import-
ance, though only a small proportion of the metal is smelted in
the county. The industry is carried on in the central part of
the county, as in the Kettering, Wellingborough and Thrapston
districts, and in the north near Stamford. But Northamptonshire
is more famous for its manufacture of boots and shoes, which is
chiefly prosecuted in the towns and villages of the central and
southern districts, and along the eastern border. This trade
occupies some three-quarters of the total number of hands
employed in factories in the county.
Communicalums. — ^The main line of the London & North Western
railway passes through the south-western portion of the county,
with an alternative route to Northampton, and branches to Peter-
borough and elsewhere. With it are connected at Blisworth Junction
the East and West Junction railway to Towcester, Woodford and
Stratford-on-Avon, and the Northampton and Banbury Junction
railway. The Great Central main line, crossing the county in the
south, has connexion with the Great Westen railway at Banbury
from Woodford. The Midland railway serves Wellingborough,
Kettering and Northampton, and an important junction of systems
is effected at Peterborough, which is on the main line of the Great
Northern railway. Branch lines of this and the Midland system
complete the railway communications of the county. The Grand
Junctkm Canal, which is connected with the Oxford Canal, enters
the county at Braunston on the borders of Warwickshire, and passes
by Daventry and Blisworth into Buckinghamshire, a branch con-
necting it with Northampton. The Grand Union Oinal unites with
the Grand Junction near Daventry, and runs north until it joins
the Leicester Canal at Foxton, branches passing to Welford and
Market Harborough.
Population and Administration. — ^The area of the county is
641,993 acres, with a population in 1891 of 302,183 and in 1901
of 338,088. The area of the administrative county of North-
ampton is 585,148 acres, and that of the administrative county
of the soke of Peterborough 53,464 acres. In Domesday the
county is mentioned as containing 30 hundreds, but it then
included a considerable part of Rutland. These divisions were
first reduced to 28, and in the reign of Henry 11. to 20, their
present number. The administrative counties include four
munidpal boroughs, namely, Brackley (pop. 2467), Daventry
(37So)t Higham Ferrers (2540) and Peterborough (30,872),
together with the municipal and county borough of Northampton
(87,021). The urban districts are: Dcsborough (3573), Finedon
(4x29), Irthlingborough (4314), Kettering (28,653), Oundle
(2404), Raunds (381 1), Rothwell (4193), Rushdcn (12,453),
Wellingborough ( 1 8,4 1 2) . There arc one court of quarter sessions
iind nine petty sessional divisions. The borough of Northampton
and the liberty of the soke of Peterborough have each a separate
court of qtiarter sessions and a separate commission of the peace.
The total number of civil parishes is 346, of which 33 are in the
soke of Peterborough, lie ancient county contains 297 entire
ecclesiastical parishes or distncts, wholly or in part, most of
them being in the diocese of Peterborough; but small parts of
the cotmty fall within the dioceses of Oxford, Ely and Worcester.
For parliamentary purposes the county is divided into four
divisions (Northern, Eastern, Mid and Southern), and includes
the parliamentary borough of Northampton, and part of the
parliamentary borough of Peterborough, each returning one
member, except the borough of Northampton, which returns
two members.
History. --hi some tim^in the 7th century the district which is
now Northamptonshire suffered a simultaneous invasion by
the West Saxons from the south and the Anglian tribes from
the north, and relics discovered in the county testify to a mingling
of races, at the same time showing that West Saxon influence
never spread farther north than a line from Daventry to Warwick,
and with the extension of the Mercian kingdom under Pcnda
and the conversion of the midland districts ceased altogether.
The abbey at Medchamstede (now Peterborough) was begun
by Peada in 655, and about the same time foundations were
established at Peakirk, Weedon Beck^ Castor and Oimdle.
In 870 the district was overrun by the Danes, and Northampton
was one of the five Danish boroughs, until in 921 it was recovered
by Edward the Elder, who fortified Towcester in that year.
In the xith century Northamptonshire was included in Tostig's
northern earldom; but in 1065, together with Huntingdonshire,
it was detached from Northumbria and bestowed on Walthcof.
The only monastic foundation which survived the Conquest
was Peterborouf^. Norman castles existed at Rockingham,
Barnwell, Lilboume and Northampton.
As a shire Northamptonshire was probably of Danish origin,
representing in the xoth century the area which owed allegiance
to Northampton as a political and administrative centre. In
921 this area extended to the Welland, the present northern
Umit of the county, and at the time of the Domesday Survey
the boundaries were approximately those of the present day.
Northamptonshire is first mentioned by name in the Hisloria
Eliensis, in connexion with events which occurred at the dose
of the loth century.
The Geld roll of the time of William I. and the Domesday
Survey of xo86 mention 28 hundreds in Northamptonshire,
and part of Rutland is assessed under this county. By 1316
the divisions had undergone considerable changes, both in name
and in extent, and had been reduced to their present number,
20, since which date they have remained practically unaltered.
The names of the hundreds point to primitive meeting-places
gradually superseded by villages and towns, and the court for
Fawslcy hundred met under a large beech tree in Fawsley Park
until the beginning of the i8th century, when it was transferred
to Everdon. The shire-court originally met at Northampton.
Northamptonshire was originally included in the diocese of
Lincoln. The archdeaconry of Northampton is mentioned in
the 1 2th century, and in 1291 induded the deaneries of Peter-
borough, Northampton, Brackley, Oundle, Higham, Daventry,
Preston, Wddon, Rothwell and Haddon. The diocese of Peter-
borough was created in 1541, and in 1875 the archdeaconry
of Oakham was formed and included in this county the first
and second deaneries of Peterborough and the deaneries of
Oundle, Weldon and Higham Ferrers. Northampton' arch-
deaconry now includes the first, second and third deaneries of
Brackwell and Rothwell; the first and second deaneries of
Haddon and Preston, and the deaneries of Daventiy, North-
ampton and Wddon.
At the time of the Domesday Survey the chid lay-tenant in
Northamptonshire was Robert, earl of Mortain, whose fief
escheated to the crown in 11 06. The estates of William Peverel
founder of the abbey of St James at Northampton, also escheated
to the crown in the 12th century. Holdenby House was built
by Sir Christopher Hatton, privy councillor to Queen Elizabeth,
and Yardlcy Hastings was named from the Hastings, formerly
carls of Pembroke. Higham Ferrers was the seat of the Ferrers
family; Braybrook Castle was built by Robert de Braybrook,
a favourite of King John; and Burghley House gave the title
of. baron to William Cecil.
Northampton was a favourite meeting-place of the councils
and parliaments of the Norman and Plantagenet kings. In
1 215 John was besieged in Northampton Castle by the barons,
and in 1264 Henry III. captured the castle from the younger
Simon de Montfort. During the Wars of the Roses Henry VI.
was defeated at Northampton in 1460. In the Civil War of the
17th century the county declared almost unanimously for the
parliament. A royalist garrison was placed* at Towcester by
Prince Rupert in 1644, but almost immediately withdrawn.
The iron-mines and stone-qtiarries of Northamptonshire were
worked in Roman times, but the former were entirely neglected
from the Plantagenet period until thdr rediscovery in 1850,
while the two most famous quarries, those of Bamack and Stanion,
were exhausted about the i6th century. The wool and leather
industries flourished in Norman times. In the X7th century
the weaving industry declined in the Northampton district, but
became very flourishing about Kettering. Other early industries
wero charcoal-burning, brick and tile manufacture and brewing.
The industries of whip-making, pipe-making, silk-weaving and
paper-making were introduced in the 17 th and i8th centuries.
In 1290 Northamptonshire returned two members to parlia-
ment, and in 1295 Northampton also returned two members.
770
NORTH BERWICK—NORTH CAPE
In 1547 Brackley and Peterborough returned each two members,
and in 1557 Higham Ferrers returned one member. Under the
act of 1832 the county returned four members in two divisions,
and Braddey and Higham Ferrers were disfranchised.
Antiquities. — ^Although Northamptonshire was rich in monastic
foundations, remains, except of the abbey-church of Peter-
borough, afterwards the cathedral, are of small importance.
At Geddington, and also at Hardingstone, near Northampton,
there is an Eleanor cross, erected by Edward L to the memory
of his queen, in good preservation. For the architecture of its
churches Northampton holds a place scarcely inferior to any
other English county. To the Saxon period belong the tower
of Earls Barton church, which stands on an eminence, probably
the mound of an old English strong-house; the tower and other
portions at Brie^tock; the ground plan and other portions at
Wittering; the remarkable tower at Bamack; and Brixworth
church, constructed in part of Roman materials, and by some
believed to include part of a Roman basilica. Of Norman,
besides the cathedral of Peterborough, the finest examples are
St Peter's and St Sepulchre's, Northampton, and the tower of
Castor church. St Mary's church, Higham Ferrers, formeriy
collegiate. Early English and Decorated, is one of the finest
churehes in the county, and, as specially noteworthy among
many beautiful buildings, there may be mentioned the churches
at Irthlingborougb and Lowick, with their lantern towers,
Warmington, a very fine specimen of Early English work,
Rushden, Finedon, Raunds and Fotheringhay. Of the church
at Easton Maudit, Percy, author of the RdigueSf and afterwards
Bishop of Dromore, was rector.
A gateway at Rockingham, and earth-works at Higham
Ferrers and Brackley are worthy of mention. Some castellated
ruins remain of the castle at Fotheringhay, famous as the scene
of the imprisonment, trial and execution of Mary, Queen of
Scots. Barnwell Castle, founded by William the 'Conqueror,
an interesting example of the defensive construction of the
period, is still a fine ruin, which includes four of the round towers
and an imposing gateway. Holdenby Manor House, where Sir
Christopher Hatton (1540-1591) was bom, and where Charles I.
was staying when he was carried away by Comet Joyce, is
largely restored. Among andent mansions are Castle Ashby,
the seat of the Comptons, the oldest portion belonging to the
reign of Henry VIII.; Althorp, the seat of the Spencers, of
various dates; Drayton House, of the time of Henry VI.; the
vast pile of Burghley House, Stamford, founded by Loxd Burleigh
(i553)» but more than once altered and enlarged; and Kirby
Hall, a beautiful Elizabethan building once the residence of
Sir Christopher Hatton.
See Victoria County History, Norikamptonshirt; G. Baker, History
and Antiquities of the County of Northampton (a vols., London, i823~
am^tonsi
ana Dirt
rnmshire (London, 1720); Francis Whellan, History, Topo^apky
Directory of Northamptonshire (and ed., London, 1874).
NORTH BERWICK, a royal and police buigh of Haddington-
shire, Scotland. Pop. (xpox) 26x4. It is situated on the south
shore of the entrance to the Firth of Forth, aal m. E.N.E. of
Edinburgh by the North British railway, being the terminus
of a branch line from Drem JunctioiL It was created a royal
burgh by Robert in. (d. X406), and though once a port of some
importance it dwindled to a fishing hamlet.. In the latter half
of the xQth century, however, it gradually became a fashionable
watering-place, much frequented for its firm sandy beach and
bathing, and especially for its two golf-courses. Near the
station are the ruins of the abbey of Cisterdan nuns founded by
David I. Immediately to the south rises the fine cone of North
Berwick Law (6x2 ft.), which was utilized as a signal point at the
period of the Napoleonic scare.
About ^ m. E. stand the strikingly f^uresque ruins of Tantallon
Castle, which probabljr dates from the end of the 14th century and
was for many generations the stronghokl of the Aa^s Douglases.
Though the 6th eari tucceaBfully resisted the sieges of Tames V. in
1528 and 1530, the castle had at last to be surrendered by treaty.
It was besieged and captured by General Monk in 165 1, and some
time after the restocttfon became the propeity of Sir Hew Dislryniple.
lord president of session, whose family stiU own it. It was tbea
dismantled and fell into decay.
About 2 m. S.W. of North Berwick b Dirleton, with a castle dating
from the lath century. Edward I. took it in ^298. and in the reigii
of Robert Bruce it was acquired by the Halibuftons, from wfioni
it passed to the family of Ruthven. On the failure of the Gowne
cons^racy (1600) the castle was forfeited and given to Sir Thomas
Erskme (1^66-1639), who became Baron Dirleton in 1604, two
years later Viscount Fenton, and in 1619 eari of Kellie. Monk laid
siege to the castle in 1650, and in 1663 it was purdused by Sir John
Nisbet (i6(»-i687), lord advocate, afterwards a k>td ol seanon
and Lord Dirleton.
KORTHBROOK. THOMAfl OBOROB BARIHO. xST Eaxi. 07
(1826-1904), En^^ statesman, ddest son of the fiist baion
(long known as Sir Francis Baring; see Baking), was bom on
the 22nd of January 1826, and educated at Christ Church,
Oxford, where he graduated with honours in 1846. He entered
upon a political career, and was successivdy private secretary
to Mr Labouchere (Lord Taunton), Sir George Grey, and Sir
Charles Wood (Viscount Halifax). In 1857 he was retuzned
to the House of Commons in the Libenl interest for Pesuyn
and Falmouth, which constituency he continued to represent
until he became a peer on the death of his father in x8C6. He
was a k>rd of the admiralty in 1857-1858; ander-secretary for
war, x86x; for India, x86x-x864; for the home dcpaxtment.
1864-X866; and secretary to the admkalty, x866. When
Mr Gladstone acceded to power m x868, Lord Northbxook. was
again appointed ander-eecretaxy for war, and this office he hfdd
until February X872, when he was appointed governor-general
of India. In January 1876, however, he resigned. He had
recommended Uie condusion of arrangements with ShcreAli
which, as has since been admitted, would have prevented the
second Afg^han war; but his policy was overruled by the duke
of Argyll, then secretary of state. Lord Northbrook was created
Viscount Baring of Lee hi the county of Kent and eari of North-
brook in the county of Southampton. From x88o to 1885 he
hdd the post of first Idrd of the admiralty hi Mr Gladstone'^
second govemmenL During his tenure of office the state ol
theHavy axoused much public anxiety and led to a strong
agitation in favour of an extended shipbuilding pragramzne.
The agiution called forth Tennyson's poem "The Fleet"
In September 1884 Lord Northbrook was sent to Egypt as
special commisdoner to hiquire into its finances and condition.
The inquiry was largdy uxmecessaxy, all the essential facts being
well known, but the mission was a device of Mr Gla<toone's
to avoid an immediate decision on a perplexing question. Lord
Northbrook, after six weeks of inquiry in E^pt, sent in two
reports, one general, advidng against the withdrawal of the
British garrison, one finsnrist. His financial proposals, if
accepted, would have substituted the finsnrial control of Great
Britain for the international control proposed at the London
Conference of June-August 'of the same year. A heavy btov
would thus have been struck at intematioiialism in Egypt.
Bir Gladstone was not, however, pnputd to give a British
guarantee of the interest of the loan, sad so Lord Noithbrook's
misdon proved abortive. The £9,000,000 loan issued in sSSs
bound Egypt even more securdy in xntetnatkmal fetten (see
Cromer's Modem Egypt, 1908, vol iL chap. xbr.). When Mr
Gladstone formed his third ministfy in 1886 Lord Nbrthfarook
hdd aloof, bdng opposed to the home nde policy of the preBier;
and he then ceased to take a prominent part in poUtical life.
In 1890 he was appointed lord-lieutenant of Hampshire. He
died on the Z5th of November 1904. He had married in 184S
Elizabeth Sturt, dster of Lord Alington, and was succeeded as
2nd earl by his ddest son, who as Lord Baring had been M.F-
for Winchester (X880-X885) and North Bedford (1886-1892).
See B. Mallet, Thomas Coortt, Bati of Northbrook (1908).
NORTH CAPE {Norihap), a promontory on the island Magei6
off the north coast of Norway in 70" 10' 40' N., 2^ 45* E^, 7S s.
N.E. of Hammerfest. Knivskjaerodden, an Island a httfc »
the west, actually reaches a point a litde farther north than tk
North Cape, and Nordkyn, 45 m. E., is the northern extreoitr
of the mainUnd (71^ 7' N.). The desolate cape^ rising abrupsir
NORTH CAROLINA
771
over xooo ft. from tlie sea, is frequently visited during the
summer period of tlie " midnigfat sun," but travellers are often
prevented from seeing this phCTomcnon by adverse atmospheric
conditions.
NORTH CAROUMA, ft South Atlantic state of the United
States of America, situated between latitudes 33* 51' 37' (the
southernmost point of the southern boundary— 35* is the
northernmost) and about 36* 34' 25*5' N., and between longitudes
75'*37'W.andV3o'W. It is bounded N. by Virginia, E. and
S.E. by the AUantic Ocean, S. and S.W. by South Carolina,
S. also by Georgia, and W. and N.W. by Tennessee. North
Carolina has an extreme length from E. to W. of 503! m., which
is greater than that of any other state east of the Mississippi
river. It total area is 52,426 sq. m., of which 3686 sq. m. are
water surface.
Physical Features,— Thit state lies wholly withhi the three
leading topographical regions of the eastern portion of the
United Sutes: the Coastal Plain Region, which occupies
approximately the eastern half, the Piedmont Plateau Region,
which occupies about 20,000 sq. m. in the middle, and the
Appalachian Region, which occupies about 6000 sq. m. in the
west. At the eastern extremity of the Coastal Plain Region
an outer coast line is formed by a chain of long narrow barrier
beaches from which project capes Hatteras, Lookout and Fear,
whose outlying shoals are known for their dangers to navigation.
Between Hatteras and Lookout b Raleigh Bay and between
Lookout and Fear is Onslow Bay; and between the chain of
islands and the deeply indented mainland Currituck, Albemarle,
Pamlico and other sounds form an extensive area, especially
to the northward, of shallow, brackish and almost tideless water.
Projecting into these sounds and between the estuaries of rivers
flowing into them an extensive tracU of swamp land— the
best known of these is Dismal Swamp, which ties mostly in
Virginia and is about 30 m. long and xo m. wide. Through
most of the Coastal Plain Region, which extends inland from
80 to 150 m., the country continues very level or only slightly
undulating, and rises to Uie westward at the rate of little more
than X ft. to the mile. Along the W. border of this region,
however, the slope becomes greater and there are some hills.
The " Fan Line," the boundary between the Coastal Plain and
the Piedmont Pbtteau, has a very irregular course across North
Carolina, but lies in a general S.W. direction from the Falls of
Roanoke between Halifax and Northampton counties to Anson
county on the South Carolina border and marks a rapid increase
in elevation of about soo ft. The Piedmont Plateau Region
extends from this line to the Blue Ridge Escarpment, toward
which its mean elevation increases at the rate of about 3I ft.
to the mile. It is traversed from N.E. to S.W. by a series of
ridges which in the E. portion produce only a general undulating
surface but to the westward become higher and steeper until
the country assumes a bold and rugged aspect. The S.E.
face of the Blue Ridge Escarpment, which rises precipitously
X30O-X500 ft. or more above the Piedmont Plateau, forms the
S.E. border of North Carolina's Appalachian Mountain Region,
which includes the high Unaka Mountain Range, segments of
which are known by such local names as Iron Mountains, Bald
Mountains and Great Smoky Mountains. These ranges reach
their culmination in this state, and with a series of more or less
interrupted cross ranges constitute the greatest masses of
mountains in the E. half of the United States. Four peaks
along the Blue Ridge have an elevation exceeding 5000 ft.— one
of these, the Grandfather, rises 5964 ft.; and about thirty
peaks in the Unakas and in the several cross ranges exceed
6000 ft., the highest being Mount Mitchell or Mitchell Dome
(67 1 X fL), of the Black Mountains, a short cross range extending
N. from the Blue Ridge through Yancey County. Other note-
worthy peaks are Black Brother (6690 ft.) and Hairy Bear (668x
ft.), the next highest mountains. Many of the neighbouring
mountain ridges have uniform crests, but a greater number
terminate in numerous peaks, some sharp, rugged and rocky, but
more of them rounded domes. Throughout the whole region the
slopes vary greatly: the N.W. slope of the Blue Ridge is ahnost
imperceptible, or confused with the numerous mountain slopes
that rise above it. As a rule the mountain slopes are well graded
aiul subdued, but a few are steep and some are rocky and pre^
dpitous. The numerous valleys are usually narrow and deep,
though few, if any, descend to less than 2000 ft. above the sea.
The Blue Rklge is the principal water parting of the state. West
of it the Hiwaasee, the Little Tennessee and the French Broad riven
flow W. or N.W. uto Tennessee. Farther N. are the headwaters of
the New river, which flows N.E. and finds its way to the Ohio.
On the S.E. slope of the Blue Rklge rise the Broad, the CaUwba
and the Yadkin, which flow for some disUnce a little N. of £., then,
finding a passage across one of the ridges of the Piedmont Plateau,
turn to the S.SIE. and across the boundary line into South Carolina,
in whkJi sute their waters reach the Atlantic In the N.W. part of
the Piedmont Plateau Region, and a little to the N. of the most N.E.
course of the Yadkin rises the Dan, which m iu N.E. course crosses
the boundary into Virginia, where it becomes a tributary of the
Roanoke, in which its waters are returned to North Carolina near the
*' Fall Line." The other principal riv ers the Cape Fear, the Neuse
and the Tar^-riae in the N.E. part of the Piedmont Plateau Regk>n,
have their S.E. courses wholly within the state, and, with the
Roanoke, drain the Coastal Plam Region. In the Mountain Region
and in the Piedmont Plateau Region the rivers have numerous Tails
and rapida which afford a total water power unequalled perhaps in
any other state than Maine on the Atlantk Coast, the largest being
on the Yadkin, Roanoke and Catawba; and in crossing some of the
mountains, eqiedally the Unakas, the streams have carved deep
narrow gorges that are much admired for their scenery. In contrast
with the rivers of these regions those of the Coastal Plam are sluggish,
and toward their mouths expand into wide estuaries.
The Coastal Plain Rmon u the only part of the state that has any
lakes, and these are chiefly shallow bodies of water, with sandy
bottoms, in the midst of swamps. In all they number only about
fifteen, and have an area estimated at 200 sq. m:. about one-half of
which u contained in Lake Mattamuskcct in Hyde county.
FUfo. — In North Carolina's flora are many species common to
sub-tropical regions and many common to temperate regions, and
the variety u consequently very great. In the swamps are the bald
cypress, the white cedar and the five oak, usually draped in southern
long moss; south of Cape Fear river are paknettos, magnolias,
prickly ash, the American olive and mock oranse; along streams
m the Coastal Plain Region are the sour gum, tne sweet bay^ and
several species of oak; but the tree that is most predonlinant
throughout the upland portion of this region is the long-leaf or
southern pine. In the Piedmont Plateau Region oaks, hickories and
elms are the most common. In the Mountain Region at the bases of
the mountains are oaks, hickories, chestnuts and white poplars:
above these are hemlocks, beeches, birches, elms, ashes, maples and
limes; and still higher up are spruce, white pine and balsam; and
all but a comparatively few of the higher mountains are forest-dad to
their summits. All 01 the species of pine and of ma^olia, and neariy
all of the species of oak, of hickory and of spruce, mdigenous to the
United States, are found in North Carolina. On the dome-like tops
of such mountains as are too high for trees are lante clusters of
rhododendrons and patches of grasses fringed with flowers. The
forests throughout most of the state have a luxuriant undergrowth
consisting of a great variety of shrubs, flowering plants, grasses,
ferns and mosses, and the display of magnolias, azaleas, Icalmias,
golden rod, asters, jessamines, smilax, ferns and mosses is often one
of unusual beauty. Venus's fly-trap (Dionaea muscipuia), a rare
plant, is found only south of the Neuse river; and there are several
varieties of Sorrocmta, carnivorous pitcher plants. Among the fruit-
bearing trees, shrubs, vines and plants the grape, the bluc^1)erry. the
cherry, the plum and the cranberry are indigenous and more or less
common. Aronutic and medicinal herbs. <A which the state has
several hundred distinct species, have been obtained in hrger
quantities than from aiiy other state in the Union.
Fauna. — In North Carolina five of the seven life-zones into
which North America has been divided are represented, but ihore of
its area belongs to the upper-austral than to any other zone. The
q>eciesof fauna that are at all characteristic of this part of the United
States are found in the Piedmont Plateau Region and the western
portion of the Coastal Plain Region. Among the song-birds are the
mocking-bird, the Carolina wren and the ca^inal grosbeak (or red
bird); there are plenty of quail or ** bob white '* (called partridge
in the South). Among the mammab are the opossum, raccoon,
star-nosed mole ICondylura eri^aia)^ grey fox and fox squirrel
The mammals of the Mountain Region include the cotton-tail rabbit,
rod squirrel, lynx and woodchuck: and there b a considerable
variety of migratory song-birds, which are common to the more
northern states. In the eastern portion of the Coastal Plain Region
are the cotton rat, rice-field rat. marsh rabbit, big-eared bat, brown
pelican, swallow-tailed kite, black vulture and some rattlesnakes
and cotton-mouth moccasin snakes, all of which are common farther
south; and there are some turtles and terrapins, and many geese,
swans, ducks, and other water-fowl. Lar^ numbers of shad, blue
fish, weak fish (squeteague), alewives, Spanish mackerel, perch, baas,
croakers {Mkhpatfln umulatus), mullet, menhaden, oystera and
772
NORTH CAROLINA
clams are caught in the sounds, in the lower courses of the rivers
flowing into them, or in the neighbouring waters of the sea.
Climate. — North Carolina has a dimatc which varies from that of
the S.E. comer, which approaches the sub-tropical, to that of the
Mountain Region, which is like the medium continental type, except
that the summers are cooler and the rainfall b greater. The mean
annual temperature for the state (below an elevation of 4000 ft.)
is about 59* F. For the CoasUl Plain Region it is 61* F.; for the
Piedmont Plateau Region, 60* F.; for the Mountain Rn;ion,
56* F.; for Southport, in the S.E. tomer of the state. 64''^F.;
and for Highlands, at an elevation of 3817 ft. in the S.W. comer.
50** F. January, the coldest month, has a mean temperature of
38' F. in the Mountain Region, of 41* F. on the Piedmont Plateau,
and of 44** F. on the Coastal Plain; and in July, the warmest month,
the mean u about 79" F. on both the Coastal Plain and the Piedmont
Plateau and 74* F. in the Mountain Region. Extremes have ranged
from - ip' F. at Highlands in 1899 to 107* F. at Chapel Hill, Orange
county, in 1900 and again in 1902. The average preapitatbn for the
state IS about 52 in. a year, nearly all of it in the form of rain. For
the Coastal Plain Region it is 54 in.; for the Piedmont Plateau
R^on, 48 in.; and for the Mountain Region, 53 in. On the E.
slope of some of the mountains the rainfall is exceeded nowhere in
the United States, lave in the N. part of the Pacific Slope. At
Highlands, Macon county, during 1898 it was 105-24 in., and during
1901 it was io6«i7 in., 30*74 in. faUing here during the month m
August. The winds are variable and seldom violent, except along
the coast during the sub-tropcal storms of late summer and early
autumn.
Soil. — On the Coastal Plain the soil is generally sandy, but in nearly
all parts of this region more or less marl abounds; south of the Neuse
river the soil is mostly a loose sand, north of it there is more loam
on the uplands, and in the lowlands the scmI is usually compact with
day, silt or peat; toward the western border of the region the
sand becomes coarser and some gravel is mixed with it. Throughout
much of the Piedmont Plateau and Mountain r^ons the decom-
position of felspar and of other aluminous minerals has resulted in a
deep soil of clay with which more or less sand is mixed. Jt is deeper
ancl more sandy where granite is the underlying rock, deeper and
more fertile on the north-westem than on the south-eastern mountain
slopes, and shallower and more dayey where slate is the underlying
rocic
Agriculture. — Until the Civil War agriculture was about the only
important industry in the state, and at the close of the 19th century
it was still the leadine one; but from 1880 to 1900 the ratio of agn-
culturists to all inhabitants of the state engaged in some gainful
. . . , , *fi»elan- ' ' '
occupation decreased from 75*3 to 64* 1%.
i land included in
farms amounted in 1900 to 22,745,356 acres or 73 % of the total
land surface of the state, and the iierccntage of farm land that was
improved increased from 26*5 in 1870 to 36-6 in 1900. Throughout
the colonial era the establishment of small estates was a part of the
territorial policy of the govemment of North Carolina, 640 acres
bcin^ the largest normal grant to any one person ; as a consequence
of this policv land holdings have always been much smaller here than
in most of the other parts 0/ the South, and since the Civil War the
rise in the percental of improved land, the devdqpment of track
farming, and the growth in number of negro holdings, have been
accompanied by a further decrease in the average size of farms
from 316 acres in i860 to 101*3 i^c^^ i*^ I9<^ ^^ t^' latter year
there were in all 224,637 farms: of these 93.097 contained less than
50 acres, 55,028 between 50 and 100 acres, 44,052 between 100 and
175 acres, and 4224 over 500 acres. Of the total number of farms
128,978 were operated by owners or part owners, of whom 1 7,434
were coloured (including Indians) ; 19,916, by cash tenants, of whom
10,331 were coloured; and 73.09^ by share tenants, of whom
26.892 were coloured. After the Civil War there have been several
important changes in the crops raised: the development of cotton
manufacturing in the South and the utilization 01 cotton-seed oil
and meal gave impetus to cotton culture; and the discoveiy of the
adaptability of much of the cotton- land to the culture of tobacco of
a superior quality resulted first in the development of a vast tobacco
industry and then to a fluctuation in acreage of the crops of tobacco
and of cotton, according as the price of either rose or fell. The
destmction of pine forests to meet the demands for naval stores,
and the introduction and increased use of the refrigerator car,
resulted in much attention to the ^wth of ^prdcn produce for
Northern markets. Peanut culture, introduced into the state from
Virginia soon after the close of the Civil War, spread rapidly. In
the meantime the crops of cereals increased little, and stock raising
generally decreased.
The prindpal crops are cotton, Indian com, tobacco, hay, wheat,
sweet potatoes, apples and peanuts. The yield of cotton increased
from 62.901,790 lb in 1869 to 307,500,000 lb in 1909. In 1909
2.898,000 acres were planted to Indian com, with a crop of
48.686,000 bushels; 570,000 acres to wheat, with a crop of 5t4i5>ooo
bushels; and 196,000 acres to oats, with a crop of 3,234,000 bushels.
In Caswell county. North Carolina, " lemdn yellow tobacco was
first produced in 1852, and the demand for this " bright " variety
became so great that except during the intemiption of the Civil War
its culture spread rapidly. In 1879 the state's crop amounted to
36,986,213 lb, in 1889 to 36,375,258 lb, in 1899 to 127,503400 lb,
and in 1909 to 144,000,000 lb. The hay and forage crop incrca:<cJ
from 80,528 tons in 1879 to 246,820 tons in 1899: and m 1909 the
hay crop was 242,000 tons In the production of vegetables and
fraits the state ranks high. Potatoes, cabbage and lettuce are muih
grown for the cariy Northem markcu.
Farmers of the Piedmont Plateau formeriy kept large numbcn
of horses and cattle from April to November in ranges in the Moun-
tain Repon, but with the opening of portions of that country to
cultivation the business of pasturage declined, except as the cottoo
plantations demanded an increased supply of mules; there were
35>2S9 mules in 1850, 1 10,01 1 in 1890, 138,786 in 1900, and 181,000 ia
1910. The number of horses was 192,000 in 1910; of dairy cows,
297,000; of h(^. 1,356,000; and of sheep, 215,000.
Cotton is grown most laij^ly in the S. portion of the Piedmoo*
Plateau and in a few counties along or near the W. border oi the
Coastal Plain; tobacco, in the N. (xirtion of the Piedmont Pbtua
and in the central and N.W. portions of the (Coastal Plain; rke,
alone the banks of rivers near the coast; wheat, in the valk>' <^
the Yadkin; orchard fmits, in the W. portion of the Piedmont
Plateau and in the Mountain Region; vegetables and small
fruits in the middle and S. portion of the Oxutal Plain; peanuts.
in the N. portion of the Coastal Plain; sorghum cane, almost vkholty
in Columbus county in the S. part of the Coastal Plain. The stale
^ovoiunent, through its Department of Agriculture, takes an activt
interest in th6 introduction of modem agncultural methods, and ic
the promotion of diversified farming; m 1899 it establiabed tbe
Edgecombe and in 1902 the Iredell test farm.
Forests. — North Girolina had in 1900 about 35400 sq. m. of
woodland; great quantities of merchantable timber still remained,
espedally in the Mountain Region and on the Coastal Plain. Tbe
trees of the greatest commercial value are oak and chestnut at the
foot of the mountains and yellow pine on the uj^nds of tbe Coasul
Plain. But mixed with the oak and chestnut or higher up are
considerable hickory, bhck and maple; farther up the mountain
sides are some hemlock and white pine; and on the swamp lands lA
the Coastal Plain are much cypress and some cedar, and on the
Coastal Plain south of the Neuse there is much long-leaf piiK iraa^
which resin u obtained. Several other pines are found, and ai
the less important timber trees are black sprace. Carolina b
beeches, asnes, sycamore or button wood, sweet gum and Ui
The value of the lumber and timber products was $1,074,003 in i860
$5,898,742 in 1890; $14,862,593 in 1000; and $15.73M79 in i" "
Fuheries. — In the sounds along the coast, in the lower coti
of the rivers that flow into theiiK and along the outer shores fisL
is an important industry. The nsheries are chiefly of shad, oystt
mullet, alewives, clams, black bass, menhaden, croakers and bit
fish. In 1908 the catch was valued at about $i,7so.ooa The Sul
Geological and Economic Survey has made a careful study of tl
fishes dT North Carolina, of the shad fisheries, oi oyAer culture. aad<
the development of terrapin. At Beaufort the United State Bum
of Fisheries has a marine biological laboratory, established in 19
for the study of the aquatic fauna cS the south-east coast.
Minerals. — ^At the brainning of the 2Qth century a great numk
of minerals were found in the Piedmont Plateau and MounU
regions, but most of them in such small quantities as to be <rf litl
or no commercial value, and in 1902 the total value of the prcxlul
of the mines and quarries was only $927,376; but in 1907 tia
value was $2,961,381, and in 1908, $2,145,947. During the fi|
half of the 19th century North Carolina was a mining state
the first importance; in 1804 it was the only state in the U *'
States from which gold was obtained. Operations ceased di
the Civil War, and although resumed soon after its dose,
became somewhat desultory. Probably the earliest large find
a 17-O) nugget on the Reed Plantation in Cabarrus county in i;
in the same mine a 28-lb nugget, probably the largest foam
eastem United States, was discovered in 180^. The prodoctioi
Rutherford and Burke counties and their vidnity was so gti
and transportation to the United Stales Mint at Philadclplua
difiicult, tnat from 1831 to 1857 gold was privately coined m i,
and 5 dolkir pieces bearing the mark cS the coiner *' C. Bechr
Rutherford county, N.C." The coins were of standard purity
higher); they are now very rare. A bratxJi mint of the Un
States was established in 1837 at Chariottc. Silver, whidi is n
in the state than gold, is found chiefly in the W. portion of
Piedmont Plateau. In 1902 the value of the gold and silver pnx
comUned was $71,287, and in 1908, when the lola mine 6 m. E
Troy, Montgomery county, was the most productive, the valu
the gold alone was $97,945. that of the silver $668. and thai
copper, $2560.
In 1870 North Carolina's mica mines were reopened, and t
produce the best grade of sheet mica for glazing and a large 1
centage of the country's yield of this mineral. Most of it has t
found in the N.E. portion of the Mountain Region; and that
was mined here before any European settlement of the com
seems proved by numerous excavations and by huge heaps
which are large oak and chestnut trees, some fallen and dcca;
North Carolina is also the leading state in the Union in tbe Pfoduc
of monazite. The mining of corandum was begun at CoruM
Hill in Macon county in 1871, and from 1880 to 1902 the oul
was considerable, but with the (Uscovery of the Canadian corum
ate
Unil
NORTH CAROLINA
773
depoflitt the importance of those of North Carolina greatly declined.
It was along tne coast of North Carolina that Europeans in 1585
made the first discovery of iron ore within the present limits of the
United Sutcs. Iron ores are widely distributed within the sute,
and there have been times since the eve of the War <^ Independence
when the mining of it was an industry of rebtivciy great importance.
In 1908 the product amounted to 48,52a lon^ tons (all maenetitc),
and was valued at $76,877; almost the enture product is from the
Cranberry mines, near Cranberry, Mitchell county. The state has
two smaH areas in which bituminous coal oocurs; one in the basin
of the Dan and one in the basin of the Deep. Very little coal was
produced in the state until the Civil War, when, in 1863 and again
m 1863. y>,ooo short tons were obtained for the relief of the Con-
federate government, an amount which up to 1905, when the yield
was only 1557 short tons (falling off from 7000 short tons in 1904),
had not since been equalled; in 1906, in iQo;r and in 1908 no coat
was mined in the state. The most valuable immediate product of
the state's mines and quarries for nearly every year from 18^ to
1908 was building stones of granite and gneiss, which are found in all
parts of the sute west of the "Fall Line"; the best grades of
granite are quarried chieflv in Gaston, Iredell, Rowan, Surry and
Wilkes counties. The value of the building stone increased from
$150,000 in 189a to $800,177 (of which $764,27? was the value of
granite) in 1908. Talc also is widely distributed in the state; the
most extensive beds are in the south-western counties, Swain and
Cherokee.
MoHufactuns. — During the quarter of a centaiy between 1880
and IQ05 a great change was wrought in the Industrie life of the
state by a phenomenalgrowth of cotton manufacturing. A cotton
mill was erected in Lincoln county about 1813, and by i&io about
25 small mills were in operation within the sUte^ When the Civil
War was over, the abnormally high price of cotton made cotton
raising for more than a decade a great assistance to the people in
recovering from ruin, but when the price had steadily declinea from
23-98 cents a pound in 1870 to 10-38 cents a pound in 1879, they
turned to the erection and operation of cotton mills. In i^Bo the
total value of the manufactured products of the state was$2O,095,037 ;
in 1900 the value of the cotton manufactures alone was $28,372,789.
and in 1905 $47,254,054. The rapid extension of tobacco culture
was accompanied by a corresponding growth in the manufacture of
chewing and smokingtobacco and snuff, and some of the brands have
a wide reputatbn. The product increased in value from $4,783r484
in 1890 to $25,488,721 m 1905. In 1890 the lumber and timber
products, valued at $5,898,^42, ranked second among the state's
manufactures; by 190J; their value had increased to $15,731,379.
The value of the stated factoiy product for looo was $85,274,083,
and that for IQ05, $142,^,776, an advance of 67*1 %. The cotton
mills are mostly m the Piedmont Plateau Region; Durham, Durham
county, and Winston. Forsyth county, are leading centres of tobacco
manufacture; and High Point (pop. in 1900, 4163) in Randolph
is noted for its manufacture of furniture.
Transportation. — Railway buikiing was begun in the state in i8a6
with the Raleigh & Gaston line, opened from Raleigh to Gaston m
1844 and extended to Weldon in 1852. A k>ngcr line, that from
Wilmington to Weldon, was completed in 1840. But the greatest
period of building was from 1880 to 1890; during this decade the
mileage was increased from ia86 m. to A128 m., or 1642 m.. which
was more than one-third of all that had been built up to the year
1909, when the total mileage was 4^64-14. The orincipal systems of
railways are the Southern, the Atlantic Coast Line, the Norfolk 8t
Southern and the Seaboard Air Line. By means of its navigable
waters and safe harbours the state has an extensive coasting trade.
The harbours along the sounds and in the estuaries of the rivers
are well protected irom the storms of the ocean by the long chain
of narrow islands in front, but navigation by the largest vessels is
interrupted by shoals in the sounds, and especially by bars crossing
the inlets between islands. The channel leading to the harbour <M
Wilmington has been cleared to a depth of 20 ft. or more by dredging
and by the construction of jetties ana an immense dam, works which
were begun by the state in 1823 but from 1828 were carried on from
time to time by the national govemmenil The Roanoke river is
navigable to Weldon and the Cape Fear river to Fayetteville; the
Neuse is .navigable for small vesseb only to Newbem.
PopmlattM.— The population " of North Carolina increased from
i>399»75oiQ 1880 to 1,617,949 in 1890, or 15-6%; to 1,893,810 in
1900, a further increase of X7'X%; and to 2,206,287 in 1910, an
increase of i6*s% since 1900. * Of the total in 1900 only 4492,
or less than i of z% were foreign-bom, nearly half of these
being natives of Germany and England, 1,263,664 were whites,
624,469 negroes, 5687 Indians and 51 Chinese. Nearly one-
fourth of the Indians are Cherokees, who occupy, for the most
part, the Qualla Reservation in Swain and Jackson counties,
not lar from the south-western extremity of the state. The others,
* The population of the state was 393.751 in 1790; 478.103 in
1800; 555.500 in 1810; 638,829 in 1820; 737.987 in 1830: 75,Mi9 in
1840; 869,039 in 1850: 992.622 in i860; and 1,071,361 in 187a
numbering in 1907 nearly 5000, living mostly in Robeson
county, are of mixed breed and have been named the Croatans.
on the assumption (probably baseless) that they are the descend-
ants of John White's lost colony of 1587. The Cherokees have
no ambition to accumulate property, but both they and the
Croatans have been generally peaceable and many of them send
their children to school—for the Croatans the state provides
separate schools. The Baptist and Methodist churches are the
leading religious denominations in the state; but there are also
Presbyterians, Lutherans, members of the Christian Connexion
(O'Kellyitcs), Disciples of Christ (Campbelliles) Episcopalians,
Friends, Roman Oitholics, Moravians and members of other
denominations. Until nearly a century after the founding of
the Carolinas there was not a town in North Carolina that had
a population of 1000, and the urban population of the state was
exceptionally small at the beginning of the rapid rise of the
manufacturing industries about x88o. In 1900 the urban
population (in places having 4000 inhabitants or more) was
152,019, or 8% of the total; the semi-tirban (in incorporated
places having less than 4000 inhabitants) was 186,258 or 9-8%
of the total; and the rural (outside of incorporated places)
was 1,555,533 or 82-1% of the totaL But between 1890 and
1900 the urban population increased 56-6% and the semi-
urban 6i-6%, while the rural increased only io-6%. The
principal cities arc Wilmington, Chariotte, Asheville, Raleigh
(the capital), Greensboro, Winston and Newbem.
Administration. — North Carolina has been governed under the
charters of 1663 and 1665 (1663-1729), under commissions and
inatractions from the crown (17 29-1 776), and under the state
constitutions of the x8th of December 1776 (amended in 1835,
in 1856, and in the Secession Convention of i86x) and of April
1868 (amended in 1872-1873, 1875,* 1879, 1888 and 1899).
The present constitution, as amended, prescribes that no con-
vention of the people of the state may be called by the legis-
lature unless by the concurrence of two-thirds of all the members
of each house followed by an affirmative vote of a majority of
the electors voting on the question; and that an amendment to
the constitution may be adopted only by a three-fifths vote of
each house followed by an affirmative vote of the majority of
electors voting on the question. The suffrage provisions con-
taining the famous " grandfather clause " (in Art vi. section 4),
were adopted in the form of a constitutional amendment, ratified
in August 1900, and in effect on the ist day of July 1902. All
persons otherwise qualified may place their names on the voting
register, provided they can read and write any section of the
constitution in the English language and have paid on or before
the I St of May the poll tax for the previous year. An exception
to the educational requirement, is made in favour of any male
person who was, on the ist day of January 1867, or at any time
prior thereto, entitled to vote under the laws of any state in
the United States wherein he then resided, and in favour of
lineal descendants of such persons. This exception remained
in force until the zst of December 1908, after which time all
who were on the list became (tmless disqualified because con-
victed of felony^ life voters, but new applicants had to stand the
educational test.
Perhaps the most notable feature about the administration
is the weakness of the govemor's position. He is elected by
popular vote* for four years, and cannot succeed himself in
office. His power is limited by a council of state, a relic of
colonial days. This body is not, however, a special board, as
In Maine, New Hampshire, and Massachusetts, but a kind of
administrative cabinet as in Iowa, consisting of the SccreUry
of state, the auditor, the treasurer, and the superintendent of
*The changes made in 1875 were adopted in a convention, were
ratified in 1876, and were so numerous that the amended constitution
is frequently referred to as the Constitution of 1876.
• Up to 1835 he was elected annually by the two houses of the
legislature, ana no man couM serve as governor for more than three
Kcars in any six successive years. Under an amendment of 1835
e was elected for two years by popular vote of electon for members
of the House of Commons, and no man was eligible to serve for more
than four years in any term of six years.
774
NORTH CAROLINA
public instruction, and advising the governor in the administra-
tion of his office. Judges, heads of departments, and executive
boards are elected, and even in the few instances in which the
governor appoints to office the confirmation of the Senate is
necessary. Furthermore, in North Carolina the governor has
no veto power. In addition to the executive officials mentioned
above there are a lieutenant-governor, an attorney-general, a
Bureau of Labor Statistics, established in 1887, and a Corporation
Commission, which in 1899 superseded the Railroad Commission,
established in 1891. The governor and the lieutenant-governor
must at the time of their election be at least thirty years of age,
and must have been dtixens of the United States for five years
and residents of the state for two years.
Sessions of the General Assembly are held biennially, beginning
on the Wednesday after the first Monday in January. The Senate
is compMed of fifty members elected biennially by senatorial
districts as nearly as possible equal to one another in population,
and the House of Representatives (in the Constitution of 1776
called the House of Commons) of one hundred and twenty,
elected biennially and chosen by counties^ according to their
population, each county having at least one representative, no
matter how small its population. A senator must at the time of
his election be at least 25 years of age, and must have been a
resident and citizen of the state for at least two years, and a
resident in his district for one year immediately preceding his
election; and a representative must be a qualified' elector of
the state and must have resided in his county for at least one
year immediately preceding his election. Tbe pay for both
senators and representatives is four dollars per day for ^ period
not exceeding sixty days; should the session be prolonged the
extra service is without compensation. Extra sessions, called
by the governor on the advice of the council of state, are limited
to twenty days, but may be extended under the same limitations
in regard to compensation. The Senate may sit as a court of
impeachment to try cases presented by the House, and a two-
thirds vote is necessary for conviction.
There is a supreme court consisting of a chief justice and four
associates, dected by popular vote for eight years, and a superior
or circuit court, composed of sixteen judges elected by the people
in each of sixteen districts for a term of eight years.
The county officials are the sheriff, a coroner, a treasurer, a
register of deeds, a surveyor and five commissioners, elected for
two years. The commissioners supervise the penal and charit able
institutions, schools, roads, bridges and fiinances of the county
Subordinate to them are the township boards of trustees,
composed of a derk, and two justices of the peace.
By the constitution personal orofKrty to the value of I500 and
any homestead to the value of f 1000 is exempt from sale for debt,
except for taxes on the homestead, or for obligations contracted for
the purchase of said premises. Under the revised code (190^) a wife
may hold property which she had acquired before marriage free
from any ooligation of her husband, but in general she is not per-
mitted to make contracts affecting either her personal or real estate
without the written consent of her husband. Neither can the
husband convey real estate without the wife's consent, and a widow
may dissent from her husband's will at any time within six months
after the probate of the same, the effect of such dissent being to
allow her the right of one-third of her deceased husband's property,
including^ the dwelling house in which they usually resided. The
constitution prescribes that " all marriages between a white person
and a negro, or between a white person and a white person ot negro
descent to the third generation inclusive, are hereby forever pro-
hibited." Until 1905 the only grounds for an absolute divorce were
^ Under the Constitution of 1776 senators were dected by counties,
one for each county, and representatives also by counties, two for
each county-^n addition, the towns of Edenton, Newbem, Wil-
mington. Salbbury, Hillsboro and Halifax each elected one repre-
sentative; and a property qualification— a freehold of 50 acres
held for six months before an election — was imposed on electors
of senators. Under amendments of 1835 senators were chosen by
districts formed on the basis of public taxes paid into the state
treasuiy, representatives were still chosen by counties, and were
apportioned among them on the same basb as their Federal repre-
sentation («.«. counting three-fifths of the slaves), and free negroes or
mulattoes " descended from negro ancestors to the fourth generation
inclusive " were excluded from the suffrage. In 1856 the property
qualificatkm for electors of senators was removed.
adultery, natural impotence, and pregnancy of the wif : at the time
of marriage: but an amendment of 1907 allows a divorce whenever
there has oeen a separation of husband and wife for ten succes&ivc
years, provided the parties have lived in the suce for that period
and no children have been bom of the marriage. The working of
children under twelve years of age in any factory or manufacturing
establishment is unlawful, the working of children between the
ages <^ twelve and thirteen in such places is allowed only on condition
that thev be empk>yed as apprentices and have attended school for
at least four months during the preceding year; and no boy or giri
under fourteen is to work in such places dunng night time. An anti-
trust law of 1907 makes it unlawiul for any corporation controlling
within the sute the sale of 50% of an article to raise or lower the
price of that artide with the intention of injuring a competitor.
On the 36ih of May 1908 the people of the sute voted " against
the manufacture and sale of intoxicating liquors" in the state;
the prohibition act thus approved went mto effect on the 1st of
JanuaiY 1909* State prohibition had been defeated in 1881 by a
vote of 100,000; in 1902 the Anti-Saloon Lea^e organized in the
state; in 1903 the Watts Law enacted rural prohibitioa, giving towns
local option, under which many of the to%tms voted '* no licence ";
and in 1905 severe police regulatums were provided for towns in
which saloons were licensed.
CharitabU and Penal Institutiotu.—ln the systematic care of the
dependent and defective classes North Carolina was one of the
pioneer states of the South. An institute f(M- the deaf and dumb
and blind was opened at Raleigh in 1845. and another for the dejif
and dumb at Morganton in 1S94; by a law of 1907 every deaf child
of sound mind must attend, between the aga of eight and fifteen,
a school for the deaf at least five tenns of nine months each ; and
by a law of 1908 every blind child (between seven and ceventecR).
if of sound mind and body, must attend some school for the blind
for nine months of each year. The North Carolina Sute Hospttai
(for the insane) at Raleigh was opened in 1856 as a result ol the
labours of Miss Dorothea Lynde D'lx (1805-1887); in connexkw
with it there is an epileptic colony. The Sute Hospital at Mofgan-
ton, opened in 1883, completed in 1886. and intended for the use
of the western part of the state, is perhaps the best equipped institu-
tion of its kind south of the Potomac In 1901 a department for
criminal insane was opened in a wing of the sute prison at Raleigh.
The Oxford Orphan Asylum at Oxford (1872) is supported panly
by the Masonic Order and partly by the sute. A movement be^r^n
by the Confederate Veterans Association in October 1889 resulted
in the esublishment in 1890 of a home for disabled veterans at
Raleigh: this became a sute institution in 1891. In 1908 a state
tuberculosis sanatorium was opened near Aberdeen. Moore county.
The sute also takes good care of the unfortunates among the negrs
race The Institute tor the Colored Deaf. Dumb and Bund (1867)
at Raleigh and the Eastern Insane Hospiul (1880) near G<:dd^>oro
are the oldest institutions of the kind for negroes in the world;
in connexion with the last there is an epileptic colony for oegrtses.
There is also (at Oxford) an Orphanage for the Cok>red ( 1883). ivhkh
was cdUhltslied by the " Wake and Sbiloh Associations of the Colored
Baptist Church." first rccdved sUte aid in 1891 . and is now su{^>orted
churfly by the sute. The sute prison is at Raleigh, although most
of the convicts are distributed upon farms owned and operated by
the sute The leaae system does not prevail, but the farmins out of
convict labour is permitted by the constitution: such laLour is
used chiefly for the building of railways, the convku so enaployed
being at all times cared for and guarded by sute officials. A re-
formatory for white youth between the ages of seven and sixtetfl.
under tM name of the Stonewall Jackson Manual Traiaiiw aad
Industrial School, was opened at Concord in 1909, and in Marck
1909 the Foulk Reformatory and Manual Training School for negro
youth was provided for Chahuble and penal institutions are usSkr
the supervision of a Board of Public Charities, aroointed by the
governor for a period of six years, the terms of the different membcn
expiring in different years. Private institutkuis for the care of the
insane, idiots, feeble-minded and inebriates may be established,
but must be licensed and regulated by the sUte board and becooe
legally a part of the system of public charities.
Education. — ^The public school system was csUblished ia i8j9.
being based on the programme for sute education prepared in 181 6-
1817 by Archibald Debow Murphey (1777-1832). whc»e edocatic^al
ideas were far in advance of his day. Calvin Headerson Wikf
(1819-1887). the author of several, romances dealing with life a
North Carolina, such as Roanoke: or. Where is Iftopiaf (iS66>.
and of Life in the South: a Companion to Uncle Tom's Cabim (iS^l
was superintendent of common schook in 185^1865 (the cxectitnv
head of the sute's educational department having previously beea a
" literary board ")^ and won the name of the " Horace Mann of xit
South " by his xirise reforms. He kept the publk: schools gcsag
through the Civil War. having advised arainst the disturbance oif xbt
school funds and their reinvestment in Confederate securities. IV
present school system is supervised by a sute board of tdvoitsm
consisting of the governor, lieutenant-governor, secretary of ststt.
treasurer, auditor, attorney-general, and niperintendent of p«^»c^
instruction. In the counties there b a board of educatioa a^
there is also a local school committee of three in each tovn^
The compulsory attendance at school of chiUren between the v*
NORTH CAROLINA
775
oides
graduate de|
medicine iiStt'
of eight and fourteen for sixteen weeks each year by a state bw u
optional with each county. A state libraiy commission was estab-
lished in 1909.
At the head of the state system of education is the university of
North Carolina at Chapel Hill, chartered in 1789 and opened in
S»5, one of the oldest sute universities in the country and one of the
est universities in the South; it consists of the college, the
■'. . ■ t, the department of
\'.ni <ji uji,.™j wor*£ ts Hji.ke at Raletgh) and the
department o; pl.^pucy (1S97}. Id i907-jfjo8 it had ^5 instructors
and 775 stutjr.rits. Other »ute cJtjc^tiiLin.il institutions are the
0>Uege of AgfjiiuEnjrr ant} ^f«;hJnk Am U889) at West Raletgh,
which in i^o^-it^^ had jJ m^ructrnt ^nd 436 students; the State
Normal and Indu^^^truLl College (r^jj lar i,vomen, at Greensboro;
and the East CiniiliM Teach tir*' Training Sch x)l (1907), at Greenville.
For the higher i:-< J ejection of tlie fiL-gfot* ihv state supports an Agri-
culturaland Kk 1 hanical Col1l^e1^ (i^r) ai Gr< nd>oro, and normal and
industrial sch U tt FivcitcvUli-, blisabcth City and Winston. The
more importa .n schools are \V,jke l-'orest College (Baptist,
opened 18x4 a ilbtKXirjindcb^^tr.t I institute"; as a college,
-) at Wal
1838) I
i& m. nurth o\ Rjiligh, with 371 students
in 1907-1908'; L^jvid^in C^^Uctl- [Pn-r^hvii rim, 1837) at Davidson,
with 308 student! [i^fOj-iooV)'. BUdlu University (Presbyterian)
at Charlotte, for ncizrics; Grtenibortp Female College (Methodist
Episcopal, South; i^^^^, Guitrard College (coeducational; Sodetv
01 Friends, 1857) n. ,r Gr^nsboro; Trimly C^lcge (coeducational;
Methodist. 185J) at Durham; Lenoir Co(Tt-jre (Lutheran, 1890) at
Hickory; CalauUt JUkgu UaiWiuvd, 1^*51) at Newton; Weaver-
ville College (Methodist Episcopal, 1873) at Wcaverville; Elon
College (Christian, 1 890) at Eton ; St Mary's College (Roman Catht^ic.
1877), under the charge of Benedictines, at Bchnont: Shaw Uni-
versity (Baptist, i86jp. for negroes, at Raleigh; and Livingston
College (Methodist, 1879), for negroes, at Salisbury.
FMafice.^The revenues of the state come from two sources;
about two-thirds from taxation and about one-third in all from the
earnings of the penitentiary, from the fees collected by state
officials, from the proceeds from the sale of sUte publications, and
from the dividends from stock and bonds. The state owned, in
1909, 30.003 shares of stock in the North Carolina Railroad Company,*
with a market value (1907) of 8^,580.372 (the stock being quoted at
186), and an annual income of $210,014 and 12.666 shares of stock
in the Atbntic & North Carolina Railroad Company, from which the
annual income is 831,665. In additbn to the ordinary general
property tax^ licences and polls, there are a tax on corporations
and an income tax. North Carolina is one of the few sutcs to
experiment with the inheritance tax, but the last law dealing with
that subject was repealed in 1899. The total receipts of the general
fund for the fiscal year 1907 were $2,603,293, and the total disburse-
ments for the same year were $2,655,282.
The state debt at the ckwe of the fiscal year 1907 amounted to
$6,880,950. It may be divided into three parts: that contracted
between 1848 and 1 861 for the construction of roads, railways and
canals; that contracted during the Civil War for other than war
pun>oses; and that contracted during the Reconstruction era,
nominally in the form of loans to railway companies. In their im-
poverished condition it was impossible lor the people to bear the
burden, so an act was passed in 1879 scaling part 01 the debt 60%,
part of it 75% and part of it 85%. The remainder, $12,805,000,
and all arrears of interest were repudiated outright. This of course
impaired the obligation of a contract, but under the Eleventh Amend-
ment to the Constitution of the United Sutcs the bondholders could
not bring suit against the state in the Federal courts. Another state
could do so, however, and in 1904, certain creditors having given ten
of their bonds to South Dakou, the case of South Dakota versus
North Carolina came before the Supreme Court. The court decided,
four judges dissenting, that North Carolina must pay the amount due
or suffer her railway bonds to be seized and sofd to satisfy the
judgment (192 U.S. Reports. 286. See also 108 U.S. 76).
*The North Carolina Railroad from Goldsboro, via Raleigh.
Greensboro and Salisbury, to Chariottc, was an extension of the
Raleish & Gaston, which had come into the hands of the state; it
was diartered in 18^9, the act being passed by the casting vote of the
speaker, whose action was the cause of his failure to be re-elected
to that, or to be elected to any other office afterwards, since the
poverty of the state did not warrant such an expenditure. The
original stock of $3,000,000, of which the state was to subscribe
S2. 000.000. was increased in 1855 to $4,000,000, the state subscribins
the added million. The road was leased in 187 1 to the Richmond &
Danville for thirty jrears at 6%; and in I90<$ to the Southern Rail-
way Company for ninety-nine years at 6i % for the first six years
and at 7% for the remainder of the term. The Atlantic & North
Carolina, the second G^reat internal improvement undertaken by the
state, was chartered in 1853. and was opened from Goldsboro to
Klorehead City (95 m.) in 1858; it was in 1910 a part of the Norfolk
& Southern system. Although the state of North Carolina owns
70-3 % of the stock (besides this Craven county holds 7'7%;
L^enoir, 2*8%; and Pamlico county, 1*13%). the state casts only
^yi votes to the 700 of the private stockholders.
History.— Tht history ot North Carolina may be divided into
four main periods: the period of discovery and early colonixation
(1520-1663); the period of proprietary nde (1663-1729); the
period of royal rule (1729-1776); and the period of statehood
(from 1776).
It is possible that some of the early French and Spanish
explorers visited the coast of North Carolina, but no serious
attempt was made by Europeans to establish a settlement until
near the dose of the 16th century. After receiving from Qattn
Elizabeth a patent for colonization in the New World, Sir Walter
Raleigh, in April 1584, sent Philip Amadas, or Amidas (1550-
1618), and Arthur Barlowe (c. 1550-c. 1620) to discover in the
region bordering on Florida a suitable location for a colony.
They returned in September with a glowing account of what is
now the coast of North Carolina, and on the 9th of April 1585
a colony of about 108 men under Ralph Lane {c. 1 530-1603)
sailed from Plymouth in a fleet of seven small vessds commanded
by Sir Richard Grenville. The colony was established at the
north end of Roanoke Island on the i7tb of August, and about
a week later Grenville returned to England. Threatened with
famine and with destruction from hostile Indians, the entire
colony left for England on the 19th of June 1586 on Sir Francis
Drake's fleet. Only a few day^ after their departure Sir Richard
Grenville arrived with supplies and more colonists, fifteen of
whom remained when he sailed away. Althou^ greatly dis-
appointed at the return of the first colony, Raleigh despatched
another company, consisting of 121 persons under John White,
with instructions to remove the plantation to the shore of
Chesapeake Bay. They arrived at Roanoke Island on the
22nd of July 1587 and were forced to remain there by the refusal
of the sailors to'carry them farther. Of the fifteen persons left by
Grenville not one was found alive. White's grand-daughter,
Virginia Dare (b. i8th August 1587), was the first English child
born in America. White soon returned to England for supplies,
and having been detained there until 1591 he found upon his
return no trace of the colony except the word " Croatan "
carved on a tree; hence the colony was supposed to have gone
away with some friendly Indians, possibly the Hatteras tribe, and
proof of the assumption that these whites mingled with Indians
is sought in the presence in Robeson county of a mixed people
with Indian habits and occasional English names, calling them-
selves Croatans. In 1629 Charles I. granted to his attorney-
general, Sir Robert Heath, all the territory lying between the
31st and 36th parallels and extending through from sea to sea,
but the patent was in time vacated, and in 1663 the same
territory was granted to the earl of Clarendon (1609-1674), the
duke of Albemarle (1608-1670), and six other favourites of
Charles II. By a second charter issued in 1665 the limits were
extended to 29^ and 36^ 30'.
The proprietors had all the powers of a county palatine and
proposed to establish a feudal and aristocratic form of govern-
ment. To this end John Locke drafted for them in 1669 the
famous Fundamental Constitutions providing for the division
of the province into eight counties and each county into
seigniories, baronies, precincts and colonies, and the division of
the land among hereditary nobles who were to grant three-fifths
of it to their freemen and govern through an elaborate system
of feudal courts. But these constitutions, several times revised,
actually served only as a theoretical standard for the proprietors
and were abrogated altogether in 1693, and the colonists were
governed by Instructions which granted them much greater
privileges. From the very beginning the territory tended to
divide into two distmct sections, a northern and a southern.
The northern section was first called Albemarle, then " that part
of our province of Carolina that lies north and east of Cape Fear,"
and about 1689 North Carolina. Settled largely by people from
Pennsylvania, this section came to be closely associated with the
continental colonies. The southern section, influenced by its
location, by the early settlers from Barbados, and by its trade
connexions, was brought into rather more intimate relations with
the island colonies and with the mother country. The pro-
prietors struggled in vain to bring about a closer union. In 1691
17 1 2 again to allow her a governor of ber own. So long as the
intervening territory was a wilderness no effort was made to
define the boundary line. The first steps were taken in that
direction just after the close of the proprietary period in 1729,
but the work was not completed until 1815.*
The first permanent English colony in North Carolina was
established at Albemarle on the Chowan river about 1660 by
people from Virginia. The colony grew rapidly, and at the close
of the colonial period (1776) the population numbered approxi-
mately 300,000, including English, Scotch, Scotch-Irish, Swiss,
French Protestants, Moravians, and about 40,000 negroes.
According to Dr Weeks " the earliest settlers . . . were not
religious refugees, . . . they came to the province not from
religious but economic motives."
The proprietary period (1663-1729) was a turbulent one, in
spite of the supposedly peaceful influence of the Quakers.
Six out of sixteen governors or deputy-governors were driven
from office between 1674 and 171 2, and there were two uprisings
which have been deemed worthy of the term rebellion. The
first under John Culpeper in 1677 was primarily economic in
character, the chief grievance being the payment of an export
duty on tobacco. It was evidently influenced by the recent
uprising in Virginia under Nathaniel Bacon. The insurrection
of dissenters (1708-17 11), which was headed by Thomas Carey,
who was deputy-governor while the trouble was brewing, was
in opposition to the establishment of the Church of England;
it was ultimately unsuccessful, the Church was established in
171 1, a law was passed which deprived Quakers of the privilege
of serving on juries or holding public oflice, and the establish-
ment Svas continued until the War of Independence. A war with
the Tuscarora Indians, in 171X-1713, resulted in the defeat of *he
Indians and the removal of the greater part of the tribe to New
York, where they became the sixth nation of the Iroquois
confederacy.
North Carolina did not join South Carolina in the revolution
of 17x9 (see South Carouna), but remained under proprietary
rule until 1729. In that year an act was passed by parliament
establishing an agreement with seven of the Lords Proprietors
for the surrender of their claims to both provinces. They were
allowed £17,500 for their rights and £5000 for arrears of qxu't
rents. Lord Carteret refused to sell and continued to hold a
one-eighth undivided share until 1744, when he gave up his claim
in return for a large strip of land in North Carolina lying between
latitude 35* 34' and the Virginia line (36® 30'). So that while
the king was governmental head of the whole of North Carolina
from 1729 to 1776 he was, after 1744, territorial lord of only
the southern half. The political history during the royal period
is, like that of the other colonies, the story of a constant struggle
between the representatives of the people and the representatives
of the crown. The struggle was especially bitter during the
administrations of the last three royal governors, Arthur Dobbs
(1684-1765), William Tryon (1729-1788) and Josiah Martin
(1737-1786). There were disputes over questions of government,
of commerce, of finance and of religion. The ship which brought
stamps and stamped paper to Wilmington in 1766 was not
permitted to land, and the stampmaster was compelled by the
people to take an oath that he would not exercise the functions
of his office. Through the vigilance of Governor Tryon, however,
the Assembly was prevented from sending delegates to the Stamp
Act Congress. The colonists were also angered by the attempt to
* Between 173^ and 1746 the southern boundary was first definitely
established by aioint commission of North Carolina, South Carolina
and Georgia. The line was resurveyed in 1764, and in 1772 was
extended; parts of the line were resurveyed under acta of the
assembly of 1803, 1804, 1806, 1813, 1814 and 1815, and by an act
of 181^ the last extension, to the Tennessee line, was confirmed and
established. According to the charter the northern boundary was
to be the line of 36* 30', but the surveys (of 1728, 1749 and 1779)
were not strictly accurate, and the actual line runs irregularly from
36* 33' » 5' at its eastern to 36* 34' asV »t its western end. The
Boundary between North Carolina and Tennessee was surveyed in
1799 and l8as.
Scotch-Irish among them in particular were aroused by the
repeal of an act of 1771 allowing Presbyterian ministeis to per>
form the marriage ceremony and of another act of the same year
for the establishment of Queen's Collie in Mecklenburg county
for Presbyterians. In the " back country " extortionate fees,
excessive taxes, and the oppressive manner of collecting tbeni
brought about a popular uprising, known as the Regulation, which
centred in Orange and AJxson counties, but was strong also in
Brown, Edgecombe, Johnson, Gran\'ille and Halifax counties.
Hermon Husband (c. 17 24-1 795) was the chief agitator of
measures for relief* but, since, as a (Quaker, he discouraged
violence, the cause was left without a recognized leader.
Governor Ttyon manifested no sympathy for the oppressed
and sought only the thorough suppression of the disturbance,
which was organized in the spring of 1768 by Regulators, *' (or
regiilating public grievances and abuses of power." The Regu-
lators agreed to pay no more taxes until satisfied that they were
in accordance with law, and to pay nothing in excess of the legal
fees. 'Violence speedily followed; the local militia was called out,
but since only a few would serve the only means found to quiet
the people was an alleged promise from the governor that if they
would petition him for redress and go to their homes he would
see that justice was done. In reply to their petition the goverx»r
denied that he had made any promise in their behalf; and in
September he had at his command a military force of 1153,
about one-fourth of whom were officers. Although the Regulators
assembled to the number of about 3700 they were not prepared to
withstand the governor's force and again submitted without
bloodshed, there being only a few arrests made. In the following
year the Regulators attempted to elect new members to the
assembly and petitioned the newly-elected house. But as little
had been accomplished when the sui>erior court met at Hillsboro,
Orange county, in September 1770, the Regulators became
desperate again, whipped the chief oflender. Colonel Edxnusd
Fanning, and demolished his residence. These riotous praoecd-
ings provoked the second military expedition of the governor.
and on the i6th of May 1771, with a force of about 1000 men and
officers, he met about twice that number of Regulators <m the
banks of the Alamance, where, after two hours of fitting,
with losses on each side nearly equal, the ammunition ol the
Regulators was exhausted and they were routed. About
fifteen were taken prisoners, and of these seven were executed.
This insurrection was in no sense a beginning of the Wax of
Indeptendence; on the contrary, during that war most of Tr^-or.'s
militia who fought at Alamance were Patriots and the majority
of the Regtilators, who remained in the province, were Loyalists
In August 1 771 Governor Tryon was succeeded by Goveraor
Josiah Martin, who was soon engaged in spirited controx'crsif?
with the assembly on questions pertaining to taxes, the soQtbem
boundary, and the attachment of property belonging to noo-
residents. So complete became the breach between them that
in 1773 the royal government had ncariy ceased to operate, vA
in 1774 the governor was deserted by his hitherto subGn\-ici::
council. The first Provincial Congress met at Newbcm on the
2Sth of August 1774 and elected delegates to the Continental
Congress. When the governor learned that a second Pro-
vincial Congress was called to meet in April 1775 he icsol\-ed to
convene the assembly on the same day. But the assembh.
the members of which were nearly the same as those of the
congress, refused to interrupt the meeting of the congress, a^
in the next month the governor sought safety in flight, first to
Fort Johnson on the Cape Fear below Wilmington and then to a
man-of-war along the coast. On the 31st of May 1775 a com-
mittee representing the militia companies of Meckkebcir
county passed a series of resolutions which declared that tht
royal commissions in the several colonies were null and >«!
that the constitution of each colony was wholly suspended, is^
that the legislative and executive powers of each coloDy vcft
vested in its provincial congress subject to the directioa of ibc
Continental Congress; and the resolutions requested ik
TH CAROLINA
777
rganiza-
should
)rovide
Mtrary
'nburg
3f the
itical
>thcr
aU
ind
«ly
76.
territory settlers, many of them from North Carolina, had gone
immediately before and during the War of Independence, and
had orgam'zed a practically independent government. In 1776
this was formally annexed to North Carolina, but in 1784 the
state ceded this district to the national government on condition
that it should be accepted within two years. The inhabitants of
the district, however, objected to the cession, especially to the
terms, which, they contended, threatened them with two years
of anarchy; declared their independence of North Carolina and
organized for themselves the state of Franklin. But the new
state was weakened by factions, and after a brief and precarious
existence it was forced into submission to North Carolina by which
in 1790 the territory was again ceded to the national government
with the proviso that no regulation made or to be made by Con*
gress should tend to the emancipation of slaves (see Tennessee).
North Carolina sent delegates to the Philadelphia Constitu-
tional Convention of 1787, but the state convention, at Hillsboro,
called to pass upon the constitution for North Carolina, did not
meet until the 3ist of July 1788, when ten states had already
ratified. On the first day of this convention the opponents to the
constitution, among whom were most of the delegates from the
western coimties, were ready to reject it without debate, but
ridded to a proposal for discussing it clause by clause. In this
liscussion, which was continued for nine days, the document was
lost strongly opposed because it contained no bill of rights and on
e ground that it would provide for such a strong central govern-
rnt that the state governments would ultimately be sacrificed,
the conclusion of the debate the convention by a vote of
to 84 declared itself unwilling to ratify the constitution until
ill of rights had been added and it had been amended in
ral other particulars so as to guarantee certain powers to the
3. By reason of this rejection the relations of North Carolina
the other states were severed upon the dissolution of the
deration, and it took no part in the first election or in the
zation of the new government. However, there was a
reaction against the oppositon which had in no small
B been inspired by fear of a requirement that debts be
Told and sUver. A second convention met at Fayetteville
'mber 1789 and the constitution was speedily ratified
3th) by a vote of 195 to 77.
mod from 1790 to 1835 was marked by a prolonged
etween the eastern and the western counties. When
institution of 1776 was adopted the coimties were so
il in population that they were given equal rcpresenta-
! General Assembly, but the equality in population
I in the general westward movement, and in 1790
;gan to urge a new division of the state into repre-
itricts according to population and taxation. This
ily resisted, and the West assumed a threatening
Se East opposed its projects for internal improve-
fch the West had the greater need. In 1823 the
a extra-legal convention to meet at Raleigh, and
34 of the 38 western counties responded, but
ar West, in which there were practically no slaves,
'.e population to be made the basis of representa-
* from the Middle West demanded the adoption
the national House of Representatives and the
\ only a divided appeal to the people. Ten
^er, at the election of assemblymen, 33 of the
)olled an extra-legal vote on the question of
lonal convention, and 30,000 votes were cast
*> against iL The effect of this was that in
legislature passed a bill for submitting the
ill the voters of the state, although this bill
oposed convention's power relating to re-
Iding that it should so amend the constitu-
^ chosen by districts according to public
"^ners be apportioned by districts according
ion, ».e. five slaves to be counted equal to
e popular vote was taken, in the following
mty gave a majority against the conven-
ith the limitation which was decidedly
01 July, tne CAst nutae some concessions: sucn as tne popular
election of the governor (who had previously been elected by
the two houses of the legbkiture), the disfranchisement of free
negroes, and the abolition of representation from 6 boroughs,
4 of which were in the East. The number of senators was
reduced to 50, the number of commoners to z3o, and the manner
of choosing senators and commoners was changed as direaed
in the act providing for the convention. The electorate gave
its approval to the revision by a vote of 36,771 to az,6o6, and
with this the agitation over representation ceased.
The fundamental points of difference between North Carolina
and South Carolina were exemplified in the slavery conflict.
South Carolina led the extreme radical element in the South
and was the first state to secede. North Carolina held back,
worked for a compromise, sent delegates to the Washington
Peace Convention in February z86i, and did not secede until
the 30th of May 1861, after President Lincoln's call for troops
to preserve the Union. liberal support was given to the Con-
federacy, both in men and supplies, but Governor Vance, one
of the ablest of the Southern war governors, engaged in
acrimonious controversies with President Jefferson Davis,
contending that the general government of the Confederacy
was encroaching upon the prerogatives of the separate states.
Owing to its disunce from the border, the sUte escaped serious
invasion until near the dose of the war. Wilmington was captured
by the Federals in February 1865; General Sherman's army
crossed the southern boundary in March; a battle was fought
at BentonviUe, March 19-21; Raleigh was entered on April
13; and the Confederates under General Joseph £. Johnston
surrendered near Durham Station, in Durham county, on the
36th.
Reconstruction was a costly experience here as in other
Southern states. Jonathan Worth (1802-1869), elected governor
under the presidential plan in 1865, was an honest and capable
official, but the government established in accordance with the
views of Congress in z868 was corrupt, inefficient and tyrannical.
Carpet-baggers, negroes and unscrupulous native whites, known
as scalawags, were in control of affairs, while the people of
wealth, refinement and education were disfninchised. Governor
William Woods Holden (18x8-1893; governor 1868-1870) was so
weak and tyrannical that he was impeached by the legislature
in Decembo- 1870. Under his successor. Tod R. Caldwell (18x8-
Z874), there was some improvement in the condition of affairs,
and in 1875 a constitutional convention, in session at Raleigh,
with the Democrats slightly in the majority, amended the
constitution, their work being ratified by the people at the
state election in 1876. The native white element completely
regained possession of the government in the following year, when
the Democrats came into office under Governor Zebulon B.
Vance. Since that time the most interesting feature in the
poUtiaU history has been the rise and fall of the People's party.
The hard times which followed the finandal panic of X893 made it
possible for them, in alliance with the Republicans, to carry
the state in the dection of 1894. Afterwards their strength
declined, because the people became more prosperous, because
the national Democratic party in X896 and 1900 adopted thdr
views on the money question, and because of the unpopularity
of a coalition with Republicans, which made it necessary to give
the coloured people a share of the offices. The race question
was the chief issue in the dection of X898, the Democrats were
successful, and what amounted to a negio-disfranchising amend-
ment to the constitution was adopted in August 1900. In X907
there was a serious dash between the sUte authorities and the
Federal judidary, arising from an act of the legislature of that
year which fixed the maximum railway fare at 3| cents a
mile and imposed enormous fines for its viohtion. The two
prindpal railway corporations, the Southern and the Seaboard
by the courts was not satislactory to the state authorities,
who arrested a ticket agent of the Southern railway, convicted
him of violating the law, and sentenced him to the chain-gang
for thirty days. Thereupon the attorneys for the railway
applied to Judge Jeter Gonnelly Pritchard (b. 1857) oi the
United States Circuit Court for a writ of habeas corpus; this
was granted and the prisoner was rdeased. The go\-enK>r ol
the state, Robert Brodnax Glenn (b. X854), iwverthdess urged
the state courts and attorneys to proceed with the prosecution
of other ticket agents, and threatened to resist witlx the force
of the state any further interference of Federal judidary; but
in March X908 the Supreme Court of the United States declared
the North Carolina rate law unconstitutional on the ground that
it was confiscatory.
Governors of North Carolina
Proprietary Period (1663-1739).
William Drummond 1663-1667
Samuel Stephens 1667-1669
Peter Carteret 1669-1673
John Jenkins, president of the council 1673-1676
Thomas Eastchurch 1676-1677
Thomas Miller, president of the council . 1677-1678
John Harvey, president of the council 1678-1679
ohn Jenkins 1679-1681
lenry Wilkinson 1681-1683
ScthSothd 1683-1689
Philip Ludwdl 1689-1691
Alexander Lillington, deputy-governor . 1691-1694
Thomas Harvey, dcputy-eovemor . 1694-1699
Henderson Walker, president of the council . 1699-1704
Robert Daniel, deputy-governor I704-I7(M
Thomas Carey, deputy-governor . 1705-1706
William Glover, president of the council . 1706-1707
wS GlSSr I «>°^tants (Carey's rebdUon) 1707-1710
Edward Hyde, aeputy-govemor 1710-1712
Thomas Pollock, president of the coundl . 1 7 1 2-1 7 1 4
Charles Eden . 1714-1722
Thomas Pollock, president of the council 1723
William Rdd. president of the council . . x 723-1 724
George Burrington 1734-1725
Edward Mosely, president of the council. . 1725
Sir Richard Everard 1735-1739
Royai Period (1729-1776).
George Burrington* I73I-I734
Nathanid Rice, president of the council . 1734
Gabrid Johnston X734-175J
Nathamd Rice, president of the council . 1 753-1 753
Matthew Rowan, president of the council 1 753^1 754
Arthur Dobbs 1754-17^
William Tryon X765-1771
iames Hasell, president of the coundl I77t
osiah Martin i77i-i77S
StaUkood Period (1776- ).
Richard Caswell 1777-1779
Abncr Nash 1779-1781
Thomas Burke 1781-1783
Alexander Martin 1783-1784
Richard Caswell 1 784-1787
Samuel Johnston 1787-1789
Alexander Martin Federalist 1789-1793
Richard Dobbs Spaight. Sr. . Dem.-Repub. 1791-179S
Samud Ashe „ 1795-179$
William Richardson Davie. „ 1798-1799
Benjamin Williams ... ,. 1799-180(3
fiLmes Turner .... ,; 1803-1805
athanid Alexander ... „ 1805-1807
Benjamin Williams ... ,; 1807-1806
David Stone „ 1808-1810
Beniamin Smith .... „ i8io-i8xt
Wiluam Hawkins . ... „ 1811-18x4
William Miller .. 1814-1817
John Branch ,. 1817-1&30
* Burrington was appointed in 1730, but dkl not arrive in tke
province until February 1731. Either Everard hekl over or ckc
president of the council was acting-governor from 1739-1731.
i/avia L.owiy dwain .
Richard E>obtw Spaight, Jr.
Edward Bishop DucUey
John Motley Morehcad
William Alexander Graham
Charles Manly . . . .
David Settle Reid
Warren Winslow (ex-offido)
Thomas Brage ....
John Willis Ellis ....
Henry Toole Clark (ex-ofBcio) .
Zebulon Baird Vance .
WUliam Woods Holden . .
Jonathan Worth ....
Gen. Daniel Edgar Sickles .
Gen. Ed. Richard Sprigg Canby
William Woods Holden . .
Tod R. Caldwell ....
Curtis Hooks Brogden .
Zebuk>n Baird Vance .
Thomas Jordan Jarvis
Alfred Moore Scales .
Daniel Gould Fowle .
Thomas Michael Holt .
EliasCarr
Daniel Lindsay Russell
Charles Brantley Aycock .
Robert Brodnax Glenn
William Walton Kitchin . .
Democrat
Provisional
Conservative
Military
Republican
Democrat
Republican
Democrat
1032-1035
1837-1841
I«4i-i845
1845-1849
1849-1851
1851-1854
1854-1855
l855-»8§9
185^1861
1861-1863
1863-1865
1865
1865-1867
1867
I 867-1868
1868-1870
1870-1874
1874-1877
1877-1879
I 879- I 885
1885-1889
1889-1891
1891-1893
1893-1897
1897-1901
1901-1905
1905-1909
1909-
Efononiic Survey (RjitciKh, iSgjj. *iq ), fj?, IVq
Ckrafi)H(ii09)» bv C, F. Swam. JowpS H-lhJdn
G(fii iimtmr m Ntrrih Cafoiin*i and iUhft Appdi
BuiLicxiRArTlY- — For physical dcsmptionn rcsounaa, industries,
^.. «* Stitc board d AtrnduUurr^ North C<tfoiina und ils Rnourus
CRaleigb, tS^d); N&rtk CarokiUL Caietkai Sartfif Sir torts (RaEeij^h.
TS53, v^q); the publlcafiofla of the notih C^mfin4 Geological and
■^ ■ " ^-. . . * ~ i Waifr Fo^otri in Narth
jlincs atid E- W- My t:r»,
I Afinmf in Nhrih Cafoiin*i and ckhft Appalackitin Siaies (,i^97),
hy H« B, C. NitM .ind A. J. Wliciufl, The Ym D^f^^its of iHe Orro-
hnas Osp^), by K II- PmtE and D. B. Stenxtt. Btntdirtg and Otna-
memoi Si^mfi ef Nprtk Carolina {1907), by T. L. SVaiw>n s-mt others,
Tht Fiibti of North Caroiina (ig07j, by Hugh M, Smiih, and
iliitory of iJtt Gems fovnd in Norik Carctina (rTTifij. by C. F. Ku:i2;
RifKTi oftht Sferetary 3/ A^rifulJure in RfJation in the F^titi,Rt\.trs
and iJovntainr of the Southern Apt^jlackiaJt Region (Waihlngion,
1903): Climaifitogy of Nifrik CarnUna (R^ilcigh, 1892); and H.
Thompsoti^ Fum ike Cotton Field t& iht Cation Mill, a Study tf the
indu^riai Trsnsitiim in Notth C<^olina fNuw York, 1^06), coTiiains
some intcrrttin); observgUoo* on the changes m social conditions
irwikirii; Irom the growth of tht cotEon-maryfaclbring induftry.
Jolvn \V Mj-..in-. ffrshtrv fif N..f.'lh C.irr.'ina f:? Viil^.. I^-iUit^h. lf..>o);
S,Ar . ■ -.'.,«-
ina History (6th ed., Raleigh. 1893), is a brief elementary book
written for use in the public schools. Tor the colonial and revolu-
tionary periods there are some excellent studies. C. L. Raper,
North Carolina: a Study in English Colonial Gaoemment (New York.
1904), treats of the royal period (1739-1776) from the legal point 01
view; J. S. Bassett. Constitutional Bepnninjs of North Car(4ina
(Baltimore, 1894); The Regulators of North Carolina (Washington,
1894): and SUnery in the State of North Carolina (Baltimore, 1899).
are all trustworthy. S. B. Weela deals with the religious history in
his Religious Deoeupmutni in the Province of North CaroRna, (Baltimore,
1893), Church and State in North Carolina f Baltimore. 1893) and
Southern Quakers and 5/as^ry (Baltimore, 1896); he is an ti- Anglican.
(;►.'.- jiy 10 i^t/mm'^fftii-rnnn (J.:..nitrTiCTv, ]^'^:-.j. riii-^il on iJn.' pu-iilic
rrcorid*, h accuracr. thciujjh dull. Th^rc is a con5idcr4bIi? ointro-
VTrtiil Uirrafum tonctrmnig the Mc^lelenbufg Dtt;tarartf>n d In-
dcppnddtee; W* H. Hoj't'i The Meikit^urg Dtdara-tian oj Indrprnd-
tme {New York. 1907) » the best preset Uiiofi of the vifw gtncrjlly
adcMed by competent hbtoHanB thai the altc^rd Dptlar^tion ol the
3tna of May tJJ^ is gpurbug; G. W. Graham, The^ Mcfftlfithytrg
DseUroHon of Inae^deme (N>w York. 1905). and J. \\\ Mocre,
iVffBcr ef the Mtctknbitrg DtiUtaUim u/ Indfpend^ce fnwoK are
^•^hspi the t-cit of the Attempts to prov- ihc tani-^ LJ-^JjijiJon
Snuine. The okler histories of the colony are: Hugh Williamson,
f5tory of North Carolina (3 vols. Philadelphia. 1813). which deals
with the period before 1771 and is meagre and full of errors; F. X.
Martin, History of North Carolina (3 vols.. New Orleans, 1829),
which deals with the period before 1776, contains much irrelevant
matter and u of little value; F. L. Hawks, History of North Carolina
(3 vols. Fayeneville, N.C.. 1857-1858). written from the established
church point of view, the best and fullest treatment of the pro-
prietary period (1663-1739); and W. D. Cooke (ed.), Rtpolutionary
vol. Ill ocaii iri(.n etutiii ^aruttiiy^i niiu riiMijr ru it^f^xi^. wt uh
Why the St^id South I or RftonsSruetum and iti R^adis (Bait j more,
l8c>o>. The chief publuhed sounrn Ore The Coi^nial Rttotd-f w
Net ft C^ft^ina ( to voU., Raleigh. 1^^*6-1690); and The Si^ R&^ds
of .W'jfh O^roiina {vols, ii-20. i77b-i7S3: other voh-» in conTbua-
tion gt the crtlaniil «ries. Winston (11-15) *"^ Gold*boro (16-10),
l8<)5-EQo?: the «eri« i* to be continuedL The best bibli^racihy
isS! \^. Wfcbi^ Bibiw^apky 6f liutoria^ Liietaluft of Nonk Cst'dina
(C^JTibrSiJije, l&Si).
NORTHOOTB; JAHES (Z746-Z831), EngUth painter, was
bom at PI}rmouth on the ssnd of October 1746. He was
apprenticed to his father, a poor watchmaker of the town, and
during his spare hours was diligent with brush and pendL In
1769 he left his father and started as a portrait-painter. Four
years later he went to London and was admitted as a pupQ
into the studio and house of Reynolds. At the same time he
attended the Academy schools. In 1775 he left Reynolds,
and about two years later, having acquired the reqtiisite funds
by portrait-painting in Devonshire, he went to study in Italy.
C>n his return to England, three years later, he revisited his
native county, and then settled in London, where Opie and
Fuseli were his rivals. He was elected associate of the Academy
in 1786, and full academician in the following spring. The
" Young Princes murdered in the Tower," his first important
historical work, dates from 1786, and it was followed by the
" Burial of the Princes in the Tower," both paintings, along mih
seven others, being executed for Boydell's Shakespeare ^ery.
The " Death of Wat Tyler," now in the Guildhall, was exhibited
in 1787; and shortly afterwards Northcote began a set of ten
subjects, entitled " The Modest Girl and the Wanton," which were
completed and engraved in 1796. Among the productions of
Northcote's later years are the ** Entombment " and the " Agony
in the Garden," besides many portraits, and several animal
subjects, like the " Leopards," the " Dog and Heron," and the
" Lion "; these latter were more successful than the artist's efiforts
in the higher departments of art, as was indicated by Fuseli's
caustic remark on examining the " Angel opposing Balaam "—
" Northcote, you are an angel at an ass, but an ass at an angel."
The works of the artist number about two thousand, and he made
a fortune of £40,000. He died on the 13th of July 1831.
Northcote was emulous of fame as an author, and his first essays
in literature were contributions to the Artist^ edited by Prince Hoare.
In 1813 he embodied his recollections of his old master in a Life of
Reynolds. His Fables — the first series publislied in 1838, the second
posthumously in 1833 — were illustrated with woodcuts by Harvey
from Northcote's own designs. I n the production of his Life of Titian,
his last work, which appeared in 1830. he was assisted by William
Hazlitt, who previously, in 1836, had given to the public in the
New Monthly Jiiagaune his recollections of Northcote's pungent and
cynkal " conversations," the bitter personalities of which caused
much trouble to the painter and his fnends.
NORTH DAKOTA, one of the North Central sUtes of the
American Union, between 4S* 5^ and 49* N., and 96* 35' and
104* 3' W. It is bounded N. by the Canadian provinces of
Saskatchewan and Manitoba, S. by South Dakota, W. by
Montana and E. by Minnesota, from which it is separated by the
Red river (or Red river of the North). North Dakota has an
extreme length, E. and W., of 360 m., an extreme width, N. and
S., of 310 m., and a total area of 70,837 sq. m., oC which 654
sq. m. are water surface.
To^^a^Ay.— North DakoU lies in the Prairie Plains and
Great Plains physiographic provinces. The escarpment of the
Coteau du Missouri is the dividing line, that portion to the N.
and E. lying in the Prairie Plains, that to the S.W. in the Great
Plains. The surface presents few striking topographic features,
and may be subdivided into three vast plains or prairie table-
lands rising one above the other from E. to W., the two eastern-
most together constituting the Prairie Plains portion of the state.
The lowest of these plains is the valley of the Red river, and
this valley ext^nfl« along the eastern edge of the state and
varies in w' in 35 to 70 m. Its elevation is 965 ft. at
in the N. This plain is separated from the Red river valley in
the N. by an abrupt slope rising to a height of from 300 to 500
ft. above the surrounding country, and called the Manitoba
escarpment, because the greater part of it lies in the province
of Manitoba. The Pembina Mountains, low hills near the inter-
national boundary and about 30 m. W. of the Red river, form
a portion of this escarpment. From these hills southward the
ridge gradually becomes less abrupt until in Walsh county
it vanishes into prairie. The ascent to the upper plain then
Becomes very gentle, though there is a rise of 400 or 500 ft.,
until it reaches the south-eastern portion of Sargent county
and changes into tl^ more abrupt Coteau dcs Prairies, a plateau
about 2000 ft. above the sea. The second plain, while not so
level as the Red river valley, contains but one group of hills,
the Turtle Mountains; these rise from 300 to 400 ft. above the
general level, near the centre of the northern boundary. The
prairies in this second table-land are gently rolling, and are
covered with drift from the continental ice-sheet of the glacial
period. They are bounded on the W. by a ridge from 300 to
400 ft. in height and from 20 to 50 m. in width, which roughly
marks the dividing line between the farming lands of the E.
and the grazing knds of the W. The northern portion of this
ridge forms the water-parting between the streams that empty
into Hudson Bay and those that flow into the Gulf of Mexico.
To the W. of this ridge lies the third and highest plain within the
state, the so-called Coteau du Missouri. It occupies nearly
one half of the state, and rises gradually westward until it attains
a general level of about 2700 ft. East of the Missouri river
this r^on is covered with glacial drift, and is noticeably different
from the more levd lands of the lower plains. The ice-sheet
wore down from the hills and filled the valleys with debris
until the surface has a billowy appearance. As the Missouri
river marks approximatdy the lower edge of the ice^heet, the
region W. of this stream is almost free from gladal deposits and
presents a strong contrast to the rest of the state. The billowy
plains stiU remain in places, but in the vicinity of streams the
billoi^ give way to deep ravines. The sands and days found
here ire fine and soft, and as there is scant vegetation to protect
the hillsides they are easily eroded by the rains. As a result,
the surface has been carved kito fantastic forms. The early
French explorers called the region ies tares mauvaises, on account
of the difficulties that here met the traveller, and in its English
equivalent, "the Bad Lands," this appellation still remains.
High winds and seams- of burning lignite coal have aided the
rains in giving the Bad Lands their peculiar configuration.
Prairie fires or spontaneous combustion have ignited many coal
seams. Some have already burnt out; others still emit
smoke and sulphurous fumes from the crevices in the hillsides,
and through the fissures may be seen the glowing coal and rock.
The <5arth surface above these natural furnaces has been hardened,
cracked and sometimes melted into a reddish slag, called scoria,
which, on account of its resemblance to lava, has given rise to
an incorrect impression that the region was once the centre of
volcanic disturbances. The picturesque effect of this sculpturing
by water, wind and fire is greatly enhanced by the brilliant
colours along the faces of the hills and ravines— grey, yellow,
black and every shade of red and brown. Here too are found
petrified forests and other evidences of a vegeuble growth that
has long ago disappeared. The lands are bad for the traveller
and the farmer, but not for the ranchman. A few miles from
the streams the country is less broken, and there are deep grassy
valleys, in which the animals may find shdter in winter. Cattle
sometimes congregate in cold weather around a burning coal
seam and enjoy the warmth. The lignite in this region also warms
the ranchman's cabin, being easily mined where a seam is exposed
in the walls of a ravine or on the side of a hill.
North Dakota has a mean elevation of 1900 ft. The highest
boundary and empties into Lake Wmnipce in Canada, thence
reaching Hudson Bay through the Nelson nvcr. Its tribotarks
are small, and arc remarkable chiefly for the fact that they at fint
flow in a direction almost opposite to that of the main stream, and
make a great bend to the N.E. before joining it.^ The Shcycnne. the
Goose, the Park and the Pembina rivers are the moat important of
these streams. The Mouse, or Souris, river rises In Cjtn»4 ^^ crosses
the international boundary near tfa« meridian of 102* W. kmg.,
flows S.E. for about 70 m., then turns to the N. and near the loist
meridian re-enters British territory, after receiving the waters of the
Rivi^ dcs Lacs and other small streams. The Misaouri river, the
most important stream within the state, crosses the western boundary
near the 48th paralld, and after pursuing a winding course in a
general south-castcriv direction, leaves the state near the centre
of its southern boundarv. The tames river, flowing southwani into
South Dakota, is the Missouri s only imporunt eastern tribuUry
within the state. From the W. the Missouri reorives the waters of
the Little Missouri, Cannon Ball, Heart and Knife rivers. All that
portion of the state lyin^ W. of the Pembina Mountains and £. of
the Mouse river valley is practKally without river drainage, and
for its surface and sub-surface drainage. Devils Lake, an irregular
body of water about 40 m. in length and with an area of 400 sq. m..
forms a natural reservoir. The waters of this lake are strongly aline.
The entire region W. of the Red river valley and E. of the valleys
of the. Mouse and Missouri rivers is dotted with small lakes. The
morainic bdts and other obstructions in the drift plaiiia hem in the
waters in the intervening basins and create what are called " (facial
lakes," varvtiig in diameter from a few yards to several milea. All
the lakes of the state are of this character, and many are strong vitfa
salt and alkali. Tlie drift plains also contain numerous shallov
hollows, locally tenn<$d " pots and kettles," whkfa receive the
drainage of their vidnity and form sbughs.
Faumi and Flora, — Before the advent of the white man. herds of
bison roamed the prairies, but these have disa^ipeared,* and, with
the exception of deer and bears, large game is to be found only ia
the Bad Lands. Here are found the lynx, the ** mountain lioa **
or puma, the prairie and timber wolves, the jack rabbit, the pnurie
dog (gopher), the black, the brown and, oocasipnally, the grixdy bear.
A Tew fur-bearing animals, the mink, beaver and taocoon, still
remain. The prairie dog is found everywhere. Among the lakes;
sloughs and stubblc-fidds of the prainea, teal^ ducks, coots and
geese are found in abundance. Other ^irie birds are the prairie
chicken, and there are a great many birds that sing while lying:
among them are the homed lark, bobolink, Smith's king^Mir ani
chestnut collared ]ongq>ur« lark-sparrow, lark-bunting and Sprague's
The flora of North Dakota is tyfiical of a Kmi-arid cxMmtry.
The prevailing plant-colour is a greyish jgrecn. due to a turd dry
outer covering which serves as a protection from deskxatloa. All
plant life has a remarkably large proportion of subterranean grovth.
because of the necessity of getting moisture from the earth and not
from the air; hence roots and tubers are unusually well developed.
The Red river vallc^r is a meeting ground for many spedcs of plants
whose prindoal habitat lies in some other quarter. Many trees of
the eastern lorest, such as basswood. sugar, river and red noaple.
red, white and black ash, red and rock elm, blade and bar oak,
white and red pine and red cedar find their western limit hcrv.
Some spedes characteristic of the more northerly regioBs — for
example, the mountain ash, balsam fir, tamarack and black and
white q>rucc — ^find here tbdr southern or south-western Gmits.
The same is true of shrubs and .herbaceous plants. The pricUy
ash, Virginian creeper ind staff-tree find here their northern lindt;
and the mountain maple. Canada blueberry, dwarf birch and ground
hemlock thdr southern limit. Of 1500 species of herbaocom plants
in the Red river basin, it b estimated that fully half reach here their
geographkal limit or limit of frequent occurrence. Trees are fooad
1 The peculiar bow shape of these western tributaries of the Red
river is due to the fact that these streams originally Bowed SlE. into
Lake Agassix, now extinct. As the waters of the lake graduafly
receded, the rivers reached it by pushii^ their chanods eastward
through what was once its bed. The southern part of the Kfce
bottom was finally uplifted by a movement of the earth ,
and the outlet was changed from the S. to the N.E. The waters
continued to recede, and the tributaries, in cutting their way thcough
the sediment, followed the slope of the land and gradually turned
northward.
*The early settlers found the bones of the bison scatteie d over
the prairies, and after the construction of railways the gatlwring
and shipping of these for use in sugar refining and in the raanafacture
of superphosphate became temporarily a profitable inda&fry.
Between January and August 1889 a single dealer at Minot shipfxd
1200 tons, which sold at to the ton. '
are covered with valuable graucs. and with masses of showy native
flowers, which bloom from spring to autumn. The pasque flower b
found on all the prairies and is the eariiest to appear. The Bad Lands
exhibit a vegetation typical of semi-arid regions. Cottonwoods
flourish along the Little Missouri river, and in sheltered ravines
^w stuntedjunipers and cedars, which seldom rise above the crest
of some protecting bluff. Poplars gfx>w in the valleys, and the cactus
and sage brush are common. The faces of buttes and ravines that
are turned toward the sun are usually devoid of vegetation.
Gimate. — ^There are no mountains, lorests or large bodies of water
to moderate the extremes of summer and winter, and the uniformity
of topography makes the ranges of temperature for different parts
of the state very nearly the ame. Between the extreme northern
and southern sections there is a range of only 6* F. The mean annual
temperature for the state b 59^ F., with an extreme of x 10* recorded
for the summer and a minimum of - 54* for the winter. As a general
rule, temperatures are highest in the W. and lowest in the b. In
the central region of the state (at Jamestown, Stutsman county)
thi^ mpan Annual f^mnprafnre ia Aa*i the m#>an fnr the vrinter. lO .
the winter, 10' .
mean for the
the mean annual temperature b 40*: the mean for th
with a minimum of - 40* recorded m February; the
•summer b 67*, with an extreme of lot" recorded in July. The
winters are long and severe. The season, however, on account of the
dryness of the climate, b not so harsh as the low temperatures
would seem to iiulicate. The seasons are sharply demarked; both
winter and summer come suddenly. The summers are short, but
as there are sixteen hours of sunlight per day in midsummer, vege-
tation grows rapidly. Killing frosts often occur in June and return
again eariy in September, liigh winds are frequent, and prairie
houses are often protected by rows of trees called " wind breaks."
During the growmg season the winds are usually light, but in the
late summer and autumn occasional dry, hot. southern winds (" hot
southers") prove very destructive to vesctation. Tornadoes are
not unknown, and local hail storms are frequent in the suminer,
but do little damage. The total precipitation for the state b 17 or
18 in., the heaviest, about 20 in., occurring in the Red river vaUey,
and the lightest, about 14 in., in the extreme W. While the rainftul
is always oelow the normal amount for humid regions, by far the
greater part of it occurs in tHe spring and summer, and growing
crops receive the full benefit. The precipitation rarely amounts to
3 in. for the entire winter. The snows are therefore very light, and
are quickly swept frx>m the prairies by the high winds, so that cattle
may grace in the open plains throughout the year. There are,
however, during every winter from one to four severe bltxxards,
which inilict great damage upon unprotected flocks and herds.
Soth.—AB the Red river valley is the bed of the extinct Lake
Agassis, its soil b composed of the fine detritus and silty deposits
carried into the lake by its tributaries. Over the whole oasin thb
deposit, to a depth of i or 3 ft., b coloured black by decayed
vegetation, and constitutes one 01 the roost fertile tracts on the
continent. Being remarkably free from trees, rocks and streams,
the soil can be turned in furrows that run perfectly straight for
miles, and favoura the development of " bonanza farms, where
thousands of acres are cultivated in a single field. The soib W. of
the valley conast of glacial drift, and are well suited to the growing
of grain. The drift oecomes thinner toward the W., ancT finally
Hisap^rv in the semi-arid regions of the Missouri river valley.
in thb region the soils of sand and clay are much finer than
the drift, and are very productive where the water-supply b
iufficient.
Irrigalum. — Irrigation b confined to the western half of the state,
and more esf^ecially to the north-west, being employed chiefly in the
drainage basin of tne Missouri river. The bed of the river is too far
below the surrounding country to permit the use of its waters for
irrigation purposes by the usual gravity methods. The ordinary
process before 1906 was to dam small streams and " coulees "(deep
gulches in which water flows intermittently) and flood the surround-
ing country. The total irrigated area in 190a was 10,384 acres. The
w-called Reclamation Act passed by Congress in 1903 provided for
the construction of a system of irrigation works in this and other
states by the Federal government. In 1908 the Federal Reclamation
Service had five projects in North Dakota. The Buford-Trenton,
Willbton and Nesaon projects are situated in Willums county, on
the left bank of the Missouri river. The abundant lignite coal in
the region was to operate pumps for raising water from the river into
canals crossinff the valley. The Washburn project was to Irrigate
5000 acres in McLean county with water pumped from the Missouri
river. It was estimated that the fourth project, the lower Yellow-
stone, on the western bank of the river of that name, would furnish
water for 66,000 acres of land, of which 20,000 lie in Dawson county.
North Dakota, and the rest in Montana. The fifth project, the
Bowman, was to Irrigate 10.000 acres in North Dakota and the north-
western part of South Dakota by Ktoring the waters of the North
Fork of Grand river. Water for irrigatran purposes b often dcHvrrl
for Uie larver fruits, such as apples, pears, peaches, plums and grapes;
but such hardy small fruits as currants, gooseberries, rasf^erries,
blackberries and strawberries may be grown in abundance.
The total farm acreage in 1890 was 7.660,353 ; in 1900, 15,542,640.
The value of the farm oroperty in the same decade rose from
$100,745,779 to 1255,266.751, and the value of farm producu
from 1889 to 1899 from $21^64,938 to $64,252494.
The average size of the farms (excluding farms under % acres
with producto valued at less than $500) was 277*4 ^cres in 1890 and
343-8 acres in 1900. With regard to tenure, 747 % of the farms
were operated by their ownere, 15*2% by part ownen and 7-2%
by share tenants. Hay and grain formed the principal source of
income of 88-4% of the farms, live-stock of 67 % and dairy produce
of 2*6%. Wheat b the state's most important product. In the
acreage of thb cereal in 1909 (according to the Year-book of the U.S.
Department of Agriculture), North Dakota ranked first, and in
the crop second amoiw the states of the Union, its total yield being
90.762,000 busheb, valued at $83,501,000. Next in importance to
wheat in 1909 was flaxseed, amounting to 14,229,000 bushels, valued
at S22,340,ooa In the production of this commodity the sutc
ranked first, and produced about 55% of the entire crop of the
United States. The flax b cultivated for the seed, and only slightly
for the fibre. Other important crops are oats ($16,368,000 in 1906)
barley ($8,9i3/X)o), hay. potatoes, rye and Indian corn. The value
of the various classes of live-stock on the 1st of January 1910 was as
follows: horses, $81,168,000; mules, $1,040,000; cattle, $21,001,000;
sheep, $2484,000; swine, $2,266,000. Very little attention b paid
to fruit and vegetable growing.
Minerals. — With the exception of lignite, whkh underlies a large
portion of the western half of the state. North Dakota has few mineral
deposits of commercial value. Sandstone occurs in large quantities,
and W. of the Red river valley granite and eneiss are found, but
these materiab are not quarried. The coal b aU in the form of brown
lignite and b not very valuable as a fuel, as it soon crumbles into a
fine powder on being exposed to air. The total area of the coal beds
b estimated at 3<;,ooo sq. m. A law enacted in 1806 required the
use of lignite in all state buildings and institutions. Mining is carried
on abng the Northern Pacific railway W. of the Missouri river, in
the Mouse river valley along the line of the Minneapolis, St Paul &
Sault Ste Marie railway, and at a few places in tne same region
along the line of the Great Northern railway. Good clays for the
manufacture of tile and brick are found at numerous places. The
total value of the mineral products (except stone) m IQ09 was
$738,818, of which $522,116 was the value of coal and $206,222
ot clay products,
Manufaaures. — Manufacturing in North Dakota b of small im-
portance, being largely confined, with the exception of flour and nbt
milling, to the Bupply of local needs. Under the factory system there
in 1900 was $3,511,968 and in 1905 $5,703,837; and the
' ' "' in 1900 and $10,217,914 (or
re 337 establishments in 1900 and 507 in 1005: the capital in-
ited in 1900 was $3,511,968 and ' ' '
. _ $6,259,840 ii _ _ _ , ,.
63-2% more) in 1905. The products of the flour and nist mills
increased in value from 1^1,134,023 in 1900 to $6463,228 in 1905,
and in thb last year constituted in value 6%'^ % of the total factory
products of the state. Printing and publishing was next in import-
ance, with products valued at $7I9.950 in 1900 and at $1,110439
in 1905. Butter, cheese and condensed milk manufactured were
valued at $122,128 in 1900 and at $562481 in 1905. The chief
manufacturing centres are Fargo and Grand Forks.
Transportatum. — ^The total railway mileage within the state on
the 31st of December 1908 was 4135*67 ro. The main line of the
Northern Pacific, from St PAuI to Portland, Oregon, enters the state
at Fargo and runs almost due W. throughout its length for about
380 m. Parallel with thb road, but farther to the N., b the main
line of the Great Northern system, running from St Paul to Seattle.
The length of its route within the state, from Wahpeton to Buford
vb Larimore, b about 460 m. Both of these systems have numerous
branch lines. The main line of the Minneapolis, St Paul & Sault Ste
Marie entere the S.E. comer of the state at Fairmount and ends
in the N.W. at Portal, on the international boundary, having in
1909 a length within the state of 361 m. Among its many branches
are the " Wheat Line," running from Kenmare, North Dakota, to
Thief River Falls, Minnesota, and having a length of 2M m. in the
state; and the " Missouri River Line, penetrating the southern
and central portions of the state from Hankinson to Garrison,' with
a length of 282 m. In 1909 the Northern Pacific was building about
140 m. of new track. The Chicago, Milwaukee ft St Paul railway,
running E. and W. through South Uakota, sends four short branches
into the southern part of North Dakota. The Chicago ft North-
western also sends a short branch line northward into the state, form-
ing a junction with other lines at Oakes. The Red river is navigable
as far S. as Belmont, and the Missouri river is navigable throughout
its course within the state, although it requires a skilful pilot. -
< V^A'V AAA
Po^uIction.—la 1870 the population of that portion of
Dakota Territory included within the present limits of North
Dakota was 2405; in 1880, 36,909. The population of the
itate In 1890 was 182,719; in 1900, 5x9,146; in X905, 437,070;
in 19x0, 583,888. The number of the foreipi-bom population
in 1900 was 113,091, or 35*4%, the highest proportion to be
found in any state of the Union. The principal elements com-
posing the white foreign population were as follows: Norwegians
30,306, English Canadians 25,004, Russians 14,979, Germans
11,546, Swedes 8419. The coloured population consisted of
4692 Indians not twd, 2276 Indians taxed, 286 negroes, 148
Japanese and 32 Chinese. Most of the Indians not taxed live
on reservations, of which there are four: Devils Lake Reserva-
tion in 1909 had a total area of X43-97 sq. m., a population of
980, consisting of Sisseton, Wahpeton, and Cut Head (or Pabaksa)
Sioux; Turtle Mountain' Reservation, in Rolette county,
established in 1882, and now allotted (excepting x86 acres for
church and school purposes), had a population in 1909 of 2588,
being for the most part a mixture of Pembina (or Turtle Mountain)
Chippewa with French Canadians; Fort Berthold Reservation
in the west central part of the state, on the Missouri river,
established in 1870, had in 1909 an area of X382'4 sq. m., and a
population of 399 Ankara (Caddoan), and, of Siouan stock,
453 Hidatsa (or Grosventre) and 252 Mandan Indians; and
Standing Rock Reservation, on the western bank of the Missouri
river, was established in X875, and in 1909 contained •3887-2
sq. m. (about three-fifths of which lies in South Dakota and
much of which was opened to settlement in 1908-X909) and a
population of 3399 Sioux. The popubtion of the state is largely
rural. The larger municipalities with the population of each
in 1905 were: Fargo (12,5x2), Grand Forks (xo,x27), Jamestown
(5093)9 Bismarck, the capital, (49x3), Minot (4x25), Valley City
(4059), Dickinson (3188), Wahpeton (274X), Mandan (2714),
Grafton (3423) and Devils Lake (3367) ; in 1905 there were fifteen
other municipalities each with a population of more than 1000.
In 1906 the Roman Catholic Church had the largest number of
communicants (6x,36x out of a total of x 59,053 members of all
denominations), and there were 59,923 Lutherans.
Administrationr—Tht state is governed under its constitution
of X889, as subsequently amended. The governor is chosen
bienniaJly, and has a limited pardoning power. He may veto
appropriation bills by items, but any of his vetoes may be
overruled by a two-thirds vote of each house. The governor
and lieutenant-governor must be at least thirty years old.
The other administrative ofiicers are a secretary of state,
auditor, treasurer, superintendent of public instruction, com-
missioner of insurance, three commissioners of railways, attorney
general and commissioner of agriculture and labour; each
of these officers is chosen biennially and must be at least
twenty-five years of age. The legislative department consists
of a Senate, with members chosen every four years, and about
half chosen at each biennial election; and a House of Repre-
sentatives, with members chosen biennially. The sessions of
the legislature are biennial, and are limited to sixty days. The
minimum age for senators is twenty-five years and for repre-
sentatives twenty-one years. Bills may originate in either house.
A lieutenant-governor, chosen biennially, presides over the Senate.
In 1907 the legislature proposed an amendment providing for
the application of initiative and referendum to statutory laws
and constitutional amendments; two years later the legis-
lature passed a substitute resolution, which omits the clause
regarding amendments of the constitution, and which, if
passed by the legislature of X9xx will be put to popular vote
at the general election of X9X 2. The judicial department consists
of the supreme court, district courts, coimty courts, municipal
courts, and justices of the peace. The supreme court consists
of three judges (minimum age thirty years), chosen by popular
vote for six years. Their number may be increased to five
whenever the population of the state shall amount to 600,000.
* The Devils Lake Reservation and the Turtle Mountain Chippewa
are both under the Fort Totten School, which in on the Devils Lake
Reservation.
For each judicial distMct (the tenth district waft cre^ed in igofj)
there is one district judge, elected for four yeais; the district
courts have original jurisdiction (except in probate matten)
and ceruin appellate jurisdiction. The judge of the county court
is chosen for two years. This court has exclusive original
jurisdiction in probate matters, and in counties with over 3000
inhabitants its jurisdiaion may be extended by popular vote
to include concurrent jurisdiction with the district courts in
civil matters involving amounts less than fxooo, and in criminal
actions below the grade of felony. Justices of the peace have
jurisdiction in dvil cases involving no land titles and sums of
money not exceeding $300. They may also txy misdemeanours
in counties without other criminal jurisdiction.
For the administration of local government, the state is
divided into counties (46 in 1910). In those counties that have
not adopted a towndxip organization county affairs are ad-
minbtered by a board of county commissioners; where the
township organization has been adopted the county government
is administered by the chairmen of the several toiniship boards.
For each county there are a judge, clerk, register of deeds,
auditor, treasurer, sheriff and state's attorney.
All citizens of the United States residing in North Dakota are
declared to be citizens of the state. The right of suffrage is
confined by the constitution to males twenty-one years of age.
who are dUzens of the United States or have declared their
intention of becoming citizens, and who have resided in the
state one year, in the county six months, and in the voting
precinct ninety days preceding the election. Civilized Indiaia
who have severed their tribal relations two years before an
election are entitled to vote. Women may vote for all school
officers and upon all questions relating solely to school natters,
and are eligible to any school office.
Amendments to the constitution must be passed by both
houses of the legislature at two consecutive sessions, and most
then be ratified by popular vote. By this arrangement a period
of nearly four years usually elapses between the proposal and
the final ratification of an amendment.
The amount of homestead exempt from seizure for debt is
limited in value to $5000, and may not include more than two
acres in a town plot or more than 160 acres elsewhere. The
exemption is not valid against a debt created for the pvrchase
money, or against taxes levied on the property, or against
mechanics' or labourers' liens for work done or material funushed
for improvements, or against a mortgage acknowledged by both
husband and wife. The grounds for absolute divorce axe adttltczy.
cruelty, desertion (one year), neglect (one year), habatnal
drunkenness (one year) and conviction for felony; residence in
the state for one year is required before application tot divorce.
North Dakota is one of the few American states whose constita-
tion forbids the manufacture, importation* or sale of intozicatisg
liquors. Attempts to secure the repeal of this provision have b^s
unsuccessful. Apothecaries may secure a licence to sell liqaon
for purely medicinal purposes upon a petition signed by twcaty-
five reputable free-holders and twenty-five reputable women.
In X909 the advertisement of liquors, solicitation of ordcxs far
liquors, and the sale of cicarettes to minors were prohibited.
Education. — At the head <rf the public school system is a ssper-
tntendent of public instruction, chosen for two years. He. vitb
fhe governor and the president of the state university, constitsm
a high-school board, having supervision of the secondary^ schot^
In each county there is a county superintendent , elected biennisBf.
and in each school district a boara of directors. The proceeds of
the sale of publu: lands donated to the state for educational purpcsn.
and all escheats to the state, constitute a trust fund, the intcrrsi
from which, with the proceeds of all fines for the vtolatkm of stsce
laws, is annually apportioned among the school districts accon^
to the school population; the total apportionRtent from the Suse
Tuition Fund m 1908 was $357,338. This income ts sapplemevn^
by local taxation. The minimum school term allowed by law is »
' Before the law passed by the first Legislative Assembly of the <ase
to carry out this provision could come into effect, it was partisft*
annulled by the decision of the United States Supreme Coart in t>r
case of JLeuy v. Hardin (1890), in which the court held that Rbuois
might be imported into any state and sold in the or^nal pacnT
(jf.v.) without reference to local prc^ibttory or restrictive laws.
expenment station (1890) at Fargo, a normal and industrial school
(opened in 1899) at Ellendale, a school for the deaf (1890) at Devils
Lalw, a sdentific school (opened in 1003) at Wahpeton, and a school
of forestry at Bottineau. Fargo College at raigo. founded in
1887 by Consr^ationalists, is now non-sectarian. The Methodist
Episcopal Church maintains Wesley College near Grand Forks
(formerly the Red River Valley University at Wahpeton), affiliated
with the state university. There is a sute library commission. The
state supports a hospital for the insane at Jamestown, an institu-
tion for the feeble-minded at Grafton, a home for old soldiers at
Lisbon, a blind asylum at Bathgate, a reform school (opened 190a)
at Mandan and a penitentiary at Bismarck. There is a state sana-
torium for tuberculosis (1909).
F»najia.--The chief source of revenue for the state, counties
and municipalities b the general property tax. There are no special
corporation taxes, but licence-charges are levied upon express and
sle^ing-car companies, and a tax b laid on the premiums of insurance
companies. No poll tax b levied for state purposes, but counties
are authorized to levy such a tax for school purposes. There are
boards of equalization and review for the state, counties and muni-
cipalities. The sute board fixes the rate of the state tax. For
defraying the expenses of the state government, exclusive of the
interest on the bonded debt, the tax rate b Timited t^ the con-
stitution to four mills on the dollar of assessed valuation. The state
debt, excluding the amount of Territorial indebtedness assumed
when Dakota Territory was divided, may not exceed |300.ooo.
Local indebtedness b limited to ^ % of the assessed value of the
local property, but incorporated cities may by special vote increase
thu limit. The total bonded debt of the state on the 3i8t of October
1908 was 9642,300 and was incurred for the most part for the
construction of public buildings during the Territorial period. At
the close of the fiscal year .ending on the 31st of October 1908, the
receipts for the vcar amounted to $3,259t668. the expenditures to
^3i476.073 and the balance in the treasury to »58a,905.
History. — ^The first attempts to establish permanent settle-
ments in what b now North Dakota were made by traders
of the Hudson's Bay Company, who began thdr operations
in the Red river valley about 1793.* In 1797 C. J. B. Chaboillez,
a French trader in the service of the North- West Fur Company,
buOt a trading post on the southern bank of the Pembina river,
near its mouth, but this was soon abandoned. Three years
later Alexander Henry, the younger (d. 1814), built two trading
posts in the present limits of the state for this company, one on
the western bank of the Red river near the Park river, where
he b'ved until 1808. David Thompson (1770-1857), an employee
at different times of the Hudson's Bay and North-West Fur
companies, explored the region of the Missouri river in 1797- 1798,
and thus antidpated the woiit of Lewb and Clark, who entered
the present limits of the state in 1804 and wintered among the
Mandans,consiructingFort Mandan in what bnowMcLean county.
In 1 801 John Cameron (d. 1804) erected a trading post for the
North-West Fur Company on the site of the present Grand Forks.
The first real homeseekers to enter the state of whom there
b any record were a colony of Scottbh Highknders who bad
first settled at Kildonan (Winnipeg) in 1812 under a grant from
the Hudson's Bay Company to Thomas Douglas, 5th earl of
Selkirk. A part of the Winnipeg colony soon migrated south*
ward and settled on the site of the present city of Pembina,
at the mouth of %he Pembina river, which they thought to be
in Briti^ territory, and named the settlement Fort Daer. When
Major Stephen H. Long, commanding an exploring expedition
to the Minnesota and Red rivers, reached Fort Daer in 1823,
he found there about six hundred persons, a few being Scotch,
but the greater part being half-breeds.
North Dakota formed part of the region ceded by France to
the United States by the Louisbna Purchase in 1803. From
1803 to 1805 it was included in the District of Louisiana, and from
1805 to i8t2 it was a part of the Louisiana Territory, the name
of which was changed to Missouri Territory in 181 2. In 1834
^ There seems to be no good authority for the statement often
made that the first settlement in North Dakota was made by
French Canadians in 1780.
Missouri, then locally called ** Mandan Territory," was included
in its limits. After Minnesota entered the Union, in 1858, the
country between the Red and the Missouri rivers had no Tern-
torial government for three years, but the inhabitants formed
a proviaonal government. On the and of March x86x the
Territory of Dakota was created, induding the present Dakotas
and portions of Wyoming and Montana. The seat of the
Territorial government was fixed at Yankton, and remained
there until 1883, when it was removed to Bismarck. The name
of the Territory was derived from the Dakota Indians; the
word " Dah-ko-ta " (signifying " allied " or " confederated "),
bdng originally applied to the Sioux Confederation. In 1863
when Idaho Territory was formed, the boundaries of the Dakotas
were fixed at practically their present limits. The botmdary
between Dakota Territory and Nebraska was slightly altered
in 1870 and 1882. The Territory had hardly been organized
before its settlement was impeded by the Civil War without and
by Indian troubles within. In 1862 the Indians began a series of
bloody massacres along the frontiers of Minnesota and Dakota.
In the following year General Alfred Sully (1821-1879), command-
ing United States troops, marched up the Missouri river as far
as Bismarck, and thence to the valley of the James river. On
the 3rd of September 1863 with 1200 men he routed 2000 Sioux
near the present town of Ellcndale, in Dickey county, in an
engagement called the battle of White Stone HiUs. Four
hundred warriors were slain, and a great number were captured.
In 1864 Sully defeated the Sioux at the battle of Takaakwta,
or Deer Woods, on the Knife river, and a few days later he
again encoimtered them, and after a desperate struggle of
three days adminbtered a crushing defeat; the warriors
abandoned thdr provisions and escaped into the Bad Lands.
The Indians still remained hostile, however, and in 1865 Sully
found it necessary to conduct hb troops N. as far as Devib
Lake, and thence W. to the Cannon Ball river. By these opera-
tions the Indian frontier was fixed W. of the Missouri river, and
forts and garrisons were placed along thb stream. The worst
of the Indian troubles in northern Dakota were then at an end,
though for many years there were occasional outbreaks.
A period of rapid development in the Red river basin followed
t he entrance of the Northern Pacific railway into thb region in 1 87 2.
At the election in November 1887 the question of the division
of the Territory into two states at the " seventh standard parallel "
was submitted to the people, and was carried at the poUs. In
accordance with the Enabling Act, which recdved the president's
approval on the 22nd of February 1889, a constitutional con-
vention met at Bismarck on the 4th of July following, and drafted
a frame of government for the state of North Dakota. In
October thb was ratified at the polls. The chief interest in the
election turned on the prohibition clause in the constitution,
which was submitted separatdy, and recdved a majority of
only 1159 votes. On the 2nd of November 1889 President
Harrison issued a proclamation declaring North Dakota a state.
By an agreement between North and South Dakota, embodied
in their constitutions, each state assumed the debt created for
the erection of public buildings within its limits during the
Territorial period.
In the development of the state since its admission into
the Union the railways have been an important factor. In
1894 they inaugurated the so-called " concentration movement,"
and began to conduct annual excursions into North Dakota, thus
bringing into the state thousands of immigrants. They have
also adopted the policy of selecting favourable town-sites on
the uninhabited prairie, erecting grain elevators at such points,
and fumbhing transportation fadlities by means of branch
roads tapping the main lines of travel. * Under thb sjrstem
prosperous towns and villages have sprung up among the prairies.
Andrew J. FauHc 1866-1869
John A. Burbank 1869-1874
John L. Pennington 1874-1878
William A. Howard* 1878-1880
Nchemiah G. Ordway 1880-1884
Gilbert A. Pierce 1884-1887
Louis K. Church 1887-1889
Arthur C. Melette 1889
State Governors,
John Miller Republican 1889-1891
Lndrcw H. Burke ... „ 1891-1893
Eli C. D. Shortridge . . . Democratk 1893-1895
Roger Allin Republican 1895-1897
Frank A. Briggs'. ... „ 1897-1898
Joseph M. Devine* ... „ 1898-1899
Frederick B. Fancher . „ 1899-1901
Frank White .... „ 1901-1905
Elmore Y. Sariet .... „ 1905-1907
John Burke Democratic r907-
BiBLiocP4P}rv,— Descriptiort : Httf Sl4U of Htrtk Dakota : The
Siaiisiical, Ilhktrtcoi und PotiiicMi Abiifcct (At*rdp£0> S-D.^ tmt)h
prepared by Frank H. t^fagcrty, CoTnmis«oi5ef of ImntiK^jiion; Niirik
liakifla: A Ftw Farts ctmumirti its HeSQUrt^i aiU Adsamiapti
(BUmarck, \%<^3), pnc^paTtd by the Cortiininiontr oi Agriculture an* I
LalMJLjr; Glimpiti of Tiorik Dakitta (Buffalo, 1901). publiAhcd by the
North Dakota Tan- American Ei(po«iiioii Company; The Siory of
the Prairies: ur. The Lantheape Cin?h^ of N^rtk Dakota (Chicago^
igoj), by D. E. Willard; Exphraii^m t» the Dakota Country in
the Year tSjs f Senate Ejt, Doc, No. 76, 34 Cofig-t I Se-ui.t Washing roHf
1856) by Gr. k, Warnrn* EtpoH on ihk Ceohsy and Rf sources of the
lErftoM in the Vicimty oj tkf Ft^ty-Ninik ParalUl { Montreal. 1H75}.
by GeorgF M. Dawscnj IJnikii Statu Gfdopeal Svntycf ihe Terri^
tsriej. Annual Rsporiior 1^7:2, coni^inrngThirhystealCtflfraiyhy and
A i^ricidtu rat Risanrcfi of Min ntiota, Dahcta and Nebra ska C\\ aati i ngt on ,
1873), by Cyrus l■holna^; p^jbllcaiiofti by the U.S. Geological Survey
(contult the blhliogmphkcs io BuH^tim, No*, too, 177 and 301).
Fauna and Flora : Uniud Statti Getthgicai Siavey of tht Territoriej:
Misctitaneons FnbliC5tions,No*j, Binis of the Nortk-west (Washington,
1874), by Elliot Coucs; puljlica lions by the Uniied States Gcrologiral
Survey (consult llie biblio^raphica in Bulletins, No*, ion J, I77.5C*I>;
am] Walliice Craig, " North Dakota Life ' PLinip Animal and Human,'*
in Nos, 6 and 7 Qurtc and July It of voK stl. (190S) qJ the Duiktin of
tht AmerKan GrofrruptiiCisi S^^iy (New York),
Hisioiy: *' Histoncal Skcich of North and Souiti Dal:ota,'
in South Dakota State Hi$tOfii^ Society Collections (tgoj), i,
31- 1 63 f by W. M. BUckbiirn; IHmtroJed Album of Biography of
the Fanwtu VoUcy of the Red Riper of the N&rth and th£ Park
Hepons, inf/mlirte tke tn^st Fettile and Wtdaty Knffiim Porttims af
Minnesota and Ncrfk Dakolii (Chicago, JBJ^J: Nrdi Light an the
F^riitr History oj the Gnr^t^t fii^rth-rtt^K. The Manur-cript Journftli
^Akt.cknde7 TIenryun4 David Tki^mpi^fn, j^^q-jSi^, edited by Ellbt
Cbui-j (ji vols.. New York, 1S97).
KOHTHEIM, a town of Germany, In the Prussbm province of
HfOiover, on the Huhme, 1 j m, by raiJ N, of GuUiBgen and at
the junction of railways to CasscI jind Notdhauscn. Fop. (i<jos)
70S4* It has am interesting Evangdkal rhurch, conlaininB
snijTic old wood -cau'ing and stained gla^s, a Roman Catholic
thurch, several schiK>h ajid a t mining collep!e for school masters,
There are manulacttircs of tobacco, sugar and boots; other
industries are floLir-milling, fanmng and brewing. The plice
h s-itd la date from the otb century; it oblaJncd civic nghts
in iJo3, and lalef became a mcmbct of ihe Han. veal jc League.
It was atomied by the imperial troop* in June 1637, The
Benedictine abbey of St Utasius was founded in toftj and dis-
solved at I he Reformat fon.
See Wennigerholi, Besckreibitni und GesekichU dir Sudi North fim
(Konhcim. iW^*).
KQRTHEIt, a winter wind accompanying the ''cold wave"
thill follows the paf^sage of a cyclone across the United Stales
of America, A, warm 5,E or S W. wind on the easi of such a
cyclone m.tlerially slackens or en I i rely dies away, and is. followed,
often suddenly, by the piercingly cold norther. The pas^ige
' The Territorial crvtTfnment embraced both the prcscni elates
of North ami South Daknta.
' Died in office f^n ihe tmh of April iRSo.
' Died in <ifFife, Jidv i^^i?'*, ^ , . . ^ ,
* KucetTd**d Frank A. Briggi, deceased, by virtue of bit timce of
tietj lena nt Kovcrnor.
Arctic regions, but the body of cold air slides down the eastern
slopes of the Rockies and advances as a solid wedge (the ** cok)
wave ") under the cyclone itself. '* Uncomfortably warm in
the lightest clothing," a traveller upon the prairies of Texas
may become " uncomfortably cold before he can wrap his
blanket around him " (W. Ferrel, A Popular Treatise an the
Winds). The temperature may fall 50* F. in twenty-four hours.
NORTHFIELD, a dty of Rice county, Minnesota, U.S.A.,
on the Cannon river, about 35 m. S. of St PauL Pop. (1905)
343S; (1910) 3365. It is served by the Chicago Great-Western,
the Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul, and the Chicago, Rock Island
& Pacific railways. It is a shipping centre for the products
of the farming and dairying region in which it lies, but it is
most widely known for its educational institutions. It b the
seat of the Baker School for Nervous and Backward Children,
a private institution; of St Olaf College (Norwefrian Lutheran).
frmnded In 1^74; and of Carkton College T "■U*-' : , \
Cangrcg^tionalitts but now non-sectarian^ opened m t^7&), o^e
df the highest grade smaU colleges in the West, and the firn m
the North- west to abDli&h its prcpamtory academy. C^rlctoa
CoUege has the Good^ll Observatory^ whith gives the I3mt
to the rail way !i of the North-west, and publtshc^ a ***g**^**.
popular Astronomy. The Scoville Memodal Librmry (i5qiA1
of the CoUege had ii^aaa volumes m igog, Korth&dd htts a
public library and the Miiiiiesota Odd Fellows* Wkk«-s «jsd
Orphans Asylum. Named m hoEour of John W. North, ^}m
laid out North field and several other western towns, it was
settled about 1S51, incorponitcd as a village m iS6St asd
chartered ^ a city in 1875*
KORTH FIELD, a village of Washington coutity, Vcniu&i.
U.S. A,, in Northfield township, about js m* S.E. of Budinftoa
in the Green Mountains region* Fop* (rgto) oC tha Yilla^
191!^; of the township 3336, Nortliidd b ttrvrd by the
Central V^'rmonl railway. It is the seal of Norwkii Uaiversiu
founded in iSig a^ the American Lilerjify, Scientific and MUiiarj
Academy at Nor^rich, Windsor county^ Veriii*>nl, by Capta^o
Aldca Partridge (t7S5-ias4>. Captain Partridge was a prc^
fc^or in the VS. Militai^ Academy tn iSij^i8i6 athd a<tiii£
superintendent of the Academy in iBt6-'iSi7, and was peeiidest
of Norwich University until 1845^ he founded vanonn «|kcr
niilitary schools besides the one at Norwich. Norwich Unmr-
sity was incorporated in 1S34 under its present name, and in
t806, when the buildings at Norwich were burned, wa* taaas^
10 Northfield- The charter requirrs " a course o( militAry
instruction, both theoretical and praclieal^" and the dlscifiliiie
of the institution ts military in iorm and princif^le. to iM
the university was recognised by the General Asscrnbly of I'ef*
mont as the military college of the state* It olleftt exNanes
leading to the degrees of Bachelor of Arts and Dachdor of SdcsCK
in eivil en^in erring, in elcetrical cnginecrtng and in chcmtilrT.
In iQoS it had 13 instructors and »6S students. Dewry Hail
[1002), Ihe administration building, was nait^ in bonoitr d
Admiral George Dewey, a former student in the titilvtnity* ti
the township there are out crops of good granjle And «C «•*
antirjue, and along a range of hills E, of the village lliec il i
deposit of very fine black slate- The hills fumisJi cvcdltt*
grazing for cattle, and much milk b shipped to New Engbui
cities. The township of Northfield ws* incorporated ia t*l\
the original settlement on the site of the pr««it v(Ili«e ww
made in 1 7S5, ond the village was incorporated in 185$.
NORTH FLEET, an tirban district of Kent, England, witfca
the parliamentary borough of Gravescud* on Ihe TbasKi^
3 2 m. E by S. of London by the South T^^ttn snd CbUlMi
ranway. Pop- (tQoO iJh0o6- The churth of St B«tolpfc brf
Norman found it ion, but the nave is prindpslly Ekcoraled aai
the chancel Perpendicular, and the lower, having fallen do^
wj;5 rcbtiiit in 1638, The church contains a hrzss, of tht 141*
— NORTHINGTON, EARLS OF
785
d chancel
►gc, with
1847 by
actum,
a ship-
on the
rormed
sspot
en of
cient
^nd,
the
ind
he
il-
•J
e
of Holland; green meadows stretching as far as the eye can see,
dotted with windmills and cattle, and slashed by the regular
lines of the drainage canals, bordered with pollarded willows.
As in Friesland, cattle-rearing and the making of cheese,
chiefly of the Edam description, are the main industries, but
agriculture and even a little market-gardening are also practised
in the heavier clay lands, such as the Y and Anna Paulowna
polders. Purmerend, Alkmaar and Enkhuizen are the chief
market centres. Though the country is naturally poor in minerals,
springs containing iron have been discovered, such as the
Wilhclniinabron at Haarlem. The security of the Zuider Zee
for trade and fishing purposes was the first factor in the com-
mercial development of North Holland, and the cities of
Medcmblik, Enkhuizen, Hoom, Edam and Monnikendam,
though now little more than market centres for the surrounding
district, possessed a large foreign commerce in the i6th and
17 th centuries. This prosperity finally concentrated itself upon
the Y (that is, upon Amsterdam) and the series of industrial
villages situated on its offshoot the Zaam, of which Z^andam
and Wormerveer are the most important.
NORTHIHGTON. ROBERT HENLEY, iST Easl ov {c, 1708-
1773), lord chancellor of England, was the second son of Anthony
Henley, a member of a well-to-do family in Hampshire, who was
a Whig member of parliament, and a well-known wit and writer.
Robert was educated at Westminster school and St John's
'College, Oxford; and after gaining a fellowship at All Souls
e was called to the bar in 1732. In 1747 he was elected member
' parliament for Bath, of which borou^ he became recorder in
51. He acquired a lucrative practice at the bar, and in 1756
s appointed attorney-general. In the following year he was
moted to the office of lord keeper of the great seal, being the
person so designated. For three years Henley, though still
mmoner, presided over the House of Lords in virtue of his
S but in 1760 he was created Baron Henley of Grainge in
ounty of Southampton. The delay in raising him to the
^ was due to the hostility of George II., who resented
•f's former support of the prince of Wales's faction, known
Leicester House party; and it was in order that he might
as lord high steward at the trial of Earl Ferrers for
in 1 760 that he then received his patent. On the accession
;e III. the office of lord chancellor was conferred on
and in 1764 he was created Viscount Henley and earl of
ton. In 1765 he presided at the trial of Lord Byron for
llliam Chaworth in a duel. Northington, who was a
»f the group known as " the king's friends," was
al in procuring the dismissal of the marquess of
1) and the recall of Pitt to office in 1766, and he himself
government as lord president of the council, Lord
roming chancellor. He resigned office in 1767, and
sidence in Hampshire on the X4th of January 1772.
In W43> Jane, daughter of Sir John Huband of
ickshire. by whom he had three sons and five
is youngest daughter, Elizabeth, married Morton
1 709 was created Baron Henley in the peerage of
r grandson, the 3rd Baron Henley of this creation,
ited earl of Northington.
T Northington was in his vouth a man of convivial
manners, much addicted to swearing. Horace
ed on his undignified bearing at the trial of Lord
Eldon considered him " a great lawyer, "and hw
uestioned. His notes of cases trieo by himself
incery were published in two volumes in 1818.
r, and earl of Northington (1747-1786), only
e lord chancellor, was appointed a teller of
53, and lord lieutenant of Ireland in 1783, en
inistered in a spirit of concession to popular
encouraging native industries and public
s made himself beloved by the Irish people.
, and died unmarried on the 5th of July
'ranted to his father became extinct.
iHoir of Robert Henley, Earl of NortkinfUin
ell's Lives of the ChanteUors; Foss'a Juiiet
'e's Memoirs.
Hbiory.
anu iiitriuws iij^aui lu 27U in. uciwccn i^uncaiisuy ncau anu inc
coast of Norway. To the north of Scotland it communicates
with the Atlantic westwards by the Pcntland Firth and the
channel between the Orkney and Shetland Islands, and north-
wards with the Norwegian Sea.
Its total area is given by Murray as 162,600 sq. m., and by
Kriimmel as S7i>9io sq. km., or 220,820 sq. statute m. Murray
estimates the volume of the North Sea at 1 1,200 cub.
^1^ m., and Kriimmel at 53,730 cub. km. or 1 2,890 cub.
m., giving mean depths of 61 and 48 fathoms respect-
ively. The North Sea is thus on the whole shallow; its
bed is part of the continental shelf on which the British Isles
stand, and it slopes upwards with fair regularity from north to
south. In the south and east there is a broad coastal strip
over which the depth nowhere exceeds 20 fathoms, and the
whole south-eastern part of the area is less than 30 fathoms
deep. In about its middle latitude the Dogger Bank crosses
the North Sea from east to west, extending for about one-third
of the whole distance; near the English coast the depth here
is under |o fathoms and it increases eastwards to about 30
fathoms. South of the Dogger there are local depressions,
mostly of small area, in which the depth is as much as 45 fathoms,
as in the " Silver Pit." Kriimmel points out that a line drawn
from the northern edge of the Dogger to the middle of t^e
Skagerrack constitutes a rough boundary of the shallow southern
basin, the depth increasing very slowly beyond this line to the
*• Norwegian Channel '* — a d*ep gully closely following the
Scandinavian coast, and extending into the Skagerrack, in
which the depth increases to as much as 400 fathoms.
According to Jukes-Browne, the North Sea, in its present form,
first took shape as a result of the tectonic movements indicated
by the break between the older and newer Pliocene
deposits. The southern end of the North Sea was
probably little affected by the general subsidence which occurred
during the Glacial period; its boundary in this direction was
apparently within the present land area of France and Belgium,
while a xiarrow inlet may have run westwards between France
and England in the present position of the Strait of Dover.
Meinwhile immense quantities of ice detritus from Scotland and
Scandinavia were deposited in the North Sea, to a thickness
of perhaps 600 ft., and the whole region was subsequently raised
above sea-level, constituting the " structural surface " upon
which the present river system was developed as a series of
tributaries to a great river which formed a continuation of
the Rhine. Finally the land subsided again, the plain of the
North Sea was again submerged, and the western inlet of
Pleistocene times became the Strait of Dover.
For reasons which will be sufficiently obvious from the historical
sketch just given, the coasts of the southern part of the North
Sea are of no great height. In England they consist
of low cliffs with sandy beaches, while on the con-
tinental side are immense flats and marshes, with parts below
sea-level protected by sand-dunes and artificial dykes. Suess
has shown that no evidence is forthcoming of tectonic movement
since the Bronze Age, and the rapid changes of coast-line now
taking place in many parts are therefore wholly due to the action
of the sea, which is probably specially effective on account of
the relatively recent opening of the Strait of Dover. The
erosion of the North Sea coasts has been made a subject of
minute study (in England especially by the British Association
and a committee of the Royal Geographical Society), and
Harmer has obtained interesting results by comparing the
British and Continental coasts as characteristic " weather "
and " lee " shores.
The physical conditions of the waters of the North Sea have
been extensively studied by expeditions sent out by the Swedish,
Norwegian, Danish, German and British governments; and since
CoMMta.
waicr 01 35 fro mute saiiniiy or more, ^2; waier oi saimiiy
34 to 3 s pro mille, called ** North Sea " water; (3) water of
salinity 32 to 34 pro mille, found along the coasts of Holland,
Germany, Denmark, and Norway, and called " bank- water ".
(4) water of 32 pro mille salinity or less, belonging to the streara
flowing out from the Baltic. Of these (i) and (4) are to be
regarded as " in-flowing " waters, while the others are due to
mixture, which may or may not take place in the North Sea
itself. The oceanic water consists of a mixture of waters of
Atlantic and Polar origin; it enters the North Sea from the north-
west partly from the Norwegian sea, and partly from the Faere
channel by the passage between the Orkney and Shetlaitd^
islands, and makes its way southwards along the coast cf'
Scotland, especially during the early summer months.
The International Council, and more particularly the Nortb
Sea Fisheries Investigation Committee of the Fishery Board
for Scotland, have studied the periodic and irregular variatioos
in the distribution of these waters in minute detail; and the
results, extending and confirming the observations of the eariier
observers, have established the conclusion that the supfdy <4
fresher coastal waters from the land on both sides of tlie North
Sea is greatest in .late summer, after the occurrence of the
maximum inflow of oceanic water. The autumn and early
winter months accordingly represent a period of mixing rather
than of inflow, and this mixing is dearly an extremely complicated
process, depending on the relative amounts of the mixing waten
(which are themselves liable to great variation), on their tempera-
ture a^d salinity, and also on the action of winds and tides.
In the southern part of the North Sea area tidal action aloce
is sufficiently vigorous to ensure complete mixing of the waten
from surface to bottom at all times.
The tides of the North Sea are of great complexity, and have
not been fully investigated. The tidal wave of the AtUntic enters
by the Strait of Dover and by the channels in the north. ^^^^
In the latter place a division into two parts takes
place, one wave travelling southwards along the coast of Scot]a»l
in comparatively shallow water, while another nioves witk
greater speed across the deeper water to the Norwegian Channel,
and thence southwards to the Skagerrack and the Danish coast
The southwards-moving waves are greatly retarded in the
shallow water over the Dogger Bank; the trough of the *" SOve
Pit " accordingly gives the Scottish wave a strong easterly
component, and the three systems — the Scottish, Norwegiaa
and Channel waves — meet to the east of the Dogger, iwodocii^
complicated interference phenomena. Along the En^ish coasts
the tidal streams are for the most part normal, the flood streaa
running south to south-east and the ebb north to north-west,
but on the Continental coast the movements become very coaqda
on account of the varying influence of the waves from diffcrcct
sources.
The North Sea is particulariy rich in organisms of all kmdk
and the abundance of food attracts fish in such quantities tbi:
the North Sea fisheries are the most productive in p^^-
the world. Flat fishes, and those feeding at the
bottom on smooth ground, are chiefly caught by means of tk
trawl. The favourite trawUng-grounds are the Dogger Bu^
in winter, and the shallow waters off the Continental coasts
in summer; these yield halibut, soles, turbot, brill, plakt.
cod, haddock, whiting, &c In rough ground where the trairj
cannot be used, hook- and line-fishing are carried on most success
fully, and " mid-water " fish are also taken in this way, aItbos|ii
the trawl and line-fishing overlap considerably. Henisg
and mackerel are caught by means of drift-nets. The benof
fishing off the British coasts exhibits a remarkable vaiiatiee
during summer and autumn, beginning in Shetland in }v»
and becoming progressively later southwards, until it es^
off the Norfolk coast in November. Various attempu bf«
SEA FISHERIES CONVENTION
787
he physical changes
c influx of Atlantic
■stablished.
Ouanoirafhic; O
ienskapS'A kademic
ne (1^4) and the
f Scottish Meteoro'
Ifth Report of the
tth Report of the
'aphical Journal
/ Meteorological
th Report 0/ ^
J. T. Cunning-
irine Biological
or the Study
imittee of the
ipcra.
H. N. D.)
convention,
which was
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It lies on the N. bank of the Tyne, immediately above its mouth,
and opposite to South Shields in Durham, 7} m. E. of Newcastle
by a branch of the North Eastern railway. It is a town of
modem growth, and contains the municipal offices of the borough,
a custom-house and various benevolent institutions for seamen.
The harbour is enclosed by north and south plexs, and there is
a depth of qg ft. at spring'tides besides the quays. Coal and coke
are largely exported, and com, timber and esparto grass are
imported. There is an extensive fish quay, and about 14,000
tons of fish are landed annually. There are engineering, iron,
salt and earthenware works, and some shipbuilding is carried on.
NORTH SYDNEY, a municipality in the county of Cumberland,
New South Wales, Australia, on the N. shore of Port Jackson.
Pop. (igox) iifiso. It is a rapidly growing town, immediately
opposite and suburban to the dty of Sydney, with which, however,
the only connexion is by steam ferry. It is the terminus of a
railway system serving the district N. of the town.
NORTH TONAWANDA, a city of Niagara county. New York,
U.S.A., on the N. side and at the mouth of Tonawanda Creek
(opposite Tonawanda), and on the Niagara river, about 14 m.
N. of Buffalo. Pop. (1910 census) 11,955. It is served by
the Erie, the Wabash, the Lehigh Valley, the West Shore, and
the New York Central & Hudson River railways, by three
ihlemrban electric lines and by the Erie Canal. Electric power
for its factories is furnished by Niagara Falls. In 1905 the value
of its factory product was $6,499,312. The water-supply comes
from the Niagara river. North Tonawanda was first settled as a
part of Tonawanda in 1809; it became a part of Wheatfield
township in 1857; was incorporated as a village in 1865, and
chartered as a city in 1897. In 1835 Major Mordecai Manuel
Noah' (1785-1851), a New York journalist and politician of
Portuguese Jewish descent, attempted unsuccessfully to found
on Grand Island (area 27 sq. m.; pop. (1910)914), Erie county,
W. of North Tonawanda, the city of Ararat, a temporary refuge
for Jews, who should return thence to the Holy Land.
See L. F. Allen in PuUicaiions of the Buffalo Historical Society,
vol. i. (1879). pp. 305 sqq.
NORTHUMBERLAND, EARLS AND DUKES OP. The
earldom, and later the dukedom, of Northumberland, famous in
English history by its connexion with the noble house of Percy
(q.v.) is to be traiced from an origin anterior to a strictly regu-
lated system of peerage. The Saxon kingdom of Northumbria
embraced a far more extensive territory than the modern county
f Northumberland; and for at least a century after the Norman
onquest Northumberland, as- the name imports, comprised
,nreat portion of the country north of the Humber, including the
'es of Durham and of York. The geographical position of this
-itory, contiguous with the kingdom of Scotland, conferred
' responsibility as well as power on the earl or governor to
m its administration was entmsted; and it appears to have
the policy of William the Conqueror and his immediate
isors to acknowledge the rights of the men who, though
imes spoken of as earls, were in do strict sense members of
Ldal nobility created by the Norman monarchy. William
tnqueror found Nortjiumbcrland in the possession of
a younger son of Algar, the Saxon earl of Mercia, who
'g in his submission was confirmed in the government
strict, but was soon afterwards imprisoned for rebellion,
replaced by Copsi, an uncle of Morcar's predecessor,
Copsi was murdered a few weeks after receiving the
id the same fate befell several of his successors; those
•d it being not infrequently deprived of the post for
" incapacity. Henry, earl of Huntingdon, only son
king of Scotland, was made governor of Northumber-
, and was styled "«arl of Northumberland " by the
V chronicler Roger of Hoveden. It was not for a long
rer, that the earldom of Northumberland came into
title of honour heritable according to peerage law.
Conquest the house of Percy (q.v.) had been growing
tnportance, and at the coronation of Richard II.
' ( Percy, 4th Baron Percy, who had distinguished
ench wars, officiated as marshal of England, and
Henry over the ransom of their Scottish prisoners taken at
Homildon Hill on the 14th of September 1402 has been im-
mortalized by Shakespeare; and in consequence of their re-
bellion all the earl's honours were forfeited in 1406. He was
not himself present at the battle of Shrewsbury in July 1403,
when Hotspur was killed, but he was slaih, beading a fresh
rebellion, at Bramham Moor on the 19th of February 1408.
The ist earl of Northumberland was succeeded by his grandson,
Hotspur's son, Heniy {c, 1394-1455), who was restored to the
earldom and the esUtes of the Percies in 1414 and was killed
at the battle of St Albans in May 1455. The title then descended
in the male line till the death of the 6th earl in 1537. During
the Wars of the Roses the Perdes took the Lancastrian side,
which led to the attainder of Henry the 3rd earl (X431-X461)
during the time of the Yorkist triumph, his forfeited title being
conferred in 1464 by Edward IV. on J6hn Neville, Lord Montagu
(see the separate article below), by a patent which was cancelled
a few years hler. The earldom, together with the barony of
Poynings which his father had obtained by marriage, was
restored in 1473 to Henry Percy, son of the 3rd earl, who attached
himself to Edward IV., acquiesced in the accession of Richard
III., and submitted to Henry VII., by whom he was received
into favour. His grandson Henry, the 6th earl {e. 1 502-1 537),
left no direct heir, and the latter's nephew, Thomas Percy, was
debarred from the succession by an attainder passed on his
father for his participation in the Pilgrimage of Grace. In X549>
however, Thomas was restored in blood, and in 1557 he became
by a new creation earl of Northumberland, 7th of his line.
Meantime, in 1551, John Dudley, earl of Warwick, was created
duke of Northumberiand (see the separate article below), his
title being, however, forfeited by attainder in 1553.
The earldom restored to the house of Percy by the creation
of 1557 continued without interruption in the male line till
1670. .The 7th earl was beheaded in 1572 for sharing in a
conspiracy in which he was joined by the earl of Westmorland
with the object of securing the release of Maty Queen of Scots
and the free exercise of the Catholic religion.. By the earl's
attainder the baronies of Percy and of Poynings and the earldom
of Northumberland of the older creation were forfeited, but
owing to a clause in the patent the newer earldom of Northumber-
land and the other honours conferred in 1557 passed to his
brother Henry {c. 1S32-1 S^s)* who, however, is usually known
as the 8th and not the 2nd earl.
Henry's grandson, Algernon Percy, xoth earl of Northumber-
land (i6oa-x668), son of Henry the 9th earl (X564-X632), became
a peer in his father's lifetime as Baron Percy in 1626. During
the years immediately preceding the Civil War he served as an
admiral, making earnest but unsuccessful efforts to reform the
navy, and in 1637 he was made lord high admiral of England.
In 1639 Charles I. appointed him general of the forces north
of the Trent, and a member of the council of regency. North-
umberland played a distinguished and honourable part in the
troubled times of the Civil War. He was a friend of Strafford,
and gave evidence at his trial which, though favourable on the
important point of bringing the Irish army to England, was-
on the whole damaging; and he afterwards leaned more and
more towards the popular party, of which he soon became leader
in the House of Lords. He was a member of the committee
of safety, and later of the committee of both kingdoms; and
he took an active part in the attempts to come to terms with
the king, whom he visited at Oxford for that purpose in X643
and at Uxbridge two years later. Northumberland helped to
organize the new model army; and in 1646 he was entrusted
by parliament with the charge of the king's younger children.
He led the opposition in the House of Lords to the proposal
to bring Charles I. to trial, and during the Commonwealth he
took no part in public affairs. At the Restoration he was called
to make room for Northumberland Avenge. On the death of
his son Joceline, the xxth earl, in 1670, the male line became
extinct.
George Fitzroy (i 665-1 7x6), third son of Barbara, duchess
of Cleveland, the wife of Roger Palmer, earl of Castlemaine, by
King Charles II., was created by his father earl of Northumber-
land in 1674, and duke in X683. This second dukedom of
Northumberland became extinct on his death at Epsom on the
3rd of July X7i6.
Meanwhile Elizabeth Percy, daughter of Joceline, the xxth
earl, had married Charles Seymour, 6th duke of Somciaet; and
her son Algernon, the 7th duke, was in 1749 created Baroa
Warkworth and earl of Northumberland, with remainder to
his son-in-law, Sir Hugh Smithson, Bart., son of Langdale
Smithson of Langdale, Yorkshire. Sir Hugh Smithson (c. 1714-
1 786) took the name and arms of Percy on inheriting the earidom
in 1750; in X766 he was created Earl Percy and duke of North-
umberland, and in X784 he was further created Baroo Lovaioe
of Alnwick, with special remainder to his second son. Lord
Algernon Percy. He took a somewhat prominent part in politics
as a follower of Lord Bute, and was one of George III.'s c6o&-
dential advisers, holding the office of lord-lieutenant of Ireland
from 1763 to X765, and that of master of the horse from 1778
to 1780. He was a man of cultivated tastes, and spent large
sums of money in repairing and improving Alnwick Castle axwi
his other residences. His wife, Elizabeth (X716-X776), who was
a prominent figure in society, inherited in her own right her
father's barony of Percy. The duke was succee<ied by his
eldest son Hugh; and his second son Algernon, Lord Lovaioe,
was created earl of Beverley in X79a
Hugh, and duke of this line (1742-18x7), first inherited his
mother's barony of Percy. He was present at the battle of
Minden, and although in parliament, where he was member for
Westminster from X763 to x 7 76, he luid opposed the policy that
led to the American war, he proceeded to Boston in 1774 as
colonel comxnanding the sth Fusiliers, a regiment that has
since then been known as the Northumberland Fusiliers. His
generosity to his men made him exceedingly popular in the army;
he became a general in x 793, and after succeeding to the dukedom
in X786 he exercised considerable influence in politics, though
he never obtained office. His son Hugh, 3rd duke (1785-1847),
was lord-lieutenant of Ireland in 1829-1830, when the Catholk
Emandpation Act was passed, and was pronounced by Sr
Robert Ped '* the best chief governor that ever presided over
the affairs of Ireland." Both he and his brother AlgenKML,
4th duke (X792-X865), who was created Baron Prudhoe ia 1816,
died without issue; the barony of Percy devolved on their
great-nephew, the duke of AthoU, and the dukedom passed to
George (1778-1867), eldest son ot Algernon, ist earl of Bevcriry.
and so to his son, the 6th duke (i 810-1899), and grandson, the
7 th duke (b. 1846), who married the daughter of the &th dole
of Argyll. The 7th duke's eldest son, Eari Percy (x87x-x9i6\
seemed destined to take a great place in public life when ht
was prematurely cut off; he had a distinguished career at
Oxford and from X895 in the House of Commons, being under-
secretary for India in I90a-'i903 and under-secretaxy for forcgs
affairs in 1903-1905.
See Edward Barrington de Fonblanque, Tkt Hvute 0f Pm
(2 vols., London. 1887); G. £. C(okaync), CompieU Petnge, \tL\i
(Londont 1895).
NORTHUMBERUND. JOHN DUDLEY, Viscoukt Lisli.
Earl of Warwick, and Dues of (c. 1502-1553), was tk
eldest son of Henry VII. 's extortionate minister, Ednsc:^
Dudley iq.v.), by his second wife Elizabeth, daughter of £d«<?e
Grey, Viscount Lisle, and co-heiress of her brother JcAn, Viscoist
Lisle. He was probably descended from the old baronia] boat
of Sutton alias Dudley; but lus father's attainder and czccatitf
resiorea in oiooa ana m 1530 ne was maae aepuiy to nu siep-
falher, who was governor of Calais, and he does not appear to
have suffered by Lisle's temporary disgrace and imprisonment
in the Tower. Lisle died early in 1542 and Dudley was created
Viscount Lisle on the Z2th of March and was made warden of
the Scottish marches in November, and lord high admiral of
England in 1543 in succession to his future rival, Edward
Seymour, earl of Hertford. He was also created a knight of
the garter and sworn of the privy council on the 33rd of April
1543. In 1544 he accompanied Hertford to the capture and
burning of Edinbur^. On the capture of Boulogne in September
Lisle was given conmiand of the town and of the Boulonnais;
in 1545 he directed the operations of the fleet in the Solent
which foiled the French attack on Portsmouth and the Isle
of Wight; and he was sent to Paris to ratify the peace con-
cluded in 1546.
Lble had thrown in his lot with the reforming party, and
he took an active share in the struggle at Henxy VIII.'s court
for control of affairs when Henry should die. Hertford and
he were described by the Spanish ambassador as holding the
highest places in Henry VIII.'s affections and as being the only
noblemen of fit age and ability to carry on the government.
The Howards were infuriated by the prospect, and Surrey's
hasty temper ruined their prospects. Lisle quarrelled bitterly
with Bishop Gardiner, served as commissioner at Surrey's trial,
and was nominated one of the body of executors to Henry's
will from which Norfolk and Gardiner were excluded. On
Henry's death Lisle was raised to the earldom of Warwick and
promoted to be lord great chamberlain of England, again in
succession to Hertford, who became duke of Somerset and
Protector. But he was not long content with Somerset's
superiority, though he concealed his resentment and ambition
for the time. He accompanied Somerset on his Pinkie cam-
paign, and materially contributed to the winning of that victory.
Nor did he exhibit any sym{>athy with the intrigues of the
Protector's brother, Thomas Seymour, the lord high admiral;
his subtler policy was to ex^perate the brothers and thus
weaken the influence of the house of Seymour. He took a
leading part in the proceedings which brought the admiral to
the block in March 1549; and then used the Protector's social
policy to bring about his deposition. Warwick, like most of the
privy council, detested Somerset's ideas of liberty and his
championship of the peasantry against the indosure movement;
one of his own parks was ploughed up as a result of a com-
mission of inquiry which Somerset appointed; and when the
peasants rebelled under Kett, Warwick gladly took the command
against them. His victory at Dussindale made him the hero of
the landed gentry, and as soon as he had returned to London
in September 1549. he organized the general discontent with
the Protector's policy into a conspiracy. He played upon the
prejudices of Protestants and Catholics alike, holding out to
one the prospect of more vigorous reform and to the other hopes
of a Catholic restoration, and to all gentry the promise of revenge
upon the peasants.
The coah'tion thus created effected Somerset's deposition
and imprisonment in October 1549; and the parliament which
met in November carried measures of political coercion and
social reaction. But the coalition split upon the religious
question. Warwick threw over the Catholics and expelled
them from ofl^ce and from the privy council, and the hopes they
entertained were rudely dashed to the ground. But it was
difficult to combine coercion of the Catholics with the proscrip-
tion of Somerset; the duke was therefore released early in 1550
and restored to the privy council; and his daughter was married
to Warwick's son. Warwick himself assumed no position of
superiority over his colleagues, and he was never made protector.
But he 4^adually packed the coiucil with his supporters, and
aavaniage m scouana. i^or oia cne oeuouiai oi juiwara to
Henry's daughter Elizabeth prevent the French king from
intriguing to undermine English influence in Ireland. In
domestic affairs Warwick pushed on the Reformation with none
of the moderation shown by Somerset; and the difference
between the two policies is illustrated by the change effected
between the first and second Books of Common Prayer. War-
wick, however, was widely distrusted; and the more arbitrary
his government grew, the more dangerous became Somerset's
rivalry. A parliamentary movement had early been started
for Somerset's restoration. Warwick therefore kept parliament
from meeting, and the consequent lack of supplies drove him
into the seizure of church plate, sale of chantry lands, and other
violent financial expedients. At length he resolved to get rid
of his opponent; his opposition was magnified into conspiracy,
and in October 1551, after Warwick had made himself duke of
Northimiberland and his aUy Dorset, duke of Suffolk, and had
scattered other rewards among his humbler followers, Somerset
was arrested, condemned by the peers on a charge of felony,
and executed on the 22nd of January 1552.
Parliament was permitted to meet on the following day, but
for the next eighteen months Northumberhind grew more and
more unpopular. He saw that his life was safe only so long as
he controlled the govenmient and prevented the administration
of justice. But Edward VI. was slowly dying, and Northumber-
land's plot to alter the succession was his last desperate bid for
life and power. Its foUy was klmost delirious. Edward had no
legal authority to exclude Mary, and the nation was at least
nine-tenths in her favour. Northumberland buUied the council
and overawed London for a few days; but the rest of England
was m an uproar, and as he rode out to take the field against
Mary, not a soul cried " God speed." A few days later he re-
turned as Mary's prisoner. He was tried for treason, professed
himself a Catholic in the delusive hope of pardon, and was
executed on the 32nd of August. He was a competent soldier
and one of the subtlest intriguers in English history; but he
had no principles. He was, says a contemporary French account,
" de parole affable, se composant k gracieusit6 et doulceur, mais
au dedans felon, orgueilleux, vindicatif s'il en fut jamais." The
violence of his rule and of his pretended Protestantism was
largely responsible for the reaction of Mary's reign. His best-
known son was Robert Dudley, eari of Leicester, Queen Eliza-
beth's favourite.
See Letters and Papers of Henry VIIL; SlaU Papers, Domestic
and Foreign, Edward VI. and Mary-, MS. 15.888. Bibliothigue
NationaU de Franu: G. E. C(okayne), Complete Peerage; A. F.
Pollard, England under Somerset (looo), Life of Cranmer (1904)
and vol. vi. of the Political History of England (1910). (A. F. P.)
NORTHUMBERLAND. JOHN NEVILLE, Earl of (c. 1430-
147 1 ), English soldier, was the third son of Richard Neville, earl
of SaUsbury, and a brother of Richard Neville, earl of Warwick,
the " king-maker." At the battle of Blore Heath in 1459 John
Neville was taken prisoner by the Lancastrians, although the
Yorkists under his father had won the victory; he was among
those who were attainted in the parliament of Coventry, and
he was not released,untfl 1460 when his own party had gained
the upper hand. Just afterwards he was created Lord Montagu
and was made chamberlain of the royal household. He was not
present at the battle of Wakefield, when his father was taken
prisoner, but he was dgaln a captive after the second battle of
St Albans in 1461. He was speedily released by Edward IV.,
whom he served in the north of England, being rewarded with
lands and honours. In 1463 he became warden of the east
marches towards Scotland, and he was responsible for the Yorkist
victories at Hedgeley Moor and at Hexham in April and May
1464; after the latter battle he secured the execution of Henry
Beaufort, duk<* nf Somerset, and other captives of high station.
In this ye* \) he was created earl of Northumberland, the
79©
NORTHUMBERLAND
Percics being now crushed, and their head, Henry Percy, being
in prison. Northumberland did not at first join his brother
Warwick and the other Nevilles when they revolted against
Edward IV., but neither did he help the king. Edward, doubt-
less suspecting him, restored the earldom of Northumberbhd
and its vast estates to Henry Percy, while John Neville's only
recompense was the barren title of marquess of Montagu. At
Pontefract in 1470 he and his men declared for Henry VI., a
proceeding which compelled Edward IV. to fly from England,
and under the restored king he regained his position as warden,
but not the earldom of Northumberland. He did not attempt
to resist Edward IV. when this king landed in Yorkshire in
March 147 1, but he fought under Warwick at Barnet, where he
was slain on the 14th of April 147 1. His son George (d. 1483)
was betrothed to Elizabeth, daughter of Edward IV., and was
created duke of Bedford in 1470, but the marriage did not take
place and he was deprived of his dukedom in 1477.
NORTHUMBERLAND, the northernmost county of England,
bounded N.W. by the Scottish counties of Berwick and Rox-
burgh, W. by Cumberland, S. by Durham, and E. by the North
Sea. The area is. 3018 sq. m. It has a general inclination
eastward from the hill-borders of Scotland and Cumberland.
The Cheviot range partly separates Northumberland from
Scotland, and reaches in the Cheviot, its culminating point
north-eastward, the greatest elevation in the county, 3676 ft.
The elevation of the Cheviots rarely falls below 1300 fL along
the Border, and generally exceeds 1600. A line of high ground,
bending southward, forms the watershed between the North
and Irish Seas. The boundary with Cumberland crosses the low
divide between the Irthing and the South Tyne, after coinciding
with the former river for a short distance, and giving Northumber-
land a small drainage area westward. In the south-west s
small area of the Pennine uplands is included in the county,
reaching elevations up to 2206 ft. in Kilhopc Law. Few
eminences break the general eastward incline, which appears
as a wide billowing series of confluent hills that for half the year
mingle tints of brown, russet, and dun in a rich pattern, and at
all times communicate a fine sense of altitude and expanse.
The Simonside Hills (1447 ft.) form one not very conspicuous
exception. The configuration of much of these uplands has a
certain linearity in its details due to groups and ranges of ridges,
crags, and terrace-like tiers, termed " edges" (escarpments)
by the country folk, and generally facing the interior, like broad
ends of wedges. The line of pillared crags and prow-like head-
lands between the North and South Tyncs along the verge of
which the Romans carried their wall is a fine specimen. Passing
eastwards from the uplands the moors are exchanged for enclosed
grounds, " dryslone " walls for hedgerows, and rare sprinklings
of birch for a sufficiently varied wooding. The hills and moors
sink to a coast generally low, a succession Of sands, flat tidal
rocks and slight clifls. Its bays are edged by blown sandhills;
its borders are severely wind-swept. Several islands lie over
against it. Holy Isbnd, the classic Lindisfame, 1051 acres
in extent, but half " links " and sandbanks, is annexed to the
mainland and accessible to conveyances every tide. The Fame
litlands iq.v.) are a group of rocky islets farther south.
Deep glens and valleys, scoring the uplands, and richly wooded
except at their heads, are characteristic of the rivers. Of these
the chief are the Tweed, forming the north-eastern part of the
Scottish border, its tributary the Till (with its feeders the Glen
and College), the Aln and the exquisite Coquet, flowing into
Alnmouth Bay, the Wansbeck, with its tributary the Font, the
Blyth and the Tyne, forming part of the boundary with Durham,
the union of the North and South Tynes. Many of the upland
streams attract trout-fishermen.
Cfology.— The core of the county, in a geological aspect, is the
northern Cheviots from Redcsdalc head nearly to the Tweed. Its
oldest rocks arc gritty and slaty beds of Silurian age, about the head
of the rivers Rede and Coquet and near the Brcamish south of
Ingram — a part of the great Silurian mass of the southern uplands
of Scotland. Volcanic activity about the period of the Old Red
Sandstone resulted in the fclspathic porphyritcs, passing into the
syenites and granites, that form the mass of the northern Cheviots.
Round tbi» core there now lie relays of Carboniferous strata dipping
cast and nutti, miidi faulted and rtpenied in places* but pumt
into Coal Mcasum and MaencKuiii Limestone in the south -ca^ttn
part d\ the county. ^ Tlie whob systcfn consists of ti) the Carboci*
Icrous Limestone series in three diviaiions; 12) the MtlUiooe Grit; and
jj) the CoiL McnsureiL Lowest in Northumberland lies Tau'i
Tuedi.^ft Sifoupt the first envelope of kinking Cheviot-bad. Sow
reddish tE^rc-like conDtoirteratei Ul* in places at its base, u at
Roddam r^nc; its sheiks an often tingixl with dutempcr cmw:
ita coals arc scarcely iffQrthy of chc rLime; its limestones arethia.
except near Rothbury : and its jsarine fcrsuls are few. The Tucdiis
group ii ovcrLiLd by the Cartutoceouit group; its shales are caii»
naccooB- jrey, ks coaL», thoufih moit ly ^inall, \-cry numeross, its
Umestones often planE-ltme^Lones, and u^ calcareous matter vsck
dlfluscd. Upon this lie* the Calcsreoua group: its UmeocnrrssD
well-individuatized marine bcdf, cropping up to tne surface in cms-
vested strips ; Lis (oiMh arc found in nccurrent cycles. »iih the
1ime«tones and 00a la fonnins (heir eifutrmcs. These three giwip*
now raJise round the northerD Chcviou in curved belts bfudts-
ing fouth wards, and occupy nearly all the rolling ground bctvccs
the Tweed and the South Tyne^ the sandstones forming the chid
eminences. The middle division becomes thinner and man Ekr
the C<ul Measures in pa^ine northwards, and the upper dWiaciL
thinniiig also, loses many of iL« Uinestones. The Millatooe Cnt is
a characterfcss suctcubn of grits and shales. The Coal MdMRi
posfcas the «arne ^ancAika arrangement that pn&vails in the Lta^
frione scries, but arc without Hmestoncs. They also are divided,
veryarLi'ficially, into three groups. The Lowest, from the Brock%i3
scjm downwards, has some tnices of Gannister beds, and iti not
fleams are ihln. The famous Hut ton caU>xtion of plants «u vde
chlcQy from the roof'shales of two Katns— the Bcnsham »wi tiv
Low Xfain. The unique Atthey collectiaa of fishes and Anpkbii
corner from tie latter. The Coal Meis^utcs lie along the coart ies
lon^ trmnglc, of which the hue, at the Tyne, is produced vcitsafdi
on to the moan touth of that river, wher^- it is wedged agaimt bscr
beds vn the «outh by a faults The stnta within the triaagkctif
signs of departing from the eai^erly dii:? that has broi^ aem
where thiry are. and along a line betweeet its apex (near AoUe}*'
An ca&tcrly point in its b^^ (ttcst^ j^nnow) they tiara vp aon^
eastwards, promidng coa];<roi>& under the sea.
The top of the Codl Measures is srantmg. After a lUglit ^H
of the strata and the denudjiiori th:ic remo'ml it. the P^nniis ncta
were deposited, condsclns of Magnes^n Limestone, a this fiA-M
below It; and yelbw unas and witue ivxl sandstone (with phatsof
Coal Measure spccicz^) at the base. These rocks are now si btt
nmov^ They form Tynemouth rock, and lie notchcd-in a;*iai
the oo-lathom dyke at Cullcrcoatrs, and again are touched (tkfcui
only J at Seaton Sluice^ No highrr strata have been pRscnfc^
The chief faults of the county extend across it. Its ignrcus rcrb
ether than the Cheviot porohy rites and a few coctraporanraa
trap« in the lowest Carbonifcruufl, arc all intrusive. An irRfjix
fihcct of b^ualt forced between plans.^ of bedding (perhaps at tk
close ol the Carbonirerous period) forms the crag-makiz)g Ese d
the Great \Vh infill, which, »iih miny shifts, bnaks and pfs
extends from Green bead near Gildand to the Kyloc Hill*. Kuiabcn
of basalt dykes crosa the court-. :■> T were probably ccnnertrf
with the pUicau of Miocene vote, 1 in the Hebrides. E*gy
where the Glacial period hj.s left : , . idcd and scored, and wtf-
fragcncnts from far and mir rtj'oivl uij into bouldcr<by. Tk
g Lifters at first held with the vitleya, out as the iof-inusdatifli
i>few they »pn^d out into one fihett— the Chc\-iot tops. ha\9t
ice-cappedt alone Ksin^ abow it. Two great currents met oc*
flue nee around ih«c Mh — one from across the western sralcnw
the other ekirtin^ the cpj»t irom the north. Boulders fnoo CaScss^
CrilTtl, the Lake District and oUkt [ibccs adjacent, and faffl.*
Lammcrttiuirs and Berwickshire, lie in their track. Of aoajg
thete ate only a few towards the hilts. Glaciated slieQ-fn|iM*
have been dftccted at Tynemouth. Laminated brick dan «*
among the bbuldi-T-clays. Sheets and mounds oil paw rf ^
njtuTT of kamcs t-Jtist bene and there on the low grouno, ardiCRn
in a chuin ovcf the low watcrsJlKd between Halt whistle aodGfttaa
sprsely dottiTig also some more uplaqd valleys. An upper borf^
cljy, containing dints, skiria the ciast.
The older valltys ane all pfC-Glactal, and may date f«**
Miocene period. They are much choked up with Ctacial *P*5
and lie so deep below the surface that, it they were ckarw*
arms of the sea, one ol them, 140 ft^ deep at Newcastle. sos Maig
for mites inland. After the departure of the glaciers the
here and there wandctod into new positions, and besce , ^
great vjiriety of tmooth flope and rocky gorcc. In the cpc accig
atmospheric waste has hollowed out the shales at their ""**
leaving the sandstones, &c., as protriiding " "* — " *
here and there into ctaga. *- '*-- '
di^stctlnn 6ret began, the
ilii2 hi:i[;ht4, whose turn tame .^.i^i, iin.y •»« wmu ,«*~—
crret-lijic^ but have alader-roundeti brows. Many oU 22*
now sheeted ovrr with peat. The sloping peat- fieUB aft a>
eite* of ftn»g)rlin|ff birch-woodi, now burled. ^ I
CTimci^, —The clinuLtc i» bracing and beakhv, sr« '•^Jrt I
summers (e.g. the average July temperature at Altt«* » STJi |
In spring cast winds prevail over toe whole county. Tit l^ 1
far as Cumberland, is Ukcn by t&e snepncra lor a sign oi wet.
Agrictdture, &c. — About five-ninths of the total area b under
cultivation, and of this nearly five-sevenths is in permanent pasture.
Tiicre are also about 470,000 acres under hiU pasture. South of the
river Coquet there is a broad tract of cultivation towards the coast
(hat senas lessening strips up the valleys into the interior. From
the Coquet northwards another breadth of enclosed ground stretches
Almost continuously along the base of the Cheviot hills. In the
basin of the Till it becomes very fertile, and towards the Tweed the
two breadths unite. In the porphyritic Cheviots the lower hills
ihow a great extent of sound surface and good grass. The average
hill-farms support about one sheep to 2 acres. A coarser pasturage
covers the Carboniferous hills, and the proportion of stock to surface
is somewhat Ins. In the highest fells the congeries of bogs, hags
!uid sandstone scars, with many acres dangerous to sheep are
worthless to the farmer. The lower uplands are a patchwork of
coarse grasses (mown by the " muirmen " into " bent-hay ") and
heather, or, in the popular terms, heather and " white ground."
for it is blanched for eight months in the year. Heather is the
natural cover of the sandstones and of the sandy glacier-d^ris
near them. On the uplands they grow benu; lower down they
are apt to be cold ana strong, but are much relieved by patches
and in workings of navel, especially north of the Wansbeck. The
prevalent stream-alluvium is sandy loam, with a tincture of peat.
The arable regions are very variable. Changes of soil are probably
as numerous as fields. The bulk of the acreage under com crops,
which has greatly diminished, is under oats and barley, and turnips
occupy some five-sixths di the area under green crops. ^ North-
umberland is one di the largest sheep-rearing counties in Great
Britain. Of these, the half-brcds— crosses between the Leicester
(or Shropshire) and Cheviot breeds — occupy the lower enclosed
TTounds, the pure Cheviots are on the uplands and the hardier
black-faced breeds lie out on the exposed heathery heights. The
cattle are chiefly shorthorns and Galloways. They are very largely
raised, chiefly (or fattening purposes.
,The practice ci paying waees in kind has passed greatly into
disuse. Some of the shepherGU still receive " stock-wages." being
allowed to keep forty or fifty sheep and several cows on their em-
ployers' farms in lieu of pay. This arrangement, which makes
them really copartners, has probably done much to render them the
singularly fine class, of men they are.
OUur Industries. — ^The manufactures of the county chiefly come
from the Tyne. which is a region of ironworks, blast-furnaces, ship-
buiJdine yards, ropeworks. coke-ovens, alkali-works and manufac-
tories <^ glass, potteiy and fire-bricks, from above Newcastle to the
sea. Machines, appliances, conveyances and tools are the principal
articles of manufacture in metal. There b great activity in all trades
concerned in pit-sinking and mine-working. In the other parts of
the county there are a Tew small doth-miUs. a manufactory of tan
gtoves at Hexham, some potteries and numbers of small brick and
tile works. There are several sea-fishing stations, of which North
Shields is by far the most important. Tne salmon fisheries are also
valuable.
CommKiitea/umj.— Communications are provided almoist wholly
by the North-Eastem railway, of which the main line enters the
county at Newcastle and runs N. by Morpeth, and near the coast,
to Berwick, where a junction on the East Coast route from London
to Scotland b effected with the North British railway. Numerous
branch railways serve the populous south-eastern district, and there
are connexions westward to Hexham and Carlisle, up the Tweed
valley into Scotland and (by the North British line) up the North
Tyne valley from Hexham. The principal ports besides the Tyne
ports are Blyth. Amble (Warkworth Harbour), AInmouth and
Berwick. The Tyne b one of the most important centres of the
coal-shipping tracie in the world.
PopulaiioH and Administration.-^The area of the ancient
county is x, 291,530 acres with a population in 1891 of 506,442,
and in 190X of 603,498. In physique the Northumbrian b
stalwart and robust, and seldom corpulent. The people have
mostly grey eyes, brown hair and good complexions. The
inhabitants of the fishing villages appear to be Scandinavian;
and parts of the county probably contain some admixture of
the old Brit-Celt, and a trace of the Gipsy blood of the Faas of
Yclholm. The natives have fine characteristics: they are
clean, thrifty and plodding, honest and sincere, shrewd and
very independent. Their virtues lie rather in solidity than in
aspiration.
Northtimbrian speech b characterized by a " rough vibration
English forms of speech strike the ear, such as " to butch a beef,"
t.0, to kill a bullock, and curious inversions, such as *' they not
can help." There b the Old-English distinction in the use of
" thou " to familiars and " ye " to superiors.
The area of the admiriUiraiiivc c&uniy h 1.5^1,515 acres- The
cuuniy h divided inlo nine wards> an&weHng so huridneda^ Popula'
tion t* densest in the iouih-ca^t* where ihc jtiinin^ di^lrict and ihe
Tynt^dQ indititmV arra are »ituati.fL The municipal boroughs In
this diitrici are: Newcafttle-upon-Tyne (city, county of a city and
county borough; pop. ^15.^26), Tynemoqth (counfy borough,
f|l,^66). Morpeth (£ii§a^}. Wallscnd (10,91 £i}. '° ^hi^ diirrici the
oil ivi'Ln^ ane urban diitrictE: Ambitr (441 Ej), Ashington (tj^.qS^K
BetJlington (iB,766), Blyth (5471), Covpcn (17^79}, CTamlin^ton
(6437^ Ear^don {9020). CDsTurth (1 0^605 )p Newblegin -by -t he-Sea
(20U>, Ncwbum (i?,50o), ScKhiJl (2213). Wedtbde (5453)- Whitley
awT Monkscaion (7705), VVi"irffion Quay (7941)^ The remainder
of the county conUiru xhc municipal txir^ugn of Berwick-upon-
Twred (JJ41.7) and the Ufban di«trii;[«oJ: Alnwick (6716). Hexham
(707 1 J and Rcithbury (1101), Tbt county is in iSc norih-castcrn
cmij^T, and asL^Uw arc FcW at Ncwcji^ilc-upon-TyTie, The total
nuiriU-r of civil pari-thti *'i-3' '^^'^ artcicnt county^ which if in the
dio< ! SL- of Ncwca=tlt'ui»n'T>ne< with ihc cjtc^prlon of a smatJ portion
in iliiit of Durham, con taint 173 tcdc&ia^ticiil p^-iriiht* or divtrkti,
whill^ or in mrt. The p3,riujmcnLarv divUkm^of t]>r cauniy are
Benftick-upoD^weed, Hcsiaamf Wan<teck nnd T)rit;y[rfc^ c;n.h re-
turiiiins one member; uhHc the parlLimL-nLarv boroueh of Newcastle-
upon-Tyne returns two memberB, and those of Morpeth and
Tyneroouth one member each.
History.— Tht first English settlement in the kingdom of
Bemicia, which included what b now Northumberland, was
effected in 547 by Ida, who, accompanied by hb six sons, pushed
through the narrow strip of territory between the Cheviots and
the sea, and set up a fortress at Bamburgh, which became the
royal seat of the Saxon kings. About the end of the 6th century
Bernida was first united with the rival kingdom of Deira under
the rule of i£thelfrith, and the dbtrict between the Humber
and the Forth became known as the kingdom of Northumbria.
In 634 Cad walla was defeated at Hefenfeld (the site of which
lies in the modem parish of St John Lee) by Oswald, under whom
Christianity was definitely established in Northumbria, and the
bishop's see fixed at Hexham, where Bishop Wilfrid erected the
famous Saxon church. Oswald also erected a church of stone
at Tynemoulh, which was destroyed in 865 in an incursion of
the Danes imder Hinguar and Hubba. The extent of Danish
influence in Northumberland has been much exaggerated,
however, for though in 876 Halfden, having conquered the whole
of Northumbria, portioned out the lands among hb followers,
the permanent settlefaients were confined to the southern portion
of the kingdom. In the northern half, which b now Northumber-
land, the English princes continued to reign at Bamburgh as
vassab of the Danes, and not a single place-name with the Danish
sufl&x " by " or " thorpe " b found north of the Tyne. In 938
i£thelstan annexed Northumberland to hb dominions, and the
Danish authority was annulled until its re-establishment by
Canute in 1013. The vigorous resbtance of Northumbria to the
Conqueror was punished by ruthless harrying. The Normans
rebuilt the Saxon monasteries of Lindisifame, Hexham and
Tynemouth; Eustace Fita John foimded Alnwick Abbey, and
other Norman abbeys were Brinkbum, Hulne, Blanchland and
Newminster. Castles were set up at Alnwick, Warkworth,
Prudhoe, Dunstanborough, Morpeth, Ford, Chillingham, Lang-
ley, Newcastle, Bamburgh, Wark and Norham, a stronghold of
the palatine bishops of Durham.
The term Northumberland b first used in its contracted
modem sense in 1065 in an entry in the Saxon Chronicle relating
to the northem rebellion. The county b not mentioned in the
Domesday Survey, but the account of the issues of the county.
as rendered by Odard the sherifiF, b entered in the Great Roll
of the Exchequer fnr 1131. In the reign of Edward I. the county
of Northumber* » found to comprise the whole district
the Coquet, and Norham beyond the Coquet, ail subject to the
bishop of Durham; the liberty of Hexham belonging to the
archbishop of York; that of T^nedale to the king of Scotland;
that of Emildon to the earl of Lancaster; and that of Redesdale
to Gilbert de Urofraville, earl of Angus. These franchises were
all held exempt from the ordinary jurisdiction of the shire. By
statute of 1495-X496 the lordship of Tynedale was annexed to
Northumberland on account of flagrant abuses of the liberties
of the franchise; the liberty of Hejduim was annexed to North*
umberland in 1572; Norhamshire, Islan d s h ire and Bedlington-
shire continued to form detached portions of Durham until 1844,
when they were incorporated with Northumberland. The
division into wards existed at least as early as 1 395, the Hundred
Roll of that year giving the wards of Coquetdale, Hamburgh,
Glendale and Tynedale.
The shire-court for Northumberland was held at different
times at Newcastle, Alnwick and Morpeth, until by statute of
1540 it was ordered that the court should thenceforth be held
in the town and castle of Alnwick, and under the same statute
the sheriffs of Northumberland, who had lately been in the
habit of appropriating the issues of the county to their private
use, were required to hereafter deliver in their accounts to the
Exchequer in the same manner as the sheriffs of other counties.
The assizes were held at Newcastle, and the itinerant justices,
on their approach to the county, were met by the king of Scot-
land, the archbishop of York, the bishop of Durham and the prior
of Tynemouth, who pleaded their liberties either at a well called
Chille near Gateshead, if the justices were proceeding from York,
or, if from Cumberland, at Fourstanes. In these franchises the
king's writ did not run, and their owners performed the office
of sheriff and coroner. Among other Northumbrian landowners
claiming privileged jurisdiction in 1293 was Robert de Quonia,
who claimed that he and his men were quit of the suits of the
ihire and wapentake; the prior of St Mary of Carlisle claimed
to exclude the king's bailiffs from executing their office in his
fee of Corbridge, and that he and his men were quit of the suits
of the shire and wapentake. The buigesses of Newcastle claimed
return of writs in their borough, and Edmund, the brother of
Edward I., claimed return of writs and exemptions from the
sheriff's jurisdiction in his manor of Stamford. Newcastle was
made a county by itself by Henry IV. in 1400, and has juris-
diction in admiralty cases. Ecclesiastically the county was in
the diocese of Durham, and in 1391 formed the archdeaconry
of Northumberland, comprising the deaneries of Newcastle,
Corbridge, Hamburgh and Alnwick. In 1535 the archdeaconry
included the additional deanery of Morpeth. The archdeaconry
of Lindisfame was formed in 1845, and subdivided into the rural
deaneries of Alnwick, Hamburgh, Morpeth, Norham and Roth-
bury; the archdeaconry of Northumberland then including the
deaneries of Bellingham, Corbridge, Hexham and Newcastle-upon-
Tyne. In 1883 Northumberiand was formed into a separate
diocese with its see at Newcastle, the archdeaconries and
deaneries being unaltered. In 1885 the additional deaneries of
Tynemouth and Bediington were formed in the archdeaconry
of Northumberland, and in 1900 the deanery of Glendale in the
archdeaconry of Lindisfame.
Pre-eminent among the great families connected with North-
umberland is that of Percy (q.v.). Ford and Chipchase were
scats of the Heron family. The Widdringtons were established
at Widdrington in the reign of Henry I. and frequently filled
the office of sheriff of the county. The barony of Prudhoe was
granted by Henry I. to the Umf ravUles, who also held the castles
of Otterbum and Harbottle and the franchise of Redesdale.
From the Ridleys of Willimoteswyke was descended Bishop
Ridley, who was martyred in 1555. Aydon Castle was part
of the barony of Hugh Haliol. The Radcliffes, who held Dilston
and Cartington in the 15th century and afterwards acquired
the extensive barony of Langley, became very powerful in
Northumberland after the decline of the Percies, and were
■devoted adherents of the Stuart cause.
perpetual inroads and devastations by the Scots. Norham,
Alnwick and Wark were captured by David of Scotland in the
wars of Stephen's reign, and in 1290 it was at Norham Castle
that Edward I. decided the question of the Scottish succesaoo
in favour of John BalioL In 1395 Robert de Ros and the earls
of Athol and Menteith ravaged Redesdale, Coquetdale and
Tynedale. In 15x4 the county was ravaged by Robert Bruce,
and in 1382 by special enactment the earl of Northumberiand
was ordered to remain bn his estates in order to protect the.
county from the Scots. In 1388 Henry Percy was taken pcisooer
and 1 500 of his men slain at the battle of Otterbum, immortalized
in the baUad of " Chevy Chase.'* Alnwick, Bamburgh and
Dunstanborough were garrisoned for the Lancastrian caose m
X462, but after the Yorkist victories of Hexham and Hed^ey
Moor in 1464, Alnwick and Dunstanborough surreitdered, and
Bamburgh was taken by storm. In 15x3 the king of Sc^land
was slain in the battle of Flodden Field on Branxton Moor.
During the Civil War of the xyth century Newcastle was
garrisoned for the king by the earl of Newcastle, but in X644 it
was captured by the Scots under the earl of Levcn, and in X646
Charles was led there a captive under the charge of David
Leslie* Many of the chief Northumberland families were ruined
in the rebellion of x 7x5.
The early industrial development of NorthumberlaxMl was
much impeded by the constant ravages of internal aixl bordei
warfare, and in X376 the commonalty of Northumberland begged
consideratioit for their-shcriff, who, although charged £100 for
the profits of the county, through death and devastation by the
Scots could only raise £53, 3s. 4d. Again Aeneas Syh-ics
Piccolomini (Pope Pius II.), who passed through the county
disguised as a merchant in X436, leaves a picturcof its barbarous
and desolate condition, and as late as the X7th century, CanKlen,
the antiquarian, describes the lands as rough and unfit for culti-
vation. The mineral resources, however, appear to have bees
exploited to some extent from remote times. It is certain that
coal was used by the Romans in Northumberland, and sooc
coal ornaments found at Angerton have been attributed to the
7th century. In a X3th-century grant to Newminster Abbey a
road for the -conveyance of sea-coal from the shore about Blyth
is mentioned, and the Blyth coal-field was worked througboot
the X4th and xsth centuries. The coal trade on the Tyne did
not exist to any extent before the X3th century, but frocn that
period it developed rapidly, and Newcastle acquired the monotpcSj
of the river shipping and coal-trade. Lead was exponed ina
Newcastle in the X2th century, probably from Hrxhannhigc,
the lead mines of which were very prosperous throa^boat the
x6th and X7th centuries. In a charter from Richard L to Bisfacp
Pudsey creating him earl of Northumberland, mines of siher
and iron are mentioned, and in x 240 the monks of Newmixstcr
had an iron forge at Stretton. A salt-pan is mentioned at Waii-
worth in the X2th century; in the X3th century the salt inihstxy
flourished at the niouth of the river Blyth, and in the X5tk
century formed the principal occupation of the inhahitanri
of North and South Shields. In the reign €l Elixabetb g;la»
houses were set up at Newcastle by foreign refugees, axkd tht
industry spread rapidly along the Tyne. Taiming, both d
leather and of nets, was largely practised in the xjth ceaiMEry,
and the salmon fisheries in the T^xie were famous iak the rc^
of Henry I.
The county of Northumberland was represented fay tm
members in the parliament of X290, and in 1395 Bambisrc^
Corbridge and Newcastle-upon-Tyne each returned two meicbers
From X297, however, Newcastle was the only borough wcfn-
sented, until in 1524 Berwick aciquired representation a=>J
returned two members. Morpeth returned two mcmbets fase
1553. Under the Reform Act of X832 the county returned ic^
members in two divisions; Berwick and Newcastle were repR^
sented by two members each, and Morpeth axid Tynononth ^
one member each. Under the act of 1885 the county now xtnsa
four members in four divisions.
the Ime of the Roman wall about 3 m. east of the IrthinK, is supposed
by some antiquaries to be the continuation of the CatraU at PeeiFell ;
the latter was the i>robable boundaiy-fence between the Sa»>n
Bemicia and the British Strathdyde.
The ecclesiastical buildinss of the county suffered greatly at
the hands of the Scots. Not a few of the churches were massive
structures, tower-like in strength, and fit to defend on occasion.
Lindisfame Priory, the oldest monastic ruin in the country, dates
from 1093. Hexham Abbey Church, raised over the crypt of
Wilfrid's cathedral, has been termed a " text-book of Early English
architecture." Of Brinkbum Priory the church remains, and has
been well restored. Hulne Abbey was the first Carmelite monastery
in Britain. Besides these there are fragments of Ncwminster Abbey
(1139), Alnwick Abbey (1147) and otners. An exciuisitely graceful
fragment of Tynemouth church is associated with some remains
of the older priory. St Nicholas's church, Newcastle (1350), was the
prototype of St Giles's, Edinburgh. There is a massive Norman
church at Norham, and other Norman and Eariy EngUsh churches
at Mitford, Bamburgh, Warkworth (with its hermitage), Alnwick
(St Michael's) &c., most of them with square towers. The stone
roof of the little church at BelUngham, with its heavy semicircular
girders, is said to be now unique.
" It may be said of the houses of the gentry hprcin/^ writes
Fuller, " ' Quot mansiones, tot munitioncs,' as being all caAt1» or
castlc-Iike.' Except a few dwellings of the i6th century in Ntw-
castle, and some mansions built after the Union of En|^[arid and
Scotland , the older houses are all castles. A survey of i sbo mentions
thirty-seven castles and seventy-eight towers in Nortkumlv^rhrtd,
not probably including all the oastle-houses or small pccli oi the
yeomen. At the Conquest Bamburgh, the scat of ^Mr Si Ton kings,
was the only fortress north of York. Norham Ca ' ' .It in
1 1 2 1 . None of the baronial castles are older than th< ; r^' I .
A grass mound represents Wark Castle. Alnwick C«»w«^ ia mhi ariay
of walls and towers covering about five acres. Warkworth, Prudhoe
and Dunstanburgh castles are fine groups of ruins. Dilston Castle
has still its romantic memories of the earl of Derwentwatcr. Bel-
say. Haushton, Featherstone and Chipchase castles are joined
with modern mansions. The peel-towers of Elsdon, Wnitton
(Rothbury) and Emblcton were used as fortified rectory-houses.
Seaton Dclaval was the work of Vanbrugh.
The place-names of the county may be viewed as its etymological
anticiuities. The Danish test-suffix by is absent. Saxon tons, fums,
cUughs (clefts or ravines) and various patronymks are met with in
great numbers; and the Gaelic knock (hill) and Cymric caer, dwr
(water)j cefn (ridge), 6ryn (brow), &c., mingle with the Saxon. Many
curiosities of place-nomenclature exist, some strange, some expressive,
e.g. Blink-bonny, Blaw-wearie, Skirl-naked, Pity Me.
Authorities.— Vi:c(<?r»o Couniy History, Northumberland; North-
umberland County History Committee, A History of Northumberland
(in process) (Newcastle-upon-Tyne, 1893, &c.): John Hodgson, A
History of Northumberland, in 3 parts (i 827-1 840); E. Mackenzie,
An Historical View of the County of Northumberland (2nd ed., a vols.,
Newcastle, i8xi); Society of Antiquaries, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, A
History of Northumberland, i>t. I containing the general history of
the county, state of the district under the Saxon and Danish kings.
&c. (Newcastle, 18^8): Archaeologia Aeliana, or Miscellaneous
Tracts relating to Antiquity, pubUshed by the Society of Antiquaries
of Newcastle-upon-Tyne (4 vols., Newcastle-upon-Tyne, 1822-1855:
new aeries, i857f &c.); William Wallis, The Natural History and
Antiquities of Northumberland (2 vols., London, 1760) ; W. S. Gibson,
Descriptioo and Historical Notices of some remarkable Northumbrian
CastUs, Churches and Antiquities, series i. (London, 1848): Early
Assize RtMs for Northumberland, edited by William Page, Surtees
Society (London, 1891).
NORTHUHBRIA (regnum Nortkankymbrorum), one of the
most important of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, extended from
the Ilumber to the Forth. Originally it comprised two in-
dependent kingdoms, Bemicia and Deira (q.v.). Each of these
had a dynasty of its own. The first known king of the former
was Ida, who, according to tradition, acquired the throne in
547 and reigned twelve years. To him the foundation of Bam-
burgh is attributed. Four of Ida's sons successively occupied
his throne: Glappa 559-560, Adda 560-568, Aethelric 568-572,
and Theodoric 57^579- Of the first three nothing is known,
but Theodoric is said {Historia Brilionum) to have been besieged
by the Welsh tinder Urien in Lindisfame. Theodoric was
succeeded by Frithuwald 579-585 or 586 and Hussa 586-592 or
593 . Then ^thelf rith {q.v.) , son of ^Ethelric, came to the throne.
oaxon v^nromae, wmcn is a less reuaoie aumonty lor JNortn-
umbrian history, places his death in the year 588. The compiler
of this^ work, however, seems to have used a regnal list of the
Bemidan kings, which differed considerably from most of those-
foimd in our early authorities, ^thelfrith eventually acquired
possession of Ddra, probably in 604 or (^05, perhaps on Ella's
death, expelling his son Edwin {q.v.). Thenceforward, with
rare intervals, the two kingdoms remained united. iEthclfrith
became involved in war with the Welsh towards the end of his
reign and captured Chester, probably about 613. Shortly after-
wards, in 616, he was defeated and slain in battle on the river
Idle by Edwin, who was assisted by the East Anglian king
Raedwald. Edwin now became king over both Northumbrian
province^ By his time the kingdom must have reached the
west coast, as he is said to have conquered the ishinds of Anglesea
and Man. Under Edwin the Northumbrian kingdom became
the chief power in the country. At his death in 633 the kingdom
was again divided, Ddra falling to his nephew Osric, while
Bemicia was occupied by Eanfrith son of iEthielfrith. Both
these kings were slain by Ceadwalla in the following year, but
shortly afterwards the Welsh king was overthrown by Oswald
{q.v.)f brother of Eanfrith, who reunited the whole of North-
umbria imder his sway and acquired a supremacy analogous to
that previously held by Edwin. After Oswald's defeat and
death at the hands of .Penda in 642 Bemicia fell to his brother
Oswio, while Oswine son of Osric became king in Deira, though
probably subject to Oswio. Oswine's death was compassed by
Oswio in 651, and the throne of Ddra was then obtained by
iEtbelwald son of Oswald. He is not mentioned, however,
after 655, so it is probable that Ddra was incorporated in the
Bemician kingdom not long afterwards. After Oswio's victory
over Penda in 654-655 he annexed the northem part of Merda
to his kingdom and acquired a supremacy over the rest of
England similar to that held by his predecessors. The M erdans,
however, recovered their independence in 658, and from this
time onward Northumbria played little part in the history of
southem England. But Oswio and his son Ecgfrith greatly
extended their territories towards the north and north-west,
making themsdves masters of the kingdoms of Strathdyde and
Dahiada, as well as of a large part of the Pictish kingdom.
Ecgfrith {q.v.)y who succeeded on Oswio's death in 671, expelled
the Mercians from Lindsey early in his reign, but was in turn
defeated by them in 679, his brother i£lfwine being slain. From
this time onwards the Humber formed the boundary between
the two kingdoms. In 684 we hear of the first English invasion
of Ireland, but in the following year Ecgfrith was slain and
his army totally destroyed by the Picts at a phice called Nech-
tansmere (probably Dunnichen Moss in Forfarshire). The Picts
and Britons now recovered their independence; for Aldfrith,
apparently an illegitimate son of Oswio, who succeeded, made
no attempt to reconquer them. He was a learned man and a
patron of scholars, and during his reign the Northumbrian
kingdom partially recovered its prosperity. He was succeeded
in 705 by his son Osred, and under him and his successors
Northumbria began rapidly to decline through the vices of its
kings and the extravagance of their donations. Osred was slain
in 716. He was succeeded by Coenred 716-718, and Coenred by
Osric 718-729. The next king was Ceolwulf, to whom Bede
dedicated his Historia Ecclesiastica in 731. In the same year he
was deposed and forced to become a monk, but was soon restored
to the throne. In 737 he voluntarily retired to a monastery and
left the kingdom to his cousin Eadberht. The latter appears to
have been a vigorous nder; in the year 740 we hear of his being
involved in war with the Picts. iEthdbald of Merda seems to
have Uken advanUge of this campaign to ravage Northumbria.
In 750 Eadberht is said to have annexed a large part of Ayrshire
to his " I. Finally in 756, having now allied himself with
(Engus king of the Picts, he successfully attacked Dumbarton
(Alcluith), the chief town of the Britons of Strathdyde. Ead-
berht showed considerable independence in his dealings with
the church, and his brother Ecgberht, to whom the well-known
letter of Bede is addressed, was from 734 to 766 archbialiop of
York. In 758 Eadberht resigned the kingdom to his son Oswulf ,
and became a monk; After his abdication Northumbrian history
degenerates into a record of dynastic murders. Oswulf was
slain by his household at a place called Mechil Wongtun in 759.
Moll i£thelwald, who may have been a brother of Eadberht,
succeeded, and after a victory over a certain Oswine, who fell
in the battle, abdicated and became a monk probably under
compulsion in 765. His successor Alchred claimed descent from
Ida, but Simeon of Durham appears to doubt the truth of his
claim. He sent an embassy. to Charlemagne in 768 and was
deposed in 774, whereupon he fled to Bamburgh and afterwards
to the Picts. His deposition has been ascribed to a formal act
of the Witan, but this seems an antedating of constitutional
methods and the circumstances point to a palace revolution. The
successor of Alchred was yEthelred son of Moll iEthelwald. In
778 three high-reeves were slain at the instigation of the king.
i£thelred was expelled during the next year, perhaps in con-
sequence of this event, andiElfwald son of Oswulf became king.
i£lfwald was murdered by Sicga in 789^ whereupon Osred his
nephew the son of Alchred succeeded. In 790 the banished
iGthdred returned to the throne and drove out Osred, whom
he put to death in 792. iEthelred, who had married i£lflaed
the daughter of Offa, also killed (Elf and (Elfwine, the sons of
(Elf wald add was murdered himself at Corbridge in 796. Oswald,
who is called patricius by Simeon of Durham, succeeded, but
reigned only twenty-seven days, when he was expelled and
eventually became a monk. Eardwulf dux, who had apparently
fled abroad to escape the wrath of i£thelred, was now recalled
and hdd the crown until 807 or 808. i£lfwald then became
king, but Eardwulf was restored in 808 or 809 after appealing
to the emperor and the pope. Eanred, son of Eardwulf, probably
came to the throne in 809 and reigned until 841. It was during
his reign in 837 that Northumbria acknowledged the supremacy
of Ecgberht, king of Wessex. Eanred was succeeded by his son
iEthelred, who was shun in 850, when Osberht came to the
throne and reigned imtil 863. On the expulsion of Osberht, Ella
or \£lle, succeeded. The dironiders emphasize the fact that
this king was not of royal descent. He is said to have slain
Ragnarr LoSbrok. In the year 866 LoSbrok's sons Ingwaere
(I'varr, q.v.), Hcalfdene, Ubba and others brought a vast army
to England to avenge the death of their father. In the following
year they obtained possession of York. Ella seems now to have
made peace with the exiled king Osberht, and thdr united
forces succeeded in recovering the city. In the great battle
which ensued the Northumbrian army was annihilated and both
kings slain (the death of Ella, according to Irish tradition, being
due to the treachery of one of his followers). The southern
part of Northumbria now passed entirely into the hands of the
invaders, but they allowed a certain Ecgberht to reign over
the portion of the kingdom north of the Tyne. Ecgberht was
expelled in 872 and died in the course of the following year.
His successor Ricsig died in 876 and was followed by Ecgberht II.,
who reigned until 878. He was the last English kingf who
reigned in Northumbria. After him the chief power north of
the Tyne came into the hands of a certain Eadulf of Bamburgh,
who did not take the kingly title, but accepted the overlordship
of Alfred the Great perhaps in 886. In the winter of 874-875
Hcalfdene returned to Northumbria, which he partitioned among
his followers. He was probably killed in Ireland in 87 7. Simeon
of Durham makes his death occur about the same time, after
he had been expelled from his country and had lost his reason
as a punishment for his misdeeds. After an mterregnum of a
few years a certain Guthred became king in 883. He is said- to
have been a slave and to have been appointed king at the com-
mand of St Cuthbert, who appeared to Eadred the abbot of
Cariisle in a dream. There is some reason for the conjecture
that he bdonged to the family of Loffbrok. He died in 894,
after which date little .is known of Northumbrian history for a
number of years. About the year 919 the country was invaded
by Raegenald (R5gnvaldr grandson of I'varr), a Norwegian king
from Ireland, who seized York and occupi«i the lands of St
Cuthbert. Aldred, the son of Eadulf, who now ruled oorOi of
the Tyne, appealed to Cqnsuntine II., king of the Scots, for
help, but the Scottish and Northumbrian armies were defeated
at Corbridge. Shortly after this, however, all the northern
princes submitted to Edward the Elder. Raegenald was suc-
ceeded by Sihtric (Sigtryggr, another grandson of I'varr), who
married ^thelstan's sister. He died in 926, and his brother
and successor Guthfrith was won afterwards expelled by ^thci-
stan and fled to Eugenius, king of Strathdyde. The Welsh
and Scottish kings, however, both submitted to ^thelstan, and
Guthfrith was again driven into exile. He died in 934, leaving
a son Aniaf (Olafr), Godfredsson or Godfreyson. In 934 iEthel-
stan invaded Scotland as far as the Tay.' In 937 a great fleet
and army were brought together by Constantine and Anlaf.
the son of Sihtric, another Norwegian chieftain who had allied
himself with the Scots, helped by Anlaf (jodfrcyson from Ireland.
iEthdstan, however, won a complete victory over them at a
place called Brunanburh, probably Bumswark in Dumfries-
shire. Anlaf Godfreyson returned to Ireland and died in 941-
943 in a raiding expedition in the south of Scotland. Anlaf the
son of Sihtric again came to England in 940 just after the death
of iEthelstan. He became king of Northumbria and extended
his territories as far as Watling Street. Peace was made with
King Edmund by the capture of King Anlaf, and a good deal
later by the confirmation of King Raegenald, brothet to Anlaf
Godfreyson and cousin to Anlaf Sihtricson. About two years
later, however, both these kings were expelled by Edmund, and
the whole of Northumbria was brought under his power. About
the second year of Eadred's reign there was another revolt and
Eric Bloodaxe, the exiled king of Norway, obtained the throne.
During the next few years the kingdom alternated between
Eric and Anlaf imtil 954, when Eadred finally succeeded in
establishing his power. Eric was killed by Maccus, the son of
Anlaf, while Anlaf himself withdrew to Ireland, where be died
in 980. Eadred placed Northumbria in the hands of a certain
Osulf, who is called high-reeve at Bamburgh. In the rdgn of
Edgar, Oslac was appointed earl of southern Northumbria, but
he was banished at the beginning of the following reign. The
next earl was Waltheof and after him Uhtred, whq defeated
Malcolm II., king of the Scots, in 1006. Twdve years later,
however, the Northumbrians were completdy defeated at
Carhan, and Lothian waS annexed by the Sects (see Lothiak).
Uhtred was shiin by the orders of Canute, who gave the prorv-ince
to Eric (Eirikr) earl of Lade. Shortly afterwards, however,
»part of it at least came into the hands first of Eadulf and then
Aldred and another Eadulf, the brother and sons respectivdy
of Uhtred. The younger Eadulf was slain by Siward, prolMibly
in the reign of Hardacanute. Siward hdd die earldom till his
death in Z055, when it was given to Tostig, son of earl Godwiae,
and after his banishment to Morkere, son of i£lfgar, earl oi
Merda. Tostig's banishment led to the invasion of Haxx^
Hardrada, king of Norway, and the battle of Sumford Bridge,
in which both perished.
AuTHORiTtBS.— Bede. Historia ecclesiastka, ed. C. PlamiacT
i Oxford, 1896); Anth-Saxon Ckronick, cd. Earle and Plummci
Oxford, 1899); "Annales Lindesfarnenses," in the Monumfmu
iistorica Germanica, Band xix. (Kanover. 1866): Sime«n 0/ Dio-kam
(" Rolls" series), ed. T. Arnold (1882); J. d H. R- Stccnstropw
Normanneme (Copenhagen, 1876-1883). (F. G. M. B.)
NORTH WALSHAM, a market town in the eastern parlii-
mentaiy division of Norfolk, England; 131 m. N.E. by K
from London by the Great Eastern railway. Pop. of urbaa
district (1901) 3981. It lies in a pastoral district near the river
Ant, a' tributary of the Bure. The church of St Nicholas is 1
fine Perp«ndicular structure exhibiting the flint-work common to
the district, and possessing a beautiful south porch and the nu
of a massive western tower which partly collapsed early in (k
18th century. A grammar school was founded in x6o6, aad
reorganised and moved to new buildings in modem times. Tbet
EST FRONTIER PROVINCE
795
isiderable agri-
l fairs are held.
orfolk Broads.
ranch railway,
; beneath the
Valsham are
ous through
Bromholm
dates from
buildings.
the Cross
Walsbam
iy of in-
i driven
^orwich,
^r, and
■therly
1901.
luch-
\ctly
•om-
•on-
md
on
-h
d
t
a rough country with but little cultivation, under the political control
of Peshawar. West and south-west of the Khyber again is the
country of the Afridis and the Orakzais. The bouncbry of the
province here follows the line of the Safcd Koh. which overlooks the
Afridi Tirah and the upper Kurram valley. Dotted with towered
hamlets and stately chtnar groves the valley of the Kurram runs
south-east from the Peiwar Kotal (below the great peak of Sikaram),
past Thai in the Miranzai valley, through the southern Kohat hills
to Bannu. South of the Kurram b the Tochi valley, separating it
from Waziristan, an isolated mountainous district bounded on the
south by the Gomal and the gorges that lead to the Wana plain.
Tht li^v.'f-T rHj^ of the front :rr n"^'i~*ntn system arc usually hare
ar • ■ • :■ ' iiT Ektc and ihi ■ .■.• K;iiiLL vaSlcy, in nun Iktu
Vi'jriri^Mn asid round Ivantgurani in t[ic? ■south, art fgrcst clad ^ind
enclose narrow but fertile and well-irrigated dales. In pbce:^» too,
as, for instance, rojnd Shawal, the sumcnc-r j^i^iln^ ^^frgmi^ ^f the
D^rnTsh Rhcl Wazaria,^ an<l on the slopes of Pir Ghol, there isjEood
pii^tiiraFje and a lair sprinkling; of deodars. The valteyi of I he Tochi
and Wana are both fertile, but are very dilTcfCtil in character.
The former is a long nainow valley, with a rich frinf^e of culiivaTion
bordering the river : the latter h a wide cipen all u vial plain^ euUivated
only on one side, and lor the rest rough atony waite. South of the
Gomal the Suliman Ranf^e culminates in the lacnauA Takht^i^
Sulfinan in the Lar^gha Sheranl country, a poliUfal dependency of
Dera Umail Khan district. The Kaii>argarh peak ol the Takh|-i-
Su tinman i^ 1 1,300 ft. above de'a^levc'l.
Mounlain SysUms.-^T}»t mauntj3in$ of the Hindu Ku^h running
from east to west form the nonhem bounrbry of the province^
and are met at the north-rajt comer of the Chitral acency by the
continuation of an outer chain of the Himalayas ^f(er it crtvs^ca the
Indus above the Kaean valley. Fironi thi^ chain minor ranees run
in a «oLJih-westerly direction the whole length of Qa|our an J Swat*
till they merge into the Mohmand hills and connect the mid- Hima-
layas with the Safcd Koh. The range of the Safcd Koh flanks the
Kurram valley and enelofcs the Kabi^l basiin, which finds its outlet
to the Indus (through the Mohmand hills. The Suliman system lies
south of ihe Gonial unronnected with the northern hit]*. To the east
the Safed Koh extends its spurs into the Kohat district. The Salt
Range crosMTs the Indus in the Mianwali iahiii of the Punjab, and
forma the boundary between Bannq and Dera famail Khan, merging
eventually in the Waiiri hills. The chief peaks in the pnivirice are
KaiFiargarh (11,300 ft.) and Pir Choi (it.jao ft.) in Waziristan;
~»hekh Budin [4510 fi-), in ihe small range: Sikaram (i5t6jt ft.)
1 the Safed Koh; l^ragh [ta.poo ft.)^ Kachin (23.641 ft.) and
irarh Mir {?5.4?6 ft.), in the Hindu Kush on (he northern border
ihe Chiiral dgcnty; while the Kd£&n peaks in Hazara district
) from 1 0,000 fi. 10 16,700 ft*
^iiM^T/.— With the exception of the Kutrhar rivfr, which flow»
ffi the KaEian valky to ihc Jhrrlunit ihc whole draim^iEe of the
1 nee eventually finds its way iiio the Indus.. The InJuft tnttn
3ro%incc between tribal ierriiDT>' and Ha^arn district. After
IE HaE^ira it flows in a southerly direction bciwcrn the Punjab
the North -West Frontier Province:, til) it cnicra Mianwali
t of the Punjab, from which k emeTges to form agBin the
1 bnundarv of the province. From the east it is fed by three
rivers of Hazara district (see lNDUS>. At Attock the Kabul
rings down to the Indus the whole drainage of Kafiristan,
Panjkora, Swat and Peshawar district (see Kabul River).
rram river rises in the southern slopes of the Safed Koh,
' leaving the Kurram valley posses tnrough the Kohat hills
*s Bannu district. Three miles below Lakki it is joined by
or Gambela, which carries the drainage of North Waziristan.
\m then empties itself into the Indus. From this point
ves the province the Indus receives no tributary 01 any
. The Gomal river drains a large area of central Afghan-
nta the most important povindah (or Kafila) route on the
an Races. — The Norlh-West Frontier Province as
ted may be described as the country of the Pathans
irue Palhan is possibly of Indian extraction. But
udeus have collected many tribes of foreign origin.
e now become blended by the adoption of a common
remain tribally distinct; all alike have accepted
e invented traditions of common descent which
resent association. For centuries these tribes
' independence in the rugged hills which flank
;dom of Afghanistan. In the isth century
Ule in the plains. The 16th century saw the
ablished in their present homes. The spirit
hich always characterized them soon brought
vilh the Mogul empire. In the 17th century,
'le, the settlers in the plains wrested from
hich left them almost as independent as
hills. The invasion in 1738 of Nadir Shah,
><i7;ncc from Peshawar to Dera Ismail Khan.
796
nortHtWest territories
is a landmark in the histoiy of the frontier. From his death to
the rise of Ranjit Singh, the frontier districts remained an
appendage of the Durani empire. Little control was exercised
by the rulers of Kabul, and the country was administered by
local chiefs or Afghan Sirdars very much as they pleased. The
Sikh invasions began in 1818, and from that date to the annexa-
tion by the British government the Sikhs were steadily making
themselves masters of the country. After the Second Sikh War,
by the proclamation of the 29th of March 1849, the frontier
districts were annexed by the British government. From that
time until the creation of the North-West Frontier Province the
settled districts formed part of the Punjab, while the independent
tribes were controlled at different times by the Punjab govern-
ment, and the government of India. Their turbulence still
continued, and since 1849 they have been the object of over
fifty punitive expeditions. The chief tribes, under the political
control of the N.W. Frontier agency, besides Chitralis and
Bajouris, are the Utman Khel, Yusafzais, Hassanzais, Mohmands,
Afridis, Jowakis, Mullagoris, Orakzais, Zaimukhts, Chamkannis,
Khattaks, Bangashcs, Turis, Waziris, Battannb (Bhitanis)
and Sheranis. These tribes are referred to under separate
headings.
Creation of the Province. — The North-West Frontier Province
differs from the older provinces of India in having been aitifid-
ally built up out of part of a previous province together with
new districts for a definite administrative purpose. The proposal
to make the frontier districts into a separate province, ad-
ministered by an officer of special experience, dates back to the
viceroyalty of Lord Lytton, who, in a famous minute of the
22nd of April 1877, said. —
" I believe that our North-Wcst Frontier presents at this moment
a spectacle unique in the world ; at least I know of no other spot
where, after 35 years of peaceful occupation, a great civtlixed power
has obtained so little influence over its scmi-savage neighbours,
and acf]uircd so little knowledge of them, that the country within a
day's ride of its most important garrison is an absolute terra incognita,
and that there is absolutely no security for British life a mile or two
beyond our border."
The result of this minute was that a frontier commissionership,
including Sind, was sanctioned by the home government, and
Sir Frederick (aftcmvards Lord) Roberts had been designated
as the first Commissioner, when the outbreak of the Second
Afghan War caused the project to be postponed. It was after-
wards shelved by Lord Ripon. Twenty-three years elapsed
before the idea was revived and successfully brought to com-
pletion by Lord Curzon, whose scheme was on a more modest
scale than Lord Lytton *s. It omitted Sind altogether, and con-
fined the new province to the Pathan trans-Indus districts
north of the Gomal. The purpK>se of the change was to subject
all the independent tribes from Chitral to the Gomal Pass to
the control of a single hand, and to ensure a firm and continuous
policy in their management. The administration of the province
is conducted by a chief Commissioner and Agent to the Governor-
General.
Population. — In the census of 1901 the operations were extended
for the first time to the Kurram Valley and the Shcrani country,
trans-frontier territories containing a population of 66,628
souls, which had not been previously enumerated. The military
cantonments and posts in Malakand, Dir, Swat and Chitral
were also enumerated, as were those in the Tochi Valley (the
Northern Waziristan Agency) and in the Gomal (the Southern
Wazirislan Agency), the former figures being included in the
census returns of Bannu district, and those of the latter in the
returns of Dcra Ismail Khan. The total population of the
province was 2,125,480; but this figure omits the great majority
of the frontier tribes. The province is almost wholly agricultural.
The urban population is only one-eighth of the total, and shows
no tendency to increase. There are no large industries to attract
the population to the towns; these, except Peshawar and Dera
Ismail Khan, are either expansions of large agricultural villages
or bazaars which have grown up round the many cantonments
of the province. The great majority of the population are
Pathan by race and Mohommcdan by religion. The predominant
language is Pushtu (9.9.). The conqtiered strau of the pepi-
Ution speak servile Indian dialects, called Hindki in the
north and Jatki in the south, while Gujari is spoken by the
brge Gujar population in the hills of -Haian. and north of
Peshawar.
Crops and Climate. — ^The area under cultivation reprcar n t t u
average of 1*3 acres per head ot the total, and of nearly i-^ jcm
per head of the rural population. The limit of profitable culti^itM
has almost been reached. It is therefore from an impro\-cixKflt ia
the methods of agriculture rather than to an extension of tbr am
under cultivation that recourse must be had to supply the oeeiiUt
rapidly increaMng population. The Pathan, however, is a sknnly
cultivator and slow to adopt any new methods which iaw^t
increased effort. The principal crops are — in the cold «Tatbr.
maize and bajraz in the spring, wheat, barley and gram. Rkeaid
sugar-cane are largely erown on the irrigated lands of Hxan.
Peshawar and Bannu districts, and the well and canal imsa:ed
tracts of Peshawar district produce fine crops of cotton and tobacm
In the trans-border agencies the valle>'s of the Swat. Kurram aai
Tochi rivers yield abundant rice crops. The province is mainly a
mountainous region, but includes the Peshaw^ar valley and thebroid
riverain tract of the Indus in Dera Ismail Khan diurict Tbe
climatic conditions are hence extremely diversified. Dm laui
Khan district is one of the hottest areas in the Indian coatisw,
while over the mountain region to the north the weather is tenperiie
in the summer and intensely cold in the winter. The air is gmnBr
dry, and hence the daily and annual range of temperature ii f»
quently very large. There are two seasons of rainfall ovrr the
province: the monsoon season, when supplies of moisture are hroucbl
up by the ocean winds from the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Beafl'
and the winter season, when storms advancing eastwards from Penia
and the Caspian districts occasion winds, widespread rain and kov*
fall. Both sources of supply are precarious^ and instances are not
infrequent of the almost entire failure of cither the winter cr tk
summer rainfall.
Irrigation. — Canalsare the main source of irrigation in the pravnee.
and fall under three heads: (i) Private canals in the various diitricta,
the property of the people and managed on their behalf; (2) the
Michni Dllazak and Shabkadar branch in Peshawar, constnictrd bf
the district board, which receives water rates; and (3) tbe S*^!
and Kabul river canals, which were constructed by and aie tbe
property oS government, and are managed by the imgatioa depart-
ment.
About 30% of the cultivated area is irrigated by canab. 3*, hj
wells and $% by perennial streams. Throughout the cvoviiKe lV
area in which well-cultivation is possible is extremely limicrd, ari
the field has already been covered. In Kohat and Haun ar.y
considerable extension of canal irrigation is out of the quc^tw^,
but in the remaining districts much can still be done to pnajn
irrigation.
Rattunys. — ^The railways of the province are mostly intetiicd r
the first instance for strategic purposes. The main line of the N^nV
Western railway runs from Rawalpindi to Peshawar, vhtta a
has been extended q m. to Jamrud at the entrance to the K.h\brr
Pass. From Nowsnera a frontier light line, involving: a bfcak <■'
gauge, is carried to Dargai at the foot of the Malakand Pa-n.
tTom Rawalpindi again another branch extends to the IndiK it
Ku<halgarh. A bridee has been built at this point, and the ni.*ss
continued through Kohat to Tlial at the entrance of the Kicru
valley.
See North-West Frontier Province Casetteer fCalcutta. IQC*
Sir Thomas Holdich, The Indian Borderland (1901): Pagrr arJ
Mason, Record of Frontier Expeditions (1884). CT. H. H.*J
NORTH-WEST TERRITORIES. The North-West Territoiy
was at first a general name given to all the districts of British
North America Ijnng N.W. of the St Lawrence basin, la ihr
British North America Act of 1867 provision was made for :he
admission to Canada of *' Rupert's Land and the North- Wefl
Territory." Manitoba was formed out of this district ia x^y-
The territory remaining was then called the " North-Vest
Territories," and until other arrangements were made was to k«
under the governor of Manitoba. In 1S76 the dbtrict of Kcevi:*
was established; in iSSi the limits of Manitoba were enlitft^
and in 1882 four new districts — Assiniboia, Saska:chc«u»
Alberta and Athabasca— were organized. In 1905 the twt>i-'<
of these with some modification became the pro\-ince of Saskalc>^
M'an, and the two last the province of Alberta. The terriioro
of Canada outside of the eight provinces and Yukon distric: d
the mainland are now organized as the Nonh-West Tenitom
and are under an administrator or acting governor. They incbat
the dibtricts of Keewatin, Ungava. Mackenzie and Fnnkia
These territories have an Indian population of about S500, :hr
Feet
above
Sea-level
Mean Tempcrature.F.
Summer.
Winter.
Inches.
Norway House, Keewatin .
York Factory .
Fort Simpson, 41* 51' N. .
Fort Franklin, 65" 12' N. .
710
400
500
48"7:
594;
50-4'
12*6
-io»
-17'
1926
2873
With the exception of southern Keewatin and the district south
0! James Bay the animals of the North-West Territories are
chiefly fur-bearing. Great herds of musk-oxen are found in
Mackenzie, and vast flocks of ducks, geese and other migratory
birds spend summer in the northern wilds. Except in southern
Keewatin and the James Bay district the flora is decidedly
northern, becoming Arctic in the far north. Forest trees grow
small and ill formed. Sedges abound, exceeding grasses;
mustards are abundant, and saxifrages plentiful Mosses and
lichens are numerous.
The history of the north-west follows three different branches,
(i) The story of Arctic exploration and the search for the North-
West Passage, with a concentration of interest upon the name of
Sir John Franklin, whose loaa was followed by a great development
of investigatbn in the Arctic regions; (2) the story of the fur trade,
connected with the Hudson Bay forts, from the establishment of
the first Chark» Fort in 1669: (3) the story of immigration, the
beginning of which is to be found in the coming of the Selkirk
colonists, the real founders of Manitoba (q.v.), to Red river by way of
Hudson Bay.
NORTHWICH. a market town in the Northwich parliamentary
division of Cheshire, England, 171) m. N.W. of London, on the
London and North-Westem railway and the Cheshire lines.
Pop. of urban district, 17,611. It lies in a low open valley at
the confluence of the rivers Weaver and Dane, and is the centre
of the principal salt-producing district in the United Kingdom.
In its narrow and irreguUr streets many of the houses are
strongly bolted to keep them secure from the subsidences which
result not infrequently from the pumping of brine. Despite
these precautions many accidents have occurred; some of the
houses have sunk or stand at fantastic angles, and in 1892 a
portion of the High Street, which had subsided below the level
of the Weaver, had to be raised 6 ft. Both rock salt and white
salt obtained by evaporation from brine are exported. The
amount supplied by the whole district, which includes the
neighbouring town of Winsford 6 m. south, is about 1,500,000
tons annually. The white salt is shipped chiefly to America.
The principal buildings are the chturch of St Helen, Witton,
noted for its finely carved roof of the Z7th century, a museum
and free library and market house. The Verdin Park was
presented to the town by Robert Verdin, M.P. for Northwich,
in 1887. There is a considerable industry in the building of
flat boats to convey salt to Liverpool, the river Weaver being
navigable, and connected by a hydraulic lift, i m. from the
town, with the Trent and Mersey Canal on a higher level. Rope-
and brick-making, iron and brass-founding, chemical manu-
factures, brewing and tanning, are also carried on.
NORTON. CAROUNB EUZABETH SARAH (1808-1877),
afterwards Lady Stirling-Maxwell, English writer, was bom in
London in z8o8. One of the three beautiful granddaughters of
Richard Brinsley Sheridan, daughters of his son Thomas, the
" three Graces " of London society in the reign of George IV.,
she began to write before she was out of her teens. Her two
sisters Helen and Georgina became respectively Lady Dufferin
and duchess of Somerset. Lady Dufferin described the sisters
to DisracK with characteristic modesty. ' Georgey's the beauty,"
she said, " and Carry's the wit, and I ought to be the good one,
but I am not." At the age of seventeen, Caroline published a
on his, she had left his house for her sister's, had
"condoned" on further good promises, and had
returned, to find matters worse. The husband's
persecutions culminated in 1836 in an action brought
against Lord Melbourne for seduction of his wife,
which the jury decided against Mr Norton without
leaving the box. The case against Lord Melbourne
was so weak that it was suggested that Norton
was urged to make the accusation by Melbourne's political
enemies, in the hope that the scandal would "prevent him from
being premier when the princess Victoria should succeed William
IV. In 1853 legal proceedings between Mrs Norton and her
husband were again entered on, because he not only failed to
pay her allowance, but demanded the proceeds of her books.
Mrs Norton made her own experience a plea for addressing
to the queen in 1855 an eloquent letter on the divorce laws,
and her writings did much to ripen opinion for changes in the
legal status of married women. George Meredith, in Diana of
the Crossways, used her as the model for his " Diana." Mrs
Norton was not a mere writer of elegant trifles, but was one
of the priestesses of the "reforming" spirit; her Yoke from
the Factories (1836) was a most eloquent and rousing condemna-
tion of child kbour. The Dreamy and other Poems appeared in
1840. Aunt Carr/s Ballads (1847), dedicated to her nephews
and nieces, are written with charming tenderness and grace.
Later in life she produced three novels, Stuart of Dunleath (1851),
Lost and Saved ( 1 863) , and Oft/ ^ir Doughs ( 1 868) . M rs Norton's
last poem was the Lady of La Garayc (1863), her last publication
the half-humorous, half-heroic story of The Rose of Jericho in
xSya She died on the 15th of June 1877. ^^r Norton died in
1875; and Mrs Norton in the last year of her life married Sir
W. Stirling-Maxwell.
Sec The Life of Mrs Norton, by Jane C. Perkins (1909).
NORTON, CHARLES BOWTER ADDERLET. iST Baron
(1814-1905), English politician, eldest son of Charles Clement
Adderley (d. 1818), one of an old Suffordshire family, was bom
on the 2nd of August 1814, and inherited Hams Hall, Warwick-
shire and the valuable estates of his great-uncle, Charles Bowyer
Adderley, in 1826. He was educated at Christ Church, Oxford,
and in 1841 he became one of the members of parliament for
Staffordshire, retaim'ng his seat until 1878, when he was created
Baron Norton. Adderley's oflSdal career began in 1858, when
he served as president of the board of health and vice-president of
the committee of the council on education in Lord Derby's
short ministry. Again under Lord Derby he was under-secretary
for the colonies from 1866 to 1868, being in charge of the act
which called the Dominion of Canada into being, and from 1874
to 1878 he was president of the board of trade. He died on the
28th of March 1905. Norton was a strong churchman and
especially interested in education and the colonies. In 1842 he
married Julia (i 829-1 8S7) daughter of Chandos, xst Lord Leigh,
by whom he had several sons. His eldest son Charles Leigh
(b. 1846) became 2nd Baron Norton. Another son, James
Granville Adderley (b. 1861), vicar of Saltley, Birmingham,
became well known as an advocate of Christian socialism.
See W. S. Childe-Pemberton, The Life of Lord Norton (1909).
NORTON, CHARLES BUOT (1827-1008), American scholar
and man of letters, was bom at Cambridge, Massachusetts,
on the 1 6th of November 1827. His father, Andrews Norton
( 1 786-1853) was a Unitarian theologian, and Dexter professor
of sacred h'terature at Harvard; his mother was Catherine
Eliot, Charles William Eliot, president of Harvard, being his
cousin. Charles Eliot Norton graduated from Harvard in 1846,
and started in business with an East Indian trading finn in
Boston, for which he tnvdled to India in 1849. After a tour
ia Europe, he returned to America in 1851, and thenceforward
devoted himself to literature and art.
In 188 1 Norton inaugurated the Dante Society, whose first
presidents were Longfellow, Lowell and Norton. He translated
the Vita Nuota (i860 and 1867) and the Divina Commedia
(1891-1892, 2 vols.). After work as secretary to the Loyal
Publication Society during the Civil War, he edited from 1864-
1868 the North American RetieWt in association with JsCmes
Russell Lowell. In 1861 he and Lowell helped Longfellow in
his translation of Dante and in the starting of the informal
Dante Club. In 1875 he was appointed professor of the history of
art at Harvard, a chair which was created for him and which he
held until he became emeritus in 1898. The Archaeological Insti-
tute of America chose him to be the first president (1879^1890).
From 1856 until 1874 Norton spent much time in travel and
residence on the continent of Europe and in England, and it was
during this period that his friendships began with Cariyle, Ri^in,
Edward FitzGerald and Leslie Stephen, an intimacy which did
much to bring American and English men of letters into close
personal relation. Norton, indeed, had a peculiar genius for
friendship, and it is on his personal influence rather than pn
his literary produaions that his claim to remembrance mainly
rests. From 1882 onward he confined himself to the study of
Dante, his professorial duties, and the editing and publication
of the literary memorials of many of his friends. In 1883 came
the Letters cf Cariyle and Emerson; in x886, 1887 and 1888,
Cariyle* s Letters and Reminiscences; in 1894, the Orations and
Addresses of George William Curtis and the Letters of Lowdl.
Norton was also made Ruskin's literary executor, and he
wrote various introductions for the American " Brantwood "
edition of Ruskin's works. His other publications include
Notes of Travel and Study in Italy (1859), and an Historical
Study of Ckurch'building in the Middle Ages: Venice^ Siena,
Florence (1880). He organized exhibitions of the drawings of
Turner (1874) and of Ruskin (1879), for which he compiled
the catalogues.
He died on the axst of October 1908 at " Shady-hill," the
house where he was bom. He bequeathed the more valuable
portion of his library to Harvard. In 1862 he had married Miss
Susan Sedgwick. He had the degrees of Litt.D. (Cambridge)
and D.C.L. (Oxford), as well as the L.H.D. of Columbia and the
LL.D. of Harvard and of Yale.
NORTON, THOMAS (i 532-1584), English lawyer, politician
and writer of verse, was bom in London in 1532. He was
educated at Cambridge, and early became a secretary to the
Protector Somerset. In 1555 he was admitted a student at the
Inner Temple, and married Margery Cranmer, the daughter of
the archbishop. From his eighteenth year Norton had begun
to compose vene. We find him connected with Jasper Heywood;
as a writer of " sonnets " he contributed to TottePs Miscellany,
and in 1560 he composed, in company with SackvUle, the earliest
English tragedy, GorboduCt which was performed before Queen
Elizabeth in the Inner Temple on the x8th of January 1561.
In 1562 Norton, who had served in an earlier parliament as the
representative of Gatton, became M.P. for Berwick, and entered
with great activity into politics. In religion he was inspired
by the sentiments of his father-in-law, and was in possession
of Cranmer's MS. code of ecclesiastical law; this he permitted
John Foxe to publish in 1571. He went to Rome on legal business
in 1579, and from 1580 to 1583 frequently visited the Channel
Islands as a commissioner to inquire into the status of these
possessions. Norton's Calvinism grew with years, and towards
the end of his career he became a rabid fanatic. His punishment
of the Catholics, as thdr official censor from 1581 onwards, led
to his being nicknamed " Rackmaster-General." At last his
turbulent puritanism made him an object of fear even to the
English bishops; he was deprived of bis office and thrown into
the Tower. Walsingham presently released him, but Norton's
health was undermined, and on the loth of March 1584 he died
in his house at Sharpenhoe, Bedfordshire.
The Tragedie of Gorboduc was first published, very cormptly,
in 1565, and, in better form, as The Tragedie of Peerex and
Porrex, in 1570. Norton's early lyrics have in the mai^ dis-
appcaied. The most interesting of his numerous anti-CiihoUc
pamphlets are those on the rebellion of Northumberland and on
the projected marriage of Mary Qattn of Scots to the duke of
Norfolk. Norton also translated Calvin's Institutes {1561) and
Alexander Nowell's Catechism (1570).
Gorboduc aopeare in various dramatic ooOecttoos, and was anor-
ately edited by W. D. Cooper (Shakespeare Soc 1847). aodtMr
Miss Toulmin Smith in Volkm5Uer's Engltsche Sprach' u»d Liieratut-
dtnkmale (1883). The best account of Norton, and his place in
literary history, ia that of Sidney Lee in his Diaitmary of tiationcl
Btograpky, (£. G-)
NORWALK, a dty of Fairfield county, Connecticut, U.SJL,
on the Norwalk river, in the township of Norwalk, adjoixiing
the dty of South Norwalk in the same township, and 13 m.
W.S. W. of Bridgeport. Pop. (1900) 61 25 (1023 foieign-boni and
189 negroes); (1910) 6945; of the township (1900) 19,932; (1910)
24,2x1. The dty is served by the New York, New Haven &
Hartford railroad, by intemiban electric lines, and by steamboats
to New York. The dty has a green with several old chnicbes
and some fine elms, a public library, a hospital, a state azmcmiy
and a county children's home. The Norwalk Chapter of the
Daughters of the American Revolution has erected here a
drinking fountain in memory of Nathan Hale, who obtaiiked in
Norwalk his disguise as a Dutch school teacher and then started
on his fatal errand to Long Island. Norwalk has some manu-
factures, including woollen goods and typewriting machines;
and there is some coasting trade, oysters especially being shipped
from Norwalk.
The site of the township was purchased from the Ttwi;*wf
in X640 by Roger Ludlow and Daniel Patrick, Ludlow givix^
six fathoms of wampum, six coats, ten hatchets, ten hoes, ten
knives, ten scissors, ten Jew's harps, ten fathoms of tobacco,
three kettles of six hands, and about ten lookiog-glaaes for all
the land between the Norwalk and Saugatuck rivers and extend-
ing one day's walk N. from the Sound. The first settlement in the
township was made in 1650 at what is now the village of East
Norwalk by a small company from Hartford, and the township
was incorporated in the next year. The village was burned by
the British under Governor Tryon on the x 2th of July 1779, and
the chair in which it is alleged Tryon sat, on Grumman's Hill,
as he watched the fiames, has been kept as a relic. Konratt
was incorporated as a borough in X836 and was cbartcicd as a
city in 1893.
See C. M. Sellcck. Norwalk (Norwalk. X896); and Norwalk afb^
Two Hundred and Fifty Years, an Account of the CeUbraOom ef
the 2$otk Anniversary of tke Ckarter of tke Town (South Norwalk
1901).
NORWALK* a dty and the county-seat of Huron county.
Ohio, U.S.A., about 55 m. W.S.W. of Qevdand. Pop. (1900)
7074f including 762 foreign-bom and xox negroes; (19x0) 7858
It is served by the Lake Shore & Michigan Southem,^and the
Wheeling & Lake Eric railways, and by intenirban electrk
lines. It has a public library in which a small museum is main-
tained by the Firelands Historical Sodety. The dty is the
centre of a rich agricultural district. Among its manufactnics
are machine-shop products (the Wheeling & Uke Erie has shops
here), iron and steel, pianos and automobfle fittings.
Norwalk was settled in x8x7 and was named from Nonralk,
Connecticut; it was incorporated as a town in 1829 and
chartered as a dty in x88x. Huron county and Erie county
immediatdy N. are the westernmost of the counties czcated
from the " Western Reserve," and comprise the " Fire Lands"
grant made in X792 by the state of Connecticat to the
people of Greenwich, Fairfidd, Danbury, Ridgefidd, Norwalk,
New Haven, East Haven and New London to indonnify
them for thdr fire losses during the British expcditioiis ia
Connecticut under (jovemor Tkyon in 1779 and Benedic!
Amdd in X78X. The Coimecticut grantees were incoiponted
in 1803 as " the proprietors of the half-miUion aaca of land
lying south of Lake Erie."
LWAY 799
SO as to indude not only the highest land in the peninsula,
but a considerable part of the general E. and S.E. slope. The
high plateau broadens and follows the S.W. sweep of the coast.
Plusuing it S. the Dovre Fjdd is marked off by the valleys of
the rivers Driva and SundaJ, Laagen (or Laugen) and Rauma,
and the fjords of the coastlsmd of NordmOre. Here Snehctta
reaches a height of 7615 ft., and the Romsdal (the name under
vhich the Rauma valley is famous among tourists) is flanked
y many abrupt jagged peaks up to 6000 ft. high. The valley
' the Laagen forms the nppet part of GudbrandsdaL East of
*s and S.E. of the Dovre is another fjdd, Rondane, in which
Igronden rises to 6929 ft. South of the Otta valley is Jotunheim
J5tun Fjdd, a spaisdy peopled, in parts almost inaccessible,
rict, containing the highest mountains- in Scandinavia,
IhOpiggen reaching 8399 ft. - On the seaward side of
nheim is Jostedalsbrc, a great snow-field In which Lodals-
en reaches a height of 6795 ft. South of Sogne Fjord
^.) mountains between 5000 and 6000 ft. are rare; but in
gskarvet there are points about 6500 ft. high, and in the
Tiger Vidda (waste), a broad wild upland £. of Hardanger
Haarteigen reaches 6063 ft. The highland finally sinks
\ the S. extremity of Norway in broken masses and short
>f liills, separated by valleys radiating S.E., S. and W.
'«.— The largest glacier in continental Europe is Jostedals-
h an area of 580 sq. m., the snow-cap descending to
1500 ft. Several of its branches fall nearly to the sea,
iumsbrae above the Fjcrland branch of Sogne Fjord.
St branch b the Nigardsbrae. Skirting Hardanger
' nearly isolated by its main channd and two arms,
t glader of Folgefond (zoS sq. m.). Two branches
from the main mass are visited by many who penetrate
gei^-Buarbrae on the E., falling towards Lake
ve Odde, and Bondhusbre on the W. The extreme
the Folgefond in 5270 ft. Continuing N. other
mow-fields are those of Hallingskarvet, the Jotun-
ta in Dovre Fjdd, and Store B5rge Fjdd at the
'amsen valley. Next folbw Svartisen, second in
dabbne (nearly 400 sq. m.), the Sulitdma snow-
Fjeld, between Kvaenang and Oxfjords. One
reaches the edge of Jdkd Fjord, a branch of
, so that detached fragments of ice float away
lus is the only instance of the kind in Norway.
'W-field, on Seiland island near Hammerfest,
^rly niui in Europe. The snow-line in Norway
380 ft. in Seiland, 5150 ft. on Dovre Fjeld,
4900 ft. in Jotunhdm. The lowness of the
he grandeur of Norwegian mountains.
ks of the plateau fall abruptly to the sea
the coast-line, and its isolated fragments
nerable islands which fringe the skjmt*'
od fringe, which has its counter- jMrtfor
inn along the Swedish coast, is JPf^^
the sijargaard (skerry-fence, *"**
I. This fringe and the fjord-coast are most
Lavanger nearly as far as the North Cape.
he islands are of incalculable value to
lich is the prindpal means of communica-
>yage northward from Stavanger may be
lost throughout. Only at rare intervals
)en sea for a short distance, as off the
"hen rounding the promontory of the
desund, passing the coast of Hustad-
, or dossing the mouth of some large
ge steamers, following the carefully
leep water between rocks within a
Small ships and boats, fishing or
ide villages, navigate the ramifying
In some narrow sounds, however,
edingly strong. The hirgest bland
the Lofoten and Vesteraalen group.
lumber of islands b estimated at
sq. m. Many of them are of
is pierced through by a vast natural tunnel 400 ft. above the sea;
and HestmandO (" horseman island ")» on the Arctic circle, is
justly named from its form. The dark blue waters of the inner
leads and fjords are douded, and show a milky tinge on the sur-
face imparted by the glader-fcd rivers. Bare rock is the dominant
feature of the coast and islands, save where a few green fields
surround a farmstead. In the N., where the snow-line sinks low,
the scenery at all seasons has an Arctic character.
Christiania Fjord, opening from the N. angle of the Cattegat
and Skagerrack, differs from the great fjords of the W. Its
gagg^g^ shores are neither so high nor so precipitous as theirs;
'^^ it is shallower, and contains a great number of little
islands. From its mouth, round Lindesnxs, and as far as the
Bukken Fjord (Stavanger) there are many small fjords, while
the skjergaard provides an inner lead only intermittently.
Immediately S. of Bukken Fjord, fnm a point N. of Egersund,
the flat open coast of Jcderen, dangerous to shipping, fringing
a narrow lowland abundant in peat-bogs for some 30 «., forms
an unusual feature. Bukken Fjord is broad and island-studded,
but throws off several inner arms, of which Lyse Fjord, near
Stavanger, is remarkable for its extreme narrowness, and the
steepness of its lofty shores. The Hardangcr Fjord, penetrating
the land for 114 m., is known to more visitors than any other
owing to iu southerly position; but its beauty is exceeded by
that of Sogne Fjord and Nord Fjord farther N. Sogne is the
largest and deepest fjord of all; its head is 136 m. from the sea,
and its extreme depth approaches 700 fathoms. Stor Fjord
opens inland from Aalesimd, and one of its head brandies,
Gciranger Fjord, is among the most celebrated in Norway.
Trondhjem Fjord, the next great fjord northward, which broadens
inland from a narrow entrance, lacks grandeur, as the elevation
of the land is reduced where the Trondhjem depression interrupts
the average height of the plateau. The coast N. of Trondhjem,
though far from losing its beauty, has not at first the grandeur
of that to the south, nor are the fjords so extensive. The principal
of these are Namsen, Folden and Vefsen, at the mouth of which
is Abten IsUnd, with the mountains called Syy Sfistre (Seven
Sisters), and Ranen, not far S. of the Arctic cirde. Svartisen
sends its gladers seaward, and the scenery increases in magnifi-
cence. Salten Fjord, to the N. of the great snow-field, is con-
nected with Skjcrstad Fjord by three narrow channels, where
the water, at ebb and flow, forms powerful rapids. The scenery
N. of Salten is unsurpassed. The Lofoten and Vesteraalen
islands are separated from the mainland by the Vest Fjord, which
is contmued inland by Ofoten Fjord. If these two be considered
as one fjord, its length is about 175 m.,but the aaual penetration
of the mainland is little more than a fifth of this distance. The
main fjords N. of Vesteraalen have a general northerly direction;
among them is Lyngen Fjord near Troms5, with high flanking
cliffs and gladers falling nearly to the sea. Alten Fjord is re-
markable for the vegetation on its shores. From Lofoten N.
there is a chain of lar^r islands, Senjen, KvalO, RingvadsO, Sord,
Stjemd, Seiland, IngO and Magerd. These extend to the North
Cape, but hereafter the skjergaard ends abruptly. The coast to the
£. is of widdy different character; flat mountain wastes descend
precipitously to the sea without any islands beyond, save VardO,
with two low islets at the E. extremity of Norway. The fjords are
broader in proportion to their length. The chief are Porsanger,
Laxe and Tana, opening N., and Varanger opening E. N. of this
fjord the land is low and the landscape monotonous; on the
S. a few island and branch fjords break the line of the shore.
Stavanger Fjord has an extreme depth of 380 fathoms;
Hardanger Fjord 355, Sogne Fjord 670, Nordfjord 340, Trond-
hjem Fjord 300, Ranen Fjord 235, Vestfjord 340, Alten Fjord 225,
and Varanger Fjord 230. Marine terraces are met with in the
E. of the country, and near Trondhjem, at 600 ft. above sca-
levd; and they are also seen at a slighter elevation at the heads
to be observed in northern Norway {e.g. in Alten Fjord), and
in some cases there are two lines at different altitudes. The land
above the raised beach is generally bare and unproductive,
and human habitation tends to confine itself in consequence to
the lower levels.
Hydrography. — In S.E. Norway there are lone valleys, canning
rivers 01 considerable size, flowing roughly parallel but sometimes
uniting as they approach the seau The Clonuncn, rising N. of Ruroa
in Aursund Lake, and flowing with a southedy curvp parallel with the
frontier for 350 m. to the Skagerrack, is the largest river in the
Scandinavian peninsula. Its upper middle valley is called Ostcrxial.*
the richest timber district in Norway. Iu dramue area is i6.c«:»
sq. m. Seven miles above its mouth it forms the fine Sarpsfos, and
not far above this it traverses the large lake Oieren. A nght barJc
tributary, the Vormen, has one <A iu sources (under the name d
Laagen) in Lake Lesjekogen, which also drains in the opposite direc-
tion by the Rauma. The stream, after watering Cudbrandsdal,
enters MjAsen, the largest lake in Norway. It is 60 m. kmg, but.
like most of the greater Norwegian lakes, has no great brcauith. h
has, however, an extreme depth of 1500 ft. The Dramoien river,
which enters a western arm of Christiania Fjord bebw the to«a
of Drammen, is the common outlet of several large rivers Tte
Hallingdal river drains the valley of that name, and forms Lake
KrOderen, which is connected with the Drammen river by the
Snarum. A short disUnce above the junction the Drammen floma
out of LaloB Tyrifjord, 50 sq. m. in area, into which flow the united
waters of the Rand, from the valley district of Valdres. and tbe
Baegna. The whole basin of the Drammen has an area of 6600 sq. m.
The rivers between Christiania Fiord and Lindesnaes prcaervc tbe
characteristics of those of the Glommen and Drammen systnas
They rise on the Hardanger Vidda or adjacent uplands. The most
imporUnt are the Laagen (to be distinguished from the river of that
name in GudbrandadiH). draining the Numedal; the Skicn, the
Nid and the Otter. Lakes are very numerous, the chief. bc>xmd
those already named, bdng Nordsjd on the Skien river, TinsjO in the
same system, which receives the river Maan, famous as forminf the
Rjukanfos (smoking fall) of 415 ft., and Nisaenrand oo the Nid.
The larger lakes lie, with a certain regularity, at elevations about
400 ft. above the sea, and it is considered that thdr basins were the
heads of fjords when the land lay at a lower level, and were formed
during an earlier gladal period than the present fjords. The frcai
Lake Faemund, lying E. of the Glommen valley and drained by tbe
river of the same name, which becomes the Klar in Sweden, to m-hirh
country it mainly belongs, is similar in type to tbe lakes of the
northern highlands of Sweden. The streams of the coast of Jaedcrta
reach the sea through sluggish channels, brown with peat.
Not only do the valleys of the W. far surpass in beauty those of
the S. and E., but they carry streams of much ercater \-olume m
proportion, owing to the heavier average rainfall of the W. slope
The first to be noted is that of the Sand or Logcn river, a brilliant.
rapid stream, famous for iu salmon-fishing, which debouches 2t
Sand into Sands fjord. The valley which opens from Oddc at the
head of a branch (S6r fjord) of Hardangcr Fjord, is noted as con-
taining two of the finest waterfalls in Norway. The one. Loccfus
(which is joined by the smaller Skarsfos), is a powerful caiursct
following a tortuous ddt. The other, Espelandsfos, is formed bv a
very small stream: it falls auite sheer and spreads out kkc a 6ne
vdl. The only other considerable river entering Hardanger F>rd
is the Bioreia, with iU mouth at Vik in Eidfjord. On this stream t*
the magnificent Voringsfos. Lewcr streams within the basin of the
Hardangcr form the Skjaggcdal and several other b«utiful fails
From Hardangcr N. to Romsdal the streams of the W. dope art
insignificant, but there are several splendid valkvs. such as the
sombre N*r6dal, which descends to the NaerS branch of Sc?re
Fjord, or the valleys which sink S. and N. from the Jostedalsbr* to
the head branches of Sogne Fjord and Nordfjord resjicctivvlv
Above those of Nordfjord b a series of lakes, Oldon. Loen ard
Stryn, whose milky waters are supplied almost directly from t.v
lostcdal glaciers, while above Eidsfjord a corresponding tro. cb
conuins Uke Homindal. The next important valley is the Roms^* A
the stream of which, the Rauma, forms the W. outlet of Ijte
Lesjckogen, as the Laagen forms the E. This Uke, which l»« ?on ft
above sca-lcN-el. is the most remarkable exampte of an mdcfir -f
watershed to be found in S. Norway. N:/r^^?*r*^& ^^Z
debouches into Sundals Fjord, while the Orkla. drainingOriwdal. the
GuU draining Guldal, and the Nea or Nid. draming Lake Sdbu. arJ
«The middle and upper parts of many valleys in Norway art
known by different names from those of the overs which water tbec
and such names may extend in common usage over tbe distnct ca
either side of the valley.
UowmgeeneraUy about IM.fc.. or b.w. in valleys nearly parallel to the
coast. Such are the Namaen (8s m. in length) and the Vefaen, dis-
charginff into Namscn Fjord and Vcfscn Fiord respectively, and the
DundcrUnd, flowing into Rancn Fjord. In the basin of the same
fjord is the short R6s river.which drains Rds Vand, second in extent
of the Norwegian lakes. In the extreme N., where the coastward
slope is longer, there arc such large rivers as the Alten, 98 m. long,
discharging into the fjord of that name, and the Tana, also giving
name to the fjord into which it flows, and forming a great part of the
Rusao-Norw^ian frontier. It u 180 m. long, aod drains an area of
4000 sq. m.
Though the lakes of Norway are not comparable with those of
Sweden as regards either number or sixe, they are very numerous and
are estimated to cover. somewhat less than one-fortieth of the total
area.
Glacial Actum. — While the coast is conndered to'owe its fjords and
islands to the work of former great slaciers, the results are even more
patent inland. The actual tracks of the old glaciers are constantly to
be traced. Nowhere are the evidences of glacial action better
illustrated than in the barren tract behind the low coastal belt of
jaederen. Here are va&t expanses of almost naked rock, often riven
and i»led up in fantastic forms; numerous small lakes or bogs occupy
the rock basins, and vast numbers of perched blocks are seen,
frequently poised in remarkable positions. The great valleys of
Norway are of U-scction and exhibit the irre|;ular erosive action of
the gladers, as distinct from the rei^lar action of the rivers. If a
mab ^ladcr, after working steadily m the formation of its trough for
a considerable distance, be imasined to receive an accretion of power
at a certain point, it will begin from that point to erode more deeply.
The result 01 such action is seen in the sencs of ledges over which the
main rivers of Norway plunge in falls or rapids.
Geohgjf. — Norway consists almost entirely of Archaean and Lower
Palaeozoic rocks, imperfectly covered by glacial and other recent
deposits. The whole of the interval between the Devonian and the
Glacial periods b represented, so far as is known, only by a small
patch 01 Jurassic beas upon the island of Andd. An archacan zone
stretches alone the W. coast from Bergen to Hamrocrfcst, interrupted
towards the N., by overlying patches of Palaeozoic deposits. ^ Gneiss
predominates, but other crystalline rocks occur subordinatcly.
The Lofoten Islands consist cnicfly of eruptive granite, syenite and
eabbro. S. of a line drawn from the head of the Hardanger Fjord to
Lake Mjdsen is another great Archaean area. Here again gneiss and
granite form the greater part of the mass, but in Telemarken there are
also conglomerates, sandstones and day-slates which are believed to
be Archaean. Between these two Arcnaean areas the Lower Palae-
ozoic rocks form a nearly continuous belt which follows approxi-
mately the watershed of the peninsula and extends from Bergen and
Stavangcr on the S. to the North Cape and Vardd in the N. They
occur also as a broad strip inlaid in the Archaean floor, from the
Chnstiania Fiord northward to Lake M j6scn. A line drawn from the
Nasc to the North Cape coincides roughly with a marked change in
the character and structure of the Palaeozoic beds. East of this line
even the Cambrian beds are free from overfolding, ovcrthrusting and
regional metamorphism. They lie flat upon the Archaean floor, or
have been faulted into it in strips, and they are little altered except
in the neighbourhood of igneous intrusions. W. of the line the
rocks have been folded and metamorphosed to such an fXK^nt
that it is often difficult to distinguish the Palaeozoic rocks from the
Archacan. They form in fact a mountain' chain of ancir/nt date
similar in structure to the Alps or the Himalayas. Tfi^ r- 1 - inn- of
the two areas have been studied by A. E. Tdmebohm In 1 1". 1 1 ' " ' :^i em
region, and he has shown that the western mass has been ^ij = \iiA tver
the eastern upon a great thrust-plane. The relations, in i^cx, are
similar to tlwsc between the Dalradian schists of the Scottish
Highlands and .the Cambrian beds of the W. cout of Suthtrlmd.
.■In
4ied
ijre
the
^he
nd
Jly
Lhe
cm
in Scotland, however, it is the eastern rocks which havi
over the western. Corresponding with the differeno
between the E. and the W. regions there is a certain di''
nature of the deposits themselves. In the Christian
Cambrian, Ordovician and Silurian beds consist chiefly
limestones. Farther north sandstones predominate,
the Sparagnute, a felspathic sandstone or arkose at t
Cambrian ; but the deposits are still sedimentary. In t
district, on the other nand, belonging to the folded bcit, Uiwt luffs
and lavas arc intcrstratified with the normal deposits, showing that
in this region there was great volcanic activity during the early
port of the Palaeozoic era. In both the E. and the W. region the
De\'onian is probably represented by a few patches of red sandstone,
in which none but obscure remains of fossils have yet been found.
It may be noted here that in the extreme N. of Norway, E. of the
North Cape, there is a sandstone not unlike the Sparagmite of the S.,
which is said by Rcusch to contain ice-worn pebbles and to rest upon
striated pavement of Archaean rocks.
regicns. tsut tbe most remarkable features produced in recent
geological times are the terraces which appear as if ruled on the sides
of the valleys and fjords. They are partly platforms cut in the solid
rock and partly accumulations of gravel and sand like a modern
beach, and they were evidently formed by the action of waves.
Some of them contain marine sndls of living species and mark the
former position of the sea-level; but others are of more doubtful
origin and may indicate the shores of lakes formed by the damming
of the lower part of the fjords by means of glaciers, as in the case
of the Parallel Roads of Glen Roy. They occur at various levels,
and have t>een observed as high as 3000 ft. above the sea.
No volcanic rocks of modem date are known in Norway, but |;reat
intrusions of igneous rock took place in early geological times.
Amongst them may be mentioned the gabbro of the Jotunfjeld, and
the elaeolitc syenites and associated rocks of the Chnstiania region.'
The bttcr form the subject of a valuable series of memoirs by
Br6gger, who shows that they have all been derived from a single
magma, and that the differentiation of this magma led to the pro-
duction of several different types of rock. (P. La.)
Meteorology. — ^The roost powerful influence on the climate of
Norwayis that of the warm drift across the Atlantic Ocean from the
S.W. The highest mean annual temperature in Norway •.«_,---,
is found on the S. and W. coasts, where it ranges from |_--^^
44-5* to 45*5** F.. and the lowest is found at Karasjok and
ICiutokeino, lying at elevations of 430 and 866 ft. respectively in
Finmarken, near the Russian frontier. Here the mean temperature
is 26-4'*, while at VardO, on the north coast, it is 33*. At ROros
(2067 ft.) at the head of the Glommen valley, and at FjeldberR
(3268 ft.) in the upper Hallingdal. the mean annual temperature is
31*. The longest wtn^^r is found in the interior of Finmarken, 243
days with a mer perature below 32* being recorded at
however, such as Utsire and Skudencss off Bukken Fjord, record Irost
during some part of 60 days. The lowest winter average temperature
is found in a centre of cold in the N. which extends over Swedish and
Russian territory as well as Norwegian. The Norwegian station
of Karasjok, within it, records 4* during December, fanuary and
February, and in this area there have also oeen observed the extreme
minima of temperature in the county, e.g. 60*5* below zero at
Karasjok. The contrast with the S.W. coast may be continued.
Here at some of the bland stations, the cbldest month, February,
has an average about 35*, and the lowest temperature recorded at
Ona near Chnstiansund is i o* 5**. It may be noted here that in several
cases the lower-lying inbnd stations in the south show a distinctly
lower winter *-— ^.r..^^t1|n? t^an the higher in the immediate vicinity.
Thus the s r korou (2067 ft), 13', contrasts with ii* for
Tdnaet : at : judbrandsdal ([jog ft,} it is l6-5*, but at Jerkin
in Uie Dovr. J j^ iri (ji6o ft.) it La IJ'S ■ Tfie summer is hottest in
S.E. Norws^v {Q\\ntt'u.nii,Ju\y.62-y}. On the other hand, the lowest
summer a\^ r .Lrc in the inicriar of Finmarkca is not less than 53*5*
in July; b : V.<-1^') it la only 48" in Auruit, usually the warmest
month on 1 In ifio lofty inland! ir;icu of the S.E. the July
temperatui 1 from ^tf" in the valli y^, to as low as 49* at the
high station! i<\ jrikia. The intcrinr h,iviTi^ a warm summer and a
cold winter, and the coast a ccxtl summo" and a mild winter, the
annual range of temperature b remarkably greater inland than on the
coast.
An important result of the warm Atlantic drift b that the fiords
are not penetrated by the cold water from the lower depths 01 the
outer ocean, and in consequence are always ice-free, except in
winters of exceptional severity in the innermost parts of fjords, and
along shallow stretches of coast.
The sun is above the horizon at the North Cape continuously from
the 1 2th of May to the aoth of July, and at Bodd, not far from the
Arctic circle, from the 3rd of June to the 7th of July.
J*f Even at Trondhjem there b practically full daylight from
jdwa^m the 23rd of May to the 20th of July. Even in the extreme
•"•• S. of Norway there is no darkness from the end of April
to the middle of August. In winter, on the other hand, the sun docs
not rise above the horizon at the North Cape from the i8th of
November, to the 23rd of January, and at Bodo from the isth to the
27th oif December. There b only a twilight at midday. In the
extreme S. the sun is above the horizon for 6\ hours at mid- winter.
The prevailing winter winds are from the land seaward, while the
_!_. system b reversed in summer. The winds in Norway
* may therefore be roughly classified according to locality
thus:—
Winter . .. ^f.E. S. S.W.
Summer. . S.W.toW. N. N.
The force of the wind is greater in winter on the coast; inland, on
the contrary, the winter b normally calm ; and at all seasons, on the
average, the periods of calm are longer inland than on the coast.
The average annual number of stormy days, however, ranges from
ten to twenty on the S. coast, from forty-five to nxty-two on the
coast of Finmarken, and sixty to seventy at Ona; whereas in the
interior of Finmarken the average number b four, while in the S.
inland districts stormy da^ are rare. December and January are
the stormiest months. Haibtones are rare and seldom destructive.
Thunderstorms are not frequent. They reach a maximum average
of ten annually in the Christiania dbtnct.
The number of days on which rain or snow falb b greatest on the
coast from Jaederen to VardO, l^st in the S.E. districts and the
interior of Finmarken. At the North Cape, in Lofoten, and along
the W. coast between the Stad and Sogne Fjord, precipitation occurs
on about 200 days in the year, although by contrast in the inner part
of Sogne Fjord there is precipitation only on 121 days. On Dovre
Fjeld and the S.E. coast the average b about 100 days. Snowfall
occurs least frequentl)r in the S. (e.T. at Mandal, 25 snowy days out
of 1 16 on which precipitation occurs), increasing to 50 at Christianb,
or Dovre Fjeld, and about the mouth of Trondhiem Fjord, to 90 at
VardO, and to 100 at the North Cape. From Vardd to the Dovre
Fjeld and in the upland tracts, snow occurs at least as frequently as
rain. Snowfall has been recorded in all months on the coast as far
S. as Lofoten. The amount of precipitation b greatest on the coastj
where, at cert£un points on the mainland between Bukken Fjord ana
Nordf jord, an annual average of 83 in. b reached or even exceeded.
On the outer islands there is a slight decrease; inland the decrease b
rapid and great. In Dovre Fjeld a minimum oi 12 in. b found.
I n the extreme S. of the country the average is 19 in., N. of Trondhjem
Fjord 53 in. are recorded, and there is a well-marked maumum of
59 in. at Svolvaer in Lofoten, N. of whuJi there is a diminution along
the coast to 26 in. at the North Cape. In the northern interior a
minimum oi 16 in. b recorded. Strongly marked local variations are
observed^
The amount of cloudiness b on the whole great. The coast of
the heads ot the Ijords during severe cold or with a breeze irom the
land.
Flora. — The forests <rf Norway consist chiefly of conifers. The
principal forest r(>:rxi - nrc^ tV^ S.li. n - ^ '^ Here, in the Troodhjem
eiUtrki, and Id Nur'.'-. ,1 ilur- ive forests of pioe and fir.
In ihc^ coastal] and Ljr[Hj n^ii.ij > I ' ic pine b the only conifer-
QH% forest tree* ami fun:i>.L!i j,ni of lui^l^sitL^ mt extent. In S Norway
the hi]fbcst Umit of tonifcn ia from j's^o to 3000 ft. abo>-e tta^
levtjl ; in the inland parts of the Trondf]ji.-in region it b from 1600 to
SOLO ft. (though on the coist only from Goo to 1 200); farther N. it
ia\h ta 700 ft. about 70^ N. The birch beh reaches 3000 to 3500 ft.
Nuxt follow various species of ih'i[li:>ws, and the dwarf bireh (6rfato
ncnti). and last of all, ocfon? tire vnovAini:, the lichen belt, in «-hich
the reind«!r mo99 {(i<uij?nia ransi^frinaj ii always conspicuous. A
few trees of tlie willow belt sumcumf^ * -.'end dose up to the soam-
line. In the S, and leu clcvatt^l ' the lowest zone of forests
inchidea the ash, pirn, liraCt oa' nd black alder; but the
beech, is rare, flouri*"hiitg only i . irvik district. The Enov
n,riimculu5 and iht Alpine hciilv i .n indant. The Dovre FieU
i^^ n.itcd as the disirict in which lin Ar.uc flora may be studied in
ii reluct varictv and *Uhin camp..i.LLi .■ iy narrow bmits. On the
ttAwud bank^ iKc marine lloia ii v^ry LJ i^ ^y developed.
f<ju7!ar — The great forests are still ilni haunt <rf the bear, the
lyn^i, and the ihuU, Bears are found clni*fly in the uplands N. of
Trondhjem. in the Tulijmark and ■'■e W. highlands, but the cutting
of forests has limited their range. The wolves decreased \-ery
suddenly in S. Norway about tne middle of the 19th century,
probably oiring to disease, but are still abundant in Finmarken, and
the wont enemy of the herds ci tame reindeer. The elk occurs in the
eastern forests, and northward to Namdal and the Vefsen district.
The red deer Is confined chiefly to the W. coast districts ; its principal
haunt b the island of Hitteren, off the Trondhjem Fjofd. On the
(whicn b of wide distribution). The wild reindeer hsa decreased,
though large tame herds are kept in some parts, especially in the N.
The lemming b noted for its curious pcnodtc migrations; at suck
times vast numbers of these small a n i m a b soread over tbe country
from their upland homes, even swimming laikes and fjonis in thetr
joumeys. Tney are pursued by beasts and birds of prey, and even
the reindeer kul them for the sake of the vegetable matter tbey
contain^ Hans arc ^ery coinTnon all over Norway up to tiae asow-
Lin^r The bcax'CT fiiiU occurs in the Cliristiansand dbtrict.
Gcinie birds are Uirly abund.^nit in most distrkts. The most
(MHablc arc the two sorts of type, the sJum or dtU type (willov gnouse.
lagnpus oWm} and the fjeU rybt {ta^cpusalpina). Black ^^
Erou» arc widely distributed: luucl grouse are found
mainly in the pine forest a of the En and N., as are ca"
Wiixxtrock and snipe are fairly Common. The partri _
imnilgtant rrom Sweden, and occurs principally in the E. and SX.
A fit^tire winter occasionally almost exterminates it. A very large
proportion of the Norwepan avifaunJi consists ofgeese and docks,
vanous bi rd s of prey, Rolden pbvTr. &C. These biros, at the autumn
mip^raiion, leave by three wetl dclinCfJ routes— one from Finmarken
into f inland, one by the Christiania vaJley, and one by the W. coast.
where they congrr^atc iti brgc numbers on the lowlands of Jaederen.
The Li,fAiind bunijng ,ind ^nnw Inuriii-ig {fUctropkanes lapcnicA and
T . ;ca) and rough-legged buzzard
1: . . „,:-■.; l-^x^-^-^ii) ^i.-- .. ^ni exceedingly nunierou&. la
some localiti(» such birds as the puffin and kittiwake form great
colonies (JugUbtrge, bird cliffs).
The common seal is very frequent ; and arctic seab and occa»oa-
ally the walrus visit the northern coasts; among these tbe harp seal
(phoca giroentandica) b believed to be particularly de- ^ > ^
structive to the fisheries. These last are of great import- ^— "*
ancc; a large number of the best food-feheries occur ^""^
along the. coasts, including cod, herring, mackerd. coad-&sh. Ac
The basking shark was formeriy of some economic importance ; tbe
iapancse shark, a strictly local varietur, also occurs in the neighboor-
ood of Vardd. Various small species of whales visit the cotttt;
among these the lesaer rorqual mav be mentioned, as an amiqae
methwl of hunting it with bow and arrows b still practised in thr
neighbourhood of Bergen. In the fjords many invertebrates as vcB
as fish are found. Of iresh-water fish the salmonidae are by far the
roost important. Next to these, perch, pike, gwyniad and eel are
most common. ^
As regards insect life, Norway may be divided into three areas, the
S. being richer than the W., while the N. b distinct from cither in the
number of peculiarly arctic insects.
5port.— Norway is much freouented by British anglers. Moderat:
rod-fishing for trout is to be obtained in man^r ports. But most ot
the owners of water rights have a full appreaatioo of the \-aSae oi
good fishing to sportsmen, especially when netting rights are gj^
up for the sake <m rod-fishing. The same applies to good ahoottff
Foreigners may not shoot without a licence, the cost of which ts io»
kroner (Xs : 11 : o) whether on crown lands or on private pfTopcrtiew
whose owners jlwaya possess the shooting rights.
NORWAY
803
Population. — ^The resident population of Norway in 1900
was 2,321,477. The Table shows the area and population of
each of the administrative divisions {amff commonly translated
" county "). Norway is, as a whole, the most thinly populated
Amter.
Population
190O.
Area in
sq. m.
Southern—
Akcrahus ....
Christiania (city) . .
Buskcnid ....
larlsberg and Laurvtk .
Brauberg ....
Nedcncs
Lister and Mandal . .
South-eastern (inland) —
Hcdemarken
Christians ....
Western—
Stavanecr ....
South Bergcnhus . .
Bcigen (city) . . .
North Bergcnhus . .
Romsdal ....
South Trondhjcm . .
Northern-
North Trondhjcm . .
Nordland ....
Tromsd
339,101
"2,743
75.925
78,359
&,
136.519
134.718
83.449
'^^
33.387
1.600
10,618
9.790
3.530-5
6.034-5
5-5
7.183
8.788-5
>4.5I3
10,131
18.391
of the political divisions of Europe. It may be noted for the
sake of comparison that the density of population in the most
sparsely populated English county, Westmorland, is about
equalled by that in Smaalenene amt (85 per sq. m.), and con-
siderably exceeded in Jarlsberg and Laurvik amt (113-7 per
sq. m.), but is not nearly approached in any other Norwegian
county. The two counties named are small and lie almost
wholly within the coastal strip along the Skagerrack, which,
with th« coast-lands about SUvanger, Haugcsund, Bergen
and Trondhjem, the outer Lofoten Islands and the land about
Lake Mjosen, are the most thickly populated portions of the
country, the density exceeding 50 persons per sq. m. A vast
area practically uninhabited, save in the N. by nomadic Lapps,
reaches from the northmost point of the Norwegian frontier as
far S. as the middle of Hcdemarken, excepting a markedly more
populous belt across the Trondhjem depression. Thus of the
counties, Finmarken is the least thickly populated (i*8 per
sq. m.). In such highland regions as Jotunhcim and Hardanger
Vidda habitations are hardly less scanty than in the N. About
two-thirds of the population, then, dwell by the coast and
fjords, and about one-quarter in the inland lowlands, leaving
a very small upland population. The rural and urban popuhtions
form respectively about 76 and 34% of the whole. Of the
chief towns of Norway, Christiania, the capital, had a population
in 1900 of 329,101, Bergen of 73,179, Trondhjem of 38,156,
Stavanger of 30,54x> Drammen of 23,093. The towns with
populations between 15,000 and xo.ooo are Christiansand,
Frcdrikstad, Christiansimd, Fredrikshald, Aalesund, Skien,
Arcndal and Laurvik. All these arc ports.
The population of Norway in 1801 was returned as 883,038.
A rapid increase obtained from 28x5 to 1835, a lesser increase
thereafter till 1865, and a very slight increase till 1890. The
second half of the xpth century, down to 1890, was the period
of heaviest emigration from Norway. The vast majority of
Norwegian emigrants go to the United States of America. But
emigration shickened in. the last decade of the X9th century,
during which period the movement from rural districts to towns,
which had decreased from about the middle of the century,
revived. The number of Norwegians abroad may be taken at
3 50,000. The Lapps, conunonly called Finns by the Norwegians,
and confined especially to Finmarken (which is named from
them), are estimated at 1% of the population. There are
also a few Finns (about half the number of Lapps), whom the
Norwegians call Ktentr^ a name of early origin. The excess
of births over deaths, about as 1-4 to x, is much above the
European average; the death-rate is. also unusually low. The
number of marriages is rather low, and the average age of
marriage is high. The percentage of illegitimacy has shown
some increase, but is not so high as in Sweden or Denmark.
The percentage of longevity is high. The preponderance of
females over males (about X073 to xooo) is partly accounted
for by the number of males who emigrate. The hi^er mortality
of males is traced in part to the dangers of a seafaring life.
Down to the middle of the X9th century drunkenness was a
strongly-marked characteristic of Norwegians. A strict licensing
system was- then introduced with success. Load boards weie
given a wide control over the issue of licences, and in X87X
companies {samla^ were introduced to monopolize and control
the retail trade in spirits. Their profits do not, as in the Gothen-
burg system, go to the municipal funds, but are applied directly
to objects of public utility. In 1894 a general referendum
resulted in the entire prohibition of the sale of spirits in some
towns for five years. The control of retail trade in beer and
wine by the samlag has been introduced to some extent.
In Norway a strongly individual national character is to be
expected, combined with conservatism of andent customs
and practices. The one finds no better illustration than the
individuality of modem Norwegian music and painting. The
other is still strong. Such customs as the lighting of the mid-
summer fires and the attendant celebrations still survive.
Peailiar local costumes are still met with, such as those associated
with weddings. In the coastwise shipping trade and the fisheries
of the north, high-prowed square-sailed boats are frequently
employed which are the direct descendants of the vessels of
the early viking?. Some examples of the ancient farmstead,
composed of a group of wooden buildings each of a single
chamber, are pr^sexved, and medieval ornamental woodwork
is met with. Wood is the principal building material except in
some larger towns where brick and stone have superseded jt.
Where this is not the case, fires have left few, if any, ancient
domestic buildings, but the preservation of ancient models in
wooden houses makes Norwegian towns peculiarly picturesque.
Norway retains a few highly interesting examples of ecclesiastical
architecture. There are the peculiar small wooden churches
(stavektrke) dating from the zxth to the 14th century, with
high-pitched roofs rising in tiers so as to give the building some-
thing of the form of a pyramid. The roofs are beautifully ^lingled
in wood. The wall timbers are vertical To protect them from
the weather, the roofs overhang deeply, and the lowest sometimes
covers a species of external coloxmade. The carving is often
very rich. The most famous of these churches is that of Borgund
near Lxrdalsdren; another fine example is at Hitterdal on
the Kongsberg-Telemark road. On the other hand there are a
few Romanesque and Gothic stone churches. In some of these
the influence of English architecture is clear, as in the metropolitan
cathedral of Trondhjem and the nave of Stavanger cathedral.
St Mary's Church at Bergen, however, tends towards the French
models. A good example of the smaller stone church is at
Vossevangcn, and there are several of Late Romanesque character
in the Trondhjem district. There are ruins of a cathedral at
Hamar, and a few monastic remains, as at Utstein, north of
Stavanger, and on the island of Sclje ofif Statland. Remains
of pure Early English work are occasionally found, as at Ogne
in Jaederen, but the later Gothic styles were not developed
in Norway.
Tourist Traffic and Communications. — Daring the later decades of
the 19th century Norway was rapidly opened up to British, American
and German visitors. Passenger communications from j» .
Great Britain are maintained chiefly between Hull and """
Stavanger, Bergen, Aalcsund, Christiansund and Trondhjcm; Hull,
Christiansand and Christiania: Newcastle and Stavanger, Bergen
and the North; London and Christiania, &c., and there are also
pasaenj^er services from Grimsby. Grangemouth and other ports.
Yachting cruises to the great fjords and the North Cape are also
provided. A daily service of mail steamers works between Chris-
tiania and all ports to Bergen ; thence the summer service u hardly
less frequent to Trondhjem. From each large port small steamers
serve the fiords and inner waters in the vicinity, and there are also
8o4
NORWAY
steamers on several of the ^amr lakes. The season lasts from June
to the middle of September. The vovage to the North Cape is taken
n^,^ by many in order to see tne midnight sun " in June and
Koam, j^iy^ Among the land-routes connecting the ereat fjords
of the west the following may be mentioned, (i ) The roadf from band
on Sandsfjord (a brancn of Bukkcn Fjord), which follows the Sand
river up to the foot of Lake Suldal, near the head of which is Naes.
From here a finely engineered road runs up the Bratlandsdal, crosses
the Horrebraekke and descends past Seljcstad to Odde at the head
of a branch of Hardanger Fjord. (2) From Eide on another branch
of the same fjord a road runs to Vossevai^en (which is. connected by
rail with Bereen) and continues N. to Stalheim, where it descends
through the NaerOdal to Gudvangen on a branch of Sogne Fjord.
(%) From Vadhcim on this fjord a road runs N. to Sandene and
Utvik on Nordfjord. Routes N. from this fiord arc (4) that from
Faleide by Grodaas on Lake Homindal to Hcllesylt on Sunciv Fjord
and Oje on Norangs Fjord, and (5) that from the 6ame station or
from Visnaes, by way of Lake Stryn, to Grotlid, and Mcrok on
Geiranger Fjord. All these routes pass through magnificent scenery.
For the same reason there should also be mentioned (6) the road
throu8;h the Telemark, which branches from the Bratbndsdal road
at Breifond, mounts the Haukelidsaeter and descends to Dalen. from
which the Bandaks canal route gives access to Skien on the S.E.
coast, the road continuing from Dalen E. to Kongsberg; also those
running E. from the great fiords — from Lserdalsdren on Sogne Fiord,
branching (7) through Hallingdal, and (8) through Valdres; (9) the
road from Grotlid to Otta m Gudbrandsdal, running N. of the
Jotunhdm; (10) the road from Veblungsnses on a branch of Molde
Fjord, running through the Romsdal and over to Domaas; (11) the
N. road across Dovrc Field from Domaas to Storen on the railway to
Trondhjem. Bejrond the districts thus indicated, the Saetcrsdal, a
southern valley, is visited by many, and in the far N. the Lofoten
Islands and some of the fjords, as Lyngen and Alten, are very fine.
The mountains of Jotunheim have attracted several well-known
mountaineers.
The main roads of Norway, the construction of which has de-
manded the highest engineering skill, were not brought into existence
until the bst half of the 19th century. A Highways Act of 1851
placed the roads under the immcdiatie control of local authorities,
out government ^nts are made for the construction not only of
main roads, but in many cases of cross-roads also. In a country
where railways are few, posting is of prime importance, and in
Norway the system is well developed and r^ulatea. Along all main
roads there aie posting stations {skydsstationtr, pronounced shuss-
stashSiier), hotels, inns or farms, whose owners are bound to have
horses always in readiness; at some stations on less frequented
roads time is allowed for them to be procured. Posting ittations are
under strict control and the tariff is fixed. The vehicles are the
stolkjeerre (pronounced approximately stolcharer) for two passengers,
and the kariid or carriole for one. A similar posting system obtains
by rowing-boats on lakes and fjords.
The first railway, that between Christiania and Eidsvold. was
o>n8tructed by ap:reement between British capitalists and the
g. Norwegian government, and opened in 18^ The total
*"'*'^** length of raflways is only about 1600 m., Norway having
the lowest railway mileage in proportion to area of any European
state, though in proportion to population the length of lines is com-
paratively great. Almost the whole are state lines. Railways are
most fully developed in the S.E., both N. and S. of Christiania.
The principal trunk line connects Christiania with Trondhjem by
way of Hamar and the Osterdal, Rdros and Stdrcn. Four lines cross
the frontier into Sweden — from Christiania by Kongsvingcr (Kongs-
vinger railway) and by Fredrikshald (Smaalenenes railway), from
Trondhjem by Storlien (Meraker railway), and from Narvik on
Ofoten Fjord, the most northerly line in the world. Among other
important lines may be mentioned that serving Lillehammer, Otta,
&c., in Gudbrandsdal, that running S.W. from Christiania to Dram-
men, Skien and Laurvik; the Ssetersdal line N. from Christian-
sand; the Jaederen line from Stavanger to Egcrsund and
Flckkefjord; the Bergen- Vossevangen line; and the branch from
Hell on the Meraker railway northward to Levan^r. These local
lines form links in important schemes for trunk hnes. Norwegian
railways are divided between the standard gauge and one of 3 ft.
6 in.; on the N. line a change of gauge is made at Hamar.
Some of the large lakes form important channels for inland
^. - navigation; the rivers, however, are not navigable for
^'**^ any considerable distance. A canal from Fredrikshald
gives access N. to Skcllcrud, and the Bandaks canal connects Dalen
in the Telemark with Skien.
The post-office is well administered, and both telegraph and
telephone systems are exceptionally extensive
I NDUSTRiES. Agriculture, — About 70 % of the total area of Norway
is barren, and about 21 % is forest land, but the small agricultural
area employs, directly or indirectly, about 40% of the population.
The great majority of the peasantry are freeholders. Legislation has
provided for the retention of landed property by famihcs to which
It has belonged for any considerable period — thus, under certain
conditions, a family which has parted with land can reacquire it at an
appraisement— or land alienated by its owner may on his death be
acquired by his next of kin. The chief crops are oats bariey, potatoes.
mangcom (a mixed drop of oats and barley), rye and wheat, the Us:
being little cultivated. Cattle and sheep are kept in Urge numbers.
Farmers commonly hold upland summer pastures together with
their lowland farms, and in the open season frequently occupy a
setter (upland farmstead) and devote themselves to dairy work.
Norwegian horses are small and thick-cet, and remarkably sure-
footed. In the north large herds of reindeer are kept by Lapips.
There b an . agricultural coU^e and model farm at Aas near
Christbnia.
Forestry. — Forest industries are confined chiefly to the S.E. and
to the Trondhjem-Namsen district. Lumbering b an important
industry. Forestry is controlled by the Department of Agriculture,
and its higher branches are taught at the Aa» college.
Fisheries. — ^The sea fisheries are of high economic importance.
The principal are the cod fisheries. In March and April the cod
shoal on the coastal banks for the purpose of spawning, and this gi\ c&
rise to the well-known fishery for which the Lofoten Islands art xht
principal base. In April and May shoab of capcbn appear otl
Finmarken, followed by cod and otber fish, small wtiales, &c.. which
prey upon them ; thb affords a second fishery. F<m' herrin? there is
a spring fishery off Stavanjger and Haugesuna. and one in November
ana December off Nordbnd. Mackerel fisheries are imporu.r.t
from Trondhjem Fjmxi S. to the Skagerrack. ^ Salmon and tea-trout
fisheries are important in the rivers and still more off the coast.
Fishermen from TOn^)erg, Tromsft, Hammerfet, Vardd, Vad>6,
Ac, work with the arctic fisheries, sealing, whaling, &c., from Grccr.-
bnd to Spitsbergen and Novaya Zemlya. A fishery board ai Bergen
administers the Norwegbn fineries. The annuad value of the coast
fisheries ranges from i^i, 000,000 to £1,^,000.
Aftfitfif.— Norway is not rich in minerals. Coal occurs only on
Andd, an island in Vesteraalen. Silver b nuned at Kongsbcnr:
copper at Rdros, Sulitelma, and Aamdal in Telemarken; iron at
Kfodc^ber^^ v.: ir Aronddl and in iTic Dundtfliru'l-jlj! (developed early
in iht ?ij|[i cciiUiry). GrDnite ts qiijrrkd near Frcdritstjrl.
Ffr JrikiliiU and Sarpsbore, and CTcportcd a* pnvin^ sects and kerb-
stun l's, ntcKTly to Great Britain and Germany. Good marbW is
fouftij near Ftialrikskildi and al« in the Salten and Ranen districts.
AiaHuf^iHrittt Indmlrks. — The most tmpwtant are works con-
ncctM with the timber \xsidu fotindrie* and rr^ineering $hop<^
spinning and weaving milk, brick and tile work*, breweries, papcr-
mill't, toLiacto factciriesi flour- miftih glass works and potterk-s,
nail nTjrks, fhipbuLlding yard^, rope wurks, iutoties for preservx-d
fo'd (espccinilEy fi^h), TnargannCt matches, fbh guano, boots, arhd
ho i.-r>-, distillcHcs and UTinerici* The chiel tfiauBtri2d centres arxr
Ch-istianta. Bergen » KrciJhksud and Satpsbofig. Dranunen, Skicn
anl Porsfirundi Trend hisrmi Fredrikshald and Stavai^er. Larjie
w,'ii:<:n power is av:iibblc la many districts. A po*Tjrful impulse "*-s
giM.n 10 Indcj^trlal enterprise by ihc ocm-fiene*jl of the ciistoras
tre,T Xy with S wf- df n in 1 -'^j 7 , ^ "^ ?'-h r^^t ... M , .^li. -^ I _-i jvotective syst ear
against that country.
Skipping and Commerce. — The Norwegians, in propor t ioo to their
numbers, are the first nation in the world in the mercantile roar.-.e
industiy. Actually their mercantile marine b only exceeded b>-
those of Great Britain, Germaiiy and the United States. From i S50
to 1880 the tonnage increased from 280,000 to more than i.soo,v>*,x
The tonnage now exceeds the Utter ngure, but steam has grcrit..
increased the carrying power. In 1880 Norwegbn steam vcs^b h : 1
a tonnage of about 52,000; they now exceed 6^10,000 tons. T>r
annual ^ue of imports is about £16,500,000, and of exports ab>^ct
£10,000,000. The growth of both may be judged from pcriixuc
averages —
1851-1855.
1866-1870.
1886-1890.
tmporU
Exports
£2,800,000
2400,000
£5.600.000
3,000,000
£9.200,000
6,600.000
Great Britain and Germany are the countries principally trading «^! h
Norway. Great Britain takes about 40 % (by value) oC Nof-wrgi-a a
exports, and sends about 26% of the total imports into Non^jv.
Germany takes 14% of the exports, and sends 28% of the impi>r-. >
The chief articles of export are timber, wooden wares and wood pulp.
principally to Great Britain, and fish products, principally ;j>
Germany, Sweden and Spain. These make 65% of the expor-.;?—
others of importance are paper, ships, ice, stone and naik. Ot xhr
imports about 58% by value are for consumption, 42% lnat^':xl
for production. Amons the first are cereals (principally fr -1
Russia), gjroccries (from Cermany), and clothing (from Germany a.-.i
Great Bntain). Amon^ the second are coal (chiefly from Gr> :.:
Britain), hides and skins, cotton and wool, cnl and machtrttrn,.
steamships, and metal goods (from Great Britain, Germany arJ
Sweden).
Government. — ^Norway b an independent, GODStltnticmal zrA
hereditary monarchy, the union with Sweden having been dis-
solved on the 7th of June 1905, after lasting 91 years. T.-e
constitution rests on the fundamental law (gmmdlev) proni' J
gated at Eidsvold on the xyth of May 1814, and altered in d^' 2.^
at various times. The executive b vested in tlie kiog. who
SOUTHERN NORWAY
-r 4^ V r_
tHari^t ana St^hvfitf^M.
fufti/ieittHriH .
NORWAY
805
comes of age at eighteen. His authority is exercised through,
and responsibility for his official acts rests with, a council of
state consisting of a minister and councillors, who are the heads
of finance, public accounts, church and education, defence,
public works, agriculture, commerce, navigation and industry
and foreign affairs. The king appoints these councillors and hi^
officials generally in the state, church, army, navy, &c He can
issue provisional ordinances pending a. meeting of parliament,
can declare war (if a war of offence, only with the consent of
parliament) and conclude peace, and has supreme command of
the army and navy. The legislative body is the parliament
(storthing), the members of which are elected directly by the
people divided into electoral divisions, each returning one member.
Until the election of 1906 the members were chosen by electors
nominated by the voters. Elections take place every three
years. The franchise is extended to every Norwegian male who
has passed his twenty-fifth year, has resided five years in the
country, and fulfils the legal conditions of citizenship. Under
the same conditions, and if they or their husbands have paid
taxes for the past year, the franchise is extended to women
under a measure adopted by the Storthing in June 1907.
Members of parliament must possess the franchise in their con-
stituency, and must have resided ten years in the country;
their age must not be less than thirty. The Storthing meets at
Christiania, normally for two months in each year; it must
receive royal assent to the prolongation of a session. After the
opening of parliament the assembly divides itself into two sections,
the upper (lagthing) consisting of one-quarter of the total number
of members, and the lower {odtlsthing) of the remainder. Every
bill must be introduced in the Odelsthing; if passed there it is
sent to the Lagthing, and if carried there also the royal assent
gives it the force of law. If a measure is twice passed by the
Odelsthing and rejected by the Lagthing, it is decided by a
majority of two-thirds of the combmed sections. The king has a
veto, but if a measure once or twice vetoed is passed by three
successive parliaments it becomes law ipso facto. This occurred
when in 1899 the Norwegians insisted on removing the sign of
union with Sweden from the flag of the mercantile marine.
Members of parliament are paid 13s. 4d. a day during
session and their travelling expenses. Parliament fiixes taxa-
tion, and has control of the members of the council of state,
who are not allowed to vote in either house, though they may
speak.
Firuvue, fire— The annual revenue and expenditure are each about
\ millions sterling. Considerable sums, however, have been raised
_y loans, priDcipally for railways. These amounted, between 1900
and 1906 (the bnandal year ending the 31st of March) to nearly
£4,500,000. The principal sources 01 revenue are customs, railways,
post office and telegraphs, the income tax (which is graduated and
not levied on incomes below 1000 kroner or £55, 6s. 8a.)> and excise.
The principal items of expenditure are railways, defence (principally
the army), thepost office, interest on debt, the church and education,
and justkre. The Bank of Norway is a private joint-stock corpora-
tion, in which the state has large interests. It is eovemed by special
acts of parliament, and its chief officials are pubficly appointed. It
alone has the right to issue notes, which are in wide circulation.
The Mortgage Bank (Nortes Hypotkekbank) was established by the
state to grant loans on reafestate. The currency of Norway is based
on a gold standard; but the monetary- unit is the krone (crown),
of !*• lid. value, divided into 100 dre. The metric system is in use.
Army and Navy. — ^The army consists of the line, the militia or
reaerye (landvcem), and the second reserve (tandstorm). All capable
men of twenty-two years of age and upwards are liable for con-
scription (except the clergy and pilots), and when called they serve
6 years in the line» 6 years with the reserve and 4 years with the
second reserve. In war, men are liable to service from the i8th to the
50th year of age. Only the line can be sent out of the country. The
men only meet for military training from 18 to 102 days in eachycar.
The peace establishment of the line is 12,000 men, with 750 officers;
its war footing 26,000, or more, but may not exceed 18,000 without
the authority of parliament. Of enlisted troops there are only
fortress garrisons, and the Christiania garrison of Norwegian Guards.
The |»incipal fortresses are Oscarsborg on Christiania Fjord, Agdcnes
(Trondhjem Fjord), Bergen, T6nsberg and Christiansand. A number
of Norwegian forts along the S. Swedish frontier were dismantled
under the convention with Sweden of 1905, when a neutral zone was
established on either side of the frontier southward from 61 * N. The
navy consists of about 1200 officers and men on permanent service;
but aU seafaring men between twenty-two and thirty^etght are liable
ii
for maritime conscription, and are put through some preliminary
training. The war vessels include four battl«rfiips of ^$00 to 4000
tons each, and about 16 other vessels, besides a torpedo flotilla^
intended for coast defence only. The chief naval stauon is at Kari-
jofaansvaem (Horten).
Justice. — Civil cases are usually brought first before a commission
of mediation (/orligelseskommissum), from which an appeal lies to
the local infenor courts, which are also tribunals of hrst instance,
and are worked by judges on circuit and assessors. There are
three superior courts of appeal {oiierretter), at Christiania, Bergen
and Trondhjem, and one supreme court {hdiesteret). Criminal cases
are tried either injury courts {lapnandsret) or courts of assize
{meddomsret). The first is for more serious offences ; the second deals
with minor oflfences and is a court of first instance. Military crimes
are dealt with by a military judicial organization. Finally there is
a high court of impeachment {rigsret)^ before which members of
parliament, the government. &c., are tried for misdemeanours com-
mitted in their public capacity.
Local GovemmenL—Tht country is divided into twenty counties
(amter) (see population), the cities of Christiania and Bergen being
included in these. Other towns are formed into communes, governed
by representatives, from whom a council (Jomumd) is elected by
themselves. Rural communes (herreder) are similarly administered,
and their chairmen form a county council {amtsthing) for each county.
At the head is the anUmand, the county governor. The electoral
franchise for local council election is for men the same as the parlia-
mentary franchise, and, like it, is extended in a limited degree to
women.
Religion and Education.— -The state religion, to which the king
must conform, is Evangelical Lutheran. Only about 2*4% of the
population are dissenters. All Christian sects except Jesuits are
toleiated. The king nominates the clergy of the established church.
Norway is divided wto six bishoprics (slifier), Christiania, Hamar,
Christiansand, Bergen, Trondhjem, Tromsd; and these into deaneries
(Provstier)t with subdivisions into clerical districts (prastegjeld),
parishes and sub-parishes. The clergy take a leading part in primary
education, which, in spite of the difficulties arising in a sparsely
populated country, reaches a high standard. Educatbn b com-
pulsory, the school-going age being from 6} to 14 years in towns and
7 to 14 years in the country. About 94% of the children of school-
going age attend the primary schools, which are administered by
school boards in the munkdpalitics and the counties. Teachers must
belong to the established church. Their training colleges include
one free public college in each diocese. The municipalities and
C01?nt*r- frnr fV- r^-t r.f p- --■ ^'-- — '-*- n -t^-- --■:»■,
T r . . ■ ^. ■ . • . , ,, •..!...■_,. ,._..;y
eduuUi^n, canLni'iun.:^! middle bLhuoL^ and &Utc gymn^ief. Thc^ra m
a frtate-aidyd univ^t^ity ai Chrisiknia.
AitHOHiTies— See Norway [o/Flcial publicgLtion for the Paris
Exfiit'ttionJ (Eng. tmm., Christiania, 1900^ dealing wdh thz land and
ith luh-ibiiunii in every aspttrU, and giving Xorwe^ian bibNogr^phics.
for <.\ch subject)* A* N* Klxt and othcni^ Norges land &£ foik
rC hri.;tania. las^ 6cq,)j N. RolfH^n, Norge i del N^imde Aar-
htin.-h£d£ (Chriitiania. 1900 soq,): Y. Nielsen^ Reisthaand^sg oper
N.-r.y (loth ed., Chrbliania. iw^h ^|'a^ou3 ^idn books in English;
P, Ll du Chaillu, Tkslasd oftki MidnigM Sun f London. iftSiJ ; a«d
r- Y iMttd of fhe Lon^ Night (Uondon, i^oaj* C. F, Kairy, Ncytway
an.-i ih^ Norwr^iani (Lon^Qti, iSfj2); A.
ilocklcr-Fcrrynian, In ih^
N- t^'hman's Land (London, 1^96); j, Br^d^haw, Nerveav, its Fjntdit
F,.;iE and Fosses (London, liigfi); A. Chap^Un, U'iid Norway
fL"ii'l'7n, iSg'^}; E. B. Kennedy, Thirty Stajt>ns i'k ^andinavia
(1.1 /Ml Jem, i^cy.); E. C. Oppcnhcim, Nrut Climbs tn Norway {hondon,
18 >'- ■ ; W. C. Slmg^siby, Norway, Tkt- Northern. l^tnytT^und {on.
m-.sii.tQEno<:rin^) (Edinbtir^^h, t9<Uh ^L hi. Reuschr P^t Nordliie
JV v'T f7'*->hr^ (Chriiiiania, iftga); T. Kjerulf* UdMgi m^r dl-t
sy ' V seoieii (Christ ianin, il^79: a German trandatinri
wi 'I at Bonn, iSSts); W. C. BrOgKer, Die ^ifumcArif
Ei . ■' ■r (Cfiriin^inia. l-'^HJ): m:c iTl'-vj :i stTJfi cA nitinrvirs. cm
Skrifler (Christiania) ; A. E. T6mebohm, Crunddragen afdetcentrala
Skandinaoienshergbyggnad. Kongl. Svenska VetensL Akad. Handl.
vol. xxvii. No. 5 (1896) ; Jakrbuch des Norwegiscken iieteorologiscken
Instituts (Christiania); H. Mohn, " Klima Tabeller for Norge," in
Videnskabssdsk. Skrifter (189^ seq.); M. N. and A. Blytt. Norges
Flora (Christiania, 1861-1877}; C. Hartman, Handbok t Scandina-
viens Flora (Stockholm, 1879); J. M. Norman, Norges Arktiske Flora
(Christiania, 1894 seq.) : Statistisk Aarbog for iCongeriMt Norge
(Christiania, annual); H. L. Brxicstad, Constitution of tke Kingdom
of Nonoay (London, 1905) ; F. Nansen, Norway and tke Union with
Sweden, and Supplementary Chapter, scfKirate (London, 1905).
On the licensing system in Norway — Foreign O^ce Report, Misc.
series, 279 (London, 1803); Board ot Trade Rep. on Production and
Consumption of Alcoholic Liquors (London, 1899); H. E. Bemer,
" Braendevinsbolagene i Norge," in Nordisk Tidskrift (1891).
(O./.R.H.)
Eistcry,
Early History. — ^Archaeological and geological researches have
revealed a fishing and hunting population in Norway, possibly
8o6
NORWAY
as far back.as c. 6000 B.C. Until lately this aboriginal people,
which was certainly non-Aryan, was held to be Lappish, but
recent investigations seem to show that the Lapps only entered
Norway about aj>. 900-1000, and that the original population
was probably of Furnish race, though only distantly allieid to the
Ugro-Finns now inhabiting FinUnd. To them belong perhaps
certain non-Aryan names for natural features of the country,
such as Toten, Vefsen, Bukn.
The time of the immigration of a Teutonic element is far from
certain. It did not extend N. beyond the Trondhjem district
until about the beginning of our era, but there can be
little doubt that the immigrants' advance was ex-
trcmely slow, and it is suggested, on the evidence of
archaeology, that the Teutonic element entered S.
Norway towards the end of the (Scandinavian) later Stone age,
c. 1700 B.C. (see Scandinavian Civilization). But what-
ever were the stages of the process, the language of the older race
was superseded by Teutonic, and those aborigines who were not
incorporated (probably most often. as slaves) were driven into
the mountains or the islands that fringe the coast. In the high-
lands the " Finns " maintained some independence down to
historical times. The old English poem Beowulf mentions a
" Finnaland " which should perhaps be located ia S. Norway
in about the 6th century, and later on the ancient laws of this
region forbid the practice of visiting the " Finns " to obtain
knowledge of the future. But only in Finmark, which even in
the xjth century stretched far into Sweden and included the
Norwegian district of Tromsd, could the earlier inhabitants live
their old life, and here they finally iell into the utmost want and
misery. Their existence is mentioned as a thing of the past by
a North Trondhjem writer in 1689.
The new Teutonic element of population seems to have
flowed into Norway from two centres; one western, probably
from Jutland, the other eastern, from the W. coast of Sweden.
The western stream covered Agder, Rogaland and Hordaland (the
modem districts of Christiansand and Sdndre Bergenhus), and
finally extended N. as far as Sdndm5re, while the eastern sueam
flowed across Romerike and Hadeland through the Dales to the
Trondhjem district, where it divided, one stream flowing down
the W. coast till it met the western settlements, another pene-
trating N. into Haalogaland (which included the modem Nord-
land as well as Helgeland), and a third E. into the N. Swedish
districts of J&mtland and Helsingland. The bodies of immigrants
Were no doubt more or less independent, and each was probably
under a king. It is probable that the Horder, who gave their
name to Hordaland and Hardanger, were a branch of the Harudes
whom Ptolemy in the 2nd century mentions as living in Jutland,
where their name remains in the present Hardesyssd. The
Ryger, who gave their name to Rogaland, and the modern
Ryfylke, are probably akin to the Rugii, an E. Germanic tribe
at one time settled in N.E. Pbmerania, where we have a remi-
niscence of their name in ROgenwalde. The first mention of
any tribe settled in Norway is by Ptolemy, who speaks of the
Chaidenoi or fleiner, inhabiting the W. of his island Scandia.
The system of settlement in Norway appears to have been
different from that adopted by the same race in other lands.
In Denmark, for instance, a group of as many as twenty settlers
held land more or less in common, but this system, which
demanded that a considerable extent of land shoiJd be readily
accessible, was not feasible in the greater part of Norway, and
except in one or two flatter districts each farm was owned, or at
least worked, by a single family.
When history first sheds a faint light over Norway we find each
small district or "fylke" (Old Norse /y/ikir, from /o/i&, army)
settled under its own king, and about twenty-nine
fylker in the country. At times a king would win an
overlordship over the neighbouring- tribes, but the
character of the country hindered permanent assimilation.
The king always possessed a kird, or company of warriors
swom to his service, and indeed royal birth and the possession of
such a hirdf and not land or subjects, were the essential attributes
of a king There was no law of primogeniture, and on the death
Bartr
of a king some of his heirs would take their share of the patri-
mony in valuables, gather a kird, and spend their lives in warlike
expedition! (see Vikings), while one would settle down snd
become king of the fylke. There afe indications that these
conditions were fostered by a matriarchal system, and that it
would often occur that a wandering king would marry the
daughter of a fylkes-king and become his heir. Probably the
king's power was only absolute over his own hird. He W2i
certainly commander-in-chief and perhaps chief priest of the
fylke, but the administrative power was chiefly in the hands c(
the herser and possibly of an earl. The position of earb is vague,
but it is noticeable that both those of whom we hear in Hanhl
Haarfager's time take the opposite side to their king. The
lursef (Old Norse her sir), of whom there were several in each
fylke, united high birth with wealth and political power, and with
the holder, the class of privileged hereditary landowners fnun
which they sprang, formed an aristocracy of which there scetas
little trace in the other Scandinavian countries at this period.
Its rise in Norway ]& perhaps due to the fact that the nature of
the country, as well as the individualistic system of settlement,
left more scope for inequalities of wealth than in Denmark cr
Sweden. Once a family had become wealthy enough to fit ou
Viking ships, it must have added wealth to wealth, besides
enormously raising its prestige. The lands of almost all the
most powerful families were on islands, whence it was easy to
set forth on roving expeditions. The family property of the
earls of Lade, for instance, whose representative in the latter
half of the 9th century was the most powerful man of the district,
was on the island of Naerd. These islands had been the re(u|e
of the aborigines, and it js possible that, as A. Hansen ka&
suggested, the rise of the aristocracy depends here, as dsewhere.
on a subject population. Among the proper names of thralls
in a poem in the Elder Edda are several which can only be
explained on the hypothesis that they are Finnish, e.f. Klums,
Lasmer, Drtmiba. Harald Haarfager's decree concerning ** those
who dear forests and bum salt, fishermen and hunters ** pro*
bably refers to the Finns as a class apart. There can be no
doubt that, in Haalogaland for instance, the aristocracy gained
its wealth not only from the tribute extorted from the Finns a
Finmark, but also from slave laboxir.
The eight Trondhjem /yfjker had a common Thing or assembly
very early, but these districts were remote, while the weaJiby
western districts were too much cut off from each other to r.niie
effectivdy, though here also a common Thing was early esuh-
llshed. The first successful attempt at unification orlsiaaled
round Vestfold, the modem Jarlsberg and Laurvik Amt on the
Christiania f jond. Here also there was a certain degree of usjaa
very early, and it is possible that national feeling was fosterei
by proximity to the Danish and Swedish kingdoms. T^
district was thickly . populated, and a centre of commeTce.
Tradition made the royal family a branch of the great Yngli&g
dynasty of Upsala, which daimed descent from the god Fte?
Through several generations this family had extended o
kingdom by marriage, conquest and inheritance, and by the e^^:
of the reign of Halfdan the Black, it induded the greater pa."
of Hamar and Oslo Stift, and the fylke of Sogn, the dlstnct vcy^s:.
the modem Sognef jord.
Halfdan'a son, Harald Haarfager, having no brotben, s^'*
ceeded to the whole kingdom, and was further fortunate ia t^'
an uncle hdped him to maintain his rights. By
866 his power was so well established in S. Norway ^^
that he contemplated the conquest of the whole land.- j^
The chief obstacle appears to have been the resistance,
not only of the petty kings, but also of the aristocratic faicill^
who dreaded the power of a monarchy established by force, 13"
consequently supported the vaguer authority of their v*?
kinglets. There can be no doubt that Harald introduced •
feudal view of obligations towards the king, and Landcwr.-^
families, who had regarded their odd, or inherited propcrtj £
absolutely their own, resented being forced to pay dues ee
In each district Harald offered the herstr the opporVa^ *
becoming his vassals, answerable to him for the f ovei nt a e:^ ^
NORWAY
807
the district. The increased dues and the grants of laod made by
Harald rendered the position of one of his earls more lucrative
than that of king under the older system; and it shows to what
a paramount position the old aristocracy must .have Attained,
that numbers of the herser and holder could not reconcile them-
selves to the limiution of their independence, but quitted the
lands which were their red title to influence, rather than submit
to ihe new order. But the little kingdoms only made futile
attempts at combination, except in the western districts of Agde
(comprising the modem Lister and Mandal and Nedencs),
Rogaiand and Hordaland. Here was the home of the " western
Vikings " who for nearly a century had owed wealth a&d fame
to their raids on the British Isles. Attack by land was impossible,
and Harald had to gather men and ships for three years before he
could meet the fleet of the allied kings at Hafsfjord. The
battle (87a) resulted m a victory to him, and with it all opposition
in Norway was at an end. An expedition to Scotland and the
Scottish isles (c. 891) dispersed enemies who could harry the
Norwegian coast, many of them taking refuge in Iceland; and
the earldom of the Orluieys and Shetlands became an appanage
of the Norwegian Crown. For the moment the whole country
was under a single king, but Harald himself destroyed his work,
in accordance with old custom, by giving about twenty of his
sons the ritle of king, and dividing the country among them, only
qualifying this retrograde step by installing his favourite son
Erik BlodOxe as over-king (930). Moreover, Harald had estab-
lished no common Thing for the whole of his kingdom. Norway is
naturally divided into three parts, and each of these remained
more or less separate for centuries, even having separate laws
until the second half of the 13th century. The Frostathing
district (so called from Frosta near Trondhjem) included the
eight Trondhjem fylkeff and also Naumdd, Nordni&re and
RaumAdaL The Gulathing district consisted of SdndmOrc,
Firdafylke, Sogn, Vaklres, Hallingdal, Hordaland and Agde,
and met at Gula in Hordaland. The third, the Eidsivathing, met
on the shores of Lake Mjfisen, and included the Uplands and also
the " Vik," i^. all the districts round Christiania fjord, until St
Olaf established the Borgarthing at Sarpsborg as a centre for
these latter. The king's council was composed of the local
Uttdermandf and thus varied with the district he happened
to be visiting, an arrangement that had iu advantages, since
the local chiefs were acquainted with the laws of their dis-
trict, though it was another hindrance to unification. It was
only in 1319 that a permanent council was formed, the Rigets
Road.
Harald died in 933. Erik BlodOxe (Bloody-axe) only managed
to rid himself of two rival over-kings, Olaf and Sigfred, his
half-brothers, for on hearing of his father's death,
MOootf. AJ^o^bci* son, Haakon {q.v.), called the Good, who had
been brought up at iEthelstan's court, came to Norway
with a small force and succeeded in ejecting Erik (934).
After Haakon's death in 961 at the battle of Fitje, where his
long struggle against Erik's sons and their Danish allies ter-
minated, these brothers, headed by Harald Graafeld (grey-doak)
became masters of the W. districts, though the ruling spirit
appears to have been their mother Gunhild. Earl Sigurd of
Lade ruled the N., and the S. was held by vassal kings whom
Haakon had left tmdisturbed. By 969 the brothers had succeeded
in ridding themselves of Sigurd and two other rivals, but the
following year Harald Graafeld was lured to Denmark and
treacherously killed at the instigation of Earl Haakon, son of
Sigurd, who had allied himself with the Danish king Harald
Gorman. With the latter's support Earl Haakon won Norway,
but threw off his yoke on defeating Ragnfred Erikss<)n at
Tingenes in 972. The S.E. districts were, however, still held by
Karald Grenske, whose father had been slain by the sons of
Erik. Haakon ruled ably though tyrannically, and his prestige
was greatly increased by his victory over the Jomsvikings, a
tjand of pirates inhabiting the island of Wollin at the mouth of the
Oder, who had collected a large fleet to attack Norway. The
date of their defeat at Hjdrungavaag, now Lidvaag, is uncertain.
3ut finally the earl's disregard of the feelings of the most power-
ftoao/
Cbrbtt>
ful "bonder," or landed proprietors, worked them up to
revolt, and, in 995, there landed in Norway Olaf, great-
grandson of Harald Haarfager and son of the king Tryggvr
of the Vik whom Gudrdd Eriksson had slain, and whose father
Olaf had been slain by Erik Bloddxe.
The earl was treacherously killed by his thrall while in hiding,
and Olaf entered unopposed upon his short and brilliant reign.
His great work was the enforced conversion to Chris-
tianity of Norway, Iceland and Greenland. In this
undertaking both Olaf and his successor and namesake
looked for help to England, whence they obtained a
bishop and priests; hence it comes that the organiza-
tion of the early church in Norway resembles that of England.
No more than England did Norway escape the struggle between
Church and State, but the hierarchical party in Norway only rose
to power after the establishment of an archiepiscopal see at
Trondhjem in 1152, after which the quarrel raged for over a
century. Until the year xioo, when tithes were imposed, the
priests depended for their livelihood on their dues, and Adam of
Bremen informs us that this made them very avaricious.
In the year xooo Olaf fell at the battle of Svolder off ROgen,
fighting against the combined Danish and Swedish fleets. The
allies shared Norway between them, but the real g^^^^^
power Uy in the hands of Erik and Svein, sons of ^j^ '
Earl Haakon. In 10x5, when Erik was absent in thmm^rk.
England, another descendant of Harald Haarfager
appeared, Olaf, the son of Harald Grenske, a great-grandson
of Harald Haarfager (see Olat IL HaraldssOn). He defeated
Svein at Nesje in xoi6, which left him free to work towards a
united and Christian Norway. For some years he was successful,
but he strained the loyalty of his subjects too far, and on the
appearance of Knut the Great in 1029 he fled to Russia. His
death at the battle of Stiklestad on his return in 1030 was
followed by a few years of Danish rule under Svein Knut»-
sOn, which rendered Olafs memory sweet by contrast, and
soon the name of St Olaf came to stand for internal union and
freedom from external oppression. In 1035 his young son
Magnus, afterwards called the Good, was summoned from
Russia, and was readily accepted as king. A treaty was made
with Hardeknut which provided that whichever king survived
should inherit the other's crown. Hardeknut died in 1042,
and Magnus became king of Denmark, but a nephew of Knut
the Great, Svein EstridssOn, entered into league with Harald
Haardraade (see Haxaio III.), the half-brother of St Olaf,
who had just returned from the East. As soon, however, as
overtures were made to him by Magnus, he forsook the cause
of Svein, and in X046 agreed to become joint king of Norway
with Magnus. The difficulties arising out of this, situation were
solved by Magnus's death in 1047.
Harald's attempts to win Denmark were vain, and in 1066
he set about a yet more formidable task in attacking England,
which ended with his death at Stamford Bridge in Badot
X066. His son Olaf Kyrre (the Quiet) shared the
kingdom with his brother Magnus untU the latter's
death in X069, after which the country enjoyed a period
of peace. A feature of this reign b the increasing import-
ance of the towns, including Bergen, which was founded by Ohif .
In 1093 Olaf was succeeded by his turbulent son Magnus Barfod
(barefoot) and by Haakon, son of Magnus the Good. The
latter died in 1095. Besides engaging in an unsuccessful war
against the Swedish king Inge, in which he was defeated at
Foxeme in iioi, Magnus undertook three warlike expeditions
to the Scottish isles. It was on the last of these expeditions,
in XX03, that he met his death. He was succeeded by his three
sons, Eystein, Sigurd and Olaf. Olaf died young. Sigurd under-
took a pilgrimage, from which he gained the name of Jorsalfar
(traveller to Jerusalem). He won much booty from the Moors
in Spain, from pirates in the Mediterranean, and finally at Sidon,
which he and his ally Baldwin I. of Jerusalem took and sacked.
Eystein died in 1122. Sigurd lived till 1130, but was subject
to fits of insanity in his later years. He was the last undoubted
representative of Harald Haarfager's race, for on his death
8o8
NORWAY
his son Magnus was ousted by Harald Gflle, or Gflchrist, who
professed to be a natural son of Magnus Barfod.
Harald Gille was slain in 1x36 by another pretender, and
anarchy ruled during the reign of hk sons Eystein, Inge and
Sigurd Mund. At last Inge's party attacked and
J2S^ killed first Sigurd (1x55) and then Eystein (1x57).
ffffiry. Inge fell in a fight against Sigtuxl's son Haakon Herde-
bred in xi6i, but a powerful baron, Eriing, succeeded
in getting his son Magnus made king, on the plea that the boy's
maternal grandfather was King Sigurd Jorsalfar. Descent
through females was not valid in succession to the throne, and
to render his son's position more secure, Eriing obtained the
support of the Church. In X164 the archbishop of Trondhjem
crowned Magnus, demanding that the crown should be held
as a fief of the Norwegian Church. Owing to such concessions
the Chtuch was gaining a paramount position, when a new
pretender appeared. Sverre (O.N. Sverrir) claimed to be the
son of Sigurd Mund, and was adopted as leader by a party
known as the Birkebeiner or Birchlegs. He possessed military
genius of a rare order, and in spite of help from Denmark, the
support of the Church and of the majority of barons, Magnus
was defeated time after time, till he met his death at the battle
of Nordnes in x 184. The aristocracy could offer little further
opposition. In joining hands with the Church against Sverre,
the local chiefs had got out of touch with the small landowners,
with whose support Sverre was able to build up a powerful
monarchy. Sverre's most dangerous opponent was the Church,
which offered the most strenuous resistance to his efforts to
cut down its prerogatives. The archbishop found support in
Denmark, whence he laid his whole see under an interdict, but
Sverre's counter-claim of his own divine right as king had much
more influence in Norway.
Sverre died in xsoa, his last years harassed by the rise of
the Baglers, or " crozier-men," with a new claiinant at their
M n m, ^^^^* ^^^ ^^ Haakon III. died two years later,
perhaps of poison, but the Birkebeiner party in xax?
succeeded in placing Haakon's son and namesake on the throne
(see Haakon IV.). In 1240 the last of the rival chumants fell,
and the coimtry began to regain prosperity. The acquisition
of IceUnd was at length realized. Haakon's death occurred
after the battle of Largs in the Orkneys in X263. The war
with Scotland was soon terminated by his son Magnus, who
surrendered the Hebrides and the Isle of Man at the treaty of
Perth in xa68. Magnus saw the worthlessnfcss of a doubtfid
suzerainty over islands which had lost their value to Norway
since the decay of Viking enterprise. He gained his title of Law-
Mender from the revision of the laws, which had remained very
much as in heathen days, and which were still different for the
four different districts. By x 2 74 Magnus had secured the accept-
ance of a revised compilation of the older law-books. The new
code repealed all the old wergild laws, and provided that the
major part of the fine for manslaughter should be paid to the
victim's heir, the remainder to the king. Henceforward the
council comes more and more to be composed of the king's
court officials, instead of a gathering of the Undemuend or
barons of the district in which the king happened to be. During
Magnus's reign we hear of a larger council, occasionally called
paUiment (parliament), which is sunmioned at the king's wish.
The old landed aristocracy had lost its power so completely
that even after Magnus's death in x 280 it was unable to reinstate
itself during the minority of his son Erik.
Erik was succeeded in X299 by his brother Haakon V., who in
X308 felt himself strong enough to abolish the dignity of the
hndermttnd. This paralysis of the aristocracy is
JlfJJJ'JJ^ no doubt partly to be ascribed to the dvil wars, but
loavQr. in part also to the gradual impoverishment of the
country, which told especially upon this dass. Russia
had long edipsed Norway as the centre of the fur trade, and other
industries must have suffered, not only from the dvil wars,
but also from the supremacy of the Hanseatic towns, which
dominated the North, and could dictate their own terms. In
earlier times the aristocratic families had owed thdr wealth
to three mam sources: commerce, Viking expeditions aiMl
slave labour. Trade had been a favourite means of enrich-
ment among the aristocracy up to the middle of the xjth
century, but now it was almost monopolized by Germans, and
Viking enterprise was a thing of the past. The third source cf
wealth had also failed, for it is dear from the laws of Magnus
that the class of thralls had practically disappeared. This
must have greatly contributed to shatter the power of the dasi
which had once been the chief factor in the govcnmie&t of
Norway.
Haakon's daughter Ingeborg bad married Duke Erik of
Sweden, and on Haakon's death in 13x9 their three-year-ofai
son Magnus succeeded to the Norwegian and Swedish thrones,
the two countries entering into a union which was not definitely
broken till X371. It was during this reign that Norway vas
ravaged by the Black Death. In X343 Magnus handed over tht
greater part of Norway to his son Haakon VI., who marxied
Margrete, daughter of King Valdemar III. of Denmark. Thar
young son Olaf V., already king of Denmaxk, succeeded to hb
fathor's throne on Haakon's death in 1380, .but died in 1387,
leaving the royal line extinct, and the nearest successor to tl^
throne the hostile King Albrecht of Sweden, of the Mecklenburg
family. The difficulty was met by filling the throne by electiao
— an innovation in Norway, though it was the custom ...
in Sweden and Denmark. The choice fell on King^^^g^
Haakon's widow Margrete, but a couple of yt»x%mufm»,
later, chiefly in order to gain German support in^? ^'^ .
a coming struggle with the Mecklenbuxgeis, thg^y'*'
Norwegians elected as king the young Erik of
Pomerania, great-nephew of the queen, who henceforth acted
as regent. Erik had claims on the Swedish and Danuh throaMS,
and in 1397, at Kalmar, he was solenmly crowned king over
the three countxies, which entered into a unioB " never to be
dissolved."
Rtifftt of the Kings ef Norway.
Harald (I.) Haarfager .... 97>'930 (d.953)
ErikBkxl&ce 930-934
Haakon (I.) den Code. . 935-9^1
HaraM (II.) Graafdd .... 901-970
(Eari Haakon of Lade 970-995)
Olaf (I.) TryggvessOn .... 995-xooo
(Earli Erik and Haakon 1000-1016)
Saint Olaf (II.) 1016-1029 (k. 1090^
Svetn, son of Knut the Great
Magnus (IJ den Code
Harald (III.) Haaidraade
Olaf (III.) Kyrre
Magnus (II.)
Magnus (IIL) Barfod .
~ in (I.),
\:
Sigurd (I.) Joraalfar
Ofif (IV.)
Magnus (IV.)
Harald GUle
Sigurd (1 1.3 Mund
Eystein (II.)
Inge
Haakon (II.) Herddnd
Magnus (V.) 1162-1184
Sverre xi84-i3oa
Haakon (III.) 1909-1204
Haakon (IV.) den gamie . . 1217-1263
Magnus (VI.) 1263-1280
Erik X2»o-xa99
Haakon (V.) 1299-1319
.... 1319-1343
X343— 1380
blaf(V.)' '. . ; ! . . I3W-I3«7
Margrete I38?-I3B9
Erik of Pomerania .... 1389-
AuTHoaiTiES.— P. A. Munch. Da monke Fdks Huforir imisS
1397 (1852-1863); J. E. Sara, Udsigt over den norske Huterw, Dcd
i.-ii. (1873-1877}; K. KevKf. Nortes SUUs- og RebforfaJtmimt (i»'
and Den norske kirke under KaOuIicimen (1856); A. Tanneer. Ve*
Angdsaksiske kirkes Indfiyddse paa den norske (1891): A. C Bftat
Haakon (V.) .
Magnus (Vll.)
Haalcon (VI.)
SUut und Kircke in Norwegen bis mm ScUnsu des Ittem Jakri
(Munich. 187s): A. M. Hansen. Landndm i Norm (1904): A.
Studier over de norske Byers setostyre og kandelj^ Hameentti
(1899): F. Bruns. Die LObeeker Bernnfokrer und ikre Ckrem^
(Bcxlin, 1900); articles by G. Stonn, Y. Nidaen, E. Hcttibcfg m
NORWAY
809
Others in the Historiik Tidskrifi (Dirittiania) ajid oiHcf p«iodical»;
also the articles by K, v. Aimifa, O* Bremcrp K. Koalund fiwl V.
Gudmundsaon in Faidt (Trmt^riii 4^:r geTfnaxischfn Pkiitiio^ (vol.
ui., Strassburg, l^oo). The ibo^^c works arc published in ChriatiAnia
except where otbeniL'X: stated. In Enclish, thcrtu h a history of
Nomy by H. H. Enyrwd in the Story of th<^ Nciions scrica (London,
1900), and there aro iii^torkal notcai in G* Vl^Eu^ftdn and F. Y.
Powell's Cor^ pcHiiiam Borraic (Oxford. i8S^). The irosi im-
portant original •ourcc^ are; Snorrt; SturbsiSon s Utimskrinzla, or
Lives of the Kings of Norft^y Cup to 1 T77). oF which there i& an
English translation ! v W, Moms and E. M jsndsson^ with a valuable
index volume compili *! by the latter, in the 5a(fa Library, Vols, iii.-
vi. (London, l893-T>i^i>i* T>ie original kcbndic text J* edited by
F. J6nsson (Copenh.i-Ln, iScji-i^j). For a critical inveiUgation
into the sources of Sitorri and the contcmparaty historians, ue G.
Storm, Snorrt St^trliisstjn's Jiiitorieskri^miTii (Copenhagen, 1S73,
with map of ancieitt iVonaay), and F, Jcjusm^Ii^ Den ^^nanke og
MisloMdske LiliertUcifi Hhtmie (Bd. it. Del. ii,. Coptnha^pn, 1901).
Of later sagas, SverrL^'si Saga (Ff»fTimajiB.a Svgvr, vol. viii^^ Copen-
hagen) b translate rt by ]. Stphton, Norihcm LUrrary (vol. iv.,
London, 1899), ant! Hiiakan's Sara La Eivcn wiih a tranilation by
G. W. Dascnt in yoh. ii. (text) and iv. (iransktion) ot tht ChremrUs
and Memorials ttfCnat Britain and Ireland (Loivdon, 1894). Other
important sources uitr Diplomaiarium iVtrrtJCjifiiFH, ed. C. L'/igcr,
Christiania, and Noriis Gamie Lsst indtU /Jf/, *d. R- Kcjscr and
P. A. Munch (5 vols,, Chriiiiania, 1846-1895). (B. &, P.)
tj9Z-i8J4.— The history of Norway from 1597 down to the
union with Sweden in 1S14 falls mturaUy iulo four divisions.
First, in 1450, the triple bond gave place to a union in
which Norway became more firmly joined to Denmark. Next,
in 1536, as the result of the Reformation, Norway sank
almost to the level of a province. After x66o she gained
something in status from the establishment of autocracy in
Denmark, and at the dose of the period she became a con-
stitutional kingdom on a footing of approximate equality with
Sweden. But for the convulsions to which some of these changes
gave rise, Norway possesses during this period but little history
of her own, and she sank from her former position as a con-
siderable and independent naUon. The kings dwelt outside her
borders, her fleet and army decayed, and her language gradually
gave place to Danish. Germans plundered her coasts
cMiMT '^^ monopolized her commerce, and after 1450 Danes
began to appropriate the higher posts in her adminis-
tration. When in 1448 Karl Knutsson was chosen king by the
Swedes, and Christian of Oldenburg by the Danes, it was by
force that Norway fell to the hitter. On the 34th of November
1449 the Norwegians protested against Christian's assimiption
of soverdgnty over them, and against separation from the
Swedes. Next year, however, the Swedes assented to the
separation. Christian I. (1450-1481) gave estates and offices
in Norway to his Danish subjects and raised money by pawning
her ancient possessions, the Orkneys and Shetland islands, to
the king of Scotland. His son Hans (1482-1513) purchased the
obedience of the Norwegian nobles by concessions to their power.
The imposing union continued in name, but the weakness of the
nation and its government was strikingly illustrated when the
Germans in Bergen besieged a monastery in which their enemy
Olaf Nilsson, a high official, had taken refuge.
After the downfall of Christian U. (1513-1524) the position of
Norway in relation to Denmark was changed for the worse.
She was ruled for a century and a quarter by Danish
^f^ officials; the churches and monasteries of Norway
^^^' were sacked by Danes, and Danes were installed as
pastors under the Lutheran system, which the Norwegians were
compelled to accept in 1539. Soon Norway was dragged by
Denmark into the so-called Seven Years' War of the North
(x 563-70). However, the power of the Hanse League in Bergen
was broken. The rule of the Oldenburg dynasty proved neglect-
ful rather than tyrannical, and under it the mass of the peasants
was not flagrantly oppressed. Christian IV. (1588-1648), who
fotxnded Christiania, may almost be said to have discovered
Norway anew. He reformed its government and strove to
develop its resources, but his policy involved Norway in the loss
of the provinces of Jemtknd and Herjedalen, which
^jLirr, ''*'* ^^^ *° ^^* Swedes by the peace of BrOmsebro
(1645). The Danish war of revenge against Carl X.
of Sweden resulted in further territorial loss by Norway. By the
peace of Roskilde (1658) she was compelled to renounce the
counties of Trondhjem and Baahus, and although the former
was restored by the peace of Copenhagen, two years later, her
population fell below half a million. The Swedes had now
acquired the rich provinces in the south and south-west of the
Scandinavian peninsula, and their ambition to extend their
frontiers to the North Sea became more pronounced and more
possible of accomplishment. From the middle of the X7th
century, however, the Dutch and English made their influence
felt, and the political sUtus of Norway could no longer be
regarded as a purely Scandinavian affair. The establishment
of hereditary autocracy in Denmark by Frederick IIL in x66o
conferred many benefits upon Norway. Personal Uberty perhaps
suffered, but the Norwegian peasant remained a freeman whUe
his counterpart in Denmark was a serf. Norwegian kiw was
revised and codified under Christian V. (1670-1699), who was
well served by the Norwegians in his attempt to regain the lost
provinces.
Under the sons of these monarchs, Frederick IV. and Cad
XII., Norway was once more compelled to pay for Danish
aggression. Her shipping was destroyed, and in 17x6,
when driven from continental Europe, the Swedish f^ataty.
hosts fell upon her. Two years later, however, the
death of Carl XII. at the border fortress of Frederikshald
averted the danger. During this war Peter Tordcnskjold, the
greatest among a long series of Norwegian heroes who served in
the Danish fleet, won undying fame. Before the close of the i8th
century something had been done towards dispdling the in-
tellectual darkness. Holberg, though he flourished outside
Norway, was at least bom there, and by stemming the tide of
German influence he made the future of Norwegian literature
possible. At the dose of the century Hans Niclson Hauge, the
Wesley of Norway, appeared, while the growth of the timber
trade with England gave rise to a great increase in wealth and
population. In a century and a half the number of the
Norwegian people was doubled, so that by 18x4 Norway
comprised some 900,000 souls. In X788 the oppressive law
that grain should be imported into Norway only from
Denmark was repealed, and thanks to Danish policy Norway
actually drew fi^?1Tri^^1 profit from the wars of the French
Revolution.
The Norwegian national movement was to render a decade at
the beginning of the X9th century more memorable in Norwegian
history than any century which had passed since the Btglaalag
Calmar Union. In x8oo the Danish government com- •/mu^
mitted the Norwegians to the second Armed Neutrality, wgUa
and therefore to a share in the battle of Copenhagen, "*^ff'^
by which it was broken up. It was not until 1807, "^ *
however, that Norway was fully involved in the Napoleonic wars.
Then, after the bombardment of Copenhagen, she was compelled
by Danish policy to embrace the cause of Napoleon against both
England and Sweden. Commerce was annihilated, and the
supply of food failed. The national distress brought into the
forefront of politics national leaders, among whom Count
Hermann Jasper von Wcdd-Jarlsberg was the most conspicuous.
As yet, however, patriotism went no further than a demand for
an administration distinct from that of Denmark, which was
conceded in X807, and for a university nearer home than Copen-
hagen. In x8ix the government assented to the foundation of
the university of Christiania. (W. F. R.)
1814-1007.— Mitx a union of nearly 400 years between
Norway and Denmark, the Dam'sh king, Frederick VI., without
consulting the Norwegians, ceded Norway to Sweden ' ^vnu
by the treaty of Kid (January X4, 18 14). Some ha4iagto
time previously Sweden had joined the allies in their tbtumtoa
strug^e against Napoleon, while Denmark j^ad, un- J"*.^
wisdy, sided with the French. In X813 the Swedish *"'••**
crown prince, Bemadotte, afterwards King Carl XIV.,* pro-
ceeded to Germany and took command of one of the armies
of the allies. After the power of Napoleon had been broken at
> In 1810 he was elected heir to the Swedish throne, in succession
to the childless king Carl XIII., who died in 181&
8io
NORWAY
the battle of Leipzig, he advanced against Denmark, and King
Frederick soon saw himself compelled to accede to the cession of
Norway, which had long been the aspiration of the Swedes,
especially after the loss of Finland in 1809. In the treaty of Kiel
Frederick VI. absolved the Norwegians from their oath of
allegiance, and called upon them to become the loyal subjects
of the Swedish king. But the Norwegians, who had not been
consulted in the inatter, refused to acknowledge the treaty,
declaring that, while the Danish king might renounce his right
to the Norwegian crown, it was contrary to international law
to dispose of an entire kingdom without the consent of its people.
A meeting of delegates was convened at Eidsvold, not far from the
Norwegian capital, where, on the 17th of May 18x4, a constitu-
tion, framed upon the constitutions of America, of France (1791),
and of Spain (18x3), was adopted* Among its most important
features are that the Storthing, or National Assembly, is a
single-chamber institution, and that the king is not given an
absolute veto, or the ri^^t to dissolve the Storthing. The
Danish governor of Norway, Prince Christian Frederick, was
unanimously elected king. Soon afterwards the Swedes, under
the crown prince, invaded Norway. The hostilities lasted
only a fortnight, when Bemadolte opened negotiations with
the Norwegians. A convention was held at Moss, where it was
proposed that the Norwegians should accept the Swedish king
as their sovereign, on the condition that their constitution of the
X7th of May should remain intact, except with such alterations
as the union might render necessary. An extraordinary Storthing
was then sunmioned at Christlania, and on the 4th of November
X814 Norway was declared to be " a free, independent, and
indivisible kingdom, united with Sweden under one king." A
month previously Prince Christian Frederick had laid down
his crown and left the country.
The union was more fully defined by the " Act of Union,"
which was accepted by the national assemblies of both countries
in the following year. In the preamble to the act it is dearly
stated that the union between the two peoples was accomplished
" not by force of arms, but by free conviction," and the Swedish
foreign minister declared to the Eitropean Powers, on behalf
of Sweden, that the treaty of Kiel had been abandoned, and that
it was not to this treaty, but to the confidence of the Norwegian
people in the Swedish, that the latter owed the union with
Norway. Tlie constitution framed at Eidsvold was retained,
and formed the CrundhVf or fundamental law of the kingdom.
The imion thus concluded between the two countries was really
an offensive and defensive alliance under a common king, each
country retaining its own government, parliament, army, navy
and customs.
In Sweden the people received only an imperfect and erroneous
insight into the nature of the union, and for a long time believed
it to be an achievement of the Swedish arms. They had hoped
to make Norway a province of Sweden, and now they had entered
into a union in which both countries were equally independent.
During the first fifteen years the king was represented in Norway
by a Swedish viceroy, while the government was, of course,
composed only of Norwegians. Count Wedel Jarlsberg was the
first to be entrusted with the important office of head of the
Norwegian govcnmient, while several of Prince Christian
Frederick's councillors .of state were retained, or replaced by
others holding their political vieWs. The Swedish Count von
Essen was appointed the first viceroy of Norway, and was
succeeded two years afterwards by his countryman Count von
MOmer, over both of whom Count Wedel exercised considerable
influence.
During the first years of the luion the country suffered from
poverty and depression of trade, and the finances were in a
stniatd <*Morable condition. The first Storthing was chiefly
niMOoaB occupied with financial and other practical measures.
h0tw—m In order to improve the finances of the country a bank
sSa!f ®' Norway was founded, and the army was reduced to
'' one half. The paid-up capital of the bank was pro-
cured by an extraordinary tax, and this, together with the grow-
ing discontent among the peasantry, brought about a rising in
Hedemarken, the object of which was to dissolve the Storthing and
to obtain a reduction in the taxation. The rising, however, sood
subsided, and the bountiful harvest of 18x9 brought more prosper-
ous times to the peasantry. Meanwhile, however, the finandil
position of the country had neariy endaiigered its independeace.
The settlement with Denmark with regard to Norway's share of
the national debt conunon to both, assumed threatening propor-
tions. In the interest of Dexmiark, the allied powers asked fw a
speedy settlement, and in order to escape their collective inter-
vention, Bemadotte, who had now ^succeeded to the throne of
Sweden and Norway, on the death (February 5, 1818) of the old
king Carl Xm., aco^ted England's mediation, and was enabled
in September 18x9 to conclude a convention with Denmark,
according to which Norway was held liable for only 3,000,000
specie dollars (nearly £700,000). But the Norwegians considered
that this was still too much, and the attitude of the Storthing
in xSsi nearly occasioned a fresh interference of the powen.
The Storthing, however, yielded at last, and agreed to raise a
loan and pay the amount stipulated in the convention, but the
king evidently had his doubts as to whether the NorRtgiaos
really intended to fulfil their obligations. As his relations with
the Storthing had already become strained, and as he was
occupied at that time with plans, which it is now known meant
nothing less than a coup d*itat in connexion with the reviaaon
of the Norwegian constitution, he decided to adopt military
preparations, and in July xSsx he collected a force of 3000
Swedish and 3000 Norwegian troops in the neighbourhood of
Christiania, ostensibly for the mere purpose of holding some
manoeuvres. In a circular note (June x) to the European
powers, signed by the Swedish foreign minister, Eagstrom—
but it is not difikult to recognize the hand of the king as the
real author—the miiuster complained bitterly of the treatment
the king had met with at the hands of the Storthing, and repns
sented the Norwegians in anythixig but a favourable light to the
powers, the intention being to obtain their sympathy for any
attempt that might be made to revise the Norwegian oonstltutioQ.
About this time another important question had to be settled
by the Storthing. The Storthings of x8x5 and 18x8 had already
passed a bill for the abolition of nobility, but the king bad <»
both occasions refused his sanaion. The Norwegians maintaiaed
that the few counts and barons still to be fouxKl in Norway wen
all Danish and of very recent origin, while the really true and
ancient nobility of the country were the Norwegian peasants,
descendants of the old jarls and chieftains. According to the
constitution, any bill which has been passed by three successively
elected Storthings, elections being held every third ytu, beooaces
law without the king's sanction. When the third reading of the
bill came on, the king did everything in his power to obstruct
it, but in spite of his opposition the ball was eventually earned
and became law.
In x8a2 Cotmt Wedel Jarlsberg retired from the gDvcnuccfiL
He had become unpopular through his financial policy, a^
was also at issue with the king on vital matters. Iii p^^^
1821 he had been impeached before the Rigsret, the jm^nrfi
supreme court of the realm, for having caused tlie ff f »i i»
state considerablelofises. JonasCollctt(i77»-i85x)was y^ ''^'
appointed as his successor to the post of minister oC
finance. The king had by this time apparently abandoned hJs
pkm of a coup d'itaif for in the followixig August be submitted
to the Storthing several proposals for fundamental cba«fo
in the constitution, all of which aimed at removing all that wj»
at variance with a monarchical -form of government. The
changes, in fact, were the same as he had suggested in his cira:ir
note to the Powers, and which he knew would be hailed v.^^
approval by his Swedish subjects. When the Storthing c<'
again in X834 the royal proposals for the constitutional cbi^fg
came on for discussion. The Storthing unanimously rejectr^
not only the king's proposals, but also several others by privz:r
members for changes in the constitution. The king subouit;
his proposals again in the following session of the Storthiztg, ^
again later on, but they were always unanimously rejected. I'
X830 they were discussed for the last time, with the 1
NORWAY
8ii
TLe king's insistence was viewed by the people as a sign of
absolutist tendencies, and naturally excited fresh alarm. In the
eyes of the people the members of the opposition in the Storthing
were the true champions of the rights and the independence which
they had gained in 1814.
For several years the Norwegians had been celebrating the
1 7th of May as their day of independence, it being the anniversary
Tb^kh^M ^^ ^^^ adoption of the constitution of 1814; but as the
-" -"-^^ tension between the Norwegians and the king increased,*
the latter began to look upon the celebration in the
light of a demonstration directed against himself,
and when CoUett, the minister of finance, was impeached
before the supreme court of the realm for having made certain
payments without the sanction of the Storthing, he also con-
sidered this as an attack upon his royal prerogatives. His
irritation knew no bounds, and although Collet t was acquitted
by the supreme court, the king, in order to express his irritation
with the Storthing and the action they had taken against one of
his ministers, dissolved the national assembly with every sign
of displeasure. The Swedish viceroy at the time, Count Sandels,
had tried to convince him that his prejudice against the celebra-
tion of the X7th of May was groundless, and for some years the
king had made no objection to the celebration. In 1827 it was,
however, celebrated in a very marked manner, and later in the
same year there was a demonstration against a foolish political
play called The Unions and this being privately reported to the
king in as bad a light as possible, he thought that Count Sandels,
who had not considered it worth while to report the occurrence,
was not fitted for his post, and had him replaced by Count Beltzar
Bojnaus Platen (1766-1829), an upright but narrow-minded
statesman. Count Platen's first act was to issue a proclamation
warning the people against celebrating the day of independence;
and in April 1828 the king, against the advice of his ministers,
summoned an extraordinary Storthing, his intention being to
wrest from the Storthing the supremacy it had gained in 1827.
He also intended to take steps to prevent the celebration of the
1 7th of May, and assembled a force of 3000 Norwegian soldiers in
the neighbourhood of the capital. The king arrived in Christiania
soon after the opening of the extraordinary Storthmg. He did
not succeed, however, in his attempt to make any constitutional
changes, but the Storthing met the king's wbhes with regard to
the celebration of the 17th of May by deciding not to continue
the celebration, and the people all over the country quietly
acquiesced. The following year trouble broke out again. The
students had decided to celebrate the X7th of May with a festive
gathering, which, however, passed o£F quietly. But large masses
of the people paraded the streets, singing and shouting, and
gathered finally in the market-place. There was a little rioting,
jj^ and thd police and the military eventually dispersed
" battit the people and drove them to their homes with sword
ef lA* and musket. This episode has become known as the
■yyi* "battle of the market-place," and did much to
^^^ increase the general ill-feeling against Count Platen.
His health eventually broke down from disappointment and
vexation at the indignities and abuse heaped upon him. He
died in Christiania at the end of the year, and his post remained
vTicant for several years, the presidency of the Norwegian
government in the meantime being taken by CoUett, its oldest
member.
By the July Revolution of 1830 the political situation in
Europe became completely changed, and the lessons derived
from that great movement reached also to Norway.
The representatives of the peasantry, for whom the
constitution had paved the way to become the ruling
nfliBiifnr ^^^'^^'^^ *" political life, were also beginning to dis-
r-BMirtfy. ^jjjgyjji, themselves in the national assembly, where
they now had taken up an independent position agairist the
representatives of the oi^cial classes, who in 1814 and afterwards
had played the leading and most influential part in politics. This
party was now under the leadership of the able and gifted Ole
Ucland, who remained a member of every Storthing from 183310
1869. The Storthing of 1833 was the first of the so-called \
" peasant Storthings." Hitherto the peasantry had never been
represented by more than twenty members, but the elections in
1833 brought their number up to forty-five, nearly half of the
total representation. The attention of thb new party was
especially directed to the finances of the country, in the admini-
stration of which they demanded the strictest economy. They
often went too far in their zeal, and thereby incurred consider-
able ridiade.
About this time the peasant party found a champion in the
youthful poet Henxik Wergeland, who soon became one of the
leaders of the '' Young Norway " party. He was a n^cj,.
republican in politics, and the most zealous upholder had; ap>
of the national independence of Norway and of her '^f **"
full equality with Sweden in the union. A strong •*^"*^*'
opposition to Wergeland and the peasant party was formed by
the upper classes under the leadership of another rising poet and
writer, Johan Sebastian Welhaven, and other talented men, who
wished to retain the literary and linguistic relationship with
Denmark, while Wergeland and his party wished to maJce the
separation from Denmark as complete as possible, and in every
way to encourage the growth of the natioxval characteristics and
feeling among the people. He devoted much of his time, by
writing and other means, to promote the education of the people;
but although he was most popular with the working and poorer
classes, he was not able to form any political party around him,
and at the time of his death he stood almost isolated. He died
in 184s, and his opponents became now the leaders in the field
of literature, and carried on the work of national reconstruction
in a more restrained and quiet maimer. The peasant party still
continued to exist, but restricted itself principally to the assertion
of local interests and the maintenance of strict economy in
finance.
The violent agitation that began in 1830 died away. The
tension between the king and the legislature, however, still
continued, and reached its height during the session of 1836,
when all the royal proposals for changes in the constitution were
laid aside, without even passing through committee, and when
various other steps towards upholding the independence of the
country were taken. The king, in his displeasure, decided to
dissolve the Storthing; but before it dispersed it piDceeded to
impeach LOvenskiold, one of the ministers, before the supreme
court of the realm, for having advised the king to dissolve the
Storthing. He was eventually sentenced to pay a fine of 10,000
kroner (about £s5o), but he retained his post. Collctt, another
minister who had greatly displeased the king by his conduct,
was dismissed; but unity in the government was brought about
by the appointment of Count Wedd Jarlsberg as viceroy of
Norway. From this time the relations between the king and the
Norwegian people began to improve, whereas in Sweden he was^
in his later years, not a little disliked.
When the king's anger had subsided, he summoned the Stor-
thing to an extraordinary session, during which several important
bills were passed. Towards the dose of the session an ^^
address to the king was agreed to, in which the Stor- Mito.
thing urged that steps should be taken to place Norway "v _
in political respects upon an equal footing with Sweden, "
especially in the conduct of diplomatic affairs with foreign
countries. The same address contained a petition for the use
of the national or merchant flag in all waters. According to
the constitution, Norway was to have her own merchant flag,
and in 1821 the Storthing had passed a resolution that the flag
should be scarlet, divided into four by a blue cross with white
borders. The king, however, refused his sanction to the resolu-
tion, but gave permission to use the flag in waters nearer home;
but beyond Cape Finisterre the naval flag, which was really the
Swedish flag, with a white cross on a red ground in the upper
square, must be carried. In reply to the Storthing's address the
king in 1838 conceded the right to all merchant ships to carry the
natiorud flag in all waters. This was hailed \i-ith great rejoicings
all over the country; but the question of the national flag for
general use had yet to be settled With regard to the question
raised in the address of the Storthing about the conduct of
8l2
NORWAY
diplomatic affairs, and other matters concerning the equality of
Norway in the union, the king in 1839 appointed a committee of
four Norwegians and four Swedes, who were to consider and
report upon the questions thus raised
During the sitting of this first " Union Committee " its powers
were extended to consider a comprehensive revision of the Act
Death of ^^ Union, with the limitation that the fundamental
KiagCarl conditions of the union must in no way be interfered
Joham with. 3ut before the committee had finished their
*«**^J^ report the king died (March 8th 1844), and was suc-
hy Oscar L cocded by his SOU Oscar I. According to the constitu-
tion the Norwegian kings must be crowned in Throndhjem
cathedral, but the bishop of Throndhjem was in doubt whether
the queen, who was a Roman Catholic, could be crowned, and
the king decided to forego the coronation both of himself and his
queen. The new king soon showed his desire to meet the wishes
of the Norwegian people. Thus he dedded that in all documents
concerning the internal government of the country Norway
should stand first where reference was made to the king as
sovereign of the two kingdoms. After having received the report
of the committee concerning the flag question, he resolved Qune
30th, 1844) that Norway and Sweden should each carry its own
national flag as the naval flag, with the mark of union in the upper
comer; and it was also dedded that the merchant flag of the
two kingdoms should bear the same mark of union, and that only
ships sailing under these flags could claim the protection of the
state.
The financial and material condition of the country had now
considerably improved, and King Oscar's rdgn was marked by
the carrying out of important legislative work and reforms,
especially in local government. New roads were planned and
built all over the country, the first railway was built, steamship
routes along the coast were established, lighthouses were erected
and trade and shipping made great progress. The king's reign
was not disturbed by any serious conflicts between the two
countries. No change took place in the ministry under the
presidency of the viceroy L6venskiold upon King Oscar's
accession to the throne, but on the death or retirement of some
of its members the vacant places were filled by younger and
talented men, among whom was Fredrik Stang, who in 1845
took over the newly established ministry of the interior. During
the Schlcswig-Holstcin rebellion (1848-1850) and the Crimean
War King Oscar succeeded in maintaining the neutrality of
Norway and Sweden, by which Norwegian shipping especially
benefited. The abolition of the English navigation acts in 1850
was of great importance to Norway, and opened up a great future
for its merchant fleet.
In 1826 a treaty had been oonduded with Russia, by which
the frontier between that coimtry and the adjoining strip of
Norwegian territory in the Polar region was definitdy
'ir?*"*' delimited; but in spite of this treaty Russia in 1851
^^uaOg, demanded that the Russian Lapps on the Norwegian
frontier should have the right to fish on the Norwegian
coast, and have a portion of the coast on the Varanger fjord
allotted to them to settle upon. The Norwegian government
refused to accede to the Russian demands, and serious complica-
tions might have ensued if the attention of Russia had not been
turned in another direction. While his father had looked
to Russia for support, King Oscar was more inclined to secure
western powers as his allies, and during the Crimean War he
concluded a treaty with England and France, according to
which these countries promised thdr assistance in the event of
any fresh attempts at encroachment on Norwegian or Swedish
territory by Russia. In consequence of this treaty the relations
]3etween Norway and Sweden and Russia became somewhat
strained; but after the peace of Paris in 1856, and the accession
of Alexander II., whose government was in favour of a peaceful
policy, the Russian ambassador at Stockholm succeeded in
bringing about more friendly relations.
Owing to the king's ill-health, his son, the crown prince Carl,
was appointed regent in 1857, and two years later, when King
Oscar died, be succeeded to the throne^ of the two countries as
Carl XV. He was a gifted, genial and noble penonaHtj, and
desired to inaugurate his reign by giving the Nor-
wegians a proof of his willingness to acknowledge the
claims of Norway, but he did not h've to see his wishes
in this respect carried out. According to the constitu-
tion, the king had the power to appoint a viceroy for
Norway, who might be dther a Norwegian or Swede. Since 1839
no Swede had held the post, and since 1859 no ^pointment of a
Viceroy had been made. But the paragraph in the constltutioa
still existed, and the Norwegians naturally wished to have this
stamp of "provinciality" obliterated. A proposal for the
abolishment of the oflke of viceroy was laid before the g^uft.
Storthing in 1859, and passed by it. The king, whose •# Mm*
sympathies on this question were known, had been *;^^—
appealed to, and had privately promised that he would """V*
sanction the proposed change in the constitution; but as toon
as the resolution of the Storthing became known in Swedes, a
violent outcry arose both in the Swedish press and the Swedish
estates. Under the pressure that was brought to bear upon the
king in Sweden, he eventually rdused to sanction the rcsoluiioD
of Uie Storthing; but he added that he shared the views of his
Norwegian counsellors, and would, when "the convenient
moment " came, himself propose the abolition of the office of
viceroy.
In the following year the Swedish government again prcaed the
demands of the Swedish estates for a revision of the Act of Union,
which this time induded the establishment of n
union or common parliament for the two countries, on
the basis that, according to the population, there
should be two Swedish members to every Norwegian.
The proposal was sent to the Norwegian government*
which did not seem at all disposed to entertain it; bat
some dissensions arose with regard to the form in which its reply
was to be laid before the king. The more obstinate membeis
of the ministry resigned, and others, of a more pUabie nature,
were appointcxi under the presidency of Fredrik Stan^ who
had already been minister of the interior from 1845 to 1856.
The reconstructed government was, however, in aoooM with the
retiring one, that no proposal for the revision of the Act of Union
could then be entertained. The king, however, advocated the
desirability of a revision, but insisted that this would have to
be based upon the full equality of both countries. In 1863 the
Storthing assented to the appointment by the king of a Union
committee, the second time that such a committee had been
called upon to consider this vexatious question. It was not
until 1867 that its report was made public, but it could not
come on for discussion in the Storthing till it met again in 1871.
During this period the differences between the two countries
were somewhat thrust into the background by the Danish
complications in 1863-1864, which threatened to draw tbe two
kingdoms into war. King Carl was himself in favour of a
defensive alliance with Denmark, but the Norwegian Storthing
would only consent to this if an alliance could aIso.be effected
with at least one of the western powers.
In X869 the Storthing passed a resolution by whidi its sessions
were made annual insteaid of triennial according to the coostica-
tion of 1814. The first imporUnt question which the fust yearfy
Storthing which met in 1871 had to consider was onoe more the
proposed revision of the Act of Union. The Norwegians k&i
persistently maintained that in any discussion on this quesiioc
the basis for the negotiations should be (i) the full equality of tht
two kingdoms, and (3) no extension of the bonds of the xaj»
beyond the line originally defined in the act of 181 $• However.
the draft of the new act contained terms in which the vxpt^mx:^
of Sweden was presupposed and which introduced importis:
extensions of the bonds of the union; and, strangdy enough, iIk
report of the Union committee was adopted by the new Sur.:
ministry, and even supported by some of the most influenii.'
newspapers under the plausible garb of " Srandinavinnisa '
In these drcumstances the " lawyers' party," under the Icair
ship of Johan Sverdrup, who was to play such a prominent lar
in Norwegian polilics, and the " peasant party," led by Si.rs>
NORWAY
813
party.
Jaaboek, a gifted peasant proprietor, who was ako destined to
become a prominent figure in the political history of the country,
formed an alliance, with the object of guarding against
any encroachment upon the liberty and independence
which the coimtry had secured by the constitution of
1814. This was the foundation of the great national
party, which became known as the " Venstre " (the
left), and which before long became powerful enough to exert
the most decisive influence upon the poUtical affairs of the
country. When, therefore, the proposed revision of the Act of
Union eventually came before the Storthing in 1871, it was re-
jected by an overwhelming majority. The position which the
government had taken up on this question helped to open the
eyes of the Norwegians to some defects in the constitution, which
had proved obstacles to the development and strengthening of
the parliamentary system.
In 1872 a private bill came before the Storthing, proposing that
the ministers should be admitted to the Storthing and take part
in its proceedings. After a number of stormy debates,
JJ^JJJ^ii, the bill was successfully carried under the leadership
umc» 0/ ^^ Johan Sverdrup by a large majority, but the govem-
miaitun ment, evidently jealous of the growing powers and
cowaecia influence of the new liberal party in the Storthing,
2*^f^ advised the king to refuse his sanction, although the
^ government party itself had several times in the
preceding half -century introduced a similar bill for admitting the
ministers to the Storthing. At that time, however, the opposition
had looked with suspicion on the presence of the ministers in the
national assembly, lest their superior skill in debate and political
experience should turn the scale too readily in favour of govern-
ment measures. Now, on the contrary, the opposition had
gained more experience and had confidence in its own strength,
and no doubt found that the legislative work could better be
carried on if the ministers were present to explain and defend
their views; but the government saw in the proposed reform the
threatened introduction of full parliamentary government, by
which the ministry could not remain in office unless supported by
a majority in the Storthing. Before the Storthing separated the
liberals carried a vote of censure against the government; but
the king declared that the ministers enjoyed his confidence
and took no further notice of the vote. Two of the ministers,
who had advised the ratification of the bill, resigned, however;
and a third minister, who had been in the government since
1848, resigned also, and retired from public life, foreseeing the
storm that was brewing on the political horizon. Numerous
public meetings were held all over the country in support of the
proposed reform, and among the speakers was Johan Sverdrup,
now the acknowledged leader of the liberal party, who was hailed
with great enthusiasm as the champion of the proposed reform.
This was the political situation when King Carl died (i8th
September 1873). He was succeeded by his brother, who ascended
OMdkW the throne as Oscar II. In the following year he
C»^ gave his sanction to the bDl for the abolition of the
'**^''^^ office of viceroy, which the Storthing had again
passed, and the president of the ministry was after-
wards recognized as the prime minister and head of the
government in Christiania. Fredrik Stang, who was the pre-
sident of the ministry at the time, was the first to fill this office.
In the same 'year Norway celebrated its existence for a thousand
years as a kingdom, with great festivities.
In 1874 the government, in order to show the people that they
to some extent were willing to meet their wishes with regard to
jYmiTfflMfc ^he great question before the country, laid before the
^ th» Storthing a royal proposition for the admittance of the
StMitHag ministers to the national assembly. But this was to
^** ^/'^ be accompanied by certain other constitutional changes,
^^ilSr B^<^h ^ giving the king the right of dissolving the Stor-
thingat hispleasure, and providingfixed pensions for ex-
ministers, which was regarded as a guarantee against the majority
of the assembly misusing its new power. The bill which the
government brought in was unanimously rejected by the Stor-
ttsing, the conservatives also voting against it, as they considered
the guarantees Insufficient. The same year, and again 10 i877>
the Storthing passed the bill, but in a somewhat different form
from that of 1872. On both occasions the king refused his
sanction.
The Storthing then resorted to the procedure provided by the
constitution to carry out the people's will. In x88o the bill was
passed for the third time, and on this occasion by the ^^^/^g
overwhelming majority of 93 out of 113. Three rrutT^'
Storthings after three successive elections had now
carried the bill, and it was generally expected that the king and
his government would at length comply with the wishes of the
people, but the king on this occasion also refused his sanction,
declaring at the same time that his right to the absolute veto
was *' above all doubt." Johan Sverdrup, the leader of the
liberal party and president of the Storthing, brought the question
to a prompt issue by proposing to the Storthing that the bill,
which had been passed three times, should be declared to be the
law of the land without the king's sanction. Thb proposal was
carried by a large majority on the 9th of June x88o, but the
king and his ministers in reply declared that they would not
recognize the validity of the resolution.
From this moment the struggle may be said to have centred
itself upon the existence or non-existence of an absolute veto on
the part of the crown. The king requested the faculty stnggh
of law at the Christiania university to give its opinion bttwmm
on the question at issue, and with one dissentient the tk^umg
learned doctors upheld the king's right to the absolute JitlLii
veto in questions concerning amendments of the con- ^"^
stitution, although they could not find that it was expressly
stated in the fundamental law of the country. The ministry also
advised the king to claim a veto in questions of supply, which
still further increased the ill-feeling in the country against the
government, apd the conflict in consequence grew more and more
violent.
In the midst of the struggle between the king and the Storthing,
the prime minister, Fredrik Stang, resigned, and Christian
August Selmer (1816-1889) became his successor;
and this, together with the appointment of another JJ^^J**
member to the ministry, K. H. Schweigaard, plainly
indicated that the conflict with the Storthing was to be continued.
In June 1882 the king arrived in Christiania to dissolve the
Storthing, and on this occasion delivered a speech from the
throne, in which he openly censured the representatives of the
people for their attitude in legislative work and on the question
of the absolute veto, the speech creating considerable surprise
throughout the country. Johan Sverdrup and BjOrnstjerne
Bjdrnson, the poptilar poet and dramatist, called upon the
people to support the Storthing in upholding the resolution of
the 9th of June, and to rouse themselves to a sens^ of their
political righu. The elections resulted in a great victory for the
liberal party, which returned stronger than ever to the Storthing,
numbering 83 and the conservatives only 31. The ministry,
however, showed no sign of yielding, and, when the new Storthing
met in February 1883, the Odelsthing (the lower division of the
national assembly) decided upon having the question |^^t>-
finally settled by impeaching the whole of the ministry «•«< 0/
before the Rigsret or the supreme court of the realm. mtaMtn
The jurisdiction of the Rigsret is limited to the trial 5^J|JJ^^
of offences against the state, and there is no appeal Tffgi^
against its decisions. The charges against the ministers
were for having acted contrary to the interests of the country by
advising the king to refuse his sanction — first, to the amendment
of the law for admitting the ministers to the Storthing; secondly,
to a bill involving a question of supply; and thirdly, to a bill
by which the Storthing could appoint additional directors on the
state railways.
The trial of the eleven ministers of the Selmer cabinet began in
May 1883 and lasted over ten months: In the end the n# atale
Rigsret sentenced the prime minister and seven of his itr—'
ministers to be deprived of their offices, while three, Jjf^ij^
who had either recommended the king to sanction "•
X)it bill for admitting the nunisters to the Storthing, or had
8i4
NORWAY
entered the cabinet at a later date, were heavQy fined. The
excitement in the country rose to feverish anxiety. Rumours of
all kinds were afloat, and it was generally believed that the king
would attempt a coup d'itai. Fortunately the king after some hesi-
tation issued (xxth March 1884) an order in council announcing
that the judgment of the supreme court would be carried inio
effect, and Selmer was then called upon to resign his position as
prime minister. King Osair, however, in his dedara-
'*^JJ*f" tion upheld the constitutional prerogative of the
alttktai crown, which, he mainuined, was not impaired by
the judgment of the Rigsret. The following month the
king, regardless of the large hberal majority in the Storthing,
asked Schweigaard, one of the late ministers, whose punishment
consisted in a fine, to form a ministry, and the so^alled " April
ministry" was then appointed, but sent in its resignation in
the following month. Professor Broch, a former minister, next
failed to form a ministry, and the king was at last compelled to
appoint a ministry in accordance with the majority in the
F*>« Storthing. In June 1884 Johan Sverdrup was asked
Ubtrmi to form one. He selected for his ministers leading
mimuuy men on th^ liberal side in the Storthing, and the first
'*** liberal ministry that Norway had was at length
appointed. The Storthing, in order to satisfy the king, passed
a new resolution admitting the ministers to the national assembly,
and this received formal sanction.
During the following years a series of important reforms was
carried through. Thus in 1887 the jury system in criminal
matters was introduced into the country after violent opposition
from the conservatives. A bill intended to give parishioners
greater influence in church matters, and, introduced by Jakob
Sverdrup, the minister of education, and a nephew of the prime
minister, met, however, with strong opposition, and was eventu-
ally rejected by the Storthing, the result being a break-up of the
ministry and a disorganization of the Kberal party. In June 1889
the Sverdrup ministry resigned, and a conse'rvative one was
formed by Emil Stang, the leader of the conservatives in the
Storthing, and during the next two years the Storthing passed
various useful measures; but the ministry was eventually
wrecked on the rock of the great national question which about
this time came to the front — that of Norway's share in the
transaction of diplomatic affairs. At the time of the union in
1814 nothing had been settled as to how these were to be con-
ducted, but in 1835 a resolution was issued, that when the
Swedish foreign minister was transacting diplomatic
matters with the king which concerned both countries,
or Norway only, the Norwegian minister of state in
attendance upon the king at Stockholm should be
present. This arrangement did not always prove
satisfactory to the Norwegians, especially as the Stiredish
foreign minister could not be held responsible to the Norwegian
govemmoit or parliament.
By a change in the Swedish constitution in 1885 the ministerial
council, in which diplomatic matters are discussed, came to
consist of the Swedish foreign minister and two other
'^^ members of the cabinet on behalf of Sweden, and of
the Norwegian minister at Stockholm on behalf of
Norway. The king, wishing to remedy this di^Mirity,
proposed that the composition of the council should be determinni
by an additional paragraph in the Act of Union. The representa-
tives of the Norwegian government m Stockholm proposed that
three members of the cabinet of each country shoidd constitute
the ministerial counciL To this the Swedidi government was
willing to agree, but on the assumption that the minuter of foreign
affairs should continue to be a Swede as before, and this the
Norwegians, of course, would not accept. At the king's instiga-
tion the negotiations with the Swedish government were resumed
at the begiiming of 1891, but the Swedish Riksdag rejected
the proposals, while the Norwegian Storthing insisted upon
" Norway's right, as an independent kingdom, to full equality
in the union, and therewith her right to watch over her foreign
affairs in a constitutional manner." The Stang ministry then
Tcsigned, and a liberal ministry, with Steen, the recognized
Th»qm
ttoaaf
leader of the liberal party after Sverdrup's withdrawal from
politics, as prime minnier, was appointed.
The new ministry had placed the question of a separate mint^^^
of foreign affairs for Norway prominently in their programme, but
little progress was made during the next few years. ^
Another and more important question for the country, »
as far as its shipping and commerce are concerned, <
now came to the front. The Storthing had in 1891 '
appointed a committee to inquire into the practicalnlicy of
esublishing a separate Norwegian consular service, and in 1892
the Storthing, acting upon the committee's report, determised
to esublish a consular service. The king, influenced by public
opinion in Sweden, refused his sanction, and the Norwegian
government in consequence sent in their resignation, wbercupoa
a complete deadlock ensued. This was terminated by a com-
promise to the effect that the ministry would return to office <»
the understanding that the question was postponed by cocnmoa
consent. The following year the Storthing again passed a
resolution calling upon the Norwegian government to proceed
with the necessary measures for establishing the proposed
consular service for Norway, but the king again refused to take
any action in the matter. Upon this ^e liberal ministry resigned
(May 1893), and the king appointed a conservative gDvemmeot,
with Emil Sung as its chief. Thus matters went on till tlie eod
of 1894, when the triennial elections took place, with the resuh
that the majority of the electors declared in favour of tiai«**^il
independence on the great question then before the country.
The ministry did not at once resign, )>ut waited tUl the kiag
arrived in Christiania to open the Storthing Qanuary 1895). The
king kept the country for over four months without a responsible
government, during which time the crisis had become more acute
than ever. A coalition ministry was at last formed, with
Professor G. F. Hagerup as prime minister. A new committee,
con«sting of an equal number of Norwegians and Swedes, was
appointed to consider the question of separate diplomatic
representation; but after sitting for over two years the com-
mittee separated without being able to come to any agreement.
The elections in 1897 proved again a great victory for the liberal
party, 79 liberals and 35 conservatives being returned, and in
February 1898 the Hagerup ministry was replaced by a libenU
once more under the premiership of Steen. Soon afterwards the
bill for the general adoption of the national or " pure " flag, as
it was called, was carried for the third time, and became Uv
without the king's sanction. In 1898 universal political suffrage
for men was passed by a large majority, but the proposal to
include women received the support of only 33 votes.
In January 2902, on the initiative of the Swedish foreign
minbter, another committee, consisting of an equal number o<
leading Norwegians and Swedes, was appointed by j^^
the king to investigate the consular question. The
unanimous report of the committee was to the effect ^^
that " it was possible to appoint separate Norwegian "^
consuls exclusively responsible to Norwegian authority asd
separate Swedish consuls exclusively responsible to Swedish
authority." The further negotiations between the two govern
ments resulted in the so-called communiqiti of the 34th off Mardi
1903, which announced the conclusion of an agreement betwcca
the representatives of the two countries for the fstsMi^mfsi
of the separate consuhtf service. The terms of the e ommmmif mi
were submitted to a combined Norwegian and Swedish cooocS
of state on the axst of December 1903, when they were unant*
mously agreed to and were signed by the king, who oommiadnoed
the Norwegian and the Swedish governments to proceed with tbr
drafting of the laws and regulations for the separate cormibr
services. In due course the Norwegian government sulmattrd
to the Swedish government their draft of the pnfoatd laws asd
regulations, but no reply was forthcoming for several months.
About this time the Swedish foreign' minister, Mr Lagetfacis.
who had zealously worked for a friendly solution of the consafa:
question, resigned, and in November the same year BoatrGm, the
Swedish prime minister, suddenly submitted to the N oiwtgiu
government a number of new Conditions under which the SwediA
NORWAY
815
government was prepared to agree to the establishment of separate
consuls. This came as a surprise to the Norwegians in view
of the fact that the basis for the establishment of separate
consuls had already been agreed upon and confirmed by the
king in December X9O5. According to Bostrdm's proposals the
Norwegian consuls were to be placed under the control of the
Swedish foreign minister, who was to have the power to remove
any Norwegian consul. The Norwegians felt it would be beneath
the dignity of a self-governing country to agree to the Swedish
proposals, and that these new demands were nothing less than
a breach of faith with regard to the terms of agreement arrived
at two year^ before by both governments and approved and
signed by the king. The Norwegian government would have
been perfectly justified if, after this, they had withdrawn from
the negotiations, but they did not wish to jeopardize the oppor-
tunity of arriving at a friendly settlement, and Hagerup, the
Norwegian prime minister, proceeded to Stockholm to confer
with BostrOm; but no satisfactory agreement could be arrived
at. There was therefore nothing left but for the Norwegians
to take matters into their own hands.
On the 8th of February 1905 Hagerup announced to the
Norwegian Storthing that the negotiations had fallen through,
and on the xyth the Storthing decided uiumimously to refer
the matter to a special committee. Owing to some difference of
opinion between the members of his minbtry, Hagerup resigned
on the xst of March and was Succeeded by Christian Michelsen,
who formed a ministry composed of members of both political
parties. The special committee decided that a bill should be
immediately submitted to the Storthing for the establishment of
a Norwegian consular service and that the measure should come
into force not later than the xst of April X906. An attempt was
made by the Swedish crown prince, acting as Prince Regent
during the king's illness, to enter into new negotiations with the
Norwegian government, but the proposals were not favourably
received in Norway. In April xgos Bostr5m resigned, which
was considered to be a move on the part of Sweden to facilitate
negotiations with Norway. The biU for the establishment of
Norwegian consuls was passed by the Storthing without a
dissentient voice on the 33rd of May, and it was generally
expected that the king, who again had assumed the reins of
government, would sanction the bill, but on the 27th of May,
in spite of the earnest entreaties of his Norwegian ministers,
the king formally refused to do so. The Norwegian Ministry
immediately resigned, but the king informed the ministers that
Dcdto/a- ^® could not accept their resignation. They, however,
t/0a 0# declined to withdraw it. A few days afterwards the
imd»p9tt4- Norwegian government informed the Storthing of the
*"** king's refusal, whereupon the assembly unanimously
agreed to refer the matter to the special committee. On the
7th of June the Storthing met to hear the final decision of
the government. Michelsen, the prime minister, informed the
Storthing that all the members of the government had resigned
in consequence of the king's refusal to sanction the consular
law, that the king had declined to accept the resignation, and
that, as an alternative government could not be formed, the
union with Sweden, based upon a king in common, was con-
sequently dissolved. The president of the Storthing submitted
a resolution that the resigning ministry should be authorized to
exercise the authority vested in the king in accordance .with the
constitution of the country. The resolution was unanimously
adopted.
King Oscar, on receiving the news of the action of the Nor-
wegian Storthing, sent a telegraphic protest to the Norwegian
prime minister and to the president of the StortUng.
' The Swedish government immediately decided to
summon an extraordinary session of the Swedish
parliament for the 20th of June, when a special com-
mittee was appointed to consider what steps should be taken by
Sweden. On the 35th of July the report of the committee was
laid before the Riksdag, in which it was stated that Sweden
could have no objection to enter into negotiations about the
severance of the union, when a vote to that effect had been
given by a newly-elected Storthing or by a national vote in the
form of a referendum by the Norwegian people. The report
was unanimously adopted by the Swedish Riksdag on the 37th
of July, and on the following day the Norwegian Storthing
decided that a general plebiscite should be taken on the X3th
of August, when 368,31 x voted in favour of the dissolution and
only X84 against it. It was thereupon agreed that representatives
of Norway and of Sweden should meet at Karlstad in Sweden
on the 3 xst of August to discuss and arrange for the severance of
the union. The negotiations lasted till the 23rd of September,
though more than once they were on the point of being broken
off. The agreement stipulated a neutral zone on both sides of the
southern border between the two countries, the Norwegians
undertaking to dismantle some fortifications within that zone.
The agreement was to remain in force for ten years, and could
be renewed for a similar period, unless one of the countries gave
notice to the contrary. The Karlstad agreement was
ratified by the Norwegian Storthing on th^ 9th of '^
October and by the Swedish Riksdag on the x 6th of the Kir.
same month. On the 37th of October King Oscar
issued a proclamation to the Norwegian Storthing, in which he
relinquished the crown of Norway. The Norwegian government
was thereupon authorized by the Storthing to negotiate with
Prince Charles of Deimiark and to arrange for a national vote as
to whether or no*the country would approve of his election for the
Norwegian throne. The plebiscite resulted in 259,563 votes
for his election and 69,364 against. On the x8th of November
the Storthing unanimously elected Prince Charles as king of
Norway, he taking the name of Haakon VII. On the 35th of
November the king and his consort, Queen Maud, the youngest
daughter of King Edward VII. of England, entered the Norwegian
capital. Their coronation took place in the Trondhjem cathedral
the following year.
In X907 parliamentary suffrage was granted to women with
the same limitation as in the municipal suffrage granted to them
in 190X, viz. to all unmarried women over 35 years, who pay
taxes on an income of 300 kroner (about £16) in the country
districts and on 400 kroner (about £22) in the towns, as well as to
all married women, whose husbands pay taxes on simDar incomes.
Norway was thus the first sovereign country in Europe where
the parliamentary vote was granted to women. (H. L. B.)
NOKWEGTAN LXTESATUKE
Eariy Norse literature is inextricably bound up with Icelandic
literature. Iceland was colonized from Norway in the 9th
century, and the colonists were drawn chiefly from the upper and
cultured classes. They took with them their poetry and literary
traditions. Old Norse literature is therefore dealt with under
Iceland (^.v.). (See also Edda, Saga, Runes.)
The modern literature of Norway bears something of the same
relation to that of Denmark that American literature bears
to Engh'sh. In each case the development and separation of
a dependency have produced a desire on the part of persons
speaking the mother-tongue for a literature that shall express
the local emotions and conditions of the new nation. Two notable
events led to the foundation of a separate Norwegian Eterature:
the one was the creation of the university of Christiania in 181 1,
and the other was the separation of Norway from Denmark
in 1814. Before this time Norwegian writers had been content, as
a rule, to publish their works at Copenhagen. The first name
on the annals of Danish literature, Peder Clausen, is that of a
Norwegian; and if all Norse writers were removed from that
roll, the list would be poorer by some of its most illustrious names,
by Holberg, Tullin, Wessel, Treschow, Steffens and Hauch.
The first book printed in Norway was an aUnanac, brought
out in Christiania in X645 by a wandering printer named Tyge
Nielsen, who brought his types from Copenhagen. But the first
press set up definitely in Norway was that of Valentin Kuhn.
brought over from Germany in 1650 by the theobgian Christian
Stcphehsen Bang (1580-1678) to help in the circulation of his
numerous tracts. Bang's CAm/tantaf Slads Beskrifuelse (1651),
is the first book published in Norway. Christen Jensen (d. 1653)
8i6
NORWAY
wat a priest who collected a small f^ossary or fjlosebog of the local
dialects, published in 1656. Gerhard Milsow (x63^t688), the
author of a Presbykrohgia Norwegica (1679), was also a None
priest. The earliest Norwegian writer of any original merit was
Dorthe Engelbrechtsdatter (x634'-x7z6), afterwards the wife of
the pastor Ambrosius Hardenbech. She is the author of several
volumesof religious poetry which have enjoyed great popularity.
The hymn-writer Johan Brunsmann (z637-x707)» though a
Norseman by birth, belongs by education and temper entirely
to Denmark. Not so Fetter Dass (z647'Z7o8) (g.v.)f the most
origin^ writer whom Norway produced axid retained at home
during the period of annexation. Another priest, Jonas Ramus
(1649-X7X8), wrote Norriges Kongers Historic (History of the
Norse Kings) in 17x9, and Norriges Beskrivdse (X735). The
celebrated missionary to Greenland, Hans Egede (X686-X758),
wrote several works on his experiences in that country. Peder
Hersleb (1689-X757) was the compiler of some popular treatises
of Lutheran theology. Frederik Nannestad, bishop of Trondh-
jem (1693-X774), started a weekly gazette in Z760b The
missionary Knud Leem (x697'X774) published a number of
works on the Lapps of Finmark, one at least of which, his
Beskrivdse over FiHmcrkins Lapper (1767), still possesses con-
siderable interest. The famous Erik Pontoppidan (x698^x764)
cannot be regarded as a Norwegian, for he did not leave Denmark
until he was made bishop of Bergen, at the age of forty-nine. On
the other hand the far more famdus Baron Ludvig Holbcrg
(1684-1754), belongs to Denmark by everything but birth,
having left Norway in childhood.
A few Norsemen of the beginning of the x8th century dis-
tinguished themselves chiefly in science. Of these Johan Ernst
Gunnerus (1718-1773), bishop of Trondhjem, was the first man
who gave close attention to the Norwegian flora. He founded
the Norwegian Royal Society of Sciences in 1760, with Gerhard
SchOning (1722-1780) the historian and Hans Str6m (z7a6-x797)
the zoologist. Peder Christofcr Stenersen (1723- 1776), a writer
of occasional verses, merely led the way for Christian Braumann
Tullin (1728-1765), a lyrical poet of exquisite genius, who is
claimed by Denmark but who must be mentioned here, because
his poetry was not only mainly composed in Christiam'a, but
breathes a local spirit. Danish literature between the great
names of Evald and Baggesen presents us with hardly a single
figure which is not that of a Norseman. The director of the
Danish national theatre in 177 x was a Norwegian, Niels Krog
Bredal (X733-1778), who was the first to write lyrical dramas
in Danish. A Norwegian, Johan Nordahl Brun (i 745-1816),
was the principal tragedian of the time, in the French taste.
It was a Norwegian, J. H. Wessel (i 742-1 785), who laughed this
taste out of fashion. In 1772 the Norwegian poets were so
strong in Copenhagen that they formed a Norske Selskab (Nor-
wegian Society), which exercised a tyranny over contemporary
letters which was only shaken when Baggesen appeared. Among
the leading writers of this period are Claus Frimann (i 746-1829),
Peter Harboe Frimann (1752-1839), Claus Fasting (1746-1791),
JohailWibe (1748-1782), Edvard Storm (1749-1794), C. H. Pram
(1756-1821), Jonas Rein (1760-1821), Jens Zetlitz (176X-1821),
and Lyder Christian Sagen (1771-1850), all of whom, though
Norwegians by birth, find their place in the annals of Danish
literature. To these poets must be added the philosophers Niels
Trcschow (1751-1833) aftd Henrik Steffcns (1773-1845), and in
later times the poet Johannes Carstcn Hauch (1790-1872).
The first form which Norwegian literature took as an inde-
pendent thing was what was called ** Syttendemai-Poesi," or
poetry of the x 7th of May, that being the day on which
«'7>«Mr." Norway obtained her independence and proclaimed
her king. Three poets, called the " Trefoil," came
forward as the inaugurators of Norwegian thought in x8x4.
Of these Conrad Nicolai Schwach (X793-Z860) was the least
remarkable, ^enrik Anker Bjerregaard (X792-X842), bom in
the same hamlet of Ringsaker as Schwach, had a much brighter
and more varied talent. His Miscellaneous Poems, collected at
Christiania in 1829, contain some charming studies from nature,
and admirable patriotic songs. He brought out a tragedy of
Magnus Barfods Sdmur (Magnus Barefoot's Sons) and a lyrkaJ
drama, Pjeldeveniyret (The Adventure in the Mountains) (1828).
He became judge of the supreme court of the diocese of Chris-
tiania. The third member of the Trefoil, Mauritz Kristoffer
Hansen (1794-X842), was a schoolmaster. His novels, oC whicb
Ottar de Bretagne {iBig) was the earliest, were much esteemed in
their day, and after his death were collected aiul edited (8 vols.,
X85S-X858), with a memoir by Schwach. Hansen's Potms^
printed at Christiania in x8x6, were among the earliest puhli-
cations of a liberated Norway, but were preceded by a volume
of SmaadigU (Short Poems) by all three poets, edited by Schwach
in x8x5, as a semi-political manifesto. These writers, of no great
genius in themselves, did much by their industry and patriolisra
to form a basis for Norwegian literature.
The creator of Norwegian literature, however, was the poet
Henrik Arnold Wezgeland (x8o8^x845) (9.*.), a man of great
genius and enthusiasm, who contrived within the limits
of a life as short as Byron's to concentrate the labours y|y
of a dozen ordinary men of letters. He held views in wmthmvmm,
most respects similar to those pronounced by Rousseau
and Shelley. His obscurity and extravagance stood in the way
of his teaching, and his only disciples in poetiy were Sylvcstcx
Sivertson (x8o^x847), a journalist of talent whose verses were
collected in 1848, and Christian Monsen (xSis-xSsa).
A far more wholesome and constructive influence was that ot
J<Aann Sebastian Cammermeyer Welhaven (X807-X873) (f.r),
who was first brought to the surface by the conservative reactioa
in X830 against the extravagance of the radical party. A savage
attack on Henrik Wergeland's Poetry, published in x832, caoscd
a great sensation, and produced an angry pamphlet in reply
from the father, Nikolai Wergeland. The controversy becajne
the main topic of the day, and in 1834 Wdhaven pushed it into
a wider arena by the publication of his beautiful cyde of satirical
sonnets called Norges Damring (The Dawn of Norway), in vhich
he preached 9 full conservative gospel. He was assisted in his
controversy with Wergeland by Henrik Hermann Foss (1790-
X853), author of Tidsnomeme (The Noms of the Age) (1835)
and other verses.
Andreas Munch (1811-1884) took no part in the fead betwcea
Werseland and Welhaven, but addicted himself to the study of
Danish models independently of either. He published a _
series of poems ana dramas, one of which latter, Kong ^■"''
Sverres Ungdom (1837), attracted some notice. His poDularity or.m-
menced with the appearance of hu Poems Old and New in i&iS.
His highest level as a poet was reached by his epic called JC«x£r>
datterens Bmdefart (The Bridal Journey ot the King's I^ugbtrr)
(1861). Two of his historical dramas have enjoyed a popularly sv^eatlr
in excess of their merit; these are Sdomon de Cans (1854) and Lord
WiUiam Russeli {1857)-
A group of minor poetical writcre may now be considered. Magnus
Brostrup Landstad (1802-1880) was bom on MaasS, an island in the
vicinity of the North Cape, and, therefore, in higher lati- ■,.
tudcstnan any other man of letters. He was a hymn-writer
of merit, and he was the first to collect, in 1 853. the Norske '^^
Folkenser or Norwegian folk-songs. Landstad was ordered hy the
EDvemmcnt to prepare an offictski national hymn-book, whkh was
rought out in 1861. Peter Andreas Jensen (1812-1867) pul^sixd
volumes of lyrical poetry in 1838, 1849, 1855 and 1861. asd two
dramas. He was also the author of a novel. Em Enrndrini (A
Souvenir), in 1857. Aasmund Olafsen Vinje (1818-1870) w?* a
peasant of remarkable talent, who was the principal leadet^af the
movement known as the " maalstrxv," an effort to distii^utsh
Norwegian from Danish literature by the adoption of a peaaac
dialect, or rather a new language arbitrarily formed on a coUatkw
of the various dialects. Vinje wrote a volume of lyrics, which be
published in 1864, and a narrative poem, Storegnt (Big Lad) (ia66V.
entirely in this bctitious language, and he even went so fat as n
issue in it a newspaper, Ddlen (The Dalesman), which appeared irm
1858 to Vinje's death in 1 870. In these efforts he was supported bf
Ivar Aasen and by Kristoffer Janson (b. 1841) the philolofia.
the author of an historical tragedy, Jon Arason (1867); sevctal
novels: Proa Bygdom (1865); Tortrim (187a); Fra Douskebd
(1875); Han or Ho (1878); and Austanfyre Sa og Veste^wr
Maane (East of the Sun and West of the Moon) (1879): besides a
powerful but morbid drama in the ordinary language oif Norw&r'
En Kvindeskjebne (A Woman's Fate) (1879). In 1882 he left Norway
for America as a Unitarian minister, and from this exile he sent b«sre
in 1885 what is perhaps the best of his books. The Saga oftke Ptetm-
Superior to all the preceding in the quality of his lyncaf writiiK ^n*
the bishop of Christiansand, Jdrgen Moe (i8ij-i88a). He a.
NORWAY
817
bowever, better tcnown by his labours in compaivtive mythology, ia
-injunction with P. C. Asbjdmsen (see Asbjornsbn and Mob).
The names oC the Norwegians Ibaen (tf.v.) and Bjdrnson (9.V.). in
the two 6dds of the drama and the novel, stand out prominently in
Magnn. the European literature of the later 19th century: and
■111 ■Bars *^*° writers of novels who owe much to their example are
^JT"^ lonas Lie (g^.). and Alexander Kiclland (1849-1906).
^_^ Nicolai Ramm Ostgaard (1811-1872) to some extent pre-
TTT" ceded BjOmson in his graceful romance Em Fjetdbytji (A
"^ Mountam Parish), in 1852. FrithjofFo8s(l850-i899).who
wrote under the pseudonym of Isra^ Dehn. attracted notice by seven
separate stories published between 1863 and 1864. Jacobine Camilla
Collett (181 1-1895), Bister of the poet Wergeland, wrote Amtmandeiu
Dmtre (The Governor's Daughters) (1855). an excellent novel, and the
first m Norwegian literature which attempted the truthful description
of ordinary life. She was a pioneer in the movement foi the emand-
~—''X
__^ IkM I.I.
deahng
pation of wriTPim in NtTra-f.'
l903).aDsiii. Ky Linh, ■..
manner of ilj|,iiriis<i.in, ol v.hiri]i •^\i<c w.tn m^ lunwiirThiy pupii, unc of
her best noM I -. i^ 5tenrs HitiorU f 1 8*14). She alsft wmcc some lyhcal
poetry and -^u-ci f.ifuJi dramii*. The prindpal hU^omn of Uot^w^f is
SVitr AndrciA Munch (iflio-i«63). whcwc [nijtu(an>)us
wriTings include? a gTiiinniar of Old Non* (1847)1; * <»1-
*^ Ittr ion of Norwc^ia ti Li wa u ntU the year ( j 87 ( i S46- 1 84 9) ;
a study of Runic inscripiions (t^4Jl); a hi^aton^ ^uid dii^^ption
of Norway during the middk ages (t949>; aiuf a histary of the
Norwegian pcop!c in 8 vols. {i^w-iiWJjJ; Jakob Aall {t^-^y^tE^)
was associated with Munch in this w^jirk. Chrisiian Berg (1775-
was nnatbcT worker in the ume Acld> jf^ikob Rudolf Kuywr
. 1864) printed and annutattoJ the mtȣt imporuint documt'nts
ahng witti the mpdii^vjil hiBiory oC Norway* Carl Richard L'njer
(b. 1817) toot pan; in ihu sanit work and <^itcd Siorkimkinrui in
1867. His tditioci n( ibe ckliT Edda ( 1 K67) (urms a Undmark in the
study of Standinivbn siuiijuitii^ Oluf Hy«h (1*133' iBt^ji) ccmtri-
buted to the arctiaixjhjgical ^jtirt o( history. The mcKk'rn !3tluliaK^ of
Norway found an ftdrriiraljle ^rammanan in JJLitcd^ Qlaua l^jkke
(1839-1881)- A carL'ful historian and ethnrjCTapher was Lud/ig
Kristenscn Dia (1B09-1877). Ludviif Daac (b. 18^) has wrirten
the history of Christiania, and has traced the chronicles of Norway
during the D^ni^h pn-^f'^c^^ion. Bfrmt Mof <\^v \-\^y^>\ w:ag a e-nr-ful
biographer of the *-■-■-- :'. Upi ■".-'.!. i/.'-z-, Vu-o\ Sum.U ([>«[7-
187s) published some very curious and valuable works on tne
condition of the poorer classes in Norway. Professor J. A. Friis
(b. i8ai) published the folk-k>re of the Lapps in a series of valuable
volumes. The German orientalist. Christian Lassen (1800-1876)
was a Norwegian by birth. Lorentz Dietrichson (b. 1814) wrote
voluminously both on Swedish and Norw^ian, chiefly on Norwegian
art and literature. In jurisprudence the prinapal Norwegian
authorities are Anton Martm Schwcigaard (1808-1870) and Frederik
Stang (1808-1884). Peter Cari Lasson (179^1373) and Ulrik Anton
Motzfclt (1807-1865) were the lights of an earlier generation. In
medical saence, the great writer ofthe beginning of the loth century
was Michael Skjelderup (1769-1852), who was succeeded by Frederik
Hoist (1791-1871). Daniel CToraelius Danielsen (b. 1815) was a
prominent dermatologist; but probably the most eminent of
modem physiologists in Norway is Cari V^ilhelm Boeck (1808-1875).
The elder brother of the last-mentioned. Christian Peter Bianco
Boeck (i 798-1 877), also demands recognition as a medical writer.
Christopher Hansteen (1784-1873) was professor of mathematics at
the umversity for nearly sixty years. Michael Sars (180^-1869)
obtained a European repuUtion through hb investigations in
invertebrate soology . He was assisted by his son Georg Crasian Sars
- * ~' -- •• " - ' 7-1858) and Theodor
Norwegian geologists.
- ' — '-ny. His Narges
. t incomplete at
his death. Niels Henrik Abel (i 802-1 829) (q.v.) was a mathe-
matician of extraordinary promise; Ole Jakob Broch (1818-1889)
must be mentioned in the same connexioa. Among theological
writers may be mentioned Hans Nielsen Hauge (i 771-1824), author
of the sect which bears his name; Svend Borchman Hersleb (1784-
1836); Stener Johannes Steneraen (i789-i8;}5); Wilhelm Andreas
Wexels (I797''i866): a writer of extraordinary popularity; and
Carl Paul Caspari (1814-1892), a German of Jewish birth, who
adopted Christianity and bedune professor of theology in the
university of Christiania.
The political crisis of 1884-1885, vhich produced so remarkable
an effect upon the material and social life of Norway, was not
without its influence upon literature. There had
' ^ followed to the great generation of the 'sixties, led by
' Ibsen and Bj5mson, a race of entirely prosaic writers,
of no great talent, much exercised with "problems." The
movement which began in 1885 brought back the fine masters
of a previous imaginative age, silenced the problem-setters, and
encouraged a whole generation of new men, realists of a healthier
sort. In 188$ the field was still held by the three main names of
XIX 14
(b. 1837). Baltaaar Matthias Keilhau (1797-1858) and Theodor
KJerulT (1825-1888) have been the leading Norwcgia
Mathias Numsen Blytt (i 780-1 862) represents botany.
Flora, part of which was published in 1861, was left ii
modem None literature—Ibsen, Bjdmson and Lie. Henrik
Ibsen proceeded deliberately with his labours, and his name at the
same time grew in reputation and influence. The advance of
Bjdmstjeme Bjdmson was not so regular, because it was dis-
turbed by political issues. Moreover, his early peasant tales
once more, after having suffered great neglect, grew to be a force,
and BjOmson's example has done much to revive an interest
in the art of verse in Norway. Jonas Lie, the most popular
novelist of Norway, continued to publish bis pure, fresh and
eminently characteristic stories. His style, colloquial almost to
a fatilt, has neither the charm of BjOmson nor the art of some
of the latest generation. Ibsen, Bjdmson and Lie continued,
however, to be the three representative authors of their country.
Knstian Elster (1841-1881) showed great talent in his pessimistic
novels Tora Trondal (1879) and Dangerous People (1881).
Kristian GlOersen (b. 1838) had many affinities with Elster.
Ame Garborg (1851)' was brought up tmder sternly pietistic
influences in a remote countty parish, the child of peasant
parents, in the south-west comer of Norway, and the gloom
of these earl/ surrotmdlngs has tinged all his writings. The
early novels of Garborg were written in the peasant dialect,
and for that reason, perhaps, attracted little attention. It was
not until 1890 that he addressed the public in ordinary language,
in his extraordinary novel, Tired lien, which produced a deep
sensation. Subsequently Gargorg returned, with Violence, to
the ctiltivation of the peasant language, and took a foremost
part in the ntaalsirav. A novelist of considerable orude force
was Amalie Skram (1847-1905), wife of the Danish novelist,
Erik Skram. Her novels are destitute of literary beauty, but
excellent in their local colour, dealing with life in Bergen and the
west coast. But the most extravagant product of the prosaic
period was Hans Jaeger (b. 1854), a sailor by profession, who
left the sea, obtained some instmction and embarked on literature.
Jaeger accepted the naturalistic formulas wholesale, and outdid
Zola himself in the harshness of his pictures of life. Several of
Jsger's books, and in particular his novel Morbid Lave (1893),
were immediately suppressed, and can with great diffictilty be
referred to. Knud Hamstm (b. i860) has been noted for his
egotism, and for the bitterness of his attacks upon his fellow-
writers and the great names of literature. Hamsun is seen at
his best in the powerful romance called Hunger (1888). A writer
of a much more pleasing, and in its quiet way of a much more
original order, is Hans Aanmd (b. 1S63). His humour, applied
to the observation of the Ostland peasants— Aanrud himself
comes from the Gulbrandsdal — is exquisite; he is by far the
most amusing of recent Norwegian writers, a race whose fault it
is to take life too seriously. His story, Horn Our Lord made Hay
at Asmund Bergemellum's (1887), is a little masterpiece. Peter
Egge (b. Z869), a young novelist and pla3rwright from Trondhjem,
came to the front with careful studies of types of Norwegian
temperament. In his Jacob and Christopher (19O0) Egge also
proved himself a successful writer of comedy. Gunnar Heiberg
(b. 1857), although older than most of the young generation,
has but lately come into prominence. His poetical drama. The
Balcony, made a sensation in 1894, but ten years earlier his
comedy of Aunt Ulrica shotild have awakened anticipation.
His strongest work is Love*s Tragedy (1904). Two young writers
of great promise were removed in the very heyday of success,
Gabriel Finne (1866-1899) and Sigbj5m Obstfelder (1866-1900).
The last mentioned,,in The Red Drops and The Cross, published
in 1897, gave promise of something new in Norwegian literature.
Obstfelder, who died in a hospital in Copenhagen in August 1900,
left an important book in MS., A Priest* s Diary (1901).
Verse was banished from Norwegian literature, during the
years that immediately preceded 1885. The credit of restoring
it belongs to Sigurd Bddtker, who wrote an extremely naturalistic
piece called Love, in the manner of Heine. The earliest real
poet of the new generation is, however, Niels Collett Vogt (b.
1864), who published a little volume of Poems in 1887. Ame
Dybfest (1868-1892), a young anarchist who committed suicide,
was a decadent egotist of the most pronounced type, but a
poet of unquestionable talent, and the writer of a remarkably
la
8i8
NORWEGIAN SEA— NORWICH, EARL OF
melodious prose. In xSgx was printed in a msgaane VOhelm
Krag's (b. 187 1) very remarkable poem called Pandango^ and
shortly afterwards a collection of his lyrics. Vogt and V. Krag
continued to be the leading lyrical writers of the period, and
although they have many imiutors, they cannot be said to have
found any rivals. Vilhelm Krag turned to prose fiction, and
his novels Isaac Seehuusen (1900) and Isaac Kapergast (1901)
are excellent studies of Westland life. More distinguished as
a novelist, however, is his brother, Thomas P. Krag (b. 1868),
who published a series of romantic novels, of which Ada Wilde
(1897) is the most powerful. His short stories are full of delicate
charm. Hans E. Kinck (b. X865) is an accomplished writer of
short stories from peasant life, written in dialect. BemtLie
(b. 1868) is the author of popular works of fiction, mainly for
the young. Sven Nilssen (b. 1864) is the author of a very success-
ful novel, The Barque Franciska (1901). With him may be
mentioned the popular dramatbt and memoir-writer, John
Paulsen (b. 1851), author of The Widow's Son.- Johan Bojer
(b. 1872) has written satirical romances, of which the most
powerful is The Power of Paith (1903). Jakob Hilditch (b.
1864) has written many stories and sketches of a purely national
kind, and. is the anonymous author of a most diverting parody
of banal provincial journalism, Tranviksposten (i 900-1901).
The loiding critics are Carl Nzrup (b. 7864) and Hjalmar
Christensen (b. 1869), each of whom has published collections
of essays dealing with the aspects of recent Norwegian literature.
The death of the leading bibliographer and lexicographer of
Norway, Jens Braage Halvorscn (1845-1900), inflicted a blow
upon the literary history of his country; his Dictionary of
Norwegian Authors (1885-1900)— left for completion by Halfdan
Koht — is one of the most elaborate works of its kind ever
undertaken. Among recent historians of Norway much activity
has been shown by Ernst Sars (b. 1835) and Yngvar Nielsen
(b. 1843). The great historian of northern jurisprudence was
L. M. B. Aubert (1838-1896), and in this connexion T. H.
Aschehoug (b. 1822) must aiso be mentioned. The leading
philosopher of Norway in those years was the Hegelian Marcus
Jakob Monrad (b. 18x6), whose Aesthetics of 1889 is his master-
piece.
The close of XB99 and the beginning of X900 were occupied
by a discussion, in which every Norwegian author took part,
f^ as to the adoption of the landsmaal, or composite
"mMMi- dialect of the peasants, in place of iht rigsmaal or
"*" Dano-Norwcgian. Political prejudice greatly em-
tnvorey. jjj^g,.g^ ^^ controversy, but the proposition that the
landsmaal, which dates from the exertions of Ivar Aascn (q.v.)
in 1850, diould oust the language in which all the classics of
Norway are written, was opposed by almost every philologist
and writer in the country, particularly by Bjdmson and Sophus
Bugge (b. X833). On the other side, Ame Garborg's was almost
the only name which carried any literary weight. The maal
has no doubt enriched the literary tongue of the country with
many valuable words and turns of expression, but there the
advantage of it ends, and it is difficult to feci the slightest
sympathy with a movement in favour of suppressing the language
in which every one has hitherto expressed himself, in order to
adopt an artificial dialect which exists mainly on paper, and
which is not the natural speech of any one body of persons
throughout the whole of Norway.
Authorities. — La Norv^ge litUrairet by Paul Botten-Hanaen
(i824-i8(>9), is an admirable piece of bibliography, but comes down
no farther than 1866. Jens Braage Halvorsen (1845-1900) left
his admirable and exhaustive Norsk Forfaiter-Lexikont 1814-1880
(Norwegian Dictionary of Authors) incomplete; but the work was
continued by Halfdan Koht. Sec also Henrik Jaeser, Illustreret
noTsk lileraturhistorie (Christianb, 1 802-1896) ; to which an appendix
Siste Tidsrum 18^^0-1904 was added by Carl Naerup in 1905; Ph.
Schweitzer, Ceschickte der skandinavischen Literatw (Leipzig, 1889);
F. W. Horn, History of the Literature of the Scandinanan North (Eng.
trans., Chicago, 1884); Edmund Comc, Northern Studies (2nd cd.,
1882). (E.G.)
NORWEGIAN SEA, the sea enclosed between Norway, the
Shetland and Faeroe Islands, Iceland, Greenland, Spitsbergen
and Bear Island. Its basin is bounded on the £. by the Spits-
bergen platform, the continental shelf of the Barents Sea aod
the Norwegian coast: on the S. and S.W. by the North Sea,
the WyviUe-Thomson ridge, the Faeroe-Iceland ridge and the
Iceland-Greenland ridge; on the W. by the coast of Greenland
and on the N., so far as is known, by a ridge extending from
Greenland to Spitsbergen. The Norwegian Sea is thus placed
between the basins of the Atlantic on the one side and of the
Arctic Ocean on the other: the mean depth of the submarine
ridge separating it from the former being about 300 fathoms*
and from the latter probably about 400 fathoms. The basis
itself consists of a series of deeps, separated from one aikotbcr
by transverse ridges. Nansen and HeUand-Hansen give the
following results of measurements of the area:
Area of surf ace . 3«58 million iq. km.
Water area at 600 metres 1-79 ., h
M „ 1000 „ . 1-65 „ „
w „ aooo „ 1-05 „ „
>• .1 3000 „ . 0-30
Volume 4'i2inilUon cubic km.
Mean depth . . 1600 metres.
The Norwegian Sea forms the meeting-place of waters coming
from the Atlantic and Arctic oceans, and it also receives coastal
waters from the North Sea and connecting areas, and from the
Barents Sea. As communication with other basins is cut of
comparatively near the surface, the inflow and outflow of waters
must take pUce entirely in the upper strata, and the isolated
water in the deep basin has typical physi^ characters of its
own.
The distribution and circulation of these waters are of great <
subject by the work of the IntemationaTCouncil for the studv of tlie
sea, and more particulariy by the Norwegian investigators Nansca
and Helland-Hansen, whose report on Norwegian Fishery and Marine
Investigations (vol. ii. No. 3, 1909) contains a complete survrv of
present knowledge. (H. N. D.)
NORWICH, GEORGE GORING, Eabl or (1585^1663),
English soldier, was the son of George Goring of Huxstpierpoirt
and Ovingdean, Sussex, and of Aime Deimy, sister of Edw^u^d
Denny, earl of Norwich. He was knighted in t6oS, and became
a favourite at court, benefiting largely from monopolies granted
by Charles L He became Baron Goring in 1628, and jmvj
councillor in 1639. When the troubles between Charles and his
parliament beaune acute Goring devoted his fortune fredy
to the royal cause; and the king in November 1644 renewed
for him the title of earl of Norwich which had become extinct
at his uncle's death. He went with the queen to Holland ia
1643 to raise money for the king, and in the autumn of the Dcxt
year he was seeking arms and money from Mazarin in Paris.
His proceedings were revealed to the pariiament in January
1644 by an intercepted letter to Henrietta Maria. He was
consequently impeached of high treason, and prudently remained
abroad until 1647 when he received a pass from the pazliam^^at
under a pretext of seeking reconciliation. Thus he was able to
take a prominent part in the Second Gvil War of 164S ^see
Great Rebeluon). He commanded the Kentish levies, which
Fairfax dispersed at Maidstone and elsewhere, and was forced
to surrender unconditionally at Colchester. He was condenu^
to exile in November 1648 by a vote of the House of Conus»ca&
but in the next month the vote was annulled. Early in the next
year a court was formed imdcr Bradshaw to try Norwich ar.i
four others. All five were condemned to death on the 6tb at
March, but petitions for mercy were presented to parliaiser*.
and Norwich's life was spared by the Speaker's casting \xac
Shortly after his liberation from prison in May be joitied 0^
exiled court of Charles II., by whom he was employed in frui;'<s
negotiations with the duke of Lorraine. He became cap&A.=
of the king's guard at the Restoration, and in consideratioo u'
the fortune he had expended in the king's service a peosk?* ■-«
£2000 a year was granted him. He died at Brentford on :^e
6th of January 1663. By his wfe Mary Nevill (d. 164S), daugHtrr
of the 61 h Lord Abergavenny, he had four daughters and :« »
sons: George, Lord Goring (7**-); 4nd Charles, who fo.^£
NORWICH
819
in the Civ3 War, succeeded his father in the earldom, and
died without heirs in March 1671.
NORWICH, a city and one of the county-seats of New London
county, Connecticut, U.S.A., in the township of Norwich, at the
point where the Yantic (which expands here in " The Cove ")
and Shetucket rivers join and form the Thames. Pop. (1900)
of the township, 24*637, which included that of the city (x7>25i,
including 4597 foreign-bom) ; (xgio) of the city, 20,367, and of the
township, 28,2x9. Thecityareain X906 was 5-63 sq.m. Norwich
is served by the New York, New Haven & Hartford and the
Central Vennont railways, by steamers from New York and
New London, and by interurban electric lines connecting with
Willimantic, New London and other neighbouring places. The
city is at the head of navigadon on the Thames river, whose
channel is 100-200 ft. wide and 14 ft. deep. The residential
and older portion of the city is built on the rising ground between
the valleys of the two streams; along their banks lies the
business district. In Sachem Street is the grave of Uncas
(d. c. 1682), a Mohegan Indian chief and friend of the early
settlers; the comer-stone of the granite monument over the
grave was laid by President Andrew Jackson in 1833. North-east
of the Roman Catholic Cemetery, in the extreme eastem part of the
city, is a monument to Miantonomo, a sachem of the Narragan-
set tribe of Indians, who was put to death here. Among the
prindpal buildings and institutions are the Congregational
Church, organized in 1660; the Norwich Free Academy (1856)
and its Slater Memorial Hall, in which are the Peck Library
and an Art Museum, and the Converse Art Annex and Art
Collection; the Otis Public Library (1848); the William W.
Backus Hospital; a state hospital for the insane and a state
armoury. In the x8th century, and early in the 19th, Norwich
had a lucrative trade with the Atlantic ports and the West
Indies, but later manufacturing became the most important
industry; the manufactures including textiles, cutlery, fire-
arms, paper, electrical supplies, printing presses, &c. In
1905 the factory products were valued at $6,022,391. With
the city's growth in manufacturing there has been a large
increase in the foreign element in the population. The muni-
«npality owns and operates the waterworks, and gas and electric-
lighting plants.
Norwich was settled in 1659 by colonists from Saybrook
under the leadership of Captain John Mason (1600-1672), who
had crushed the power of the Pequot Indians in Connecticut
in 1637, and the Rev. James Fitch (1622-1702), who became
0. missionary to the Mohegans.^ The tract was purchased from
the Mohegan chiefs, Uncas, Owaneco and Attawanhood, and
the settlement was called Mohegan until 1662, when the present
name was adopted. During and preceding the War of Independ-
ence the citizens of Norwich were ardent Whigs, various members
of the well-known Huntington family being among their leaders.*
In December X767, in reply to a message from Boston, a town-
meeting forbade the use of tea, wines, liquors and foreign
manufactures; in 1770 all citizens were forbidden to hold
* The principal village of the Mohegans was originally, it seems,
on the site of Norwich. Subsequently the village of Mohegan (on
the W. bank of the Thames, about 3 m. S. of Norwich) became their
principal settlement, and the remnant, numbering about 100 indi-
viduals of mixed blood in 1904, still live here and m the vicinity.
'Norwich was the birthplace of Benjamin Huntington (1736-
1800). a member of the Continental Congress in 1 780-1 784 and 1787-
1788. a representative in Congress in 1789-1791, iudge of the state
superior court in 1 793-1 798, and first mayor of Norwich in 1784-
1796: of Jabez Huntington (1710-1786), a patriot leader and major-
p«?neral of Connecticut militia during the War of Independence; of
fiis son, Jedediah Huntington (17^3-1818), also a patriot leader, a
brigadier-general in the Continental Army (1777-1783), and a founder
of the Society of the Cincinnati; of Jedcdiah's brother, Ebenezcr
Huntington (1754-18^), a soldier and in 1810-1811 and 1817-
i8fO a representative m Congress; and of Jedediah's nephew, Jabez
Williams Huntington (1788-1847), a jurist, a representative in
Congress in 1820-18^. and a member of the U.S. Senate in 1840-
1847. Samuel Huntmgton (173 1-1796) removed to Norwich about
X 758, was a member of the Contmental Congress in 1 776-1 783 and its
president in 1779-1781, was a signer of the Declaration of Independ-
ence, a justice of the supreme court of Connecticut in 1774-1784,
and governor of Connecticut in 1786-1796.
intercourse with a schoolmaster who had continued to drink
tea, and in 1776 a town-meeting directed the town derk to
proceed with his duties without reference to the Stamp Act.
Norwich was chartered as a city in X784. Among the early
settlers in Ohio many were inhabitants of Norwich. Benedict
Arnold was a native of Norwich; Mrs Lydia H. Sigoumey
was bom here in a house still standing; Donald G. Mitchell
(" Ik Marvel ") was also bom here; and Norwich was the
home after X825 of William Alfred Buckingham (X804-1875),
war govemor of Connecticut.
See F. M. Caulkins, History of Nonrick (Hartford. 1866).
NORWICH, a city and county of a city, municipal, county
and parliamentary borough, and the county town of Norfolk,
England; 1x4 m. N.E. by N. from London. Pop. (1901),
XI 1,733. ft is served by the Great Eastern railway and also
by the Midland and Great Northern joint line. The Great
Eastem company owns the Thorpe and Victoria stations, and
the joint line the City station. The dty lies in the valley of the
Wensum, which joins the Yare immediately below. The andcnt
city lay in a deep bend of the Wensum, and the walls (X294-
1342), with their many towers and twelve gatehouses, of which
fragments only remain, were 4 m. in drcuit. These narrow
limits, however, were long ago outgrown, for Evelyn writes in
X67X that " the suburbs are large, the prospecU sweete, with
other amenities, not omitting the flower ganiens, in which all
the inhabitants excel." The castle, standing high upon a steep
mound, is still partly surrounded by earthworks and a ditch
spanned by a very early bridge. Only the early Norman square
keep remains, with four tiers of arcading without, and an ornate
doorway into the great tower. The building long served as a
prison, but, on the erection of a new gaol without the city, was
acquired in 1884 by the corporation and in 1894 adapted as a
museum and art gallery.
The cathedral church of the Holy Trinity lies between the
castle and the river, on low ground. In 1094 the seat of the East
Anglian bishopric was removed by Bishop Herbert de Lozinga
or Lorraine from Thetford to Norwich, where in 1096 he laid
the foundation of the cathedral and dedicated it in xioi,
establishing at the same time a Benedictine monastery. As
completed by his successor before the middle of the X2th century
the cathedral in style was purely Norman; and it still retains
its original Nomum plan to a great degree. Changes and
additions, however, were made from time to time— the Eariy
English lady chapel (demolished about X580) bdonging to the
middle of the X3th century; the Perpendicular spire, erected
after the collapse of two previous spires of wood, to the isth;
the west window and porch and the lieme stone vaulting of the
nave, with its daborate 328 bosses, to the 15th, and to the x6th
the vaulting of the transepts and Bishop Nix's chantry, whilst
the fine cloisters, 175 ft. square, X2 ft. wide, with 45 windows,
in style mainly Decorated, were begun in X297 and not com-
pleted till 1430. The following are the dimensions in feet of
the cathedral: total length, 407; length of nave, 204; length
of transepts, X78; breadth of nave and aisles, 72; total height
of spire, 3x5 (in England exceeded by Salisbury only); height
of tower, 140A; height of nave, 69 J; height of choir, 834. The
chief entrance on the west is a Perpendicular archway, above
which is an immense window filled with poor modem stained
glass. The nave within is grand and imposing, of great length,
divided by fourteen semicircular arches, whose massive piers
are in two instances ornamented with spiral mouldings. The
triforium is composed of similar arches. The side aisles are low,
their vaultings plain. The choir, extending westward some way
beyond the crossing, is of unusual length, and terminates in an
apse. The oak stalls and misereres are very richly carved
work of the 15th century. A curiotis quatrcfoil, opening on the
north side of the presbytery, beneath the confessio or relic
chapel, deserves mention, lliere is a monumental effigy' of
Bishop Goldwell {c. 1499), and another of Bishop Bathurst
(1837) by Sir F. Chantrey. Mural monuments are plentiful.
Sir William Boleyn, great-grandfather of Queen Elizabeth, is
buried on the south side of the presbytery, in the midst of which
820
NORWICH— NORWOOD
Stood the tomb of Bishop Herbert, the founder. Of three
circular apsidftl chapels two remain; and in one— the Jesus
chapel— the ancient colouring has been renewed. Two richly
sculptured gateways lead to the cathedral — ^the Erpingham
gate (1420) and the Ethelbert gateway (c. 1300). The bishop's
palace and the deanery are buildings of high antiquity, but both
have imdergone many alterations. The latter has a well-restored
chapeL A beautiful Early Decorated ruin in the palace garden,
known as " Bishop Salmon's gateway," is supposed to have been
the porch to the great hall (c. 13x9). The diocese covers nearly
all Norfolk, the greater part of Suffolk, and a small part of
Cambridgeshire.
Of the remarkable number of churches, over forty in all,
St Peter Mancroft is by many esteemed the finest parish church
in England. Measuring 21 a by 70 ft., it has a richly ornamented
tower and fldche, 148 ft. high, with a beautiful peal of twelve
bells, a long, light clerestory of thirty-four windows, a fine
carved oak roof, a remarkable font cover, and the tomb of Sir
Thomas Browne (d. 1682). The majority of the Norwich
churches are of Perpendicular flint work, mostly of the xsth
century. St Andrew; St Stephen, St Michael Coslany, with the
fine Perpendicular Thorpe chapel, St John Maddermarket,
St Lawrence, St Giles, with a tower za6 ft. high, St Gregory,
St Helen, St Swithin, and St Michael at Plea (so called from the
archdeacon's court held here) arc also noticeable. The Roman
Catholic church of St John the Baptist, begun in 1884 from
designs by Sir G. G. Scott, occupies a commanding position outside
St Giles's gate. At Carrow, E. of the dty, there remain the hall,
a decoratol doorway, and other fragments of a Benedictine
nunnery.
The grammar school is a Decorated edifice, formerly a chapel
of St John, of c. 13 16, with a " carnary " or crypt below. Among
its scholars were Sir Edward Coke, Lord Nelson, Raja Brooke
md George Borrow, the traveller and author, in whose work
Lavengro (chap, xiv.) occurs a noteworthy description of Norwich.
St Andrew's Hall (124 by 64 ft.) is the seven-bayed nave of the
Black Friars' church, rebuilt with the aid of the Erpinghams
between 1440 and 1470. It is a splendid specimen of Perpen-
dicular work, with its twenty-eight clerestory windows and
chestnut hammer-beam roof, and has served since the Reforma-
tion as a public hall, in which from 1824 have been held the
triennial musical festivals. It was restored in 1863. The guild-
hall, on the site of an earlier tolbooth, is a fine flint Perpendicular
structure of 1408-1413; the mayor's' council-chamber, with
furniture of the time of Henry VIU., is an interesting specimen
of a court of justice of that period. The city regalia, kept here,
include several objects of historical interest, amongst them a
sword of a Spanish admiral captured by Nelson, with his auto-
graph letter presenting it to the city, and a curious figure formerly
used in the procession of the mayor elect through the city.
Other public buildings include a shire hall, within the castle
precincts, com exchange, agricultural hall, volunteer drill hall,
barracks and gaol on Mouschold Heath, the Norfolk and Norwich
Library, rebuilt in 1900 after a fire, and a theatre. Educational
establishments, besides the grammar school, include the Norwich
and Ely Diocesan Training College, and the Municipal Technical
Institute. The museum in the castle contains collections of
British birds, insects, fossils, antiquities, and MSS. and early
books. The chief charitable institutions are the Norfolk and
Norwich Hospital, lunatic asylum, blind asylum and schools,
Jenny Lind Infirmary for children, a soldiers' and sailors'
institute, St Giles's or old men's hospital (an andent foundation),
and Doughty's Hospital (1687).
The prindpal industries include foundries and engineering
works, iron and wire fence works, brewing, brick works, chemical
worics, tanneries, and the production of mustard, starch, and
crApe, gauze and lace; and there are large boot and shoe
factories. The great cattle market lies below the castle. The
munidpal, county and parliamentary boroughs are coextensive.
The parliamentary borough returns two members. The city
is governed by a lord mayor (this title having been conferral
in 1910), z6 aldermen and 48 councillors. Area, 7905 acres.
History,— Then is no condusivc evidence that Norfricb
(Northwic, Norwic) was an important settlement before the
coming of the Angles. Caistor-by-Norwich, 4 m. S. of Norwich,
is on the site of what was probably a Romano-British country
town. A few Roman remains have been discovered in Norwich,
itself, but not enough to indicate any real occupation or habita-
tion. According to tradition Uffa made a fortification here
about 570, but its histoiy as a royal borough cannot be traced
before the reign of i£thelstan (924-^0), when it possessed a
mint. After being destroyed by the Danes Norwich enjoyed
a period of prosperity under Danish influence and was one of the
largest boroughs in the kingdom at the Conquest. Ralph de
Giuder, earl of East Anglia under William I., formed the mideus
of a French borough with different customs from the English,
and after hb forfdture, which involved the ruin ol many of the
old burgesses, a masonry castle was built and the ctatn of
burghal h'fe gradually transferred to the new community vest
of it. By 1Z58, when Henry II. granted the burgesses a chaiter
confirming their previous Uberties, the two boroughs seem to
have amalgamated. A fuller charter given by Richard I. in
XZ94 and confirmed by later sovereigns made Norwich a city
enjoying the same liberties as London. From Henry IV. the
citizens obtained a charter (1404), making their dty a county
with a mayor and two sheriffs instead of four bailiffs, and Hcmy
V. added twenty-four aldermen and sixty common councikDeA
(14x8). The cathedral prednct became parcel of the city at
the Dissolution and in. x 556 the neighbouring hamlets wen
incorporated in the county of Norwich. The chazter of Charles IL
(1683) remained in force till X835, when one sheriff was rexnoved
and the number of aldermen, common ooundlmen and vaixls
dizninished. Since 1298 Norwich has been represented in parlia-
ment by two members. Two annual fairs, existing before 1332,
were forznally granted to the dty in X482. One was then hdd
in Lent, the other began on the feast of the Commemo(ati<» of
St Paul (the 30th of June). These have been succeeded by the
Maunday Thursday horse and cattle fair, and the pkasnre
fairs of Easter and Christmas. The market, which must have
existed before the Conquest, was held daily in the Z3th century,
when dtixens endosed stalls by royal licence. Edward lU.
made Norwich a staple town, and the importance of its trade
in wool and worsted dates from his reign.
See Victona County History, Norfolk; W. Hudson. Records of Ac
City of Norwich (1906).
NORWICH, a village and the county-seat of Chenaikgo
county, New York, U.S.A., on the Chenango river, 4a m. N.E.
of Binghamton. Pop. (19x0 census), 7422. It is served by
the Ddaware, Lackawazma & Western and the New York,
Ontario & Western railways. The village has three paihs, two
libraries— the Guernsey Memorial Library and the D. L. FoOcu
Memorial Law Library— azui the Chezumgo Valley Home for
Aged Women. Norwich is in a dairying and fanniz^ xegian,
where hops especially are grown; and there are bhicstoee
quarries in the vidziity. There are a variety of manufactures,
and the New York, Ontario & Western has repair shops and
division headquarters here. The first settlement iras madeia
1792, and the village was incorporated in X857.
NORWOOD, a southern district of London, F.ngland, partly
in Surrey and partly in the county of London (metrapolftaa
borough of Lambeth). The district is hilly and wefl vooded.
hence the luime. It is divided into Upper, Lower and Socth
Norwood, all consisting prindpally of villa residences and detached
houses inhabited by the better dasses. Among nuncnies
institutions are almshouses for the poor of St Saviour's, Souths
wark, opened at South Norwood in X863, a Jewish convaksccst
home in 1869, and the Royal Normal College and Academy cf
Music for the Blind at Upper Norwood in X872. At Oxpsy Hiu
Upper Norwood, lived Margaret Finch, queen of the Gipee^
who died in X740 at the age of xoo. and was buried in the cfcorc^
yard at Beckenham.
NORWOOD, a township !n Norfolk county, Massachusetts.
about 14 m. S.W. of Boston. Pop. (1900) 5840 (1497 forcjip-
bom); (Z910) 8014; area about 10 sq. nu Norwood b served
NORWOOD— NOSARI
821
by the New York, New Haven & Hartford railway. The town-
ship is traversed by the Neponset river. It has the Morrill
Memorial Library (12,000 volumes in 1909). Norwood's manu-
factories include printing-ink and glue factories, tanneries, an
iron foundry, and the printing-presses and binderies of J. S.
Gushing Co., H. M. Plimpton & Co., and the Norwood Press Co.
Originally the South or Second Precinct of Dedham, Norwood
was incorporated as a township (with the addition of a part of
Walpole) under its present name in 1872.
See D. Hamilton Kurd, History tf NmfM CowUy, Massaekusetts
(PbiUdelphia, 1864).
NORWOOD, a city of Hamilton county, Ohio, U.S.A., adjoining
Cincinnati on the N. E. Pop. (1900)1 6480 (7x8 fbrdgn-bom);
( 1910) 16,185. It is served by the Baltimore & Ohio South Western
and the Cincinnati, Lebanon and Northern railways, and by
intenirban electric railways. Norwood has various manufactures,
but as one of the hill suburbs of Cincinnati it is primarily a place
of residence. It has a. Carnegie library (a branch of the public
library of Cincinnati) and a Catholic maternity hospital. Norwood,
originally called Sharpsburg, was settled about 1798, laid out
as a town in 1873, incorporate as a village in x888, and chartered
as a city in 1903.
NORZAOARAT, a town of the province of Bulacan, Lnxon,
Philippine Islands, on the (^uingua river, about 25 mu N. by E.
of Manila. Pop. (1903), 5131. The inhabitants are engaged
chiefly in the cultivation of rice and Indian com, and in lump-
ing; good timber grows on the neighbouring mountains, and
some iron and gold have been found in this regioh. Near the
town there is a sulphur spring. The language is Tagalog.
N06AIRI8 (also known as Ansayxii, sometimes Ansariyeh),
the people who inhabit the mountainous country of N. Syria,
which is bounded on the S. by the north end of the Lebanon at
the Nahr el-Keblr (Eleutherus), on the N. by Mt Casius, Antioch
and the Nahr el-*Asi (Orontes). Various settlements of them
are found also In Antioch itself and in Tarsus, Adana, and a few
other places, while in harvest time they come down as far as the
Biq*a (Buka*a). From the time of Strabo until about two
centuries ago, the countiy was famed for its wine, but now more
for its tobacco (especially at Latakia). The total number of
Nosairis inhabiting this country is variously estimated at from
1 20,000 to 150,000.
The origin of the name Nosairi is tmcertain. Among the more
possible explanations is that the name is derived from that of
Mahommed Ibn Nu^air, who was an Isma*Ilite follower of the
eleventh im&m of the Shiites at the end of the 9th century.
This view has been accepted by Nosairi writers, but they transfer
Ibn Nu^air to the 7th century and make him the son of the
vizier of Moawiyi I., while another tradition (cf. Abulfeda, Ceog.
vol. iL p. XX, No. 7) identifies him with Nu^ir, a freedman
of the caliph *A1L It is, however, noteworthy that Pliny
(Hist, nat. v. 8x) gives the name NoMorini to the inhabitants of
this district. In this part of Syria paganism remained even
up to the middle ages (cf. Archives de VOrietU latin, vol. ii. 2,
p. 375), and there is a complete absence of churches of the 5th
to the 7th centuries in these mountains. In the 7th century the
Arabs invaded Syria, but do not seem to have got into these
mountains. At the end of the xoth centuiy, however, the Isma*-
Ilite propaganda won some success among the people. Their
strongholds were taken by Raymond in X099, and later Tancred
secured the very summits. In XX32-X140 the Assassins {q.v.)
gained posseasidn of their chief towns, but Saladin recovered
them in xx88. In 13x7 the sultan Bib4rs endeavoured to con-
vert them to orthodox Islam, and built many mosques, but Ibn
Batata (L 177) says they did not use them. A Jatwa of
Ibn Taimlyya (d. X327) of this time shows that the Nosairis
were regarded with fear and hatred by the orthodox. For the
next 500 yean they were given over to their own internal
disputes, until they came under the power of Ibrahim Pasha
in 1833. At the present time they are under the dir^t ad-
ministration of the Turks.
The religion of the Nosairis seems to have been almost the same
in the fint yean of the 5tb ceotuiy A.a. (ixth century A4>.)
as it is to-day, judging by the references in the sacred books of
the Druses. As.set forth in their own sacred book, the Jfo/mS*,
it seems to be a syncretism of Isma'lUte doctrines and the ancient
heathenism of Hanfln. The ages of the world are seven in
number, each of these having its own manifestation of deity.
But the manifestation of the 7th age is not a Mahdi who is yet
to come, but the historical person *Ali ibn abu T&lib. This is
stated in the crudest form in Sura xx of the M<^H*: " I testify
that there is no god but *Ali ibn abu Tftlib." *Ali is also called
the Ma*nd {" Idea "; cf. the Logos of the New Testament),
hence the Nosairis are also called the Ma'nawXyya. *Ali created
Mahomet, who is known as the Ism (" Name "), and a trinity is
formed by the addition of Salmftn ul-FirisI, who is the Bdb
(" Door ")» through whom the propaganda is made, and through
whom one comes to God. A mysterious symbol much used in
their ceremonies of initiation consists of the three letten Mm,
Jf im. Sin, these being the initials of *Ali, Mahomet and Salmftn.
Of these three, however, *Ali is the supreme. In Sura 6 of the
MajmH* the Nosairi says: " I make for the Door, I prostrate
myself before the Name, I worship the Idea." Each of the seven
manifestations of God in the ages of the world has been opposed
by an advenary.
The Nosairis are divided into four sects, (x) The Haidaxis
(from the name kaidari, " lion," pven to *Ali on account of his
valour) are the most advanced. (2) The Shamftlis or Shamsis
preserve many traces of the old nature-worship. *Ali {i.e. the
supreme god) is the heaven, Mahomet is the sun, Salmftn the
moon. (3) On the other hand the Kalazis, so named from a
sheik Mahommed ibn Kalazi (cf . £. Salisbury in the Journal
of the American Oriental Society, viii. 237), or Qamaris, hold
that the supreme god (*Ali) is the moon, not the sun. Their
poetry addressed to the moon is translated by C. Huart in the
Journal asiatique, ser. vii. vol. xiv. pp. X90 ff. (4) The Ghaibis
are wotshippen of the air, for God is invisible. In this they come
nearer to the ordinary Isma'Ilite doctrine. Religion is restricted
among the Nosairis to the initiated, who must be adults over
fifteen yean of age and of Nosairi parentage. The initiator,
who must XM>t be a relative, becomes a spiritual father, and the
relation cannot be broken except by his consent. The initiation
consists of three stages. In the first the novice is received and
told to meditate on the three mysUc letten; in the second,
after a period of forty days, he is taught the titles of the x6
suras of the MajmH*; in the third, after seven or nine months
(intended to correspond with the ordinary period of gestation),
he is taught Suras 5, 6 and 9, learns the meaning of the three
mystic letten and goes through a further period of instruction
from his initiator. The initiated are divided into two classes,
the sheiks, who are recruited from the families of sheiks only,
and the otdinaxy memben.
Hie Nosairis are believen in metempsychosis. The pious
Nosairi takes his rank among the stan, but the body of the
impious undergoes many transformations.
BzBLXOcaAPHY. — Ren£ Dussaud, Histoire de la relition des Nosairis
(Paris, 1906) ; St Guyard, " Le Fatwa d'Ibn Taimiyyah sur les
Nosairis," ia Journal asiatique (aer. vi. vol. xviii. pp, 158 ff). List of
forty Nosairi MSS. by J. Catafaeo ia Journal asuUique (aer. vii. vol.
viii. pp. 533 ff). C. Huart, " La Pofsie religjeuae dc« Nosairis,"
Journal asiatique (ser. vii. vol. xiv. pp. 190 ff). The KitAb ul Bakuta,
conuining the MajmH', was published at Beirut, 1863, and trans-
lated for the most part by E. Salisbury in the Journal of the Amer,
Or. Spe. (vuL 227-308). (C. W. T.)
NOSARI, or Navsari, a town in India, in the sUte of Baroda,
on the left bank of the Puma river, 147 m. by rail N. of Bombay.
Pop. (X901), 21,451. It is an ancient place, known to Ptolemy
as Nasaripa. It was one of the ^rliest settlements of the
Parsees in Gujarat, after their banishment from Persia in the
X2th century. It is still the home of their mobeds, or sacerdotal
dass, and contains their most venerated " fire temple." Many
small industries are carried on, including the weaving of the
kusti, or sacred thread of the Parsees. There is also considerable
trade by both rail and water, for the river is navigable. The
public buildings and the private houses, especially those i& the
suburbs, are unusually good.
823
NOSE— NOTARY
N08B (O-Eng. nosu, cf. Dutch neus, Swed. ncSf snout; the
connexion with 0.£ng. nosu is obscure, cf. Ger. Nose, Lat. nares,
nostrils, nasuSf nose, Fr. ims), the organ of the sense of smell
(q.v.) in man and other animals (see Olfactory System). The
projecting feature above the mouth, to which the word is usually
restricted in man, is, in the case of the lower animals, called
snout or muzzle, or, if much prolonged, proboscis or trunk.
" Nostril," the external opening into .the nose, 'is from OXng.
nostkyrl (thyrl or thirls hole or opening).
NOSOLOGY (Gr. v6eos, disease, and Myot, sdence), that
branch of medical science which deals with the classification
of diseases; the term is applied also to a collection of diseases,
and to the special character of a particular disease and the
different opinions concerning it.
NOSSEN, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Saxony,
pleasantly situated on the Freibeiger Mulde, 51 m. S.£. from
Leipzig by tb» railway to Dresden via Ddbein, and at the junction
of a line to Moldau. Pop. (1905), 4879. It possesses an ancient
castle crowning a height above the river, and has extensive
manufactures of boots and shoes, leather and paper. In the
immediate vicinity are the ruins of the Cistercian monastery
of Altenzella, or Altzella, founded in 1x45, and a noted school
of philosophy during the zjth-xsth centuries. In the chapel,
which was built in 1347 and restored in X787, lie the remains
of ten margraves of Meissen, members of the family of Wettin.
The foundation was secularized in X544. The valuable annals,
Chronicon veUre CtUense majus and Ckronicon minus, giving
a history of Saxony during the X3th and X4th centuries, were
removed to the university libraiy of Leipzig in X544. They are
printed in Band xvi. of the Monumenta Ccrmaniae kistorica.
icriptores (1S59).
See E. Beyer, Das Cistercienstift und Kloster AU-Cette (Dresden,
1855).
MOSSI-B& properly Ndsy-b£, i.e. " Great island," an island
atx>ut 8 m. off the N.W coast of Madagascar, in 13° 23' S.,
48° IS* E. It is X4 m. long by zo broad, and has an area of 130
sq. m. No8si-b£ is volcanic, the N. and S. parts of older, the
central part of more modem date. Besides a number of true
volcanic craters (Ldkob£, the highest point, is i486 ft. above the
sea) there are numerous crater-lakes level with the ground
(see Nature, March 1877, p. 417). The climate is similar to that
of Mayotte (sec Comoro Isla2«ds), and the neighbouring islet
of Nossi-komba, about 2000 ft. above the sea, serves for a sana-
torium. Pop. (1902), 9291. Hellville, the chief town (so called
after De Hell, governor of Rdunion at the time of the French
annexation), is a port of caU for the Messageries Maritimes and
a centre for the coasting trade along the western shores of
Madagascar. There is excellent anchorage, and a pier 800 ft.
long. The soil is very fertile, and there are forests of palms and
bamboos. The chief products are coffee, sesame, the sugar-cane,
cocoa, vanilla and tobacco. There are numerous sugar factories
and rum distilleries.
In 1837 Tsiomdko, chief tainess of one of the numerous divisions
of the western Malagasy known under the common name of
Skkaliva, was expelled by the Hova and fled to Nossi-b6 and
Nossi-komba. Failing assistance from the imam of Muscat,
she accepted French protection in X840, ceding such rights as
she possessed on the N.W. coast of the mainland. The French
took possession in 1841, and in 1849 an unsuccessful attempt
was made to expel them. The administration was entrusted
to a subordinate of the governor of Mayotte until 1896, when
Nossi-b6 was placed under the adminbtration of Madagascar
{q.v.). 0. Si.*)
NOSTALGIA (Gr. vbcroi, return home, and SSyot, grief),
home-sickness, the desire when away to return home, amounting
sometimes to a form of melancholia.
'NOSTRADAMUS (1503-1566), the assumed name of Michel
DB NoTREDAME, a French astrologer, of Jewish origin, who was
born at St Remi in Provence on the 13th of December 1503.
After studying humanity and philosophy at Avignon, he took
the degree of doctor of medicine at MontpeUicr in 1529. He
settled at Asen* And in 1544 established himself at Salon near
Aix in Provence. Both at Aix and at Lyons he acquired great
distinction by his labours during outbreaks of the plague;. In
1555 he published at Lyons a book of rhymed prophecies under
the title of Centuries, which secured him the notice of Catbehce
de'Medid; and in 1558 he published an enlarged edition with
a dedication to the king. The seeming fulfilment of socne of
his predictions increased his influence, and Charles DL named
him physician in ordinary. He died on the and of July 1566.
The Centuries of Nostiadamus have been frepaently repriated,
and have been the subject of many commentaries. In 1781 they
were condemned by the papal court, being supposed Co contain a
prediction of the fall of the papacy. Nostiadamus was the autiKx- of
a number of smaller treatises. See Baxeste, Nostradamus (Paris,
1840).
NOSTRUM (neuter of Lat. noster, our), the name gjven to
prq>arations of which the* ingredients are not made publkly
known, a patent or " quack " medicine; it a taken from the
label i'* of our own make ") formerly attached to such medkancs.
NOTARY, or Notasy Pubuc. In Roman law the nalerims
was originally a slave or frcedman who took notes (naiae) of
judicial proceedings in shorthand. The modem notary cmre-
sppnds rather to the t<UfeUio or tabularius than to the moiarims.
In canon law it was a maxim that his evidence was worth that
of two unskilled witnesses.
The office of notary in Eng^d is a very ancient one. It
is mentioned in the Statute of Provisors, 35 Edward III. stat.
4. The English notary is an ecclesiastical officer, nominated,
since the Peterpence Dispensations Act x 533-1 534f by the
archbishop of Canterbury through the master of the faculties
(now the judge of the provincial courts of Canterbury and York),
in order to secure evidence as to the attestation of important
documents. All registrars of ecclesiastical courts must be
notaries. A notary's duties, however, are mainly secular. "The
general functions of a notary consist in receiving aD acts
and contracts which must or are wished to be clothed vith aa
authentic form; in conferring on sudi documents the required
authenticity; in establishing their date; in preserving originab
or minutes of them which, when prepared in the style azKi with
the seal of the notary, obtain the name of original acts; mbA is
giving authentic copies of such acts" (Brooke, On the O^
of a Notary, chap. iii.). The act of a notary in authentkatirg
or certifying a document is technically called a " notarial act."
In most countries the notarial act is received in evidence as a
semi-judicial matter, and the certificate of a notaiy b probative
of the facts certified. But English law does not recognse
the notarial act to this extent. An En^ish court wfll, in certab
cases, uke judicial notice of the seal of a notary, but wa that
the facts that he has certified are true, except in the case of a
bill of exchange protested Abroad.
The most important part of an English notary's duty b the
noting and protest of foreign bilb of exchange in case of bob-
acceptance or non-payment. Thb must be done by a notary a
order that the holder may recover. He also prepares ship pro-
tests and protests relating to mercantile matters, and aoibcitJ-
cates and certifies copies of documents and attests instruraests
to be sent abroad. The office of notary b now usually beli
by a solicitor. In London he must be free of the Scriveneo'
Company.
In Scotland, before the reign of James III., papal and imperaJ
notaries practised until the 39th of November 1469, when an act
was passed declaring that notaries should be made by the king. I:
would appear, however, that for some time afterwards there voe
in Scotland clerical and legal notaries— the instruments takes
by the latter bearing faith in dvfl mattets. In iss^ *n act w
passed directing sheriffs to bring or send both kinds of notana
to the lords of session to be examined; and in a statute, passed
tn 1555, it was ordained that no notary, *' by whatsoever po«e
he be created," should use the office " except he first preset
himself to the said lords, showing hb creation, and be sdootic^
by them thereto." It docs not appear that thb statute vested
the right of making notaries in the court of session; but in x^'
it was by law declared that no person should take on him isf
office, under the pain of death, unless crested by the sov L tejgi '>
NOTE— NOTICE
823
q>edal letters, and thereafter eiamined and admitted by the
lords of session. Since then the Court of Session has in Scot-
land exercised exdiuive authority on the admission of notaries
in all legal matters, spiritual and temporal. The position of
notaries in Scotland is somewhat higher than it b in England.
In the United States, notaries are appointed by the governors
of the states, and their authority to act is limited to the state
to which they are appointed. They are state officers, and their
duties in the main are attesting deeds and other instruments,
and taking affidavits and depositions; all such documents
which are intended to be used in the federal courts must have
the notarial seal affixed. They also protest bilb of exchange, and
in some states they have the powers of a justice of the peace.
In France, notaries receive all acts and contracts to which the
parties thereto must give or desire to give the authenticity
attached to the actk of a public authority; they certify the date,
preserve the originals and give copies or duplicates. Notaries are
nominated by the president of the republic on the recommenda-
tion of the keeper of the seals. They cannot act as notaries and
practise as advocates, or hold any magisterial office, nor must
they engage in business. Notaries are divided into three classes:
those of towns which have a court of appeal ; those of towns which
have a court of first instance; those of the other towns and com-
munes. The first and second classes can practise wherever the
jurisdiction of their courts extends; the third class only in their
canton. They must obtain the sanction of the minister of
justice should they desire to change from one district to another.
They must serve an apprenticeship of six years (with exceptions)
to a notary of the class to which they desire to belong. Every
notary is bound in a certain sum fixed by the government as
security for the due discharge of his duties. Since 1896 the
remuneration of the more important classes of notaries has
been regulated by law. Each district has a chamber of notaries,
which exercises disciplinary powers over its members.
In Germany, notaries are appointed by the president of the
courts of law and the minister of justice in their respective
states; they carry on their profession for their own benefit,
and do not, except in Wflrttemberg, receive any fixed salary, but
take fees from the parties they represent. They may not refuse
their services, save on good and sufficient ground. In some
German states, notably Saxe- Weimar and Hesse-Darmstadt,
there are no notaries. In Wttrttemberg, Baden, Bavaria,
Alsace-Lorraine, Rhenish Prussia and Austria, they form a
distinct class, while in the other German states they generally
combine the notarial office with that of advocate. There is no
code of rules for the whole empire, the new Biirgerlickes Gesetz-
buck leaving it to each state to frame its own regulations.
MOTE (Lat. fM/a, mark, sign, from noscerct to know), a mark,
particularly a sign by which a musical sound (also called a note)
is indicated in writing (see Musical Notation). The term is
also applied to an abstract or memorandun}- of documents,
speeches, &c. This appears to have been first in legal use,
especially in the process of the transfer of land by fine and
recovery (see Fine). Further extensions of this meaning are to
an explanation, comment or addition, added in the margin or at
the foot of the page to a passage in a book, &c., or to a com-
munication in writing shorter or less formal than a letter.
The ordinary distinction between note and letter is reversed
in diplomacy. Diplomatic notes are written communications
exchanged between diplomatic agents or between them and the
niinisters of foreign affairs of the government to which they are
accredited; they differ from ordinary letters in having a more
formal character and in dealing with matters of more immediate
and definite importance: e.g. the notification of adhesion to a
treaty, of the re-establishment of diplomatic relations after a
war, &c. Sometimes, by agreement, a mere exchange of notes
has t he force of a convention. Collective notes are those signed by
the representatives of several powers acting in concert. Some-
times identical notes are substituted for collective, i.e. notes
identical as to form and substance, but signed and delivered
separately by the representatives of the several powers. Thus
in 1822, at the congress of Verona, in order to overcome the
objection of Great Britain to any interference of the European
concert in Spain, identical notes were presented to the Spani:>h
government instead of a collective note. Circular notes are
those addressed by one power to the other powers generally,
e.g. that addressed by Thiers (November 9, 1870), on the proposed
armistice, to the representatives of the great powers accredited
to the government of national defence. Confidential notes are
directed to inspiring confidence by giving an explidt account
of the views and intentions of the ^enipotentiaries and their
governments. Such a note was sent, for instance, by the
plenip<)tentiaries of the allied powers at the conference of Poros,
on the 8th of December 1828, to Capo d'Istria, the Greek presi-
dent, to instruct him confidentially as to the results of thdr
ddiberations. The so-called notes verhales are unsigned, an'd are
merely of the nature of memoranda (of conversations, &c.).
Notes ad referendum are addressed by diplomatic agents to their
own governments asking for fresh powers to deal with points not
covered by thdr instructions, which they have had to " refer."
Diplomatic notes are usually written in the third person; but this
rule has not always been observed (see P. Pradier-Fod£r6, Cours
de droit diplomatique, Paris, 1899; vol. ii. p. 524).
For notes of hand or promissory notes see Negotiable Instru-
ments and Bill op Exchange, and for notes passing as currency see
Banks and Banking, Bank-Note and Post.
. NOTROMB, JEAN BAPTISTB, Baron (1805-1881), Belgian
statesman and diplomat, was bom at Messancy in Luxemburg
on the 3rd of July 1805. He was educated at the Athenaeum of
Luxemburg and the university of Li£ge. He was in Luxemburg
when the revolution of August broke out, but ?ras nominated
a member of the commission appointed to draw up the con-
stitution. He was a member of the national congress, and
became secretary-general of the ministry of foreign affairs under
Surlet de Cbokier. He supported the candidature of the duke of
Nemours, and joined in the proposal to offer the crown to Prince
Leopold of Saxe-Coburg, being one of the ddegates sent to
London. When the Eighteen Articles were replaced by the
Twenty-four less favourable to Belgium, he insisted on the
necessity of compliance, and in 1839 he faced violent opposition
to support the territorial cessions in Limburg and Luxemburg,
which had remained an open question so long as Holland refused
to acknowledge the Twenty-four Articles. His Essai kislorique
et politique sur la rtvolution beige (1838) won for him the praise
of Palmerston and the cross of the Legion of Honour from Louis
Philippe. In 1837 he became minister of public works, and to
him was largely due the rapid development of the Bdgian
railway system, and the increase in the mining industry. In 1 840
he was sent as Belgian envoy to the Germanic confederation,
and in 1 84 1, on the fall of the Lebeau ministry, he organized the
new cabinet, reserving for himself the portfolio of minister of
the interior. In 1845 he was defeated, and retired from parlia-
mentary life, but he held a number of diplomatic appointments
bdore his death at Berlin on the 6th of September 1881.
See T. Juste, Souvenirs du b^on Nothomb (Brussels, 1882).
NOTICE, a term primarily meaning knowledge (Lat. nolitia),
as in " judicial notice "; thence it comes to signify the means
of bringing to knowledge, as in " notice to quit "; at last it
may be used even for the actual writing by whicn notice is given.
The most important legal uses of the word are judicial notice
and the equitable doctrine of notice. Judicial notice is the
recognition by courts of justice of certain facts or events without
proof. Thus in England the courts take judicial notice of the
existence of states and sovereigns recognized by the sovereign
of England, of the dates of the calendar, the date and place of
the sittings of the legislature, &c. The equitable doctrine of
notice is that a person who purchases an estate, although for
valuable consideration, after notice of a prior equitable right,
will not be enabled by getting in the legal estate to defeat that
right. On the other hand, a purchaser for valuable consideration
without notice of an adverse title is as a rule protected in his
enjoyment of the property. Other common uses of the word
are notice to quit, i.e. a notice required to be given by landlord
to tenant, or by tenant to landlord in order to terminate a tenancy
824
NOTKER— NOTTINGHAM, EARLS OF
(see Landlord and Tenant); notice of dishonour, i.e, a notice
that a bill of exchange has been dishonoured; notice of action,
i.e. a notice to a person of an action intended to be brought
ailainst him, which is required by statute to be given in certain
cases; notice of trial, «.e. the notice given by a plaintiff to a
defendant that he intends to bring on the cause for trial; notice
in lieu of personal service of a writ, l.e. by advertisement or
otherwise; notice given by one party in an action to the other,
at a trial, to produce certain documents in his possession
or power; notice to treat, given under the Land Causes Acts
by public bodies having compulsory powen of purchasing land
as a preliminary step to putting their powers in force. Notice
may be either express or constructive. The latter is where
knowledge of a fact is presumed from the circumstances of the
ase, e.g, notice to a solicitor is usually constructive notice to
the client. Notice in some cases may be either oral or written.
It is usually advisable to give written notice even where oral
evidence is sufficient in law, as in the case of notice to quit.
The American use of notice is practically the same as in England.
NOTKER, a name of frequent occurrence in the ecclesiastical
history of the middle ages. Notxex Balbvlus (c. 840-91 2) was
a native of northern Switzerland, and for many years magisier
in the school of St GalL He compiled a martyrology and other
works, but Js famous for his services to church music and for the
" sequences " of which he was the composer. |Ie was canonized
in 15x3. His life is in the BoUandist Ada SanciaruMf April
6th. NoTKER Labeo (d. June apth, 1022) was also an instructor
at St Gall. His numerous translations, including those of the
Old Testament Psalms, the categories of Aristotle, the De
nuptiis Mercurii et PkiMogiae of Martianus Capella, and the
De consolatione of BoSthius, into Old High German, may
possibly have been the work of his pupils. They possess con-
siderable philological interest, and have been edited by E. G.
Graff (Berlin, 1837-1847), and by P. Piper under the title
Notkers und seiner Schule Schrijtm (1883-1884).
See T. Kelle, Die Sankt CaUer deutschen Schripen und Notker
Labeo (Munich, 1888); G. Meyer von Knonau. " Lebensbild dcs
hciligen Notker," in MiUeil. Antiq. Gesellschafi ZUHck (1877).
NOTOf a dty of Sicily, in the province of Syracuse, and
20 m. S.W. of it by rail, 520 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901)
22,564. The present town, rebuilt after the earthquake of 1693,
has some fine buildings of the early x8th century. The older
town lies 5 m. direct to the north (1378 ft.). It was the ancient
Nelum^ a city of Sicel origin, left to Hiero II. by the Romans
by the treaty of 263 B.C. and mentioned by Cicero as a foederata
eivitas {Yen. v. 51. 133), and by Pliny as Latinae conditionis
{H.N. iii. 8. 14). The remains of this city are almost entirely
hidden beneath the ruins of the medieval town, except three
chambers cut in the rock, one of which is shown, by an inscription
in the library at Noto, to have belonged to the gymnasium,
while the other two were heroa^ or shrines of heroes. But explora-
tions have brought to light four cemeteries of the third Sicel
period, and one of the Greek period, of the 3rd and and centuries
B.C. There arc also catacombs of the Christian period and some
Byzantine tombs. See P. Orsi in Notigie dcgli scan, 1897,
69-90. Four miles to the S. of Noto, on the left bank of the
Tellaro {Hdorus) (E. Pais, Atakta, Pisa, 1891, p. 75 seq.) stands
a stone column about 35 ft. in height, which is believed to be
a memorial of the surrender of Nidas. This is uncertain; but,
in any case, in the 3rd century B.C. a tomb was excavated in
the rectangular area which surrounds it, destroying apparently
a pre-existing tomb. The later burial belongs to the necropolis
of the small town of Hdoron, 750 yds. to the S.E., some remains
of which have been discovered. It was a small advanced post of
Syracuse, belonging probably to the 6th century B.C. See P.
Orsi in Notisie deglt scavi^ 1899, 241.
MOTT, EUPHALBT (1773-1866), American divine, was bom
on the 25tb of June 1773 at Ashford, Connecticut. He was
Teft an orphan without resources, but graduated in 1795 at
Brown University. In 1804 he became president of Union
College, Schenectady, New York, a position which he held till
his death on the 39th of Jaiyiary 1866. He found the college
financially embarrassed, but succeeded in placing it on a sound
footing. He was known also as the inventor of the first stove
for anthracite coal. His publications include sermons, Cwsutls
to Young Men (x8xo), and Lectures on Temperance (X847).
Life by C. van Santvoord (ed. Tayler Lewis, 1876).
NOrr. SIR WILLIAM (x782-x845)i English goienl, was tne
second son of Charles Nott, a Herefonhhire farmer, who in
1794 became an iimkeeper at Carmartlwn. William Nott was
indifferently educated, but he succeeded in obuining a cadet-
ship in the Indian army and proceeded to India in x8oo. In
X835 he was promoted to the comxnand of his regiment of native
infantry; and in 1838, on the outbxeak of the first Afghan war,
he was appointed to the command of a brigade. From ApxH to
October 1839 he was in command of the troops left at Quetta,
where he rendered valuable service. In November 1840 be
captured Khelat, and in the following year compelled Akbar
Khan and other tribal chiefs to submit to the British. On
receiving the news of the rising of the Afghans at Kabul in
November 184X, Nott took energetic measures. On the ajrd of
Deceni,ber the British envoy. Sir William Hay Macnaghtco,
was murdered at Kabul; and in February 1842 the weak and
incompetent comxxuuder^in<hief. General Elphinstone, sent
orders that Kandahar was to be evacuated. Nott at once decided
to disobey, on the supposition that Elphinstone was not a free
agent at Kabul ; and as soon as he heard the news of the massacre
in the Khyber Pass, he urged the government at Cakutu to
maintain the garrison of Kandahar with a view to ave&^ivg the
massacre and the murder of Macnaghten. In March he inf&cled
a severe defeat on the enemy near Kandahar, and in May
drove them with heavy loss out of the Baba Wali Fas. In
July he received orders from Lord EUenborough, the gov eauo r-
general of India, to evacuate Afghanistan, with permission to
retire by KabuL Nott arranged with Sir George Pollock, now
commander-in-chief, to join him at KabuL On the 30th cf
August he routed the Afghans at Ghazni, and on the 6th ol
September occupied the fortress, irom which he carried away.
by the governor-general's express instructions, the gates of the
temple of Somnath; on the X7th he joined Pollock at Kabd.
The combined army recrossed the SuUej in December. Nott*)
services were most warmly commended; he was immediately
appointed resident at Lucknow, was presented with a sword
of honour, and ^as made a G.C.B. In 1843 he returned to
England, where the directors of the East India Company voted
him a pension of £xooo per aimum. He died at Cannanhfa
on the I St of January 1845.
See Memoirs and Corresponditnce of Sir WtBiam NoU, edited hv
J. H. Stocqucier (2 vob., London, 1854): ChaHcs R. Low. Tit
Afghan War 1838-1842 (London, 1879), and Life and Carrespmrndena
' Sir George PoUock (London, X873): Sir j. W. Kaye. Hufery r*
War in Afghanistan (3 vols., London, X851).
i
NOTTINGHAM, EARLS OF. The English Utk of caxl of
Nottingham has been held by diifferent families, ix>tably by ibe
Mowbrays (1377 to X475; merged in the Norfolk title frts
^397)1 the Howards (X596-1681), and the Finches (i68x; since
1 7 29 tmited with that of Winchilse*). For the Howard line set
the separate article below. Here only the ancestois oi the Find
line are dealt with.
Heneace Finch (x62i~x682), first earl of •Notting^has s
the Finch line, lord chancellor of England, was descended ficr
an old family (see Finch, F^nch-Hatton), many of wheat
members had attained to high legal eminence, and was the cidcs:
son of Sir Heneage Finch, recorder of London, by his first if^k
Frances, dau^ter of Sir Edmund Bell of Beaupri Hall, Noiioit
In the regbter of Oxford univexsity he is entered as bon >>
Kent on the 33rd of December x63i, aikl probably bis nat^t
place was Eastwell in that county. He was educated ^
Westminster and at Christ Church, Oxford, where be tenMJaed
till he became a member of the Inner Temple in 1638. He «s
called to the bar in 1645, and soon obtained a lucrative pnctke
He was a member of the convention parliament of April ttic
and shortly afterwards was appointed solicitor-general, berg
created a baronet the day after he was knighted. In May of '^
following year he was chosen to repxtscnt the luivers^ f'
NOTTINGHAM, EARL OF
825
dford, and in 1665 the university created him a D.C.L. In
1670 he became attorney-general, and in 1675 lord chancellor.
He was created Baron Finch in 1674, and earl of Nottingham
in May 1681. He died in Great Queen Street, London, on the
18th of December 1682, and was buried in the church of Kaven-
stone in Bucks.
His contemporaries of both sides of politics agree in their high
estimate of nts integrity, moderation and eloauence, vihiUi his
abilities as a lawyer are sufficiently attested by the fact that he is
still spoken of as the father of eauity." His most imporunt contri-
bution to the statute book is *'The Statute of Frauds." While
attorney-general he superintended the edition of Sir Henry Hobart's
Reports (1671). He also published SevertU Speeches end Discourses
in the Tryal of the Judges of Kinw Charles I. (1660) ; Speeches to both
Houses of Parliament (1679); Speech at the Sentence of Viscount
Stafford (1680). He left Cnancery Reports in MS., and notes on
Colce's InstituUs,
Daniel Finch (1647-1730), second eari, son of the preceding,
entered partiament for Lichfield in 1679. He was one of the
privy councillors who in 1685 signed the order for the proclamation
of the duke of York, but during the whole of the reign of James
II. he kept away from the court. At the last moment he hesitated
to join in the invitation to William of Orange, and after the
abdication of James II. he was the leader of the party who
were in favour of a regency. He declined the office of lord
chancellor under William and Mary, but accepted that of
secretary of state, retaining it till December 1693. Under
Anne he in 1702 again accepted the same office in the ministry
of Godolphin, but finally retired in 1704. On the accession
of George I. he was made president of the council, but in 17 16
he finally withdrew from office. He succeeded to the caridom
of Wtnchilsea (with which the Nottingham t*tle now became
united) on the 9th of September 1739, and died on the ist of
January 1730.
NOTTINGHAM. CHARLES HOWARD. iST Eaxl or> (1536-
1634), English lord high admiral (also known as 2nd Lord
Howard of Effingham), was the eldest son of William, zst Baron
Howard of Effingham, lord high admiral, by his wife, Margaret,
daughter of Sir Thomas Gamage of Coity in Glamorganshire, and
was bom in 1536. He was nearly connected with Queen Eliza-
beth, his father's sister, Elizabeth Howard, being mother of Anne
Boleyn. During Mary's reign he is said to have served at sea
with his father, and on the accession of Elizabeth his kinship,
together with his good looks and abilities, secured his early
advancement. In 1559 he was sent as ambassador to France
to congratulate Francis II. on his accession, and in 1569 was
general of the horse under the earl of Warwick for suppressing
the Roman Catholic rebellion in the north. The next year
he commanded a squadron of ships to watch the Spanish fleet
which came to conduct the queen of Spain from Flanders, on
which occasion " His lordship, accompanied with 10 ships only
of Her Majesrie's Navy Royal, environed their Fleet in a most
strange and warlike sort, enforced them to stoop gallant and to
vail their bonnets for the queen of England."* In the parlia-
ments of 1563 and 1573 he represented Surrey, and succeeded
to his father's title on the 39th of January 1573. He was
installed a knight of the Garter on the 24th of April 1574, and
made lord chamberlain of the household, an appointment which
he retained till May 1585, when he became lord high admiral
of England. He also filled the offices of lord lieutenant of Surrey
and high steward of Kingston-upon-Thames. He was one
of the commissioners at the trial of the conspirators in the
Babington Plot and of Mary, queen of Scots, in 1 586, and, accord-
ing to Davison, Elizabeth's secretary of state, it* was owing
chiefly to his persuasion and influence that Elizabeth signed
the death-warrant.*
In December 1587 he hoisted his flag on the "Ark." His
letters at this time reflect vividly his sense of the impending
danger. " For the love of Jesus Christ, Madam," he writes
to Elizabeth, " awake thoroughly and see the villainous treasons
round about you, against your Majesty and your realm, and
* t.«. In the Howard line : see above.
"FuUer's Worthies, ii. 361.
' Nknlas's Life of Davison, pp. 232, 258, 281.
draw your forces round about you like a mighty prince to defend
you. Truly, Madam, if you do so, there is no cause for fear." *
On the approach of the Armada on the 6th of July 1588, Howard
describes thus the disposal of his forces: "I have divided
myself here into three parts, and yet we lie within sight of one
another, so as if any of us do discover the Spanish fleet we give
notice thereof presently the one to the other and thereupon
repair and assemble together. I myself do lie in the middle
of the channel with the greatest force. Sir Francis Drake hath
3o ships and 4 or $ pinnaces which lie beyond Ushant and Mr
Hawkins with as many more lieth towards Scilly."* He directed
the various engagements (see Ajimada), and stayed himself
to conduct the attack on the "San Lorenzo," stranded off
Calais, arriving in consequence at the great fight off Gravelines
some time after the engagement had begun. His tactics have
been criticized both by contemporary and by bter authorities,
but his position was a perilous one, opposed to an overwhelming
force of the enemy, and rendered still more difficult by the
queen's untimely economy, Howard himself contributing largely
to the naval expenses and to the relief of the numerous seamen
poisoned by bad food and landed at Margate. " It were too
pitiful to have men starve after such a service."* Instead of
risking all in a pitched battle with the enemy, a course which
probably appealed more to his dashing subordinates, he resolved
to pursue the less heroic method of "plucking their feathers
little by little";^ and his prudence, while justified by the
extraordinary results, was also greatly praised by so good a
judge as Raleigh. Shortly afterwards, under Howard's directions,
« " Relation of Proceedings " was drawn up (now printed in the
Navy Records Society PuhlicalianSt L x-i8).
In 1596 Howard and Essex commanded the expedition against
Cadiz, when a squadron of the enemy's ships was destroyed
and two of the number brought home. Howard's intention was
to limit the expedftion entirely to naval operations, but
Essex insisted on landing, and Howard, who had been specially
charged by Elizabeth to protect her favourite,* was obliged to
follow in his support. The town was sacked and the forts
destroyed; the naval prizes, however, but for this diversion
would have been more numerous. The council of war then
refusing to counteiuince any further attempts on land,
Howard and Essex returned with the expedition to England.
On the 32nd of October 1596 Howard was created earl of
Nottingham.
In February 1598, on a scare of an intended invasion, he was
ordered to take measures for the defence of the country, and
again in 1599, when he was appointed "Lord Lieut.-general
of all England," and exercised full authority both over the army
and the navy. He took a leading part in suppressing the
rebellion of Essex, and served as a commissioner on his trial in
February z6oi. In December x6o3 he entertained Elizabeth
at Arundel House, but made no attempt to rival the gorgeous
and expensive entertainments given to the queen by some of
his contemporaries. Elizabeth's favour, in his case, required no
courting by such methods, and it was to Nottingham that she
named James as her successor on her deathbed. He continued
to hold his office as lord high admiral under the new king, and
in 1605 was despatched as ambassador to Spain, where his great
reputation, together with his amiable character, perfect temper
and unfailing courtesy, secured the successful negotiation of
peace. He served on numerous commissions, including those
on the union of the two kingdoms in 1604, for the trial of the
conspirators of the Gunpowder Plot and of Henry Gamett in
1606, and for reviewing the articles and rttles of the order of
the Garter in x6i8, and he attended Princess Elizabeth on her
marriage to the elector paktine with a squadron to Flushing
in 1613. Nottingham, who, unlike many of the Howards, was
< Navy Records Society. Papers RdaHng to the Spanish Armada,
June r3rd, i. 225.
* Howard to Walstngham, July 6. lb. i. 245.
•Ib.ii. 183.
nb.i. XXI m6 Cat. of StaU P. Dom.is8l'lS90, p. $16. ^ ^
•Sec H?s fcrtter to Essex on this subject. Hist, iiSS. Comm.
Marquess of Salisbury s iiSS. vi. 239.
after recusants,* and in the diocese of Winchester for hearing
ecclesiastical causes; he sat on the government commission for
discovering and expelling Roman Catholic priests, and was
mentioned in z 602 from Douay as one of the three enemies most
feared by the recusants.*
On the report of the commission on the navy in 1618 and of
the abuses then exposed, Lord Nottingham, though no blame
was attached to himself, being now an old man over eighty years
of age, vacated his office of lord high admiral, receiving the sum
of jCsooo with a pension of £1000, and being granted a special
precedence, limited to his person, as earl of Nottingham of the
earlier Mowbray creation, and still keeping the lord-lieutenancy
of Surrey. He died at Haling House, near Croydon, on the Z4th
of December 1624, and was buried at Reigate, a monimient
being afterwards placed to his memory in St Margaret's church
at Westminster. He was a striking and almost heroic figure in
the Elizabethan annals, no unworthy leader of such men as
Drake, Hawkins and Raleigh, the defender of his country at
a time of inmiinent peril, and by his splendid character and
services he was placed beyond the reach of the intrigues and
jealousies which troubled the reputation of many of his con-
temporaries and above even the suspicion of ill-doing.
Lord Nottingham married (i), in July 1563, Catherine,daughter
of Henry Carey, ist Lord Hunsdon, cousin to the queen, by whom
he had, besides three daughters, two sons— William, who died
in his father's lifetime, and Charles (1579-1642), who succeeded
as second earl of Nottingham; and (2), when in his 68th year,
Margaret, daughter of James Stuart, earl of Murray, by whoow
he had two sons, the youngest of whom, on the death of his
half-brother without male issue, succeeded as third earl of
Nottingham; on his dying childless in April x68x the earldom
became extinct, the barony of Effingham passing to the
descendants of the first earl of Nottingham's younger brother.
Sir William Howard, from whom the fourth earl of Effingham
(creation of 1837) and Z4th baron Howard of Effingham (b.
x866), who succeeded in 1898, was descended.
NOTTINGHAM, a city and county of a city, municipal, county
and parliamentary borough, and county town of Nottingham-
shire, England. Pop. (1901) 239,743. It stands on the left
(north) bank of the Trent and its tribuUry the Leen. It is
12$ m. N-N.W, from Londoa by the Mldkmd railway, and is
also served by the Great Central and Grut Norihem railways.
Water communicalions arc horded by the Grantham tanal
eastward, by the No tt Ingham and Ertwash canals westward^ com-
municating with the Cromford canal in Derbyshire, and by the
Trent. 1 he plan df the town is irrceular, and iht main thorough-
fares are generally modem in appearance, many of the old narrow
streets having been wholly altered or renewed. About the centre
of the town is an open market-place some sJ acres in areat said
to be the largest oi its kind in England. Mottingbam Castle
occupies a fine site to the S., on an abrupt rocky hill. The ancient
remains are not Urge, including only a restored Norman gateway
and fragments of the I&rt [fications. In 1 87S the site was acquired
on lease by the corporationt and the building was opened as the
Nottingham and M id land Counties Art Mnaeom, The church of
St Mary is a fine Perpendicular cryciJorai structure, with a
central tower. St Fcter'a church is mainly Perpendicular,
but shoii^ traces of an e^Jrlicr build bg. St Nicholas" church,
near the castle, is a pbin building of brick dating from 1676.
There are several handsome modem churches, among which is
the Roman Catholic cathedral of St Barnabas, from the designs
of A. W. Pugin, ercc I ed in i S4 2- 1 S44. There arc a large nu mbcf
of Nonconformist platen of worship. Thei principal secular
buildings are the guildhall and dty fitssions court (1SS7), the
shire hall, the Albert Hall and the Exchange; there are two
principal theatres^ the Theatre Royal and the Empire Theatie.
Among educational cslabHshmcnts the principal is University
College, for which a fine range of btiildings was opened in iSSi,
•See csp. his letter to Wal^ngham, Navd Rriard Sx. Pub. L 65.
• Hist, AiSS- Cctftm. Murqm^is oj Saliiburys M3S* iv, 203.
* Col. Si Faff. Dom. i6Qi-i6oj, p, 18 1,
history. The free grammar school, founded in 15x3, for some
time in disuse, was revived in 1807, and on its removal in x86S
to new buildings, became known as the High School There are
also the Nottingham High School for girb; the blue-aat
school, founded in 1723; the People's College, founded in 1&46:
two technical schools; the Congregational Institute; and the
Nottingham school of art, for which a fine building was erected
in 1865 in the Italian style. The Midland Baptist college was
transferred from Chilwell to Nottingham in 1882.
The General Hospital was founded in 1781, and there are the
Nottingham and Midland eye infirmary, the county asylum
and the Midland institution for the blind. The Arboretum aad
the Forest are the principal public pleasure-grounds; the county
cricket club plays matches on the Trent Bridge ground, and there
is a racecourse at Coiwick, £. of the dty. To the N.W., but
within the city boundaries, are the industrial districts of Radford
and Basford. beyond which lies Bulwell, with collieries, limestone
quarries and earthenware manufactures. Bcstwood Park, in
the vicinity, contained a hunting lodge of Henry I., being induded
in SherwcKx] Forest. To the N., Sherwood is a growing rca-
dential district; another extends towards Gedling on the £.
Southward, across the Trent, West Bridgford is another large
residential suburb. To the W. is Lenton, and Beeston has
become a populous suburb mainly owing to the esUblishmcnt of
large cyde and motor works.
Nottingham itself became an important seat of the stocking
trade towards the dose of the x8th century. It was here that
Richard Arkwright in x 769 erected his first spinning frajse.
and here also James Hargreaves had the year previously remo^'cd
with his spinning jenny after his machine had been destroyed by
a mob at Blackburn. Nottingham has devoted itself chicfiy to
cotton, silk and merino hosiery. Up to x Si 5 point lace was also
an important manufacture. In x8o8 and 1809 John Heathcoat
obtained patents for machines for making bobbin net, which
inaugurated a new era in the lace manufacture. The industrks
also indude bleaching, the dyeing, spinning and twisting of silk,
the spinning of cotton and woollen yam, tanning, engineering aod
brewing, while cycle works and tobacco factories are important,
and the industries have the advantage of the dose proximity
of coal-mines. Besides the general market there is a Large cattk
market.
Nottingham received its style of a dty and county of a dty
by letters patent of the 7th of August iS^?. The parliamentai?
borough returns three members to piirilamentf bcipg dmilcsl
into W., E* and S, divisions. The dty is governed by a rQayci.
16 aldermen and 4^ councillors. Area, io,gj5 acres.
Hhtijry^ — The advantageous position of Noltingham {Smtiah
gaham, No^iingcham) on the Trent, where it was crossed by aa
ancient highway ^ accounts for its origin, whether in Rom^Ji at
SaxoQ limes. The SaJton form of the name is taken to refer ui
the caveSf anciently used as dwelling-places, which were hoUowdt
out of the soft sandstone. Eiamples of these occur in the Casde
rock, la the Rock Holes W. of the castle^ in the suburb of Sadi^ijos
and elsewhere. It wns cbesea by ihi^ Danes far tbor wist^
quarters in Sti3^ and constituted one of their five bursbs. In t^i
it Wis secured and fortified by Edward the Elder, who in Q*a«
built a second '* burgh " opposite the first and conceeted with it
by a bridge over the river, ^thelstan, the successor of EdvtM
the Elder, established there a royal mint. In loij the tfl«a
submitted to Swcyn. William I. erected a castle, and roendioa
of a new borough occurs in Domesday Book, and this seesu ta be
the fi.rst evidence of the cjustcnce di the " Frcndi bonousSi "
which grew up in Noltingham under the Normans^ and vis
distinguished from the English borough by the different cu^^qai
which prevailed in it. Parliaments were held at Noitinghacn ii
i514> 1337 ^nd 1357^ and it was the scene of the cociJerencc <£
the judges with Richard II. in August 1387. Several imporusf
persons have been imprisoned in the castle, among otbet* DavM
II. of Scotland. Edward IV. assembled his^ troo]j[S at Kotdn^»
in ii6t; and it was the headquarters of Richard III. before iH
batik of Bosw^rth la 1485. Iq 1642 Charles 1. fioally bfoLc widi
to the burgesses the liberties they had under Henry I., referred
to a market on Saturdays, and forbade the working of dyed doth^
except in Nottingham, within ten leagues of the borough. This
was confirmed by John, who also granted a gild-merchant.
Henry III. allowed the burgesses to hold the town in fee-farm,
and Edward I. granted them a mayor and two bailiffs, one to
be chosen from each borough. Henry VI. confirmed all preceding
privileges, first incorporated the mayor and burgesses, and
granted that the town, except the castle and the gaol, should be
a county of itself. Two sheriffs were to replace the two bailiffs.
This charter remained, except for temporary surrenders under
Charles II. and James II., the governing charter of the corpora-
tion until the Municipal Act of 1835. Nottingham returned
two members to parliament from 1295 until 1885, when the
number was increased to three. Edward I. granted an eight-
days' fair in September and a fifteen-days' fair in November,
the last altered by Richard II. to a five-days' fair in February.
Two other fairs were granted by Anne; one large fair, Goose
Fair, is still held. This begins on the first Thursday in October
and lasts three days. The markets on Wednesdays and Saturdays
are held by prescriptive right. Besides the Reform riots of 183 1 ,
Nottingham witnessed in x8ii the Luddite disturbances. In
1870 Nottingham was made the seat of a suffragan bishop of the
diocese of Lincoln, but as it is now in the diocese of Southwell
there is no suffragan bishopric.
NOTTINGHAMSHIRE, or Notts, an inland county of England,
bounded N.W. by Yorkshire, W. by Derbyshire, S. by Leicester-
shire and E. and N.E. by Lincolnshire. The area is 843-4 sq. m.
The N. is included in the great plain of York, and in the extreme
N. there is some extent of marshes. The valley of the lower
Trent and that of the Idle are also very flat. In the S. W. between
Nottingham and Warsop, the undulations swell into considerable
elevations, reaching near Mansfield a height over 600 ft. This
district includes the ancient Sherwood Forest (q.v.). Some
portions of it are still retained in their original condition, and
there are many very old oaks, especially in the portion known as
the Dukeries (q.v.). The county generally is finely wooded,
although to the E. of the valley of the Soar there is a considerable
stretch of wolds. The principal rivers are the Trent, the Erewash,
the Soar and the Idle. The Trent, which enters the county near
Thrumpton in the S.W., where it receives the Erewash from the
N. and the Soar from the S., flows N.E. past Nottingham and
Newark, where it takes a more northerly direction, forming the
N. part of the E. boundary of the county till it reaches the Isle
of Axholm (Lincolnshire). The Soar forms for a short distance
the boundary with Leicestershire, and the Erewash the boundary
with Derbyshire. The Idle, which is formed of several streams
in Sherwood Forest, flows N. to Bawtry, and then turns £. to
the Trent.
Geology. — ^All formations, from Lower and Middle Coal Measures,
overlain unconformably by Permian, to Lower Lias, crop out suc-
cessively eastward across the county, with a general but slight dip
away from the Pennine uplift. The strike of the Carboniferous rocks
veers from ^. to E. in the S.; that of younger formations bends to
S. W. The Coal Measures, about ^000 ft. thick, continue the Derby-
shire Coalfield. A boring at Ruddington proved the lowest measures,
underlain by Millstone Grit. The remaining Lower and Middle
Measures below the important Top Hard Coal, with the Kilburn.
Main. I>eep Hard and Soft Coals, crop out in the south and along the
Erewash Valley; higher strau farther N. All these consist of shale,
clay and little sandstone. They contain Carbonicola acuta, C.
robusta. Neuronitis heterophytla, Alethopteris and Lepidodendron,
showing essenttallv non-marine conditions. But several thin marine
beds occur. The highest measures, divisible into red Etruria Marls,
Newcastle Sandstones and a red sandy Keete scries have been
proved underground in eastward succession. A thin basal breccia, a
sandy and marly group, the Magnesian Limestone with Productus
horrvius and Scktxodus t^scurus (granular dolomite tvpically. its
upper part locally a dolomitic sandstone, the Mansfield buifding-
stonc). red gypsiierous Middle Marls, an Upper Limestone, and
Upper Red MairU, collectively 550 ft. thick in the north of NoCting-
glomeratic at the base and containing the fish Semionotus) form an
undulating wooded district. Higher red and pale green Keuper
Marl (700 ft.), with subordinate sandstones and gypsum, makes a low
agricultural tract on the E., traversed longitudinally by the Trent.
Black Rhaetic shales succeed with Pteria {Avicula) contorta, Proto-
cardium rkaelicum and bone-beds, below light-coloured marls and
limestones (" White Lias "). Lower Lias, almost up to the Semi-
costatus zone, crops out within the county. The basal Planorbis zone
contains argillaceous limestones, worked for hydraulic cement at
Bamston, and saurian remains. Of two types of Glacial boulder-
clav, mainly confined to the Triassic and Jurassic clays on the E.
and S.E., one containing Carboniferous and some extraneous boulders
probably came with the Pennine ke from the N.W. The other,
uppermost where both occur, and full of chalk and flint, belongs to
the Chalky Boulder Clay of the North Sea ke. Glacial gravels cap
the higher ground of the Triassic sandstones. Church Hole, one of
the Magnesian Limestone caves of Creswell Crags, yielded remains of
cave-lbn, bear, mammoth, rhinoceros, &c. Older river-gravels flank
thepasture land of the Trent alluvium.
Climate and Agriculture.^ As the higher regions of Derbyshire and
Yorkshire attract the rain clouds, the climate of Nottinghamshire
is above the average in dryness; thus, the mean annual rainfall at
Bawtry is 23-57 in. and at Nottingham 26*83 >"* ^" '^'* account
crops ripen nearly as early as in the S. counties. The soil of about
one-halt the county is gravel and sand, including Sherwood Forest,
where it inclines to stcnlity, and the valkv of the Trent, where there
is a rich vegetable mould on a stratum 01 sand or gravel. The land
along the banksof the Trent is equally suitable for crops and pasture.
The farms generally are of moderate size, the great majority being
under 300 acres. Most of the immediate occupants are tenants-at-
will. Roughly four-fifths of the total area is under cultivation.
Apples and pears are grown in considerable quantities, but there are
not many orchards of large size. Shorthorns are the favourite breed
of cattle, and dairy farming is considerably prosecuted. The old
forest breed of sheep is almost extinct, Lcicesters and various crosses
being common.
Industries.— Coa\ is mined chiefly on the S.W. border of the county
near Nottingham and near Mansfield; there are also mines near
Worksop. Clay, sandstone and limestone are also extensively raised.
The lace and hosiery industries are of old establishment in the county,
Nottingham being the principal centre. There are silk, worsted and
cotton mills. A large number of hands are employed in machinery
works, and the cycle and motor manufacture of beeston is important.
The manufacture of tobacco and cigars is conuderable at Nottingham
and Hucknall Torkard.
Communications. — The main line of the Midland railway touches,
the S.W. border of the county, with an alternative route through'
Nottingham, and branches thence N. through Hucknall and Mansfield
to Worksop, to Newark and Lincoln, from Mansfield to Southwell
and Newark, &c. The main line of the Great Central railway serves
Nottingham and HucknalL That of the Great Northern railway
serves Newark and Retford, with a branch to Nottingham and local
lines in that vicinity. A branch of the Great Central railway,
formerly (till 1908) the main line of the Lancashire, Derbyshire and
East Coast railway enters the county on the W. from Chesterfield,
and crosses the Dukeries by Ollerton to Dukeries Junction (G.N.R.)
and Lincoln. The Sheffield^rimsby line of the Great Central crosses
the N. of the county by Worksop and Retford. The Trent is navig-
able throughout the county, and the Idle between Bawtry and the
Trent. The principal canab centre upon Nottingham.
Foliation and Administration. — The area of the andent
county is 530,756 acres, with a population in 1901 of 514,578.
The area of the administrative county is 540,123. The county
contains the city and county and municipal borough of Notting-
ham (pop. 239,743), and the municipal boroughs of Retford or
East Retford (12,340), Mansfield (21,445) <Lnd Newark (14,992).
The urban districts are Arnold (8757), Beeston (8960), Carlton
(10,041), Eastwood (4815). Hucknall Torkard (15,250), Hucknall
under Huthwaite (4076), Rirkby in Ashfield (10,318), Mansfield
Woodhouse (4877). Sutton in Ashfield (14,862), Warsop (2132),
West Bridgford (7018), Worksop (16,112). For parliamentary
purposes the andent county is divided into four divisions
(Bassetlaw, Newark, Rushcliffe and Mansfield), each returning
one member; and the parliamentary borough of Nottingham
returns one member for each of its three divisions. There are
one court of quarter sessions and seven petty sessional divisions.
The boroughs of Newark and Nottingham have separate com-
missions of the peace, also separate courts of quarter sessions;
828
NOUMENON
that of East Retford has a sqiarate commission of the peace.
The total number of civil parishes is 266. The ancient county
contains 231 ecclesiastical parishes and districts, wholly or in
part; it is situated principally in the diocese of Southwell and
partly in the diocese of York.
History. — ^The earliest Teutonic settlers in the district which
is now Nottinghamshire were an Anglian tribe who, not later
than the sth century, advanced from Lincolnshire along the
Fosseway, and, pushing their way up the Trent valley, settled
in the fertile districts of the S. and E., the whole W. region from
Nottingham to within a short distance of Southwell being then
occupied by the vast forest of Sherwood. At the end of the 6th
century Nottinghamshire already existed as organized territory,
though its W. limit probably extended no farther than the Saxon
relics discovered at Oxton and Tuxford. Nottingham after the
treaty of Wedmore became one of the five Danish boroughs.
On the break-up of Mcrcia under Hardicanute, Nottinghamshire
was included in the earldom of the Middle English, but in X049
it again became part of Leofric's earldom of Mercia, and descended
to Edwin and Morkcre. The first mention of the shire of Notting-
ham occurs in 1016, when it was harried by Canute. The
boundaries have remained practically unaltered since the time
of the Domesday Survey, and the eight Domesday wapentakes
were unchanged in 1610; in 1719 they had been reduced to six,
their present number, Oswaldbeck being absorbed in Bassetlaw,
of which it forms the North Clay division, and " Side " in Thur-
garton. Nottinghamshire was originally included in the diocese
and province of York, and in 1291 formed an archdeaconry
comprising the deaneries of Nottingham, Newark, Bingham and
Retford. By act of parliament of 1836 the county was trans-
ferred to the diocese of Lincoln and province of Canterbury, with
the additional deanery of Southwell. In 1878 the deaneries of
Mansfield, South Bingham, West Bingham, Collingham, Tuxford
and Worksop were created, and in 1884 most of the coimty was
transferred to the newly-created diocese of Southwell, the
deaneries being unchanged. The deaneries of Bawtry, Bui well,
Gedling, East Newark and Norwcll were created in 18JB8. Until
1568 Nottinghamshire was united with Derbyshire under one
sheriff, the courts and tourns being held at Nottingham until
the reign of Henry IIL, when with the assizes for both counties
they were removed to Derby. In the time of Edward I. the
assizes were again held at Nottingham, where they ar6 held at
the present day. The Pevercl Court, founded before 11 13 for the
recovery of small debts, had jurisdiction over 127 towns in
Nottinghamshire, and was held at Nottingham until 1321, in
1330 at Algarthorpe and in 1790 at Lenton, being finally abolished
in 1849. The most interesting historic figure in the Domesday
Survey of Nottinghamshire is WilUam Pcvcrcl. His fief repre-
sents the honour of Nottingham, and in 1068 he was apr>ointed
constable of the castle which William the Conqueror had raised
at Nottingham. The Cliftons of Clifton and the Byrons of
Newstead held lands in Nottinghamshire at the time of the
Survey. Holme Pierrcpoint belonged to the Picrrepoinls from
the time of Edward I.; Shclford was the seat of the Stanhopes,
and Langcr of the Tibelots, afterwards carls of Worcester.
Archbishop Cranmcr was a descendant of the Cranmers of
Aslockton near Bingham.
The political history of Nottinghamshire centres round the
town and castle of Nottingham, which was seized by Robert of
Gloucester on behalf of Maud in 1140; captured by John in
1 191; surrendered to Henry III, by the rebellious barons in
1264; formed an important station of Edward IIL in the Scottish
wars; and in 1397 was the scene of a council where three of the
lords appellant were appealed of treason. In the Wars of the
Roses the county as a whole favoured the Yorkist cause, Notting-
ham being one of the most useful stations of Edward IV. In
the Civil War of the 17th century most of the nobility and
gentry favoured the Royalist cause, but Nottingham Castle
was garrisoned for the parliament, and in 1651 was ordered to
be demolished.
Among the earliest industries of Nottinghamshire were the
malting and woollen industries, which flourished in Norman
times. The latter declined in the r6th century, and was super-
seded by the hosiery manufacture which sprang up alter the
invention of the stocking-loom in 1589. The earliot evidence
of the working of the Nottinghamshire coalfield is m 1250.
when Queen Eleanor was unable to remain in this county 00
account of the smoke of the sea-coal. Collieries are scarcely
heard of in Nottinghamshire in the 17th century, but b 1620
the justices of the peace for the shire report that there b no fear
of scarcity of com, as the counties which send up the Trent for
coal bring com in exchange, and in 188 1 thirty-nine coUierirs
were at woric in the county. Hops were formcTly ezteosvrij
grown, and Worksop was famous for its liquorice. Numerous
cotton-mills were erected in Nottinghamshire in the x8th centaiy.
and there were silk-mills at Nottingham. The manufacture of
tambour lace exbted in Nottinghamshire in the 18th century, sad
was facilitated in the 19th century by the manufacture of
machine-made net. From x 295 the county and town of Nottiof-
ham each returned two members to parliament. In 157' Eut
Retford was represented by two members, and in 1673 Ne«ark*
upon-Trent also. Under the Reform Act of 1832 the couttT
returned four members in two divisions. By the act of 1 Si 5 it
returned four members in four divisions; Newark and £ut
Retford were disfranchised, and Nottingham retimed three
members in three divisions.
Antiquities. — At the dissolution of the monasteries there vtie
no fewer than forty reh'gious houses in Nottinghamshire. The
only important monastic remains, however, are those at Ncv-
stead, but the building is partly transformed into a maasica
which was formerly the residence of Lord Byron (see Hccaxui
ToRXASo). There are also traces of monastic ruins at Bcavvak.
Mattersey, Radford and Thurgarton. The finest parish dkmxh
in the county is that of Newark. The churches of St llaiy.
Nottingham, and of Southwell were collegiate churches; Sovt^
well, now a cathedral, is a H>lcndid building, principally Norman.
The churches of Balderton, Bawtry, Hoveiingham, lfacs6eU
and Worksop are also partly Norman, and those of Coddiafioa,
Hawton and Upton St Peter near Southwell. Eaiiy English. Of
the old castles, the principal remains are those at Newark, bat
there are several interesting old mansions, as at K'mgshaccSu
Scrooby, Shelford and Southwell. Wollaton Hall, near Koiiing-
ham, is a fine old building (c.i 580). The finest residences of dor
modern date are Welbeck and others in the Dxikeries (^.v.)-
Sec Victoria County History, Nottinghamshire i R. Thorotoo. Hr
Antiquities of Nottinghamshire (Loud., 1677; republished vhi
additions by J. Tlioresby, 3 vols.. Lend., 1797): Thoaui» Biitrk.
Annals of Nottinghamshire (4 vols., Lond., 1857-1856); j. ^■
Briscoe, Old Nottinghamshire (1881): T. Ward. Descriptae CdeifH'
of Books relating to Nottinghamshire (Nottingham, 1892).
NOtfMENON (Gr. voov^iofw, a thing known, from fotir\.
a philosophical term put into currency by Kant and doc voA
used except in definite reference to his doctrine. In the Kantiu
system the term " noUmena " means things-in-themsehxs »
opposed to " phenomena " or things as they appear to 1
According to Kant the human mind is such that it can bcrt
penetrate by its speculative powers to things-in-themsdv&
but can only know phenomena. Thus we have the odd poi
that noUmena, or the contents of the intelligible world, are 1*1
the things to which thought can never penetrate. The i0>>
however, is a relic of an early period of Kant's mental devehp-
ment. In his fully mature or critical position he hdd thit ik
noumenal world was inaccessible to the speculative reason, aa'
yet that we are not altogether excluded from it, since the pnctioi
reason, i.e. our capacity for acting as moral agents, assvm a
of the existence of a noQmenal world wherein freedom. God c '
immortality have a real place. The relation of oounMsa it
phenomena in the Kantian system is a most difficult one; ui
in view of the fact that the acutest intellects of Europe havebtf
engaged vainly for more than a century in recondling t&ev«n<*
passages on the subject, the safest conclusion is thai ther *
irreconcilable. The course adopted by Kant's VBaae6M
successors in German idealism was to reject the whole couap^^
of noUmena, for the reason that what is essentially nakaoviV ,
has no existence for our intelligence. Kant, however, pratdlrf
principle: we must connect it with his general tendency to
recognize the dynamic side of things. He saw, what so many
of- his successors failed to see, that the world as we know it is
an expression of power; and he could not imagine whence the
power could come if not from a world beyond phenomena.
(See Kant; Phenomenon.) (H. St.)
NOVAUCHES, MANUEL PAVIA T LACT, isr Makquis de
(1814-1896), Spanish marshal, was bom at Granada on the
6th of July 18x4. He was the son of Colonel Pavia, and after
a few years at the Jesuit school of Valencia he entered the Royal
Artillery Academy at Segovia. In 1853 he became a lieutenant
in the guards of Queen Isabella II., and during the Carlist War
from 1833 to 1840 he became general of division in the latter
year at the early age of twenty-six. The Moderate party made
him war minister in 1847, and sent him to Catalonia, where
his efforts to put down a Carlist rising were not attended with
success. He had been made a senator in 1845, and marquis in
1848. He was sent out to Manila in 1852 as captain-general
of the Philippine IsUnds. In April 1854 he crushed, with much
sternness a formidable insurrection and carried out many
useful. reforms. On his return to Spain he married the countess
of Santa Isabel, and commanded the reserves in the Peninsula
during the war with Morocco. He refused the war portfolio
twice offered him by Marshab O'Donnell and Narvaez and
undertook to form a cabinet of Moderates in 1864 that lived
but a few days. He volunteered to crush the insurrection in
Madrid on the 32nd of June x866, and when the revolution broke
out in September x868 accepted the command of Queen Isabella's
troops. He was defeated by Marshal Serrano at the bridge of
Alcolea on the a8th of September 1868, and was so badly wounded
in the face that he was disfigured for life He kept apart durine
the revolution and went to meet King Alfonso when he landed
at Valencia in January 1875. The Restoration made the marquis
de Novaliches a senator, and the new king gave him the (xolden
Fleece. He died in Madrid on the aand of October 2896.
NOYAUS, the pseudonym of Fueoi^ch Leopold, FREiHEUt
VON HABOi^raERO (1772^x801), German poet and novelist. The
name was taken, according to family records, from an ancestral
estate. He was bom on the 2nd of May 1772 on his father's
estate at Oberwiederstedt in Prussian Saxony. His parents were
members of the Moravian {HermJnUer) sect, and the strict religious
traixiing of his youth is largely reflected in his literary works.
From the gymnasium of Eisleben he passed, in 1790, as a student
of philosophy, to the university of Jexui, where he was befriended
by Schiller. He next studied law at Leipzig, when he formed
a friendship with Friedrich Schlegel, and finally at Wittenberg,
where, in 1794, he took his degree. His father's cousin, the
Prussian mmlster Hardenberg, now offered him a government
post at Berlin; but the father feared the influence upon his son
of the loose-living statesman, and sent him to learn the practical
duties of his profession under the KreisanUmann (district
administrator) of Tennstedt near Langensalza. In the following
year he was appointed auditor to the government saltworks
in Weissenfeb, of which his father was director. His grief at
the death in 1797 of Sophie von KUhn, to whom he had become
betrothed in Tennstedt, found expression in the beautiful
Hymnen an die Nachi (first published in the AthenAum^ x8oo).
A few months later he entered the Mining Academy of Freiberg
in Saxony to study geology under Professor Abraham Goltlob
Werner (x 750-181 7), whom in the fragment Die Lekrlinge zu
Sais he immortalized as the ** Mcister." Here he again became
engaged to be married, and the next two years were fruitful in
poetical productions. In the autumn of X799 he read at Jena
to the admiring circle of young romantic poets his GeisUicke
Utder, Several of these, such as ^' Wenn aUe untreu werden,"
•• Wenn ich ihn nur habe," " Unter tausend frohen Stunden,"
Still retain, as church hjrmns, great popularity. In x8oo he was
Tieck and Friedrich Schlegel (2 vols. x8o2; a third volume was
added in 1846). They are for the most part fragments, of which
Heinrich von Ofterdingen, an unfinished romance, is the chief.
It was undertaken at the instance of Tieck, and reflects the
ideas and tendencies of the older Romantic School, of which
Hardenberg was a leading member. Heinrich von Ofterdingen's
search for the mysterious " blue flower " b an allegory of the
poet's life set in a romantic medieval world. Novalis, however,
did not succeed in blending his mystic and pfiilosophical concep-
tions into a harmonious whole. The "fragments" coptain
idealistic though paradoxical views on philosophy, art, natural
science, mathematics, &c.
There aiifcditicni* of Jtii collected worfcs by C. Mdvticf und B. VVilIe
(l^Ji], by E* Hcritbom (3 vol*,, igoj), and by J Minor (3 vols.,
X907J. HfiKfick von 0/tJ^iit^m was pubHshf^ wrvjniuly by T,
Schmirii in 1876. Novatls'* t orfc*pnndcnrc was edited hy j. M,
Raich in iSBo. S« R. Haym, Dif rffm&tiiiifhf Scfiidr (iJerlin. i«?o);
A- Schuhart, f<^osfaIii' Lebtn, Dkhhit und lifntrn (iftSj),- C. Bubaf,
Nin-'ilif Lyrik (189^ J : J. Diop, friifdnck tan Ifardfnbcrx (Hamburgh
iflfjo), E- tlcslVionii Friedrvh rmt ifcfdinbfrf {Btthn, 1901). Carlylci
fite (,f;kiy on ftm'n'ii Ou^q) i» wtll tnuwo.
NOVARA, a town and episcopal see, of Piedmont, Italy,
capital of the province of Novara, 31 m. by rail W. of Milan,
538 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1906) 37,962 (town), 48,694
(commune). Railways diverge hence to Varallo Sesia, OrU,
Arona (for Domodossola), Busto Arsizio, Milan, Vigevano and
Vcrcelli. Previous to X839 Novara was still surrounded by its
old Spanish ramparts, but it is now an open, modern-looking
town. Part of the old citadel is used as a prison. The cathedral
dates from the 4th century (?), but (with the exception of the
octagonal dome-roofed baptistery belonging to the first part
of the loth century, and separated from the west end by an
atrium) was rebuilt between i860 and 1870 after designs by
Antonelli; the church of S Gaudenzio, dedicated to Bishop
Gaudentius (d. 4x7)* ^^^o is buried under the high altar, rebuilt
by Pellegrino Hbaldi about 1570, has a baroque campanile and
a dome 396.ft. high, the latter added by Antonelli in 1875-1878;
and San Pietro del Rosario is the church in which the papal
anathema was pronoimced against the followers of Fra Doldno.
The two first contain pictures by Gaudenzio Ferrari. The
city also contains handsome market-buildings erected in 18x7-
X842, a large hospital dating from the 9th century and a court-
house constructed in 1346. The town has also a museum of
Roman antiquities. The principal industry is the carding and
spinning of silk; there are also iron-works and foundries, cotton
mills, rice-husking mills, organ factories, dye-works and printing
works.
Novara, the andent Novaria, according to Pliny a place of
Celtic origin, according to Cato (but wrongly) of Ligurian origin,
was a municipal city, and by on the road between Vercellae
and Mediolanum. Its rectangular plan may well be a survival
of Roman days. Dismantled in 386 by Maximus for siding with
his rivAl Valentinian, it was restored by Theodosius; but it
was afterwards ravaged by Radagaisus (405) and Altihi (452).
A dukedom of Novara was constituted by the Lombards, a
countship by Charlemagne. In 11 10 the dty was taken and
burned by the emperor Henry V. Before the close of the 12th
century it accepted the protection of Milan, and thus passed into
the hands, first, of the Visconti, and, secondily, of the Sforzas. In
1706 the dty, which had long before been ceded by Maria
Visconti to Amadeus VIII. of Savoy, was occupied by the Savoy
troops. At the peace of Utrecht it passed to the house of Austria
with the duchy of Milan; but, having been occupied by Charles
Emmanuel in 1734, it was granted to him in the following year.
Under the French it was the chief town of the department of
Agogna. Restored to Savoy in x8x4, it was in 1821 the Rcene
of the defeat of the Piedmontese by the Austrians, «ind in 1849
of the more disastrous battle which led to the abdication of
830
NOVA SCOTIA
Charles Albert and an Austrian occupation of the city. The
painter Gaudenzio Ferrari, was a native of Novara; and so was
Peter Lombard. (T. As.)
NOVA SCOTIA, a province of the Dominion of Canada, lying
between 43** 25' and 47* N. and 59* 40' and 66" 25' W., and
composed of the peninsula proper and the adjoining island of
Cape Breton iq.v.), which is separated from the mainland by
the Strait of Canso. The extreme length from S.W. to N.E. is
374 m. (N.S. 268, C.B. 108); breadth 60 to 100 m.; area 21,428
sq. m. The isthmus of Chignecto, xi} m. wide, connects It with
the province of New Brunswick.
Physical Features. — Nova Scotia is intersected by chains of
hills. The Cobequid Mountains, stretching from E. to W. and
terminating in Cape Chignecto, form the chief ridge. Several
of the elevations are as high as 1 100 ft., and are cultivable
almost to their summits. Lying on each side of this range are
two extensive tracts of arable land. A ridge of precipices runs
for 130 m. along the Bay of Fundy from Brier Island at the
farthest extremity of Digby Neck and culminates in Capes
Split and Blomidon. Here and there rocks, from 200 to 600 ft.
in height and covered with stunted firs, overhang the coasts.
Beyond them lies the garden of Nova Scotia, the valley of (he
Annapolis. The Atlantic coast from Cape Canso to Cape Sable
is high and bold, containing many excellent harbours, of which
Halifax (Chebucto Bay) is the chief. THc N. shore is, as a rule,
low, with hills some d^tance from the coast. Of its harbours
the most important is Pictou. Of the inlets the most remarkable
is Minas Basin, the eastern arm of the Bay of Fundy; it pene-
trates some 66 m. inland, and terminates in Cobequid Bay,
where the tides rise sometimes as high as 53 ft., while on the
opposite coast, in Halifax Harbour, the spring tides scarcely
exceed 7 or 8 ft. The height of the Fundy tides has, however,
been often exaggerated, the average being 42-3 ft. Many islands
occur along the coast, particularly on the S.E.; of these the
most celebrated is Sable Island iq.v.). The rivers arc, with few
exceptions, navigable for coasting vessels for from 2 to 20 m.
The principal arc the Annapolis, Avon, Shubcnacadie, the East,
Middle and VVest rivers of Pictou, the Musquodoboit and the
Lahavc. The largest of the fresh-water lakes is Lake Rossignol,
situated in Queen's county, and more than 20 m. long. Ship
Harbour Lake, 15 m. in length, and Grand Lake ar^ in Halifax
county.
Geology. — The Lower Cambrian formation forms an almost con-
tinuous belt along the Atlantic coast, vailing in width from 10 to
its m. and covering an area estimated at 8500 sg. m.^ It is interrupted
)y large masses of intrusive granite - r ■ | i-^^^jp
S.W. 01 the province as far as Halifax, ... .': ^i j^ j..i.^ ..l.l j.i iL;achcd
areas as far as Cape Canso. This pan oi Llie pf dvijict^ ia, jruE|;cd and
sterile, and abounds in small lakes and peat bogi. Along me N.E.
coast extends a Carboniferous area, including two Kirgc and pro-
ductive coal-fields in Cumberland and Tictau cciindFi, and conilniicd
in the coal-fields of Cape Breton. On the 5. cojsi of the Oay of Fund^,
and at Minas Basin and Channel, the Tria^sic Ked Sindtionc forma-
tion predominates, more or less protected by a. narrow rim of trap
rock, culminating at its E. end in line Ktaaltic pmmontory of
Blomidon (Blow-nic-down). The Cobequid Mountams are A mass of
dates, (juartzitcs and intrusive rocks (ajjjiarcfitCy Siluro-CambiiJanJ.
cities of the E. states and to the Canadian N. W. Tlie great nu&
of the people are of British descent, but in parts of Cape Breton
are found descendants of the early French settlers; in Luneabuii
and the S.E. is a large German colony; near Halifax are a number
of negroes from the West Indies, and scattered through the
province are about 2000 Micmac Indians, who now coa£ac
themselves chiefly to the making of bows and arro«-s. baskcj
and trinkets; though they carry on a certain anoount of mixed
farming. Few are of absolutely pure Indian blood. The scttkn
of English and Scotch descent are alxmt equal in numbers, btt
the latter have been more prominent in the devdopment ed the
province. The Irish are found chiefly in Halifax and ia the
mining towns of Cape Breton. Roman Catb<^cs, Presbytcmai
and Baptists predominate, though the Church of England ii
strong in Halifax, and still retains a certain social prestige.
Administration. — The executive authority is in the hands of
a lieutenant-governor appointed for five years by the fedenl
government, and of a council appointed from and icsponsiUe to
the local legislature. This consists of a lower house of ajisen^jy.
and of a legislative coimdl of twenty life membeia, which tbe
assembly has frequently, but in vain, endeavoured to abolish.
The municipal system was introduced subsequent to fedeniioo,
and ia modelled on that of Ontario.
The revenue is chiefly made up of the Dominion sabsidf
(see Ontario), and of royalties on nuning concessions, chiedjr
those on coal. Owing to the great increase of nuning in Ctpe
Breton, its payments towards the revenue are Uiger m pco-
portion than those of the mainland.
education i& nlno free but optional. In {rach couiity cme £i&|i x^adm
TSLiicd to the ra.nk of an academy^ irtx to aU qualiMtl tOKUMi m til
cxjynty, and receives an additional grant. Romjui Cadwfia ^vi
not won tbe rf^ht of tcparate scbooU^ ai in Ontario^ btfl m Kifiit
and other di^ricta where that church ■* ■*Fifvnp *w^|»»pin|j|y 1^**11*^
arrani^. Thu> the two Roman Catholic colleen, Sc FnuiQiJCawg
(Engl Lib) at Antigonifh, and S>E Anne (French) a.t OkufdhNs
{Digby county}, and fno^t of the c^nv^nts are in afiilqi^kv viiitlt
FiubTic schocil system, Thciv ^r^ also* rnaiijr pn>'atr Khcnfa^ daiilf
or girls, and under dcnomin^tjpn^l cotttrol. ilut vhik pnourf »
secondary cducLaticn >* wT.ftrs-pri'.id and of goiod quAtiiy, b^glff
education hai bulFcnrd Eitini dcdontiti^iionat buiLmcg:^ a&l lit
univcraiLiei are still too many afid too amatt. They art;: KJaf'i
CollcEe, Windsor (AngUcan), Icmnded in i^vo; Aodii Lnivcnttr*
Woirvdlc (Baptist, iS^^); £»£ Frands Xavicf, Anti^oni^ (K«^a
Catholic. fS66); and Dalhou^e URlvcnity* Halifu <Ua<kawi*ii
tional)^ rs^tabliihcd by charter in l&tS,» reor«anijrd in itf|, tkt
Largest and the mo^t ffficieflt* potseuing faculiia of aiti, f "
medicine and liw. The ptovtnee support J a normal '^
ichooli ol agriculture and of hortioiliurc at Trutv. &n:
IioOhOOO for a CoIIcec uI Tt-ehnnlDgy at Halifax,
Cffmmfrte and M^ttujaciiitu. — No\'a ^orti^ \» naturallxa •
province, and till about ill3i had the largctt tonnaj^r. Inpn.^. .
to {wpulatLon, in ibe world. Slace then, her *hipp«^ hu ffV>4E
dimini5h<?d. thoiigh Halifiuc u itill one of tht chief wintrr parti f
the Dominion, and Sydney U al» a favourite port ot call for «»■*»
in need ol " bunker ' coal. The watcr-po*irr prmTdciJ by tfcf n^m
supports many mamifaclun^. Several «U|j:ar~ixlin(.Tm «i*t, M^k
la™: trade IS carritd on with Bcrmmla; and th* West India aUa^
Ft^heFKS. — The fiiheriet of Nova bcotia are thr nioit impcfoet*
Canada, and tht value of their pro-lucti (S;,^i,6ai in 1904,) i*a^
one-third ihaE of ihe whole Damiirion. Lobster*, cod vsd 1
At the Joggins, near Cape Chignecto, oo-urs a spfcndtd exposure, rith — - — ^■~" ;- ,\^ r.L 1 --—--— _ — , , — _ ■'t- -rT~rA
in curious minerals and fossils, and very cebbr^ted among geologists, constitute the bulk pf ihe catch. Many b^i, ^"L^>5> ^ fS
Ciimate; Flora and Fauna.— The climrue of Nos^ Scotfa iimorr ^""•^."1^^'S: ^jfi^i'^^'^'li^.er?;?.^." ^^l-^^ tfwGra^ ^"^''
temperate than that of 'New Brunswick, .lud more equable than that
of the inland provinces, though not so ilry. Sprinirnnd winter h^m
about a fortnight later than in Onta ■ P ■■ fugs often drift in
from the Atlantic, but arc not considered unhealthy.
Most of the principal birds of North America are to be found,
and the game of the country includes moose, caribou, duck, teal,
gecsc. woodcock, partridge, snipe, plover, &c. The game laws are
strict and well enforced. The chief wild animals arc bears, foxes
and wild-cats. Wolves, once numerous, are now extinct. The
natural flora docs not diflfer greatly from that of the New England
states. The sweet-smelling may-flower, or trailing arbutus {Efigaea
repens), grows extensively, and has long been the provincial emblem.
Population. — The population increases slowly, having risen
only from 440.572 in 1881 to 459,574 in 1901. an average of 21-8
to the square mile (total area, 2 1 ,428 sq. m.). The rural population
is grouped along the river valleys, and the natural increase is
normal, but there is a large emigration to the manufacturing
Ne wiau ndls n d, A bounty is pa id by the Domi nion fovcir -
atteinpts are tv\m niadc to EnLroducc more Kienti^ nxtK
many more are employed in the lobster' canneries aixi kio^
industries. Trout and salmon abound in the inland bkct m
streams.
Lumber. — Lumbering was long the chief industry oC the tMO Wg f
and is still very important, though the percentage 6s form kH octf
is only about 30%. The network of small lakes and ri%wc«^
the logs to be brought to the mills with great cise. and KttW rxff
timber is now exported. The chief export is that of «pnict *■»
almost entirely from Halifax. The manufacture of wood-po!?*'
paper is also carried on.
Minerals. — Bituminous coal is mined in various parts of Of
Breton (q.v.) and in the counties of Cumberland ami Pfctoa^ i
seams dip at a low angle, and are of great thicknesu espe riMj*
Pictou county. The toul product exceeds 5.000.000 toe^ •■■■5 ,
more than two-thirds that of the whole Dominion. Of tktso^fjj i
is mined in tbe neighbourhood of Sydney. Cape Bcecoa. 0"^ J
important centres are Springhill, Acadia Mines. Stdlarton and Glace
Bay (CB.)- It is shipped as far west as Montreal, and to the New
England states. Iron is largely produced, chiefly in the vicinity of
the Cumberland and Pictou coal-fields. Tlie deposits include magne-
tite, red haematite, s^ular, limonite and carbonate ores. Blast
furnaces are in operation, especially at New Glasgow, Sydney and
North Sydney, though most of the ore used at Svdney is imported
from Newfoundland. The quarries of easily worked limestone, the
product of which is used as a " flux " in the blast furnaces, add to
the value of the iron deposits. Gold occurs in workable quantities
in the quartz all along the Atlantic coast, and several small but
successful mining enterprises are in operation, yielding about
1500,000 annually. Large deposits of gypsum occur, especially at
Windsor in Hants county. Manganese and copper are also worked
on a small scale.
A grictdture. — The attention paid to lumbering, fishingand shipping,
and the subsequent emigration west^rds have lessened the impor-
tance of this industrj^. Mixed farming is however largely carried on,
and of late years dairy fanning has been greatlv extended and im-
proved, and much butter and cheese is exported to Eneland. Both
the Dominion and the provincial governments have endeavoured to
introduce scientific methods. Nova Scotia ranks second to Ontario
in its production of apples and peaches. The centre of this industry
is the valley of the Annapolis, where, it is said, one " may ride for
fifty miles under apple-blossoms." At the head of the Bay of Fundy
and on Minas Basin the low-lying meadows produce splendid crops
of hay. Owing to high Fundy tideSj the air in the neighbourhood
is constantly in motion, the result being a cool temperature, even in
the height of summer, which is well fitted for stock-raising.
Roads and Railroads. — Road-making machines are employed for
the improvement of the ordinary hignways, and steel bridges are
replacing the wooden structures; but the roads in the country
districts still leave much to be desired. The Intercolonial railway,
owned and worked by the Dominion government, is the chief means
of communication With the other provinces, and for the carriage of
local traffic. Besides the main hnc from Halifax to Amherst, a
branch runs from Truro to Sydney, and another from Oxford Junction
to PKtou and Stellarton. The Canadian P^ific railway has running
rights over it from St John (N.B.) to Halifax; on its completion,
•imilar rights will be granted from Moncton to Halifax to the Grand
Trunk Pacific, The Dominion Atlantk railway extends from
Windsor Junction, near Halifax, to Yarmouth; the Nova Scotia
Central railway from Lunenburvto Middleton on the Dominion
Atlantk railway. A line alone the Atlantic coast connects Halifax
and Yarmouth, whence a dafly line of steamera sails for Boston.
Other lines connect Halifax with a number of the S.W. coast and
inland towns, and a line has been projected from New Glasgow to
Guysborough and the coast. Several knaller lines are owned by the
various coal-mining companies. Telegraph and telephone lines
extend all over the province, and there are two cable stations — one
at Canso and the other at Sydney. The Marconi Companv has
stations for wireless telegraphy at Halifax, Cape Sable, Sable Island
and Glace Bay.
History. — Nova Scotia may wdl have been the Markland of
early Norse and Icelandic voyages, and Cape Breton was visited
by the Cabots in 1497-1498, but not till 1604 was any attempt
at pennanent colonizatbn made by Europeans. In that year
an expedition was headed by a Frenchman, Pierre de Guast,
Sicur dc Monts (1560-^. 1630), who had received from Henry IV.
full powers to explore and take possession of all lands in North
America lying between the 40tli and 46th parallels of north
latitude. De Monts and his friend de Poutrincourt (d. 16x5),
endeavoured to form settlements at Port Royal (now Annapolis),
St Croix (in New Brunswick) and elsewhere, but quarrels broke
out with the Jesuits, and in 1613 the English colonists of Virginia
made a descent upon them, claimed the territory in right of the
discovery by the Cabots, and expelled the greater part of the
inhabitants. In 1621 Sir William Alexander obtained from
James I. a grant of the whole pem'nsula, which was named in
the patent, Nova Scotia, instead of Acadia, the old name given
to the colony by the French. During the reign of Charles I. tho
still existing order of Baronets of Nova Scotia was instituted,
and their patents ratified in parliament. The treaty of St
Germain-en-Laye (1632) confirmed France in the possession of
Acadia, Cape Breton and New France; but fierce feuds broke
out among the French settlers, and in 1654 a force sent out by
Cromwell took possession of the country, but by the treaty of
Breda (1667) it was restored to France by Charles II. Continual
fighting went on between the French and the British colonista
of New England, the Indians taking part, usually on the side of
the French; in 1 710 the province was finally captured by Great
Britain and ceded to her in 1713 by the treaty of Utrecht, under
the name of " Acadia or Nova Scotia," the French remaining
masters of Cape Breton. Perpetual quarrels went on concerning
the boundaries of the district ceded; the English daim comprised
the present Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island, most of New
Brunswick and the Gasp6 peninsula, while the French restricted
it to the S. half of what is now Nova Scotia. In 1749 Halifax
was founded as a counterpoise to Louisbourg in Cape Breton,
and over 4000 colonists sent Out, but the French opposed the new
Settlers. In 1755 about 6000 French were suddenly seized by
Governor Charles Laurence (d. 1760) and hurried into exile.
After undergoing many sufferings, some eventually foimd their
way back, while others settled in Cape Breton, or in distant
Louisiana. By the treaty of Paris in 1763, France resigned all
claim to the country. In 1769 Prince Edward Island (formerly
Isle St Jean) was made a separate government. Meanwhile,
immigration from the New England colonies had filled the fertile
meadows left vacant by the Acadians. A later influx of American
Loyalists led in 1784 io the erection of New Brunswick into a
separate colony. In the same year. Cape Breton was also
separated from Nova Scotia but reunited in i8ao.
During the wars of the American and French revolutions
Halifax grew apace. Hither, in June 18x3^ came the " Sharmon "
with her prize the " Chesapeake," captured off Boston harbour.
Meanwhile, between 1784 and 1828, a large Scottish emigration,
chiefly from the HighUnds, had settled in the counties around
Pictou, and the lumbering industry rose to great proportions.
Agriculture was for some time neglected, but in x 81 8 the letters
of "Agricola" (John Young, 1 773-1837) gave it an impetus.
Representative institutions had been granted as early as 1758,
but power long rested mainly in the hands of a Council of Twelve,
comprising the chief justice, the Anglican bishop and other high'
officials. In 1848, after a long struggle, responsible government
was won by the legislative assembly, led by Joseph Howe.
In these political struggles, education was often the battle-
ground, the fight ending in 1864 in the establishment of free
primary and secondary schools by Dr (afterwards Sir Charles)
Tupper, and the re-organization on an undenominational basis
of Dalbousie University (see Haufax). In 1867 the province
entered the new Dominion of Canada. For some years after-
wards an agitation in favour of repeal was maintained, but
gradually died away. Since then its history is a record of
uneventful progress.
Bibliography.— For history, see'Duncan Campbell, Naia Scotia,
(1873): T. C. Haliburton .(" Sam Slick "), Historical and Statistical
Accounl of Nova Scotia (1829); Beamish Murdoch, History of Nova
Wolfe, "oa the other. For general information^ see S. £. Dawson,
North America (1897); Sir Wm. Dawson, Acadian Geoiofy (4th cd.,
1891) ; J. C. Hopkins, Canada: an Encyclopaedia (6 vols., 1898-1899).
NOVATIANUSf Roman presbyter, and one of the earliest
antipopes, founder of the sect of the Novatiani or Novatians,
was bom about the beginning of the 3rd century. On the
authority of Philostorgius {H.E. viii. 15) he has been .called a
native of Phrygia, but perhaps the historian merely intended
to indicate the persistence of Novatianism In Phrygia at the
time when be wrote. Little is known of his life, and that only
from his opponents. His conversion is said to have taken place
after an intense mental struggle; he was baptized by sprinkling,
and without episcopal confirmation, when in hourly expectation
of death; and on his recovery his Christianity retained all the
gloomy diaracter of its earliest stages. He was ordained at Rome
by Fabian, or perhaps by an earlier bbhop; and during the
Dedan persecution he maintained the view which excluded from
ecclesiastical oommtmion all those (lapsi) who after baptism
had sacrificed to idols— a view which had frequently found
expression, and had caused the schism o£ Hippolytus. Bishop
Fabian suffered martyrdom in January 250, and, when Cornelius
was elected his successor in March or April 251, Novatisa
objected on account of his known laxity on the above-mentioned
point of dlsdpline, and allowed himself to be consecrated bishop
by the minority who shared his views. He and his foUowcrs
were excommunicated by the synod held at Rome in October
of the same year. He is said by Socrates {H.E. iv. s8) to have
suffered martyrdom under Valerian. After his death the
Novatians spread rapidly over the empire; they called them-
selves KoBapU, or Puritans, and rebaptized their converts from
the Catholic view. The eighth canon of the council of Nice
provides in a liberal spirit for the readmiasion of the clergy of
the KoBapol to the Catholic Church, and the sect finally dis-
appeared some two centuries after its origin. Novatian hss
sometimes been confounded with hb Contemporaxy Novatus,
a Carthaginian presbyter, who held similar views.
Novatian was the first Roman Christian who wrote to any cob*
Btdeiable extent in Latin. Of his numerous writings three are
extant: (i) a letter written in the name of the Roman dcrgy to
Cyprian in 250; (2) a treatise in thirty-one chapters, De CrtsOaJe;
')) a letter written at the request of the Roman laity. De dbis
They are well-arranged compontions. written __ _
elegant and vigorous style. The best editions are by Wekbmaa
(Oxford. 172a) and by Jackson (London, I7a8); they are traaslated
in vol. ii. of Cyprian's works in the AnU-Nietne Tkeel. LBbr. (Edin-
burgh, i860). The Novatian controversy can be advaatageooly
studied in the Epistles of Cyprian.
NOVATION, a legal term dierived from the Roman law, in
which nowHo was of three kinda^-substitutioii of a new
debtor {expromissio or detegatio), of a new creditor {ceuio
nominum td acHonum), or bf a new contract. In Rn^JiA i^^
the term (though it occurs as early as 3racton) is scarcely
naturalized, the substitution of a new debtor or creditor being
generally called an assignment, and of a new contract a merger.
It is doubtful, however, whether merger applies except where
the substituted contract is one of a hi^er nature, as where a
contract under seal supersedes a simple contract. Where one
contract is replaced by another, it is of course necessary that the
new contract should be a valid contract, founded upon soffideat
consideration (see Contbact). The extinction of the previous
contract is sufl&dent consideration. The question whether there
is a novation most frequently arises in the course of dealiag
between a customer and a n^w partnership, and on the assignment
of the business of a life assurance company with reference to
the assent of the policyholders to the transfer of their policies.
The points on which novation turns are whether the new firm
or company has assumed the liability of the old, and whether,
the creditor has consented to accept the liability of the new
debtors and discharge the old. The question is one -d fact in
each case. See especially the Life Assurance Companies Act 187 3,
s. 7, where the word " novations " occurs in the marginal note to
the section, and so has quasi-statutory sanction. SoAs law seems
to be more stringent than English law in the applicatioD of the
doctrine of novation, and' to need stronger evidence of the
creditor's consent to the transfer of liability. In American law,
as in English, tl|e term is something oi a novelty, ezcc|ii m
Louisiana, where much of the dvil law is retained.
NOVATA ZBHLTA {Nova ZemUa, '^new land'^, an Aictk
land off the coast -of European Russia, to which It M«-g%
consisting of two large islands separated by a nanow wiiMfiai
channel, the Matochkin Shar. It lies between 70* 31^ asd
77* 6' N., and between 51^35' and 69^ 2' E. It forms an domgatcd
crescent, being neariy 600 m. long with a width of 30 to 90 na.«
and an area of about 36,000 sq. m. It separates the Barents
Sea on the W. from the Kara Sea on the E. ^th VaysKh
Island, between it and the mainland, Novaya Zemljra forms a
continuation of the PaS-Khoy hills. Vaygach is separated froai
it by the Kara Strait, 30 m. wide, and from the continent by
the Yugor or Ugrian Strait, only 7-nL across. On the E. coast
of Novaya Zemlya, especially between the Matochkin Shar
and 75° N., there are a number of fjord-like inlets — soch as
Chekina, Rasmyslov and Medvizhiy bays. The greater par.
of the W. coast is fretted into bays and promontories, and a
large number of islets lie off it. At the S. extremity there are
a number of fjords and the wide bay of Sakhanikha Tbcs
anoroing ancoorages. un ine w. coasi oi loe in. isiana are
Krestovaya, Mashigin and Nordenakjttld bays, and to the N.
are several groups of islands — Gorbovyi, Pankzatiev, the Gulf
Stream Islands and the Orange Islands. Off the £. coast that
called Pakhtusov (actually divided by a stndt into two) may
be mentioned. Little is known of the interior of Novaya Zemlya.
It is mountainous throughout. Transverse chains are thrown
o£f from the main chain, and are separated by deep narrow valleys,
some of which are watered by streams of considerable size, which,
at the spring thaw, bring down a remarkable bulk of detritus.
Tbe general slope of the land is steeper on the £. than on the
W., and at the N. and S. extremities th^e is a descent to a
comparatively low plateau. In the S. this plateau is broken by
several parallel ridges, with level valleys between them, dotted
with numerous small lakes. On either side of the Matochkin
Shar the hills reach 4000 ft. and upwards. The more elevated
region is covered with snow-fields which feed gladers in some
cases, while the N. seems to be covered with a great ice-sheet.
Ceolofy. — ^The gepk»ical structure of the central region is of the
most varied description. The primary rocks which appear at
Mitushev Kamefi arc overlaid with thick beds of quartzites arid clay-
slates containing sulphide of iron, with subordinate layers of talc or
niica slate, and thinner beds of fossiliferous limestone, Silurian or
Devonian. More recent day-slates and marls belonsing to the middle
Jurassic occur in the western coast-region about matochkin Shar.
About 7^* N. the crags of the C coast are composed of grey sand-
stone, while in 76^ Barents's Islands, and possibly a much greater
part of the N. coast, show Carboniferous strata. Traces of Eocene
deposits hate not been discovered on Novaya Zemlya. During the
Glacial period its glaciers were much larger than at present, whilst
during a later portion of the Quaternary period (to judge by the
marine fossils found as high as 300 ft. above the sea) Novaya Zemlya,
like the whole of the arctic coast of Russia, was submerged for
several hundred feet. At present it appears to partake of the move-
ment of upheaval common to the whole of N. Rusaa.
Climate. — Novaya Zemlya is colder than Spitsbergen (which lies
more to the N.) as in some degree it shares in the continental con-
ditions of northern Russia and Siberia. The middle and northern
parts of the W. coast are not so cold as the E. On the W. coast
the temperature appears to decrease S. of the Matochkin Shar, being
reduced by a cold current from the Kara Sea through Kara Strait.
On the other hand, the climate of the northern part of the W. coast
is affected by a relatively warm drift from tne W. Under this
influence there are years when the islands* can be circumnavigated
without difficulty. In the Matochkin Shar region the snow-hne is
estimated at about 1800 to 2000 ft. Glaciers are rare S. of 72* N.
Flora and Faitfia.— Grass does not grow to any extent exceipt in
Goose Land. Elsewhere even the lotved lichens are precarious,
though the leather lichens flourish. Of Phanerogams, only the
Dryas octopetala covers small areas oi the debris, interspersed with
isolated Cochlearia^ &c., and, where a layer of thinner clay has been
deposited in sheltered places, the surface is covered with saxifrages,
&c. ; and a carpet of moisses allows the arctic willow iSalix pdatis)
to develop. Where a thin sheet of humus, fertilized by lemmings,
has accumulated, a few flowering plants appear, but even so their
brilliant flowers spring direct from the soil, concealing the developed
leaflets, while their horizontally spread roots grow out of proportion;
only the 5^tx lanata rises to 7 or 8 in., sending out roots i in.
thick and 10 to 12 ft. lone. This applies only to the better-known
neighbourhoods of Matochkin Shar and Kostm Shar; N. of 74^ N.
very few ^>ecses have been found. The phanerogamic flora of
Novaya Zemlya and Vaygach numbers about two hundred species.
As to the genetic connexions of the Novaya Zemlya flora, it appears,
according to M. Kjellmann's researches, to belong to the Asiatic
rather than to the European arctic region.
The interior of Novaya Zemlya shows hardly a trace of animal life,
save here and there a vagrant bird, a few lemmings, an ice-fox, a
brown or white bear, and at times immigrant reindeer. Even insects
are few. The sea-coast, however, is occupied by countless birds,
which come from the S. for the breeding season, and at certain parts
of the sea-coast the rocks are covered with millions of guillemots,
while great flocks of ducks of various sorts, geese and swans swarm
every summer on the valleys and lakes of the south. ^ Whales,
walruses, various seals and dolphins are frequently met with. Only
two species of fish are of anv importance— the goltzy {Salmo alpinus)
in the western rivers, and the praul (Salmo omtU) in the eastern.
The numbers of sea mammals and birds attracted Russian hunters,
and even in the i6th century they had extended their huts (stano-
vishtcka) to the extreme N. ofthe island. Many of them wintered for
Russian province of Archangel.
History. — ^Nova3ra Zemlya seems to have been known to
Novgorod hunters in the nth century; but its geographical
discovery dates from the great movement for the discovery of
the N.E. passage. In 1553 Sir Hugh Willoughby sighted what
was probably Goose Land; Richard Chancellor penetrated
into Uie White Sea. In 1556 Stephen Borough reached the S.
extremity of the island, being the first western European to do
so. William Barents touched the island (1594) at Sukhoy Nos
(75.^ 460» and followed the coast N. to the Orange Islands and
S. to the Kostin Shar. Rumours of silver ore having been found
induced the Russian government to send out expeditions during
the second half of the i8th century. In 1760 Sawa Loshkin
cruised along the E. coast, spent two winters there, and in the
next year, after having reached Cape Begehrte (Begheerte),
returned along the W. coast, thus accomplishing the first cir-
cumnavigation; but the valuable records of his voyage have
been lost. In 1768 the Russian Lieutenant Rozmyslov reached
Goose Land and penetrated into the Kara Sea by the Matochkin
Shar, where he spent the winter; in the following year he pursued
the exploration of the Kara Sea, but was compelled to return
and abandon his ship. The first real scientific information about
the island is due to the expeditions (1821-1834) of Count Feodor
Petrovich LUtke (1797-1882), after whom part of the N. island
is named LUtke Land. Nearly all the W. coast as far as Cape
Nassau, as well as Matochkin Shar, was mapped, and valuable
scientific information obtained. In 1832 Lieutenant Pakhtusov
mapped the E. coast as far as Matochkin Shar; and in 1835
Pakhtusov and Tsivolka his pilot, or commander of his second
ship, mapped the coast as far as 74" 24'. The next expedition
was that of the naturalist Karl von Baer in 1838. A new era
of scientific exploration began in 1868, while Norwegian sea-
hunters brought in valuable geographical information. In 1870
the Norwegian Captain Johannesen penetrated as far as 79**
E., in 76® 13' N., and afterwards accomplished the second
drcunmavigation of Novaya Zemlya. These explorations led
the way for the famous voyages of Baron NordenskiSld (1875-
1878), which included investigations in Novaya Zemlya. In
1877 the Russian Lieutenant, Tyaghin, attempted to cross the
S. island, and in 1878 M. Grinevetskiy succeeded in doing so.
Among later expeditions may be mentioned those of C. Nossilov
(1887-1892), T. N. Chemychev (1895) who made a crossing of
the S. island, H. J. Pearson (1895 and 1897), Lieutenant Borisov
(1899 and X900) and O. Ekstam (1900 and 1903).
See accounts of the expeditions above mentioned, and especially,
among earlier works, K. h.. von Bacr. Expedition d rfovaia Zemlia et
en Lapponie (St Petersburg, 1838, &c.); and among later works
H. J. Pearson, Beyond Petsora Eastward, with botanical and geological
appendices by H. W. Feilden (London, 1899); also f. Spdrer,
Nowaja Senuja (Gotha, 1867) ^ A. P. Engelhardt, A Russian
Province of the North (Archangel, of which the author Was governor),
translated by H. Cooke (London, 1899).
NOVEL (from nouUus, diminutive of Lat. novus^ new; through
the Italian noveUa), the name given in literature to a study of
maimers, founded on an observation of contemporary or recent
life, in which the characters, the incidents and the intrigue are
imaginary, and, therefore, " new " to the reader, but are founded
on lines running parallel with those of actual history.
z. With the word novel is identified a certain adherence to
the normal conditions of experience. A novel is a sustained
story which is, indeed, not historically true, but might very easily
be so. It is essentially a modem form of literature — that is to say,
it makes its appearance when the energy of a people has con-
siderably subsided or has taken purely dvic forms, and is ready
to contemplate and to criticize pictures drawn from conventional
manners. The novel has been made the vehicle for satire, for
instruction, for political or religious exhortation, for technical
but his influence on the novel is insignificant. It was half a
century later that, in the romantic pastoral of Astrte^ published
in 1610, France may be said to have achieved her first attempt
at a noveL This famous book was written by Honor6 d'Urf6;
in spite of its absurdities it is full of talent, and succeeds, for
the first time in the history of French narrative, in depicting
individual character. D'Urf6 was followed, with leu originality,
by Marin Le Roy de Gomberville (1600-1674), who was the author
of a Mexican romance, PoUxandre, Bnd by Gombauld (1570?-
x666), the author of Endymion (1624). These were fictions of
interminable adventures, broken by an infinite number of
episodes; they ssem tedious enough to us nowadays, but with
their refinement of language, and their elevation of sentiment,
they fascinated readers l^e Madame de S^vign6. To Gomberville,
who has been called the Alexandre Dumas of the X7th century,
succeeded Mdlle de Scud6ry (1607-1701), who preserved the
romantic framework of the novel, but filled it up with modem
and familiar figures disguised under andent names. Her huge
romans A cleft tiresome as they are, form the necessary stepping-
stone between Astrie, in which the novel was first conceived,
and La Frincesse de CiiveSt where at last it found perfect
expression. Meanwhile, the elephantine heroic romances were
ridiculed by Charles Sorel in his Prancion (163a) and Le Berger
eiirasagarU .(1628). Later examples of a realistic reaction
against the pompous beauty of Gomberville and Scud6ry were
the Roman comique (1651) of Scarron and Le Roman bourgeois
(x566) of Fureti&re.
All these, however, were mere preparations. The earliest
novelist of France is Marguerite de la Vergne, oomtesse de La
Fayette (1634-1693), and the earliest genuine French novels
were her Princesse de Monipensier (1662), and her far more im-
portant Princesse de Clhes (1678). Madame de La Fayette was
the first writer of prose narrative in Europe who portrayed, as
closely to nature as she could, the actual manner and conversa-
tions of well-bred people. To show that she was capable of
writing in the old style, she published, with the help of Segrais,
in 1670, a Zayde, which is in the Spanish manner affected by
Mdlle de Scud^ry. It was long before the pectiliar originality
of the Princesse de Gives was appreciated. Meanwhile La
Fontaine, in 1669, published a fine romance of Psycki, partly
in verse, and F^nelon, in 1699, his celebrated TiUmaque. The
influence of La Bniy^re on the novelists, although he wrote no
novels, must not be overlooked. But the Princesse de CUvef
remained the solitary novel of moral analysis when its author
died and the X7th century dosed. The successes of Alain Ren6
Lesage seemed to be wholly reactionary. His realistic novels,
Gil Bias and Le Diable hoileux, depended upon thdr comic
force, their picaresque vivadty, rather than upon the sober
study of average human character. But Marivaux (1688-1763)
took up the psychological novel again, and produced in AfoWaifnc
(1731) and Le Paysan parvenu (1735) analytical stories of
Parisian manners and character which were wholly modem in
form. If Marianne was deliberate, the exquisite Manon Lescaul
(1731), by the Abb^ Prfvost d'Exiles (1697-1763), was almost
an acddent; but, between them, these simultaneous works
started the French novel of the analysis of emotion. The brilliant
stories of Voltaire, which began with Zadig and induded Candide,
hardly belonged to this category; they are rather satires and
diversions, in which class must also be placed the fashionable
boudoir novels of Cribillon jUs, La Morli^re and others. But
the Engb'sh taste, exemplified mainly by Richardson, Sterne
and Fielding, prevailed, and its effect was seen again in the
imperfect novels of Diderot and Rousseau. The Nouvelle
Hiloise and the £mile of the latter are not skilfully constmcted
as stones, but they mark the starting-point of the novd which
aims at familiarising the public mind with great ideas in an
attractively romantic form. The moral purpose is equally
X830 that the novd began to be one of the main channels of
imaginative writing in France, and the devdopment of this
kind of fiction was one of the main features of the romantic
revivaL Stendhal showed that, without any of the charms
of style, and rdying exduaivdy upon minute psychological
observation, the record of a human life could be made enthrall-
ingly interesting. Alexandre Dumas, under the direct influence
of Sir Walter Scott, allowed his tropic imagination to revd and
riot in brilliant chains of adventure. The imaginative novd
was admirably conceived by George Sand. But it was Balzac
who filled canvas after canvas with the astounding intensity of
life itself, and who insisted with irresistible force that the function
of the novd is to draw a consistent and unprejudiced picture
of htmianity under the strain of a succession of probable passions.
This has been deariy comprehended by the host of later French
novdists, whose record cannot be traced here, to be the function
of the novd, as Mme de La Fayette invented It, as Marivaux
and Pr6v6st devdoped it, and as George Sand and Balzac
finally laid down its laws and settled its borders. Certain dates,
however, must be recorded in the briefest record of the evolution
of the French novd, and 1856 is one of these; in that year
Gustave Flaubert published Madame Bovary, a work in which
the rival realistic and romantic tendendes are combined with
a mastery that had not been approached and has not since
been equalled. Another is 1871, when Zola began to roll out
the enormous canvas of Les Rougon-MacquarL Yet another
in x88o, when Boule de m«/ first revealed in Maupassant a novelist
whose creations were not merely amusing and striking, but
absolutely convincing and logical.
5. English. — If we take no heed of translations of Latin
stories, such as those from the Gesta Romanorum, we may say.
that the beginning of prose fiction in England is Le Morte
d^ArtkuTf of Sir Thomas Malory, finished in or about 1470,
and printed by Caxton in X485. The great merits of this writer
were that he got rid of the medieval burden of allegory, essayed
an interpretation of the human heart, and invented a ludd and
vigorous style of narrative. But his book became, as Professor
W. Raldgh has said, " the feeder of poetry rather than of prose,"
and it gave no inkling of the methods of the modem novel.
The same may be said of such versions of the Charlemagne
Amadis and Palmeria cydes of romances as Huon of Bordeaux,
published by Lord Beraers, perhaps in X535, and innumerable
others. It was the novella of Italy from which the English novel
first faintly started. Between X560 and 1580 versions of the
Italian novelists became exceedingly popular in England.
Paynter in introducing the tales of Bandello and Straparola
stmck the tme novelist's note by offering them not as works of
morality or edification, but ** instead of a merry companion to
shorten the tedious toil of weary ways." The appredation of
these Italian stories led to the composition of the Euphues of
Lyly (1579), a book of great interest and merit, which has been
called " the first original prose novel written in English." This
is somewhat to exaggerate, since Euphues is rather a work of
dcgant philosophy than a narrative. Lyiy had many imitators,
Munday, Greene, Dickenson, Baraabe Rich, Lodge, Nash and
others, who formed a school of prose fiction which was not
without a certain romantic beauty, but which possessed as little
narrative vigour as possible. To compare a story written by
Sacchetti in X385 with one written by Greene in x 585 is to
perceive that not merely had no progress been made towards the
modem novel, but that a great deal of ground had been lost.
The genius of the Elizabethan age lay in the direction of lyrical
and dramatic poetry, not of prose fiction. The absence of the
comic element in Elizabethan romances is very marked. M.
Jusserand has claimed a peculiar merit in this and other respects
for the Jack Wilton of Nash (1594), which, as he points out, is
the earliest English example of picaresque literature. During
836
NOVEL
the rdgn of the heroic romances In F^rance, their vogue violently
affected the English book-market. Thehiigestoiiesof Calprendde
and Gomberville were imported, and translated and imitated
to the ezduaion of evexy other spedea of prose fiction, between
1645 and 1670. The long-winded books of Mdlle de Scud6iy,
especially Cassandra and The Great Cyrus, were lead so univers-
ally in England as to leave their stamp on the national manners.
Of original English romances, written in competition with the
French masterpieces of tenderness and chivalzy, the Partkemssa
of Lord Orrery (1654) is the best known. The first definite
stand against these Gallicized romances was made by two
dramatists, Aphara Behn and William Congreve. Congreve's
Incognita (1692) is remarkable for iu light raillery and humour,
and perhaps deserves as well as any xyth-century composition to
be called the earliest novel in English. The stories of Mrs Behn
have the merit of a romantic simplicity of naiiative, but they
are dull aikd devoid of art. But the novel still lingered, unwilling
to make its appearance in England, and its place was taken during
the age of Anne by the labours of the essayists. So rich is tiie
character painting, so lively the touches of social colour in the
Spectator and TatUr, that tJiese periodicals have, by enthusiastic
critics, been styled brilliant examples of prose fictionu But it
is obvious that in the delightful essays of Addison and Steele
there was no attempt made at construction, that the sustained
evolution of characters was not essayed, and that even in the
studies of Mr Bickerstaff 's Clubanythinglikea plot wasstudiously
avoided. Yet these are all essential characteristics of the novel,
and untO they make their appearance in English literature we
must not say that the secret hias been discovered. Very near to
the mystery, if he did not quite grasp it, was Daniel D^oe, who
introduGcd into his luurrative a minute and rude system of
realistic observation, by way of giving an impression of truth
to it. This exactitude he combined with a survival of the old
picaresque method, the result being those strange and entertain-
ing works Colond Jack (1722) and Roxana (1724)- Still closer
he came to positive success in the immortal naixative of Robinson
Crusoe, in which the fascination of the desolate island was first
worked up in English.
6. Not even yet had the English novel been invented. It came
into the world in 1740 from the unconscious hands of Samuel
Richardson (1689-Z76X), who had hit upon the notion that
morality mi^t be helped and young persona of inexperience
protected by the preparation of a set of lettersexchanged between
imaginary persons. The result was Pamda: «r Viriue Rewarded,
a book which is in every strict weaase the earliest English novel.
It has even a daim to be considered the earliest European novel
of the modem kind, for the asstunption of French criticism that
Richardson borrowed his ideas and his characters from the
Marianne of Marivaux is not supported by evidence. There is
no reason to suppose that Ridu^dson met with the name of
Marivaux earlier than 1749. At all events, it would seem to be
certain that, whether in France or England, the fourth decade of
the i8th century saw the spontaneous conception of this " new
species of writing." The name of the heroine of Richardson's
book was Miss Pamela Andrews, and the second English novd
was Fidding's Joseph Andrews (1742), which started as a mere
burlesque of Pamela, but proceeded upon admirably original
lines of its own, in a study of the htunours and mannas of con-
temporary country life. Fidding rejected the epistolary artifice
of Richardson, and told his story in a straightforward narrative,
broken indeed by arguments and ejaculations which bound the
new novel to the old essay of the Spectator type. The creative
force of Fidding filled the pages of this book with a crowd of
vividly-presented characters, and this marked a step in advance,
for Richardson's practice was to concentrate minute attention
upon only one or two figures. It was from Richardson that
the next important fiction came, in the shape of the long-drawn
tragedy of Clarissa (1748). But a third great novelist was now
at work; in 1748 appeared the Roderick Random of Smollett,
and here we have neither the sculptural maimer of Richardson
nor the bu^ world of Fielding's realism, but a comio impression
founded on an artful employment of emphasis and exaggeration.
Smollett gives us ndther breathing statues nor a crowd of men
aiul women, but a gallery of " freaks," arranged with great an,
indeed, but exhibited in such a way as to expose not their likeness
but their nnlikeness to the common stock of humanity. It h
very important to note this curious divergency between the tBrce
great writers, because they exemplified the three classes into
which almost all subsequent novds can with more or less ease be
divided. The next move was made by Fidding, who in 1749
published his Tom Jones, Starting with the pungent horror cf
hypocrisy ever before him, Fidding constructs a fragment of the
world in which men and women are seen, without e x aggeration,
plying thdr daily trades under the eye of an impartial observer
who can penetrate to thdr secret motives. This was a great
advance, and a still greater one was the sustained skill with which
the author conducted the plot, the interwoven series of the actions
of his characters. It may almost be said that until the publica-
tion of Tom Jones no novd with a real plot had been oo&oeived
in English. The rivalry of the great iM>vdists of this time was
of signal hdp to them, and there can be no question that the
astounding richness of Tom Jones stirred Smollett to the c
of increased energy in Peregrine Pickle (i 7sz), a coarse and savage
book, illuminated by brilliant flashes of humour. A better,
because a tenderer and truer study of life was Amelia, whkh
Fielding published in the same year; yet most readers have
found this novd a little languid after Tom Jones. But if the
ideal of life depicted in it was quieter and sadder, it was periiaps
for that very reason more in harmony with the facts of life.
Now Richardson, who had long been silent, reasserted his mastery
of epistolary analysis in the huge History of Sir Charles Gramdisom
(z753), in which, as its admirers daimed, '* all the recesses of the
human heart are explored and its whde texture onfolded."
Richardson had scarcdy been affected by the expeiimcBts oC
his contemporaries, of the very zuiture of which he affected to
be ignorant, and the result Is that in his third and last tKuvd he
depends entirdy on qualities which he had already developed,
and owes nothing to the discoveries of others.
7. With this book, the first great group of En^ish mivck
comes to a dose, and we may ol»erve that in these cigbt stories
everything is to be found, in germ if not in full evolutioD, which
was during the next century and a half to make the abundant
out-put of the English novd prominent. New forms, above aS
new subjects, were to present themsdves to the imaginatioB of
capable British novelists, but the starting-point of every ex-
periment was to be discovered in the ripest work of Richanisoa,
Fielding and Smollett. Thdr influence was maniffst In the
writings of the second school of English novdists, in whom.
however, several interesting varieties of subject and treatsQc^
were discovered. The Tristram Shandy (r 759-r 766) of Stexne, a
the most masterly example in En^sh of a humour which goo
direct to pathos for its most " sentimental " effects, and of the
kind of loosdy-strung, reflective fiction which is hardly n narra-
tive at alL Ndther Tristram Shandy nor A Sentiment^ Jmamj
(1768) can properly be induded among novels. In JCossdls
(r759) Dr Johnson showed that the new kind of writing oodd
be used to give entertaiimient to a sermon and in this he wa
to have a multitude of followers. In ChryseX (1760) Chaxte
Johnstone (d. x8oo) showed that the picaresque romanoe codd
still exist, tinctured by the newly-found art of the novdist. Is
The Castle ofOtranto (r 764) Horace Walpole adapted the aeihos
of the novdist to apseudo-historical theme of horror and romaaoc
and prophesied of Walter Scott. In The Vicar ef Wakti^
(X766) Goldsmith was indebted to most of his imxnetfiate pn-
decessors, but fused thdr qualities in an amalgam of gentle «c
and delicate sweetness and conversational brevity whkfc te
made his one loosely-constructed novel a foremost daasic of oc
literature. Thus, in the one quarter of a century which tSriiLS
Panuia from The Vicar of Wakefield, En^sh novd-writiag «s
bom, grew into full maturity, and adc^ted its «diilt and fa^
forms.
8. During the remainder of the x8th century, little or notiar
was done to extend the range of prose fiction in England, bat a«
or two of those departments of novd-writing which had ttaif
uuraey (1775;. inese two typical DOOks are composea on tne
same plan, yet essentially a whole age lies between the former
aod the latter. What has been called " the novel of the tea-
table" now came into existence, and the xSth century was
about to close in mediocrity, when its credit was partially saved
by a development of Horace Walpole's romance of terror in the
vigorous and sensational narratives of Anne Raddiffe (1764-
1823), whose Mysteries of Udolpko appeared in 1794. The same
year saw the publication of Caleb WiUiamSt in which William
Godwin (i 756-1836) evolved a tragic theory of politics. A finer
study than either of the works just mentioned, although not
truly a novel, was the gorgeous and sinister Valkek (1786) of
William Beckford, an oriental tale of horror. In all these books
there existied an element of grotesque mingled with romantic
colour, which announced the coming revivaL
9. The t wo schools here indicated, and they may be roughly de-
fined as the school of the Tea-Table and the school of the Skeleton-
in-the-Cupboard, did not, however, betray their real significance
until the second decade of the 19th century, when after several
unimportant efforts, they developed into the novel of psycho-
logical satire and the romance of historical imagination. Two
writers, the greatest who had yet attempted to address English
readers through prose fiction, almost simultaneously came
forward as the protagonists in these two spheres of work. Jane
Austen published Sense and Sensibility in 181 x, Walter Scott
Waserley in 18 14. These were epoch-making dates; in each
case a new era opened for the countless readers of novels. The
first-named writer, all exactitude, conscience and literary art,
worked away at her " little bit (two inches wide) of ivory" ; the
other, with bold and flowing brush, covered vast spaces with
his stimulating and noble compositions. It is, however, to be
noted that the isolation in which we now regard these great
writers— a solitude d deux only broken in measure by the presence
of Miss Maria Edgeworth — is an optical delusion due to the veils
of distance. The bookshops from x8io to 1820 and onwards were
thronged and glutted with novels, many of them infinitely more
successful, as far as sales were concerned, than the most popular
of Miss Austen's works. The novels of Miss Austen were written
between 1796 and 1810, although published from x8ii to x8i8;
(hose of Sir Walter Scott date from 1814 (Waverley) to 1829
{Anne of Ceierstein). Practically speaking, no additions were
made to the formula of the social novel or of the historical
romance, to the study of national manners, that is to say, from
the satirical or from the picturesque point of view, until a quarter
of a century later.
10. The next artist in prose fiction whose force of invention
•vas sufficient to start the novel on wholly fresh tracks was born
forty years later than Scott. This was Charles Dickens, whose
Pickwick Papers (1836) marks another epoch in novel writing.
His career of prodigal production ceased abruptly in X870, by
which time it had long been obvious that he was the pioneer of a
great and diverse school of novelists, all bom within the second
decade of the century. Of< these Thackeray was not really
made obvious until Vanity Pair (1849), nor Charlotte BrontS till
Jane Eyre (1847), nor Mrs Gaskell till Mary Barton (1848), nor
George Eliot till Adam Bede (1859). The most noticeable point
on which the five illustrious novelists of the Early Victorian age
resembled one another and differed from all their predecessors,
was the sociological or even humanitarian character of their'
writings. Ail of them had projects of moral or social reform close
at heart, ail desired to mend the existing scheme of things. In
several of them, particularly in Dickens and Miss BrontC, the
element of insubordination is extremely marked; it is present in
them all; and a determination not to be content to see life
beautifuHy, through coloured glasses, or to be content with a
sarcastic travesty of it, but to realize in detail its elements of
pain and injustice. The novel, which had already leahied to
rnomas naroy and Kooert louis Stevenson represent, m tneir
least challenged form, different movements in novel-writing
during the second half of the 19th century; we must be content
here to refer for particulars concerning them to the separate
biographical articles.
11. Spain. — Prose narrative in Spain practically begins in the
X5th century with chronicles and romances of chivalry, tempered
occasionally and faintly by some knowledge of what had been
attempted in Italy by Boccaccio. The Spam'sh version of
Amadis dc Caula, in which the romance of knight errantry
culminated, belongs to 1508; the lost original is supposed to
have been Portuguese. This was the only book of its class
which is saved from the burning in Don Quixote; it was followed
by Palmerin of Engfand. These interminable books, and a
hundred worse than they, occupied the leisure of x6th-century
readers of both sexes. Without approaching the form of novels,
they prepared the ground for novel-reading. The exploration
of America led to the composition of monstrous talcs of the New
World, which generally took the form of continuations of Amadis.
A new thing was begim in 1554, when the anonymous picaresque
romance of Lazarillo de Tormes started the story of fantastic
modem adventure; this highly entertaining book has been
called the x6th-century Pickwick, and Mr Fitzmaurice-Kelly
remarks that it " fixed for ever the type of the comic prose epic".
The pastoral romance, in the hands of Jorge de Montem6r (d.
X561), who wrote an insipid Diana which was popular for a while
throughout Europe, took readers a step backward, away from
the ultimate path of the novel. It is of interest to us, however,
to note that it was in one of these " vain imaginings," in his
pastoral romance of Galatea, that Cervantes approached the
field of fiction, in 1585. Few of his peculiar merits are to be
found in this early work; he turned for the present to the
composition of plays. It was not until 1604 that he returned
to prose fiction by printing his immortal Don Quixote, which
made an epoch in the history of the novel. This book was
originally intended to ridicule the already fading passion for the
romances of chivalry, but it proceeded much further than that,
and there is hardly any branch of fiction which may not be
traced back to the q>lendid initiation of some chapter of Don
Quixote. In 16x3 Cervantes published his twelve Exemplary
Novels', these are not so well known as the great romance, and
they owed not a little of their form to Italian sources, but they
are very brilliant One of the best anonymous Spanish stories
of the period, Tke Mock Aunt, is a type of excellence in facetious
narrative of the sarcastic class; this is now commnonly attributed
to Cervantes himself. No other novelist of Spain has moulded
the thought of Europe, but the heroic romance which occupied
so much of the attention of France in the X7th century was
invented by a little-known Spanish soldier, P6rez de Hita, who,
about x6oo, wrote fantastic stories about Granada and the
Moors. The farcical romance of Pray Gerundio de Campazas,
17581 by J. F. de Isla (1703-X718), competed in popularity with
Gil Bias. Speaking broadly, however, Spain made no appreci-
able progress in novel-writing from the days of Cervantes to
those of Walter Scott, when Uie Waverley Novels began to find
such artless imitators as Martinez de la Rosa and Zorrilla. But
the first original novelist of Spain was Cecilia B5hl de Faber
(Femin Caballero) (1796-1877), whose La Gaviota, 1848, a study
of life in an Andalusian village, was the eariicst Spanish novel, in
the roodeni sense. She was followed by Valera (1824-1904), by
Alarc6n (1833-1891), by Pereda (b. 1834), by Perez Gald6s
(b. 1845) and by Palado Valdfe (b, s8S3)> in whom the tendencies
of recent European fiction have beed competently illustrated
without any striking contributions to originality.
1 2. Germany.— Tht cultivation of the novel in its proper sense
began late in Germany. It is usual to consider that H. J. C. von
Grimmelshausen (I625^-I675) is the earliest German novelist:
a novel. £.ariy in tne xsin ceniury, an exiraoroinary numoer oi
imitations of Defoe's great romance were published in Germany,
and these are known to scholars as the Robinsonaden, Later on»
Wicland imitated Don QuixoU, but the earliest German novel
which possesses original value is the celebrated work of Goethe,
The Sorrows of Young Werther (1774). The still more cele-
brated Wilhelm Meister did not appear until 1 796. A third novel,
Elective Affinities, was published by Goethe in 1809. Meanwhile,
a very characteristic group of picturesque stories had been issued
by Johann Paul Richter (Jean Paul) (1763-1825), destined to
have a wide influence upon romantic literature throughout
Europe. Purely romantic were the stories of Tieck, of Brentano,
of Amim, of Fouqu6, of Kleist, of Immermann. The German
novelists of this period wrote like poets, deprived of the discipline
of verse. In later times novels of high merit have been written
by Gustav Freytag, Wilibald Alexis (1798-1871), called the
German Walter Scott, Laube, Fontane, Ebcrs, JeremiasGotthelf,
Berthold Auerbach, Spielhagen, Heyse and many others, but the
19th century produced no German novelist of commanding
originality.
13. Russia. — In Russia alone, among the countries of central
and eastern Europe, the novel has developed with a radical
originality. Until the second quarter of the 19th century the
prose fiction of Russia was confined to imitators of Sir Walter
Scott, but about the year 1834 Gogol (1809-1853) began to
revolt against the historico-romantic school and to produce
stories in which an almost savage realism was curiously blended
with the Slavonic dreaminess and melancholy. Since then the
Russian novel has consistently been the novel of resignation and
pity, but wholly divorced from sentimentality. Gogol was suc-
ceeded by Gontcharor, Tourg6niev, Dostolevski, Pissemski
1830-1881) and Tolstoi, forming the most consistent and,
doubtless, the most powerful school of novelists which Europe
saw in the 19th century. The influence of these writers on the
rest of the world was immense, and even in England, where
it was least acutely felt, it was significant. That the Russians
have indicated the path to new fields in the somewhat outworn
province of novel-writing is abundantly manifest.
14. Oriental. — In a primitive form, the novel has long been
cultivated in Asia. It was introduced into China, but whence
is unknown, in the X3th century, and Le Kuan-chung was the
first Chinese novelist. The productions of this writer and of his
followers are tales of bloody warfare, or record the adventures
of travellers. The novel called .rA« Tmce-Flowering Plum- Trees,
belonging to the i6th (or X7th) century, is a typical example
of the moral Chinese novel, written with a virtuous purpose.
Professor Giles holds that the novel of China reached its highest
point of development in The Dream of the Red Chamber, an
anonymous story of the end of the X7th century; this is a
panorama of Chinese social life, " worked out with a completeness
worthy of Fielding." Prose stories began to be met with in the
literature of Japan early in the xoth century. But the inventor
of the Japanese novel was a woman of gem'us, Murasaki no
Shikibu, whose Cenji Monogatari has been compared to the
writings of Richardson; it was finished in 1004 and may, there-
fore, be considered the oldest novel in the world. This book,
which is one of the great classics of Japan, was widely imitated.
After the classic period novel-writing was long ne^ected in Japan,
but the humours of X7th-century life were successfully translated
into popular fiction by Shikaku (1641-1693), and later by Jisho
and Kiseki, who collaborated in a great number of remarkable
stories.
See Dunlop. The History of Fiction (1816); Borroneo, Catalogo
y of Fit
); Em.
de' ncvellieri italiani (1805); Em. Gctihart, Conteurs du moyen dge
(1901); E. M. de VoffuS, Le Roman russe (1886); Forsyth. Novels
-and Novelists of the i8th Century (1871); Bever and Sansot-Orland,
(Euvres galanles des conteurs italiens (W03); Rivadeneyra, Biblio-
teca de aulores espafloles (i 846-1 880); Gosse. A Century of French
Romance (1900-1902); G. Pellissier, Lc Mouvement tiUtraire cm
NOVELDA, a town of E. Spain, in the province of Alicante;
on the right bank of the river Vinalop6, and on the railway from
Madrid to Alicante. Pop. (1900) 11,388. The country around
is flat and fertile, producing much wine, dates, oranges, oil, safircMi
and aniseed. In the town there are tanneries, and manufactores
of alcohol, chocolate and soap. The women make fine lace. In
the neighbouring village of Salinetas de Elda there are warm
sulphur and saline baths.
NOVELLI, ERMETE (185X- ), Itah'an actor and play-
wright, was bom in Lucca on the 5th of March X851, the son of a
prompter. He made his first appearance in xS66, and played
character and leading comedy parts in the best oompanies
between X87X and X884. By X885 he had his own compaay,
and made a great success in Paris in X898 and X902. He estab-
lished in Rome in 1900 a new theatre, the Casa di Goldoni, oa
the lines of the Com£die Fran^aise. He dramatized Gaboriau's
Monsieur Lecoq, and alone or in collaboration vnic several
comedies and many monologues.
NOVELLO, VINCENT (1781-X86X), English musidan, son <tf
an Italian who married an English wife, was bom in London
on the 6th of September 1781. As a boy he was a chorister
at the Sardinian chapel in Duke Street, Lincoln's Inn Fields,
where he learnt the organ; and from X796 to 1S23 he became
in succession organist of the Sardinian, Spanish (in Manchester
Square) and Portuguese (in South Street, Gros\*enor Square)
chapels, and from 1840 to 1843 of St Mary's chapel, Moorfidds.
He was an original member of the Philharmonic Society, of the
Classical Harmonists and of the Choral Harmonists, oflkiatir^
frequently as conductor. In 1849 he went to live at Nice, where
he died on the 9th of August i86x. He composed an immense
quantity of sacred music, much of which is still deservedly
popular; but his great work lay in the introduction to Engkod
of unknown compositions by the great masters. The Masses
of Haydn and Mozart were absolutely unknown in England until
he edited them, as were also the works of Palestrina, the treasures
of the Fitzwilliam Museum, and innumerable great compositioss
now well known to every one. His first work, a collection ct
Sacred Music, as performed at the Royal Portuguese Chafd,
which appeared in 181 x, has the additional interest of givisg
a date to the practical founding of the publishing firm with which
his name is associated, as Novello issued it from his own hocse;
and he did the same with succeeding works, till his son Josei^
Altred Novello (18x0^x896), who had started as a bass anger.
became a regular music publisher in 1829. It was the Utter
who really created the business, and who has the credit d
introducing cheap music, and departing from the method of
publishing by subscription. From X84X Henry Litilctcs
assisted him, becoming a partner in 1861, when the firm becaof
Novello & Co., and, on J. A. Novello's retirement in 1S66, sc^
proprietor. Having incorporated the firm of Ewer & Ox h
XS67, the title was changed to Novello, Ewer & Co., axkl sc^
later back to Novello & Co., and, on Henry Littleton's deaik
in x888, his two sons carried on the business.
* Vincent Novello had several other children besides his soa
Joseph Alfred. Four of his daughters (of whom the younfest.
Mary, married Charles Cowden Clarke) were gifted singess:
but the most famous was Claka Novello (i8i8>x9o8), whasc
beautiful high soprano and pure style made her one d the
greatest vocalists, alike in opera, oratorio and on the coocert
stage, from 1833 onwards. In 1843 she married Cbtint Gigilocti
but after a few years retumed to her profession, and only reLrsi
in x86o. Charles Lamb wrote a poem {To Clara N.) inherpni^
NOVEMBER (Lat. natem, m'ne), the ninth month of the e^
Roman year, which began with March. By the Julian ajracp-
ment, according to which the year began with the xst of Janiisn
November became the eleventh month and had thirty dz:'
assigned to it. The xxth of November was held to ixiazk tii
do, Conscript Fathers, if you have Ihirtten Caesars?" The
Anglo-Saxon names for November were Windmonathy " wind-
month " and Blodmonath " bloodmonth." In the calendar of
the first French republic November reappeared partly as
Brumaire and partly as Frimaire. The principal November
festivals in the calendar of the Roman Church arc: All Saints'
Day on the ist, AU Souls' on the 3nd, St Martin's on the xith,
the Presentation of the Virgin on the aist, St Cecilia's on the
22nd, St Catherine's on the 25th and St Andrew's on the 30th.
St Hubert commemorated on the 3rd. In the English calendar
All Saints' and St Andrew's are the only feasts retained.
NOVERRB, JEAN GEORGES (1727-1810), French dancer and
ballet master, was bom in Paris on the 29th of March 1727.
He first performed at Fontainebleau in 1743, and in 1747 com-
posed his first ballet for the Op^ra Comique. In 1748 he was
invited by Prince Henry of Prussia to Berlin, but a year later
he returned to Paris, where he mounted the ballets of GlQck
and Piccini. In 1755 he was invited by Garrick to London,
where he remained two years. Between 1758 and 1760 he
produced several ballets at Lyons, and published his Lettres
sur la danse et Us balUts. From this period may be dated the
revolution in the art of the ballet for which Noverre was re-
sponsible. (See Pantoudce and Ballet.) He was next engaged
by the duke of Wtirttemburg, and afterwards by the empress
Maria Theresa, until, in 1775, he was appointed, at the request
of Queen Marie Antoinette, tnaftre des ballets of the Paris Opera.
This post he retained until the Revolution reduced him to
poverty. He died at 3t Germain on the 19th of November 1810.
• Noverre's friends included Voltaire, Fredenck the Great and David
Garrick (who called him " the Shakespeare of the dance "). The
ballets of which be was most proud were his La ToiUUe de Vinus,
Let Jalousies du sirail, V Amour corsaire and Le Jaloux sans rival.
Besides the kilters, Noverre wrote Observations sur la construction
d'une nouveUe salle de VOpira (1781): Lettres sur Garrick icriUs d
Voltaire (1801); and Letlre A un artiste sur lesfHes publiques (1801).
NOVGOROD, a government of N.W. Russia, bounded W. and
N. by the governments of St Petersburg and Olonets, S.E. by
Vologda, Yaroslav and .Tver, and S.W. by Pskov, stretching
from S.W. to N.E. 450 m. Area, 47,223 sq. m. Pop. (1906)
i>5SS.7oo. The S. is occupied by the Valdai plateau, in which are
the highest elevations of middle Russia (600 to over 1000 ft.),
as well as the sources of nearly all the great rivers of the country.
The plateau is deeply furrowed by valleys with abrupt slopes,
and. descends rapidly towards the basin of Lake llmen in the
W. (only 60 ft. above the sea-level) . The N.E. of the government
belongs to the kcustrine region of N.W. Russia. This tract
is dotted over with innumerable sheets of water, of which
Byelo-ozero (White Lake) and Vozhe are the 'irgcst of more
than 3000. Immense marshes, overgrown with thin forests
of birch and elm, occupy more than one-seventh of the entire
area of the government; several of them have an area of 300
to 450 sq. ro. each. They adroit of being crossed only when
frozen. Six centuries ago they were even less accessible, but
the slow upheaval of N.W. Russia, going on at the rate of 3 or
more feet per century, has exercised a powerful influence upon
the drainage of the country. Of recent years artificial drainage
has been carried out on a large scale. The forests still occupy
SS%of the total area of the government.
Geologically. Novgorod exhibits in the W. vast beds of Devonian
limestones and sandstones; these are elsewhere overlaid with
Carboniferous limestone, dolomite, sandstones and marls. The
Devonian gives rive to salt-springs, especially at Staraya Russa (S.
of Lake Ilmcn). and contains iron-ores, while the more recent forma-
tion has coal strata of inferior quality^ The whole is covered with
a thick sheet of bou1der<lay, very often arranged in ridges or eskers,
the bottom moraine of the N. European ice-sheet of the Glacial
period. Numerous remains of the neolithic Stone Age are found,
especially round the extinct lakes. The Baltic and Caspian Sea
bauns are connected by the Mariinsk, Tikhvin and Vyshniy-Volochok
canals, while the Alexandcr-von-W&rttemberg canal connects the
tributaries of the White Sea with those of the Baltic. The chief
river b the Volkhov, which flows from Lake llmen into Lake Ladoga.
The yearly average temperature at Novgorod is only 40^ Fahr.
(i4-S' in January, 62»5*' in July). The severe climate, the marshy
or stony soil, and the want of grazing grounds render agriculture
unprofitable, though it is carried on eversrwhere. The yield of
rye and other cereals is insufficient for the wants of the inha-
bitants. Fireday, coal and turf are extracted in commercial
quantities. Building, smith-work, fishing, shipbuilding, dis-
tilleries, glass and match factories, sawmills and a variety of
domestic industries give occupation to about 40,000 families.
Hunting is still profitable. But most of the inhabitants are
dependent on the river-boat traffic; and nearly one-fourth of
the able-bodied males are annually driven to other parts of Russia
in search of work. The Novgorod carpenters and masons have
long been renowned. Trade is chiefly in grain and timber, and
in manufactures and grocery wares from St Petersburg. The
fairs are numerous, and several of them (Kirilovsk monastery,
Staraya Russa and Cherepovets) show considerable returns.
The inhabitants are almost exclusively Great-Russians, but
they are discriminated by some historians from the Great-
Russians of the basin of the Oka, as showing remote affinities
with the Little-Russians. They belong mostly (96}%) to the
Orthodox Greek Church, but there are many Nonconformists.
There are xo,ooo Karelians and 9000 Chudes, with some Jews
and some Germans. Novgorod is well provided with educa-
tional institutions, and primary education is widely diffused in
the villages. (P.A. K.j J.T.Be.)
NOVGOROD (formerly known as Vdikiy-Nangorodt Great
Novgorod), a town of Russia, capital of the government of the
same name, and the seat of an archbishop of the Orthodox Greek
Church, situated 1 19 m. by rail S. of St. Petersburg, on the low
flat banks of the Volkhov, 2 m. below the point where it issues
from Lake llmen. Pop. (1900) 26,972. The present tpwn is but
a poor survival of the wealthy city of medieval times. It con-
sists of a kremlin (old fortress), and of the city, which stands on
both banks of the river, connected by a handsome stone bridge.
The kremlin was much enlarged in 1044, and again in 11x6. Its
stone walls, originally palisades, were begun in 1302, and much
extended in 1490. Formerly a great number of churches and
shops, with wide squares, stood within the enclosure. Its his-
torical monuments include the cathedral of St Sophia, built in
1 045-1052 by architects from Constantinople to take the place of
the original wooden structure (989), destroyed by fire in that
year. Some minor changes were made in 1688 and 1692, but
otherwise (notwithstanding several fires) the building remained
unaltered until its restoration in 1S93-1900. It contains many
highly-prized relics, including bronze doors of the 1 2th century,
one brought reputedly from Sigtuna, the ancient capital oi
Sweden. Another ancient building in the kremlin is the
Yaroslav Tower, in the square where the Novgorod vyuhe
(common council) used to meet; it still bears the name of " the
court of Yaroslav " ; and was the chancellery of the secretaries
of the vyuhe. Other remarkable monuments of ancient Russian
architecture are the church of St. Nicholas erected in 1135, the
Snamenski cathedral of the X4th century, and churches of the
X4th and 15th centuries. Within the town itself there are four
monasteries and convents, two of them dating from the xith
century and two from the X2th century; and the lar^e number
in the immediate neighbourhood shows the great extent which
the city formerly had. A monument to commemorate the
thousandth anniversary of the foundation of Russia (the calling
in of the Varangians by Novgorod in 862) was erected in X862.
Another monument commemorates the repulse of the Napoleonic
invasion of 181 3.
The date at which the Slavs first erected forts on the Volkhov
(where it leaves Lake llmen and where it flows into Lake Ladoga)
is unknown. That situated on a low terrace close by Lake
llmen was soon abandoned, and Novgorod 6r " New-town "
(in contradistinction to the Scandinavian Aldegjcborg or
Ladoga) was founde^l by Scandinavian sea-rovers as Holmg&rd
on another terrace which extended a mile lower on both banks of
the river. The older fort (Gorodishche) still existed in the 13th
century. Even in the gth century the new dty on the Volkhov
exercised a kind of wpremacy over the other towns of the lake
region, when its inhabitants in 86a invited the Varangians, under
the leadership of Rurik, to the defence of the Rtissian towns of the
north. Down to the end of the xoth century Novgorod was in
some sort depended on Kiev; yet in 997 its inhabitants obtained
from their own prince Yaroslav a charter which granted them
self-government. For five centuries this charter was the bulwark
of the independence of Novgorod. From the end of the xoth
century the princes of Novgorod, chosen either from the sons of
the great princes of Kiev (until X136) or &om some other branch
of the family of Rurik, were always elected by the vyecke; but
they were only its military defenders, and their delegates were
merely assessors in the courts which levied taxes for the military
force raised by the prince. The vyecke invariably expelled the
princes as soon as they provoked discontent. Their election was
often a subject of dispute between the wealthier merchants and
landowners and the poorer cksses; and Novgorod, which was
dependent for its corn supply upon the land of Suzdal, was
sometimes compelled to accept a prince from the Suzdal branch
instead of from that of Kiev. After 1 370 the city often refused to
have princes at all, and the elected mayor was the representative
of the executive. Novgorod in its transactions with other cities
took the name of " Sovereign Great Novgorod " {Cospodin
Velikiy Novgorod), The supreme power was in the hands of the
vyecke. The city, which had a population of more than 80,000,
was divided into wards, and each ward constituted a distinct
commune. The wards were subdivided into streets, which
corresponded to the prevailing occupations of their inhabitants,
each of these again being quite independent with regard to its
Own affairs.
Trade was carried on by corporations. By the Volkhov and
the Neva, Novgorod — then known also as Naugart and Nov-
werden — had direct communication with the Hanseatic and
Scandinavian cities, especially with Visby or Wisby on the
island of Gotland. The Dnieper brought it into connexion with
the Bosporus, and it was intermediary in the trade of Constan-
tinople with northern Europe. The Novgorod traders penetrated
at an early date to the shores of the White Sea, hunted on
Novaya Zemlya in the nth century, colonized the basins of the
northern Dvina, descended the Volga, and as early as the 14th
century extended their trading expeditions beyond the Urals
into Siberia. Two great colonies, Vyatka and Vologda, organized
on the same republican principles as the metropolis, favoured the
further colonization of N.E. Russia.
At the same time a number of flourishing minor towns such as
Novyi Torg (Torzhok), Novaya Ladoga, Pskov, and many others
arose in the lake region. Pskov soon became quite independent,
and had a history of its own; the others enjoyed a large measure
of independence, still figuring, however, as subordinate towns in
all circumstances which necessitated common action. It is said
that the population of Novgorod in the 14th century reached
400,000, and that the pestilences of 1467, 1508 and 1533 carried
off no fewer than 134,000 persons. These figures, however, seem
to relate rather to the whole Ilmen region.
Novgorod's struggle against the Suzdal region (now the govern-
ment of \Tadimir) began as early as the 12th century. In the
following century it had to contend with the Swedes and the
Germans, who were animated not only by the desire of territorial
acquisition, but also by the spirit of religious proselytism. The
advances of both were checked by battles at Ladoga and Pskov in
1 240 and X 242 respectively. Protected by its marshes, Novgorod
escaped the Mongol invasion of 1240-42, and was able to repel the
attacks of the princes of Moscow by whom the Mongols were
supported. It also successfully resisted the attacks of Tver, and
aided Moscow in its struggle against this powerful neighbour;
but soon the ambition of the growing Moscow state was turned
against itself. The first serious invasion, in 133 2, was rolled back
with the aid of the Lithuanians. But in X456 the great prmoe of
Moscow succeeded in imposing a heavy tribute. Ivan IIL of
Moscow took possession of the colonies in the northern Dvina aod
the Perm regions, and began two bloody wars, doiiag which
Novgorod fought for its liberty under the leadership of Martlu
Boretskaya, the mayor. In X47S-1478 Ivan IIL entered
Novgorod, abolished its charters, and carried away 1000 of the
wealthier families, substituting for them families from Moscov;
the old free dty then recognized his sovereignty. A century later
Ivan IV. (the Terrible) abolished the last vestiges of the inde-
pendence of the dty. Having learned that a party favourable
to Lithuania had been organized in Novgorod, he took the
field in 1570, and entered the dty (much weakened by the
recent pestilences) without opposition. His followers kiUed the
heads of the monasteries, the wealthier of the mercfaanu
and clergy, and burned and pillaged the dty and villages. Ko
fewer than j 5,000 men, women and children were massacred
at Novgorod alone (60,000 according to some authorities). A
famine ensued, and the district of Novgorod fdl into otter
desolation. Thousands of families were transported to Moscow,
Nizhniy-Novgorod, and other towns of the pdndpofity of
Moscow. In the beginning of the X7th centuxy Novgorod was
taken and held for seven years by the Swedes; and in the iSth
century the foundation of St Petersburg ultimately destroyed
iU trade. Its position, however, on the water highway from the
Volga to St Petersburg and on the trunk road from Moscow to
the capital, still gave it some commercial importance;' but even
this was destroyed by the opening of the Vishera canal, connecting
the Msta with the Volkhov below the dty, and by the constnidioD
of the railway from St Petersburg to Moscow, which passes 46 m.
to the east of Novgorod. (P. A. K.; J. T. Be).
NOVIBAZAR* Novi-BazAk, or Novipazar (ancient Ras^
Rasda, or Rashka, Turkish Yenipazar, i^, " New Market ")• a
sanjak of European Turkey, in the vilayet of Kossovo. Pop.
(1905) about 170,000. Novibazar is a moontaiiKnis regioii,
watered by the Lim, which flows north into Bosnia, and by
several small tributaries of the Servian Ibar. About thrce-
fourths of the inhabitants are Christian Serbs, and the remainder
are chiefly Moslem Albanians, with a few gipsies, Turkish
officials and about 3000 Austro-Hungarian soldiers. The kxal
trade is mainly agricultural. The sanjak is of great strategic
importance, for it is the N. W. part of the Turkish empire, on the
direct route between Bosnia and Salonica, and forms a wedge of
Turkish territory between Servia and Montenegro. The unioa
of these powers, combined with the annexation of Novibazar.
would have impeded the extension of Austrian influence towards
Salonica. But by the treaty of Berlin (1878) Austria-Huagaiy
was empowered to garrison the towns of Byelopolye, Priycpcdyr.
Plevlye and other strategic points within the sanjak, alibongh
the entire civil administration remained in Turki^ haiids.
This dcdsion was enforced in 1879. The chief approftches froa
Servia and Montenegro have also been strongly fortified by the
Turks.
Novibazar, the capital of the sanjak, is a town of aboot is^ooo
inhabitants, on the site of the andent Servian dty of Rassa.
Near it there are Roman baths, and the old church of St Pct«r
and St. Paul, the metropolitan church of the bishopric of Raseii.
in which Stephen Nemanya, kmg of Servia, passed from the
Roman to the Greek Church in 1x43.
NOVICE (through French from Lat. nemcius or naaiias, cae
who has newly arrived, novuSt new), a person who joins a rcli^os
order on probation. He or she is subject to the autliority of the
superior, wears the dress of the order, and obeys the rules. ^
the end of the " novitiate," which must last at least one year.
the novice is free to leave without taking the vows, and the ori^rr
is free to refuse to allow him or her to take them. The word v^ss
early used of a beginner in any ajt or sdence,^ he&ce an iaex-
pcrienced person.
NOVI LiaURB.a town of Piedmont, Italy, in the proviiMx <i
Alessandria, from which it is 14 m.S.E. by rail, situated asse^
wooded hills, 646 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (X901) 17,868. V
was the scene of a victory by the Austrians and Russians 1
guvci^iuucui ui j:.riviui, 35- ui. c.Ly.c %n mc luwii %n jc>riviui, aiiu
4 m. W. of Gok-chai Lake, 5870 ft. above the sea. Pop. 8507 in
1897, mainly Armenians. An Armenian village which stood here
was destroyed by Nadir Shah of Persia in 1736, and it was not
till the Turkish War of 1828-29 that the site was again occupied
by Armenian refugees from the Turkish town of Bayazet or
Bayazid.
NOVOCHERKASSK, a town of Russia, capital of the Don
Cossacks territory, situated on a hill 400 ft. above the plain, at
the confluence of the Don with the Aksai, 45 m. from the Sea of
Azov, and 32 m. by rail N.E. from Rostov. Pop. (1897) 52,005.
It was founded in 1805, when the inhabitants of the Cherkassk
stanitsa (now Old Cherkassk) were compelled to leave their
abodes on the banks of the Don on account of the frequent
inundations. The town is an archiepiscopal see of the Orthodox
Greek. Church, and possesses a cathedral (1904), a museum, the
palace of the ataman (chief) of the Cossacks, and monuments to
M. I. Platov (a Cossack chief) and T. Yermak (1904), the con-
queror of West Siberia. Wide suburbs extend to the S.W., and
the right bank of the Aksai is dotted with the villas of the Cossack
officials. Manufactures make slow progress. An active trade is
carried on in com, wine and timber (exports), and manufactures
and grocery wares (imports).
NOVOOBORGIEVSK. (i) A town of Russia, usually known
under the name of Ksylov, in the government of Kherson,
at the confluence of the Tyasmin with the Dnieper, 17 m. W.N.W.
of Kremenchug. Its fort was erected by the Poles in 1615.
The inhabitants carry on a lively trade in timber, grain and
cattle, and have a few flourmills and candle-works. Pop.
(1897) 11,214. (a) A first-class fortress of Rtissian Poland (called
Modlin till 1831), at the confluence of the Narev (Bug) with the
Vistula, 23 m. by rail N.W. of Warsaw. Modlin was first fortified
under the Napoleonic regime in 1807, and in the wars of 1813
and 1830-31 underwent several sieges. Since that time the
Russians have made many additions to the works, and the
place now forms, with Warsaw, Ivangorod and Brest-Litovsk,
the so-called Polish Quadrilateral. The strength of Novo-
georgievsk lies mainly in the new circle of eight powerful forts,
erected at a mean distance of 10 m. from the enceinte. The
importance of the fortress lies in the fact that it prevents Warsaw
from being turned by a force on the lower Vistula and commands
the railway between Danzig and Warsaw.
NOVOMOSKOVSK, a town of Russia, m the government of
Ekaterinoslav, 16 m. N.E. of the town of Ekaterinoslav. Includ-
ing several villages which have been incorporated with it, it
extends for nearly 7 m. along the right bank of the Samara, a
tributary of the Dnieper. In the X7th century the site was
occupied by several villages of Z&porogian Cossacks, known
under the name of Samarchik. In 1687 Prince Golitsuin founded
here the Ust-Samara fort, which was destroyed after the treaty
of the Pruth (171 <)» but rebuilt in 1736, and the settlement of
Novoselitsy established. The inhabitants of Novomoskovsk,
who numbered 23,381 in 1900, are chiefly engaged in agriculture,
though some are employed in tanneries, and there is a trade in
horses, cattle, tallow, skins, tar and pitch. In the immediate
neighbourhood is the Samarsko-Nikolayevskiy monastery, which
is visited by many pilgrims.
NOVO-RADOMSK, or Raoomsko, a town of Russian Poland,
in the government of Piotrk6w, 28 m. by raU S.S.W. of the
town of Piotrk6w. It has factories for bentwood furniture,
woollens and doth, taimeries, ironworks and sawmills, and is
the centre of a very, active trade. Pop. (1900) 14,464, many
being Jews.
NOVOROSSIYSK, a seaport town of S. Russia, in the Chemo-
morsk or Black Sea territory, on a bay of the same name (also
named Tsemes), on the N.E. coast of the Black Sea. Pop.
(1900) 40,384- The bay, nearly 3 m. wide at its entrance on the
crinacs luc vuigB near xsoiiisyu, oiiu una uccumc uii unpunaiii
centre for the export of com, and since the petroleum wells
of Groznyi in northern Caucasia were tapped it has become
an entrep6t for the export of petroleum. Cement is manufac-
tured. Large grain elevators have been built, and a new com-
mercial town has grown up. Besides cereals, which amount to
69% of the whole, the exports consist of petroleimi and
petroleum waste, mlcake, linseed, timber, bran, millet seed,
wool, potash, zinc ore and liquorice, the total annual value
ranging between 3} and 5^ millions sterling. The imports are
small. Some 1500 acres in the vicinity of the town are planted
with vines. Novorossiysk has belonged to Russia since 1829.
NOWELL, ALEXANDER (c. 1507-1602), dean of St Paul's,
London, was the eldest son of John Nowell of Read Hall, Whalley ,
Lancashire, by his second wife Elizabeth Kay of Rochdale.
He was educated at Middleton, Lancashire, and at Brasenose
College, Oxford, where he is said to have shared rooms with
John Foxe the m^rtyrologist. He was elected feUow of Brasenose
in 1526. In 1543 he was appointed master of Westminster
school, and in December 1551 prebendary of Westminster.
He was elected in September 1553 member of parliament for
Looe in ComwaU in Qaeea Mary's first parliament, but in
October 1553 a committee of the house reported that, having
as prebendary of Westminster a seat in convocation, he could
not sit in the House of Commons. He was also deprived of his
prebend, probably as being a inarried man, before May 1554,
and sought refuge at Strassburg and Frankfort, where he
developed puritan and almost presbyterian views. He submitted,
however, to the Elizabethan settlement of religion, and was
rewarded with the archdeaconry of Middlesex, a canonry at
Canterbury and in 1560 with the deanery of St Paul's. His
sermons occasionally created some stir, and on one occasion
Elizabeth interrupted his sermon, telling him to stick to his
text and cease slighting the crucifix. He held the deanery of
St Paul's for forty-two years, surviving until the 13th of February
1602. Noweli is believed to have composed the Catechism
inserted before the Order of Confirmation in the Prayer Book
of 1549, which was supplemented in 1604 and is still in use;
but the evidence is not conclusive. Early in Elizabeth's reign,
however, he wrote a larger catechism, to serve as a statement
of Protestant principles; it was printed in 1570, and in the same
year appeared his ** middle " catechism, designed it would seem
for the instruction of " simple curates." Nowell also established
a free school at Middleton and made other benefactions for
educational purposes. He was twice married, but left no
chfldren.
See Ralph Churton. Lift of Alexander Nawett (Oxford, 1809); G.
Burnet. History of the Reformatum (new ed., Obcford, 186s) ; and
R. W. Dixon, History of the Church of Entland. Also the Works of
John Strype; the PubltcaiioHS of the Parker Society: the Calendar
of StaU Papers, Domestic; and the DicL Nat. Biog., vol. Iv.
N0W60NG, a town of India, headquarters of the Bundelkhand
agency and a military cantonment, in the native state of Chhatar-
pur, on the border of the British district of Jhansi. Pop. (1901)
11,507. It has accommodation for a force of all arms. The
college for the education of the sons of chiefs in Central India,
opened here in 1872, was abolished in 1898, owing to the small
attendance.
NOWGONG, a town and distnct of British India, in the
Brahmaputra valley division of eastern Bengal and Assam.
The town is situated on the Kalang river. Pop. (1901) 4430.
The district of Nowgong has an area of 3843 sq. m. It consists
of a wide plain overgrown with jun^e and canebrakes, intersected
by numerotis tributaries of the Brahmaputra, and dotted with
shallow nu&rshes. The Mikir hills cover an area of about 65 m.
by 35 in the S. of the district; the highest peak is about 3500 ft.
The slopes are very steep, and are covered with dense forest.
that the two had together refused to travel by the train the
accident to which caused the death (on the X4th of May 1858) of
the prince Ahmed, who would otherwise have succeeded Said.
Ismail, himself a more capable man than his immediate pre-
decessors, at once recognized the ability of Nubar, and charged
him with a mission to Constantinople, not only to notify his
accession, but to smooth the way for the many ambitious projects
he already entertained, notably the completion of the Suez Canal,
the change in title to that of Uiedive and the change in the order
of succession. In the first of these he was completely successful;
the sultan, believing as little as every one else that the canal
was anything more than a dream, gave his consent at a price the
moderation of which he must afterwards have regretted. The
gratified Ismail created Nubar a pasha, and the sultan himself,
persuaded to visit Cairo, confirmed the title so rarely accorded to a
Christian. Half the work was, however, yet to be done, and
Nubar was sent to Paris to complete the arrangements, and to
settle the differences between Egypt and the Canal Company. In
what he used to call " an expensive moment of enthusiasm," he
left these differences to the arbitration of the emperor Napoleon
III. and cost Egypt four millions sterling. On his return he was
made Egypt's first minister of public works, and was distinguished
for the energy which he threw into the creation of a new depart-
ment; but in 1866 he was made minister of foreign affairs, and
at once went on a special mission to Constantinople, where he
succeeded in the other two projects that had been left in abeyance
since his last visit. In June 1867 Ismail was declared khedive
of Egypt, with succession in favour of his eldest son. Nubar
now had a harder task to undertake than ever before. The
antiquated system of " capitulations " which had existed in the
Ottoman empire since the xsth century had grown in Egypt to
be a practical creation of seventeen imperia in imperial seven-
teen consulates of seventeen different powers administered seven-
teen different codes in courts before which alone their subjects
were amenable. A plaintiff could only sue a Frenchman in the
French court, with appeal to Aix; an Italian in the Italian
court, with appeal to Ancona; a Russian in the Russian court,
with appeal to Moscow. Nubar's bold design, for which alone he
deserves the credit, was to induce these seventeen powers to
consent to abandon their jurisdiction in civil actions, to sub-
stitute mixed International Courts and a uniform code binding
on all That in spite of the jealousies of all the powers, in spite
of the opposition of the Porte, he should have succeeded, places
him at once in the first rank of statesmen of his period. Nubar
made no attempt to get rid of the criminal jurisdiction exer-
cised by the consular representatives of the foreign powers
—such a proposal would have had, at that time, ho chance of
success.
The extravagant admim'stration of Ismail, for which perhaps
Nubar can hardly be held wholly responsible, had brought Egypt
to the verge of bankruptcy, and Ismail's disregard of the judg-
ments of the Court at last compelled Great Britain and France
to interfere. Under pressure, Ismail, who began to regret the
establishment of the International Courts, assented to a mixed
ministry under Nubar, with Rivers Wilson as minister of finance
and de Blignidres as minister of public works. Nubar, finding
himself supported by both Great Britain and France, tried to
reduce Ismail to the position of a constitutional monarch, and
Ismail, with an astuteness worthy of a better cause, took ad-
vantage of a somewhat injudicious disbandment of certain
regiments to indte a military rising against the ministry.
The governments of Great Britain and France, instead of
supporting the ministry against the khedive, weakly con-
sented to Nubar's dismissal; but when this was shortly fol-
lowed by that of Rivers Wilson and de Bh'gni^res they realized
that the situation was a critical one, and they succeeded in
obtaining from the sultan the deposition of Ismail and the sub-
Sir Edward Malet. The British government, under the advice
of Baring, insisted on the evacuation of the Sudan, and Sbcrif
having resigned office, the more pliant Nubar was induced to
become premier, and to carry out a policy of which he openly
disapproved, but which he considered Egpyt was forced to
accept under British dictation. At this period he used to say,
" I am not here to govern Egypt, but to administer the British
government of Egypt. I am simply the greaser of the official
wheels." It might have been well if Nubar had confined himself
to this modest programme, but it was perhaps hardly to be
expected of a man of his abUity and restless energy. It must be
admitted, however, that the characters of Nubar and Lord
Cromer were not formed to run in harness, and it was with no
surprise that the public learnt in June 1888 that he had been
relieved of office, though his dismissal was the direct act of the
khedive Tewfik, who did not on this occasion seek the advice
of the British agent. Riaz Pasha, who succeeded him, was, with
one interval of eight months, prin\c minister tmtil April 1894,
when Nubar returned to office. By that time Lord Cromer had
more completely grasped the reins of administration as well as
of government, and Nubar had realized more clearly the r61e
which an Egyptian minister was callt^l on to play: Lord Cromer
was the real ruler of Egypt, and the death of Tewfik in 1890
had necessitated a more open exercise of British authority.
In November 1895 Nubar completed his fifty years of service,
and, accepting a pension, retired from office. He lived little
more than three years longer, spending his time between Cairo
and Paris, where he died in January 1899 at the' age of seventy-
four. (C. F. M. B.)
NUBIA, a region of north-cast Africa, bounded N. by Egypt,
E. and W. by the Red Sea and the Libyan Desert respectively,
and ext«iding S. indefinitely to about the latitude of Khartum.
It may be token to include the Nile valley from Assuon near the
First Cataract southwards to the confluence of the White and
Blue Niles, stretching in this direction for about 560 m. between
16^ and 24** N. Nubia, however, has no strictly defined limits,
and is little more than a geographical expression. The term
appears to have been unknown to the ancients, by whom every-
thing south of Egypt was vaguely called Ethiopia, the land of
the dark races. It is first associated historically, not with any
definite geographical region, but with the Nobatae, a negro people
removed by Diocletian from Rharga oasis to the Nile valley above
Egypt (Dodecaschoenus), whence the turbulent Blemmyes had
recently been driven eastwards. From Nuba, the Arabic form
of the name of this people, comes the modem Nubia, a term
about the predse meaning of which no two writers are in accord.
Within the limits indicated the country consists mainly of sandy
desert and rugged and arid steppes and plateaus through which
the Nile forces its way to Upper Egypt. In this section of the
river there occurs a continuous series of slight falls and rapids,
including all the historical "six cataracts," beginning below
Khartum and terminating at Philae. Between those places the
river makes a great S-shaped bend, the region west of the Nile
within the lower bend being called the Bayuda Desert, and that
east of the Nile the Nubian Desert. The two districts roughly
correspond to the conventional divisions of Upper and Lower
Nubia respectively. Except along the narrow valley of the Nile
only the southernmost portion of Nubia contains arable land.
The greater part is within the almost rainless zone. An auri-
ferous district lies between the Nile and the Red Sea, in 22® N.
Pohtically the whole of Nubia is now included either in Egypt or
the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, and has no administrative existence.
Eihnotogy.-^As an ethnical expression the term Nuba or
Nubian has little value. Rejected by the presumable descend-
ants of Diocletian's Nobatae, who now coll themselves Berber
or Bar&bara, it has become synonymous in the Nile valley with
" slave," or " negro slave." This is due to the large number of
844
NUBLE
slaves drawn by Arab dealers from the Naba negroes of Kordofan,
who appear to conititute the original stock of the Nubian races
(but sec Hamttic Races). On the other hand, the name has
never included all the inhabitants of Nubia. Peoples of three
distinct stocks inhabit the country— the comparatively recent
Semitic Arab intruders, mainly in Upper Nubia, the Beja
(? Hamitic) family of tribes (the Ababda, Bisharin, Hadendoa,
Beni-Amer, &c.), everywhere between the Nile and the Red Sea;
and the Nubians (Nuba or Barftbira), in Lower Nubia, where
they are now almost exclusively confined to the banks of the
Nile, from Assuan southwards to Dongola. Ethnologically these
modem Nubians are a very mixed people, but their affiliation to
negroes or negroids, which is based on physical and linguistic
grounds, is confirmed by what is known of the history of the
Nilotic peoples.
The first inhabitants of the region beyond Egypt appear to
have been the Uaua, whose name occurs in an inscription on a
tomb at Memphis of the Vlth Dynasty, and again constantly in
subsequent inscriptions down to the time of the Ptolemies, as the
chief negro race to the south of Syene. (For the history of the
country during this period see Ethiopia). It thus appears that
throughout the historic period down to the arrival of the Romans
the Nile-country above Egypt was occupied by a negro people.
Egyptian monuments are found as far south as Mount Barkal
(Napata), but no Egyptian settlements beyond Syene. Hence
these Uaua negroes probably remained unaffected, or very
slightly affected, by foreign elements until about the 3rd century
A.D. Their domain then began to be encroached upon from the
east by the Blcmmyes, who have been identified with the present
Beja of the Nubian desert. It was owing to their incessant raids
that Diocletian withdrew the Roman garrisons above the
cataracts, and called in the warlike Nobatae to protect the
Egyptian frontier from their attacks. These negro Nobatae,
originally from Kordofan, as is now evident, had advanced to the
Great Oasis (Kharga) in Upper Egypt, whence they passed into
the Nile valley between the cataracts. Here they absorbed the
older Uaua of kindred stock, and ultimately came to terms with
the Blemmyes. The two races even became intermingled, and,
making common cause against the Romans, were defeated by
Maximinus in 451.
The Blemmyes, remaining pagan after the Nubas had embraced
Christianity (6th century) were soon after driven from the Nile
valley eastwards to the kindred Megabares, Memnons and other
nomads, who, with the Troglodytes, had from time immemorial
held the whole steppe region between the Nile and the Red Sea
from Axum to Egypt. Here their moat collective name was
Bugaitae (BovYoctraO, as appears from the Axumite inscription,
whence the forms Buja, Beja, which occur in the oldest Arab
records, and by which they are still known.
In the 7th century the Arabs who had conquered Egypt
penetrated into Lower Nubia, where the two Jaw&bareh and
Al-Gharblya tribes became powerful, and amalgamated with the
Nabas of that district. Their further progress south was barred
by the Christian kings of Dongola (q.v.) until the 14th century,
when the Arabs became masters of the whole region. Still
later another element was added to the population in the intro-
duction by the Turkish masters of £g>'pt of a number of
Bosnians. These Bosnians (Ralaji as they called themselves)
settled in the country and intermarried with the Arabs and
Nubians, their descendants still holding lands between Assuan and
Derr. Hence it is that the Nubians of this district, fairest of all
the race, still claim Arab and Osmanli (Bosnian) descent.
Nevertheless, the Nubian type remains essentially negro, being
characterized by a very dark complexion, var>'ing from a
mahogany brown and deep bronze to an almost black shade, with
tumid lips, large Uack animated eyes, doli-chocephalic head
(index 73, 72), hair often woolly or strongly frizzled, and scant
beard worn under the chin like the figures of the fugitives (Uaua?)
in the battle-pieces sculptured on the walls of the Egyptian
temples. At the same time the nose is much larger and the
zygomatic arches less prominent than in the full-blood negro.
The Nilotic Nubians are on the whole a strong muscular people,
essentially agricultural, more warlike and energetic than the
Egyptians. Many find employment as artisans, small deakn,
porters and soldiers in Egypt, where they are usually noted for
their honesty, and frank and cheerful temperament Sina the
overthrow of the native Christian sUtes all have become Mabom>
medans, but not of a fanatical type. Although a native of Dongola,
the mahdi, Mahommed Ahmed, found his chief tupport. not
among his cotmtrymen, but among the more recently converted
Kordofan negroes and the nomad Arabs and Beja. (For etkno>
k>gy see also Hamitic Races, Beja, AbAboa, Bqbaux,
Hadendoa, &c.).
Lanruate. — Little is known of the language of the andem Nobiaas
or of its connexion, if any, with the language, known as Meroitic, 1
of the " Ethiopians " who preceded them. The hieroglyphs aad
inscriptions in Meroitic bek>ng mostly to the first six centunes A.&.;
the existing Nubian MSS. are medieval and are written chiefly m
Greek k^tters, and in form and character resemble Coptic. They are,
with one exception, written on parchment and contain li\-esof saints,
&c., the exception beins; a legal document. The roost notevoctby d
these MSS. was founa near Edfu, in Upper Egypt, csriy in the
20th century andpurchased for the British Museum in tool Emy.
chius, patriarch of Alexandria about 930, included " Nubi" aswag
the six kinds of writing which he mentions as current amooE tbe
Hamitic peoples, and ^' Nubi " also appears among a Urt of ax
writings mentioned in an ancient manuscript now in the Berlin
Museum.
The modem Nubian tongue, deariy the descendant of the Nnbaaa
of the MSS., is very sonorous and expressive. Its distinctly Dcm>
character is betrayed in the complete absence of gramnutical geooer.
in its primitive vowel-system and highly-developed process of
consonanul asamilation. softening all harsh combmatwna» lastly,
in the peculiar infix j inserted between the verbal root and the plml
pronominal object, as in at tokki'j^r^l shake them. As in Bastu,
the verb presents a multiplicity of forms, including one prcaert,
three past and futurctcnscs. with personal endings complete, passivr,
interrogative, conditional, elective, negative and other forms, each
with its proper participial inflexions. In Lepsius's grammar the
verbal paradigm nils altogether 1 10 pages.
Of the Nilotic as distinguished from the Kordofan branch of the
Naba language there are three principal dialects current frcaa
Assuan along the Nile southwards to MeroC, as under: —
1. Northern: Dialect of BatA Kent or MaUokki, from the &i«
cauract to ScbG* and W&di al-'Arab, probably dating fron
the Diocletian period.
II. Cent Aal : The Maka or Afariil. from I^orosko to Wicfi HaVS
(second cataract}. Here the natives are called Saklokki.
in contradistinction to the northern Mattokld.
III. Southern: Doniolawi^ throughout the province of Dongr^a
from the second cataract to J. D€ja near Meroe, on the
northern frontier of the Arab distnct of Dar Shagia. B\
the Mahasi people it is called Biderin Bannid, " tenf^sase
of the poor," or, collectively with the Kens, Oshkiria
. Bannid, " language of slaves.
The northern and southern varieties are closely related to each
other, differing considerably from the central, which shows roofc
marked affinities with the Kordofan Nflba. pombly because tbe
Saidokki people are later arrivals from Kordofan. For topography.
&c. and archaeology, see Sudan \ An^Etypiian and EcTrr.
Authorities.-^. R. Lepsius, Nubisckturammaiik (Berlin, I8So^.
and Briefe aus Aetypten, Aetkiopien, Sec. (Berlin, 185a); D. R.
Maclver, Areika (Oxford, 1909); Nubian Texts, edited by E. A.
Wallis Budge (British Museum, 1900); F. U Griffith. " Sosnc o-M
Nubian Christian Texts" in Jottrnai of ThaJogical Stmdies (JuK.
190Q): E. A. Wallii Budge. The Etypttan Sudan (London. i<»rj7 .
J. Ward, Our Sudan, its Pyramids and Prop-ess (London. 190^ .
E. RQppell, Reisen in Nubien, Kordofan, &c (Frankfort a. M
1829): F. Caillaud. Voyage i Miroi (Paris. i8a6): L. Retnisch. L -t
Nuba-Spracke (Vienna, 1879); Memoirs of the Soci6t6 kh^di^v W
de (}^raphic, Cairo: J. L. Burckhardt, Travels in Nmbia. tr.
(London. 1819): G. VVaddington and B. Hanbury. Journal of a Vt -:
to some parts of Ethiopia (London. 182a): E. F. Gau. Nub*- rr
Denkmdler (Stuttgart, 1821). Consult also the bibliosrapby us>dcr
Sudan.
ftUBLE, a province of central ChUe, bounded N. by Linares.
E. by the Argentine Republic, S. by Concepci6a auid \V. t v
Concepci6n and Maule. Area, 3407 sq. m.; pop. (1895) x 53 .c -. ^
The province lies partly in the great central valley of Chile, nc-. t
for its fine climate and fertility, and partly on tbe ^wrs-cn
slopes of the Andes. The Itata river, which forms tbe souib^-
boundary, and its principal tributary, the ^uble. form i^
drainage system of the province. Agriculture and graxang: a.i
the principal industries. Wheat is largely produced, aisd ihci
are vineyards In some localities. Stock-raising is pursw
chiefly in tbe east, where the pastures are rich and tlse wa:
j>nc ooi Dains oi i^miian, m me eastern pan oi ine province on
the slope of the volcano of that name, about 7000 ft. above sea
level, are very popular in Chile.
NUCBRIA ALFATBRNA (mod. Nocera Inferiors, q.v.\ an
ancient town of Campania, Italy, in the valley of the Samus
(Samo), about 10 m. E. of the modem coast line at Torre Annim-
aiata, and 8 m. £. of PompeiL In the period before the Roman
supremacy it appears to have been the chief town in the valley
of the Sarnus, Herculaneum, Pompeii, Stabiae and Surrentum
all being dependent upon it. The coins of the town bear the
head of the river god. It maintained its allegiance to Rome
till 309 B.C. when it joined the revolted Samnites. In 308 it
repulsed a Roman attempt to land at the mouth of the Samus,
but in 307 it was besieged and surrendered. It obtained favour^
able terms, and remained faithful to Rome even after Cannae.
Hannibal reduced it in ai6 by starvation, and destroyed and
plundered the town. The inhabitants returned when peace was
restored. Even during the Social War Nuceria remained trae to
Rome, though the dependent towns joined the revolt; after it
they were formed into independent communities, and Nuceria
received the territory of Stabiae, which had been destroyed by
Sulla in 89 B.C., as a compensation. In 73 B.C. it was plundered
by Spartacus. Of the buildings of the ancient dty nothing
at all is to be seen; but on the hillsides on the S. are remains
of villas of the Roman period, and here tombs have been
found. (T. As.)
NUCLEUS (Lat. for the kemal of a nut, ntur, the stone of
fruit), the central portion of things, round which other parts of
the same thing or other things collect together. The term is
particularly applied to the central mass of protoplasm in a plant
or judmal cell (see Cytology).
NUBR, a Nilotic negro people of the upper Nile, dwelling in the
swmmpy plains south of Fashoda and at the Bahr-el-Ghazal
confluence, and having for neighbours the Dinka, whom they
resemble. They are long-legged and flat-footed, and Uve, like
the aquatic birds, on fish, roots and river plants. They tattoo
tribal marks on the forehead, and the women pierce the upper
lips. A few Nuer families live on the floating islets of grass and
reeds brought down by the river in flood.
HUEVA SAN SALVADOR, or Santa Tecla, the capital of the
department of La Libertad, Salvador; on the railway between
San Salvador (10 m. N.) and the Pacific port of La LiberUd.
Pop. (1905) about X 8,000. The town was founded in 1854, and
intended to replace the capiul, San Salvador, which was ruined
by an earthquake in that year but soon afterwards rebuilt.
TivLicv^ San Salvador is an attractive town with a large and
growing trade.
NUEVO LB6n, a northern state of Mexico, bounded N., E.
and S.E. by Tamaulipas, S. and S.W. by San Luis Potosf and
W. and N. by Coahuila. Pop. (1900) 337i937; area 23,592
sq. m. Nuevo Le6n lies partly upon the great Mexican plateau
and partly upon its eastem slopes, the Sierra Madre Oriental
crossing the sUte N.W. to S.E. A branch of the Sierra Madre
extends northward from the vidnity of Salinas, but its elevations
are low. The average elevation of the Sierra Madre within the
.^tatc is slightly under 5500 ft. The general character of the
surface is mountainous, though the westem and south-westem
aides are level and dry as in the adjoining state of COahuila.
Xn the N. the general elevation is low, the surface sandy and
covered with cactus and mesquite growth, and hot, semi-arid
conditions prevail. The eastem slopes receive more rain and are
^nrell clothed with vegeUtion, but the lower valleys are sub-
tropical in character and are largely devoted to sugar production.
Ty%t higher elevations have a dry, temperate, healthful climate.
I'liere are many riversand streams, notably the Salado,Pe8queria
.^nd Presas, but none is navigable within the state, though many
fxMXOuAi good water power. Agriculture is the principal industry.
diooL-raismg receives consiaeraoie attenuon; tncrc are about a-
score of Urge cattle ranges, and there is a considerable export
of live cattle to Texas and to various Mexican states. Consider-
able progress has been made in manufacturing industries, and
there are a large number of sugar-mills, cotton factories, woollen
mills, smelting works and iron and steel works. The state is well
served with railways, the capital, Monterrey, being one of the
most important railway centres in northern Mexico. The
Mexican National line crosses the northern half of the state and
has constmcted a branch from Monterrey to Matamoros, and a
Belgian line (F. C. de Monterrey al Golfo Mexicano) runs from
Tampico N.N.W. to Monterrey, and thence westward to Trcvifto
(formerly Venadito) in Coahuila, a sUtion on the Mexican Inter-
national. The other principal towns are: Linares, or San Felipe
de Linares (pop. 20,690 in xgoo), 1x2 m. by rail S.E. of the capital
in a rich agricultural region; Lampazos, or Lampazos de
Naranjo (7704), 96 m. by rail N.W. of the capital; Cadercyta
Jiminez, Gard^, Santiago and Doctor Arroyo, the last in the
extreme southem part of the state.
NUOBHt. ROBERT NUGENT, Eakl (1702-1788), Irish
politician and poet, son of Michael Nugent, was bora at Carlans-
town, Co. Westmeath. He was tersely described by Richard
Glover as "a jovial and voluptuous Irishman who had left
popery for the Protestant religion, money and widows." His
change of reli^on took place at a very early period in life; he
married in 1736 Anna (d. 1756), daughter of James Craggs, the
secretary of state, a lady who had already been twice given in
marriage. . His wife's property comprised the borough of St
Mawes in Cornwall, and Nugent sat for that constituency from
174X to 1754, after which date he represented Bristol until 1774,
when he returned to St Mawes. He was a lord of the treasury
from 1754 to 1759 and president of the board of trade from 1766
to 1768. He married in 1757 Elixabeth, dowager-countess of
Berkeley, who brought him a large fortune. His support of the
ministry was so useful that he was created in 1767 Viscount
Clare, and in 1776 Eari Nugent, both Irish peerages. He died on
the X3th of October 1788. Lord Nugent was the author of some
poetical productions, several of which are preserved in the second
volume of Dodsley's CoUedians (1748). The earldom descended
by special reminder to the earl's son-in-law, George Nugent
Temple Grenville, marquess of Buckingham, and so to his
successors, the dukes of Buckingham and Chandos.
NUISANCE (through Fr. noisance, nuisance, from Lat. nocere,
to hurt), that which gives offence or causes annoyance, trouble
or injury. In English law nuisance is either public or private.
A public or common nuisance is defined by Sir J. F. Stephen as
" an act not warranted by law, or an omission to discharge a
legal duty, which act or omission obstructs or causes incon-
venience or damage to the public in the exercise of rights common
to all His Majesty's subjects "{Digestof the Criminal LaWfp. 120).
A common nuisance is punishable as a misdemeanour at common
law, where no special provision u made by statute. In modem
times many of the old common law nuisances have been the
subject of legislation. It is no defence for a master or employer
that a nuisance is caused by the acts of his servants, if such acts
are within the scope of their emplo3rment, even though such
acts are done without his knowledge and contrary to his orders.
Nor is it a defence that the nuisance has been in existence for a
great length of time, for no lapse of time will legitimate a public
nuisance.
A private nuiiiance is an act or omission which causes incon-
venience or danoage to a private person, and is left to be redressed
by action. There must be some sensible diminution of these
rights affecting the value or convenience of the property. " The
real question in all the cases is the question of fact, whether the
annoyance is such as materially to interfere with the ordinary
comfort of human existence" (Lord Romilly in Crump v.
846
NUKHA— NUMANTIA
Lambert, 1867, L.R. 3 Eq. 409). A private nuisance, differing
in this respect from a public nuisance, may be legalized by un-
interrupted use for twenty years. It used to be thought that,
if a man knew there was a nuisance and went and lived near it,
he could not recover, because, it was said, it is he that goes to
the nuisance and not the nuisance to him. But this has long
ceased to be law, as regards both the remedy by damages and
the remedy by injunction.
The remedy for a public nuisance b by information, indictment,
summary procedure or abatement. An information lies in cases
of great public importance, such as the obstruction of a navigable
river by piers. In some matters the law allows the party to take
the remedy into his own hands and to " abate " the nuisance.
Thus, if a gate be placed across a highway, any person lawfully
using* the highway may remove the obstruction, provided that no
breach of the peace is caused thereby. The remedy for a private
nuisance is by injunction, action for damages or abatement. An
action lies in every case for a private nuisance: it also lies where the
nuisance is public, provided tnat the plaintiff can prove that he has
sustained some special injury. In such a case the civil is in addition
to the criminal remedy. In abating a private nuisance, care must
be taken not to do more damage than is necessary for the removal
of the nuisance.
In Scotland there is no recognized distinction between public
and private nuisances. The law as to what constitutes a nuisance
is substantially the same as in Fndand. A list of statutory nuisances
will be found in the Public Health (Scotland) Act 1867. and amend-
ing acts. The remedy for nuisance is by interdict or action.
The American law on the subject is practically the same as the
English law.
NUKHA, a town of Russian Caucasia, in the government of
Elizavetpol, and previous to 1819 the capital of the khanate of
Sheki, lying 57 m. N.E. of the town of Elizavetopol, at the S.
foot of the main chain of the Caucasus. Pop. (1861) 22,618;
(1897) 24,811; mainly Tatars, with some Armenians. The
cupola of the church in the fortress is 2455 ft. above the sca-lcvel,
in 41° 12' 18' N. and 47® 12' 7' E. The fortress, a square
enclosure, ercctcri in 1765, contains the palace, built in 1790 in
the original Persian style. The leading industry is the breeding
of silkworms and the spinning of silk. Nukha was a mere
village down to the middle of the i8th century, when it was
chosen by Hajji Chclyabi, the founder of the khanate of Sheki,
as his residence. The Russian occupation dates from 1807,
though the annexation was not completed till 1819.
NULLAH (Hindostani for an arm of the sea, stream or water-
course), a steep narrow valley. Like the wadi of the Arabs, the
nullah is characteristic of mountainous or hilly country where
there is little rainfall. In the drier pans of India, and in many
parts of Australia there arc small steep-sided valleys penetrating
the hills, clothed with rough brushwood or small trees growing
in the stony soil. During occasional heavy rains torrents rush
down the nullahs and quickly disappear. There is little local
action upon the sides, while the bed is lowered, and consequently
these valleys arc narrow and steep.
NULLIFICATION, the process of making null or of no effect
(Lat. nullus, none). In United States history the term is
applied to the process by which a state either (a) in fact suspended,
or (6) claimed a constitutional right of suspending, the operation
of a federal law within its own territory. The doctrine of
nullification as a constitutional theory was probably never
held by a majority of the states or of the American p>eoplc at
any one time, though before i860 most of the states asserted
or practised it. The belief in nullification was based on the
theory that the union of the states was a voluntary one, each
member retaining its sovereignty, though for purposes of con-
venience delegating certain powers of government to an agent —
the federal government. The powers of this agent were strictly
limited by the Constitution, and should it transcend these
powers the states must interpose to protect their rights. This
view held that the Supreme Court created by the Constitution
was not a proper tribunal to decide causes arising beyond the
Constitution or relating to the nature of the Union, but that
its jurisdiction was limited to cases arising under the Constitu-
tion. If the Federal government usurped a right belonging to
the state, the latter, being a sovereignty, must judge for itself.
As later perfected by John C. Calhoun (q.v.), the theory of
nullification required a practice as follows. A itate asrx^^
by a law of the Federal congress might, in constituent cooventioi,
suspend the operation of the objectionable law, and rqwct in
action to the other states. If three-fourths of them sbmld
decide that the law in question was not unconstitutional, ibcs
in effect it became ratified (see United Slates Ccnstiimiot,
art. v.). The dissatisfied state must then submit or must <in«
out of the union by the act of secession (see Secession, ud
Confederate States). This theory of the right of nulliiiatiai
was considered by those who held it to be in accord vi:h *i<
principles laid down in the Constitution. It most be disils-
guished from secession, which was considered a so\'creign r^.
one above the Constitution; yet nullification presumed the
sovereignty of the state.
The earliest assertions of the doctrine of nuIIific^tioQ m
found in the Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions of 1733-1799,
written respectively by Thomas Jefferson and James Madisca
in protest against the Alien and Sedition Acts of CongrcB.
Nullification was first practised in 1S09 by Pennsylvania. iW
governor ordering out the state troops to resist the cxecatioi
of a decree of a Federal court. In the New Engbnd siMia,
180^1815, the United States law-s relating to embar^. doc-
intercourse and army enlistments were nullified by sute actioa.
From 1825-1829 the sUte of Georgia forcibly prevented the
execution of Federal laws and court decrees relating to tk
Indians within her borders and in AUbanna, zS32~i&3>. ibrc
was a similar nullification. The only example of nu!l!iiuLiQa
in which theory and practice coincided was the nuIiitu'Jai
in 1832 by South Carolina of the Federal tariff laws. In ths
the state acted upon the theory outlined above whkh «ja
perfected by Calhoun. In the last decade before the Civil Uir
fourteen of the Northern states in the so-called ^'Ftrioul
Liberty laws " nullified the Federal statute:* rebting to slim
and slavery by making it a crime for their citizens to obe>- :bae
laws and by setting the state administration against the FcdenI
officials.. Since the Reconstruction the Southern state* b«ff
in practice effected a nullification of the Fourteenifa uti
Fifteenth Amendments to the Constitution providiPig for Depo
suffrage.
See John C. Calhoun, Works, vols. i. and \'i. (New York. i?53-
1855): D. F. Houston^ Critical Study of NuIIi/icati^ m i-sM
Carolina (New York, 1897) ; C. W. Lorine, J\Mllt/.caiu>n end S.:riV*
(New York, 1803): E. P. Powell, Nullification and ScirsjunnM
United Slates (New York. 1897); and U. B. Phillip*. Oer^ **i
States RighU (Washington, 1902). (\\. L f.i
NUMANTIA. an ancient hill fortress in northern Spjin. In
the province of Soria (Old Castile), overhanging the vilia|ecf
Garray, near the town of Soria, on the upper Dcuro. Here,
on a small isolated high plateau in the middle of the v^.
was the stronghold which played the principal part in a li:rja
struggle between theconquering Romans and the native SpariinJi
during the years iS4-i33 B.C. Numantia was especUly ad-
eemed in the latter part of this war from 144 onwarcs. b
was several times unsuccessfully besieged. Once the K-xrxi
general Hostilius Mancinus with his whole army was con'pc^
to surrender (137). Finally, Scipio Acmilianus, Rome's £rst
and only general in that age, with some 60.000 men drew roic:
the town 6 m. of continuous entrenchments with seven casp
at intervals. After 15 months (134-133) he reduced by hvsfs
the 6000-8000 Numantine soldiers, much as Caesar aftemns
reduced Alesia in Gaul. The result was regarded as a g-atiaa
victory, and in Roman literature the fall of Numantia w
placed beside the fall of Carthage (149 B.C.). In trjih.. ^
maintenance in effective condition of so large a Romut kxs
in so remote and difficiilt a region was in itself a real acKi^^Ttaes:
and such as at that time no one but Sdpio could have ptricrrtL
He redeemed by organized strategy the vacillations and vJ^
of statesmen who had sat at home and sent out inideq'.J^
expeditions or incompetent commanders. The site was, vaif
the Roman Empire, occupied by a Roman town called Nuotacni
and the Itinerary tells of a Roman road which ran past it- '
is to-day a " Monumento Nacional " of Spain, and bas>ir^
remarkable discoveries to the skilful excavations of Dr ScksL'd
NUMA POMPILIUS— NUMBER
847
05-1910), who has traced the Cdtiberian town, the lines
Sdpao and several other Roman camps dating from the
mantine Wars. (F. J. H.)
rUHA POMPIUUS. second legendary king of Rome (715-
B.c), was a Sabine, a native of Cures, and his wife was
daughter of Titus Tatius, the Sabine colleague of Romulus.
wras elected by the Roman people at the dose of a year's
iiTegnum, during which the sovereignty had been ezoctsed
the members of the senato in rotation. Nearly all the early
pova institutions of Rome were attributed to him. He set
the worfaip of Terminus (the god of landmarks), appointed
festival of Fides (Faith), built the temple of Janus, reorgan-
[ the calendar and fixed days of business and holiday. He
ituted the flamens (sacred priests) of Jupiter, Mars and
rinus; the virgins of Vesta, to keep the sacred fire burning
Lbe hearth of the city; the Salii, to guard the shield that
from heaven; the pontifices and augurs, to arrange the
s and interpret the will of the gods; he also divided the
dicraf tsmen into nine gilds. He derived his inspiration from
wrife, the nymph Egeria, whom he used to meet by night in
sacred grove. After a long and peaceful reign, during which
gates of Janus were closed, Numa died and was succeeded
the warlike Tullus Hostilius. Livy (xl. ig) tells a curious
y of two stone chests, bearing inscriptions in Greek and
In, which were found at the foot of the Janiculum (x8i B.C.),
purporting to contain the body of Numa and the other his
ks. The first when opened was found to be empty, but the
md contained fourteen books relating to philosophy and
tifical law, which were publicly burned as tending to under-
e the established religion.
To single legislator can really be considered responsible for
the institutions ascribed to Numa; they are essentially
Ian, and older than Rome itself. Even Roman tradition
If wavers; e.g. the fetiales are variously attributed to Tullus
itillus and Ancus Marcius. The supposed law-books, which
e to all appearance new when discovered, were clearly
ee Livy L i8*3i; Plutarch, Numa: Dion. Halic. it. 58-76;
»io, De rettMica, ii. 13-15. For criticism: Schwczler, Rdmischs
hUkU, blc. xi.; Sir G. Coraewall Lewis, CrcdUnlity cf early
tan History, ch. xi. : W. Ihne. Hist, of Rome, i. ; E. Pais, Storia at
w, L (1898}. where Numa is identified with Titus Tatius and made
to be a river god, Numicius, closely connected with Aeneas:
t. Carter, The Religum of Numa (1906): O. Gilbert, GeschichU
Topotrapkic der Stadi Rom im AlUrtum (i 883-1 885) ; and Rome :
ieni flisiory.
OlfBER* (through Fr. notnbre, from Lat. numirus\ from
lot seen in Gr. vktuiv to distribute), a word generally ex-
aive of quantity, the fundamental meaning of which leads
&iuJysis to some of the most difficult problems of higher
hematics.
The most elementary process of thought involves a distinc-
writhin an identity — the A and the not-A within the sphere
ughout which these terms are intelligible. Again A may be
neric quality found in different modes Aa, Ab, Ac, &c.; for
ince, colour in the modes, red, green, blue and so on. Thus
notions of " one." " two," and the vague " many " are
amental, and must have impressed themselves on the human
1 at a very cariy period: evidence of this is found in the
imatical distinction of singular, dual and plural which
rs in ancient languages of widely different races. A more
lite idea of number seems to have been gradually acquired
ealiaing the equivalence, as regards plurality, of different
rete groups, such as the fingers of the right hand and those
le left. This led to the invention of a set of names which in
irst instance did not suggest a numerical system, but denoted
tin recognised forms of plurality, just as blue, red, green, &c.,
ite recognized forms of colour. Eventually theconception of
series of natural numbers became sufficiently clear to lead
systematic terminology, and the science of arithmetic was
, rendered possible. But it is only in quite recent times that
notion of number has been submitted to a searching critical
* See also Numeral
analysis: it is, in fact, one of the most characteristic results of
modem mathematical research that the term* number has been
made at once more precise and more extensive.
9. Aggregates (also called manifolds or sets).— Ltt us assume the
possibility of constructing or contemplating a permanent system
of things such that (i) the system includes all objects to which
a certain definite quality belongs; (2) no object without this
quality belongs to the system; (3) each object of the system is
permanently recognizable as the same thing, and as distinct
from all other objects of the system. Such a collection is called
an aggregate: the separate objects belonging to it are called its
elements. An aggregate may consist of a single element.
It is further assumed that we can select, by a definite process,
one or more elements of any aggregate A at pleasure: these
form another aggregate B. If any element of A remains un-
selected, B is said to be a part of A (m symbols, B< A): if not,
B is identical with A. Every element of A is a port of A. If
B<A and C<B, then C<A.
When a correspondence can be established between two
aggregates A and B in such a way that to every clement of A
corresponds one and only one element of B, and conversely, A
and B are said to be equivalent, or to have the same power (or
potency); in symbols, A</'B. If A«/«B and B^C, then Ac/>C.
It b possible for an aggregate to be equivalent to a part of
itself: the aggregate is then said to be infinite. As an example,
the aggregates a, 4, 6, . . . 211, &c., and x, 2, 3, . . . », &c, are
equivalent, but the first is only a part of the second.
3. Order. — Suppose that when any two elements a, b of an
aggregate A are taken there can be established, by a definite
criterion, one or other of two alternative relations, symbolized
by a<b and a>b, subject to the following conditions: — (i) If
a>bt then 6<a, and if a<b, then b>a; (2) Ila>b &tidb>c,
then a>c. In this case the criterion is said to arrange the
aggregate in order. An aggregate which can be arranged in order
may be called ordinable. An ordinablc aggregate may, in general,
by the application of different criteria, be arranged in order in a
variety of wa>'s. According as a<6 or a>fr we shall speak of a
as anterior or posterior to b. These terms are chosen merely for
convenience, and must not be taken to imply any meaning
except what is involved in the definitions of the signs > and < for
the particular criterion in question. The consideration of a
succession of events in time will help to show that the assumptions
made are not self-contradictory. An aggregate arranged in
order by a definite criterion will be called an ordered aggregate.
Let a,b he any two elements of an ordered aggregate, and
suppose a<b. All the elements c (if any) such that a<c<b are
said to fall within the interval (a, b). If an clement b, posterior
to a, can be found so that no element falls within the interval
(a, 6), then a is said to be isolated from all subsequent elements,
and b is said to be the element next after a. So if b'<a, and no
element falls within the interval {b*, a), then a is isolated from all
preceding elements, and b' is the clement next before a. As
will be seen presently, for any assigned clement 0, either, neither,
or both of these cases may occur.
An aggregate A is said to be well-ordered (or normally ordered)
when, in addition to being ordered, it has the following pro-
perties: (i) A has a first or lowest element a which is anterior
to all the rest; (2) if B is any part of A, then B has a first
element. It follows from this that every part of a well-ordered
aggregate is itself well-ordered. A well-ordered aggregate may
or may not have a last element.
Two ordered aggregates A, B are said to be similar ( As£.B) when
a one-one correspondence can be set up between their elements
in such a way that if &, b* are the elements of B which correspond
to any two elements u, o' of A, then b>b* or b<b' according as
a>a*OTa<af. Forexample,(i,3,5, . . . )Sa{2,4,6,., . ), because
we can make the even number 2it correspond to the odd
number (2«— 1) and conversely.
Similar ordered aggregates arc said to have the same order-type.
Any definite order-type is said to be the ordinal number of every
aggregate arranged according to that type. This somewhat
vague definition will become clearer as we proceed.
a' does not exist ; in this case a is the Ust element of A.) Thus
in a well-ordered aggregate every element except the last (if
there be a last element) is succeeded by a definite next element.
The ingenuity of man has developed a symbolism by means of
which every symbol is associated with a definite next succeeding
symbol, and in this way we have a set of visible or audible signs
1 , 3, 3, &c. (or their verbal equivalents), representing an aggregate
in which (i) there is a definite order, (3) there is a first term,
(3) each term has one next following, and consequently there is
no last term. Counting a set of objects means associating them
in order with the first and subsequent members of this con-
ventional aggregate. The process of coimting may lead to three
different results: (i) the set of objects may be finite in number,
so that they are associated with a part of the conventional aggre-
gate which has a last term; (2) the set of objects may have the
same power as the conventional aggregate; (3) the set of objects
may have a higher power than the conventional aggregate.
£}uimples of (3) and (3) will be found further on. The order-type
of I, 2, 3, &c., and of similar aggregates wiU be denoted byw;
this is the first and simplest member of a set of transfinite ordinal
numbers to be considered later on. Any finite number such as
3 is used ordinolly as representing the order-type of x, a, 3 or
any similar aggregate, and cardinally as representing the power
of I, 3, 3 or any equivalent aggregate. For reasons that will
appear, tf is only used in an ordinal sense. The aggregate
x> 3f 3* &Cv in any of its written or spoken forms, may be called
the natural scale, and denoted by N. It has already been shown
that N is infinite: this appears in a more elementary way from
the fact that (i, 3, 3, 4.. . .')i^(a, 3, 4. 5f • •)» where each
element of N is made to correspond with the next following.
Any aggregate which is equivalent to the natural scale or a part
thereof is said to be countable.
5. Arithmetical Operations. — ^When the natural scale N has
once been obtained it is comparatively easy, although it requires
a long process of induction, to define the arithmetical operations
of addition, multiplication and involution, as applied to natural
numbers. It can be proved that these operations are free
from ambiguity and obey certain formal laws of commutation,
&c., which will not be discussed here. Each of the three direct
operations leads to an inverse problem which cannot be solved
except under certain implied conditions. Let a, b denote any
two assigned natural numbers: then it is required to find
natural numbers, x, y, s such that
respectively. The solutions, when they exist, are perfectly
definite, and may be denoted by a— 6, a/b and V o; but they
are only possible in the first case when a > 6, in the second when
a is a multiple of 6, and in the third when a is a perfect 6th
power. It is found to be possible, by the construction of certain
elements, called respectively negative, fractional and irrational
numbers, and sero, to remove all these restrictions^
6. There are certain properties, common to the aggregates
with which we have next to deal, analogous to those possessed
by the natural scale, and consequently justif3dng us in applying
the term number to any one of their elements. They are stated
here, once for all, to avoid repetition; the verification, in each
case, will be, for the most part, left to the reader. Each of the
aggregates in question (A, suppose) is an ordered aggregate.
If a, ^ are any two elements of A, they may be combined by two
definite operations, represented by + and X, so as to produce
two definite elements of A represented by a+/3 and aX/3 (or
o^); these operations obey the formal laws satisfied by those of
addition and multiplication. The aggregate A contains one
(and only one) element c, such that if a is any element of A
(t included), then a+t>a, and 01^0. Thus A contains the
elements t, i-|-», t-|-t-j-t, &c., or, as we may write them, », 31,
V,- . .mt. . .such that mi-|-»(s(m+»)i and nuXnt'^mni]
which the order is rr-.-ersed). In this way we obtaia from N aa
aggregate of symbols (a, b) which we shall call coupla, or moit
precisely, if necessary, polar couples. This new aggregate miy
be arranged in order by means of the following nils:— I
Two couples (o, 6), (a', ^0 ^^ Mi<i to be equal if a+i^'^+L
In other words (a, 6), (of, V) are then taken to be equivakai
symbols for the same thing.
If a+y>a'-f6, we write (a, *)>(«', ftO; and if a+6'<«'+&.
we write (a, ft)<(a', V).
The rules for the addition and multiplication of ooopks aie
ia, b) -Ka', V) - (a -J-o'. b+V)
t (a, 6)X(a', 6')-(aa'+»'. oy-ho't).
The aggregate thus defined will be denoted by R; it may be
called the scale of relative integers.
If ft denotes (2, i) or any equivalent couple, (a, b)M»
(a+2,6+i)>(a,6)and(a,6)Xft-(30+6,a+26)»(a,6). Heace
i is the ground element of R. By definition, 2t* 1+1^(4. 2)«
(3, x): and hence by induction fitt<*(m-fi, x), where » b aay
natural integer. Conversely every couple (a, b) in which a>ft
can be expr^sed by the symbol (a — 6)t. In the same way, evtrj
couple (a, 6) in which b>a can be expressed in the form (ft— a)i'.
where ft' "(i, 3).
8. It follows as a formal consequence of the definitions thai
ft+i'«(2, i)+(i, 2)«(3, 3)»»(i, 1). It is convenient to dcufou
(i, x) and iu equivalent symbob by o, because
'(a. 6)+(i. i)-(a-»-i. ft-|-i)-(tt.ft)
(c, 6)X(i. i)-(a+ft,a+ft)-(i, 1);
hence i-l-ft'-o, and we can represent fJ by the scheme —
. 3/, 2/, .', o, ^ a^ 3. . . .
in which each element is obtained from the next before it by the
addition of t. With this notation the rules of operation may be
written (m, n, denoting natural numbers) —
mi+fu "(m-l-ii)* «/-|-in'«=(»ir»;»
1111+**' ■» \M—n)i \\m>n
"(»— m)i' w<»
MtXfu>>m»(. im'Xni'-mm, «tXm'«>aim%
with the special rules for zero, that if a is any element of R,
•-I-0-0, aXo-a
To each element, a, of N correqx>nds a definite dement a' s^
that a-|-a'Bo; if aeo, then a'»o, but in every other caac c a'
are different and may be denoted by nu, nu'. Tbe natanl
number m is called the absolute value of mi and mt'.
9. If a, fi are any two elements of R, the equation (-f0«a
is satisfied b/ putting («a+^'. Thus the symbol «—^ tsahn>s
interpretable as a-h^, and we may say that within f) subttactioa
is always possible; it is easily proved to be alao fice iwm
ambiguity. On the other hand, a//} is intelligible only tf tbe
absolute value of a is a multiple of the absolute value of fi.
The aggregate R has no first element and no last *i*>.»>wt
At the same time it is countable, as we see, for instance, b.i
associating the elements o, at, bi' with tbe natuxal «»i— «>■*<
I, 2a, 26-1- 1 respectively, thus—
(N) I, 2,3.4,5.6,...
(N)o,m',2».2i'.3«...
It b usual to write +a (or simply a) for « and — « for &
that this should be possible without leading to oonfusuc ^
ambiguity is certainly remarkable.
xo. Fractional Numbers. — ^We will now derive from N
different aggregate of couples [a, b] subject to the following rc^
The symbols la, b], (a', bl, are equivalent if oft' -» a'b. Acccri
ing as aft' is greater or less than a'ft we regard [a, ft] as beins CT^*
or less than W, ft']. Tbe formulae for addition and OBoUiplicat:'
arc [a. ft]-|-ra', ftl -[oy+a'ft. ftftq
|o.ft|xk.ft1-ifl«'.ftftl.
All the couples (a, a] are equivalent to (x, i], and if 'wc de»
NUMBER
8+9
this by V we Iiave (o, &]+v-[a+», M>(o> M, k 6]Xv-[a, 6],
M that V is the ground element of the new aggregate.
Again 2v»u+vb(2, i), and by induction m«-[iii, x]. More-
over, if a is a multiple of b, say mb, we may denote [a, b] by m«.
II. The new aggrejgate of couples will be denoted by BL It
difleis from N ,and N in one very important respect, namely,
that when its elements are arranged in order of magnitude (that
is to say, by the rule above given) they are not isolated from
each other. In fact if [a, b]-a, and [a', 6l«a', the clement
[a-ha^, &+fr1 lies between a and a'; hence it follows that between
any two different elements of R we can find as many other
elements as we please. This property is expressed by saying
that R is in dose order when its elements are arranged in order
of magnitude. Strange as it appears at first sight, R is a count-
able aggregate; a theorem first proved by G. Cantor. To see
this, observe that every element of R may be represented by a
" reduced " couple [a, 6], in which a, b are prime to each other.
^ [<>i b], [c, ifj are any two reduced couples, we will agree that
la, b] is anterior to [c, d\ if cither (i) a-{-b<c+d, or (2) a+6«
c-\-d, but a<e, Tliis gives a new criterion by which all the
elements of R can be arranged in the succession
[I. il. h. 21. b. il. Ii. 3l. l3. 1.1. Ii. 4l. la, 31. b. 2I. l4. iL
which is similar to the natural scale.
_The aggregate R, arranged in order of magnitude, agrees with
N in having no least and no greatest element; for if a denotes
any element [a, b], then [aa-x, 2b]<a, while [20-^1, 26] >a.
12. The division of one element of R by another is always
possible; for by definition
[c,d\Xlad,bc]^[acd,bcd\''[o,bl
and consequently [a, b]+[ct d\ is always interpretable as [oJ, be].
As a particular case [m, x]-f-[n, i]«[m,ff], so that every element
of R is expressible in one of the forms mv, mv/nv. It is usual to
omit the symbol u altogether, and to represent the element
[», n] by m/tt, whether m is a multiple of n or not. Moreover,
m/i is written m, which may be done without confusion, because
Wi+»/i"(«+«)/x, and «/iXn/x-«wi/i, by the rules given
above.
13. Within the aggregate R subtraction is not always practic-
able; but ^this limitation may be removed by constructing an
ftggres&te R related to R in the same way as N to N. This may
be done in two ways which lead to equivalent results. We may
either form symbols of the type (a, /9), where a, /3 denote elements
of R, and apply the xules of § 7; or elsejorm symbols of the type
[a, /9], where a, /3 denote elements of N, and apply the rules of
$10. The final result is that R contains a zero element, o, a
ground element v, an element f/ such that v+v'*-o, and a set
of elements represenUble by the symbols («/»)w, {m/nW. In
this noution the rules of operation are
zrv+=r^'
m'n—mfi^
1/, as mn*>OT<m'n:
■^'T^Xp ^xjV-^V:
— tf+rrw^r
• -/J-a-l'/J', where p+^-o;
s+o->a, «Xo«a
Here a and jS denote any two elements of R. If /3-(ifi/»)u,
tbcn/3'«(w/n)u', andif /J-Cw/n)!/, then /3'-(m/n)u. U /3-o,
then /J'«o. _ _
14. When R is constructed by means of couples taken from N,
wc must put lm», ii»l«lipi»', n«T-(»/«)y, [m*^ «*!-[«»', «»]-
(m/ff)!/, and [o, a]-o, if a is any element of N except o. The
symbols (o, o] and [a, o] are inadmissible; the first because it
satisfies the definition of equality (S xo) with every symbol
[a, /3], and is therefore indeterminate; the second because,
according to the nils of addition,
ro,ol+I»,il-Kol-Ia,ol,
vthich is inconsbtent with (+v>|.
XIX 14*
Intbe8ameway,if o denotes the aero element of R, and ^any
other element, the symbol 0/0 is indeterminate, and ^o in-
admissible, because, by the formal rules of (^ration, {/o+u * ^/o,
which omJQicts with the definition of the ground element v.
It IS usual to'^wiite -1-j* ^or simply g-J for jp;, and -— for Ji/.
Each of these elements is said to have thejibsolute value mfn.
The criterion for arranging the elements of R in order of magni-
tude is that, if (, 9 are any two elementffof it, (>9when(— 9
is positive; that is to sav when it can be expressed in the
form {,mln)v. ^
15. The aggregate R is very important, because it is the
simplest type of a field of rationality, or corpus. An algebraic
corpus is an aggr^iate, such that its elements are reprcsentable
by symbols a, 0, &c., which can be combined according to the
laws of ordinary algebra; every algebraic expression obtained
By combining a finite number of symbols, by means of a finite
chain of rational operations, being capable of interpretation as
representing a definite element of the aggregate, with the single
exccptbn that division by zero is inadmissible. Since, by the
laws of algebra, a--a»o, and a/a""!, every algebraic fiield con-
tains R, or, more properly, an aggregate which is an image of R.
x6. Irrational Numbers. — Let a denote any element of R;
then a and all lesser elements form an aggregate, A say; the
remaining elements form another aggregate A^ which we shall
call complementary to A, and we may write R-A+A'. Now
the essence of thb separation of R into the parts A and A' may
be expressed without any reference to a as follows: —
I. The aggregates A, A' are complementary^^ that is, their
elements, taken together, make up the whole of R.
II.' Every element of A is less than every element of A'.
in. The aggregate A' has no least element. (This condition
is alrtifidal, but saves adistinction of cases in what follows.)
Every separation R^A+A' which satisfies these conditions
is called a cut (or section), and will be denoted by (A, A') We
have seen that every rational number a can be associated with
a cut. Conversely, every cut (A, A) in which A has a last element
a is perfectly definite, and specifics a without ambiguity. But
there are other cuts in which A has no last element. For instance,
all the elements (a) of R such that either a^o, or else a>o and
a'<a, form an aggregate A, while those for which a>o and
a*> 3, form the complementary aggregate A'. This sq>aration
is a cut in which A has no last element; because if p/q is any
positive element of A, the element (3^+49)/(3^+39) exceeds
piq, and also belongs to A. Every cut of this kind is said to define
an irrational numbier. The justification of this is contained in
the following propositions: —
(x) A cut is a definite concept, and the assembkige of cuts
is an aggregate according to definition; the generic quality of
the aggregate being the separation of R into two complementary
parts, without altering the ordo* of its elements.
(2) The aggregate of cuts may be arranged in order by the rule
that (A, A') < (B, B') if A is a part of B.
(3) This criterion of arrangement preserves the order of
magnitude of all rational numbers.
(4) Cuts may be combined according to the laws of algebra,
and, when the cuts so combined are all rational, the results are
in agreement with those derived from the rational theory.
As a partial illustration of proposition (4) let (A. AO. (B, BO be
any two cuts; and let C be the aggregate whose elements arc ob-
tained by forming all the values of v-^0', where a' is any element of
A' and fr b any element of B'. Then if C is the complement of C,
it can be proved that (C, C) is a cut ; this is said to be the sum of
(A, AO and (B, B'). The difference, product and quotient of two cots
may be defined in a similar way. If n denotes the irrational cut
chosen above for purposes of illustration, we shall have p' » (C, C)
where C comprises all the numbers a'0' obtained by multiplying any
two elements, a', fi' which are rational and positive, and such that
a'*>3, fi^>3. Since a'V9^>4 it follows that a'^ is positive and
greater than 2: it can be proved conversely that every rational
number which is greater than a can be exprnsed in the form »'fi'.
Hence nC*3. so that the cut n actually gives a real arithmetical
meaning to the positive root of the equation x* » 3 ; in other words wc
85©
NUMBER
may ny that n define* the imtional number V 2. The theory of cuts,
in fact, provides a logical basis for the treatment of all finite
numerical irrationalities, and enables us to justify all arithmetical
cperatioos involving the use of such quantities.
17. Since the aggregate of cuU (Zl say) has an order of
magnitude, we may construct cuts in this aggregate. Thtis
if a is any element of ZT, and 9 is the aggregate which consists
of a and all anterior dements of Zt, we may write n-91+Sl',
and (9, 90 is a cut in which 9 has a last element a. It is a
remarkable fact that no other kind of cut in n is possible; in
other words, taery conceivable cutiaZtis defined by one of its own
dements. This is expressed by saying that Zt is a continuous
aggregate, and Zt itself is referred ioastke numerical continuum
of real numbers. The property of continuity must be carefully
distinguished from that of close order (§ ix); a continuoxis
aggregate is necessarily in dose order, but the converse is not
always true. The aggregate H is not countable.
x8. Another way of treating irrationals is by means of
sequenca, A sequence is an unlimited succession of rational
numbers ci, oi, a» . . . Ow a.^ • . .
(in order-type ia) the elemenU of which can be assigned by a
definite rule, such that when any rational number c, however
small, has been fixed, it is possible to find an integer m, so that
for all positive integral values of » the absolute value of
(«■•>•— a*) is less than c. Under these conditions the sequence
may be taken to represent a definite number, which is, in fact,
the limit of a« when m increases without limit. Every rational
number o can be expressed as a sequence In the form (a, a, a, . . .),
but thb is only one of an infinite variety of sudi repnesentatlons,
for instance —
i-(*-99.W....)-(i.5.i......^...)
and so on. The essential thing is that we have a mode of re-
presentation which can be applied to rational and irrational
numbers alike, and provides a very convenient symbolism to
express the results of arithmetical operations. Thus the rules
for the sum and product of two sequences are given by the
formulae
(ai,aa.a», . . .)-|-(6i, 61, 6», . . .)-(ai+6i,at+fc. 0|-|-*i . . .)
« (ai.ai.afc . . .)X(^. 61, &•. . . .)-(ai6i,at6i,ot&i . . .)
from whidi the rules for subtraction and division oAy be at once
inferred. It has been proved that the method of sequences is
ultimatdy equivalent to that of cuts. The advantage of the
former lies in its convenient notation, that of the latter in giving
a dear definition of an irrational number without having recourse
to the notion of a Umit.
19. Complex Numbers, — If a is an assigned number, rational
or irrational, and n a natural number, it can be proved that there
is a real number satisfying the equation «"«a, except when n
is even and a is negative: in this case the equation is not satisfied
by any real number whatever. To remove the difficulty we
construct an aggregate of polar couples {x, y\, where x, y are any
two real numbers, and define the addition and multiplication
of such couples by the rules
We also agree that U, y)<fx',yi, if «<«' or if x-x* and
y</. It follows that the aggregate has the ground dement
1 1, o) .which we may denote bye; and that, if we write r for the
element »:», i}, T«-i-i,o|--ff.
Whenever m, n are rational, Im, n\ ^mc-k-nr, and we are
thus justified in writing, if we like,x9-i-yr for {x, y\ in all circum-
stances. A further simplification is gained by writing x instead
of X9t and regarding r as a symbol which is such that T*f- — x,
but in other respecU obeys the ordinary laws of operation. It
is usual to write i instead of r; we thus have an aggregate 3
of complex numbers x-|-^ In this aggregate, which indudes
the real continuum as part of itsdf, not only the four rational
operations (exduding division by (o, o). the zero dement), but
also the extraction of rooU, may be effected without any restric-
tkHL Moreover (as first proved by Gauss and Csud^), if
As, Ol, . .
equation
c are any assigned real or complex \
^ a^+ai«^+ . . . 'l-a.^+a. -o,
is always satisfied by predsdy n real or oomples valnes of s, with
a proper convention as to mulu'ple roots. Thus any algefank
function of any finite number of elements of 3 is abo oootaioed
in 3, which is, in this sense, a closed arithmetical fidd, joat as
ZI is when we restrict ouisdves to lational opexatioos. The
power of 3 is the same as that of Zl.
20. Transfinite Numbers.— Thie theory of thew mmibea is
quite recent, and mainly due to G. Cantor. The simplest of
them, w, has been already defined ($4) as the order-type of the
natural scale. Now there is no logical difikulty in constmcting
asdieme ih. «i.«. . . . I*.
indicating a well-ordered aggregate ol type «• immediatdy
followed by a distinct dement Vi : for example, we nay think
of all positive odd integers arranged in ascoiding «infer of
magnitude and then think of the even numbw s. A scheme of
this kind is said to be of order-type («#+x); and it will be
convenient to speak of (u+x) as the index of the adKBe.
Similariy we may form arrangements coximponding to the
indices ^^2, «+3 . . , •+«,
where n is any positive integer. The scheme
«i, in. «• . . . I ffk. ^ f» . .
is associated with u-^-wm;
tiu, «u. tiu . . . I tta, ttn. Mm . . . I . . . I «d. «« | . . .
with wjta or t^; and so on. Thus we may construct anai^e-
ments of aggregates corresponding to any index of the fona
♦(«)-a«^+6«-»+ . . . -k-hm-k-i,
where fi, a, 6, . . . / are all positive integers.
We are thus led to the construction of a scheme of symbols^
I.
i,s.3.. • .
2m, 2«f+I. •
II.'
III.
. . 3«+n. .
iCf). ♦(-)+! ♦(-)+«.. .
■«•. ^+t, . . . ^+n^ . . .
The symbols ^(u) form a countable aggregate: ao that we
may, if we like (and in various ways), arrange the rows of block
(II ) in a scheme of type «#: we thus have ofich dement « suc-
ceeded in its row by (a-f x), and the row containing ^(m) succeeded
by a definite next row. The same process may be applied to
(in.), and we can form additional blocks (IV.). (V.). a^ with
first dements ««"C0*^' «i«c/^ ftc. All the symbob in «hi^
w occurs are called transfinite ordinal members,
2X. The index of a finite set is a definite kiteger howcrm the
set may be arranged; we may take this index as abo ilrnotifg
the power of the set, and call it the member of thin^ in the set.
But the index of an infinite oxdinable set depends upon the way
in which iu elemenU are arranged; forinstaiKse, ind. it, t, j.
. . . )-«#, but ind. (x, 3. S» • • • I- >> 4> 6» . . .)^m^ Oc.
to take another example, the scheme —
1,3.5.. . .(a»-x) . . .
s.'O, xob . . . 3 (as— t) . . .
«•.* s*. 3. «•• 5. . . . >r (»»-t) . . .
where each row b supposed to follow i^ '"^bcnne it, ({wes n
permutation of (x, s, 3, . . . ), by which its Index b
from tf to fi^. It has been proved that there b a pen
of the nature! scale, of which the index b ^«i), any
elementof (n.); and that, if the index of any ordered I
b ^{ta), the aggregate Is countable. Thus the poiwcr of aS
aggregates which can be assodated with Indices of the daos (HI
b the same as that of the natural scale; thb popcr may be
denoted by a. SJnoe • b i MOcb te d with all egregrtct ef •
a: for instance, the arithmetical continuum of positive ' real
numbers, the power of which is denoted by e. Another one is
the aggregate of all those order-types which (like those in II.
above) are the indices of aggregates of power a. The power of
this aggregate is denoted by "i. Accoxxiing to Cantor's theory
it is the transfinitc cardinal number next superior to a, which for
the sake of uniformity is also denoted by "o« It has been con-
jectured that "i*-c, but this has neither been verified nor
disproved. The discussion of the aleph-numbers is still in a
controversial stage (November 1007) and the points in debate
cannot be entered upon here.
33. Transfinite numbers, both ordinal and cardinal, may
be combined by operations which are so far analogous to those
of ordinary arithmetic that it is convenient to denote them by
the same symbols. But the laws of operation are not entirely
the same; for instance, xa and ai have different meanings:
the first has been explained, the second is the index of Uie
scheme {oibi | otbt I otb» | . . . | Onbm | . . . ) or any similar
arrangement. Again if fi is any positive integer, iia"a*Ba.
It should also be observed that according to Cantor's principles
of construction every ordinal number is succeeded by a definite
next one; but that there are definite ordinal numbers {e.g.
»,»*) which have no ordinal immediately preceding them.
24. Theory of Numbers. — The theory of numbers is that
branch of matnematics which deals with the. properties of the
natural numbers. As Dirichlet observed long ago, the whole
of the subject would be coextensive with mathematical analysis
in general; but it is convem'ent to restrict it to certain fields
where the appropriateness <^ the above definition is fairly
obvious. Even so, the domain of the subject is becoming more
and more comprehensive, as the methods of analysis become
more systematic and more exact.
The first noteworthy classification of the natural numbers w into
those which are prime and those which are composite. A prime
number b one which b not exactly divisible by any number except
itatU and i ; all others are compoate. The number of primes b
infinite (Euct Elem. ix. 20), and consequently, if » b an assigned
number, however large, there b an infinite number (a) of pnmes
greater than n.
If m, n are any two numbers, and m>n, we can always find a
definite chain of positive integers (si. ri), (^, fa), &c, such that
«-3i»+n. f«-3*ri+ri, n^q^t+ru &c
with fi>ri>fi>ri . . .; the process by which they are calculated
will be called restduatum. Smce there is only a hnite number of
positive integers less than fi, the process must terminate with two
equalities of the form
n^'^qkn^+rk, n^^qk^ifk.
Hence we infei* successively that fk b a divisor of fM, rus.. . .fi.
and finally of m and n. Also ta b the greatest common factor of m,
n : because any common factor must divide ri, ft. and so on down to
r*: and the highest factor of rk is rk itself. It will be convenient to
write fk «"dv (m, n). If rA» i, die numbers m, n are said to be prime
to each other, or co-primes.
2$. The foregoine theorem of leriduation b of the greatest im-
portance; with the help of it we can prove three other fundamental
propositions, namely: —
(i) If m, fi are any two natural numbers, we can always find two
other natural numbm x, y such that
dv(M,i») «xm— yn.
(2) If M, n are prime f^ (nch other, and plaa prime factor of mn,
then p must be a fac^'^* . either m or ff.
(3) Every nun«* ' ''^ be uniquely expressed as a product of
prime factors.
Hence if tf^p^q^ . . . b the represe n tation of any number » as
the product of powers of different primes, the divisors of n are the
terms of the product
-t-^+P»+ . . . +/>i) (!+«+ ...+«*) (i+r+ . . . +rr) . . .
their number is (a+i) (fi-^i) (7+1) . . .; and their sum is
II(A^'— i) + II(p-l). This includes I and n among the divisors of A.
36. Tolie$Us. — By the totient of n, which is denoted, after Euler, by
^(n). we mean the number of integers prime to n, and not exceeding
IS. If II -^. the numbers not exceedmg Hand Ml prime to it are j
XIX. M»»
For example. i5-*Ci5)+^(5)+*(3)+^(i)-8+4+a+i.
37. Residues and congruences. — It will now be convenient to
include in the term " number " both zero and negative integers.
Two numbers o, 6 are said to be conrruent with respect to the modulus
m, when (a— 6) b divisible by m. Tnb b expressed by the notation
amb (mod m). which was invented by Gauss. The fundamental
theoiems relating to congruences are
If amh and cmd (mod m), then a^cmb^d, and abmcd.
If hamhbimod m) then amb (mod m/J), where ^*dv(A, m).
Thus the theory of congruences b very nearly, but not quite,
similar to that of algebraic equations. With respect to a given
modulus Iff the scale of relative integers may be dbtributed into m
classes, any two elements of each class being congruent with respect
to m. Among these will be ^(m) classes containing numbers prime to
ffi. By takinff any one number from each class we obtain a complete
system of residues to the modulus fii. Supposing (as we shall always
00) that fif b positive, the numbers o, i, a, . . . (iff— 1) form a
system of least positive residues; according as m b odd or even.
0,^1, ^a, ... ^k (m-i), or o.*i.^3, . . . ^\{m-2),\m form a
system of absolutely least residues.
38. The Theorems of Fermat and Wilson.— Let fi, fa, . . . n
where I>^(im), be a complete set of residues prime to the modulus
fff. Then if x b any number prime to iff, the residues xri. xri, . . . xrt
also form a complete set prime to m (ft 37). Conseouently
XTi-xtt . . . xTiBirira . . .fi, and dividing by fjfa . . . ri, which u
prime to the modulus, we infer that
xi(-)iBi(modflR).
which b the general statement of Fermat 's theorem. If m b a prime
P, it becomes x'^ibi (mod^).
For a prime modulus p there will be among the set x, 2x, 3x. • • •
(p—i)x just one and no more that b congruent to I : let this be
xy. IiyBix,wemusthavex*— i"(x— i)(x+i)BiO,andheiicexBi^i:
consequently the residues 3, 3, 4, ... (p— 3) can be arranged in
k (P—3) P^in (x, y) such that xyia I. Multiplying them all together,
we conclude that 3.34. . . .(p—2)mi and hence, since i.(p- 1) h - 1,
(^-i)IiB-i (modp).
which b Wilson's theorem. It may be generalized, like that of
Fermat. but the result b not very mteresting. If m b compmite
fm— i)I-f-i cannot be a multiple otm: because m will have a prime
factor p which b less than m, so that fm — i)!BiO (mod p). Hence
Wilson s theorem is invertible: but it does not supply any practical
test to decide whether a given number is prime.
39. Exponents, Primitive Roots, Indices. — Let p denote an odd
prime, and x any number prime to p. Among the powers
X, x*. x', . . . x*^ there b certainly one, namely x'^, which
iBi (mod p); let x« be the lowest power of x such that x*!*!. Then
e b said to be the exponent to which x apperuins (mod p): it b
always a factor of (p— i) and can only be i when xiai. The
residues x for which « - ^ — 1 are said to be primitive roots of p. They
always exist, their number u^(p—i), and they can be found by a
methodical, though tedious, process of exhaustion. If g b any one of
them, the complete set may be represented by f 1 (*f 1^* . • • &c.
where a, b, &c, are the numbers less than (p-i) and prime to it,
othc^ than I. Every number x which b pnme to p b congruent,
mod p, to ^, where t b one of the numbers 1,2,%,... (p—i) ; thb
aumher i \b calkd the ifidex (ff X to the base g. Indices are analogous
tok)garithms: thus
iod«(xy)Bind«x+ind«y. ind«(x^)BA ind^x (mod p—i).
Consequently tables of primitive roots and indices for different
primes are 01 great value for arithmetical purposes. Tacobi's Canon
Arithmeticus gives a primitive root, and a table of numbers and
indices for all primes less than looa
For moduli of the forms 2t, fF, 2p^ there b an analogous theory
(and also for 3 and 4) ; but lor a composite modulus of other forms
there are no primitive roots, and the nearest analogy b the representa-
tion of prime residues in the form a* fii' jf . , , , where d,0,y, . . .
are selected prime rendues, and X, y^ s, . . . are indices of restricted
range. For instance, all residues pnme to 48 can be exhibited in the
form 5* 7» 13", where x-o, i, 3, 3; y-o, 1; s-o, i; the total
number of distinct residues being 4.3.3 ■> 16 -^(48). as it should be.
30. Linear Congruences. — The congruence a'xmb' (mod m') has
-J solution unless dvfa', mO b a factor of b'. If this condition is
satisfied, we may replace the given congruence by the equivalent
one axmb (mod m), where a b prime to b as well as to iff. By residua-
tion (({ 24. 35) we can find integers h, h such that ah—mk^i, and
thence obtain xmbh (mod iff) as the complete solution of the s;iven
congruence. To the modulus m* there are m'lm incongruent solutions.
For example, 12x030 (mod 31 ) reduces to 3x^5 (mod 7) whence
xb6 (moo 7)b6, 13, so (mod si). "P**^ » • theory of simuluneous
U
f^y^
X^ V XTAA^AUAX
limar oongniences in any number of variabiM, fint developed with
pffcdskm by Smith. In any particular case, it w bat to replaoe as
many as possible of the siven congruences by an equivaJeot set
obtained by successively diminating the variables x, y, m^ . . .in
order. An important piroblem is to find a number which has given
residues with respect to a given set of roodulL When possible, the
solution is of the form xma (mod m), where m u the least common
multiple of the moduli. Supping that p b a prime, and that we
have a corresponding table of mdices, the solution of ax mb (m od P)
can be found by obsmring that ind xssind 6-ind ajmod ^i).
31. Quadraitc Residues. Law qf Redprpciiy.'^To an odd prime
modulus p, the numbers I, a, 9. ... (A-i)* are coAgruent to
i(p-i) resKlucs only, because (p-«7*«a^. Thus for P^%, we have
I, 4, 9, i6hi. 4* 4t I respectively. There are thertfore hiP-0
quadratic residues and }(^i) quadratic non-residues prime to p:
and there is a correq»nding division of incongrucnt classes of
intcyen with respect to ^. The product of two residues or of two non«
residues u a residue; that of a residue and a non-residue is a non-
residue; and uking any primitive root as base the index of any
number is even or odd according as the number is a re«due or a non-
residue. Gauss writes aRp, aSp to denote that a is a residue or non-
fcsidue of p respectively.
Given a table of indices, the solution of ai^» o(mod p) when possible,
b found from lind x^ind a (mod ^1), and the result may be
written in the form xm^r (rood p). But it b important to discuss
the congruence ^ma without assuming that we have a Uble of
indices. It b sufficient to consider the case :fimq (mod P), where q
b a positive prime less than p; and the question arises whether the
quadratic character of q with respect to ^ can be deduced from that of
p with respect to 0. The answer is containedin the following theorem,
which b called the law of quadratic reciprocity (for real positive odd
primes): if ^, o are each or one of them 01 the form aii+ii then
P,que each of them a residue, or each a non-residue of the other;
but if p, 9 are each of the form 4" +3. then according as p b a residue
or non-rnidue of 9 we have q a non-residue or a residue of p,
Lcgendre introduced a symbol fi~\ which denotes -f- 1 or -i ac-
cording as mRq or mNa (^ being a positive odd prime and m any
number prime to q); with its help we may express the law of re-
ciprocity in the form
Thb theorem was fint sUted by Legendre, who only partly
proved it: the first complete proof, by inductbn, was published by
Gauss, who also discovered five (or six) other more or less inde-
pendent proofs of it. Many others have since been invented.
There are two supplemenUry theorems rebting to -I and 2
respectively, which may be expressed in the form
(:jl) -(-„.<-... ^).<-,ji<^>
where p b any positive odd prime.
It follows from the definition that
(^^^)-(f)-(f)'(f)'-
and that (^)-(j), if fii-M'(mod9). As a simple application of
the law of reciprocity, let it be required to find the quadratic char^
acter of 11 with respect to 1907. We have
because 6N11. Hence 1 1R1907.
Legendre's symbol was extended by Jacobi in the following
manner. Let P be any positive odd number, and let p, p\ p", Ac. bq
its (equal or unequal) prime factors, so that P^PP'p . . . Then
if Q is any number prime to P, we have a generalised symbol defined
Thb symbol obeys the law that, if Q b odd and positive,
with the supplementary laws
(^)-(-i)«'->. (I) -(-.)»<^'>.
It b found convenient to add the conventions that
when Qand P are both odd; and that the value of the symbol b o
when P, 12 are not co-primes.
in order that the congruence x*aia (mod «) nay h«ve a aofatiod
it b necessary and sufficient that a be a rendue of each distinct priuae
factor of M If these conditions are all satisfied, and m »a *^ »y. . ..
where p, c, &&• are the distinct odd prime (acton of m, beiag f u all.
the number of incongnient solutions of the ^ven coagrwc
s', 3*^ or 2*^, acoMdiiigas s<3. s«>a,orc>are8pectivdy.
The
_ . - . lingas «■
actual solutions are best found by a i
be observed that ^j *l b a neoesnry but not a sufficient oondickn
for the possibility of the consnience.
3a. Quadratie forms.— It will be observed that the sohitioA d the
linear congruence axmb (mod m) leads to all the repreaentatiooa of ft
in the form ax-^-my, where x, y are integers. Many of the carliot
resMrches in the theory of numbers deal with particular cases of the
^ it b required to find all the
tsfy the equation ojfi+hxj-^
-, , J that every positive '
the form 411+1 is uniquely expressible as the sum of two
There b a corresponding; arithmetical theory for forms of aov degne
and any number of variables; only those 01 linear foma and binary
quadratics are in any sense complete, as the difficulty of the
increases very rapidly with the increase of the degree of I
considered or of the number of variables contained in it.
The form aa>-|-^+«/ wiU be denoted by (a. b. c ) (x, y)* or nuir
simply by (a, ft, c ) when there b no need 01 specifying the variabfek
If Abthegrntestcommon factor ofa.6,c we may write fa, fr, c)
k{a\ V, O where (a*, y, O is a primiim form, that is, one lor whii
dv (a', y, O * I- The other form b then said to be derived fro
given four numboa m, o. ft, c. it b required to had all the
_ a Xg^ y (if there be any) whieh satisfy the equation ax'+aiX7+
e^ « M. r ermat, for instance, discovered that every positive prime of
dv U\ V,
(a'.V,0
and to have a divisor h. For the present we diaB <
Writing ~
frooi
ourselves only with primitive forms. Writing D^Mnaac, the
invariant D is called the determinant <d (a,ft.c}, and there ts a firu
classification of forms into definite forms for \iriiich D b negative^ and
fnd^ite forms for which D IS pOMtive. Thecase D*oorapoaidTe
square b rejected, because m that case theiorm breaks op anio the
product of two linear factors. It will be observed that Dho, 1 (mod
a) acoording as 6 b even or odd : uid that if i^ b anjr odd aquare
factor of D there will be forms of (Mtermiiunt D and divisor 4.
If we wnte ^mmx+fiy, /*TX+<y, we have identically
(a, 6, OC**. /)•-(«'. *'.0(«.y>»
V'2aMfi+b{^+fiy)+2ey9
€'^a(f+b»+P
Hence also
D'-ft^4oV-(-«-/ly)«(ftH«)-(s«-^)»IX
Supposine that a, A y. < aiv integers such that ai^fiy^u, a Bumbv
dinerent from aero, (a, ft, c) b said to be trauformed into (•', ^. O by
the substitution (^^Q of the nth order. If a'-i, the two ioras
are said to be soMtaa^al, and the equivalence b said to be pfptr or
improper according as n*"l or n»— i. In the case of equivalence,
not only are x', ir integers wherever x, y are so, but conversely.
hence every number represenuble by (a, ft, c) b representable by
(a', ft', c*) and conversely. For the present we shall deal with proper
equivalence only and write f'^f to indicate that the forms f,f aov
property equivalent. Equivalent forms have the same dmaor. A
complete set of equivalent forms is said to form a doss; risin 1 of the
samedivisor are said to form an order, and of these the moat i n yor ta ni
is thepnactte/ order, which consbts of the primitive rlnsarii It k a
fundamental theorem that for a given determinant the nnmber d
classes b finite; thb b proved by showing that every dasa mntf
contain one at least of a ceruin finite number of soodled isrfauJ
forms, which can be found by definite rules of calculation.
33. Method of Reduction.— Tha differs according as D as puuu wr
or amative, and will require some preliminary lemmas. Snppoae
that any complex quantity s-x+yt is r e pr e sented in the usoaJ way
by a point (x. y) referred to rcctangubr axes. Then by ploctaay
off all the poinu corresponding to («s+/I) / (TS+f). we obtaia
a complete set of property equivalent points. These all be
on the same side of the axis of x, and there b p re usely cot ol
them and no more which satisfies the conditions: Q.) tlat it
is not outside the area which b bounded tv the lines ax« *i ; (a.)
that it b not inside the circle x*+>>«i: (iu.) that It b not on the
line 3x«i, or on the arcs ol the circle x>+/«i intercepted t>
2x>B I and x>a Thb point will be called the reduced point equiva-
lent to M. In the positive half-pbne (y>o) the aggreaate of ^
reduced points occupies the interior and half the boundary of 2 =
area which will be called the /aadatMcala/ trianile, bccanae the aieas
equivalent to it, and finite, are all triangles bounded by dicnlararc^
and having angles H. h^* o and the fundamental tnanale may 1y
considered as a i^>cdal case when one vertex goes to iannity. T> :
aggregate of equivalent triangles forms a kind of mosaic which t' .:>
up the whole of the positive half-plane. It wiU be ^
denote the fundamenul triangle Cwith its half-boundary, for whkrh
x< o) by V : for a reason which will appear bter. the set of equivalrBt
triangles will be said to make up the modniae dissecHam of the posiui.^
half-plane.
UaOo* -tf',o<V^'.
Case* ^.) and Gu.) only occur when the representative point is on the
boundaiy of V. A form whose repretenutive point is reduced b
said to be a reduced form. It follows from the geometrical theory
that every form is equivalent to a reduced form, and that there are
as many distinct classes ofpositive forms rA ddLLTminant— A as
there are reduced forms. The total number of reiiijced forms is
limited, because in case (i.) wehavcz^ -^flc— j!j'>^i^, eo that i" <V J A,
while 4a'<4ac< A+6*<tA; in case (li.} A-^4,ac^a^>^\ or else
a-fr «£•> V |A; in case (iii.) Z^ "40'— ^>^^''p4a* = A+fi'^< I ^ ,or else
a«6«£>V JA. With the help of these inL-(iu:in£ie9 a complete set
of reduced forms can be found by trial, and thv numbLT lA classes
determined. The latter cannot exceed i A w it Is i n ge iu;r jI much less.
With an indefinite form (o, 6, c) we may abi^ociiilt the reprise atadve
drck
which ctits the iixis of r la two rfjJ poIntB. The form b said to be
reduced if thb circle cuts V; thecoodition far dibba(aA)6+c)<o,
which can beexprcaacd ifi the form ja^ + ^J =^ &}' <D. and it b hence
clear that the absolute \iituH ol a, b^ ^nd Lh'.reiore of e, are limited.
As before, then- are a ILnuted number of rr't.luoed forms, but they
are not all non-efiuhatciit. In is-ct they Drr.Lcije themselves, accord*
ing to a law which 'a not very utiJfic iilt ta disc 1:1 v er, in cycles or periods,
each of which b ;^^Aocijte<rJ with a particular class. The main result
18 the same as before; that the nucnbcr of ctasses b finite, and that
for each class we can find a representative form by a finite process of
calculation.
314. Problem of RepresentaUon, — It b required to find out whether
a given number m* can be represented by the given form (a', 6', c').
One condition b clearly that the divisor of the form must be a factor
of m'. Suppose thb b the case: and let m, (a, 6>£) be the quotients
of m' and (a', ^'t cO be the divisor in question. Then we have now
to discover whether m can be represented by the primitive form
(a, b, c). First of all we will consider proper representations
«- (0,6, «)(«.>)•
where a, 7 are co-primes. Determineintegers/9,<suchthata8— /hr^i,
and apply to (a, 6, c) the substitutioD (]^ |j ; the new form will be
'm, », /)» where
Consequently ti'»D (mod 4m}, and D must be a quadratic residue
of m. Unless thb condition is satisfied, there b no proper repre-
sentation of m by any form of determinant D. Suppose, however,
that )^»D (moo 4m) is soluble and that fii, fit, &c. are its roots.
Taidnganyooeof these, say fii, we can find out whether (m, nt, U) and
(a, b, c) are equivalent; if they are, there b a substitution (^^)
which converts the latter into the former, and then m^atfl+bay-i-ci'.
As to derived representations, if fii»(a, 6, c) (to, ty)\ then m must
have the square factor fi, and m/fi^ia, b, c) (x, y)'; hence every-
thing may be made to depend on proper representation by primitive
forms.
3^. Automorplks. Tht PeOian Equation. — ^A primitive form
(a, 6. £) is, by definition, equivalent to itself; but it may be so in
more ways than one. In order that (a, b, c) may be transformed into
itself by the substitiition ^*' ^ , it b necessary and sufficient that
\y,i)'\ au. kit'bu))
where (T, «) is an integral solution of
^-Di^-4.
If D is negative and — D>4, the only solutions are <« ^3, u^o;
D- -3 give* (^2. O), C^i, ^1); D--4cives (^2,0), (o, ^i).
On the other hand, if D>o the number of solutions b infinite, and if
(/i, «i) b the solution for which I, u have their least positive values,
all the other positive solutions may be found from
fe±&iD.(i±£i£)V».J.4...).
The substitutions by which (a, b, c) b transformed into itself are called
its atHomorpks. In the case when D«o (mod 4) we have i«3T,
--2U, D»4N, and (T. U) any solution of
T«-NU«-i.
Thb b usually called the PelUan equation, though it should properly
be associated with Fermat. who fint perceived lU importance. The
b improperiy equivalent to itself. A form improperly equivalent to
itself b said to be ambitr
36. Charaders of a form or doss, (knera, — Let (a, b, c) be any
pnmitive form; we have seen above (f 33) that if «, /9, % i are any
mtegers
4(ao«+6«T+c»«)(<i^+i^+<*) -y>-(a«-^)«D
where V *- 3a«^+6(ai+^) +3nr<. Now the expressions in brackets
on the left hand may denote any two numbers m, n representable
by the form (a, 6, c) ; the formula shows that Amn is a residue of D,
and hence ma b a residue of every odd prime factor of D, and if 6 b
any such factor the symbob {^ and ^) will have the same value.
Putting (a, &, c) */, thb common value b denoted by (4) and called
a quadratic character (or simply character) of / with respect to p.
Since a b represenuble by/ (x«i. y «o) the value l^j b the same as
{?j For exampfe, H D « — 140, the scheme of characters for tlie
six reduced primitive forms, and thereftxe for the classes they
represent, b
I
i£i22
,5.0,7) ~
t.^2. 12)
In certain cases there are supplementary characters of the type
^-y j and \jj . and the characten [^ are discriminated according
as an odd or even power of ^ b conuined in D; but in every case
there arc certain combinations of characters (in number one-half of
all possible combinations) which form the total characters of actually
exbting classes. Classes which have the same toul character are
said to belong to the same eenus. Each genus of the same order
contains the same number of classes.
For any determinant D we have a principal primitive class for
which all the characters are + ; this b represented by the principal
form (1, o,— «) or (1, 1,— «) according as D is of the form ah or 4»-t-i.
The corresponding genus is called the principal genus. Thus, when
D - — 140, it appears from the tabic above that in the primitive
order there are two genera, each containing three classes; and the
non-cxUtent total characters are 4- — and — -1-.
17. Com^xt/um.— Considering X, Y as given llneo-linear functions
of (X, y), (r, /) defined by the equations
Y '^x'+qixy+q^y+qtyy
we may have identically, in x, y, x', /,
(A, B,C) (X, Y)«-(a,6,0 (x,y)«X(a'.ft',cO (x*,/)*
and, thb being so, the form (A, B, C) is said to be compounded of
the two forms (a, b, e), (o', b\ c*), the order of composition being
indifferent. In order that two forms may admit of composition into
a third, it b necessary and sufficient that their determinants be in the
ratio of two squares. The most important case b that of two
primitive forms ^, x of the same determinant; these can be com-
pounded into a form denoted by^x or x^ which b also primitive and
of the same determinant as ^ or x* If A, B, C are the classes to which
♦• x> ♦x respectively belong, then any form of A compounded with
any form of B gives rise to a form belonginz to C. For thb reason we
wnte C«AB>BA, and speak of the multiplication or composition
of classes. The principal class b usually denoted by 1, because when
coi led with any other class A it gives thb same class A.
d number of primitive classes being finite, h, say, the series
&c, must be recurring, and there will be a least exponent
t A« « I. This exponent b a factor of A, so that every class
^* I. Composition is associative as well as commutative,
> say. (AB)CbA(BC); hence the symbob Ai. As.. ..A*
for rh. fi different classes define an Abelbn group (see Groups) of
ordiF h, which b represenuble by one or more basendasaes
Bi, El:. . . B< in such a way that each class A b enumerated once
aniL . .ni , Ljnce by putting
A-Bi»Ba»...B<* (x£.m,y£n,...B£p)
with ma... f- A, and B,--B,»-» ...-Bi'-i. Moreovcr.the bases
may be so chosen that m b a multiple of n, n of the next correspond-
ing index, and so on. The same thing may be said with r^aid
A,
e&
sat
thti
854
NUMBER
to the symboU for the clanei oont^ned in the prindptl genus,
because two forms of that ^nus compound into one ol the same
kind. If this latter group is cyclical, that is, if all the daises of
the principal genus can be represented in the form i. A, A*,. . .A*~S
the determinant D b said to he retvlar; if not, the determinant is
irregular. It has been proved that certain specified classes of
determinants are always irregular; but no complete criterion has
been found, other than working out the whole set of primitive classes,
and determining the group of the orincipal genus, for deciding
whether a given determinant is irregular or not.
If A, B are any two classes, the toul character of AB is found bv
compounding the characters of A and B. In particular, the class A*,
which is called the duplicate of A, always belongs to the principal
genus. Gauss proved, conversely, that every class in the principal
genus may be expressed as the duplicate of a class. An ambiguous
class satiuies A'* i, that is, its duplicate u the principal class; and
the converse of thu is true. Hence if Bi, Bs,. . .B< are the base-
classes for the whole composition-group, and A^Bi'Bif. ..B/
(as above) A' « i , if 2x *o or m, ay *o or «, &c. ; hence the number
of ambiguous classes is 7*, As an example, when D « — 1460, there
are four ambiguous classes, represented by
(1, o, 365), (2, 2, 183), (5, 0, 73). («o, 10, 39);
hence the composition-group must be dibadc, and in fact, if we put
Bi. Bt for the classes represented by (11, 6, 3d) and (a, 2, 183), we
have Bi** » Bi* » i and the 20 primitive classes are given by
B(*Bi»(x^ 10, v^ 2). In thu case the determinant is regular and
the classes in the principal genus are i, Bi*, Bi*, Bi*, Bi*.
38. On account of its historical interest, we may briefly considet
the form x'-hy't for which D > —4. If ^ is an odd prime 01 the for m
4»-l-i, the congruence m*flp— 4(mod 4P) is soluble (1 31) ; let one of
its roots be m, and m*-f 4 * 4/p. Then (^, m, /) is of determinant —4,
and, since there is only one primitive class for this determinant, we
must have (p, m, l)^{i, o, i). By known rules we can actually find
a substitution f '* ?j which converts the first form into the second ;
this being so, (^rf) will transform the second into the firrt, and we
shall have p • T'-f-i'i a representation of p as the sum of two squares.
This is unique, except that we may put p ■• ( ATr)«-f.( a*)'. We also
have a > 1*4-1' while no prime 4'*+3 admits of such a representation.
The theory of composition for this determinant is expressed by
the identity {x*+^) (x^+/«)-(«c'-y/)*+(xy'*yx')«: and by re-
peated application of this, and the previous theorem, we can show
that if N >a*p^Q'. . ., where p, a,. . . are odd primes of the form
4n-f-l. we can find solutions ot N"x*-l->'. and indeed distinct
solutions. For instance 65-i«-|-8«-4«-f-7«, and conversely two
distinct representations N -x»-|-y" ■■ «•-!-»* lead to the conclusion that
N is composite. This is a simple example of the application of the
theory of forms to the difficult problem of deciding whether a given
large number u prime or composite; an application first indicated by
Gauss, thoueh, in the present simple case, probably known to Fermat.
39. Numoer of classes. Class-number Relations. — It appears from
Gauss's posthumous papers that he solved the very difficult problem
of finding a formula for A(D), the number of proper!/ primitive classes
for the determinant D. The first published solution, however, was
that of P. G. L. Dirichlet ; it depends on the consideration of series
of the form 2(ax*+6xy-{-cy»)"^~* where « b a positive quantity,
ultimately made very smsdl. L. Kronecker has shown the connexion
of Dirichlet's results with the theory of elliptic functions, and ob-
tained more comprehensive formulae by taking (a, h, c) as the
standard type of a quadratic form, whereas Gauss, Ditichlet, and
most of their successors, took (a, afr, c) as the standard, calling
(6*— oc) its determinant. As a sample of the kind of formulae that
are obtained, let p be a prime of the form 411+3: then
»(-4p) -So-Z/J, A(4P) log (/+«VP) -log n (tan|j)
where in the first formula Za means the sum of all quadratic reudues
of p contained in the scries I, a. 3.. . .i(p*i) and Zfi b the sum
of the remaining non-residues; while in the second formula (f. u) is
the least pobitive solution of fi—pu*"!, and the product extends to
all values of 6 in the set i, 3, s,. . .(4j^ — 1) of which ^ b a non-
residue. The remarkable fact will be noticed that the second formula
gives a solution of the Pcllian equation in a trigonometrical form.
Kronecker was the first to discover, in connexion with the complex
multiplication of elliptic functions, the umplest instances of a very
curious group of arithmetical formulae involving sums of class-
numbers and other arithmetical functions; the theory of these re-
lations has been greatly extended by A. Hurwitz. The simplest of
all these theorems may be stated as follows. Let H (A) represent the
number of classes for the determinant —A, with the convention that
\ and not i is to be reckoned for each class containing a reduced form
of the type (a. o, a) and \ for each class containing a reduced form
(a, a, a) ; then if n is any positive integer,
Z H(4»-0 -♦(»)+♦(») (-2Vii^«^aV*i)
where ^{n) means the sum of the divisors of », and ^{n) means the
excess of the sum of those divisors of n which are greater than V »
over the sum of those divisors which are less than Vn. Tliefanmila
U obtained by calculating in two different ways the nnmber of
redLLCtfd vilucs of s which satisfy the modular equation J(«s) ~^J(x).
whrre J(i) b the absolute invanant which, for the elliptic fuactioa
Vi^'. p. Ci) ** ft' -I- (Ci'— 37Ca'), and s b the ratio of any two primitive
periods taken so that the real part of iz is negative (see bdow. 1 68).
It ahauld be added that there is a scries of scattered papers by
J. Liuuvillc, which implicitly contain Kronocker's daM-nambcr
rrb^ions, obtuned by a purely arithmetical process without any use
of transcendents.
40. Bilinear Forms. — ^A bilinear form means an expression of the
type Za,*Xiyi ((-l. a,...ffi; A«l, a,...»): the most importaot
case b when »»», and only thb will be considered here. Tbe
invariants of a form are its determinant (a..] and the clcn ae nt ary
factors thereof. Two bilinear forms are equivalent when each can
be transformed into the other by linear integral substitntiotts
x'»Zax, y»Z0y. Every bilinear form b equivalent to a rtdmtd
form "LtiXiyt^ and r « n, unless \a»^ *o. In order that two forms may
be equivalent it b necessary and sufficient -that their L
should be the same. Moreover, if o-d and c»d^ and if the invariaats
of the forms a-|-Xc, b-\-\d are the same for all values of X, wre shaQ
have a-t-XC'«6-f-V<f, and the transformation of <xie form to the odier
may be effected by a substitution which does not involve X. Tbe
theory of bilinear lorms practically includes that of quadratic forms,
if we suppose xu Ji to be cogrvdient variables. Krooecker has de-
veloped tlie case when n^a, and deduced various class-relatioas for
quadratic forms <n a manner resemblins that of LiouviHe. So far
as the bilinear forms are concerned, the main result b that the
number of classes for the positive determinant auOa^OtiSB "A b
ia(^(A)-(-4'(A)|-|-a<, where c b i or o according as A b or b not a
square, and the symbob ^, ^ have the meaning previously assigiicd
to them (I 39).
41. Hithtr Quadratic Forms.'—Tb^ alg^raic theory of quadratics
b so complete that conuderable advance has been made in the mock
more complkated arithmetuial theory. Amone the most importaia
results relating to the general case of n variables are the prcmf that
the class-number is finite; the enumeration of the anthnetical
invariants of a form; cbssification according to orders and genera,
and proof that TCnera with specified characters exist ; also tlie de^
termination of all the rational transformations of a giwn form into
itself. In connexion with a definite form there b tbe tmportaitt
conception of its weight', this is defined as the reciprocal of the
number of its proper automorphs. Ec|uivalent forms are of the same
weight; thb is defined to be the weight of their daas. The wci^hr
of a genus or order is the sum of the weights of the classes contained
in it; and expressions for the weight of a given genus have artu^y
been obtainea. For binary forms the sum of the wct^ts of alt the
genera coincides with the expression denoted by HU) in § ja. The
complete discussion of a form requires the consideration of (11 — 3)
assodated quadratics; one of these is the contravariant of tbe giinea
form, each of the others contains more than n variables. For cerxasa
Quaternary and senary classes there are formulae analogous to the
class-reUtions for binary forms referred to in ( 39 (see Smith. Prmu
R.S. xvi., or Collected Papers, i. 510).
Among the most interesting special applications of tbe theory aie
certain propositions relating to the representation of numbers as
the sum of squares. I n order that a number may be expressible as tbe
sum of two squares it b necessary and sufficient for it to be of the
form PQ*, where P has no square factor and no prime factor of the
form 4n-f 3. A number is expresrible as the sum of three aouaxes if.
and only if, it is of the form m*i« with fi3 1, ^a ^3 (mod 8) ; wbes
m>-i and fiai3 (mod 8), all the squares arc odd, and hence icXkows
Fcrmat's theorem that evei^ number can be expressed as the sua
of three triangular numbers (one or two of which may be o). Anocfaer
famous theorem of Fermat's b that every number can be ean r eas e d
as the sum of four squares: thb was first proved by lacobi, who also
proved that the number of solutions of n -x«-|-y-f-s*-f ^ b 8*(»). rf
ff b odd, while if » b even it b a4 times the sura of the odd factors of
n. Explicit and finite, though more complicated, formulae have beea
obtained for the number olrepresentations of n as the sum of fivr.
six, seven and eight squares respectively. As an example of ihr
outstanding difficulties of this part of the subject may be mentioaed
the problem of finding all the integral (not merely rational) muio
morphs of a given form /. When / b temar>'. C. Hermite has sbows
that the solution depends on finding all the integral solutioos d
F(x, y, s) -^P « I , where F b the contravariant of /.
Thanks to the researches of Gauss, Eisenstetn, Smith, Herue^
and others, the theory of ternary quadratics b much less incompietr
than that of quadratics with four or more variables. Thus mcthodi
of reduction nave been found both for definite aixi for indeJb^
forms; so that it would be possible to draw up a table of tcprv-
sentative forms, if the result were worth the labour. One spedaSr
important theorem is the solution of ax*-f^y'-)-c^«o: thb b ahmn
possible if —be, —ca, —ab are quadratic residues of a, b, c respccti\TK.
and a formula can then be obtained which furnishes all the solutiosa.
4a. Complex Numbers. — One of Gauss's most Important and ixt-
reaching contributions to arithmetic was hb introductioa of comijks
inteem a+hi, where a, ban ordinary integeiB, and, as usual. i> <>i — i .
In this theory there are four units ^i, ^i; the numbers t*(o+6i)
are said to be associated', a— 6i is the conjugate of a+W and we
write N(o«*iW)-a"+6', the norm of a+6i, lU conjugate, and asso-
ciates. The most fundamental proposition in the theory is that the
process of lesiduation (( 24) is applicable; namely, if m, n are any
two complex integers and N(m)> N(«), we can always find integers
q, r such that m^qn+r with N(r)^4N(H). This may be pnyved
analytically, but is obvious if we mark complex int^ers by points
in a plane. Hence immediately follow propoeitlonb about resolutions
into pdme factors, greatest common measure, &c., analogous to
thofie in the ordinary theory; it will only be necessary to uidicate
special points of difference.
We have a^ — i(i+<)'i so that 2 is associated with a square* a
real prime of the form 4»+3 is still a piime, but one of the form
4»+i breaks up into two conjugate prime factors, for example.
5 - (i —30(1 +3«) An tntwer is even, semi-even, or odd accordmg
as it u divisible by (i -hO', (i -ft) or is prime to (i +»')> Among four
associated odd integers there b one and only one whicha i (mod 2+
at); this is said to be primary; the conjugate of a primary
number is primary, and the product of any number of primaries is
primary. The conditions that a-f M may be primary are bmo (mod
2} a+o— mo (mod 4). Every complex integer can be uniquely
expressed in the form «"*(i +t)"a«MT ..., where o^if><4, and
a,b,c,,,. are primary primes.
Vi^th respect to a complex modulus m, all complex integers may
be distributed into N(m) incongruous classes. If m ^h{a-^oi) where
a, b are co-primes, we may take as representatives of these classes
the residues x+y» where x-o, I, 2,...|(o*-f-6*)A— 1|; y-o, 1, 2,
...(A— i). Thus when 6-0 we may take x-o, i, 2,...(A— i);
y-o, I, 2,. . .(A— i), giving the A* residues of the real number «;
while if a-k-bi is orime, 1, 2, 3,...(a'-f^— 1) form a complete
set of residues.
The number of residues of m that are prime to m u given by
Integral functions of 33rd roots of unity, and let q be either of the
roots. If we define aq-f^ to be an integer, when a, b are natural
numbers, the product oif any number of such integers is uniquely
expres«ble in the form Iti+m. Conversely evenr integer can be
expressed as the product of a finite number 01 indecomposable
integers a+bii, that b, integers which cannot be further resold into
factors of the same type. But this resolution is not necessarily
unique: for insUnce 6-2.3- -i|(i|-l-i), *h«re ^t 3t n, i|+i are all
indecomposable and essentially distinct. To see the way in which
Kummer surmounted the difficulty consider the congnienoe
i^-\-u+6mo(jDodp)
where p is any prime, except 23. If —2iRp this has two distinct
roots If I, Hi; and we say that as+fr is divisible by the ideal prime
factor of p corresponding to mi, if aui-^bmo (mod p). For instance,
if p -2 we may put Mi-o, ih-x and there will be two ideal factors
of 2, say pi and Pt such that aiy-|-6Bio (mod pi) if bmo (mod 2) and
ait-^-bmo (mod Pt) if a-|-6ao (mod 2). If both these conirruences are
satisfied, am bmo (mod 2) and an+b is divisible by 2 in the ordinary
sense. Moreover {aii+b)(c^+d)''(bc-^ad-ac)ii+(bd-6ac) and if
♦(m)-N(m)n(i-j5r|^)
where the product extends to all prime factors of m. As an analogue
to Fermat s theorem we have, for any integer prime to the modulus,
x#<->« i(mod mX*N(^>-»e 1 (mod p)
according as m w composite or prime. There are ^(N(p) — 1|
primitive roots of the prime P; a primitive root in the real theory for
a real prime 411-1-1 is also a primitive root in the new theory for each
prime factor of (^n+i), but if P— 4»+3 be a prime its primitive
roots are necessarily comi^ex.
43- If Pf i <ue any two odd primes, we shall define the symbols
(^j^andr^j by the congruences
p*|N(fl>-,}B ^) ^, pl{myi]m (I) /mod «),
it being undeiitood that the symbols stand for absolutely least
residues. It follows tnat (J) — i or — i according as p u a quadratic
residue of 2 or not; and that(M -i only if p is a biquadratic
residue of q. If p, q are primary primes, we have two laws of
reciprocity, expressed by the equations
G^).-®.. C^).(J).-<-)«"«'>-'"'«'"'-
To these must be added the supplementary formulae
^).-(-o«»"«"-''.(^).-(-)«i'^'-i.
a-{-bi being a primary odd prime. In words, the law of biquadratic
reciprocity for two primary odd primes majrbe expressed by saying
that the biquadratic characters of each prime with respect to the
other are identical, unless ^-9^3 4-21 (mod 4). in which case they
are opposite. The law of biquadratic reciprocity was discovered by
Gauss, who does not seem, however, to have obtained a complete
proof of it. The first published proof is that of Eisenstcin, which is
very beautiful and simple, but involves the theory of lemniscate
functions. A prLK>f on the lines indicated in Gauss's posthumous
papers has been developed by Busche; this probably admits of
simplification. Other demonstrations, for instance Jacobi's, depend
on cydotomy (see below).
44. Algebraic Numbers. — ^The first extension of Gauss's complex
theory was made by E. E. Kummer, who considered complex
numbers represented by rational integral functions of any roots of
unity, thus including the ordinary theory and Gauss's as special
cases. He was soon faced by the difficulty that, in some cases, the
law that an integer can be uniquely expressed as the product of prime
factors appeared to break down. To see how this happens take the
equation ^+9+6*0. the ruou of which are expressible as rational
Pi. Hence we may properly speak of pi and p» as prime divisors.
Similarly the congruence t^+K+dso (mod 3) defines two kieal
prime factors of 3, and 09+6 is divisible by one or the other of these
according as 6ko (mod 3) or 2a+6ao (mod 3); we will call these
prime factors pi, p4. wtt -• • - • • - • •
factors)
rime factors pt, p^ Vhth this notation we have (negleaing unit
-PiP». 3-P»P«. 9-^P«. i+i|-piP4.
Real primes of which —23 is a non-quadratic residue are also primes
in the field (17); and the prime factors of any number air +6, as well
as the degree of their multiplicity, may be found by factorizing
(6o«— o6-l-ft» ), the norm of {aii+b). Finally every integer divisible
by Pi b expressible in the form ^ 2m A(i-|-i|)fi where m,ff are natural
numbers (or zero) ; it b convenient to denote thb fact by writing
pi -[2, i-Hi|l. and calling the aggregate 2m-f-(i+n)ii a compound
modulus witn the base 2, 1 -fs. Thb generalized idea of a modulus
is very important and far-reaching; an aggregate b a modulus when,
if a, fi are any two of its elements, a+fi and a— /3 also belong to it.
For arithmetical purposes those moduli are most useful which can be
put into the form [au ai,...a«] which means the aggregate of all the
quantities Xiaj-l-Xiai-i-...+x«a« obuined by assigmng to (xi a.—x,),
independently, the values Oi^l, ^2, &c. Compound moduli may,
be multiplied together, or raised to powers, by rules which will be
plain from the following example. We have
Pd»-r4.2(i+n). (i+^)*]-U.a+2v.-5+i»l-[4. ",-5+i»l
^ -l4.-5+'»I-[4.3-Hil
hence
Pi' -Pi«.pi-l4. 3-HlX[2. 1 -HI -[8. 4+41?. 6+2,. 3+4i»-H»I
-18,4+4^.6-1-2,, -3+3?l-(i»-Oli»+2.i»-6,3l-(i»-i)[l,^I.
Hence every integer diviuble by pi' b divisible by the actual integer
(s— I) and conversely; so that in a certain sense we may regard pi
as a cube root. Similarly the cube of any other ideal prime is of the
form (ai}-|-6)[i, ti\. According to a prinaple which will be explained
further on, all primes here considered may be arranged in three
classes; one is that of the real primes, the others each contain ideal
primes only. As we shall see presently all these results are intimately
connected with the fact that for the determinant —23 there are three
primitive classes, represented by (1, 1, 6) (2, i, 3), (2, — i, 3) re-
spectively.
45. Kummer's definition of ideal primes sufficed for his particular
purpose, and completely restored the validity of the fundamental
theorems about factors and divisibility. His complex integers were
more general than any previously considered and suggested a defini-
tion oT an algebraic integer in general, which is as follows : if ai,at,..Mn
are ordinary integers (t.e. elements of N, { 7), and satisfies an
equation of the form
^+o,«^+(M^-«-l- . . . +a^iB'{-an -o,
is said to be an algebraic integer. We may suppose this equation
irreducible; is then said to be of the fith order. The n roots
6, B', $',.. .0("-^> are all different, and are said to be conjugate.
If the equation began with a^ instead c/L 9*,0 would still be an
algebraic number; every algebraic number can be put into the form
Bfm, where m b a natural number and 6 an algebraic integer.
Associated with 9 we have Afield (or corpus) Q - R(9) consisting of
all rational functions of 9 with real rational coefficients; and in like
manner we have the conjugate fields O' - R(Of &c. The aggregate
of integers contained in Q is denoted by 0.
Every element of can be put into the form
M-«B-f-Clfl+. . . +C»_|tf'^
where c; Ci,...c»_i are real and rational. If these coefficients are
all integral, w is an integer; but the converse is not necessarily true.
It is possible, however, to find a set of integers wi, wi...Mm belong-
ing to Q, such that every integer in Q can be uniquely expressed in
the form
«-il|Wl+AlW|-f- . . . -f AiiHto
u a iDoauius vi 44/i ana we iwy wnie o^iwi. wi. . . . u»i. naving
found one base, we can construct any ^number of equivalent bases
t^ means of equations such as wt' ■ZciiM', where the catbnal integral
ooefiicients c^ are such that the detemunant (cmJ • * i.
If we write
VA-
Aba rational integer called the discriminant of the field. Its value
b the same whatever base b chosen.
If a is any integer in 0, the product of a and its conjugates is a
rational integer called the norm of «, and written N (a). By consider-
ing the equation satisfied by a we see that N(a) »aai where ^ b an
integer in O. It follows from the defijution that if a, fi are any two
integers in O, then N(a^) »N(a)N(/>); and that for an ordinary real
integer m, we have N (in) »m*.
46. Ideals.— The extension of Kummer's results to algebraic
numbers in general was independently made by J. W. R. Dcdckind
and Kronecker; their methods differ mainly in matters of notation
and machinery, each having special advanuges of its own for
particubr purfnaes. Dedekind's method b based upon the notion
of an ideal, which is defined by the fdlowing properties^—
(i.) An ideal m b an aggregate of integers m O.
(ii.) This aggregate isa modulus; that is to say, if/tiM' are any two
elements of ni(the same or different) m-m' is contained in m. Hence
also m contains a zero clement, and ii+§i* b an element of m.
(iii.) If /I is any element of m, and w any element of 0, then tm b
an clement of m. Jt is this property that makes the notion of an
ideal more specific than that of a modulus.
It b clear that ideals exist; for instance, itsdf b an ideal.
Agciin, all integers in Q which are divisible by a given integer a (in 0)
form an ideal; thb b called a principal tdaUt and b denoted by
oa. Every ideal can be represented by a base (§( 44, 45), so that
we may write m "[in, it§, . . . m«]. meaning that evciy element of m
can be uniquely expressed in the form Z/ttm, where A< is a rational
integer. In other words, every ideal has a base (and therefore, of
course, an infinite number of bases). If a, b are any two ideals, and
if we form the agoregate of all products efi obtained by multiplying
each element of the first ideal by each element of the second, then
this aggregate, together with all sums of such products, b an kieal
which IS called the product of a and h and written ab or bo. In
particular oa »a, 0**0 ,oa . ofi»oa0. This law of multipUcation is
associative as well as commutative. It is clear that every element
of ab is contained in a : it can be proved that, conversely, if every
element of c is contained in a, there exists an ideal b such that ab >c.
In particular, if a is any element of a, there is an ideal a' such that
oa "aa'. A prime ideal b one which has no divisors except itself
and 0. It is a fundamental theorem that every ideal can be resolved
into the product of a finite number of f»rime ideals, and that this
resolution is unique. It b the decomposition of a principal ideal into
the product of prime ideals that takes the place of the resolution of
an integer into its prime factors in the ordinary theory. It may
happen that all the ideals in O are prindpal ideals; in this case every
resolution of an ideal into fdctors corresponds to the resolution of an
integer into actual integral factors, and the introduction of ideals
is unnecessary. But in every other case the introduction of ideals
or some eouivalent notion, is indispensable. When two ideals have
been resolved into their prime factors, their greatest common
measure and least common multiple arc determined by the ordinary
rules. Every ideal may be expressed (In an infinite number of ways)
as the greatest common measure of two principal ideals.
47. There is a thcoiy of congruences with rettpect to an ideal
modulus. Thus aaai^ (mod m) means that a—^ is an element of
m. With respect to m, all the integers in Q may be arranged in a finite
number of mcongruent classes. The number of these classes is
called the norm of m, and written Nfm). The norm of a prime ideal
f is some power of a real prime P; if N(p) »^, p is said to be a prime
ideal of degree/. If m. n are any two ideals, then N(mn) -N(m)N(n).
If N(m) ■■m, then msao (mod m), and there b an ideal m' such that
pifi * mm'. The norm of a prinapal ideal va b equal to the absolute
value of N (a) as defined in $ 45.
The number of incongruent residues prime to m is —
♦(m)-N(m)n(i-^),
where the product extends to all prime factora of m. If m is any
element of D prime to m,
<^(a)ai (modm). .
Associated with a prime modului* p tor which N (^)»^. we have
^(P'— 1) primitive roots, where ^ has the meaning nven to it in the
ordinary theory. Hence follow the usual results aoout exponents,
indices, solutions of linear congruences, and so oui For any modulus
m we have N(m) »2^(&), where the sum extends to all tne divisors
of m.
01 ri rvBi anasri imagmary ncios, uiov is a syscem oc uma ei. «k • • • ^
where r*fi+rt— I, such that every unit in Q b expressible in the
form c">p«i*i|^ . . . %' where p b a root of unity contained in O and
a, j^.../ are natural numbers. Thb theorem b due to Dirichlet.
The norm of a unit b +1 <»* -i ; and the determinatioa of all the
units contained in a given fieki b in fact the same as the solutioo of a
Diophantiue equation
F(*i.A.....*.)-*i.
For a Quadratic fiekl the equation is of the form A{*-iiV*' ^x,
and the theory of thb b complete; but except fcx- certain special
cubic corpora little has been done towards solving the important
problefti of assigning a definite process by which, for a given ficM, a
system of fundamental units may be calculated. The researches of
Jacobi. Herroite, and Minkowsky seem to show that a proper extea-
sion of the method of continued fractions is necessary.
49. Ideal Classes. — If m b any ideal, another ideal n can always be
found such that mn b a principal kieal; for instance, one such
mulu'plier b m'^N(m). Two ideab m, m' are said to be equivalent
(m'^m') or to belong to the same class, if there b an ideal n atach
that mn, m'n are both principal kleals. It can be proved that twx>
ideab each equivalent to a third are equivalent to each other and
that all ideab in O may be distributed into a finite number, k, of
ideal classes. The daas which contains all principal kleals b called
the principal dass and denoted by O.
If m, n are any two ideals belonging to the classes A, B respectively,
then mn belongs to a definite class which depends only upon A, B
and may be denoted by AB or -BA indifferently. Thus the cimso
symbols form an Abelian group of order k, of which O b the unit
element; and, mutatis mntandUt the theorems of | 57 about oooi-
position of classes still hold aood.
The principal theorem with regard to the determination of & is the
following, which is Dedekind's generalization of the c u cie spm adiag
one for quadratic fields, first obtained by Dirichlet. Let
r(«)-2N(m)-*
(■}
where the sum extends to all ideals m contained in 0; thb umweiam
so long as the real quantity s is positive and greater than i. T&a
s being a certain quantity which can be calculated when afmrnJa
mentaf system of units is knomtt we shall have
dk-zi|(*-i)r(i)|.
The expression for s is rather complicated, and very peoiCar; it
may be %mtten in the form
a^^r'' R
where IV A| means the absolute value of the square root of the dis-
criminant of the field, ru r» have the same meaniiy as in 1 48, m m
the number of roots of unity in Q. and R is a determinant of the fona
Ki(<')|, of order (ri+r<r-i), with elements which are, ia a ocrtaia
special sense^ *' lo^rithms '* of the fundamental units «!.«,...«.
50. The discriminant A enjoys some very remarkable prope rt ies
Its value is always different from ^ 1 ; there can be only a finite
number of fiekis which have a given discriminant; and the ratioaal
prime factors of A(Q) are precisely those rational primes which.* ia fit,
are divisible by the square (or some higher power) of a prime ideaL
Consequently, every rational prime not contained in A b resolvable,
in Q, into the product of distinct primes, each of which occurs oaly
once. The presence of multiple prime factors in the discriiniaast
was the priiicip?.! difficulty in tne way of extending Kumiaer's
method to all fields, and was overcome by the introduction of com-
pound moduli— for this b the common characteristic of Dedekind's
and Kronccker's procedure.
51. Normal Fields.— The special properties of a particular field S
are closely connected with its relations to the conjugate fields
0^,0*,... <y"~*>. The most important case b when each of the
conjugate fiekis b identical with O: the fiekl b then said to be
Cauisian or normal. The aggregate R(9, ^, . . . •("'■0 cf sB
rational functions of 6 and its conjugates b a normal field: htmct
every arithmetical field of order a is either normal, or contained ia a
normal field of a higher order. The roou of an equation /(a) «o
which defines a normal field are associated with a group of subbtini-
tions: if thb is Abelian, the field is called Abclbn; u it b cydki
the fiekl is called cyclic. A cyclotomic field is one the elements of
whkh are aU expressible as rational functions of roots of unity: ia
partUniUr the complete cyclotomic field C. of order ^m), is the
segregate of «41 rational functbns of a primitive mth root of ututy.
To Kronecker b due the very remarkable theorem that all Abdiaa
(including cyclic) fields are cyclotomic: the first published p«TM3f cf
thb was spven by Weber, and another b due to D. Hilhert.
Many important theorems concerning a normal fiekl have bees
established by Hilbert. He shows that if b a ^ivcn aormal firid
of order m, and p any of its prime Ideals, there is a finite series of
associated fields I2i, fl^. &c, ot orders wii. wt. &c, such that R«art
(mod. m'4.1). and that if r<>>m/M<, p''"Pi, a printe ideal in ft.
If (^ b the last of thb aeries, it b called the JUd ^ imerSat
NUMBER
857
•aaocher field of ttfll lower
^ ^ _, ^v^-.r_'^ - - ^'ofF.«a<iinthfafidd
dwn it m ndnt gf tbJnUtpmt 9mt wack that pM-^»wbere
ft«M/Mi. la tht nild oiiaertk nut remaiiM a priaie,- bat beoomcs
of Uglier desiee; in flu. wUcfa u called the hranck-MU (Kcr-
■w i fi e filfl rpiir)ubecboi ea apowerofaprime,aDdbygouigoninthi»
way from me loolviac field to O, we obtain (/+3) repmcn tationa
for any prime ideal 01 tht reaolvioc field. By meana of these
tbeorema, Hilbert finds aa expfCMaoo for the exact power to which a
I prime # oocnn in the diKriminant of Q, and in other way*
the itnictiire of O becomea more evident, it may be obaerved that
vhem m it prime the whole leriea reduces to O and the rational field,
■ad we conrliidf that every prime ideal in O is of the fint or mth
1144
dcsrea: this b the case^ for instance, when m«3, and b one of the
itaaoos why qoadratic fields are comparatively so simple in character.
5k QmadraHr Fidds. — Let « bo an ordinary integer different from
+i» and not divisible by aiiy square: then ii x. y assume all ordinary
fatfcmal values the expcessioos x+y^m are the elements of a field
vbkh may be called 0(Vm). It should be observed that Vm means
one defimte root of x*— m«o, it does not matter which: it b con-
wement, however, to agree that y« b positive when m b positive,
aad'fym b nentive when m b nesative. ■ The principsl results
lating to O wm now be stated, and will serve as illustrations of
'l^^notatlon previously used
•-li.i(i+V«)Jorlt,V«l
•ooordiag as ««i (mod 4) or not. In the firrt case Zk»m, in the
pecood A ■ 4M» The i^e^ci 'J, Li. norma]* dnd cveiy bJea] primp in it i&
of the &nt dcirf^e.
Lft f be any odd prirnt (actof of ih; tlvJ) ^^t\*, wherv ^ b th«
rm* idcil [q, itg+V«)J vbpn pimJ {mod 4] and in other cvca
i/h]^ An odd prime p of which in b 4 qusdratk; naadtie u the
MTxIiHrt d two pnmc idc::L!i f. ^', which Ttciay be »'rit(fn in (he form
Ip, itd^-ViKjlr l>.i{d-V«)] or Iff, o+Vm]. W-'VwL acconJiiigas
Hxa 1 (mod 4} or not : htne a ift ft root of s^^m {mod p), taken to as
%Q be odd in ihc firit of thu; two casrs. AM other ratbiuL odd priaies
Kre primH in Q. For ilw; exceptional primi? 3 (here are imir ca«» to
cimikUrr: (ij ifin^t fcnod S). then ^-fj.f (t+VwJlX [7.4(1 -Vffl)l
lU.J If mm^ imofl s). then a U prime: {Uj.j tf m«j ^mod 4),
a-(j,VjBj«: (jv4 if m-j Cmoda4),5-[a,i + V«>'» 111 ustiatkuu will
be found m f 44 For the cmc m -jj.
55. Normal Rfiidutt. Cfflera.— Hithert hai Intnsduced a wry
convenient definition, an<) a qorre^pondidf #ymi>of» «^hich 11 a i^tir-
imlLtation of Legendnc'a quadnitic character. Let ♦*, r^ '-■ nnonal
integers.Mnotasquare.wany rational prime; we write ^-^j -+i
if, to the modulus «. n b ocMigruent to the norm of an integer con-
[ inO(Vm): inallothercasesweputf^^j «— I. Thb new
symbol obeys a set of laws, among which may be especially noted
(^) " (^) " (S)*°*'(^) "+'• w^n«^ n. w are prime
Now let ^, gi, . . . 91 be the different rational prime factors of
the discriminant of 0(V m) ; then with any rational integer a wc may
e the /symbols
m-m-m
and call them the total character of a with respect to O. This
definition may be extended so as to give a total character for every
ideal a in Q, as follows. First let be an imaginary field (m<o) ;
we put r><, *">N(a), and call
m-m
the total character of a. Secondly, let Q be a real field; we first
determine the t Mparate characters of — I, and if they are all positive
we put S" +N(a), r^t, and adopt the r characters just written
above as those of a. Suppose, however, that one of the characters
of —I is negative; without loss of generality we may take it to be
that with reference to qt. We then put ft — i, ft- >*N(a) taken
with such a sign that (-^) "+11 and take as the total character
of a the symbob (^) for »-i, 2,. . . (/-i).
With these de6nitbns it can be proved that all ideals of the same
class have the same total character, and hence there is a distribution
of classes into genera, each genus containing those classes for which
the total character b the same (cf. { 36).
Moreover, wc have the fundamental theorem that an assigned set
of r units * I corresponds ttf an actually existing genus if, and only if,
their product is +1, so that the number of actually cxbtin||[ genera-
b r'K Thb b really equivalent to a theorem about quadratic forms
first suted and proved by Gauss; the same may be said about the
next proposition, which. In iCk natural order, b easily proved by the
method of ideals, whereas Gauss had to em|^ the theory of ternary
quadratics.
Every class of the principal genus b the square of a class.
An ambiguous ideal in Q b defined as one which b unaltered by
the dun^ of V M to —V m (that is, it b the same as its conjugate) and
not divisible by any rational integer except ^i. The only ambi-
KMU prime ideab in Oare those which are factors of iudiscnminant.
tting A "Bqi'o^. . .qf, there are in q exactly a' ambiguous ideab:
namely, those factors of A, includiiig o, which are not divisible by
any sqiAre. It b a fundamental theorem, first proved by Gauisw
that the number of ambiguous classes b equal to the number of
genera.
54. CZom-^TiurW.— The number of ideal classes b the field 0(V m)
flaay be expressed in the following forms r-—
(L) «<o:
OL) m>o:
^'hiity <•-'•» -^)5
J Ilsin -^
In the first of these formulae r b the number of units contained in
0: thus r-6for A"— 3, T-4 for A-— 4, t"2 in other cases.
In the second fonnub, « is the fundamental unit, and the products are
taken for all the numbers of the set (i,?,. . .A) for which f-j "+i,
l^j " — I respectively. In the ideal theory the only way in
which these formuhe have been obtained is by a modification of
Dirichlet's method; to prove them without the use of transcendental
analy«s would be a substantbl advance in the theory.
55. Suppose that any ideal in b expressed in the form (wi, «#i];
then any element of it b expressible as xnn+ywit where x, y are
rational integers, and we shall have N {xui+yut)''<ufi'^bxy+cj^,
where a, b, c are rational numbers contained in the idcaL If wc put
x»ax'+/9y,y>7^+Ayt where a, /9^ 7r 3 are rational numbers such
that ai^fiy^lt we shall have simultaneously (a, b, c) (x, y)*
- (o', y , O (x*. /)• as in § 32 and abo
(c'. y, cO (x*. yO«-N(x'(««,-H«^+y'0J«x+««,)| -N(x'«'i+/«',),
where Wu »'«) b the same ideal as before. Thus all equivalent forms
are assodated with the same ideal, and the numbers represenuble
by forms of a particular class are precisely those which are norms of
numbers belonging to the assodated ideal. Hence the class-number
for ideab in Q is also the class-number for a set of quadratic forms;
and it can be sfiown that all these forms have the same determinant
A. Conversely, every class of forms of determinant A can be
associated with a definite class of ideals in Q(Vm), where m*A or
iA as the case may be. Composition of form-classes exactly
corresponds to the multiplication of ideals: hence the complete
anak>gy between the two theories, so long as they are really in con-
tact. There b a corresponding theory 01 forms in connexion with a
field of order fi: the forms are of the order n, but are only very
spcdal form^ of that order, because they are algebraically resolvable
into the product of linear factors.
56. Complex Qusdralic Forms. — Diridilet, Smith and others, have
discussed forms (a, 6, c) in which the coefficients are complex integers
of the form m+nt; and Hermite has considered bilinear forms
axx'4-ft*/ +*'*'> +«>/. where x*, V, V are the conjugates of x, y, b
and a, c, arc real, ultimately these theories are connected with
fields of the fourth order; and of course in the same way we might
con<iider forms (a, b, c) with integral coefficients belonging to any
given field of order » : the theory would then be ultimately connectecl
with a field of order 2n.
57. Kronecker's Method. — In practice it is found convenient to
combine the method of Dedekind with that of Kroncckcr, the main
principles of which are as follows. Let F( x, y, s,. . .) be a poly-
nomial in any number of indeterminates {umbrae^ as Sylvester cafls
them) with ordinary integral coefficients; if n U the srcatest common
measure of the coefficients, we have F — fiE, where £ b a primary or
unit form. The positive integer n b called the divisor of F; and the
divisor of the product of two forms b equal to the product of the
divisors of the factors. Next suppose that the coefficients of F are
integers in a field Q of order n. Ucnoting the conjugate forms by
, F", . . . P-»>. the product FF'F" . . . P-») -yt, where 7 b a
real positive integer, and E a unit form with real integral cpcN
ficients. The natural number / b called the norm of F. If F, G
are any two forms (in Q) we have N(FG)-N(F)N(G). Let the
coefficients of F be oi, at, Ac., those of G A, Aj &c, and those of FG
7i. Tti &C.; and let p be any prime ideal in Hi Then if p^ is the
highest power of p contained in each cl the cocffidents a<, and p" the
highest power of p contained in each of the coefficients /3<, p*^ is
the highest power of p contained by the whole set of coefficients 7<.
Writing dv(«i, ••,..) for the highest ideal divisor of ai, at, &c.,
thb b called the conUiU of F; ana we have the theorem that the
attd, supposing for nrnplicity that tw is a real negative quanuty,
the notation being that which u now usual for the elliptic functions.
It is found that
^snaKii -aS j^^sin (2S-I) *«.
^cn2K«-2S^^^cos(2*-i)««,
^dn 3KH-H'3^7^co03mi.
From the last formula, by putting « *o, we obtain
and hence, by expanding both sides in ascending powers of q, and
equating the coefficients of ^, we arrive at a formula for the number
of ways of expressing n as the sum of two squares. If ^ is any odd
divisor ef n, including i and 11 itself if n b odd, we find as the co-
efficient of g^ in the expansion of the left-hand side 4Z(-i)*(''''):
on the right-hand side the coefficient enumerates all the solutions
n « ( *«)«-!-( *>)", taking account of the different signs (except for o»)
and.of the order in which the terms are written (except when x* *■/).
Thus if fi is an odd prime of the form 4*+if X(-i)***"**^-2. and the
Coefficient of 9* is 8, which is right, because the one possible com-
ppsitten n -tt'-hft* may be written 11 -( ^a)«-K *6)« - (*&>•+( *a)«,
giving eight representations.
By methods of a similar character formulae can be found for the
number of repiesentations of a number as the sum of a, 6, 8 squares
respectively. The four-square theorem has been stated in ^ 41 ; the
eignt-square theorem is that the number of representations of a
number as the sum of eight squares w sixteen times the sum of the
cubes of its factors, if the given number is odd, while for an even
number it b sixteen times the excess of the cubes of the even factors
above the cubes of the odd factors The five-square and seven*
square theorems have not been derived from 9-senes, but from the
general theory of quadratic forms.
68. Still more remarkable results are dedudblc from the theory of
the transformation of the theta functions. The elementary formulae
are
0nW, «+i) -Mi*.«), flo.(t«,-+i) -ft«i(i«, «),
where V — *« is to be taken in such a way that its real part is
positive. Taking the definition of s given in f 67, and considering
c as a function oiw, we find
•(-«) "«"VflW-«'(«)
For convenience let i^(w)«9: then the substitutions (w^+i) and
(»,—«"•) convert a into ff/(ff— I) and (i— a) respectively. Now if
a, ff, 7, dare any real integers such that ai—fiy^i, the substitution
Ici),(atf+/)}/(Ttf+S)l can t^ compounded of (M,w+i)and (»,—»"*).;
the effect on v will oe the same as if we apolv a corresponding substi-
tution compounded of [c, c{(<r—iy\ and [tr. l—e\. But these are
periodic and of order 3, 2 respectively] ; therefore we cannot get more
than sue values of c, namely
and any symmetrical function of these will have the same value at
any two equivalent places in the modular disscctk>n ({ 33). Their
sum is constant, but the sum of their squares may be put into the
form
hence («■-»+ 1)» +««(»- 1)« has the same value at equivalent places.
F. Klein writes
J 27a*(<r-V ' .
thb b a transcendental function of w, which b a spedal case of a
where Ci, Ct, Ac., are rational integers.
69. Suppose, now, that a, b, c, d are rational tntegera, soch that
dv(o. 6, c, <1) B I and ad^-bcn, a positive integer. Let (««+6}/
(ctt+d) *w'; then the equation J{</) » J(w) b satisfied if and only U
t/^ut that b, if there are integers «,/9,7,iBachtbatflft— ^7«i»aad
(cw-|-ft)(Yw+«)-(a*-i.(0(««+«-a
If we write^(ff) *-rII(i -f^), where the product extendslo all prime
factors (p) of », it b f ounid that the values of w fall into iK*) equiva-
lent setr, so that when w b given there are not nuire than f («)
different values of J(w')* Putting KwO*]'* JU)-J» ^»e have a
modular equation
/.a'.j)-o
symmetrical in J, T', with integral cocffidents and of degree ^a).
^mitariy when dv(a, b, c, d) ^r we have an equation /r(J . J) "O d
order ^(m/t*) ; hence the complete modular equation for ' '
of the irth order b
Fa'J)-M/raM)-o,
the degree of which b ^n), the sum of the divisors of «.
Now if in F(J'* J) we put r-j, the result b a potynonual ia J
vrhkh we may call 0(0. To every linear factor of G cone-
alone,
«UVi^, WUHJI wv uiAjr v«ui \f\Jf» sw %iv%i*j ■ nwi * savi-wB «M ^« vv*!^—
sponds a class of quadratic forms of determinant («*— 41R) where
i^<4A and k b an integer or xero: conversely from every madi form
we can derive a linear factor (J — «) of G. Moreover, if with eaidi form
we associate its weight (ft 41T we find that with the noUtioh of fi 39
the degree of G b precisely ZH(4ii— ■')~CiM where «."*l when n
b a square, and is zero in other cases. But thb degree may be found
in another way as follows. A complete represcnutive set of trass-
formations of orddr m b given by M'"(a«*+fr}/^ with «<»«.
o^b<d; hence
')}
G(j)-n{j(«)-j(5J
and by substituting for J(w) and J (^^7^) their values is tenas of
g, we find that the lowest term in the factor cx pr ts a e d above fe either
^71728 or ^''/i;^38, or a constant, according as a<d, a>d or
a->d. Hence if v b the order of G(J), so that iu rrpaiwion ia f
begins with a term in ^** we must have
wZ^t'd^+xd-d) »2d+Xa
d>yiu V* / tf>Vas>V»
i>Va
extending to all divisors of n which exceed V>* Compuinctl&with
the other value, we have
SH(4ii-ii") -2r(«+fa-#(»)-H#(«),
4>'*»
as stated in § 39.
70. Each of the nngular moduli which are the roots of G0)»o
corresponds to exactly one primitive class of definite quadratic larBtk
and conversely.
Corresponding to every given nentive determinant ~A thert s
an irreducible equation ^0')""O, where j* 1728 J, the oocffidccs
of which are rational integers, and the degree of wiiidi b ^C-a:.
The coefficient of the highest power of ^ b unity, so tbatj » an ar:tb-
metical int^er, and its conjugate values bek>ng one to eacla primimc
class of determinant —A. By adjoining the square roots of the
prime factors of A the function ^{j) may be resolved into the ppodma
of as many factors as there are genera of primitive r-l^^^^^^,^ and tbe
degree of each factor is equal to the number of classes in eacli gcan-
In particular, if |i, I, i(A+l}l b the only reduced form far thr
determinant —A, the value 6f j is a real negative rational cube. M
the same time its approximate value is cxp I — 2W- ' '*'*^^ 1 4744 «
744— e»V A, 80 that, approximately, <«V A ••flii.f.744^ wbere m is a
rational integer. For instance «»^*' -884736743 -9997775. . »
960* -1-744 very nearly, and for the class (1,1,11) the exact valor <.f
^ is - 900*. Four and only four other similar determinants art tao* r
to exist, namely —11, —19, —67, —163, although tboasaiKb hrr:
been classified. According to Hcrmite the decimal part d /•"» --:
begins with twelve nines; in this case Weber has abown tliat dK
exact value of; is-2"-V'5*'23''29'.
71. The function 7(wj b the most fundamental r« a itet of qaaathirs
called ciasS'itnmiants. Let (a, 6, e) be the reprcsentKti^x; of any cUs
of definite quadratic forms, and let m be the root of ax*-hfct'H'-
which has a positive imaginary part ; then F («•) b said to be a c*^ —
invariant for (a, b, e) if F^S^^-F(«i) f or all leal
T. i such that 08— /^« I. Thb b true for j{u) whatever m nat
!, and it is for this reason that i b so-f undaroental. But, as «C V
seen from the above examples, tiie value of j soon beco m t- s so Ix-tk
that its cakulation b impracticable. Moreover, there is the cs-
culty of conttructi^g the nodular equation AU • J *) " O ({69), 1
fe:
Proc. Ltmd. Math. 5bc. ix. p. 242).
For moderate values of A the difficulty can generally be removed
by coDstnicting algd}raic functions otj. 3uppo0e we have an irre-
ducible equation
the cbefficienta of which are rational functions of i(w). If we a|ip1y
any modular substitution m'*S(w), this leaves the equation un-
aJtered. and consequently only prrmiitr^tr^ th^' p- — -'^niipr tf:|{^Tn-
selves: thus if «i(«) is any jL.jn,,iL. s-j^a w-j »r.,mi Live ii(^'j-
XiUt), where i may or may not be equal to 1. The gmjp ol unkary
substitutions which leave all the rooEs unaltered is a. factor of the
complete modular group. 1 f wc pu t ^ - jr^MwJ . y will m t iffy a n ecjua-
tion similar to that which dcflnc* *, t¥it h / wntten for /; hence, since
i, fare connected by theequation/itf^/J -0. thti* will bean equation
4'{*t y)*o satisfied by x and >. by suiiabty cho^vini; x wc can in
many cases find ^(*, v) without kn^iwing /ifi. /h and then the
equation )|'(x, x) "Odennes a ^t of sinKular modijU, each onii^ of which
belongs to a certain value af «« and all the quantities derived fpjm
it by the substitutions which l^^ve j;U) un^ilitTkxi.
As one of the simplest enamplrt, k-t n -3. Jt^M -y^iCW) -o..
Then the equation connecting i, y in ita coffipltiLe kirm li ol the ninth
degree in each variable; but it can be proved that it boa a rational
factor, namely
and if in this we put x*y ««, the result is
«*-2it»-495ii«+a«.3».5" -o, '
the roots of which are 12, 20,-15,- '5- It remains to find the
values of M, to which they belong. Writing ys(m) » ^ J, it is found
that we may define ir» m such a way that Ts(w+l)'"^'"'/Sk(««),
%(-«"*) -><i(«), whence it is found that
We shall therefore have nCaw) ""TtCe) for all values of such that
a«-^^f»MT-i, yi+ya+fii-eh'=o (mod 3).
Putting («, 0, y, A)."*(o, -I, I, o) the conditions are satisfied, and
aw-tVa. Now j{t^»' 1736, so that 71(1) •12: and since j(<«) »
positive for a pure imaginary, nCW^} "-aa The remaining case is
settled by putting
2 7»+«
with a, j8, Tt S satisfying the same conditions as before. One solution
is (-1, a, 1. 1) and hence •^+3«+4-o, so that 71 ( "^"^^^
-15.
2 /
Besides 7^, other irrational invariants which have been used with
effect are y»*'^ (j-ij^i), the moduli <c, c', their square and fourth
roots, the functions /./i,/i defined by
and the function ii(im)/9(w) where ^(|u) is defined by
7a. Another powerful method, developed by C. F. Klein and
K. E. R. Fricke, proceeds by discussing the defipienqf oif^^j, j') -o
considered as irepresenting a curve. If this deficiency is xero, j and /
may be expressed as rational functions of the same parameter, and
this replaces the modular equation in the most convenient manner.
For instance, when is "7, we may pnt
Vt'-49.
The corresponding nngular moduli are found by solving ^(r) >
A(r'). For deficiency 1 we may find in a similar way two auxiliary
functions x, y connected by some simple equation ^(x, y) *o not ex-
ceeding the fourth degree, and such that j, f are each rational
functions of x and y. .,.,..
Hurwiu has extended this field of research almost indefinitely,
not only by generalising the formulae for class-number sums, such
as that in 1 69, but also by bringing the modular-function theory into
connexion with that of algebraic correspondence and Abelian in-
tegrals. A comparatively simple example may help to indicate the
nature of these researches. From the formulae given at the beginning
of f 67, We can deduce, by actual multiplication of the corresponding
^I. *2. .
where
x(m).2(:ii)ui
H»'iAi -MiAi* - 2(- l)4'--«)x(m)a«i(/4
If, now, we write
M«)-2i^:2ii^:ix(22^.. i.M-22 (-')^^-'>xW g,/4,
we shall have
where 9m, 6W. ^ are connected by the relation ({ 67)
which repre s en ts, in homogeneous co-ordinates, a quartic curve of
deficiency 3. For this curve, or any equivalent algebraic ^re,
jiM,j%M and i'a(M) supply an independent set of Abelian integrals
of the first kind. If weput x»Vs.jr«V<i'» it isfound that
/p-W-). fy'iM"). f^-ij^M.
SO that the integrals which the algebraic theory grvcs in connexion
with x^+y*-i "O are directly identified with ji{<a), ja{u), jt(w),
provided that we put x«V«li7
Other functions occur in this theory analogous to ji(w), but such
that in the 9-series which are the expansions of them the coefficients
and exponents depend on representations of numbers by quaternary
quadratic forms.
73. In the Berliner Sittitngsberkkte for the neriod 1883-1890,
L. Kronecker published a very important series <H articles on elliptic
functions, which contaun many arithmetical results of extreme
elegance: wme of these Kronecker had announced without proof
many years before. A few will be quoted here, without any attempt
at demonstration; but in order to understand them, it will be
necessary to bear in mind two definitions. The first relates to the
Lcgendre-Jacobi symbol f ^j . If a, 6 have a common factor we put
(s) "^^ ^^^ il A is odd and &>*3V, where c b odd, we put
ft) « f jj \~j . The other definitk)n relates to the classification of
discriminants of quadratic forms. If D is any number that can be
such a discriminant, we must have Dho or i (mod. 4), and in every
case we can wnte D » DgQ>, where Q* is a sq^uare factor of D, and
Do satisfies one of the following conditions, in which P denotes a
product of different odd primes: —
D»"P^with Psi(mod4)
D.-8P.
P" - 1 ^mod 4)
Ph*i (mod 4
Numbers sach as D» are called fundamental discriminants; every
discriminant u uniquely expressible as the product of a fundamentu
discriminant and a positive integral sguare.
Now let D|, Da be any two discriminants, then DiDa is also a dis-
criminant, and we may put DiDa~D-DoQ', whoe Da u funda-
mental: this being done, we shall have
;-r"*i"(2^(^F(M)
where we are to take A, ik - 1, 2, 3, . . .+« ; m, n -p, * i, *a, . . . *•
except that, if D<o, the case m«»-o is excluded, and that, if
D>o, (aom -|-6«)T"^aU where (T, U) is the least positive solution of
T*-DU'»4. Toe sum Z applies to a system of represcnUtive
primitive forms (a, b, e) for the determinant D, chosen so that a b
prime to Q, and 6, c are each divisible by all the prime factors of Q.
A is any number prime to 2D and representable by {a, b, c); and
finally r-a, 4, 6, i according as D<-4, D- -4. D- -3 or D>a
The lunctwn F is quite arbitrary, subject only to the conditions that
F(xy)-F(x)F(v), and that the sumt on both sides are convergent.
By 'putting' F7x)-»-»-^. where ^ is a real positive quantity, it
be deduced from the foregoing that, if Di is not a square, and if
can t)e deduced irom the
Di is different from i.
H(Di(y)H(D,QO -Lt X ^ (^) J^ (^ (a««+6wi+«*0-f^
where the function H(<0 is defined asiollows for any dis crimin a n t i.—
J--A<o rH(<0-^*(-A)
I
negative: then
i5T7iJn5a,\(l)(l)*(^'i!§)
where, on the left-hand side, we are to tum for it - 1, a. 3 . . . fDij :
and on the right we are to take a complete set of lepreaentative
piimittve forms (a, b, c) for the determinant DiDi. and give to m. n
all positive and negative integral values such that am^+bmn+cn* is
odd. The quantity r b 2, if DiD3< -4, r-4 if PiDi— 4, r-6 if
DiDi" -3. By putting Di"i, we obtain, alter some easy trans-
formations,
whikh holds for any fundamental discriminant -A. For instance,
toking « -iK'/K, and A-3. we have ff»« -2«K/», and Xglt*«*-«+««)-
?dS2L2in il^ ; a verification is afforded by making 3K approach
the value w, in which case q, c vanish, while the linut of qi/t u \,
whence the limiting value of sn^ is that of 6gl/KV3« which
-6/4V3-V3/2. as it should be.
Several of Kronecker's formulae connect the solution of the
Pellian equation with elliptic modular functions; one example may
be given here. Let D be a positive discriminant of the form 811 +5f
let Cr. U) be the least solution of T>- DIP - 1 : then, if A(D) b the
number of primitive classes for the determinant P,
(T-UVD)A(D)-n(2«')»
where the product on the right extends to a certain nxth part of
those values of 3m' which are singular, and correspond to tne field
O(V-D), or in other words are connected with the cla&s invariant
j(V-D). For instance, if D -5, the equation to find (aO* is
4J{(«')«-il'+(25+i3V5)'(«0«-o
one root of which is given by (2«')"-9-4V5-T-UV5 which is
right, because in this case A(D) ■" i>
74. Frequency of Primes. — ^The distribution of primes in a finite
interval (a, a +6) is very irregular, if we change a and keep b constant.
Thus if we put wI-m. the numbers m+2, M+3t • • • .(m+w-O are
all composite, so that we can form a run of consecutive composite
numbers as extensive as we please; on the other hand, there is
possibly no limit to the number of cases in which p and p+2 are both
primes. Legendre was the first to find an approximate formula for
FCx), the number of primes not exceeding X. He found by induction
F(x) - x+ Oog.x- 1 •083^6)
which answers fairiy well when x lies between 100 and 1,000.000,
but becomes more and more inaccurate as x increases. Gauss found,
by theoretical considerations (which, however, he does not explain),
the approximate formula
(where, as in all that follows, log x is taken to the base e). This
value is ultimately too large, but when x exceeds a million it u nearer
the truth than the value given by l^endre's formula.
By a angularly profound and onginal analysis, Riemann suc-
ceeded in finding a formula, of the same type as Gauss's, but more
exact for very krge values of z. In its complete form it is very
complicated: but, by omitting terms which ultimately vanish (for
sufficiently large values of x) in comparison with those retained, the
formula reduces to
F(x)-A-H(-i)m1l(*»/-) (w-i, a, 3. 5. 6, 7, 11, . . .)
m "»
where the summation extends to all poutive integral values of m
which have no square factor, and m is the number of different prime
factors of m, witn the convention that when m - 1 , (— i)m - 1. The
symbol A denotes a constant, namely
^-'^'Xl'-Js
'tx(jc*-i) logxj
and L Is used in the sense given above.
P. L. Tch6bichev obtained some remarkable results on the
frequency of primes by an ingenious application of Stirling's theorem.
One of these is that there will certainly be (&+i) primes between a
and b. xnovided that
a<^-2V6-i|Rlog6 0og6)«-3^(4*+25)-|^
where R-i log2-H log z+l log 5- A log 30-0-921292 .... From
tt
Meissel. The following table gives the values of F(fs) tor vark>as
valuca of n, according to Meisad's determinations : —
» F(»)
30,000 3,262
100,000 9,592
500,000 4i>S38
1,000,000 7S498
Riemann*s analysis mainly depends upon the p roper ties ctf tbe
function
r(*)-Iii- (i«-i,2,3,...).
considered as a function of the complex variable s. The above
definition is only valid nhtn the real part of s exceeds 1 ; but it caa be
generalised by writing
asin«r(s)f(«)-tjt:5£j^.
where the integral is taken from z-+«» along the axis of real
quantities to x— c, where c is a very small positive quamitv. thra
round a circle of radius « and centre at the ori^n, and BnaXty fixm
x-t to x—-f^ along the axis of real quantities. This function
s) » of sreat importance, and has been recently studied by voa
angoldt Landau and others.
Reference has already been made to the fact that if A m are co-
K-imes the linear form Ix4-m includes an infinite number of primes,
ow let (a, b, c) be any primitive quadratic form with a total generic
character C; and let Ix+m be a pnmitive linear form chosen so xhax
all iu values have the character C. Then it has been proved by
Weber and Meyer that (a, b, c) is capable of repreKoting an infinity
of primes all 01 the linear form lx-\-m,
75. Arilkmettc4U Functions. — ^This term is apolied to symbob aodi
as ^(h), ♦(!(), &c., which are associated with 11 by an intrinsic arith-
metical definition. The function ♦(«} was written fn by Eider,
who investigated its properties, and by proving the formub
n(i-^) - lqiii**+*i deduced the result that
— •
Jn -/(a- 1) +/(a-a) -/(a-5)- . -2(-i)'-»/ (""^^
where on the rig^t hand we are to take all positive values of s aadi
that ii-i(3i*^') is not negative, and to interpret /o as «, if this term
occurs. J. Liouville makn frequent use of this function in his papers,
but denotes it by f (it).
If the quantity x is positive and not integral, the symbol £(x} «r
[x] is used to denote the integer (including zero) which is obtained by
omitting the fractional i>art of x; thus E(Va) « i, £(0-7) •o.aad so
on. For some purposes it is convenient to extend the definotjon br
putting E(-x) — -E(x), and agreeing that when x is a positi^T
integer, E(x)— x-4; it is then pos«ble to find a Fourier ame^-amn
representing x- Eix) for all real values of x. The function E(x) has
many curious and important properties, which have been tnvesti-
gated by Gauss Hermite, Hacks, Pringsheim, Stern and otbrrv
What is perhaps the simplest proof of the law of quadratic reciprocxty
depends upon the fact that it p, 9 are two odd prime*, and we pm.
P-2A-1-I, 8-2*+l
j>(?)+:K^(if)-»-»^-'''->
the truth of which is obvious, if we rule a rectangle P'Xq^ into lak
squares, and draw its diagonal. This formula is Caus6*s. b<R the
geometrical proof b due to Eisenstein. Another useful fomuika m
"5 ' E (x +^ - E(mx) - E(x), which b due to Herm'tte.
Various other arithmetical functions have been d e v iaetl f<v par^
ticular purposes; two that deserve mention (both due to Krooecke^
are Ami which means o or I according as fc, ik are unequal or equal, azis
sgn X, which means x-f-Jx|.
76. Transcendental Numbers. — It has been proved by Cantor thzc
the aggregate of all algebraic numbers b countable. Hencr in-
mediatcly follows the proposition (first proved by Lioavfflr) th>^
there are numbers, both real and complex, wbicn cannot be dr-
fined by any combination of a finite number of equations mjsM
rational integral coefficients. Sudi numbers are said to be t
dental. Hermite first completely proved the transcendent <
of 0; and Lindemann, by a similar method, proved the trans
of w. Thus it b now finally established that the aoadratufv c( cse
circle b impossible, not only by rule and compass, but even with :te
help of any number of algebnuc curves of any order when tke cty
efficienU in their equations are rational (see Hermite. CR. facmk.
1873, and Lindemann, Math. Ann. xx., 1882). Another bob
which b almost certainly transcendent b Euler's constant C. It i
be convenient to give here the following numerical ^nea?~
theory of numbers, which is mainly the work of the igth century,
though many of the researches of Lagrange, Lcgendit and
Gaoss, as well as all those of Euler, fall within the xSth. But
after all, the germ of this remarkable development is contained
in what is only a part of the original Diophantine analysis, of
which, beyond question, Fcrmat was the greatest master. The
spirit of this method is still vigorous in Euler; but the appearance
of Gauss's DisquuUiones ariUtnuticae in ;i8oz transformed the
whole subject, and gave it a n^w tendency which was strengthened
by the discoveries of Cauchy, Jadobi, Eisenstein apd Dirichlet.
In recent times Edouard Lucas revived something of the old
doctrine, and it can hardly be denied that the Diophantine
method is the one that is really germane to the subject. Even
the strange resultsobtained from elliptic and modular functions
must somehow be capable of purely arithmetical proof without
the use of infinite series. Besides this, the older arithmeticians
have announced various theorems which have not been proved
or disproved, and made a beginning of theories which are still
In a more or less rudimentary stage. As examples of the latter
may be mentioned the partition of numbers (see Numbe&s,
pARTmoN OF, below), and the resolution of large numbers
into their prime factors.
The general problem of partitions is to find all the integral
solutions of a set of linear equations Xc^t^tHi with integral
coefficients, and fewer equations than there are variables. The
solutions may be further restricted by other conditions — for
instance, that all the variables are to be positive. This theory
was begun by Euler: Sylvester gave lectures on the subject, of
which some portions have been preserved; and various results
of great generality have been discovered by P. A. MacMahon.
The author last named has also considered Diophantine in-
equalities, a simple problem in which is " to enumerate all the
solutions of 7x^i$y in positive integers."
The resolution of a given large number into its prime factors
is still a problem of great difficulty, and tentative methods have
to be applied. But a good deal has been done by Scelhoff, Lucas,
Landry, A. J. C Cunningham and Lawrence to shorten the
calculation, especially when the number is given in, or can be
reduced to, some partictdar form.
It is well known that Fermat was led to the erfoneous con-
jecture (he did not affirm it) that 2"+x is a prime whenever m is
a power of 2. The first case of failure is when m*-32; in fact
3^+1 mo (mod 641). Other known cases of failure are i»=2»,
with n«*6, 12, 23, 26 respectively; at the same time, Eisenstein
asserted that he had proved that the formiila 2"-hz included an
infinite number of primes. His proof is not extant; and no other
has yet been supplied. Similar difficulties are encountered when
we exAmine Mersenne's nimibers, which are those of the form
2^—1, with p a prime; the known cases for which a Mersenne
number is prime correspond to P" 2, 3, 5, 7, 13, 17, 19, 31, 61.
A perfect number is one which, like 6 or 28, is the sum of its
aliquot parts. Euclid proved that 2»^» (2'— i) is perfect when
(2^—1 ) is a prime: and it has been shown that this formula
includes all perfect numbers which are even. It is not known
whether any odd perfect numbers exist or not.
Friendly numbers {numeri amicabiUs) are pairs such as 220,
284, each of which is the sum of the aliquot parts of the other.
So general rules for constructing them appear to be kiuywn, but
several have been found, in a more or less methodical way.
78. In conclusion it may be remarked that the science of
arithmetic iq.v.) has now resurhed a stage when a31 its definitions,
processes and results are demonstrably independent of any
theory of variable or measurable quantities such as those
postulated in geometry and mathematical physics; even the
notion of a limit may be dispensed with, although this idea, as
weD as that of a variable, is often convenient. For the aoolica-
tioD of arithmetic to geometry and analysis, see FuNcn-
18*^5. or CoU. Math. Fap^s, toI. i): D. flilbm, " Uencht fiber die
TJn/rsc dcr algL'traEschi-n ?-ihlk^pcr " (In Jdhtfjfvr. oL deuiichm
M.;^}i.- Iff rini£., wl jv;, Berlin. iSo?); Kldrt-f nctw?, ElliplUehe
M.;i!JJuJu:iumm (LdfiTit, iS^o-iftgi); H* W^btr, EitvptisaU
ri.N.-.jjpfffj K. al^rhraiichf ZahUn (I3raun^hwcie:» T891J, ExUnstvt
bil:iia^*phiea will be foufid in ihc RoyiL Society's Suhjfci /tuffj*
v&r, i, (CambridECt I908) aod Eiuycl, d, jmeik, WisanscMjlcH, vdL L
(Lcipiig. 1398). (a B. M.)
NUMBBBS, BOOK OF, the fourth book of the Bible, which
takes its title from the Latin equivalent of the Septuagint
'ApiBfuL While the English version follows the Septuagmt
directly in speaking of Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus and Deutero-
nomy, it foUows the Vulgate in speaking of Numbers. Smce
this book describes the way in which an elaborate census of
Lirael was taken on two separate occasions, the first at Sinai at
the beginning of the. desert wanderings and the second just
before their close on the plains of Moab, the title is quite appro-
priate. The name ghren to it in modem Hebrew Bibles from
its fourth word Bemidkbar (" In the desert ") is at least equally
appropriate. The other title in use among the Jews, Vayyid-
hahber {" And he said "), is simply the first word of the book and
has no reference to its contents.
Niunbers is the first part of the second great division of the
Hexateuch. In the first three books we are ^own how God
raised up for Himself a chosen people and how the descendants
of Israel on entering at Sinai into a solemn league and covenant
with Yahweh Qehovah) became a separate nation, a peculiar,
people. In the last three books we are told what happened to
Israel between the time it entered into this solemn covenant
and its -settlement in the Promised Land imder the successor
of Moses. Yet, though thus part of a larger whole, the book of
Niunbers has been so constructed by the Redactor as to form
a self-contained division of that whole.
The truth of this statement is seen by comparing the first
verse of the book with the last. The first is as evidently meant
to serve as an introduction to the book as the last is to serve
as its condusioiL This is not to say, however, that the book is all
of a piece, or written on a systematic plan. On the contrary, no
book in the Hexateuch gives such an impression of incoherence,
and in none are the different strata which compose the Hexateuch
more distinctly discernible.
It is noteworthy that the problems of Hexateuchal criticism
are gradually chaiiging their character, as one after another of the
nuLin contentions of Biblical scholars regarding the date and
authorship of the Hexateuch passes out of the Ust of debatable
questions into that of acknowledged facts. No competent
scholars now question the existence, hardly any one the relative
dates, of J, £, and P. In Numbers one can tell abnost at a glance
which parts belong to P, the Priestly Code, and which to JE, the
narrative resulting 4rom the combination of the Judaic work of
the Yahwist with the Ephraimitic work of the Elohist. The main
difficulty in Numbers is to determine to which stratum of P
certain sections should be assigned.
The first large section (i.~x. 10) is wholly P, and the last eleven
chapters are also P with the exception of two or three paragraphs
in chap. xxxiL, while the intervening portion is mainly P with
the exception d three important episodes and two or three
others of less importance. The three main episodes are those of
the twelve spies, the rebellion of Korah, Dathan and Abiram, and
Balaam's mission to Balak. The last is the only one even of these
three in which there is nothing belonging to P. Another passage
which we may here mention is one where the elements of JE can
be readily separated and assigned to their respective authors,
viz. chaps, xi. and xii. It is generally agreed that to E belongs
the passage describing the outpouring of the Spirit on Eldad and
Medad and the remarkable prayer of Moses in xi. 29, "Would
God that all the Lord's people were prophets that the Lord
864
NUMBERS, BOOK OF
would put his Spirit upon tliem,** • pnyer dutt dosdy approaches
the New Testament idea that all Christians are ** priests unto
God." As usual, the J and E elements possess such a vivid
character as to render them familiar to ordinary readers. The
legislative and statistical and especially the ritualistic parts
bdonginjs to P are so detailed and uninteresting that they make
DO impression on a reader's memory, and P's cUffuseness, always
undue, reaches a dimax in chi^. viL where the offerings presented
by each tribe at the dedication of the Tabemade are aaually
described in such full detail that six, in themsdves extremely
uninteresting, verses are repeated in. identical terms no fewer
than twdve times. Compare also the very similar repetitions and
difftisrnesft in chap. nrit.
I Perhaps, however, the most illuminating example of the
difference between traditions as recorded in J or E and traditions
as given by P is found in the very first passage that occiirs after
the first long section of P describing the ord^ of march of the
several tribes and the position of the ark in the very centre of the
host, both when encamped and on the march. Notwithstanding
all this, in X. 30 we find Moses entreating Hobab, the son of Reud
his father-in-law, to come along with the Israelites to be " eyes "
unto them; and in x. 33 it is stated that the ark went before
them to seek out a restLog-place for them. Whether we ascribe
this whole passage simply to JE or consider, as many scholars
do, that the first statement is by J and the second by E, it is dear
that these statements directly contradict P's elaborate scheme,
according to which the people march, tribe by tribe, with the ark
in the very centre of the square, and guided by the pillar of
cloud by day and the pillar of fire by night. There can be
equaUy little doubt that these statements axe mudi. more
Ukdy to be in accordance with fact than P's. The Letter's
daborate plans go on the supposition that great masses of
men, women and children could be moved about over the
desert as easily as pawns on a chess-board; but even the
greatest military leader the world has seen would have been
unable to preserve such complicated formations amid the
difficulties inevitable on a desert march; and the more carefully
an intelligent reader has studied the details of P's plan, the more
astonished will he be to read the statement in x. 33 as to the
position of the ark, and to learn that Moses, instead of simply
following the pillar of doud, requests Hobab to determine the
line of march and select the sites for encampment. No dearer
proof could be desired of the utterly uncritical spirit of the age in
which the Hexateuch got its present form than that this detailed
account should be immediately followed by two short para-
graphs in palpable contradiction of the whole plan of camp and
march so daboratdy worked out in the preceding narrative.
' The fact is that Numbers is the result of a long literary process
of amalgamation both of traditions and of documents, a process
that began in the dosing decades of the g\h century B.C. and did
not finally end till the and century b.c., the earliest date bdng
that of J, and the latest probably that of the various addenda to
Balaam's prophedes, e.g. xxiii. xo6, xxiv. 96, xxiv. 18-24.
Balaam's prayer in xxiii. xo6 is not only metrically superfluous,
but the personal, individual note in it is quite out of keeping with
every other reference in this poem, which is purdy luitional.
This addition may therefore have been originally the marginal
note of a pious scribe which was afterwards transferred to the
text. In xxiv. 34 Kittim is a name originally derived from
Kitium, a dty of Cyprus. The meaning of " Kittim " was
then extended to indude the inhabitants of all the islands
and coast-lands of the Mediterranean. Hence it might mean
not only Macedonia or Greece, but even Italy. In Dan. xi.
30 it is certainly applied to Rome, the Vulgate rendering it
** Romam " there just as that version translates it here by " Italia."
Hence Baentsch would rder this oracle to the time of Antiochus
IV. (Epiphanes) and even to the embassy of Popillius Laenas in
x68 B.C. when that haughty Roman humiliated the Syrian king
by drawing a drde round him with his cane, and daring him to
step out of it till he had given him an answer.
The book fallt naturally into three sections, chronok)gicaI1y
arranged: (i) Chapt. i.-x. 10. Israel's twenty days' tojoum at ^nai
during wfaidi a census of the people is Uken and various laws are
(s) Chapa. x. ii-xxiL, incidents that oc-
I of Israd from Sinai to the fdains of Moab.
promulgated by Mol_.
curred during the march t ^.
These incidents seem to have been chosen for the purpose of castii^
light on the religious history and character of the people and shovi]^
how later generations explained the ori^ of various place names,
cf . Taberah and Kibrothhattaavah. xL 3, 34, and modes or objects of
worship, d. the worship of the brasen serpent, xxL 4-1 1. which, as «e
learn from 2 Kings xviiL 4, continued down to the time of Hcxektah.
(3) Chaps, xxii. 2-xxxvi., Israd's soioum in the plains of Moab. thdr
experiences while there, and the taking of a second census, pcdiiiuD-
arjr to the invasion of Canaan.
Two examples of the very miscdUneous contents of the book will
suffice to show the different literary strata of which it is composed.
(A) We shaU Uke first the account given in chap. xvi. of the
rebellion of Korah. Dathan and Abiram. There would be origiaafly
four independent narratives, J, E, and two very distinct strata of P.
which we may call F and P> or P*. «.e. later suppfecnenu to P. Tbe
narratives of T and E can no longer be distinguished except fnm
slight linguistic data, perceptible only to Hebrew scholars; but the
three stages of devcbpment are quite apparent even in tiansUtioos.
t. The first narrative is that of IE, which relates how un
Rtubenites, Dathan and Abiram. rebelled against the cssil anthodty
of Moees.andwere punished by being buried aiive,they and their house-
holds. Read together verses ib, 3a, i2-i« and 25-34, omitting 3^, ix.
" and all the men that appertained unto Korah and all their goods," a
clause due to the Redactor, who put it in to unite the narratives,
forgetting that Korah, not bdng a Reubenite, could not baire had
his tent with its belongings among the tents of the Reubeoitcs.
2, The second narrative is P, which tdls how Korah, himadf a
Levite, at the head of 250 Israelites rebelled against the reiigiems
authority of Moses and Aaron because of the imvilegcs conferred oa
thelrtitfofLevL Korah and his associates maintained that the other
tribes, belonging as they did to a holy people, had as much right as the
Levites to approach Yahweh directly, without the mediaticn of any
Levite, and offer sacrifices and even incense to Yahweh. Read
together verses xo, 26-7, 19-24.
3. The third narrative is P*. wludi relates how Korah at the head
of 250 Leeites protested against the priesUy privileges of Aaxoo.
claiming that all the Levites had as much right to sacrtfi c e and oficr
incense to Yahweh as Aaron and his sons had. Read together
verses 8-xx and 16 and 17. In both P> and P* the diaqputants are
summoned from their tents and ordered to assemble befoce the
Dwellingof Yahweh ; and in both cases the same fate overtook the
rebds. Tire descended from. heaven and consumed Korah and his
confederates, k is to be noticed that in both P* and ?■ inceDse is
burned in pans or censers, so that even the author of P* knew
nothing about an altar of incense. Indeed in xvii. 3 aind 4 ike ahar
is spoken of in such a way as to imply that there was onlyooe altar,
viz. the altar of bumt*offering. xvi. 2 proves that accordii^ to Ow
second account the members of Korah's band, so far from bdi^ afl
Levites, as they are represented to have been in verses 8-xi. were
probabrv, with the exception of Korah himself, leading m e m bei s of
the secular tribes. Inxxvii. ^ wefindaproof, all tbenKMecooditsive
from bdng inddental, tliat Korah's folbwers were not aU Levites;
for, had they been so, it could never have occurred to the daughters
of Zilpahad to repudiate the idea that thdr father, a Mauassiit, had
had a share in Korah's con^iracy. Of course none of the narratives
is found in its entirety, anything common to (wo or more of tixm
being given only once; and great skill has been shown in ■ tatiag
them together.
(B) l^e story of Balaam as we have it in chaps. xxiL-xadv. is an
amalram of J and E with later additions; but xxxi. 8, 16 prows
that Balaam was not unknown to P. According to E, BalaJc seat
certain Moabite ffriuces all the way to Pethor on the Eaphiates to
ask Balaam to come and curse Israel But Elokim came to BaJaasi
by night and forbade him to go So the princes retumcd disap-
pointol. A second and still more influentiiu embassy having bens
sent, Elohim again appeared by night, and this time permitted Bataas
to go on condition that he said nothing but what Elohim bade Urn
say. The journey bdng a long one and across a dtffilcttlt dorrt.
rec^uiring a caravan welTequipped with camels, the princes ef Mad
waited till Balaam was ready to accompany them. When Bala;i9
reached the frontier of Moab Balak was waiting to welcoow^ him. K:
could not refrain from asking why he had not come with the firss
embassy. With eaual frankness Balaam replied that, thoajrh br
had come now, he had no power to say anything but what Elcte^
might put into his mouth. On being taken to Baraoch-Baal he
was met by Elohim. Thereupon, instead of cursing the Israditn<
Balaam blessed them. Though bitterly disappointed Balak ^c\
attempted to effect his purpose and tocJc Balaam to the top cf
Pi«Eah, with the result that Israel recdved a second blcss^e-
Balak, now utterly disheartened, abandoned his project altogctkr:.
According to Jr Balaam was amcmg bis own people the Bsv^
Ammon when Balak sent messengers to him with prese nt* so(^ me
soothsayers eenerally recdved, asking him to cone and
nad come up out of Egypt. Balaan
111 of stiver aiKl s
people that had come up out of Egypt. Balaam nrutesited tfeart.
though he were to recdve a housdul of stiver aiKl gold, he ooold si?t
go beyond the word of Yahweh. his God. NeverthelesB his »ui^ »
; and, without coosuHuijg Yahwdn ^
yards, the angel of Yahweh woukl have stain him, had not hi* ass
«werved and saved him. Thai thisf^piaDdc belongs to J no one n«cd
ever forget, since the only pjralleL in Scriptune to the speak i[ii> ass
is the serpent that spolce in ti^en. Balaam, afrer being attrnly
rcBulced, was allowed to proceed, but only on ronttition ihit " the
word that I shall speak to ihcp, that thou »hdit ipeak." Eialuk Fnet
Balaam at Ar-Moab, wheno they went to Ririatb-Huiothand ihrfice
to the top o( Peor. Then linilajim bleiscd t^ratl. Balak aTi^aly
taunted Balaam with havir.^; lo^t thv honours iniended for him. .^nd
bade him flee to his own place. Balaam rrmindcxl B^E^k of his
declaration that he could not go bryond the v-ord of Yahw^^h. and
then boldly announced the rtsptciivc dc^tink-5 of fbr^cl and Muab,
xxiv. 15-19.
As ieven is the 'perfect number and as Balaam had ordered seven
altars to be built, the Redactor thought it would be well to have
seven Mishalfm or metrical oracles; and so he added other three
which are certainly not pertinent to the situation, as they allude not
merely to the Assyrian empire but to the Macedonian, and even, as
some maintain, to the Roman empire, cf. xxiv. 24.
The poetical quotations in Numbers are of the utmost im-
portance, not only as helping to determine the date of the book
but as indicating the value of poetry in its bearing on history. In
xxi. 14 we have a poetical quotation from a lost volume of early
poetry entitled " The Book of the Wars of Yahweh." It is highly
probable that Deborah's song was also originally in this book;
and when we compare the statement in that song as (o Israel's
full fighting strength, vi2. 40,000 men, with the statements in the
prose of Numbers as to 600,000 men and more, we at once
realise how much closer to actual facts we are brought by early
poetry than by the later prose of writers like P. Perhaps it is in
chap. xxzi. that we have the dearest proof of the non-historical
character of the book. There we are told that xa,ooo Israelites,
without losing a single man, slew every male Midianite, children
included, and every Midianite woman that had known a man,
and took so much booty that there had to be special legislation
as to how is should be divided. But if this were actual fact, how
could the Midianites have ever reappeared in history? And yet
in Gideon's time they were strong enough to oppress Israel.
From this chapter, unhistorical as it must be^ we see how the
legislation of Israel, whatever its character or origin, was referred
back to Moses the great Law giver of Israel. (J. A. P.*)
NUMBERS. PARTITION OF. This mathematical subject,
created by Euler, though relating essentially to positive integer
numbers, is scarcely regarded as a part of the Theory of Numbers
(see Numbek). We consider in it a number as made up by the
additum of other numbers: thus the partitions of the successive
numbers i, a, 3, 4» 5> 6, &c., are as follows.^—
i;
2. 11;
3. 31^ III;
4,31, 32, 2it. iiii;
5, 41, 32, 311, 221, 2111. iiiii;
6, 51.42. 411, 33,321,3111,222,2211.21111. iiiili.
These arc formed ea^h from the preceding ones; thus, to form
(he partitions of 6 we take first 6; secondly, 5 prefixed to each
of the partitions of i (that is, 51); thirdly, 4 prefixed to each of
the partitions of 2 (that is, 43, 411); fourthly, 3 prefixed to each
of the partitions of 3 (that is, 33, 321, 31"); fifthly, a prefixed,
not to each of the partitions of 4, but only to those partitions
which begin with a number not exceeding 2 (that is, 222, 221 1,
2 J 1 1 1) ; and lastly, i prefixed to all the partitions of 5 which begin
with a number not exceeding x (that is, xiiixi); and so in
other cases.
The method gives oU the partitions of a number, but we may
consider different classes of partitions: the partitions into a
given number of parts, or into not more than a given number
of parts; or the partitions into given parts, either with repeti-
tions or without repetitions, &c. It is possible, for any
particular class of partitions, to obtain methods more '
easy for the forxaation. of the partitions either, of r
understanding tius letter m eacn term, the rule gives »; e, 6*;
d, bCf 6*; t, bd, c*, A«c, ft*, &c., which, if 6, c, d, e, &c., denote
X, a, 3, 4, &c., respectively, are the paru'tions of x, a, 3, 4, &c.,
respectively.
An important notion is that of conjugate partitions.
Thus a partition of 6 is 4a; writing this in the form | '"'* and
summing the columns instead of the lines, we obtain the
conjugate partition 221 1; evidently, starting from 2211, the
conjugate partition is 42* If we form all the partitions of 6
into not more than three parts, these are
6. 51. 4>. 33. 411. 331,233,
and the conjugates are
mill, 21111, 32II, 223, 3111, 321, 33,
where no part is greater than 3; and so in general we have
the theorem, the number of partitions of n into not more than
k parts is equal to the number of partitions of n with no part
greater th^ k.
We have for the number of partitions an analytical theory depend-
ing on generating functions; thus for the partitbns of a number »
with the parts i, 2, 3, 4, 5, &c., without repetitions, writing down
the product
1 +x. 1 +a«. I -I-X*. H-x« . . . . - 1 +x-»-a«+2x». . .-|-JV*«-|-. . . .
it is clear that, if x«, a^, j^, . . . are terms 01 the series x. x^, «*. . . .
for which a+fi+y+ .. — ». then we have in the development of
the product a term x*, and nence that in the term ATx* of the product
the coefficient N is equal to the number of partitions of 11 with the
parts I, 2. 3 without repetitions; or say that the product is
the generating function (G. F.) for the number of such partitions.
And so in other cases we obtain a gencratmg function.
Thus for the function
•.-i-h«-|-2x^+..-hiVx»-f..
I-X.I-X".!-**.
observing that any factor l/i— «* b-l-J-x'-ha^'-H. . • , we see
that in tne term JVx* the coefficient is e<)ual to the number of parti-
tions of n, with the parts I, 2. 3, . . ..with repetitwns.
Introducing another letter s, and considering the function
l-»-».l-hA.i-hx«f...,-i-h»(x+x«-»-..)...-hJVx-s»-»-...
we see that in the term Nt^ of the development the coefficient N
is equal to the number of partitions of 11 into k parts, with the parts
I. 3, 3. 4. .... without repetitions.
And sunilarly, considering the function
,-x..,-k.,-A..- -+.(»+«•+.•)...+»«'+.>
we see that in the term Nif^ of the development the coefficient N is
equal to the number of partitions of n into k parts, with the parts
I, 2, 3. 4, .... with re^titions.
We have such analytical formulae as
1 _
I— xs.i— jA.i— x»s. . *^i-
which lead to theorems in the partition of numbers. A remarkable
theorem b
i-x.i-x«.i-x«.i-x<.-i-x-x«+x«-hx'-x»-x»»+....
where the only terms are those with an exponent} (311' *n). and for
each such pair of terms the coefficient is (-)"i. The formula shows
that except for numbers of the form 1(3"' ^m) the number of
partitions without repetitions into an odd number of parts is equal to
the number of partitions without repetitions into an even number of
parts, whereas for the excepted numbers these numbers differ by
unity. Thus for the number 11, which u not an excepted number,
the two sets of partitions are
II, 821, 731. 641, 632, 543
10.1,92, 83. 74» 65. S33i>
in each ser 6.
We have
I -X. I -hx. I -f-x«. I +x«. I -ha^. . . - 1 ;
or, as this may be written,
showing that a number 11 can always be made up, and in J"* w«X
only, wit the parU i, 2, 4, 8. . . . The oroduct on the left-hand
side may be taken to k terms only, thus if k-4. we have
I-hX+X«...+X»|.
smay I
i-hx.r+;^.i+x<.i-|-x«,.
i-x •
866
NUMENIUS— NUMERAL
that is. any number from i to 15 can be made up, and in one way only,
with the parts I, 3, 4. 8; and similariy any number from I to 3*-i
can be made up, and in one way only, with the parts i, a, 4, . . 3*~*.
A like formula is
I— x' '•"** '•"*". J— ^_ 1— x" .
X.I— x'x'.i— *'* x*.i— *• x".i— x^^x*. I— X*
that is,
x-»+i+*.ar«+i+x«.x-»+i+x».x-n+l+x«»
-ar«+r-». +I+X . . . +x»+x«
diowing that any number from —40 to +40 can be made up, and
that in one way only, with the parts i, 3. 9, 2^ taken positively or
negatively; and so in general any number from -4 (3^1) to
+4(3^1) can be made up, and that in one way only, with the parts
ii 3t 9» • • 3*"* taken positively or negatively.
Sec further Combinatorial Analysis. (A. Ca.)
NUMENIUS, a Greek philosopher, of Apamea in Syria, Neo-
Pythagorean and forerunner of the Neo-Platonists, flourished
during the latter half of the and century a.d. He seems to have
taken Pythagoras as his highest authority, while at the same
time he chiefly follows Plato. He calls the latter an " Attidzing
Moses." His chief divergence from Plato is the distinction
between the " first god " and the " demiurge." This is probably
due to the influence of the Valentinian Gnostics and the Jewish-
Alexandrian philosophers (especially Philo and his theory of the
Logos). According to Vtwlxis' (Comment, in Timaeum, 93)
Numenius held that there was a kind of trinity of gods, the
members of which he designated as irar^p, TOi^frifSf irofq/ia
(" father," " maker," " that which is made," f.«. the world), or
ff-dTTM, iKT/woit hrbyopos (which Produs calls ''exaggerated
language "). Ihe first is the supreme deity or pure intelligence
(yovs), the second the creator of the world liftituwpy6t), the
third the world (Kbcftm), His works were highly esteemed by
the Neoplatonists, and Amdius is said to have composed nearly
100 books of commentaries upon them.
Fragments of his treatises on the points of divergence between the
Academicians and Plato, on the Good (in which according to Orieen,
Contra Cdsum, iv. 51, he makes allusbn to Jesui Chnst), and on
the mystkral sayings in Plato, are preserved in the Praeparatio
EMngelica of Eusebius. The fragments are collected in F. G.
Mullach, Praf. pkil. Crate, iii.; see also F. Thedinga, De Numenio
phUosopho PlaUmico (Bonn, 1875): Ritter and Preller, Hist. Phil.
Craecae (ed. E. Wellmann, 1698), | 624-7; T. Whituker, The Neo-
Platonists (1901).
NUMERAL (from Lat. numerus, a number), a figure used to
represent a number. The use of visible signs to represent
numbers and aid reckoning is not only older than writing, but
older than the devdopment of numerical language on the denary
system; we count by tens because out ancestors counted on
their fingers and named numbers accordingly. So used, the
fingers are really numerals, that is, visible numerical signs; and
in antiquity the practice of counting by these natural signs
prevailed in all dasses of sodety. In the later times of antiquity
the finger symbols were developed into a system capable of
expressing all numbers bdow xo,ooo. The left hand was hdd
up flat with the fingers together. The units from x to 9 were
expressed by vario'us positions of the third, fourth, and fifth
fingers alone, one or more of these being dther dosed on the palm
or simply bent at the middle joint, according to the number
meant. The thumb and index were thus left free to express the
tens by a variety of relative positioxis, e.g. for 30 their points
were brought together and stretched iforward; for 50 the thumb
was bent like the Greek F and brought against the ball of the
index. The same set of signs if executed with the thumb and
index of the right hand meant hundreds instead of tens, and the
tinit signs if performed on the right hand meant thousands.^
The fingers serve to express numbers, but to make a per-
manent note of numbers some kind of mark or tally is needed.
A single stroke is the obvious representation of unity; higher
numbers are indicated by groups of strokes. But when the
strokes become many they are confusing, and so a new sign
^ The system is described by NkoIsus Rhabda of Smyrna (8th
century a.d.), ap. N. Caussinus, De eloquentia sacra et kumana
(Paris, 1636). The Venerable Bedc gives essentially the Bamesystem,
and it long survived in the East; see especially Rfidiger, " Uber die
im Orient eebrftuchliche Fingcreprache, &c., . D.M.G» (1845), and
Palmer in Joum. of Phiioiogy, ii. 247 aqq.
must be introduced, perhaps for 5, at any rate for to, too, 1000,
and so forth. Intermediate numbers are expressed by the
addition of symbols, as in the Roman system ccxxxvia236.
This simplest way of writing numbers is well seen in the Baby-
lonian inscriptions, where all numbers from x to 99 are got by
repetition of the vertical arrowhead f -»!» and a barbed sign
^ * 10. But the most interesting case is the Egyptian, because
from its hieratic form sprang the phoenidan numerals, and frooo
them in turn those of Palmyra and the Syrians, as illustrated ia
table I . Two things are to be noted in this table — ^fiist, the way
In which groups of units come to be joined by a cross line, and then
run together into a single symbol, and, further, the suhstttution
in the hundreds of a principle of multiplication Jor the mat
addition of symbols. The same thing appears in Babykmis,
where a smaller number put to the right of the sign for 100
(T»-) is to be added to it, but put to the left gives the number ot
hundreds. Thus <1»"Xooo, .but T^-C—iio. The Egyptiacs
had hieroglyphics for a thousand, a myriad, xoo,ooo (a frog^i
million (a man with arms stcetched out in admiration), and even
for ten millions.
Alphabetic writing did not do away with the use of numerical
symbols, which were more perspicuous, and compendious thaa
words written at length. But the letters of the aJphabet theic-
selves came to be used as numerals. One way of d<ung this w£s
to use the initial letter of the name of a number as its »gn. This
was the old Greek notation, said to go back to the tiine of Sokn.
and usually named after the grammarian Herodian, who described
it about AJ>. aoo. I stood for x, n for 5, A for to, H for xoo,
X for xooo, and M for xo,ooo; H with A in its bosom was s^t
with H in its bosom it was 500. Another way common to the
Greeks, Hebrews, and Syrians, and which in Greece g^aduaJly
Syriac Palmyrene. ^Phoenician. Hieratic. Hteroglyi^ic.
1
/
r
a
rt
m
yy
////
2:^
2>. ^
1^
m
i^
ff9
ff^
09
rr^
m^
7
—7
7
i-^
ri^
mT5-?
d
/•
la
7*
-^
00
03
7-
-^5
000
W3
7'"
-^00
>ooo
0SC5
yotoo
-^5d^
Jl
"3>r
Z^
•3>i|
1^
rPHi
1
no
Ii
n.i
III
•11
Mil
4-1-1
mil
a.o
Hini
tt
\IINII
'^
u mm
«*%«=>
mill in
\ V
-»
^A\
r-»
IX
iiiiiim-»
^x
^j^.^
^
=»
\^
--jy
5C
^H
-«-
-^^
1
Af^/^
»a.
-^^^/f
?»
M4f/f
}M
-^MW
A
):^w.w-N
J>
(T^WI
J
-»
■
«i
■9
liB
■OB
niB
tmm
n
in
wets*)
,*9
nn
inn
nnn
30
nnnn
*»
nnnnn
SO
ivtnnnn
60
nnn nnnn
TO
nann nnnn
So
nnn nnn nnn
go
?
IOC
9^
JOO
f^
jao
\ Tablb I. \
displaced the Herodian numbers, was to make the first ciss
letters stand for the units and the rest for the tens and houircc^
NUMERAL
867
With the old Semitic alphabet of m letten this qntem broke
down at n»40o, and the higher hondxeds had to be fot by
juxtaposition; but when the Hebrew square diaracter got the
distinct final fonns % 0, 1, % r these served for the hundxeds from
SCO to 90a The Greeks with their larger alphabet required but
three supplemental signs, which they got by keeping for this
purpose two old Phoenician letters which were not used in
writing (f or (■■ 1 -"d. and 9.'*P'*9o)« '^ hy adding samoiw^
for 900.*
Among the Greeks the first certain use of this system seems to
be 00 coins of Ptolemy 11. The first trace of it on Semitic
ground is on Jewish coins of the Qasmoneans. It is the founda-
tion of gematiia as we find it in Jewish book and in the apoca-
lyptic number of the beast (-ep |n9»666). But we do not
know how old gematiia is; the name b borrowed from the
GreeL
The most familiar case of the use of letters as numerals is
the Roman system. Here C is the initial of centum and M of
mille; but instead of these signs we find older forms, consisting
of a circle divided vertically for xooo and horizontally, G, or in
the cognate Etruscan system divided into quadrants, ®, for
100. From the sign for xooo» still sometimes roughly shown
In print as do, comes D, the half of the symbol for half the number ;
and the older forms of L, via. 1 or X, suggest that this also was
once half of the hundred symbol So V (Etruscan A) Is half of X,
which itself is not a true Roman letter. The system, therefore,
is hardly alphabetic in origin, though the idea has been thrown
out that the signs for 10, 50, and too were originally the Greek
X, 9, ^f which were not used in writing Latin.*
When high numbers had to be expressed systems such as
we have described became very cumbrous, and In alphabetic
ifystems it became inevitable to introduce a principle of periodicity
by which, for example, the signs for i,' 3, 3, &c., might be used
with a difference to express the same number of thousands.
Language itself suggested this principle, and so we find in
Hebrew A or in Greek ^ « 1000. So further fi Mu, /9M., or simply
/S.» 20,000 (3 myriads). If now the larger were always written
to the left of the smaller elements of a num ber th e diacritic
mark could be dispensed with in such a case as fiuXa. (instead of
4p<a\a) * 3831, for here it was plain that fi^ 3000, not ■■ a, since
otherwise it would not have preceded w^Soo. We have here
the germ of the very important notion that the value of a symbol
may be periodic and defined by its position. The same Idea had
appeared much earlier among the Babylonians, who reckoned
by powers of 60, calling 60 a sass and 60 sixties a sar. On the
tableU of Senkerah a list of squares and cubes is given on this
principle, and here the square of 59 Is written 58* x— that Is,
58X60+1; and the cube of 30 is 7-30— that is, 7 sar+30 soss
•■7X6o^+3oX6a Here again we have value by position;
but, as there is no aero, it is left to the judgment of the reader to
know which power of 60 Is meant in esch case. The sexagesimal
system, long specially associated with astronomy, has left a
trace in our division of the hour and of the circle, but as hngnage
goes by powers of 10 It is practically very inconvenient for most
purposes of reckoning, llie Greek mathematicians used a sort
of dcdmal system ; thus Archimedes was able to solve his problem
of Slating a number greater than that of the grains of sand
which would fill the sphere of the fixed stars by dividing numbers
into octades, the unit of the second octade being xc^ and of the
third xo>*. So too Apollontus of Perga teaches multiplication
by regarding 7 as the wt/Bit^tp^ or 70, 700 and so forth. One must
then find successively the product of the several pythmens of the
multiplier and the multiplicand, noticing in each case what are
tens, what hundreds, and so 00, and adding the results. The
want of a sign for sero made it Impossible mechanically to
d^inguish the tens, hundreds, &c., as we now do.
> The ArsbSk who quice changed the order of the alphabet and
extended it to twvniy«ighc letrere, kept the original values of the oM
lettera (putting ^ for o and ci for w), while the hundreds from 500
to 1000 were expreascd by the new letters in order from * to^* In
the time of CaUph WaHd (a.d. 705-715) the Arabs had as yet no signs
of numeration. _^ , , ^ . . . « ..
•See further Fabreta. PaUtpapkisckt Studiau
Veiy early, however, a mechanical contrivance, the abacus, had
been introduoed for keeping numbers of different denominations
apart. This was a table with compartments or cdumns for
counters, each column representing a different value to be given
to a counter placed on it. This might be used either for concreite
arithmetic— say with columns for pence, shillings and pounds;
or for abstract reckoning— say with the Babylonian sexagesinuil
systenu An old Greek abacus found at Salamis has columns
which, taken from right to Iclt, give a counter the value of x,
10^ xoo, xooo drachms, and finally of x talent (6000 drachms)
reflectively. An abacus on the decimal system might be ruled
on paper or on a board strewed with fine sand, and was then
a first step to the dedmal system. Two important steps,
however, were still lacking: the first was to use instnd
of counters distinctive marks (ciphers) for the digits from
one to nine; the second and more important was to get a
sign for aero, so that the columns might be dispensed with, and
the denomination of each cipher seen at once by counting the
numbtf of digits following it. These two steps taken, we have
at once the modern so-called Arabic numerals and the possibility
of modem arithmetic; but the invention of the ciphers and zero
came but sk>wly, and their history is a most obscure problem.
What is quite certain is that our present decimal system, in
Its complete form, with the sero whldi enables us to do without
the ruled columns of the abacus. Is of Indian origin. From the
Indians It passed to the Arabians, probably along with the
astronomical ubies brought to Bagdad by an Indian ambassador
in 773 AJ>. At all events the system was explained in Arabic
in the early part of the 9th century by the famous Aba Ja'far
Mohammed b. Musa al-Khwarizml (Hovarezmi), and from that
time continued to spread, though at first slowly, through the
Arabian world.
In Europe the complete system with the zero was derived from
the Arabs in the X3th century, and the arithmetic based on this
system was known by the name of algoritmus, algorithm,
algorism. This barbarous word is nothing more than a tran-
scriptbn of Al-KhwftrismX, as was conjectured by Reinaud, and
has become plain since the publication of a unique Cambridge MS.
containing a Latin translation— perhaps by Adelhard of Bath—
of the lost arithmetical treatise of the Arabian mathematician.*
The arithmetical methods of Khw&rizml were simplified by later
Eastern writers, and these simpler methods were introduced to
Europe by Leonardo of Pisa in the West and Maximus Planudes
in the East. The term zero appears to come from the Arabic ^r
through the form zephvro vutd by Leonardo.
Thus far modem inquirers are agreed. The disputed points are—
(i) the oriffin and aee of the Indian system, and h) whether or not
a KM developed Indian system, without the lero out with the^ nine
other ciphers used on an abacus, entered Euroix before the rise of
Islam, and prepared the way for a complete decimal notation.
Table II.
1334 567S 9 f
Nlng Chit (Indian)* - - = j^ ^ ^ »
Cave Inscriptions
(Indian)* ""— e»i>^?7J
DevanSgarf * .
Eastern Arabfc*
' ^ J 1^ a V V 1 9 o
f . The use of numemls In India can be followed back to the
Nfini Chit inscriptions, supposed to date from the eariy part of the
3rd century B.C. These are signs for units, tens and hundreds, as
GhobKr*
Boetius*
* Published by Boncumpagni In Tmttotid' aHtmetica (Rome. 1857).
• From Sir E. C. Bayley'a paper in J.JIA^. (1883).
* From BurneU's South Indian Palatompky (1874).
* Of the loth century. (From BurnelT. op. ciL)
'Of the loth century; from a MS. written at Shirts. (From
Woepckc, Mtmcin wr la propagqiion dts ckifrts Hidiems )
• From a MS. at Paris. (From Woepcke, op. eU.)
• Erlangeo (AltdorO M& (From Woepcke. «^. oL)
868
NUMERIANUS— NUMIDIA
in the other old gyitemt we have dealt with. . Like the Indian
alphabet, they are probably derived from abroad, but, as in the caie
of the alphabet, tneir origin is obscure. The fonns of the later
Indian numerals for the nine digiu appear to be cieariy derived
from the earlier system. In table 11. the firrt two lines give forms
eariier than the mtroduction of the system of position^ while the
DevanSgari in the third line was used with a zero and position value.
The " cave " numerals were employed during the first centuries of
the Christian era. The eariiest known example of a date written
on the modem system is d A.D. 738, while the old system is found in
use as late as the eariy part of the 7th century (Bayley). On the
other hand, there is some evidence that a system of value by position
was known to Sanskrit writers on arithmetic in the 6th Christian
century. These writers, however, do not use ciphers, but symbolical
words and letters, so that it is not quite clear whether they refer to
a system which had a aero, or to a system worked on an abacus,
where the zero is represented by a blank column. There is no proof
as yet for the use of any system of position in India before the 6th
century, and nothing beyond conjecture can be offered as to its
origin.
a. In Europe, before the Introduction of the al^rithm or full
Indo-Arabic system with the zero, we find a transition eystem in
which cakulations were made on the decimal system with an abacus,
but instead of unit counters there were placed in the columns
ciphers, with values from one to nine, and of forms that are at bottom
the Indian forms and agree most neariy with the numerals used by
the Arabs of Africa and Spain. For among the Arabs themselves
there were varieties in the forms of the Indian numeral, and in
particular an eastern and a western type. The latter is called
ghobar (dust), a name which seems to connect it with the use of a
sand-spread tablet for calculation. The abacus with ciphers instead
of counters was used at Rheims about 970-980 by Gerbert. who after-
wards was pope under the title of Sylvester II., and it became well
known in tne i ith century. Where did Gerbert learn the use of the
abacus with ciphers ? There a no direct evidence as to this, for the
apanage describing the system in the Cetmutria ascribed to BoCtius.
If this Book is genuine the Indian numerals were known in Europe
and applied to the abacus in the 5th century, and Gerbert only
revived the k>ng-forgotten system. On this view we have to explain
bow Boerius got the ciphers. The Geometria ascribes the system to
the *' Pythagorid " — i.e. the Neo-Pythagoreans— and it has been
thought possible that the Indian forms Tor the numerals reached
Alexandria, along with the cruder form of value by position involved
in the use of the abacus without a zero, before direct communication
between Europe and India ceased, which it did about the 4th century
A.D. It is then further conjectured by Woepcke that the ghoblr
numerals of the western Arabs were by them borrowed from the
system of BoStius before the full Indian method with, the zero
reached them: and thus the resemblance between these forms
and those in MSS. of BoCtius. which are essentially the same as
in other MSS. of the iith century, would be explained. This view,
however, presents great difficulties, of which the total disappearance
of all trace of the system between BoCtius and Gerbert is only one.
We have no proof that the Indians ever used such an abacus, or that
they had value by position at so early a date as is required, and the
ghoblr numerals are too similar to those of the eastern Arabs to
make it verycredible that the two systems had been separated for
centuries. The genuineness of the Geometria is maintained by
Moritz Cantor, but it has been attacked on other grounds than that
of the passage about the abacus; and on the whole it is still an open
question whether the abacus with ciphers is not the outcome of an
eariy imperfect knowledge of the Arabic system, Gerbert or some
other having got the signs and a general idea of value by position
without having an explanation of the zero.
See M. Cantor, GesckichU der Mathematik, vol. t. (Leipziff. 1880):
also M. Chasles, papers in the CompUs rendus (1843): C Friedlein,
Die Zahlteichen und das elementare jUcknen der Crtecken und Rdmer,
&c. (1869); F. Woepcke. Sur Vintroduaion de Varitkmilique indien
en accident (Rome. 1859), and Mimoire sur la ptotagation aes ckiffres
indiens (Paris, 1863). For the palaeography of tne Indian numerals
see Bumell. ElemenU of S. Indian Palaeorraphy (1874) ; and Sir E. C.
Bayley in J.RA.S. (1883, 1883). For Bo«tius compare Friedlein's
edition of his arithmetic and geomctiv (Leipzig, 1867), and Weissen-
born in Zeitsch. Math. Phys. xxiv. Other references to the copious
literature will be found in Cantor and Friedlein, who also discuss the
subject of the notation for fractions, which cannot be entered on here.
For systems passed over here, see Pihan, Exposi des signes de numha-
lion usitis cket Us peuples orieniaux (Paris, i860). (W. R. S.)
NUMERIANUS, MARCUS AUREUUS, son of the Roman
emperor Cams. On the death of his father, whom he accom*
panied on his expedition against the Persians, he was proclaimed
emperor (December, aj>. 283). He resolved to abandon the
campaign, and died mysteriously on his way back to Europe,
eight months afterwards^ ^ Arrias Aper, praefect of the praetorian
guards, his father-in-law, who was suspected oC having
muxdered him, was slain by Diocletian, whom the soldiers had
already proclaim xi his successor. Numerianua is repeesented
as having been a man of considerable Uteniy attainncnts, and
of remarkably amiable character.
NUMIDIA, the name given in ancient times to a ttnct of
oountiy in the north of Africa, extending along the Meditcnanean
from the confines of Mauretania to those of the Roman province
to Africa. When the Romans first came into coUisioa with
Carthage In the 3rd century b.c, the name was applied to the
whole country from the river Mulucha (now the Muluya), about
xoo m. W. of Oran, to the frontier of the Carthaginian temtory,
which neariy coindded with the modem regency <^ Tunis. It
Is in this sense that the name Numidia is used by Polybins and
all histoiians down to the dose of the Roman republic The
Numldians, as thus defined, were divided into two great tribes,
— the Massyli on the east, and the Massaesyli on the west—
the limit between the two being the river Ampsaga, which
enters the sea to the west of the promontory called Tkctum,
now known as the Seven Capes. At the time of the aecood
Punic War the eastern tribe was governed by Masstniasa, who
took the side of the Romans in the contest, while Syphaz
hit rival, king of the Massaesyli, supported the r^rrhaginian^
At the end of the war the victorious Romans confiscated
the dominions of Syphax, and gave them to Maswnissa,
whose sway extended from the frontier of Hanretanla to the
boundary of the Carthaginian territory, and also south and
east as far as the Cyrenaica (Appian, Punica, xo6), so that tBe
Numldlan kingdom entirely surrounded Carthage except to-
wardsthesea. Massinissa. who reached a great age, retained the
whole of these dominions till his death in 148 B.a and was suc-
ceeded hi them by his son Midpsa, who died in xiS. Forthewar
with Rome which followed the death of Midpsa see JUGUXtB\.
After the death of Jugurtha as a captive at Rome in 106, the
western part of his dominions was added to those of BocchiB,
king of Mauritania, while the remainder (excluding perhaps titt
territory towards Cyrene) continued to be governed by native
princes until the dvil war between Caesar and Pooopcy, ia
which Juba I., then kmg of Numidia, who had espoosed the
cause of the Pompdans, was defeated by Caesar, and put an e»l
to his own life (46 B.C.). Numidia, in the more restricted sense
which It had now acquired, became for a short time a Roman
province under the title of Africa Nova, but in the settlenncst of
affairs alter the battle of Actlum It was restored to Juba II. (soa
of Juba I.), who had acquired the favour of Augusltas. Sooa
afterwards, in 95 b.C, Juba was transferred to the throne of
Mauretania, Including the whole western portion of the asdest
Numldlan monarchy as far as the river Ampsaga, whUe the
eastern part was added to the province of Africa, i,e. thst
part which had been called Africa Nova bdore it was given to
Juba. It retained the official title, though it may also have bees
known as Numidia; together with Africa Vetus it was eovenied
by a proconsul, and was the only senatorial province in whkb
a legion was permanently stationed, under the orders of the
senatoiial govenwr. In aj>. 37 the emperor Gaius put an cDd
to this arrangement by sending a legatus of his own to take over
the command of the legion, thus separating the military froa
the dvil administration, and practically separating Numidia or
Africa Nova from Africa Vetus, though the two were still omicd
in name (Tac. Hist. 4. 48). Under Septimus Severus (aj>. lor
sxi) Numidia was separated from Africa Vetus, and governed ^J
an imperial procurator {procurator per Numidiam); finally, under
the new organization of the empire by Diodetian. Nansia
became one of the seven provinces of the diocese ci Africa, bcjf
known as Numidia Cirtensis, and after Constantine as N. Ceo
stantina, corresponding closely in extent to the mo d em Frcn:^
province of Constantine. During all this period it reached a h^;!i
degree of dvilization, and was studded with numerous towss^
the importance of which Is attested by inscriptions (see vol
viii. of the Corpus tiucrt>/»0fiiim), and by the massive remiss
of public buildings. The invasion of the Vandab in mm. 4 4
reduced It to a condition of gradual decay; and the invasaoo d
NUMISMATICS
869
die Arabs in the Sth century again brought desolation on the
hud, which was aggravated by continual misgoveniment till the
conquest of Algeria by the French in 1833.
The chief towns of Numidia under the Romans were: in the north,
C^ta, the capital, which still retains the name Constantine given it by
Coostsfltine; Rusicada on the coast, serving as iu port, on the site
now occupied by PhilippeviUe: and east oif it Hippo Regius, well
known as the see of St Augustine, near the modem Bona. To the
Kuth in the interior were Theveste (Tebessa) and Lambaesis
(Lambeasa) with extensive and striking Roman remains, connected
by military roads with Cirta and Hippo respectively. Lambaesb
was the seat of the legion III. Augusta, and the most important
strategic centre, as commanding the passes of the Mons Aurasius, a
moantain block which separated Numidia from the GaetuUan tribes
of the desert, and which was gradually occupied in its whole extent
bv the Romans under the Empire. Including these towns there were
altogether twenty which are known to have received at one time or
aoother the title and sUtus of Roman colonies; and in the 5th
century the Notitia enumerates no less than 123 sees whose bishops
assembled at Carthage in 479.
For bibliography and account of Roman remains, see under
Afuca, Roman.
NUMISIIATIGS (Lat. nifmuiiM, ntmtsma, a coin; from the
Greek, derived from yo/ifTctv, to use according to law), the
sdence treating of coins (Low Lat. ctmem, a die) and medals
(Low Lat. medaUat » small coin).
The earliest known coins were issued by the Greeks in the 7th
century before the Christian era. By the 4th century the whole
dviliaed world used money (q.v.), each state generally having its
proper coinage. This has continued to be the case to the present
time; so that now there are few nations without a metal
currency of their own, and of these but a small proportion are
wholly unacquainted with the use of coins.
Coins, although they con6rm history, rarely correct it, and
never very greatly. The earliest belong to a time and to nations
as to which we are not otherwise wholly ignorant, and they do
not afford us that precise information which would fill in any
important details of the meagre sketch of contemporary history.
We gain from them scarcely any direct historical information,
except that certain cities or princes issued money. When in
later times the devices and inscriptions of the coins give nx>re
detailed information, history is far fuller and clearer, so that the
numismatic evidence is rarely more than corroborative. There
ve, indeed, some remarkable exceptions to this rule, as in the
case of the Bactrian and Indian coins, which have supplied the
outlines of a portion of history which was otherwise almost
wholly lost. The value of the corroborative evidence afforded
by coins must not, however, be overlooked. It chiefly relates to
chronology, although it also adds to our knowledge of the
pedigrees of royal houses. But perhaps the most interesting
manner in which coins and medals illustrate history is in their
bearing contemporary, or nearly contemporary, portraits of the
most famous kings and captains, from the time of the first
successors of Alexander the Great to the present age, whereas
pictures do not afford portraits in any number before the latter
part of the middle ages; and works of sculpture, although
occupying in this respect the same place as coins in the last-
mentioned period and under the Roman empire, are neither so
nun^erous nor so authentic. There is no more delightful com-
panion in historical reading than a cabinet of coins and medals.
The strength and energy of Alexander, the ferodty of Mith-
ndates, the philosopHic calmness of Antoninus, the obstinate
ferodty of Nero^ and the brutality of Caracalla are as plain on the
coins as in the pages of history. The numismatic portraiu of
the time following the founding of Constantinople have less
individuality; but after the revival of art they recover that
quaUty, and maintain it to our own day, although executed in
very different styles from those of antiquity. From this last
dass we can form a series of portraits more complete and not less
Interesting than that of the ancient period.
While coins and medals thus illustrate the events of history,
they have an equally direct bearing on the belief of the nations
Irfftsftm ^^ ^***^ ^^ ^"^^ issued; and in this reference Ues
^' no small part of their value in connexion with history.
The mythology of the Greeks, not having been fixed in sacied
XIX 15
writings, nor regulated by a dominant priesthood, but having
grown out of the different beliefs of various tribes and isolated
settlements, and having been allowed to form itself comparatively
without check, can scarcely be learned from ancient books. Their
writers give us but a partial or special view of it, and modem
authors, in their attempts to systenuitize, have often but
increased the confusion. The Greek coins, whether of kingi or
cities, until the death of Alexander, do not, with a few negligible
exceptions, represent the human form. Afterwards, on the regal
coins, the king's head usually occupies the obverse and a subject,
usually sacred, is placed on the reverse. The coins of Greek
cities under the empire have usually an imperial portrait and a
reverse type usually mythologicaL The whole class thus affords
us invaltiable evidence for the reconstruction of Greek mytho-
logy. We have nowhere else so complete a series of the different
types under which the divinities were represented. There are
in modem galleries very few statues of Greek divinities, including
such as were intended for architectural decoration, which are in
good style, fairly preserved, and untouched by modem restorers.
If to these we add reliefs of the same class, and the best Graeco-
Roman copies, we can scarcely form a complete series of the
various representations of these divinities, llie coins, however,
supply us with the series we desire, and we may select t3rpes
which are not merely of good work, but of the finest. The mytho-
logy of andent Italy, as distinct from that of the Greek colonies
of Italy, is not so fiUly illustrated by the coins of the country,
because these are for the most part of Greek design. There are,
however, some remarkable exceptions, especially in the money
of the Roman commonwealth, the greater number of the types
of which are of a local character, including many that refer to the
m3rths and traditions of the earliest days of the dty. The coins of
the empire are especially important, as bearing representations
of those personifications of an allegorical character to which
the influence of philosophy gave great prominence in Roman
mythology.
Coins are scarcely less -valuable in relation to geography thao
to history. The posiu'on of towns on the sea or on rivers, the race
of their inhabitants, and many similar partictilars are ^^
positively fixed on numismatic evidence. Theinforma- ^mptr*
tion that coins convey as to the details of the history of
towns and countries has a necessary connexion with geography,
as has also their illustration of local forms of wor^p. The
representations of natural productions on ancient money are of
spedal importance, and afford assistance to the lexicographer.
This is particularly the case with the Greek coins, on which
these objects are frequently portrayed with great fidelity. We
must recollect, however, that the nomenclature of the ancients
was vague, and frequently comprised very different objects
under one appellation, and that therefore we may find very
different representations corresponding to the same nitae.
The art of sculpture, of which coin-engraving is the offspring,
receives the greatest illustration itom numismatics. Not only is
the memory of lost statues preserved to us in the designs ^
of ancient coins, but those of Greece afford admirable
examples of that skill by which her sculptors attained their great
renown. The excellence of the designs of very many Greek
coins stmck during the period of the best art is indeed so great
that, were it not for their smallness, they would form the finest
series of art-studies in the world. The Roman coins, though at
no time to be compared to the purest Greek, yet represent not
unworthily the Graeco-Roman art of the empire. From the
accession of Augustus to the death of Commodus they are often
fully equal to the best Graeco-Roman statues. This may be
said, for instance, of the dupondii stmck in honour of Livia by
Hberius and by the younger Drusus, of the sestertii of Agrippina,
and of the Flavian emperors, and of the gold coins of Antoninus
Pius and the two Faustinas, all which present portraits of
remarkable beauty and excellence. The Italian medals of the
Renaissance are scarcely less useful as records of the progress and
cbancteristics of art, and, placed by the side of the Greek and
Roman coins, complete the most remarkable comparative series
of monumenU illustrating the history of the great schools of art
la
870
NUMISMATICS
that can be brought together. Ancient coins throw aome light
upon the architecture as well as upon the sculpture of the nations
by which they were struck. Under the empire, the Roman coins
issued at the dty very frequently bear representations of im-
portant edifices. The Greek imperial coinsstruck in the provinces
present similar types, representing the most famous temples and
other structures of their cities, of the form of some of which we
should otherwise have been wholly ignorant. The art of gem-
engraving among the ancients is perhaps most nearly connected
with their coinage. The subjects of coins and gems are so similar
and so similarly treated that the authenticity of gems, that most
difficult of archaeobgical questions, receives the greatest aid
from the study of coins.
After what has been said it is not necessary to do more than
mention how greatly the study of coins tends to illustrate the
contemporary literature of the nations whidi issued
them. Not only the historians, but the philosophers
and the poets, are constantly illustrated by the money of their
times. This was perceived at the revival of letters; and during
the 17th and i8th centuries coins were very frequently engraved
in the larger editions of the classics.
The science of numismatics is of comparatively recent origin.
The andents do not seem to have formed collections, although
^^ they appear to have occasionally preserved individual
2^^ spedmens for their beauty. Petrarch has the credit
^nff. of having been the first collector of any note; but it
is probable that in his time andent coins were already
attracting no little notice. The importance of the study of all
coins has since been by degrees more and more recognised,
and at present no branch of the pursuit is left wholly unexplored.
Besides its bearing upon the history, the religion, the manners,
and the arts of the nations which have used money, the science
of numismatics has a special modem use in relation to
art. Displaying the various styles of art prevalent
in different ages, coins supply us with abundant
means for promoting the advancement of art among ourselves.
If the study of many schools be at all times of advantage, it is
especially so when there is little originality in the world. Its
least value is to point out the want of artistic merit and historical
commemoration in modem coins, and to suggest that modem
medals should be executed after some study of the rules which
controlled the great works of former times.
Definitums. — ^The following are the meet necessary numismatic
definitions.
1 . A coin u a piece of metal of a fixed weight, stamped by authority
of government, and employed as a drculating medium.^
2. A medal is a piece, having no place in the currency, struck to
commemorate aome event or person. Medals are fiequently com-
prised with coins in descriptions that apply to both equally; thus,
m the subsequent definitions, by the term coins, coins and medals
must eenerally be understood.
3. The coinage of a country is usually divided into the classes of
gold, silver and bronze (copper), for which the abbreviations JV,i4l,
and M are employed in catalogues. In addition to these metals,
and to the modifications of them created by the presence of varying
amounts of alloy, certain other compounds were frequently used,
notably electnim, billon, brass and potin.
^ This definition excludes, on the one hand, paper currencies and
their equivalents among barbarous nations, such as cowries, because
they are neither of metal nor of fixed weight, although either
stamped or sanctioned by authority, and, on the other hand, modes
of keeping metal in weiaht, like the so-called Celtic " ring-money,"
because it is not stamped, although perhaps sanctioned by authority.
The latter has attracted much attention, but it is by no means made
out that the rings were made with the primary intention of servmjj
as money. But it is a very common usage amonff savage or scmi-
savage races to wear all their wealth in the form 01 omamenu (as a
woman may even now wear her dowry as omamenU in the fonn of
coins) and to use the ornaments (or cut-off portions of them, " *kiU-
ings ") whenever occasion arises as a medium of exchange. These
rings then were doubtless used in this manner, but they were no more
money than were any other predous possessions which could be used
in exchange. There b no good evidence for the use of the little
Gaulish " wheels " as money. On these questions see Blanchet,
Monn. gaul. pp. 24-29. On the border of the definition are such
prehistoric " dumps " of metal as have been found at Eakomi m
Cyprus and at Cnossus in Crete; one of these indeed seens to bear
traces of a mark of some kind.
IDEFINmONS
4. £kctnMi(fX«cfpsv, fktttr^ott XcmAc x^v^)taeompoaadaietaOk
substance, consisting of gold with a consderabic alloy of silver.
Pliny makes the proportion to have been four pans of «Md to one of
silver.' The material of early coins of Asia Minor struck in the cities
of the western coast is the andent dectrum. The amount of s3vcr
varies very considerably with time and place. GoU laxgdy ano>«d
with silver, not struck by the andent Greeks or their noghboun,
shouki be termed ^aJc £OM,as in the case of some of the late Byzamutt
and a
BilhH, a term applied to the base metal of some Roman cobi^
also to that of some medieval and modem coins. It omtaios
about one-fifth silver to four-fifths copper. When the base silver
coins are replaced by copper washed with silver the term fatDoa
becomes inappropriate.
6. Brasst a mixture of copper and zinc It may be used as aa
equivalent to the orichalcum of the Romans, a fine kind of brass ol
which the sestertii and dupondii were struck, but it is commooly
applied indiscriminately to the whole of their copper currency under
the empire.
7. Petint an alloy of copper and tin (therefore a variiety of bnose)
used for some late Gaulish coins.
8. Various other metallic substances have been used ia ooisage,
induding iron (in Peloponnesus) and an aUoy of copper and nkkd
employed for some Bactrian coins. The so<aIkd " glaas coins " of
the Arabs are merely coin-weights.
9. The forms of coins have greatly varied in different c o untri es
and at different periods. The usual form in both ancient aad
modem times has been circular, and generally of no great Thkknfss .
10. Coins are usually measured by millimetres, or by inches aad
tenths, the greatest dimension being taken, or, wbien they are sqoaxe
or oval, the greatest dimension in two directions.
11. The veigkt of a coin is of great importance, both in determining
its genuineness and in distinguishing its identity. Metric weights
are used by most numismatists except in England, where txuy
weight b stdl in general use.
12. The specific gravity of a coin may be of use in detemiiuBC
the metals in its composition.
13. Whatever reprcsenutions or diaracten are borne fav a can
constitute its type. The subject of each side u also called a type,
and, when there is not only a device but an inscripcioa. the latter
may be excluded from the term. This last is the genera! use. No
distinct rule has been laid down as to what makes a diffeimce of
type, but it may be conadered to be an emential diffexcace. howci«r
14. A difference too small to constitute a new type makes a
Mfit/y.
15. A coin is a duplicate of another when it agrees with it in al
particulars but those of exact siie and wdght. Strictly speaksas.
andent coins are rarely, if ever, duplicates, except when nnA
from the same pair of dies.
16. Struck coins are those on whkh the designs are produced by
dies impressed on the blank piece {or flan) of metal by sonie form of
hammering or pressure; they are distinguished from eaU coias
made by running metal into a mould.
17. (5f the two sides of a coin, that is called the oteerss which bears
the more important device. In early Greek coins it is tbe coo\^a
side, or the side impressed by the lower die; in Greek and Roiaaa
imperial it is the side bearing the head; in medieval and nodera
that bearing the royal effigy, or the kins's name, or the name of the
dty: and in Oriental that on which the inscriptkn begins^ Tbe
other side is called the reverse. . , ^ ^ ...
18. The fiM of a coin is the space unoccupied by the pnaapal
devices or inscriptkms. Any detached independent dcsict cr
eharacter is said to be in the fiekl, except when it oocupaes tbe
19. The exergue is that part of the reverse of a coin which is betew
the main device, and distinctly separated from it; it often bean a
secondary inscription. Thus, the wcU-known mscnption CONOB
occupies the exeigue of the late Roman and eariy Byxamine gold
ao. Theerfwofacoinisthesurfaceofiuthickneaa.
ii. By the inscription oc inscriptions of a c«n aB the lettess
it bean are intended: an inscription b dther principal «
22. iPdescribing coins the terms ri^hl and Up meut the f%^t
and left of the spectator, not the hcrakfac and mihtary ngfatandleS:.
or those of the coin. . , . . . j . - •
23. A 6f«« U the representation of the head and ne^: it »
commonly used of such as show at least the collar-bone, other bi-;Tj
being called heads. A head property means the representatmi cf 1
headalone, without any part of the neck, but it is also commonly c^
*Hist. not. xxxiii. 23: cp. xxxvii. il. Pliny distuiguiAes two
kinds of " electron,"— amber, and this metallic subsUnce. In Gm^
poetry the name seems to apply to both, but it u generally dt»r- .
todedde which is meant in any parttcuUr case. Sophodes, howevx?.
where he mentkms rAwi ZApSmv <^*"«fi •, • ' «i!** "^Sf** »^*^
(Ant. 1037-1039). can scarcely be doubted to refer to tbe umn
dectrum.
GREEK COIKS]
NUMISMATICS
871
when any part of the neck above the ool]ar4xMie ia afaown. The
preaieat article follows cuatom in the use of the terms bust and
Juad. When the neck is clothed, the bust ia saU to be draped.
24. A bust or head is either facing, usually three-quarter face, or
in pro61e. in which latter case it b described as Ic rigkt or to left.
Two busts may be placed in various relative positions, as jugate or
confronted.
2K. A bust wearing a lauxel-wreath is said to be lammU.
36. A bust bound with a regal fillet (diadem) is called diaiemed,
37. A bust wearing a crown with rays is said to be rodisle.
38. An object in the field of a coin which is neither a letter nor
a mottogiam is usually called a symbol. This term is. however, only
applicable when such an object is evidently the badge of a town or
individuaL The term adjunctt which is sometimes employed instead
of symbol, is manifestly incorrect.
39. A mnt-marh is a difference olaoed by the authorities of the
mint upon all money struck by them, or upon each new <tie or
separate issue.
aa A coin is said to be " over-struck " or " re-«tnick ** when it
has been struck on an older coin, of which the types are not altogether
obliterated.
31. A double-struck coin is one in which the die or dies have shifted
BO as to cause a double impression.
33. A coin which presents two obverse types, or two reverse types,
or of which the types of the obverse and reverse do not correspond,
is called a muU ; it u the result of mistake or caprice.
Arrangement oj Coins. — No uniform system has as yet been
applied to the arrangement of all coins. It is usual to separate
them into the three great classes of ancient coins (comprising
Greek and Roman), medieval and modem, and Oriental coins.
The details of these classes have been differently treated, both
generally and specially. The arrangement of the Greek series
has been first geographical, under countries and towns, and then
chronological, for a further division; that of the Roman series,
chronological, without' reference to geography; that of the
medieval and modem, the same as the Greek; and that of the
Oriental, like the Greek, but unsystematically — a treatment
inadmissible except in the case of a single empire. Then, again,
some numismatists have separated each denomination or each
metal, or have separated the denominations of one metal and not
of another. There has been no general and comprehensive
system, constructed upon reasonable principles, and applicable to
every branch of this complicated science. Without laying down
s system of rules, or criticizing former modes of arrangement,
we offer the following as a classification which is uniform without
being servile.
I. Creek Coins. — ^AIl coins of Greeks, or barbarians who adopted
Creek money, struck before the Roman rule or under it, but without
imperial effigies. The countries and their provinces are placed in a
geographicar order from west to cast, according to the system of
Ecldiel, with the cities in alphabetical order under the provinces, and
the kings in chronological order. The civic coins usually precede
the regal, as being the more important. The coins are further
arranged chronologically, the civic commencing with the oldest and
ending with those bearing the effigies of Roman eroperon. The
gold ccnns of each period take precedence of the nlver and the silver
of the copper. The larger denominations in each metal are placed
before the smaller. Coins of the same denomination and period are
arranged in the alphabetical order of the magistrates' names, or the
ktters, &c., that tney bear.
3. Roman Coins.— Ail coins issued by the Roman commonwealth
and empire, whether struck at Rome or in the provinces. The
arran^ment is chronological, or, where this is bener, under geo-
graphical divisions.
5. Medieval and Modem Coins of Europe. — ^AII coins issued by
CHiristian European states, their branches and colonies, from the
fall of the empire of the West to the present day. Thb class is
arranged in a geographical and chronological order, as similar as
possible to that 01 the Greek class, with the important exception
of the Byzantine coins and the coins following Byzantine systems,
whkh occupy the first place. The reason for this deviation is that
the Byzantine money may be regarded not only as the principal
aouroe oi medieval coinage but as the most complete and jmporunt
medieval series, extending as it does without a break throughout
the middle ages. The regal coins usually precede the civic ones, as
being the more important. The medals of each nation should be
arranged in two series: (i) medals of rulers, according to their dates;
(3) medals of private persons, as far as posnble according to the artists.
4. Oriental Coins. — All coins bearing inscriptions in Eastern
lan^ges. excepting those of the Jews, Phoenicians and Cartha-
ginians, which are classed with the Greek coins from their close
connexion with them. These coins should be arranged under the
following divisions: Ancient Persian, Acab, Modem Penian, Indian,
Chinese and coina of the Far East.
This method of arrmiweaient will be found to be as untform as
it can be made, without oeing absolutely mechanical. It diffen in
some important particulan from most or all of those which have
previously obtained: but these very differences are the result of
the consideration of a complete collection, and have therefore an
inductive origin. A general uniformity is no slight gain, and may
well mondle us to Mme partial defects.
I. Gbxex Codis
There are some matters reUiting to Greek coins in general
which may be properly considered before they are described in
geographical order. These are their general character, the chief
denominations, with the different talents of which they were the
divisions, their devices and inscriptions, their art, and the mode
of striking.
The period during which Greek coins were Issued was probably
not much less than a thousand years, commencing about the
beginning of the 7th century B.C. and generally ending at the
death of Gallienus (aj>. 368). If classed with reference only
to their form, fabric, and general appearance they are of three
principal types— the archaic Greek, the ordinary Greek, and the
Graeco-Roman. Thecoinsof the first class are of silver, electnmi
and sometimes gold. They are thick lumps of an irregular
round form, bnring on the obverse a device, with in some cases
an accompanying inscription, and on the reverse a square or
oblong mcuse stamp iguadraium incusum), usually divided in a
rude manner. The coins of the second class are of gold, electrum,
silver and bronze. They are much thmner than those of the
preceding class, and usually have a convex obverse and a slightly
concave or flat reverse. The obverse ordinarily bears a head in
bold relief. The coins of the third class are, with very few
exceptions, of bronze. They are flat and broad, but thin, and
generally have on the obverse the portrait of a Roman emperor.
Many Greek dtics, however, during the empire Issued ptasi-
autonomous coins bearing the head of some deity or personifica-
tion. Greek coins thtis fall mainly into the classes <t( autono-
mous, quasi-autonomous and imperial. The coinage of Roman
colonies in Greek as in other lands is usually distinguished by
Latin inscriptions.
Since Greek coinage originated in Asb Minor, the coins were ad-
iusted to the weight-systems there in use, and these eo back to a
Babylonian origin. But it is posable that some of tne ^
standard of Greece proper had a native origin. The unit
of weisht in the East was the shekel {sielos). This 1
Ak of the manah (mtfio, mna), and this fy of the uk ,
This scale the Greeks modified, in that, surtins from the sislos as
unit, they invented a money-mina of 50 sigli, with a money-talent of
60 mtnae or ^000 n^li. The sislos-units (and corresponding standards)
chiefly employed in Asia Minor were the following (the reUtion
between gold and rilvcr at the time of the invention of these units
seems to have been 13) :i) .—
Gold shekel, 8*40 grammes.
Phoenician silver shekel, 7*44 g."*i^ of XI 1*73 g. of silver, which
was equivalent to 8*4 g. of gold.
Babylonian or Persic silver shekel, it*i7 g.^t^of 111*73 g. of
silver, which was equivalent to 8*4 g. cl gold.
Thus one gold shekel was the equivalent of 15 Phoenician or 10
Babylonian silver shekels, ^de by side with this system was another
in which the weights were exactly double oC those just given; a
shekel of the heavier system might be regarded as a doubto shekel
of the lighter. Various Babylonian wdghts are extant, datine from
3000 B.C. downwards, which prove the existence of minae of the two
systems. The gold shekel standard was almost invariably used for
cold coins, sometimes also for electrum. The Babylonian and
Phoenician standards were also sometimes used for gold or electrum
as well as nlver. A weight more or less approaching that of the ^old
shekel or its multiples seems to have been usual all over the civilized
world in Greek times; e.g. the Phocaean standard of 16-53 g. was
but a modification of it. But for silver in Greece proper, from a very
early period, the following standards prevailed : the Aeginetic (unit,
didracnm or stater, of I3*6 g.) and the Eutxnc- Attic (stater of 8-73 g.).
with its modification the Corinthian. The Euboic-Attic standatd
attained enormous importance owing to the spread of Athenian trade
and the adoption of the weight by Alexander of Macedon. It was
used for both gold and rilver. The Corinthian standard differed only
in its divirional system, the stater being divided into thirds instead
of halves. From it were derived some of the standards in use among
the Greeks of S. Italy. Other standards of more local importance
were: the Campanian, used in a large part of S. Italy (didrachm
originally of 7*41 g., afterwards reduced), and perhaps derived from
Sj^
NUMISMATICS
[CREEK COIN!
the Phoenician; the Rhodian Cmitituted about 400 B.C., tetra-
drachm about IS g.) : ftnd the dstophoric (from about 200 B.c.» with
a tetradtachm ol about I2'73 e.)'
The following table exhibits the weights in grammes
Haas, of the principal denominations of the Greek systems: —
Ck>ld Shekel
System.
Babylonian
or Persic
Phoenician.
Aeginetic.
Euboic- Attic
Double shekel, dwtatcr or tetradrachm
Shekel, stater or didrachm ....
Hemistatcr or drachm
Third or tetrobol
Twelfth or obol
1680
8*40
4ao
a*8o
0'70
33-40
11-30
5-60
3-73
0-93
14-93
7-46
3-73
35-30
ia-60
6.30
4-4«
1-13
1744
§•72
436
3.9a
0-73
The term stater is usually applied to the didrachm, but also to the
tetradrachm, and at Cytiene to the drachm.
■The bronze standards have been less fully discussed. Some notice
of them will be given under different geographical heads.
In the types <H Greek coins (using the term in iu restricted sense)
the first intention of the designers was to indicate the city or state by
- which the money was issued. The necessity for distinctive
Tjfpta. devices was most strongly felt in the earlier days of the
art, when the obverse of a coin alone bore a design, and, if any
inscription, only the first letter, or the first few letters, of the name
of the people by whom it was issued. Whatever may have been the
original significance of the type in itself, religious or otherwise, it wsw
adopted for the coinaj^e — at least in the eariiest times— because it
was the badge by which the issuing authority was recognized. It
was only with the increased complexity of the denominations in later
times, when new distingubhing types had to be found, that— as in
the 4th century B.C. — the religious motive in the choice of types came
deliboately into play.
Greek coins, if arranged according to their types, fall into three
classes: (x) civic coins, and regal without portraits of sovereigns;
„^^^^ (2) regal coins bearing portraits; and (3) Graeco-
Roman coins, whether with imperial heads or not. The
coins of the first class have either a device on the obverse and the
quadralum incusum on the reverse, or two devices; and these
last are again either independent of each other, though connected
by being both local, or— and this is more common— that on the
reverse is a kind of complement of that on the obverse. It will be
best first to describe the character of the principal kinds of types
of the first class, and then to notice their relation. It must be
noted that a head or bust is usually an obverse type, and a figure
or group a reverse one, and that, when there is a head on both
obverse and reverse, that on the former is usually larger than the
other, and represents the personage locally considered to be the
more important of the two. We must constantly bear in mind
that these types are local if we would imderstand their meaning.
In the following list the types of Greek coins of
Sifc*^' cities, and of kings, not having regal portraits, arc
22£. chissed in a systematic order, without reference to
their relative antiquity.
I. Head or figure of a divinity worshipped at the town, or by
the people, which issued the coin, as the head of Athena on
coins of Athens, and the figure of Heracles on coins of Boeotian
Thebes. Groups are rare until the period of Graeco-Roman
coinage.
3. Natural or artificial Qbjects — (a) animal, often sacred to a
divinity of the place, as the owl (Athens) and perhaps the
tortoise (Aegina); (b) tree or plant, as the silphium (Cyrene)
and the olive-branch (Athens); (c) arms or implements of
divinities, as the arms of Heracles (Erythrae), the tongs of
Vulcan (Aesemia). It is difficult to connect many objects com-
prised in this class with local divinities. Some of them, as the
tunny at Cyzicus, are doubtless only so connected because the
chief industry of a place was placed under the tutelage of its
chief divinity.
3. Head or figure of a local genius — (a) river-god, as the
Gelas (Gela); (6) nymph. of a lake, as Caxnarina (Camarina);
{c) nymph of a fountain, as Arethusa (Syracuse).
4. Head or figure of a fabulous personage or half-human
monster, as a Gorgon (Neapolls Macedoniae), the Minotaur
(Cnossus).
5. Fabulous animal, as Pegasus (Corinth), a griffin (Panti-
capacum), the Chimaera (Sic>'on).
6. Head or figure of a hero or founder^ as Ulysses (Ithaca), the
Lesser Ajaz (Locri OpuntlQi Tarss, founder of Tarentmn
(Tarentum).
7. Objects connected with h er o es a nimal connected with
local hero, as the Calydonian boar or his jaw-bone (Aetoliaos).
8. Celdirated real
or traditional sacred
localities, as moon-
tains 00 which divioi-
tics are seated, the
labyrinth (Coossos).
9. RepresentatioQs
connected with the
public religious festivals and contests, as a chariot victotioos
at the Olympic games (Syracuse).
The relation of the types of the obverse and reverse of a coin
is a matter requiring careful consideration, since they frequently
illustrate one another. As we have before observed, this rdation
is either that of two independent objects, which are connected
only by their reference to the same place, or the one is a kind of
complement of the other. Among coins illustrating the funxwr
dass we may instance the beautiful silver didiachms of Camarisa,
having on die obverse the head of the river-god Hippaiis and on
the reverse the nymph of the lake carried overits waters by asvan,
and those of Sicyon, having on the obverse the Chimaera and oq
the reverse a dove. The latter dass is capable of being separated
into several divisions. When the head of a divinity occuis on the
obverse of a coin, the reverse is occupied by an object or objects
sacred to that divinity. Thus the common Atbeniaa tetra-
drachms have on the one side the bead of Athene and on the
other an owl and an olive-branch; the tetradracfams of the
Chalddians in Macedonia have the head of Apollo and the Ijrre;
and the copper coins of Erythrae have the bead of Herades aztd
his weapons. The same is the case with subjects relating to the
heroes: thus there are drachms of the Aetolian League wfakh
have on the obverse the head of Atalanta and on the reveise
the Calydonian boar, or his jaw-bone and the spear-head with
which he was killed. In the same manner the coins of CnoBos,
with the Minotatir on the obverse, have on the reverse a plan of
the Labyrinth. Besides the two prindpal devices there axe of ten
others of less importance, which, although always sacred, and
sometimes symbols of local divinities, are gennaBy indicative of
the position of the town, or have some reference to the f^wiaj**
of magistrates -who used them as badges. Thus, for nramplf,
besides such representations as the olive-branch sacred to
Athene on the Athenian tetradrachms, as a kind of second
device dolphins are frequently seen on coins of maritime places;
and almost every series exhibits many symbols whi^ can only
be the badges of the magistrates with whose names they occur.
Regal coins of this class, except Alexander's, usually bear
types of a load character, owing to the small extent of most
of the kingdoms, which were rather the territories of a dty
than considerable states at the period when these coins woe
issued.
The second great dass—that of coins of kings bearing pottraiis
— is necessarily separate from the first. Religious feeling affQti&
the due to the long exdusion of regal portraits — the ^
feeling that it would be profane for a mortal to take y^ ^J* ^
a place always assigned hitherto to the immortah.
Were there any doubt of this, it would be rcnaoved hj
the character of the earliest Greek rtpd portrait, tbat at
Alexander, which occurs on coins of Lysimachus. 'Tkus is wt
the representation of a living personage, but of one who wu not
only dead but had recdved a kind of a^totheosas* auid who,
having been already called the son of Zeus Ammoo while hviat.
had been treated as a divinity after his death. He is thcrelorr
portrayed as a young Zeus Ammon. Probably, howc i cr ,
Alexander would not have been able, even when dead, tins t:
usurp the pbce of a divinity upon the coins, had not the Greeks
become accustomed to the Oriental " worship " of the sovovlgs.
which he did not discourage. This innovation rapidly pctMios^
a complete change; every king of the houses which w<eve raisE^
on the ruins of the Greek em|Hre could place his portraiit on tit
GREEK COINS]
NUMISMATICS
873
money which he issued, and few neglected to do so, while the
sovereigns of Egypt and Syria even assumed divine titles.
The reign of Alexander produced another great change m
Greek coinage, very different from that we have noticed. He
suppressed the local types almost throughout his empire, and
compelled the towns to issue his own money, with some slight
difference for mutual distinction. His successors followed the
same policy; and thus the coins of this period have a new
character. The obverses of regal coins with portraits have the
head of the sovereign, which in some few instances gives place to
that of his own or his country's tutelary divinity, while figures of
the latter sort almost exclusively occupy the reverses. Small
symbols, letters, and monograms on the reverses distinguish the
towns in this class.
The Graeco-Roman coins b^n, at different periods, with the
seizure by Rome of the territories of the Greek states. They are
almost all bronze; and those in that metal are the
most characteristic and important. In their types we
sec a further departure from the religious intention of
those of earlier times in the rare admission of representations,
not only of eminent persons who had received some kind of
apotheosis, such as great poets, but also of others who, although
famous, were not, and in some cases probably could not have
been, so honoured. We also observe on these coins many types
of an allegorical character.
The following principal kinds of types may be specified, in
addition to those of the two previous classes, (i) Head or
figurie of a famous personage who either had received a kind of
apotheosis, as Homer (Smyrna), or had not been so honoured,
as Herodotus (Halicamassus) and Lais (Corinth). (2) Pictorial
representations, always of a sacred character, although o<xasion-
ally bordering on caricature. We may instance^ as of the latter
sort, a very remarkable type representing Athene playing on the
double pipe and seeing her distorted face refleaed in the water,
while Marsyas gazes at her from a rock— a subject illustrating
the myth of the invention of that instrument (Apamea Phrygiae).
is) Allegorical types, as Hope, &c., on the coins of Alexandria of
£gypt> and many other towns. These were of Greek origin, and
owed their popularity to the sculpture executed by Greeks under
the empire; but the feeling which rendered such subjects
prominent was not that of true Greek art, and they are essentially
characteristic of the New Attic school which attained its height
at Rome under the early emperors.
There is a class of coins which is always considered as part of
the Graeco-Roman, although in some respects distinct. This
is the colonial series, struck in Roman coloniae, and having
almost always Latin inscriptions. As, however, these coloniae
were towns in all parts of the empire, from Emerita in Spain
(Merida) to Bostra in Arabia, in the midst of a Greek population
and often of Greek origin, their coins help to complete the series
of civic money, and, as we might expect, do not very markedly
differ from the proper Greek imperial coins except in having
Latin inscriptions and showing a preference for Roman types.
We have now to speak of the meaning of the inscriptions of
Greek coins. These are either principal or secondary; but tne former
MmmeHom *** always intended when inscriptions are mentioned
JiZ!^ without qualification, since the secondary ones are non-
"^* essential. The inscription of civic money is almost always
the name of the pcopid by wniclT it was issued, in thejeenitive
plural, as A9HNAIfU« on coins of the Athenians, ZYPAsOSinN
on coins of the Syracusans, or the name of the city in the genitive
•ingular, as AKPATANTOS at Agrigentum. The inscription of
regal money is the name, or name and title, of the sovereign in
the genitive, as AAEBAlf APOY, or BA7;TAIBfl7. AAJBSAKAPOY,
on coins of Alexander the Great. Instead of this genitive an ad-
jective is sometimes found, as 'A/mco&k^ on early Arcadian coins,
^AXc{iw8p«ot on staters of Alexander of Pherae. This genitive or
adjectival form implies a nominative understood, which has been
Senerally supposed to be «&/ua/Mi " money," or the name of some
enomination.
There are a few instances in which a nominative of this kind is
expressed on coins— «AENO£ EMI ZHMA. " I am the badge
€>i Phaeno (?) or Phanes " on an archaic Ionian coin; rOPTYNCHS
TOnAIKA, "the striking, struck piece, or type of Gortys";
♦AirnON TO nAIMA SEYOA AHTYPION (silver money), or
KOHMA ("striking" or "struck piece"); and KOTYOZ
XAPAXTHP ('* engraving*' or "engnved piece"). Seuthes (end of
5th century B.C.) and Cotys (i«t century B.C.), semi-barbarian Thra-
cians, afford no evidence Tor Greek usage. The other instances (all
archaic) point to the nominative understood in early times being in
reality some word meaning type, or badge. But, tf so, this latent
nominative was eventually superseded by one meaning " money "
or " onn." Thus the staters of Alexander of Pherae ate inscribed
'AX<{d«5p«iot, his drachms 'AX<(aj>6p*ta. Probably from the ath
century onwards " coin " was always understood. Occasionally
the name of the issuing authority is found in the nominative, as
K6Aie (at Curoae), AAmXc (Zande-Messana), 'A9e 6 KMot on a
late coin probably issued by the Athenians in Delos, Tdpas at
Tarentum. These are by no means always descriptive of the type,
but merely a straightforward way of naming the issuing authority.
The simple inscriptions of the eariy period of Greek coinage arc under
the kings and the Roman emoire replaced by elaborate legends, most
of which, however, fall under the description above given. A
certain number of inscriptions directly describe the type (not merely
giving the name of its owner) as Zufflwo>ut (the godfdess of Gela) or
NUa (at Terina). Others, especially in Roman times, indicate the
reason of issue, as 'Io«6aXat UXuxvlat on coins of Judaea under
Vespasian, or names of festi^rada for which the coins were issued.
These, however, properly belong to the class of secondary inscriptions
which either describe secondi^ types, as A6AA, " rewards,"
accompanying the representation of the arms given to the victor
in the exergues of Syrsicusan decadrachms,* or are the names of
magistrates or other officers, or in regal coins those of cities, or are
those of the engravers of the dies, of whom sometimes two wer^
employed, one for the obverse and the other for the reverse, or are
dates. These inscriptions are often but abbreviations or monograms,
especially when they indicate cities on the regal coins.
The importance of Greek coins as illustrating the character of
contemporary art cannot be easily overrated. They are beyond all
other monuments the granunar of Greek art. Their geo- . .
ffraphical and historical range is only limit«i by Greek 2»to^
history and the Greek world; as a series they may be «'«'■*•
called complete; in quality they are usually worthy of a place beside
contemporary sculpture, having indeed a more uniform merit ; they
are sometimes the work of great artists, and there is no question oT
their authenticity, nor have they suffered from the injurious hand of
the restorer. Thus they teU us what other monuments leave untoki.
filling up gaps in the sequence of works of art, and revealing local
schools Known from them alone.
The art of coins belongs to the province of relief, which lies between
the domains of sculpture and of painting, partaking of the character
of both, but most influenced by that which was dominant in each age^
Thus in antkiuity relief mainly shows the rule of sculpture; in the
Renaissance that of painring.
It may be expected that Greek coins will bear the impress of the
sister art of sculpture, filling up the gaps in the sequence of examples
of the art of wnich we have reinains> telling us somewhat of that
which has but a written tradition. Our first duty b to endeavour to
place the documents in the best order, separating the geographical
from the historical indications, first examining the evklence of local
schools, then those of the succession of styles. It is from coins alone
that we can discover the existence of great local schools, reflecting
the character <A the different branches of the Hellenk: race. In
tracing the changes in these schools we gain a great additbn to our
ideas of the successive styles, and can detect new examples of those
which owe their fame to the leading masters. But in dealing with
works in relief we have the advantage due to their intemiediate
character. In our laiver geographical horixon we can trace the
character of the successive styles, not of sculpture only, but also of
sculpture and painting.
Greek coins clearly mdicate three great schools, each with its
subordinate groups. The school of central Greece holds the first
place, including the northern group centred in Thrace
and Macedonia, and the southern in the Peloponnesus,
with the outlying special schools of Crete and Gyrene.
The Ionian school has its northern group, Ionia, Mysia and
Aeolis, and its southern, Rhodes and Caria. Beyond these are
certain barbarous and semi-barbarous groups, of which the
most important is that of eastern -Asif liiinor, Persia and
Phoenicia, with Cyprus. The school of the West comprises the
two groups of Italy and Sidly.
The whole duration of the schools is limited, by the repulse of
the Persians and the accession of Alexander, from 480 to 53 a B.C.
Before this age all is archaic, and it is hard to trace local character-
istics. After it, the centralizing policy of the sovereigns and the
fall of the free cities destroyed local art. In certain cultivated
centres under enlightened kings a local art arose, but it speedily
became general, and we have thus to think of a succession of styles
*The arms on the Syracusan decadrachms repr e sent a reward
given to the victon in the Assinarian games (see below).
874
NUMISMATICS
(CREEK COINS
during the rest of the life of Greek art. The century and a half
oi the local schools is significantly the great age of this art.
In the study of each school we have first to determine its
character, and then to look in its successive phases for the
influence of the great masters of style. Two dangers must
be avoided. We must not too shaiply divide the sculptors
and the painters as if they always were true to the special
functions of their arts. It is well to bear in mind that the
earliest great painter, Polygnotus, was a portrayer of character,
JcaX^f ificnffia^y ifiuabit as Aristotle calls him, whereas the
btest great sculptors represented expression (rd Th&n). Thus
since JJ0of is the special province of sculpture, and rd ird^ of
painting, sculpture first weighed down the balance, afterwards
painting; but it must be remembered that relief can be truer
to painting than sculpture in the round, which is more limited
by the conditions of the material and mechanical necessities.
Our second danger is due to the ease with which local qualities
may be ascribed to the influence of a leading style. It is also
to be borne in mind that the movement of art in coins was during
one period slower than in sculpture — ^hence an influence more
general than particular. Phcidias and Myron do not make their
mark so much as Polyclitus. In all cases the direct influence
of great masters is to be kx>ked for later than their age.
The school of central Greece in its southern group, comprehend-
ing Attica, is remarkable for its widespread extent. It has its
cobnics in Magna Graeda at Thurium, an Athenian
^^ff^ foundation, probably at Terina, and in Macedonia at
Amphipolis and Chalcidice under Athenian rule. It
alone shows instances comparable to the works of Fheidias, though
its roost numerous fine works are of the age of Pdyditus and
that of Praxiteles and Scopas. Its qualities may be seen by
comparison of the same subjects as treated by the other schools
and groups. The earliest works are marked more than any
others by the qualities of high promise which characterized the
Aeginetan marbles — the same dignified self-restraint and calm
simpUdty. Next we perceive a series strong in style, and
showing that bfty dignity, that reposeful embodiment of
character, which are the stamp of the works of Pheidias and his
contemporaries. The subjects are more remarkable for fidelity,
breadth and boldness than for delicacy of execution or elabora-
tion of ornament. Every subject is ideal, even the portrayal
of animal form. Thus the character shows us what divinity is
intended and the ideality what is intended by the representation
of beast or bird. From these works we pass to those which
reflect the style of the time of Praxiteles and Scopas, when the
influence of painting began to be fdt, and art inclined towards
feeling and descended to sentiment. Still, to the last, character
rules these coins, and the chief difference we see is in the increased
love of beauty for its own sake and the fondness for representing
movement, not to the exdusion of repose, but by its side. In
other respects there is little change except in the finer execution
and more ornamental quality of the work. Even when the
greatest achievement of the Sicilian school, the female head on
the decadrachms of Syracuse, is copied by the Locrians and the
Mcssenians, the larger quality of the school of Greece nsserts
itself, and the copy is better than the original: there is less
artifice and more breadth. The northern group is at first ruder,
in the age of Phddias severer, and afterwards it merges into thf
greater softness of its southern rival. If it copies^ as Larissa may
copy Syracuse and Neapolis in Campania, it again asserts its
superior simplicity, and we prefer the copy to the original.
The Ionian school lacks the sequence which the rest of the
Greek world affords. It is broken by the baneful influence of
,^^^^ the Persian dominion, and consequently the best works
belong to the earliest and latest part of the period.
The earliest coins, of the Aeginetan age, present nothing spedal;
the later, of the time of Praxiteles and Scopas, comprise works
not inferior to those of central Greece, and remarkable, ^like the
Western and the Cretan, as the sole records of a school otherwise
unknown. They are markedly characterized by the qualities
of the style of feeling, that of Praxiteles and Scopas; but more
than this, they are the expceasioa of that style in pictorial form.
They represent expression, and they treat it as it could not be
treated in sculpture m the round, portraying locks streaming
in the air and flowing draperies. It must be remembered that,
while Hellas produced the great sculptors, western Asia Minor
bred the great painters after Polygnotus, himself a sculptor in
painting rather than a painter. In the native land of Zeuzis,
Parrhasius and Apelles we see the evidence of the rule of painting.
The technical skill is inferior to that of the West, yet the skill ia
modelling is far greater, and has no paralld in the medallic wozk
of any other time or country.
The school of the West, if we except such outlying examples of
the art of Hellas as those of Thurium and Terina, has its highest
expression in Italy, its most characteristic in Sicily. -^^^^
It has distinctive qualities throughout the age. Even ^*^
in the earlier perkxi we trace a striving after beauty and a
delicacy of finish, with a weakness of purpose, that mark
the school with an influence increasing to a time long after (he
extinction of its rivals. At the same time there is a knowledge
of the capacity of the materials and the form of the coin aad
a masterly power of finish, on the whole a completeness of
technical skill which is unequalled. The result in the knrct
subjects is splendid, if wanting in variety, but in the higher ve
miss the noble achievements of the greater schools. So far these
is a general agreement in the northern and southern groups.
Yet the Italian shows a nobler and simpler style, with soo:e
affinity to that of central Greece, which we look for in vain ia
Sicily, though we are dazzled by the rich beauty of the magni-
ficent series of coins which marks her wealthiest age. StdLtan
art has thb apparent advantage, that the great dties, save
Syracuse, perished in the Carthaginian invasion, or under the
tyranny of the dder Dionysius. Thus we have no important
works save of Syracuse during the second half of our period, and
cannot judge fully to what this school would have fallen. The
key to this exceptional development of Greek art Is found in
the absence of sculptors or painters in the West, except only
Pythagoras of Rhegium at the very beginning of the age, wfaoae
influence is thought to be traceable on the money of his native
town. On the other hand, there can be no doubt that many of the
Sicilian die-engravers, as Phrygillos (to mention one whose
signature is actually found on an intaglio) were gem-engravers^
The Western art is that of engravers accustomed to minute and
decorative work, uninfluenced by sculpture or painting Their
designs will not bear enlargement, which only enhances the
charm of those of the other leading schools. Those of the
great Syracusan decadrachms are small; those of the minute
hectae of Cyzicus are large.
The most important of the lesser schools is the Cretan. Crete,
retaining the primitive life of older Hellas, was never truly
dvilized, but to the last enjoyed the privileges and a^
exhibited the faults of an undeveloped condition.
Producing in the age of high art ndther sculptor nor painttf
of renown, the Cretans, to judge from their coins, were copyists of
nature or art. At first rude, their work acquires excellence ia
design, but never in execution. While we see thdr poor reproduc-
tions of the designs of the Peloponnesus, we are amazed by tbek
skill m portraying nature. Their gods are seated in trees with a
background of foliage. Thdr bulls are sketched as they wandered
in the meadows. All fitness for the mode of relief, as well as for
the material and the shape of the coin, is entirdy Ignored.
Hence a delist in foreshortening, and a free choice of subject
with no rderence to the drele m which it must be figured. In
spite, however, of thdr skill, the Cretans never attmpced the
three-quarter face, which is at once the best suited to the smface
of a coin and the most trying to the skill of the artist. Yet tbctr
work is delightfully fresh, as if done in the open air. Tbcxc is no
idealism, but much life and movement. In a word, the scbool is
naturalistic and picturesque. lu works are of the highest vahae
in the study of Greek art, but as examples of the application oi
that art to coins they are to be used with caution. Nowhere dbe
do we see the artist so freely copying nature and art, nowhere so
unshackled by aouiemic rules, nowhere so little awara ol the
limitation of his provinca.
GREEK COINS]
It is imponant to study the mode ia which Greek money was
coined, because the forms of the pieces thus receive explanation,
. and true coins are discriminated from such modern falsifi-
^•* ^ cations as have been struck, and in some dcg:rec from those
""™^' which have been cast. Our direct information on the
subject is extremely scanty, but we are enabled bv careful inference
to obtain a very near approximation to the truth on all the most
important points.
Of tlie dies used by the Greeks exceedingly few have been pre-
served. In the museum at Sofia is an iron die for the reverse of a
coin of Philip II. of Maodon; &nd several Gaulish dies exist. Most
ancient dies are of bronze, others of hardened iron or steel. The
blanks were, as a rule, first cast, sometimes in a spherical form, some-
times in a form more resembling that assumed by the finished coin.
The blank was placed between two dies, the lower, let into an anvil,
producing the obverse, the other, let into the end of a bar, producing
the reverse. The bar was struck with a hammer, so that the blank
received at the same time the impressions of both dies. This general
rule was of course often modified; in some parts of the Greek world
the dies were hinged together, in others not ; and thi^ arrangement of
hinging the dies came m at different times in different places. The
machinery df striking was probably much elaborated under the
Roman empire, but a collar seems never to have been used in ancient
times. Greek dies must usually have worn out very quickly; hence
an enormous number of slightly varying representations of the same
type. But the idea that it is unconimon to find two Greek coins
from the same die is exaggerated. A great number of early Italian
and Roman, and a few Greek coins, of large size, were cast in moulds,
not struck; and under the empire many coins, originally struck, were
reproduced, not ah^-ajrs fraudulently, by casting; but the genuine
ancient coin of small size is, as an almost invariable rule, struck and
not cast.
We may now pass on to notice the Greek coinage of each
country, following Eckhel's arrangement. The series begins
^j^^i^ with Spain, Gaul and Briuin, constituting the only
CoAi^i**/ g^At class of barbarous Greek coinage. It must not
tb9Fmt be supposed that the money of the whole class is of
Wrst one general character; on the contrary, it has very
many divisions, distinguished by marked peculiarities; it has,
however, everywhere one common characteristic — its devices are
corrupt copies of those of Greek or Roman coins. The earliest of
these barbarous coinages begin with the best imitations of the
gold and silver money of Philip II. of Macedon. They probably
first appeared to the north of his kingdom, but the gold soon
spread as far as Gaul, and even found their way into southern
Britain, by which time the original tyi>es had almost disappeared
through successive degradations. Next in order of time are the
silver imitations of Roman coins, the victoriatj and denarii of the
commonwealth, which began in Spain and passed into Gaul, bdng
current with the gold money of Greek origin; even in Britain
the later coinage shows much Roman influence. The copper
money of Spain follows the imitated silver types; that of
Gaul and Britain, though showing Roman influence, is more
original.
Side by side with these large coinages we find Greek money
of colonies in Gaul and Spain, and a far ampler issue of
Phoenician coins by the Carthaginian kings and cities
of the Peninsula. The coinage of Hispania, corre-
sponding to the modern Spain and Portugal, was issued during
a period of about four centuries, closing in a.d. 41. There arc
four classes of money, which in the order of their relative anti-
quity, are Greek, of two groups, Carthaginian, Romano-Iberian
and Latin. The first or older group of Greek money (from before
c. 3 so B.C.) ^longs to the widespread currency, which reveals
the maritime power of the lonians of Phocaea. It consists of
fractions of the drachm of the Phocaean standard, from the
diobol or third downwards. Its later pieces are of the Phocaean
colony of Emporiae, founded by the earlier settlement of Massilia.
Next in order and in part contemporary, beginning before the
middle of the 3rd century B.C.,- come the drachms of Emporiae,
which betray the influence of Siculo-Punic art. Their standard
is probably Carthaginian. Of the neighbouring Rhoda, a Rhodian
colony, there is similar money. Carthaginian coins of Spain
begin in the same period with the issues of the great colony of
Gsdes, following the same weights as the Emporian drachms.
These are followed by the issues of the Barcides from 334 to 210
B.C., with Carthaginian types and of Phoenician weight, struck
of six denominations, from the hexadrachm to the hemidrachm.
NUMISMATICS
87s
Seftor Zobd de Zangr6ni2 has classed them to Spain, on the
grounds of provenance and the possession of the silver mines
by the Bardde kings, against Muller, who attributes them to
Africa. The types are Carthaginian, and present some interesting
subjects. The true Iberian currency begins not long after the
Punic. The later drachms' of Emporiae, ultimately following
the weight of the oontemporazy Roman denarius, have Iberian
legends, and form the centre of a group of imitations issued by
neighbouring native tribes with their distinctive inscriptions.
This coinage ceased when the Roman province was formed in
306 B.C. A little before this date the Romans had begun to
introduce Latin money; about this time, however, they took
the backward step of permitting native coinages of Latin weight.
Probably they foimd that native legends and types were more
wela>me to their subjects than those of Rome. Consequently
this coinage of Spain under the republic, which lasted until
133 B.c, may be ahnost considered national. The two provinces
Hispania Citerior and Hispania Ulterior have this marked
difference: the coins of the nearer province, of silver and bronze,
have always Iberian inscriptions on the reverse, and are dearly
under distinct Roman regulation; those of the farther are
apparently of independent origin, and consequently bear Iberian,
Phoenician, Libyo-Phoenician and Latin legends, but they are
of bronze alone. The interest of these coins lies mainly in their
historical and geographical information. They bear the names
of tribes, often the same as those of the town of mintage. The art
is poor, and lacks the quaint originality and decorative quality of
that of Gaul. Ultimately the native money was wholly latinized
(133 B.a), silver was no longer issued, and although the Ulterior
continued to have its own coinage, in the Citerioronly Emporiae
and Saguntum were allowed to strike coins. Political circum-
stances for a time renewed the coinage under Sertorius (80-72
B.C.) in the modified form of a bilingual currency. The purely
Latin issues of the two provinces, and under the empire more
largely (from 37 B.C.) of the three, Tarraconensis, Baetica and
Lusitania, present little of interest. They cl(»ed in the reign of
Caligula (a.d. 37-41), though in later times purely Roman money
in gold and silver was issued at different times in Hispania down
to the establishment of the Visigothic kingdom.
The imperial money of Hispania introduces us to one of the
two great classes of provincial coins under the empire; the
larger of these was the Greek imperial, bearing Greek inscriptions,
the smaller the Roman colonial, with Latin inscriptions, deriving
its name from the circumstance that among Greek-speaking
nations the coloniae were distinguished by the use of the Latin
language on their money. In the coinage of Hispania, issued by
a nation adopting Latin for official use, the aspect of the coinage
is colonial, though it was not wholly issued by colonies. Many
of the Spanish towns belong to the kindred class of municlpia;
others are neither coloniae nor municipia. In Hispania the
obverse of the coin bears, as usual in the colonial class, the head
of the emperor or of some imperial personage, the reverse a
subject proper to the town. The priest guiding a plough drawn
by an ox and a cow is peculiarly proper to a colonia, as portraying
the ceremony of describing the walls of the city, so also an ox,
with the same reference, the altar of the imperial founder, or, as
connected with his cultus, a temple, probably in some cases that
of Roma and Augustus. Other types, however, portray the
old temples in restored Roman shapes, or indicate directly by
fishes, ears of com and more rarely bimches of grapes, the pro-
ducts of the coimtry. Some original and grotesque tyi>es have
a markedly local character. The money, of Augusta Emcrita
(Merida) in Lusitania, a colony of pensioners (emiriti), is specially
interesting, including as it does the silver issues of P. Carisius, the
Icgatus of Augustus.
The coinage commonly called that of Gaul belongs to the peoide
more properly than to the country, for it comprehends pieces
issued by the Gauls or other barbarians from the
borders of Macedonia and lUyricum to the English ^^,,
Channel and the Bay of Biscay, through Pannonia.part
of Germany. Helvetia and Gaul. It influenced the money
of northern Italy, and, crossing the Channel, produced that of
876
NUMISMATICS
[GREEK COIXS
Britain, which has its own distinctive features. Four classes
of coinage are found in these vast limits. Arranging them by
date, they are the money of the Greek colony of MassUia and her
dependencies, that of the Gauls and other barbarians of central
and western Europe, that which can be classed to the tribes and
chiefs of Gaul and the imperial coinage of that country. The
coins of the Gauls and other barbarians outside Gallia include the
gold coins known as " rainbow cups " (RegeHbogenschilssdchen)^
which seem to have been an original currency of the tribes in-
habiting the Bohemian and Bavarian districts, and other gold
and silver coins (the Jater scries bearing names in Latin char-
acters) which circulated in Noricum, Pannonia, Helvetia, Upper
Germany,. &c.
The great mart of Massilia (Marseilles), founded about 600 B.C.
by the Phocaeans, was the centre of the Greek settlements of Gaul
a tmmmutm and northom Spain. Emporiae was her colony, with
other nearer towns of inferior fame. Yet Massilia
always held the first pUce, as is proved by the abundance of her
money. At first it consisted of Phocaean obols, part of the
widespread Western currency already noticed in speaking of
Emporiae. These were succeeded by Attic drachms, some of
which, about Philip of Macedon's time, are beautiful in style and
execution. Their obverse type is the head of Artemis, crowned
with olive, at once marking the sacred tree, which had grown
from a branch carried by the cobnists, so tradition said, with a
statue of the goddess, from Ephesus, and proclaiming the value
of the olive-groves of Massilia. On the reverse we note the
Asiatic lion, common to it and the last colony of Phocaea, the
Italian Velia in Lucania. These coins circulated extensively in
southern Gaul, and were much imitated by the barbarians on
bpth sides of the Alps.
The Gauls, on their predatory incursions into Greece, must
have seized large quantities of the gold coinage circulating there,
Qaoj; but.it is probable that the gold staters of Philip (PL
I. fig. 14), from which the chief types of the Gaulish
gold are derived (PI. I. fig. i), had already found their way, inde-
pendently of such raids, by means of trade along the Danube
valley into the districts then inhabited by the Gauls. This is
clear from the fact that the gold coins of Alexander were never,
his silver rarely, imitated by the Gauls, yet these were in circula-
tion at the time of the incursions. Nor did the influence of
Philip's stiver travel far west. But his gold money evidently
travelled through central Europe to Gallia. The money of Gallia
before the complete Roman conquest, to which it may be anterior
m its commencement by half a century, belongs in the gold to
degraded types of the earlier widespread currency. The un-
doubted gold and elcctrum of this imitative class, identified as
bearing regal or geographical names, are extremely limited. By
far the most.interesting coin of the group is the gold piece which
bears the name at full length of the brave and unfortunate
Verdngetorix. The silver money is comparatively common.
The Gauls were ready to copy any types that came in
their way, so that in the coinage of Gaul we^ find imitations
of the coinage of Tarentum, Campania, various Spanish cities
such as Rhoda, and Roman coins of the republic and early
empire. The effect of the silver of Massilia and other Greek
colonies is especially noticeable in S. Gaul, and the Roman
denarius naturally exerted a strong influence, llie bronze money
of Gaul is still more abundant than the silver, and has a spedid
interest from its characteristic types. Some of the later local
coins are casts of an alloy of copper and tin called pottHf but
merely a variety of bronze. The Roman coins recall those of
Hispania, but are limited to a few cobniae. They range in date
from Antony and Augustus to Claudius. The best-knolvn coins
of this time, those struck at the colony of Copia Lugdunum
(Lyons) with the " Altar of Roma and Augustus," belong, how-
ever, strictly speaking, to the Roman series. The coins of
Nemausus (Ntmes), comm'tmorattng the conquest of Egypt in
the crocodile chained to a palm-tree, were sometimes made in
the shape of the hind-leg of an animal, evidently for dedication
in the sacred fountain, from the mud of which all the specimens
of this variety are derived.
The ancient coinage of Britain is the child of that of Gaol,
retaining the marks of its parenUge, yet with characten of iu
own due to independent growth. Money first came in gutatt,
trade by the easiest sea-passage, and, onceestablished in
Kent, gradually spread north and west, until the age of the earlier
Roman wars, when it was issued in Yorkshire, probably in
Lincolnshire, and in a territory of which the northern limits are
marked by the counties of Norfolk, Cambridge, Huntingdon,
Bedford, Buckingham, Oxford, Gloucester and Somerset.
The oldest coins are gold imitations of Philip's staters, whicfa,
whether struck in Gaul or Britain, had a circulation on the Britiih
side of the Channel They are the prototypes of all later money.
From a careful comparison of their weights with those ol later
coins, and from a study of the gradual degradation of the types,
Evans places the origin of the coinage between aoo and 150 bx.
Its close may be pkced about the middle of the xst century aa
The inscribed coins occupy the last century of this period, being
contemporary with unioscribed ones. The uninacribed ooins
are of gold, ^ver, bronze and tin, the gold being by far the most
common. There is small variety in the types, neuly all in goU
and silver, and some in copper, presenting in more or less degraded
form the original Gaulish type for gold. It may be suspected
that all new types and the extremely barbarous descendant of
the tin series are of the age of the inscribed coins, or but little
earlier. The Channel Islands are remarkable for a peculiar
coinage of billon, a very base silver, presenting the usual types
modified by Gaulish grotesqueness. The place of this group
in the British series is merely accidental; in character as in
geography it b Gaulish.
The inscribed coins are evidently in most cases of chiefs,
though it is certain that one town (Verulomium) and some tribes
had the right of striking money. The most interesting coins are
those of known chiefs and their families— of Commius, probably
the active prince* mentioned by Caesar, of Duboovdlaunns,
mentioned in the famous Ancyra inscription, which has been
called the will of Augustus, and most of all the large and interest-
ing series of Cunobdinus, Shakespeare's Cymbeline (PL I. fig. 3),
hb brother Epaticcus, and hb father Tasdovanus. It b evident
from the coins and hbtorical evidence collected by Evuss that
Tasdovanus had a long reign. His chief town, as we learn ixnm
his mon^, was Verulamium. Hb coins are in three metals,
repeat the traditional types, and present new ones, some showing
a dbtinctly Roman influence. The money of Epaticcns b scanty,
but that of Cunobdinus, with Caimulodunum (Colchester) for hb
chief town, b even more abundant than hb father's, indicating
a second long reign, and having the same general characteristics.
The gold shows a modification of the traditional type, the sQvcr
and bronze the free action of Roman influence and a prmarkahle
progress in art. With the death of thb prince not long befove
A J>. 43 the bulk of the British coinage probably ceases, none bdng
known of hb sons, Adminius, Togodumnus and the more famous
Caractacus, Sut the coins of the Iceni may have continued as
Uite as A.D. 50, and the Brigantes issued silver coins as late as
the time of Cartimandua, whose name b partly preserved on one
of them.
The andent coins of Italy occupy the next place. They appear
to have been struck during a period of more than 500 years, the
oldest being probably of the beginning of the 6th j^^^
century B.C. and the latest somewhat anterior to the
time of Julius Caesar. The larger number, however, are of the
age before the great extension of Roman power, which soon kd
to the use of Roman money almost throughout Italy. There are
two great classes, which may be called the proper luUan and the
Graeco-Italian; but many coins present peculiarities of both.
The proper Italian coins are of gold, silver and bronae. 0( these,
the gold coins are extrenidy rare, and can never have been
struck in any large numbers. The sQver are compnxmthneiy
common, but the bronze are very numerous and characteristic
A few of the earliest gold and silver coins of Etnirin have a
perfectly pUiu reverse. The most remarkable bronae coins of this
class are of th kind caDed aes pm», most of which wcie the enrty
proper coinage of Rome, although others are known to'havc beca
GREEK COINS]
NUMISMATICS
877
firaed by other ItaKui dties. Tbcse are very thick coins, some
of which are of great size, while most have a rude appearance.
They are always cast, and were preceded by formless lumps of
bronze, known as aes rude, which were not properly a state-
coinage. The designs of the Italian coins are generally, if not
always, of Greek origin, although the influence of the native
mythology may be sometimes traced. The inscriptions are in
Latin, Oscan or Etruscan, and foUow a native orthography;
sometimes on the earlier coins they are retrograde. The art of
this class is generally poor, or even barbarous. The. denomina-
tions are common to Greek money, except in the case of the bronze,
which follows a native system. Of this system the early proper
Roman coins afford the best known examples. The Graeco-
Italian coins are of gold, silver and bronze. The silver and
bconae are very common, and the gold comparatively so, although
struck by few states or cities. A number of the dties of S. Italy
issued in the 6th century coins with an incuse design on the
reverse repeating with slight modifications the design of the
obversie. The designs are of Greek origin, although here, as in
the proper Italian coins, but less markedly, native influence can
be detected. This influence is evident in the frequent occurrence
of types symbolically representing rivers; showing a bias towards
the old nature-worship, and srill more in the use of Latin in-
scriptions, with half-Italian forms of the letters on coins other-
wise Greek. Of the best art of andent Italian money we have
already spoken, and we shall have occasion to mention some of its
most beautiful examples. The denominations of the gold and
silver coins are unquestionably derived from those of Greece,
according to the wdght of the Attic talent, the heaviest
gold piece being the stater or 3000th part of that talent; in
silver there are few tetradrachms, the didrachms are extremely
common, and smaller denominations are usually not rare. We
thus learn that the silver currency was chiefly of didrachms,
smaller pieces bdng less used, and larger ones scarcdy used at
alL It is important here to notice that the interchange of the
native or Italian bronze coinage with the Greek silver coinage
led to a double standard, silver and bronze.. The bronze standard,
as might be suspected, was of Italian origin, the silver of foreign
Introduction.
The peculiarity of the Italian bronze is thai in its oldest cast
form rt was of such weight as to show the absence in some parts
of the country of silver equivalents. It was long after silver had
been introduced everywhere, with struck bronze equivalents,
before the heavy coinage (aes grave) went out of drculation.
The silver money is at first remarkable for the evidence it affords
of its extraneous character in presenting two standards. After-
wards it becomes equivalent to the bronze, or supplies equivalent
pieces, and is quite regular. The original condition of the Italian
currendes is best illustrated by the money of Etruxia in the
4th and 3rd centuries B.C. Etruria, be it remembered, was an
early goal of orietatal commerce by sea. At the great mart of
Populonia, and in the country round, we find, besides a few gold
coins, not only silver coins of two different fordgn standards,
the Euboic and the so-called Persic, but also cast aes grave and
later struck bronze pieces. Without discussing the origin of these
various currendes it is enough to note that they bear witness to
the effects of a widdy-spread commerce, and s1k>w that here was
the meeting-point o( the native system and of foreign ones.
In Italy the aes grave long ruled. Originally it was libral, the
prindpal coin bdng the as, nominally of the weight of the Italic
pound of 373 grammes; this, at least, is the weight of the earliest
Roman coinage. On the other hand, the aes grave of some places
In E. Italy, as Hatria and Ariminum, is heavier. The successive
reductions of the as belong to Roman numismatics, and it is only
necessary here to add that they affected the local bronze coinages
as Italy fell under the rule of the republic. The stiver coinages,
on the other hand, survived for a tonger time throughout the
Greek dties. Ap^ from the complicated silver coinage of
Etruria, and from the Roman issues, we find in central Italy
a few silver coins (the xmit of X'x8 grammes being the equivalent,
at the rate of 1-250, of a bronze as of x x-xo oz.) and a large silver
ooinage of didrachms and snudler denominations in lower Italy.
This- was 'chiefly Itaued by the wealthy marts which dotted the
coasts of Campania, Cakbria, Lucania and the Bruttii. We
find Etruscan inscriptions on the coins of Etruria, and Oscan on
some of those of middle and lower Italy, where they are eclipsed
in number aiui style by the Greek issues. The chief sUver
standards of S. Italy are (x) the Campanian (with a didrachm
of 7-41 grammes); (2) the Italic, with a ^tater of 3*x6 grammes,
divided into thirds; and (3) the Tarentine, with a stater of 8*33
grammes, divided into halves. The Tarentine stater was known
as raO/i^of . The independent coinage of Italy, with one exception,
canie to an end in 89 B.C.
Beginning in the north of Italy, the first coins that strike us
are those of Populonia in Etruria. The silver money of this
place is generally of the peculiar fabric In which the reverse is lief t
perfectly pkiin. The aes grave of upper and middle Italy was
largdy dominated by the issues of the Roman mints at Rome
and Capua (to be treated later). Samniimx shows us a curious
revival of native silver money after the local coinage of the Italian
towns had been almost abol^ed by Rome. It was the result of
the Social or Marsic War of the copfederate tribes, who struck
for Italy against the Roman supremacy during the years between
90 and 88 B.C. The coins present the head of Italia, and reverse
types, of which the most striking are warriors, varying in number,
taking an oath over a sacrificial pig, and a bull for Italy goring
the prostxate wolf of Rome. The inscriptions are Oscan or
Latin.
Certain of the Grade towns of Italy deserve toedal mention for
the splendour of their cdna^;e — beautiful in style and delicate in
execution. In Campania (leaving the Romano-Campaniao ^ ,
for later notice) the two most interesting currendes are ol ^J — ^
Cumae and Neapolis, the modem Naples. Cumae presents j^!]?^
diver money ot the archaic and the early fine style, ^^*
in which last we first observe the peculiar nalvet6 of west er n
Greek art bdore it had attained elaboration. The abundant silver
coins cH Neapolis are of the early and the late fine periods and of the
decline. The types are usually the head of the siren Parthenope.
more rarely Athene; the reverse presents the man-headed bull
common on Campanian money, and possibly meant for the river-god
AcheloQs, father of the Sirens. The bronze money is of good Style:
and age has beautified it with the rich blue or green patina due to the
sulphurous soiL When we reach Calabria the Greek money startles
us in astonishing wealth of beauty in the currency of the opulent and
luxurious mart of Tarentum, second only to Syracuse in the whole
West, 6L all the main periods of art, ana including in the age of its
present prosperity and its fall (the time of the contest with Rome)
the most abundant gold issues ot any Greek dtjr. The gold money of
Tarentum (see Plate) is a ddisht to the eye, with the varied beauty
of its gem-hke types, which, while they show the gem-engraver's art,
prove the medaUist's knowledge of the rich but opaque metallic
material. Several heads of divinities adorn these coins, sind the chief
reverse types relate to the l^;endaxy founder, Taras, son of Poseidon.
Alwa^ a youth, he appears as a charioteer, perhaps as a horseman,
and ridine on a dolphin — ^the familiar Tarentine type. The most
rcmarkabte subject represents him with outstretched arms praying
to Poaddon, probably m allusion to the Tarentines' appeal to Sparta
for aid about 346 B.C. (PL I. ^. 3). The silver coinage is chidly of
didrachms of reduced Corinthian we^t. The prevalent type is
Taras seated on a dolphin; in the earliest monev the type b single,
and repeated incuse on the reverse; afterwards this subject occupies
the reverse, and, itself a ch ' '^ — ■- -«-«-»-''"" •
On the eariy fine coins t'
a youth, often holding a L^
in the 4th century to a horseman in various attitudes, affording great
scope to the engraver's skill ; probably he is Taras himself, save when
he is a full-grown warrior. These rep r es e ntations illustrate the
famed horsemanship of the Tarentines, and refer to contests and
Simes ^ich were probably local. Heraclea in Lucania shows us
drachms of the fine age, with heads of Athene and subjects con-
nected with Heracles: the contest with the Nemean lion is most
skilfully treated, and the series is ve^ characteristic of the gem-
en^ver's art. The powerful dty of Metapontum begins with early
coins having the incuse reverse, and then displays a long series
stretching <fown to the decline of art. The constant type, which
recurs with the heraldic instinct of the West, is the ear of barley,
reminding us of the " golden harvest ** (xP«woGr 9kpo%) which the
MeUpontines dedicated at DdphL Like the Tarentine badge, it
first occupies the obverse, then the reverse, balanced by a charming
series of heads of divinities. Persephone is the most appropriate
counterpart; we also note heads of Concordia CO|iA»oia)andHygieia,
marked by an ingenuous grace peculiar to the eariv fine work of the
Western school, of Leucippus the founder as a hdmeted warrior
(occurring on a rare tetradrachm and the usual didrachms), and
many other types of unusuaj variety and originality of conception.
878
NUMISMATICS
IGREEK COINS
Posetdonia iasued coins from the Archaic period (beginning jirith
the usual incuse fabric) to its capture by the Lucanians early
in the 4th century. -Its successor Pacstum began to onn about
300, and was allowed to keep its mint open even after 89 B.C..
when all other local minU in Italy were closed, until the. tune 01
Tiberius.
The ancient Sybans, famous for her luxury, has left archaic coins;
she was, however, destroyed byXroton in 510 B.C. The Athenian
colony of Thurium eventually arose near the rite of the old Sybaris
in 443, and immediauly be^ to is4ue a splendid series oi coins.
Not only is the face of the coin occupied by the head of Athene, and
the great currency, as at Athens, of tetradrachms, but the severe
beauty of the style points to the direct influence of the art of central
Greece (PL I. fig. 4). The head of Athene is covered by a helmet
adorned first with a wreath of olive and then a splendid fieure of the
sea-monster Scylla. The reverse shows a bull butting (euptat), in
a strikingly ideal form. Probably the obverse type affords the nearest
reflection of the masterpiece of Pheidios, or at least the ck)sest
following of his style.
' Velia, the last colony of Phocaea, whose dtizeps sailed away to
the far west rather than submit to the Persian tyrant (544 B.C.),
shows coins from its foundation. The pieces of fine work witness to
an Asiatic origin in the types of the lion, devouring the stag or as
a single device, while the obverse displays the head of Athene so
much in favour in Magna Graccia. The styk;. which lacks strength
but not beauty, is Italian, and we see no trace ol the pictorial qualities
of Ionian art, which indeed had not taken its mature form when
the exiles left the mother country.
The Bruttii are the first native Italians whom we find striking
a fair Greek coinage. Their gold and alver isjof Jate style, the gold
presenting the head of Poseidon and Thetis on a sea-horse, the
silver the head of Thetis and the figure of Poseidon, both with other
subjects. Cauloiiia has*tarly coins running down to the earl]^ fine
period, mythologically interesting in type, and the later with a
beautifully designed stag on the reverse. For Croton the ruling type
is the tripod. The ea^e occurs on the obverse and the tripod on the
reverse. The bird of ^eus is inferior to that at Agrigentum, as this
^ain is inferior to the eagle of Elis. We note also beautiful types of
Hneracles seated, one of marvellously delicate work, on the reverse of
wliich Apollo aims an arrow at the Python from behind his tripod —
a remarkable composition. The other Heracles types form a most
interesting series of recollections, " memory sketches," oi a famous
statue, the pose of which recalls the so-called Theacus of the
Parthenon, while the obverse presents the head of the Hera Ladnia
worshipped on the promontory close by. The latest coins, like the
parallel ones of Metapontum, arc weak and pretty. The money of the
Locri Epixephyrii affords two curious types of reverse, Eirene seated,
of fine style, with the legend EIPHNH AOKPON. and the later yet
more remarkable subj ect of Ro ma seated while Pisris frowns her, the
legend being PQMA mSTIS AOKPON. There are beautiful coins
ofthe little known town of Pandosia, bearing the head of the nymph
Pandosia (?) ; the reverse has the river Crathis, a q>lendid head of the
Lacinian Hera, and Pan.
Rhegium was cbscly connected with Messene in Sicily c te,
and thus the great Sicilian currency of tetradrachms [ ils.
Anaxilaus, tyrant of Rhegium from 494 to 476 B.C., early in ule
acquired Messene through Samian adventurers. The coins >th
towns at first present Samian types, and then, the Samiani ing
been expelled. Anaxilaus commemorates his Olympic victor the
mule-car. The same type appears at Messene and last ft.
In both cases the reverse bears a running hare, an aninu ich
Anaxilaus introduced into Sicily. The later jth-century co of
Rhegium shows a seated figure of the Rhegine Demos, and a f ad
of Apollo, by the engraver Hippocrates.
Tne little-known town <A Terina is illustrious as having produced
a scries of silver didrachms which, on the whole, is the most ooiutiful
in Italy (PI. I. fig. 5). The obverse has the head of a goddess, who
is portrayed winged on the reverse — a wonderfully fine subject, well
conceived and most delicately executed in a variety of different
attitudes, some recalling the Victories which adorn the balustrade
of the temple ol Wingless Victory at A^thens. Very curiously, the
money of Terina begins with an archaic coin which bears on -the
reverse the named figure of a Wingless Vkrtory, surrounded by the
olive- wreath.
The coinage of Sicily is Greek. TheHeIlemcandCarthag;iiiian
colonies of the coast left the barbarous natives undisturbed in the
^jjy^ inland country, and both issued Greek iponey, the
^'^* Punic with a tincture of Phoenician style. The coinage
ranges from the 6th century B.C. until the subjugation of the
island by the Romans, after which a few cities struck colonial
or imperial coins for a short space. The marked periods are
those of the preponderance of Ssrracuse from 480 to axa B.C.,
interrupted by the great Carthaginian wars, which were fatal
to the cities of the southern coast. The coinage is in gold
and electrum, mainly issued at Syracuse, in silver and in bronze.
The standard is Attic, except the earliest money of the Chalddian
colonies Himera, Zande (Messene), and Naxos, which follows the
Aeginetan wei^t. The metrdogy of Sicily has a distinct
relation to that of Italy. Here also there is a double standard,
silver and bronze, and in consequence an intrusive silver coin,
differing but little from the obol, weighing O'S; instead of '73
grammes, the silver equivalent of the bronze litra, whose name
it borrows. The litra in bronze was the Sicilian pound of 21S
grammes, equal to half an Attic mina, and to two-thirds of the
Roman libra or pound. So important was the litra in Sidly
that the silver litra supplanted the obol, and the didrachm was
sometimes called a stater of ten litrae, the dccadrachm a piece cd
fifty litrae, pentecontalitron. The leading coin b the tetra-
drachm, not, as in Italy, the didrachm
The Sicilian money is of extremely careful artistic work, not
unfrequently even in. the case of bronze aUowing for a more
rapid execution of the die; and the highest technical excdlence
is attained. The art is that of the southern branch of the great
Western school, generally more skilful than the art of southern
Italy, but less varied. The earlier fine work has a naive beauty
peculiar to the West and almost confined to Sidly; all that
follows is evidently gem-engravers' work. These coins are
remarkable for the frequency of artists' signatures, which for
the short period of highest skill are almost universal on the
larger silver money of Syracuse, and occur less frequently on
that of the other great dties. Among these artists may be
mentioned Exacestidas (at C^amarina), Eudddas, Eomenes,
PhrygiUus (at Syractisc), Euacnetus (Syracuse, Camarina,
Catana), Cimon (Messana, Syracuse PL I. figs. 7, 8), Heradcidas
and Choirion (Catana). As in Italy, the decline is more rxpid
than elsewhere in the Greek world, in consequence ol the
inherent weakness of the style; but it is in part due to the
calamities of the island, as of lower Italy.
The fame won by the tyranni and other leading aristocrats of
Sicily in the great national contests of Hellas, in the race with
the quadriga, the mule-car and the horse, led to the introdoctioo
and supremacy of types commemorating these victories, probably
in most cases those achieved at Olympia. It is obvious that no
success could be so appropriately figured on the coinage; the
charioteer or the horseman, not the dty, was the xdctor, but at
the same time the renown of the dty was indissolubly connected
with the dtizen who won it. Hence these types are almost
confined to states ruled by tyranni or oligarchies; outside Sidly
they are practically only found at Rhegium when it was dosdy
connected with Sicily, at Cyrcne, in the money of Philip IL of
Macedon and at Olynthus and in Euboea. The horseman is not
a frequent type; the mule-car is limited to Messene (and
Rhegium); but the quadriga becomes the stereotyped subject
for the reverse of the great Sicilian tetradrachms — the bulk oi
the coinage — and only escapes heraldic sameness by a charming
variety in the details. In the age of finest art a divinity of the
dty takes, in Homeric guise, the place of the charioteer, or
Victory herself so wins the contest; commonly she hovers
above, about to crown the charioteer or the horses. Yet more
interesting are the types connected with nature-worship,
especially those portraying river-gods in the form of a man-
hcJEuled bull, or a youth with the budding horns of a calf, or in the
shape of a dog, and also the subjects of the nymphs of fountains.
These types occur on dther side of the coin. On nearly aU,
one side (in early times the reverse, later the obverse) b bdd by
the head of a divinityj Persephone and Athene taking the first
place.
The leading position which Syracuse held in the island Inakes
it proper to notice her q>lendid currency firsts the finest for
knowledge of the materiab, for skill in suitably filling ,^,-,,
the space, and for delicacy of execution in the whole '*'■■'
range of Greek money, though we miss the noble amiplidty
of Greece, the strong feeling of western Asia Minor, and thie
simple picturesqueness of Crete. Syracuse was founded in
714 B.C. by Archias of Corinth, an origin which, remembered
on both sides, served her well in later history. In the 6th
I century, perhaps while still under the oligarcUy of the Geomori,
she issued htr most archaic silver money, which, primitivvas
GREEK COIN^
NUMISMATICS
879
it is, gives promise of the care of the later coinage, and beg;intf
the agonistic types, thus indicating some early victory at a great
Hellenic contest. Gelo, tyrant of Gela, won the chariot race at
Olympia in 488 B.C., secured Syracuse in 485 B.C., and, when
the Carthaginians, probably by agreement with Xerxes, invaded
Sicily, utterly routed them at the great battle of Himera (480
B.C.), the Salamis of the West. These events find their record
in the issue and subjects of hisSyracusan money, which, however,
was struck, as usual in that age, in the name of the people.
The chariot type is varied, for Victory appears hovering above
the charioteer, about to crown the horses, and the coins issued
after the great battle show the lion of Libya beneath the car in
the exergue (PI. I. fig. 6). These last pieces are fixed in date by
the famous story how Gelo's wife Demarete, having gained
favourable terms for the vanquished Carthaginians, was presented
by them with a hundred talents of gold, by means of which
were coined the great silver pieces of fifty litrae or ten drachms,
which were called after her Demareteia. They bear the head of
Victory, crowned with laurel, and the quadriga and lion. The
battle of Himera and the death of Gelo (478 B.a) fix the date of
these remarkable coins, which close the archaic series of Syracuse
and give us a fixed point in Greek art, at about 479 b.c
Hicro I. (47&-466 B.C.), the brother and successor of Geb,
continues the same types, alludmg, as Head well remarks {loc.
cit.)t to his great victory over the Etruscans off Cumae (474 B.C.),
by the marine monster in the exergue of the reverse which
denotes the vanquished maritime power. It is to be noted that
as Gelo introduces the Victory in the chariot type, so in the
liorseman type we now first see Victory crowning the rider.
Gelo had won an Olympic victory in the four-horse contest,
Hiero in the horse-race, though he also won with the four horses
in the Pythian games. With Hiero's money we say farewell
to archaic art. The female heads on the obverse now have the
eye in profile and show beauty and variety, and the horses are
even exceptionally represented in rapid action. With the short
rule of Thrasybulus, the last brother of the house, it came to an
end, and the age of the democracy (466-406 B.C.) began. The
victories by land and sea of Gelo and Hiero had established the
power of the city on a sure basis, and fifty years of prosperity
followed. To the earlier part of this age bebng the beautiful
transitional coins in which the female heads are marked by a
youthful simplicity of beauty combined with fanciful and even
fantastic treatment of the hair; the reverses remain extremely
severe. Towards the close of this age, beginning about 430,
there are very fine works, the first signed coins, with the old
dignity yet with greater freedom of style, the horses of the
qiiadriga in rapid movement.
The victory of Syracuse In the contest with Athens was the
occasion for the reissue of ten-drachm pieces, commonly but
erroneously called medallions. On the reverses of these are a
victorious chariot and a panoply of arms, representing the
prizes offered at the games by which the Syracusans com-
memorated the defeat of the Athenians on the Assinarus in
413. On the obverses is the head of the local nymph Arethusa.
The designs are by the artists Cimon (PL I. fig. 8), Euaenetus,
and a third who is nameless. These pieces continued to
be issued down to about 360 B.C. through the Dionysian
period. Contemporary with them are numerous splendid tetra-
diachms — signed and unsigned — as well as the first gold
and bronze issued by Syracuse. The interference of Dion
in Syracusan politics (357-353) was marked by the intro-
duction of an electrum coinage, and of a silver didrachm of
Corinthian type, corresponding in weight to the tridrachm of
Corinth, and with the same types, the head of Athena and the
Pegasus. The Dionysian dynasty closed in anarchy, until
Syracuse appealed to Corinth, and Timoleon was sent to restore
order (344 B.C.). His advent marks an epoch in Sicilian coinage.
He restored the gold coinage and issued various silver coins
which aUude to Corinth and to liberty, and under his influence
many small cities in Sicily awoke to political life as members of
Timoleon's league and issued a scanty but interesting bronze
coinage. The Syracusan democracy was overthrown in 317 b.c.
and tl)e dty seized by Agathodes (317-389 b.c), the worst
of the tyrants of Syracuse. In the course of his reign he adopted
the royal style, and his coins, a reflection of earlier work, give
his name first without and then ?nth the title king— a double
innovation. The most interesting of his coins are those which
bear allusions to his campaign in Africa.
The tyrant Hicetas (288-280 b.c.) and the next ruler, Pyrrhus,
king of Epirus (278-075 B.C.), continue the coinage, Pyrrhus
issuing money in the name of the Syracusans and also striking
his own pieces. The departure of Pyrrhus led to the establish-
ment by Hiero II. (c. 270-216 b.c) of a dynasty which, so long
as he ruled, restored the ancient prosperity and preponderance
of the rule of his namesake. At first content with inscribing
his name alone, he soon not only takes the title of king, conferred
on him in the early years of his rdgn, but also places his portrait
on the money. Of his time is the b«iutiful portrait of his queen
Philistis. The money of the short reign of Hieronjrmus (215-
214 B.c) and of the brief democracy which fell before the Romans
(2x4-2x2 B.C.) close the independent series of this great dty.
But her name still appears in bronze money issued after the
conquest.
Taking the rest of the. vaoaey of Sicily in alphabetical order, we
first note a veiy fine bronze coin bearing a beautiful female head,
perhaps that of Sidlia, crowned with myrtle, and a lyre, oth*r
which belongs to the time of Timoleon's league. This coin a^mat
is conjecturally attributed to Adranura. The first ^reat ^L^L
town IS Agngentum. represented by archaic, transitional, **'0'»
and fine coins, the nne series ending with the overthrow of the city
by the Carthaginians in 406 B.c. — a blow from which it never re-
covered. The usual types are the eagle and the fresh-water crab,
but in the age of finest art we see two eagles devouring a hare (d.
Aeschylus, Apim, 109 seq.) and a victorious chariot ; these occur in
the rare decadrachm (PI. I. fig. 9), o'h which the river-god Acrai^s
himself drives the car, and the tetradrachms. The eagle is superior
to that of Croton, inferior to that of Elis. Many of the bronze coins
are of good work. The type most worthy of note b the head of a
river-god, with the name Acragas, which was that of the local stream,
and on the reverse an eagle standing on an Ionic capital, the Olympic
turning-post. The success of Agrisentum at the games is attested by
Pindar, while Virgil {Aen. iii. 704), Gratius iCyneg. 526) and Silius
Italicus (xiv. 210) mention itsandent renown for horses.
The money of Camarina is of especial beauty and interest. Camar-
InA struck but few coins before the year of liberation (461 ), soon after
which v,-Ay> issued a didrachm having on the obverse a helmet upon a
round ih\Ad and on the reverse a pair of greaves, between whicn is a
dw£tf-[ tKilm. This piece is followed by tetradrachms and didrachms
of the bcsi period, most beautiful in style, and varying a little from
cliflcrrncc of age. The tetradrachms bear on the obverse the head
of HcntrU:-! in the lion's skin, and on the reverse Athena as a victor at
the OlyiniLiic games in a quadriga. It was Athena, protector of the
chy {wuSiiox* IlaXXdt), whose sacred grove was made more illustrious
b^ the success of Psaumis. The didrachms have on the obverse the
hcjid of i3. river-god, portrayed as a young man with small horns and
with wet hair. Of the two rivers of Camarina, the Oanus and the
Hipparis, the Hipparis is here represented, for in one case the name
is given on the coin. Pindar seems to show the same preference, for,
while he merely mentions the Oanus (roratid^ . . . "Qayuf), bespeaks
of the sacred channels by which the Hipparis watered the city (vc/m)^
ixfrobt, IrrafKi olaur ipin vrparbv). On the reverse the nymph
Camarina ('(kcoivv Ovyartp . . . Ka/iapbw) is seen carried across
her lake {Jkyx^P^^ • • • X^tyoy) by a swan swimming with expanded
wings, while she aids it by sbrcacung her vdl in the manner ol a sail.
Some of these didrachms nave on either side, around the chief
device, fresh-water fishes. The series of Catana comprises firie archaic
tetradrachms and others of the time of the best art. The archaic
tetradrachms have the types of a river in the form of a man-headed
bull and of the figure of Victory, of a type remarkably advanced for
the time at which they were struck. From 476 to 461, under the
name of Aetna, its coinage is represented especially by a unique
tetradrachm (PI. I. fig. 10), with a wonderful head ofSilenus, and Zeus
as the god of the volcano holding a thunderbolt and a sceptre made
of a vine-branch; before him is an eagle perched on one of the
Aetnaean pines. The head of Apollo succeeds, with for reverse the
victorious ouadriga, in one case passing the turning-post, an Ionic
column. Historically interesting is a small silver coin issued bv
Catana and Leontini in alliance between 405 and 403. Eryx towards
the end of the 5th century produced some rare tetradrachms on
which Eros is represented at the knees of his mother, asking for the
dove which she holds.
Gela is represented by coins of which the archaic tetradrachms
must be especially mentioned. They have on the ob erse the fore-
part of the river-god Gelas, whence the dty took its name. The Gelas
IS represented as a bull, having the face of a bearded man. On the
reverse is a victorious quadriga, in some examples represented passing
88o
NUMISMATICS
fCREEK COINS
an Ionic column, ai on coins of Catana. A beautiful tetiadfachm
repreaento the city goddess (Sosipolis) placing a wreath on the head
of the monstrous river-god. A little later is a tetradrochm which has
cavalryman spearing an Athenian hoplitCjare among the coins issued
shortly before the tall of Gela in ^05. The money of Himera is of
great interest. The oldest didracnms of HiroeFS, which probably
began in the 6th century B.C., bear on the obverK a cock and on the
reverse an incuse pattern; later, a hen. During the time that There
of Agrigentum held the dty (before 480 to 472)* the crab of
i^^sentum Appears on the didrachms. The tranational tetra-
dia»ms bear on the one «de a victorious quadriga and on the other a
nymph sacrificing, near whom a little Silenus stands under the stream
01 a fountain issuing from a lion's head in a wall, Leontini is repre>
sented by tetradrachms with the head of ApoUo and the victorious
car, which gives place to a lion's head. The aeries of Messene begins,
when the town was called Zancle, or, as it is written upon the coins,
Dande, with eariy drachmsof smaller pieces of the Ae^netan weight,
and of very arehaic work. On the obverse b a dolphin, and around
it a sickle: on the reverse the earliest pieces repeat the same design
incuse (as in the earliest coinage of S. Italy), but later we find a shell
in the midst of an incuse pattern. The place is laid to have received .
its name on account of the resemUance of the harbour to a sickle
(fAYxXflir or UyKKq). Next to these first coins of Zancle may be
placed, as tSe oldest piece of the Attic weight, a tetradrachm with
the Samian types, a Uon's scalp on one side an d on t he other the
head of a caff, and bearing the inscription MESZBNION. This
cmn was doubtless struck durino; the rule of the Samians, who
took Uie pbce about 494 B.C., at tne instigation of Anaxilaus, tyrant
of Rhegium, by whom they were subsequently exjielled (Thucyd.
vi. 4). The next pieces are the earliest of those which have on the
obverse the mule-car and on the reverse a runnin|^ hare, like the
contemporary coins of Rhegium, with the same devices and equallv
of the rule of Anaxilaus. These types cease at Rhesium, though
they continue at Mesiene, some of the tetradrachms oearins them
being of the age of fine art. About 450 there must have oeen a
temporary restoration of the Zanclrans, who struck a tetradrachm
with Poseidon and the dolphin as types. A fine piece of rather later
date represents Pan caressing a hare. When the town had been seiced
(387 B.C.) by the Mamertini, money was struck with their name.
Naxos is represented by eariy Anineric drachms with an archaic
head of Dionysus. Immediately a^er the year of liberation (461) it
produced a tetradrachm with a head of Dionysus and, on the reverse,
a aquatting Sileous, remarkable for the study of anatomical detail
(see PI. I. nff. 1 1). These types are repeated in a less aevere style some
fifty years later, when also an engraver Prodes sigi» some pretty
didrachms. Secesta b represented by cainM from about 480 B.C.
We first notice the head of the nymph Scgesta and a hound, probably
the river-god Crimisus; then the saine type for reverse associated
with a young hunter accompanied by two. hounds— a charming
composition. Another interesting type b a victorious car driven by
Persephone,' who carries eare of com.
In the series of the dty of Selinus tne first coins are didrachms,
bearin|[ on the obverse a leaf and on the reverse an incuse square.
The aty and the river of the same name no doubt derived their
name from the plant 9iXt«er (probably wild celery M^'«MCra«eo^i),
the leaf of which *must be here mtended. Tetradrachms and
didrachms of tranmtional and of good art have devices of more than
usual interest. The obverse exhibits a river-god, sometimes the
Selinus, sometimes the Hypsas, sacrifidng at an altar to the god of
healing, while on the didrachm a wading-bird b' sometimes seen
.Lid him, as if departing. The obverse of the didrachms shows
Heracles subduing the bdU, and the reverse of the tetradrachms
generally shows a quadriga in which ApoUo stands drawing hb bow,
while Artemb b charioteer. The reference in all these cases must be
to the driving awa^ of the pestilence from the neighbourhood of
Selinus by the draining of the marshes.
The Siculo-Punic coins, that is, those actually struck by the
Carthaginians in Sicily, "will best be dealt with under Carthage,
below.
The islands of Melita,Gauk)s and Cossura near ^cily issued late
coins which belong to the African scries, showing a curious mixture of
Phoenician and Egyptbn elements in some of tneir types. Of Lipara
there b heavy bronze money on the Sicilbn system, having on the
obverse a head of Hephaestus, or sometimes a figure of the same
divinity seated, holding a hammer and a vase, which he seems to
have just formed.
In the Tauric Chersonese there are interesting coins, in the
three metab, of the dty of Panticapaeum, .the modem Kertch.
Their obverse usually bears the head of Pan and their
2j^*"*» reverse a griffin and other subjects; some are of fine
ntmt, ^tc Creek style. The gold u of higher weight than usual,
owing to the cheapness of the metal at thb place.
The money of Sarmatia, of Dada, and of upper and lower
Moesia, b diiefly bionre of the Graeco-Roman dass. In
SarmatU we may notice the autonomous and imperial pieoes
of Olbia, which alone amongst Greek dties produced a series
of cast bronse coins, and in Dada the series bearing the name
of the province. The Roman colonia Viminadum in upper
Moesia b represented by numerous coins •of a late time. Of
Istrus, In kmer Moesia, there are drachms having a strange type
on the obverse, representing two beardless heads, side by aide,
the one upright and the other upside down; on the revcise b
an eagle devouring a fish. The st^ of these coins b in general
fair, though it sometimes approaches to barbarism. ApoOooia
Pontica produced fine silver coins with a head of ApoUo and an
anchor. There are abundant Greek imperial coins of Mardano-
polia and Nioopolis, while Tomi b zqpresented in tfab dass as
well as by autonomous money.
The coins of Thrace are of hl^ interest. Here and in Mace-
donia we observe the eariy efforts of barbarous tribes to coin
the produce of their silver mines, and the splendid f^^^^
issues of the Greek cok>nies; and we see in the weights
the influence of the Asiatic Greeks and the Athenians. The
oldest coins are of the early 5th century B.C, and there are
othen of all subsequent times, both whUe the coontxy was
independent and while it was subject to the Romans, until
the cessation of Greek coinage. Some of the best period are of
the highest artistic merit. So long as they maintain any gcneial
dbtincUve peculiarities of fabric and design, that is, from their
commencement until the age of Philip, the Tbrsdan coins
resemble those of Macedonia. The money of Abdera oompnses
tetradrachms and smaller coina of the periods of archaic and
fine art, all but the btest of the Phoenician standard, ultimatdy
superseded by the Penic. The prindpal type b a seated griffin,
copied from Its mother-dty, Teos. Tbt reverse type, an incuse
square, has at first four divisions, but In the age of the finest
art contains a variety of beautiful subjects, the signets of the
magbtrates. Aenus b remarkable for the ^eat beauty of aooie
of iU coins. These are tetradrachms of Attic weight, of the late
archaic and best ages. The interesting turning-point from growth
to maturity b seen in a vigorous head of Heroics in profile,
wearing the petasus. A little later b the splendid aeries of
facing holds, the broad, severe, and sculptural treatment of
which b truly admirable, and far superior to the mpre showy
handling of Uie same subject In later drachms. A gdat b the
reverse type of the larger coins. Tlie money of the dty of
Byzantium begins with coins on the Persic standard of good
style, having on the obveise a buU above a dolphin and 00 the
reverse an incuse square of four divisions, and doses with the
series of bronze coins issued under the empire. The star and
crescent type first appears in the Roman period. Of Maiooea,
andentiy famous for iU wine, there b an interesting series,
among which we notice fine tetradrachms of Phoenician weight,
having on the obverse a prancing horse and on the reverse a
vine within a square. The standard changes to Persic, of whk^
there b a beautiful series of didrachms. Then the series b ia-
terrupted by the rule of the Macedonian kings, and resamed ia
a baxbarous coinage of the native Thradans, issued in the second
and first centuries before the Christian era, ronqttfing of spread
Attic tetradrachms with the types of the head of beardless
Dionysus crowned with ivy and on the other side hb figure.
The Greek imperial coins of Pautalla and Perinthus are worthy
of notice. Among those of the latter town we may mcntioa
fine pieces of Antoninus Pius and Sevcrus, and large coins,
commonly caDed medallions, of C a r a c a l la and other emperois
The money of the imperial dass issued by Philippopolis, Scrdica
and Trajanopolb should also be noticed. In the Thradas
Chersonese the most important series b one of small autonomoBS
silver pieces, probably of the town of Cardia. There b a lioutcd
but highly interesting group of coins of Thradan kings asl
dynasts. The earliest are of Ungs of the Odiysae, indndisf
Sparadocus and Seuthes I., who began to rdgn in 4>4 »c-
and whose money bean the two remarkable inscriptions SSVaA
KOMMAand ZSyOAAFryPIOir. It doses wiUi the issues of
Roman vassab, such as Cotys IV. (a.o. ia-19). Lysiraachss.
commonly dassed as king of Thiace, belongs to tlie tfroup of
OtEEKCOINSl
NUMISMATICS
88i
Alexander's western successors (see below). Among the islands
of Tlirace, Imbros with its trace of Pelasgic worship, and, equally
with Lemnos, showing evidence of Athenian dominion^ and
Samothrace with the Asiatic worship of Cybele yield in interest
to Thasos. Here a long and remarkable ctirrency begins with
very early Persic didrachms, the obverse type a Silenus carrying
a nymph, the reverse an incuse square of four divisions. Under
the Athenian supremacy we see a decline of weight, and in style
the attainment of high excellence. After this we observe coins
of Phoenician weight, bearing for their obverse types the head
of Dionysus. These are of the best period of art, and some
tetradrachms are among the very finest Greek coins. The head
of Dionysus is treated in a sculptural style that is remarkably
broad and grand. The massive, powerful features, and the formal
hair, nearly falling to the neck in regular curls like those of the
full beard, arc relieved by a broad wreath of ivy-leaves, designed
with great delicacy and simplicity. The reverse bears a Heracles
kneeling on one knee and discharging his bow — a subject
powerfully treated. Of a far later period there are large
tetradrachms, much resembling those of Maronea, with the
same type of the beardless< Dionysus, but on the reverse
Heracles.
The money of Macedonia both dvic and regal is of great
variety and interest. It begins at an early time, probably
towards the end of the 6th century B.C. The old piece?
are of silver, bronze having come into use a century
later, and gold about the middle of the 4tb century
B.C. The character of the coinage resembles that of Thrace;
the earliest pieces are of the Phoenician, Babylonic and Attic
standards. The most remarkable denominations are the pieces
of eight and twelve Phoenician drachms. The largest coins ajre
of the time of Alexander I. (49S-454)> and somewhat earUcr,
and indicate the metallic wealth of the country more than its
commercial activity. The chief groups of coins are those of the
Pangaean, Bisaltian, Strymonian and Chalddian districts, of
the kings of Macedon and Paeonia, and of Macedon under the
Romans. This last series begins with the coins of the " regions "
issued by permisdon of the senate and bearing the name of the
Macedonians, from 158 to 150 B.C.; these are followed by coins
of the Roman generals against Andriscus and of the pretender
himself, and, from 146 onwards, of the Roman province. Under
the empire a large series of bronze coins was issued in the name
of the Koinon, i.e. the provincial diet. As regards the earlier
dvic coinage: the coinage of Acanthus comprises fine archaic
tetradrachms of Attic wdght and others of Phoenician wdght
and very vigorous in style, of the commencement 6f the period
of good art. The type of their obverse is a lion seizing a bull
(cf . Herodot. vii. 1 25 f .). The money of Aeneia is chiefly interest-
ing from its bearing the head of the hero Aeneas; and on one
extraordinary coin of archaic fabric, an Attic tetradrachm, the
subject is the hero carrying Anchises from Troy, preceded by
Creusa carrying Ascanius; this is in date before 500 B.C. The
town of Amphipolis is represented by a long series. There are
Phoenician tetradrachms of about 400 B.C. having on the obverse
a head of Apollo, fadng, sometimes in a splendid style, which
recalls the art of the immediate successors of Pheidias (PI. I. fig.
1 3). The reverse type is a flaming race-torch in an incuse square.
The territory of Chalddice is eminent for the excellence of some
of iu silver coins. There is a very early Attic tetradrachm of
Olynthus, with a quadriga, and an eagle within a double square,
which reminds us of the idea of the great Sicilian currendes,
the record of Olympic victory. The Phoem'dan tetradrachms
of the best period struck by the Chalddian League (392-379 B.C.,
and later), Olynthus being probably the mint, are of great stylistic
interest (PL I. fig. 13). The obverse bears the head of Apollo in
profile crowned with laurel. It is in very high relief and treated
with great simplidty, though not with the severity of somewhat
earlier pieces. The deUcacy of the features is balanced by the
simple treatment of the hair and the broad wreath of laurel.
On the reverse is a lyre. There is an early series of coins of Lete,
none later than about 480. The obverse tyi>e is a satjrr with a
nymph, and on the reverse is an incuse square divided fouriold.
first diagonally and then in squares. Mende has money of Attic
weight, the types being connected with Silenus, who on a tetra-
drachm of fine style is portrayed rcdining, a wine-vase in his
hand, on the back of an ass; the reverse bears a vine. Of
Neapolis (Datenon) there are early coins with the Gorgon's
head and the incuse square, which m the period of fine art gives
way to a charming head of the " Virgin Goddess " crowned with
olive. The coins of Philippi in' the three metals arc mainly of
the time of Philip U., who, having found a rich gold mine near
Crenides, changed its name to Philippi. The gold coins arc
Attic staters, the silver pieces of the Phoenician or Macedonian
weight, like Philip's own money. The earliest bear the name of
the "Thasians of the Mainland," who immediately preceded
Philip's colony. All bear the head of young Heracles in a lion's
skin, and a tripod. Imperial pieces were struck by the city as
a colonia. There is a long but late series of Thessalonica which
in the time of the regions was the mint of the second region;
the numerous bronze coins of the Roman period show a figure of
Cabirus among other types. Uranopolis has a few coins with
very curious astronomical types, probably issued by the eccentric
Alexarchus, brother of Cassander. The issues of the Thraco-
Macedonians are extremely interesting. They are all just
anterior to, or it may be contemporary with, Alexander I. of
Macedon. The leading coins are octadrachmsof the Phoenician
standard. They have usually but one type, the reverse bearing
a quadripartite incuse square. Their sudden appearance and
heavy weight are due to the working of the silver mines on the
border of Macedonia and Thrace. The usual types are a warrior
leading a horse or a yoke of oxen. The coins bear the names of
the Bisaltae, Getas, king of the Edoni, the Orresdi and other
tribes. Besides these there are very curious Attic decadrachms
of the D^rronians of Sithonia, bearing the unusual type of an
ox-car, in which is a figure seated, and on the reverse a symbol
of three legs.
The oldest coins of the Macedonian kings arc of Alexander I., from
498 to 4S4 B.C.. the contemporary of Xerxes. These are Phoenician
octadrachms. having on the obverse a cavalryman bv the lOan 0/
side of a horse, and coins of a lower denomination with the Mm^
same or a similar type. The tnoncy of Alexander'^ doaia,
$uii.L'*-'T<jf^ illjMrale* the moviimcnt of art, but it h n-si
uriil clai' tturi of Philip II. that w* have^in ibumimt ' njnage. He
fiiM iitrikef s*ild piiCCM, chiefly Aitie dldrichm5, U -^ prmJuce of
hh mme near Philippi (PI. Lfiji, 14). ThuyaTeoI f » md bearon
the obverse thr head of Aruir Dn the rcvcjsc i^ ii is Olympic
biK*. These coln^ were akcrwar*l» known a^ *i[Xt = = ,^... ,j id the gold
moficy of Alt- zander 94 ^A^«£<M^pfiw — aptxllaiionB whu ii probably
di<J not jtinludr bffcf or timalltr pica-^ Karacp calEsi ih- gold coins
of Philip*' Philip* ' {" tt-^tili: riOfnbmJi Philip ptH," tpni u. i, 232).
The »i1wr rotnag« of Philip u maiiily coiripawd of u iiradrachms
of the Phoenician ataiidaTd {PJ. 1. %. 15). Their iypt uf i>bvcrse is a
held of Ze-us und of ^ev1c^!M^ either n. hunfmaa wfai- inr .1 causia or a
vie I or in the borse-Tace with a palm' — chc^e Lai coin^ tu'iag the best
of Philip's, although the hone a cluniiy.
The ciftinn-ifff oF ACux^indh.r the Great, l,«>th m xhn: {ntnihcT of the
cili.i;;;k wiii^K. u v.-^ luucil and in its abundance. cxi.i:U all other
Greek regal money: but its art is, without being despicable, far
below excellence. The system of both gold and silver is Attic. The
Sid coins are distaters or gold tetradrachms. staters or didrachms
« Pt. I. fig. i7).'hemistaterB or drachms, with their half or a smaller
denomination. The types of the distaters or staters, which last were
the most common pieces, are for the obverse the head of Athena and
for the reverse Victorv bearing a naval standard. The largest silver
piece is the decadracnm. which is of extreme rarity. The types of
the tetradrachms and most of the lower -coins are oi\ the obvers>e the
head of Heracles in the lion's skin and on the reverse Zeus seated, bear-
ing on his hand an eagle (PI. I. fig. 16). The head has been supposed
to oe that of Alexander, but this is not the case, although there may
be some assimilation to his portrait. The great currency was of
tetradrachms. The coinage was struck in different cities, dis-
tinguished by proper symbols and monogiams. The classification of
the series is difficult, but is fnradually •advancing. (For Alexander's
Eastern coinage see ( iv. Oriental Coins.)
The coinage of Alexander is followed by that of Philip Arrhtdaeus.
with the same types in gold and silver. That of Alexander IV. was
issued by Ptolemy I. alone. In these coins the tyi>es of Alexander
were modified, the dead king being represented with the ram's horn
of Ammon. and wearing an elephant's skin head-dress and aegis.
Meanwhile Seleucus, Lystmachus. Antigonus, king of Asia, struck
Alexander's money with their own names, and the tetradrachms of
Macedonia were generally of this kind until the time of Philip V.
The same coinage, nnarked by a large flat form, was reissued later by
882
NUMISMATICS
fGREEKOOna
Si
rbtsM^.
various cities, especially of western Asia, when the Romans, after the
battle of Magnesia in 190 B.C., restored the liberties which Alexander
had granted. The scries of Alexandrine money is- interrupted by
various small coinages and the later issues of Lysimachus, king of
Thrace, with a fine portrait — head of Alexander with the ram's horn,
as the son of Zeus Ammon, a work sometimes worth v of Lysippus
and an excellent indication of his style. The reverse has a ngure of
Athena holding a little Victory (PI. I. fig. 19). The coins of Demetrius
I. (Poliorcetes) comprise fine tetradrachms, some of the types of which
have an historic reference. Thev bear either on the obverse his
portrait with a bull's harn aiiJ uli ■ L_- ils ll ■. a l^,j:l -J t''_iLL_[jn, cr
on the one side a winded fucn^lL: fij^un^^ (Victory) on the pujw ot a
;alley, blowing a. trunipet, and on the otbE^r Ptrmtdon striking with
lis trident. Tne bttcr type^ caunaiix doubled la relate to the great
naval victory which Dvmeinus gaJAed over PioLcmy m 30&; the
Victory reproduce ihc " Vicigry ol Samothi^ce/' dedtcatcd by
Demetrius and now in the Louvre. The ictradrachms of Aniigonui
I. (Gonatas). which arc of inferior style and work to those of
Demetrius, have type^ which appear to fefer in like manner to the
great event of his lime. The ob^cnic type h a. \l^rcdoniifi buckler
with the head o\ Pan In I'n. ;. ]■', r. .i.,.T il..- r.v, 1 , !■..., Athene
Promachos. The head of Pan is supposed to have been taken as a
device in consequence of the panic wnich led to the discomfiture of
the Gauls at Delphi. Another pair of types, the head of Poseidon
and Apollo seated on the prow of a warship, probably refers to the
victory of f^ucolla about 2^8 B.C. The tetradrachms of Philip V.
have on the obverse a head in the helmet of Perseus, representing
probablv Philip's son, Pi-rscus. in the character of that hero. The
reverse Dears a club. Other tetradrachms and smaller coins have a
simple portrait of Philip. The tetradrachms of Perseus are of fair
style, considering the time at which they were struck. They bear
on one side the king's head and on the other dn eagle on a thunder-
bolt. Andriscus (Philip VI., 150-149 B.C.) issued tetradrachms some
of which represent him as Perseus. The coins of the Paeonian kings
(from about 359 to 286 B.C.) show Macedonian influence, but are
semi-barbarous.
The coin systems of northern Greece, Thessaly, Epinis,
Corcyra, Acamania and Actolia present certain difficulties
which disappear if we consider them as originally
^' Aeginctan, modified in the west by Corinthian, and
later by Roman, influence. The coinage of Thessaly represents
very few specimens of a ifemotc period, while pieces of the best
time are numerous. These arc in general remarkably like the
finest coins of Sicily and Italy, although the style is simpler.
The prevalence of the horse and horseman is significant. The
money of the Thcssalian Confederacy, being of late date (196-
146 B.C.), is of little interest. The commonest types arc the head
of Zeus crowned with oak and the Thcssalian Athena Itonia in
a fighting attitude. T^c coinage is resumed in imperial times.
Numerous small places, such as Gomphi, Homolium, Lamia,
Phalanna, produced coins of considerable beauty; more exten-
sive are the issues of Pharsalus, Phcrae (with fine coins of the
tyrant Alexander), and especially Larissa. The last series begins
with archaic pieces and some of the early period of good art,
but sometimes of rather coarse execution. The small silver
pieces have very interesting reverse types relating to the nymph
of the fountain, and to be compared for mutual illustration
with the didrachms of Terina and with some of those of Elis.
These are followed by coins of fine work. The usual obverse
type is the head of Larissa, the nymph of the fountain, facing,
and on the reverse is generally a horse, cither free or drinking.
The head is treated in a very rich manner, like that of the
fountain-nymph Arcthusa, facing, on tetradrachms of Syracuse;
indeed, the debt to the Sicilian type is obvious. The bronze money
is also good. The wine-producing island of Peparethus, off the
Thcssalian coast, is represented by a remarkable scries of Attic
tetradrachms (about 500-480 B.C.) with a variety of types,
partly Dionysiac.
The coinage of Illyria (strictly Illyris or lUvricum) is usually of
inferior or rude art ; the pieces are Acginetic. ultimately changing to
^ ^^ Corinthian, and then, in 229 B.C., to the standard of the
uyrtcum, R^n^an Victoriatus. Of Apullonia there is a large series.
The catlicst (carlv 4th rrntur/) have the Corcyracan types of the
tow and the call and the floral pattern; the latest, usually the
head of Apollo and three nymnhs dancing round a fire, the outer
ones holding torches. Dyrrhacnium, whicn never boars on its coins
the more famous name of Epidamnus, is represented by an im-
portant scries. First there arc reduced Aeginetan didrachms with
Corcyracan types. These are succeeded by tridrachms with
Conntbistn types, and of Corinthian weight; ana then the old types
are resumed, but the standard is that of the victoriatm. Dyrriiaehtufa,
it must he remembered, was founded partly by Cbrc>Taean and partly
by Corinthian colonists. The lUyrio-Epirote mining towns, Danu»
tium. &c.. struck barbarous silver coins in the 4th century; oa soom
of the small pieces we see an ingot of .metal or a miner's pick.
The coins of Epinis are of higner interest and beauty thJra xtoat of
Illyria. Of the Epirots there are bronze coins of the rcsil period
(34J'J7J u.t.j, jnJ b..L]i .Jverand bronze of the republic _
( J3B- 16^ B.C. K w i th t he h tjnis of the' Dodonacan Zeus and ^f"^
Dkane. togetlurr or apart. Amhracia is represented by lilver pMcn,
with on the one side a head of Dione, on the other the oboisk d
ApolEo Agyieui.
The scfies of Greek imperial money of Xicopolb most alw be
mentioned. The colnaj^e of the kings begins under Alexander L
Hi* toim have been foiind in the three metals, but they are r^n. It
is pfobable that both rv14 and silver »-erc struck in Italy »*iV fce
wat in that countTv. The coins of Pyrrhus in all metaU are 01 hi)tk
inttjesi, and temarKaMv tor their beauty, though the styk- u unaliy
florfd- Thri^ an be btilc doubt that they were for the nest >ut
struck In Italy md Sicily, at Tarentum and Syracuse. The tetn*
dnu:hm Laa far the type c^ the obvcnse a head of the LXxioaaeaa Z.-U
crowned wkh oak and for that of the reverse Diorte seated. .^ ^ne
didrachm bea» on the obvtrse a head of Achilles helmeted. »-ith for
the reverse Thetis on a sea-horse carrying the shield of her *«.
Amonf^ the copper coins of Pyrrhus we must retnark the bcaotif i
ones wtth the portrait of his mother Phthia.
The coinage of the island of Corcyra begins with very earty reduced
Aeginetic didrachms and drachms of the (>th century. The types aic
the cow suckling the calf and the floral pattern, as at -^
Dyrrhachium. These leading subjects are varied in later **"*"■•
times by others illustrating the (Torinthian origin of the nation. :u
maritime power, and the fame of its wine. Not the lca>t cuhoui an
the bronze pieces with galleys bearing their na:ne<. as Frw/on.
Glory, Orderly Government, Corcyra, Comus, Cypri*. \'ictor> . You-tV,
Preserver, Fame, Light-bearer. I'he abundant brorue seria goes oa
under the emperors.
The coins of Acamania are not remarkable for beauty or for
variety in their types. The money of several cities in the 4:^
century B.C. is Corinthian in types and weight. That of
the Acamanian League (220-168 B.C.) bears the head of ^^,
the AcheloQs as a man-headed bull and the seated .\poUo **"^
Actius. Of Leucas the silver coins show the archaic cultus-fifure
of Aphrodite Aeneias.
In Aetolia the gold and silver coins of the Aetolian League ha\t
some merit (279-168 b.c.). The gold pieces have on the ob\cne dbc
head of Athena or that of Heracles in the lion's skin and on ^
the reverse Actolia personified, seated on Gauli->h and '^'^
Macedonian shields (a fieurc dedicated after the lepulsr cf the
Gauls; Paus. x. 18, 7). These subjects recur, with others indL-2;:-i2
the hunter-life of the population, on the silver monev: of e-pciil
interest are the head of Atabnta and the Cal>donian boar, zr.i 'be
spear-head with which he was slain. On some of the copper the s-pur-
head and the jaw-bone of the boar arc seen.
The coinage of Locris,Phocis and Docoi ia is entirely on thi Ar-ziwtic
standard. Thecoins of theLocri Epicncmidii arc inainlv didr^chns,
struck at Opus, with the head of Persephone and the ^^^
figure of the Le&ser Ajax in a fi-^hting attitude, sometimes •'•"^
accompanied by hb name. These coins were struck between 569
and 338 B.C., and are remarkable for the manner in which a S> racLsJn
head is copied, if indeed the dies were not actually in some cases r:ia;je
in the western city.
The money ol Pbocis begins at a wry carty age, *-i;ime time in tL*
6ih century B.c.^ and i:Jitcnd3 in silver down to the corh;'jc»i tri
Philip (346 B.cJ. The prevalent type it a buU s hif.id.
T he genL' rals Onynia n:b us and Phalaecui in i he Sacred War '••*
placnJ their names on tjron^c coEns* Delphi. Broffraphirally inclji'C
m Phocla, strike* very femarkahlc mooey^whollv (bstinct iat>y<*fro'-.
ibc Phoclan. The pnnciipal subjects are headj oJ fa m ^ and ? jjt*. '.^r
symbols of Apol b a* i pastoral d,J.vimt>%a dolphin ^A p< [Jo Dc:;"h;r. ti .
the omphalos arid tripod, and a no^ro** head, vrtii-'i has n?t U-;t
saTisttciority explained. The Amphiciyonjc « v^ ^ tn:ckt^:j:-J
didrachm*. probably on the occasion uf Phib ^r no* 1145 1 c .
with I he head of De meter, and the Delphi ^r seated c« tbe
ornphalcff- Under Hadrian and the Aniofilr^^. .,
Colrugt'of Delphi, some pltrccsbcarinc^ the rtprtrwn
IS an ir=;x-a*
>nof !V.c:cr.?<
the ccljTrisf
Pluta.'ch»r:a
of hpoWo, on one type the Tetter E apptarirt^ bt-t**
the lace, rcprcseatin; themystk Delphic EI, on « 1l:
m treatise.
The coinage of Bocotia is chiefly of a period anterior to the
reign of Alexander, under whom the political imponar:* d
Thebes and the whole country came to an end. The j^^
standard until the end of the 4th century is Acginetic
The main characteristic of the money is the almost cxclushe ux
of the Boeotian shield as the obverse t>-pe, marking the feicnl
character of the issues. These were struck by various c:-t^
or by Thebes as ruling the League The earliest pieces ~rc
drachms, presumably of Thebes, issued between 600 arid 55: b-C-
GKEEK CODQI
NUMISMATICS
883
Thew ue foDowed by HMrarhmt of the same and other dties
until the time of the Persian War. The result of the unpatriotic
policy of Thebes and most of tlie towns of Boeotia was tlie
degradation of the leading dty, and the coins reveal the curious
lact that Tanagra for a time became the centre of the League-
coinage. We now notice the abandonment of the old incuse
reverse and the adoption of regular types, the wheel at Tanagra
and the amphora at Thebes. These types increase, and indicate
several cities during the short period of Athenian influence
(456-446 B.C.)- The democratic institutions were next over-
thrown, and Thebes became again the head of Boeotia, and
struck alone and in her own name, not in that of the League.
To the earlier part of this period belong splendid didrachms with
reverse types chiefly representing Heracles, subsequently varied
by beads of Dionysus in a series only less fine. With the peace
ol Antalcidas (3S7 B.C.) Thebes lost her power, the League was
dissolved, and the other Boeotian dties issued a coinage of some
merit. In 379 B.c. Thebes became the chief state in Greece,
and the patriotic policy of Pdopidas and Epaminondas is shown
in the issue of the Boeotian coins at the great city without any
name but that of a magistrate. Among those which occur is
XHAM, or KTTAMT. who can scarcely be any other than the
Illustrious general (PI. I. fig. 18). After the battle of Chaeronca
(338 B.C), swiftly followed by the destruction of Thebes, the
coinage is comparatively unimportant, save only for the appear-
ance of new league-money of Attic weight, with the head
of Zeus and the figure of Poseidon, between a88 and 244 B.C.
In Attica the great series of Athens is dominant. Eleusb
issued a small bronze coinage of good style in the 4th century.
j^f^g^ Oropus and the isdand of Salamis also had an unim-
portant coinage. The Athenian coinage, apparently
introduced by Solon, begins with didrachms on the £ub<MC
standard, which, owing to the fame of the Athenian money,
received the name of Attic. The type is an owl, the reverse
having only the incuse square. These didrachms were suc-
ceeded under Pcisistratus by the well-known Attic tetradrachms
with head of Athena on the obverse, and owl and olive-spray on
the reverse (PI. I. fig. 20). The change supposed to have been
introduced by Hippias (Pscudo-Arist. Oecon. ii. 4) was merely one
of nomenclature; by calling in the coinage and reissuing it at
double its old nominal value he only paid back half of what he
had received. To what had previously been called didrachms
he gave the name of tetradrachms, by which they have since
been known. An obol bearing the name of Hippias himself,
and types similar to those of Athens, was probably issued by
him during his exile. From the time of the Persian wars the
helmet of Athena is adorned with three olivc-lcavcs. A rare
decadrachm corresponds at Athens to the Dcmarctcia at Syra-
cuse, and was probably issued for similar reasons in commemora-
tion of victory over the barbarians. Otherwise historical events
seem to have left lit lie record in the coinage and the Athenians
deliberately aflFected archaism in the style of their coins, which
bear no mark of the splendour of Athens as the centre of the
sculptor's art. No doubt commercial reasons dictated this
conservative policy, which makes the coinage of Athens a
disappointment in numismntics. Her money was precious for
its purity not only in the Greek world but among distant bar-
barians, so that imitations reach us from the Punjab and from
southern Arabia, and any change would have injured its wide
reception. There arc many divisions of silver coinage with the
types a little varied, and some different ones; and towards the
end of the 5th century (probably in 407 B.C.) gold and bronze
were introduced. The gold, of g^xxl quality and bad style, was
ne\'er plentiful. The Macedom'an empire put an end to the
autonomy of Athens, and when the money is again issued it is
of a wholly new style and the t>'pes arc modified. The great
series of spread tetradrachms may be dated from about 320 B c .
and la?tc<i probably until the time of AuguMus. The obverse
t>'pe is a head of Athena with n nrhl> adorned helmet,
unquestionably Iwrrowed from the famous siaine by Phcidias in
Ivory and gold, but a poor shadow of that splendid original, and
an owl on an amphora withm an olive* wreath. 1 he earbest coins
have the monograms of two magistrates, the hter the names of
two who are annual (although the nature of their offices is not
certain— possibly they were Xccrot^lot), and, during the period
146-86, a third name, of the treasurer of the prytany in which
the coin was issued. Among the names are those of Antiochus
(175 B.C.), afterwards Antiochus IV. of Syria, and of Mithradatet
the Great (PI. II. fig. 1) and his creature, Aristion (87-86 B.C.);
but comparatively few of the coins can be dated exactly. Mithra-
dates issued the only gold staters in this series. The symbols in
the field often represent local statues of great interest. The
abundance of this money shows the great commercial importance
of Athens in these later times. Under the empire Athens issued
only quasi-autonomous coins, but these are of great archaeo-
logical value as they bear representations of the Acropolis, with
the grotto of Pan, the statue of Pallas Promachus, the Parthenon,
and the Propylaca, with the steps leading up to the latter; of
the theatre of Dionysus, above which are caverns in the rock,
and higher still the Parthenon and the Propylaea; and of
various statues and groups of sculpture. Megara and other
pUces in Megaris issued a small but interesting coinage.
The money of the island of Aegina is of especial interest since
with it coinage originated, so far as Greece proper is concerned,
probably fairiy early in the 7th century B.C. There ^^^,^
is no good evidence for connecting the institution of ^•^•■■^
the coinage with Phddon, king of Argos, who established a
system of measures and wdghts, known as the Pheidonian.
The weight of the coins is of course on the Aeginetic standard.
The oldest pieces are very primitive didrachms, bearing on the
obverse a sea- tortoise and on the reverse a rude incuse stamp
(PI. II. fig. 2). Afterwards the stamp becomes less rude, and later
has a peculiar shape. The sea-tortoise is also replaced by a
land-tortoise. There are some coins of the early part of the fine
period of excellent work. The great currency was of didrachms.
The bronze coins are not remarkable, but some appear to be of
an earlier time than most Greek pieces in this metaJ.
The scries of Achaea begins under the Achaean League in
the time of Epaminondas, with a fine Aeginetic stater and
smaller coins in the name of the Achaeans. The later
silver coins are either Attic tetrobols or Aeginetic
hemidrachms. On all but the earliest, i.e. after about 280 B.C.,
monograms or symbols indicate the cities which were members
of the league; on the later bronze coins the names are given in
full. The tyi>e of the silver is the head of Zeus Homagyrius, the
reverse beaming the monogram of the Achaeans in a laurel-
wreath. The oldest bronze repeals the silver types; the later
bear a standing Zeus and a seated Demeter, with the name of
the city at full length. About forty-five dties are represented by
this coinage.
Corinth is represented by a very large scrics'of coins, the weight
of which is always on the Corinthian standard, equivalent to Attic
but differently divided, — the Corinthian tridrachm, the ^
chief coin, corresponding to the Attic didrachm. The
oldest pieces, of the 6th century B.C. (some perhaps even earlier),
bear on the obverse Pegasxis with the letter 9. koppa, the initial
of the name of Corinth, and on the reverse an incuse pattern. In
course of time (about 500 d.c.) the head of Athena in an incuse
square occupies the reverse. The incuse square disappears, as
generally elsewhere, in the early period of fine art. Of the age
of the excellence and decline of art we find beautiful work,
though generally wanting in the severity of the highest Greek
art ( PI II fig. 3). Pegasus is ordinarily seen galloping, but some-
times standing or drinking, the koppa is usually retained, and the
helmet of Athena, always Corinthian, is sometimes bound with
an olive-wreath. The smaller coins have the same reverse, but
on the obverse a charming series of type*, principally female
heads, mostly representing Aphrodite. There are some drachms
with Bellerophon in a combatant attitude mounted on Pegasus
on the one side and the Chimaera on the other. The autonomous
bronze money is poor, but often of fair work, and interesting,
especially when the type relates to the myth of Bellerophon.
In 46 BC this city was made a colonia, and we have a large
and interesting series of the bronze coins struck h\ kk. %x v».V^«
884
NUMISMATICS
including the remarkable type of the tomb of Lais. The coins of
the " colonies " of Corinth form a long and important series,
struck by Acamanian towns with Corcyra, and in the west by
Locri Epizephyrii in Italy and Syracuse. Some of these cities
were not strictly colonies of Corinth, but the Pegasus staters
struck by them form a homogeneous group. They range from
the time of Dion (357 B.c.) to nearly the end of the 3rd century.
The coins are distinguished by the absence of the koppa, and
bear the names or monograms of the dties.
There are bronze coins of Pktrae as an important Roman colonia.
and silver and bronze money of Phlius, both of the period of good
art. The coinage of Sicyon, on the Aeginetic standard
^l^*' ^^ dominant in the rest of the Peloponnesus, is disappoint-
**^''*"' **• ine for a famous artistic centre. It begins shortly before
the period of fine art ; in that age the silver b abundant and well
executed, but the leading types, the Chlmaera and the flying dove
within an olive-wreath, are wearying in their repetition, and good
work could not make the Chlmaera an agreeable subject. Small coins
with types of Apollo are the only subjects which suggest the designs
of the great school of Sicyon.
The money of the Eleans is inferior to none in the Greek world in
its art, which reaches the highest level of dignified restraint, and in the
jM,, variety-of its types, which are suggested by a few subjects.
^^ The ksuiing typies are connected, as we mt^ht expect, with
the worship of Zeus and Hera and Victory, the divinities 01 the great
Panhellenic contest at Olympia, and the coinage is rather the money
of Olympia than of the Eleans as a civic community. The prevalent
representations are the eagle and the winged thundertwlt of Zeus,
the head of Hera and the figure of Victory. The series begins eariy
in the 5th century B.C. with coins, some of whkh are didrachms
(Aeginetic), having as subjects an eagle carrying a serpent or a hare,
and on the reverse a thunderbolt or Victory bearing a wreath —
archaic types which in their vieour promise the excellence of later
days. From 471 to 421 B.C., whue Ehs was allied with the Spartans,
such types continue; the eagle and Victory (sometimes seated) are
both treated with great force and beauty, and the subject <A seated
Zeus is remarkable for its dignity. The Argive alliance (421-400 B.C.)
seems marked by the pre-eminence given to Hera, whose head may
suggest the famous statue of Polyclettus at Argos. About the same
time was issued a didrachm with a noble head of Zeus (PI. II. fig. 4),
which probably recalls, though it is not a copy of, the Zeus of Pheidias.
This alliance broken, the old types recur. Magnificent eagles, some
admirably designed on a shield, and eagles' heads (see PI. 1 1, fig. ^), the
seated Victory, and fantastically varied thunden>olts marie this age.
Among the artists' signatures at this time is AA, which ma]f repre-
sent the sculptor Daedalus of Sicyon. In ^64 B.c. the coinage is
interrupted for a year, the Pisatans, who conducted the festival then,
issuing small gold coins; these are immediately followed by Elean
money with the heads of Zeus and the nymph Olympia. Aristotimus,
who was tyrant in 272 B.C., issued coins with his initials. The coinage
closes with imperial money, some types of which have a local interest,
notablv two of Hadrian bearing the head and figure of Zeus, copied
from the famous statue by Pheidias.
Cephallenia gives us the early silver coins of Cranii, the money of
Pale, of charming style, with the figure of Cephalus on the reverse,
Ctobmh ^"^ ^^^ ^' Same, all cities of this island. Of the island of
Maim. Ac Zacynthus there are silver pieces, usually of rather coarse
mam, sc. ^Q,.yj^ |,m gometimes of the style of the best Cephallenian
money. Some struck in 357 bear the name of Dion of Syracuse^'who
collected the forces for his expedition in this island. The coins of
Ithaca are of bronze. They are of interest on account of their
common obverse type, which is a head of Odysseus.
Returning to the mainland, we first notice the money of Messene,
or the Messenians. The earliest coin is a splendid Aeginetic didrachm,
<lf having on the obverse a head of Persephone, and excels in
* design the similar subjects on the money of Syracuse, from
which it must have been copied, tor it is of about the time of Epamin-
ondas. It shows the purer style of Greece, which, copying Syracusan
work, raised its character. On the reverse is a figure of Zeus, inspired
by the work of Hagcladas. The other silver coins are of about the
period of the Achaean League. The bronzv money is plentiful, but
Lmeoola, "^* interesting. Lacedaemon. as we might nave expected,
has no early coins, the silver money being mostly of the
age of the Achaean League, but the King Areus (300-265 B.C.) and
the tyrant Nabis (207-102 b.c.) are represented by Attic tetra-
drachms. On a tetradrachm of the time of the ifohner is a figure of
the Apollo of Amyclac. Among the types of the autonomous bronze
pieces may be noticed the head of the Spartan lawgiver Lycufgus,
with his name. The series of Argos in Argolis begins eariy in the
4fSollS. S^^ century. The standard is Aeginetic. The first pieces
'^^ are the drachm and smaller denominations with a wolf,
half wolf or wolf's head on the obverse, and A on the reverse. A rare
iron coin was issued with these types. At the end of the sth century
begin the didrachms. which have for the obverse type the head of the
Polyclcitan Hera — a design which is not equal to tnat of the coins of
Elis. the style being cither careless or not so simple. The reverse
IGREEK COINS
type of the drachm represents Diomedes stealthily advancug with
the palladium in his left hand and a short sword in his right. A 4th-
century drschm of Epidaunis represents the famous seated figure of
Asclepius by Thrasymedes of Paros.
Of the money of Arcadia some pieces are doubtless among the
most ancient struck by the Greeks; and the types of these aooiater
coins are often connected with the remarkabfe myths of ^ ^
this primeval pcut of Hellas, showing particularly the
remains ci its old nature-worship. Tnc first series to be nodoed b
that of the Arcadian League; it begins about 500 B.C. with benii-
drachms having the type of Zeus Lycaeus seated, the eagle repce-
sented as if flying from nis hand, and a female head. Of a later tune,
from the age of Epaminondas, there are very fine cmns (naued from
Megalopolis) with the head of Zeus, and Pan seated. The coifls of
Hcraea begin deep in the 6th century B.C. The earliest have for
obverse type the veiled head of Hera, and on the reverse the beginning
of the name of the town. The silver coins of Mantinea (beginning
early in the 5th century) have on the obvene a bear, representing
Callisto, the mother of Areas, who was worshipped here, and on the
reverse the letters MA, or three acorns, in an incuse souare. Later
coins, especially the bronze, have subjects connected with the worship
of Poseidon at this inland town. The silver cmna of Pheneus must
be noticed as being of fine work. The didrachms of the age of
Epaminondas have a head of Persephone, and Hemes carryijw the
child Areas. The obverse type is interesting as a copy of tltt
Syracusan subject, as in Locns and Messene. As in Locris, the
merit is in the greater force and simplicity of the face, here most
successful, the luir being treated more after the Syracusan manner
than afttn* that of the Messenians,'who amplified the whole subject.
The finest coin attributed to Stymphalus u a magnificent didrachm
of the age of Epaminondas, with a head of the kxral Artemis laureate,
and Heracles striking with his club. The smaller silver coins have
on the one side a head of Heracles and on the other the bead and neck
of a Stymphalian bird. There were representations of these birds in
the temple oi Artemis. The series oi Tegea is not important, but
two of the reverse types of its bronze coins are interesting as reiatu^
to the myth of Telephus and to the story that Athena gave a jar
containing the hair of Medusa to her prieste« Sterope. daughter of
Cepheus, m order that she might terrify the Argives shovtld they
attack Tegea in the absence of Cepheus, when Heracles desired his
aid in an expedition against Sparta. Iron coins were issued by Tegea,
and also perhaps by Heraea.
The peculiar position of Crete and her long isolation from
the political, artistic and literary movements of HelUs have
been already touched on. It is not until the age of
Philip V. that Crete appears in the field of history,
and then only as the iMittle-ground of rival powers. The most
remarkable influence of this age was when Athens, by the
diplomacy of Cephisodorus, succeeded about 200 B.C. in drawing
the Cretans into a great league against Philip V. of Macedoo.
That this project took actual shape is proved by the issue at
all the chief mints of the isknd of tetradrachms with the well-
known types of Athens, to be distinguished from the Attidziog
types of other dties at this time.
The oldest coins are probably of about 500 B.c, but few cities
seem to have Issued many imtil a hundred years later. Tken
there is a great outburst of coinage, sometimes beautiful, some-
times barbarously cardesi, which lasts until the age ol Alexander,
when the local currency was probably in great part replaoed by
Alexandrine coins. At the end of the 3rd century the local
coinages are revived until the Roman conquest (67 or 66 B.C.).
The chief issue is of silver; bronze is less abundant; and gold
is all but unknown. The CreUn types have a markedly local
character, yet they copy in some instances other omnages. The
chief divinities on the pieces are Zeus, Hera, Poseid(», Heracles
and Britomartis, and the leading myths are those of Minos, the
story of the Minotaur and the labyrinth being prominent, ax^
also that of Europa. There is frequent reference to nature-
worship as in Sicily, yet with a distinctive preference for trees,
the forms of which, however, lend themselves readily to the
free representation of Cretan art, which may in part explain
their prominence. The peculiarity of Cretan art lies in its
realism. At some places, as Aptera, Polyrrhcnium and Cydonia,
we find engravers' signatures. The weight is at first Aegincik
of reduced form; and in the resumption of the coinage after
Alexander's time it is Attic.
Of the island in general there are Roman stiver and brooxe
coins of the earlier emperors, some of which are of fine work
for the period. The most interesting types are Dictynna and
GREEK COINS)
NUMISMATICS
88s
2Seus Cretagenei. Tlie autonomous coins are very craned. The
obverse. o£ the didrachms of Aptera bean a Yiead of Artemis
and the leverse a warrior (Ptolioikos) before a sacred tree.
Of Chersonesus, the port 6f Lyctus, there are didrachms of coarM
style,, with a head of Artemis Britomartis, who had a temple at
the pkKe. The head is copied from Stymphalus, as also is one
of the reverse types, Heracles wielding his club. The n^oney of
Cnossus is o£ great interest. The oldest coins may be as early
as 480 B.C. They bear the figure of the Minotaur as a bull-
headed man, kneeling on one knee, and a maeander-pattem, in
tone case cndodng a star (the sun), in another a head (Theseus?).
Of the peiiod 431-350 there are didrachms with the head of
Persephone, and the labyrinthine pattern enclosing the sun or
the moon or a bull's head for the Minotaur, and at length be-
coming a regtdar mase. To this time belongs the wonderful
coin in the Berlin Museum with Minos seaCed, his name in the
field, and -the head of Persephone within the maeander-pattem.
In the later 4th century a head of Hera (copied without spirit
from the coins of Argos) occupies the obverse of didrachms and
drachms, and the reverse has a maze through which the way may
be dearly traced. This series doses with Alexander's empire,
and the native coinage disai^>ears imtil the league of Cephisodorus
revives it with the Athenian tetradrachm of Attic weight, bearing
the name of the Cnossians. It is of inferior style, and is followed
by base coins with heads of Minos and ApoUo, and the Labyrinth,
either square as before or in a new circular form, which is
interesting as showing it was a mere matter of tradition.
There are interesting coins of Cydonia, some of them of beauti-
ful style and work. One bears an engraver's name, Neuantos.
The head is that of a Maenad, and the reverse has a figure of
the traditional founder Cydon, stringing his bow, who on other
didrachms is seen suckled by a bitch. The style is good, but
the execution poor. Gortys, or Gortyna, is represented by
most remarkable coins, which generally allude to the myth of
Europa. Didrachms of archaic style have on the obverse
Europa carried by the bull and on the reverse the lion's scalp.
These pieces are followed by a remarkably fine class of spread
didrachms; the best are of about 400 B.C. They have on the
obverse Europa seated in a pensive attitude on the trunk of a
tree, doubtless the sacred plane at Gortyna, mentioned by Pliny,
which was said never to shed its leaves, and on the reverse a
bull suddenly ttiming his head as if stung by a fly (PL II. fig. 6).
Nothing in Greek art exceeds the skiU and beauty of these designs.
The truth with which the tree is sketched, and the graceful
position of the fodom Europa are as much to be admired as the
fidelity with which the bull is drawn, even when foreshortened,
sharply turning his head, with his. tongue out and his tail raised.
These designs, beautiful in themselves, are strikingly defident in
fitness, and afford equally strong illustrations of the cxcellendcs
and of the one great fault of die art of Cretan coins. Many
pieces of the same class are of rude execution. Of Itantis there
are remarkable coins, the earlier, some of which are of good
style, with the subject of a Tritonian sea-god (Glaucus ?) and
two sea-monsters. Lyctus (Lyttus) is represented by strangely
rude pieces, with the types of a flying eagle and a boar's head.
The coins of Phaestus form a most interesting series. Among
the didrachms are some of admirable work, with on the obverse
Jlerades slaying the Hydra with his dub and on the reverse a
bull^ Others have on the obverse Herades seated on the groimd,
resting. Another noticeable obverse type is the beardless Zeus
seated in & tree, with his Cretan name, Vdchanos. On his knee
is a cock crowing, showing that he was a god of the dawn. We
also find Talos, the man of brass, said to have been made by
Hephaestus or Daedalus, portrayed as a winged youth naked,
bearing in each hand a stone, and in a combatant attitude.
Apollonius Rhodius (ArgonaiU. iv. 1638 sqq.) relates that Talos
prevented the Argonauts from landing in Crete by hurling stones
a.t them, until he was destroyed by the artifice of Medea. The
important town of Polyrrhenium is represented by carefully-
executed coins with a head of Zeus and a bull's head. A later
piece has a whiskered head of Apollo, probably Philip V. in that
diaraacr. Priansus shvws the remarkable type of Persephone
seated beside a date-palm, placing her nght hand on the head of
a serpent in reference to the myth of the birth of Zagreus. As
usual, the figure is foreshortened. The reverse has a standing
figure of Poseidon. Rhaucus has Poseidon beside his horse
The rare didrachms of Sybritia, or Sybrita, may fitly dose the
series; one, among the most exquisite of Greek coins, has heads
of Dionysus and Hermes in high relief (see PL II. fig. 7),
another has on the obverse a charming subject, Dionysus seated
on a running panther, and on the reverse Hermes drawing on
his right buskin,— a delightful figure. Another beautiful type is
a seated Dionysus.
The coinage of Euboea b all on the native standard, of which the
Attic was a variety. It includes some of the veiy earliest Greek
money. Carystus be^ns in the time of the Persian War p jl
with the type of the cow and calf, as in Corcyra, and its «■■••■•
■pedal badge is the cock. In the period 197-146 it issued gold
cfrachms. Cbalds, the mother of western colonics, has already in the
6th century, or even eariier, a long series with the wheel-type and an
incuse diagonally divided, and later, a nymph's head and an ca^le
dcvourinff a serpent. Eretria probably begins as early as Chaicis,
but the oDverse type b the Gorgon's head. This b succeeded by the
same type and a panther's or bull's head, and fine bte archaic coins
bear the cow and the cuttle-fish. Eretria was probably the mint of
coins with the head of a nymph and a cow or cow's hcaa struck in the
name of Euboeans in the fine period. Of Histiaca the usual type b
the head of a Maenad and a female figure seated on the stem of a
galley.
Among the other isbnds classed after Euboea, Amorgfta must not
be passed by, as a bronze coin of Ae^lc. one of its towns, presents
the curious type of a cupping-glass. To Andnos has been crda^m
attributed a group of eariy coins bearing an amphora. riT^^^
The silver money of Carthaea, Conessb and lulls in Ceos soon^M.
is extremely old, beginning in each case in the 6th century. ^vw»
The weight is Aeginetic, and there are didrachms and smaller coins.
The usual types of Carthaea are an amphora and then a bunch of
grapes i that of Corcssia is a cuttle-fish and dolphin. The coinage of
Dclos is insignificant. Melos coined from the early sth century to
imperial times : its chief type b a canting one, the mXow (pome-
granate). 'Naxos b represented by early Aeginetic didrachms and
coins of the fine period, the latter being chiefly bronze pieces of
remarkably delicate and good work. The types arc Dionysiac. A
7th<entury coin with the head of a satyr (one of the earliest repre-
sentations of the human head on a coin) is probably Naxbn. Of
Paras there are early Aeeinctic didrachms with the type of a kneeling
goat and beneath a dolpnin. Of the 3rd and 2nd centuries d.c. there
are Attic didrachms with a head, possibly of Artemb, at first of a
charming style, and a goat on the reverse. There are very archaic
Aeginetic didrachms oiSiphnos, which was famous for its gold and
silver mines. A late tetradrachm of Syros b interesting as repre-
senting the Cabin.
The coinage of Asia begins with that of Asia Minor. It faUs
into certain great classes— first, the andent gold and dectrum,
Lydian and Greek, in time succeeded by dectrum
or gold and sQvcr, all struck in the west and mainly
on the coast. Then the Persian dominion appears
in the silver money of the satraps, circulating with the gold
and silver of Persia, and the Greek money is limited to a few
cities of the coast, none save the dectrtmi of the great mint of
Cyzicus uninterrupted by the barbarian. With the decay of
the barbarian empire the renewed life of the Greek dties is
witnessed by a beautiful coinage along the coast from the
Propontb to Cilida. On Alexander's conquest autonomy
b granted to the much-enduring Hellenic communities, and b
again interrupted, but only partially, by the rule of hb successors,
for there was no time at which Asia Minor was wholly parcdled
out among the kings, Greek or native. The Romans, after the
battle of Magnesia (190 B.C.), repeated Alexander's policy so
far as the dties of the western coast were concerned, and there
b a fresh outburst of coiiuige, which, in remembrance, foUows
the weU-known types of Alexander. When the province of
Asia was constituted and the neighbouring states fell one by
one under Roman rule, the autonomy of the great dties was
generally reduced to a shadow. Still the abundant issues of
imperial coinage, if devoid of high merit, are the best in style
of late Greek coins, and for mythology the richest in illustration.
The oldest money b the dectrum of Lydia, which spread
in very early times along the western coast. Thb coinage,
dating from the 7th century B.C., has an equal claim
with the Aeginetic silver to be the oldest of all money.
886
NUMISMATICS
(GREEK cons
Probably the two currencies arose at the same period, and by
interchange became the recognized currency of the primeval
^ marts, otherwise we can scarcely explain the absence
of Asiatic silver, though it is easy to explain that of
European electrum or gold. The electrum of the coins
is gold— the precious metal washed down by the Pactolus — with a
native alloy of a varying part of silver. Its durability recommended
it to the Lydians, and it had (by convention) the advantage of
exchanging decimally with gold, then in the ratio xj'j to silver.
But th^ commercial advanuge allowed the issue of electrum
coins on silver standards, while it was natural to coin them on
those of gold, hence a variety of weight-systems perplexing
to the metroiogist. The classification of the earliest coins is
exceedingly obscure, it is hardly possible to say which were
struck in Lydia itself, which in Uie Greek coast cities, such as
Miletus; but the majority probably belong to Greek mints.
The most primitive in appearance are those in which the obverse
is merely marked with lines, corresponding to the original rough
surface of the die, while the reverse has three depressions, an
oblong one flanked by two squares (PI. II. fig. 8); there are also
various coins of small denomination with a plain convex obverse,
and a single rough depression on the reverse, known from the
excavations at Ephesus. Both the Babylonian and the Phoenician
standards were in use in early times. This double currency,
as Head suggests, was probably intended, so far as the Lydians
were concerned, for circulation in the interior and in the coast
towns to the west, the Bobylonic weight being that of the land
trade, the Phoenician that of the commerce by sea. Croesus
(PI. II. fig. q) abandoned clearum, and issued pure gold (on the
Babylonic and gold-shekel standards) , and pure silvcr(Babylonic),
the silver stater exchanging as the tenth of the Euboic gold
stater. These results are explained by the metrological data
given earlier in this article. 01 the Greek marts of the western
coast we have a series of early electrum staters, for the most
part on the Phoenician weight. An interesting homogeneous
group was issued by the various cities which took part in the
Ionian revolt (500-494 B.C.). The Euboic weight naturally found
its way into the currencies, but was as yet limited to Samos.
Phocaea, Tcos and Cyzicus, with other towns, followed from a
very early period the Phocaic standard, which for practical
purposes may be called the double of the Euboic. They alone
before Croesus issued gold money, which was superseded at
Phocaea and Cyzicus by electrum. This is the main outline of
the native coinage of Asia Minor before the Persian conquest.
Its later history will appear under the several great towns, the
money of Persia (which circulated largely in Asia Minor) being
treated in a subsequent place.
The first countries of Asia Minor are Bosporus and Colchis,
the coins of the cities of which are few and unimportant. The
autonomous coinages of the cities of Pontus are more
Cold^^ numerous, but the only place meriting a special
ooatiA notice is Amisus, which almost alone of the cities of
Pontus seems to have issued autonomous silver money.
The common subjects of the bronze money of this place relate
to the myth of Perseus and Medusa, a favourite one in this
country.
The regal coins are of the old kingdoms of Pontus and of the
Cimmerian Bosporus, of the two united as the state of Bosporus
and Pontus under Mithradates VI. (the Great), and as recon-
stituted by the Romans when Polemon I. and U. still held the
kingdom of Mithradates, which was afterwards divided into the
province of Pontus and the kingdom of Bosporus. The early
coinage of the kingdom of Bosporus is of little interest. Of that
of Pontus there are tetradrachms, two of which, of Mithradates
IV. and Pharnaccs I., are remarkable for the unflinching realism
with which their barbarian type of features is preserved. Mith-
radates VI., king of Bosporus and Pontus, is represented by gold
staters, and tetradrachms. The portrait on the best of these
(see PI. II. fig. 10) is fine despite its theatrical quality, character-
istic of the later schools of Asia Minor. The kings of Bosporus
struck a long series of coins for the first three and a half centuries
after the Christian era. Their gold money (the only non-imperial
gold allowed under the empire) is gradualTy depiedsted and
becomes electrum, and ultimately billon and broozei Tbey
bear the heads of the king and the emperor, and are dated by
the Pontic era (297 B.C.).
In Paphlagonia we must specially notice the coins of the
cities Amastris and Sinope. The .silver pieces of the fbfmec
place bear a youthful head in a laureate Phrygian
cap, probably representing Mithras, Amastris, the
foundress, being seated on the reverse. The sOvcr "
pieces of Sinope are plentiful. In the 4th century shey bear the
names of Persian governors. The types are the head of the
nymph Sinope and, as at Istrus, an eagle preying on a dolphin.
Bithynia is represented by a more important series.
The provincial diet issued Roman silver roedaUiona ^^^
of the weight of dstophori (to be presently described), with
Latin inscriptions, and bronte pieces with Greek inscriptions.
The ordinary silver coins of Chalcedon strikingly resemble on
both sides those of Byzantium, and a monetary convemica
evidently at times existed between these sister-dties. Of Cins,
also called Prtisias ad Mare, there are gold statezs aad smaller
imperial silver pieces. Of Heradea there are silver csoins of
good style; the most interesting type is a female head wearing
a turreted head-dress, one of the eariiest representations of a
city-goddess (early 4th century). Ihe tyrants of Heradea,
Clearchxis, Satyrus, Timotheus and Dionysius are rq>resettted
by coins. Of the imperial class there is a large series of Nicaea,
and many coins of Nicomedia. The series of the Bithynian kings
consists of Attic tetradrachms and bronze pieces, issued bj
Ziaelas, Prusias I. and II., and Nicomedes I.-IV.
The fine Greek coinage of Asia may be considered to begin
with Mysia. Cyzicus is in numismatics a most imponaxU c^y.
Its coinage begins in the 6th century; and the famcua
dectrum Cyzicene staters were struck here for nearly ^v"**-
a century and a half (c. 500-350 B.c). During that wbok period
they were not only the leading gold coinage in Asia Minor but
the chief ciirrency in that metal for the cities on both shores <tf
the Aegean; the value at which they were rated was doubtless
a matter of convention, and varied from time to time. The
actual weight is of the Phocaic standard, just over 34S grains.
The divisions were the hecta or sixth, and the twelfth. The
extraordinary variety of " types " at Cyzicus is due to the
fact that these types are really symbols differentiating the issurs,
the true badge of the dty, the tunny-fish, being rdegated to a
subordinate position (PI. II. fig. ix). The reverse invariably his
the quadripartite incuse square in four planes of the so-calkvi
mill-sail pattern. The coins are very thick and the edges are
rude. The art is frequently of great beauty, though sooeiiircs
careless. The silver coinage of Cyzicus comprises bcaiaiiul
tetradrac hms o f the Rhodian standard, with a head of Perse-
phone £QTEIPA, veiled and wreathed with ears of com. Boiii
late autonomous and imperial coins in bronze are well crecutei
and full of interest, the two dosses running paralki under the
earlier emperors.
Lampsacus is represented by a long series of cscina. Its
distinctive type is the forepart of a Pegasus, which occurs c::
its coins from the 6th century onwards. In the first half of ite
4th century it issued splendid gold staters with various t>]x?
(really, as at Cyzicus, symbols distinguishing the issues) ca
the obverse and the half-Pegasus on the reverse. The nacs:
remarkable tjrpe is a bearded head (probably of a Cabirus) «.!."
streaming hair in a conical cap, bound with a wreath, singulari:.
pictorial in treatment as well as in expression (PI. II. fig. 1 z). h
contrast to this is a most carefully executed head off a Maess.
with goat's ear; and other types of great interest are the £ar>
goddess rising from the earth, and Victorv nailing a betinei t.
a trophy, or sacrificing a nun.
The money of the great dty of Pergamum is chiefly oi Aha
time. Apart from some rare pieces of gold, the silver coircr
is chiefly supplied by the money of the kings of Pergaxniur us.
by dstophori. The bronze pieces of the dty are nuzaeri':^
both autonomous and imperial, the two classes ov^Askpfit^
and there are medallions of the emperors. The local voc^iis? j
GREEK COINSI
NUMISMATICS
887
AcKulapius is especially promient under the RomAn rule. The
chief ooins of the kings are Attic tetradrachms, with on the
obverse a laureate head of Philetaerus, the founder of the state,
and on the reverse a seated Athene, the common type of Lysi-
macfaus, from whom Philetaerus revolted. Variations from
these types are rare,the most important being a coin with the
name of Eumenes (II.), representing his portrait and the Dioscuri
Otherwise the inscription is always ♦lAETAIPOY. The dsto-
phorus probably originated at Ephesus towards the end of the
3rd century, but was soon adopted for the Pergamene dominions,
and down to imperial times was the only important silver
currency in Asia Minor. It acquired its name from its obverse
type, the dsla mystica, a basket from which a serpent issues,
the whole enclosed in an ivy-wreath. The reverse type repre-
sents two serpents, and between them usually a bow-case (PI.
11. fig. 13). The half and the quarter of the c^phorus have on
one side a bunch of grapes on a leaf or leaves of the vine, and
the dub with the lion's skin of Heracles within an ivy-wreath.
They were tetradrachms equal in weight to about three Attic
drachms or three denarii. These coins became abundant when
the kingdom of Pergamum was transformed into the province
of Asia, and are struck at its chief dtiea, as Pergamum, Adra-
myttiumi the Lydion Stratoniceia, Thyatira, Sardis, Smyrna,
Ephesus, Tralles, Nysa, Laodicea and Apamea. They have at
first the names of Greek magistrates, afterwards coupled with
those of Roman proconsuls or propraetors. The sOverinedallions
o\ Asia, the successors of the dstophori, range from Mark Antony
to Hadrian and Sabina. They bear no names of cities, but some
may be attributed by their i^erences to local forms of worship.
The obverse bears an imperial head, the reverse a type either
Greek or Roman. The art is the best of this age, more delicate
in design and execution than that of any other pieces, the Roman
medallions excepted. One of the most remarkableimperial bronze
coins of Pergamum represents the Great Altar (PL U. fig. 16).
The coinage of the Troad is interesting from its traditional
allusions to the Trojan War. Of Abydos there Is a fine gold
Yf^gg^ stater, with the unusual subject of Victory sacrificing
a ram, and the eagle, which is the most constant type
of the sOver money. One of the few Imperial coins commemo-
rates the legend of Hero and Leander. The late tetradrachms
of Alexandria Troas bear the head of Apollo Smintheus, and
on the reverse his figure armed with a bow. There is a long
series of the town as a cotonia, of extremely poor work. Iliiim
Novum strikes late Attic tetradrachms with a head of Athene,
and on the reverse the same goddess carrying spear and distaff,
with the inscription AeHNA2 IAIAA02. On the autonomous
and imperial bronze we notice incidents of the tale of Troy,
as Hector in his car, or slaying Patrodua, or fighting; and again
the flight of Aeneas. The island of Tenedos is represented by
very early coins, and others of the fine and Ute periods. The
usual obverse type of all the silver pieces is a Janus-like com-
bination of two heads, presumably some primitive god and his
consort; this double type is balanced on the reverse by the
double-aze, which played an important part in the primitive
cults of Asia Minor and the Aegaean.
In AeoUs the most noteworthy coins are the late tetradrachms
of Cyme and Myrina, both of the time of decline, yet with a
certain strength which relieves them from the general weakness
of the work of that age. Cyme has the head of the Amazon
Cyme, and a horse within a laurel-wreath; Myrina, a head of
the Grynean Apollo and his figure with lustral branch and patera.
Lesbos Is remarkable for having coined in base as well as pure
silver, its early billon coins being peculiar to the island. This
base coinage, which was probably common to Mytilene and
llf ethynma, ceases about 450 B.C., when the Mytilenaean silver
>egins. Methymna has very interesting archaic silver coins,
ivith the boar and the head of Athene But the roost important
joinage of Lesbos Is the beautiful electrum coinage (a unique
tater, PI. II. fig. 14, and innumerable sixths) which was issued from
bout 480 to 350. Phocaea in Ionia issued similar coins, dis-
inguished by a seal (the badge of the dty). and a convention
egulating the weight and quality of the two coinages, and
arranging for the two mints to work m alternate years, Is still
exUnt. The types vary accordingly, as at Cyzicus and Lamp-
sacus. There is a long and important series of Mytilene of
the imperial time, including very interesting commemorative
coins, some of persons of remote history, as Pittacus and Sappho,
others of benefactors of the dty, as Theophanes the friend of
Pompey, from whom he obtained for this his native place the
privileges of a free dty. The usual style for these persons is
hero or heroine, but Theophanes is called a god, and Archedamis,
probably his wife, a goddess.
The money of Ionia is abundant and beautiful. For the first
century and a half (c. 700-545) the chief coinage Is of dectrum.
To the 7th century belongs the remarkable coin in- .„^
scribed «A£NOZ EMI SHMA (" I am the badge of the
Bright One " or " of Phanes "), with a stag, which was perhaps
issued at Ephesus. From 545 to the Ionic revolt (494) there
is considerable diminution in the coinage; silver attains nMre
importance. Thenceforward, the course of the coiimge is fairly
uniform until the period 301-190, when there Is a general cessa-
tion of autonomous issues. After the battle of Magnesia there
is a great revival, tetradrachms of Alexandrine and also of local
types bdng issued In vast numbers. After the constitution of
the Roman province of Asia (133), the dstophori supply the
silver coinage. The imperial bronze coinage is numerous, with
many interesting local types. Of the coins of the various dties
the following demand mention. At Clazomenae in the 4th
century there are splendid coins, having for types the head of
Apollo, three-quarter face, and a swan. The chief pieces, the
gold drachm and a half or octobol, and the silver stater or
tetradrachm present two types of the head of Apollo, yery
grand on the gold and the silver, with the signature of Theodotus,
the only known Asiatic engraver, and richly beautiful on the
other ^ver piece. These coins are marked by the intense
expression of the school of western Asia Minor. Colophon has
fine severe coins of the 5th century with the head of Apollo and
the lyre.
The money of Ephesus Is historically interesting, but very
disappointing in its art, which Is limited by the smail range <^
subjects and thdr lack of beauty. The leading type P ft.^ ^^
is the bee; hiter the stag and the head of Artemis
appear, llius the subjects relate to the worship of the xamous
shrine. The oldest coins are electrum and silver, both on the
Phoenician standard. The type Is a bee and the reverse is
incuse. The silver coinage continues with the same types,
unbroken by the Persian dominion, until in 394 B.C. a remarkable
new coin appears. When Conon and Pharnabazus defeated
the Lacedaemonian fleet and liberated the Greek cities of Asia
from Spartan tryanny a federal coinage was issued by Rhodes,
Cnidus, Samos, Ephesus, lasus and Byzantium with their
proper types on the reverse, but on the obverse- the infant
Herades strangling two serpents; these are Rhodian tridrachms.
About this time the Rhodian standard was introduced, and .a
series of tetradrachms began with the bee, having for reverse
the forepart of a stag looking back, and behind him a date-
palm. The head of Artemis as a Greek goddess begins to appear
in the 3rd century Other scries of coins foUow with types
associated with Artemis. Rhodian and Attic standards alternat-
ing; there are also Alexandrine tetradrachms and of course
dstophori The connexion of the dty with Lysiroachus, who
called it ArsinoiS, after his wife, is commemorated by coins
inscribed APSI The Ephesian form of Artemis, as the cultus
figure of a nature-goddess, first appears as a symbol on the
dstophori, and then on gold coins struck during the revolt of
87-84, when Ephesus took the side of Mithradates. The imperial
money provides many representations of the temples of the dty,
including that of the famous shrine of Artemis, which shows
the bands of sculpture on the columns, as wdl as many other
remarkable subjects, particularly the Zeus of rain seated on
Mount Pelion, a shower falling from his left hand, while below
arc seen the temple of Artemis and the river-god Cayster; on
another coin the strange Asiatic figure of the goddess, frequent
in this series, stands between the personified rivers Cayster and
890
NUMISMATICS
abundance by that of the Ptolemies, which it excels in its
series of portraits, though it is far inferior in its gold money
gy^f^ and wants the large and well-executed bronze pieces
which make the Egyptian currency complete. The gold
ot the Seleucids is scarce, and their main coinage is a splendid
series of tetradrachms bearing the portraits of the successive
sovereigns. The reverse types are varied for the class of regal
money. The execution of the portraits is good, and forms the
b^t continuous history of portraiture for the third and second
centuries before our era. The reverses are far less careful.
The weight is Attic, but the cities of Phoenicia were ultimately
allowed to strike on their own standard. Many of the coins of
the earlier kings were issued in their Bactrian or Indian dominions.
Seleucus I. (312-280 B.C.) began by striking gold 9taters and
tetradrachms with the types of Alexander the Great. The same
king, like his contemporaries, then took his own types: for
gold staters, his head with a bull's horn, and on the reverse a
horse's head with bull's horns; for tetradrachms, his own head
in a helmet of hide with bull's horn and lion's skin, and Victory
crowning a trophy, or the head of Zeus, and Athene fighting
in a car drawn by four or two' elephants with bull's horns.
Antiochus I. (293-261), like his father, first struck tetradrachms
with Alexandrine types, and then with his own head, Apollo
on the omphalos occupying the reverse. The portrait of Antiochus
has a chaxacteristic realism. Antiochus III. (222-187)" is repre-
sented by a fine and interesting series with a vigorous portrait.
He alone of the Seleucids seems to have struck the great octa-
drachm in gold in rivalry of the Ptolemies. Coins dated by
the Sdeucid era (312 B.C.) first appear in his reign. The portrait
of Antiochus IV. Epiphanes (175-164) is extremely character-
istic, marked by the mad obstinacy which is the key to the
tyrant's history. The most remarkable coin is a tetradrachm
with the head of Antiochus in the character of Zeus. In his
time mints became numerous in the bronze coinage, and there is a
remarkable series in that metal with Ptolemaic types, marking his
short-lived usurpation in Egypt. From the time of Demetrius I.
(162-150) the silver tetradrachms bear both mints and dates.
In one type the heads of Demetrius and C^een Laodice occur
side by side. With Alexander I. Balas (152-144), Tyre and
Sidon begin to strike royal tetradrachms on their own Phoenician
weight. Tarsus also first strikes coins for him with the type of
the pyre of Sandan. The money of young Antiochus VI. pre-
sents the most carefully executed portrait in the whole series,
which, despite its weakness, has a certain charm of sweetness
that marks it as a new type in art. The same artist's hand Seems
apparent in the fine portrait of the cruel usurper Tryphon, and
also in the picturesque spiked Macedonian helmet with a goat's
horn and cheek-piece which occupies the reverse. Antiochus VII.
(138-129) continues the scries with, amongst other coins,
the solitary bronze piece of Jerusalem, bearing the lily and the
Scleudd anchor. Alexander II. Zebina (i 28-1 23) is represented by
a unique gold coin (PI. II. fig. 18), as well as by silver and bronze.
The empire closes with the money of the Atmenian Tigranes
(83-69), bearing his portrait with the lofty native tiara, and for
reverse Ailtioch seated, the Orontes swimming at her feet (a
copy of the famous group by Eutychides).
There is a copper coinage of the Syrian koimm under Trajan;
also of the cities of Commagcne, Samosata and Zeugma^
CoamM» ^mi i^vjg important mints. The money of the kings of
*•■•• Commaeenc is in bronze (c. 140 B.C. to a.d. 72).
Cyrrhestica has oronze coins of a few cities, nearly all imperial,
Cvrrhmmm **** *^****' mints being Cyrrhus and Hieropofis. Hieropolis
2^^^ in the time of Alexander the Great issued some rcmark-
^^ able silver coins in the name of Abd-Hadad and Alexander
himself, with figures of the Syrian goddess Atergatis, who also
appears on its imperial coins.
Of Chalcidcne there are bronze coins of Chalcis and of the tetrarchs,
^. and Palmyrene shows only the small bronze pieces of
^^ Palmyra, the money of Zenobia and the familv <A
' Odcnathus being found in the scries of Alexandria.
In Seleucis and Pieria, the four cities of Antioch, Apamea, Lao-
dicca ad Mare and Scleucia Pieria issued a joint coinage inscribed
. ^. . AAEA*ftN AHMflN about the middle of the and
AttUoeh, century B.C. But the bulk of the money of this territory
is of the great dty of Antioch on the Orontes. The coinage is both
(GREEK COINS
aut anomous brpTizc bcfdff and eA Roman tiroes, and imperial tflw.
ba^e metal anrt bronze. Ot her niin [ s (as Tyre and Sidoo) in this aoe
province ksued silver of the &Ame class as Antioch, with difierent
symbols. A \2.Tgt scries of coLna was issued bearing onthenevtfsethe
lettcra S.C- (5irRhUu4 CQn^jdts)^ sho wring that the coinage was uoder
the control of I he Roman senate. [k>th Latin and Greek inscriptions
arc U5«l u nt il the rti eti of Trajan, The dty b first calkd a cdoo)- on
the col lu of ELag^jtiaruS- The earliest coins are dated by various eras
(Si'lcucid. Oe^ri^ei, Aalan); h.iec the emperor's coosubhips aie
used to date the EiLvcr. The leading types are the figure of Aotiodi
seated, the river Orontct swinnrioff at her feet, from tlK famooi
staEje by Eutychides, and the eagle on a thundertxrft. a palm ia
front, Undcf I bdrian the eagle is represented carrying an ox's bf,
a rQfu^reniTie to the stoi^ of the foundation of the dty when an eagle
earned ofi mrt of the ucnfia: and deposited it on \nt site which was
consequently chosen. There are tew other types. The scno
(which, strictly speaking, was not the local coinage of Antioch. but
an imperial coinage for the province) is very full and indudes mo«iry
of the Syrian emperor Sulpidus Uranius Antoninus (who abo ttriKk
bronze at Enriesa and gold of the Roman imperial class). It ends vitb
Valerian, though it begins anew in the Roman provincial money of the
reform of Diocletian, to be noticed later.
Of the other dties of this district, Emisa presents the type of the
sacred stone of Elagabal. The imperial money of Gabala stKn» tke
vdled cultus-statue of a goddess flanked by sphinxes.
Laodicea has an important series. It begins with bronze ^— *"-
money of the later Seleudds. The autonomous tetra-
drachms of the 1st century B.C. have a turreted and veiled leaoJe
bust of the city, a favounte Syrian and Phoenician type. Froa
47 B.C. its title is Julia Laodicea; from CaracalU downwards it is a
colonia;' the inscriptions become Larin; then, very stranseh.
Greek on the obverse cH the coins and Latin on the reverse.' Sdoca
has a similar regal autonomous and imperial currency, but does oct
become a colonia. A shrine containing the sacred stone ci Zct:s
Cauus, and the thunderbolt of Zeus Keraunius resting on a throae.
are among the types.
In Code-Syria, Damascus issues coins from the 3rd century b.c
(beginning with Alexandrine tetradrachms) onwards; the cky
becomes a colonia under Philip I. The imperial money of
Heliopolis (Baalbek), a colonia, shows a great temple (of SSt At.
the Zeus of Heliopolis) in perspecUve, another temple "^"^
containing an ear <rf com as the central obiect of worship, and
a view of the Acropolis with the great temple upon it, and a^
leading up the rock.
The coinage of Phoenicia is a large and highly interesting aeriesJ
The autonomous money is here important, and indicates the
andent wealth of the great marts of the coast. The p,,,^,,^
earliest coins were struck about the middle of the
5th century and usually bear Phoenician inscriptions. The
coinage falls into three main periods; the first pre-Alexandriz^.
the second, that of Alexandrine, Ptolemaic and Sdeucid ruk
the third, that of the empire. In the first period Arados strikes
silver, usually on the Babylonian standard, staters with a htii
of Melkarth and a galley, and smaller denominations. .U
the other dties use the Phoenician standard. The regal sahc
coins of Byblus have a galley as obverse type; on the re\Trs:
a vulture standing on a ram, or a lion devouring a boIL Hert
and at Sidon and Tyre portions of the types axe represented
incuse. Sidon has a large and important series of silver ocu-
drachms and smaller denominations; on the obverse is a ^Ikr
(at first with sails set, then without sails, first lying belon i
fortress, afterwards alone). On the reverse is the king ol Petsu
in a chariot, or slaying a lion. These coins were issued by \2t
kings such as Strato I. and II. and Tennes, and by the sainr
Mazaeus. The early silver of Tyre has as reverse type an c?
with a crook and flail over its shoulder; on the obverse a do^h^-.
or Melkarth riding on a sea-horse; a common symbol is 1^-
purple-shell (PI. II. fig. 20). In the second period, besides Akzu
drine silver and regal coins of the Ptolemies and S^eud^
there are certain large and important issues of autonoxnos* .'
semi-autonomous silver tetradrachms and smaller deaominaix^
as at Aradus (head of the City, and Victory; also drac^
with types copied from Ephesus: obv., bee, rev., stag and ci.'^
palm), Marathus (head of the City, and nude figure at MaraJr^
seated on a pile of shidds), Sidon (head of the City, and cz^
Tripolis (busts of the Dioscuri, and figure of the City bcki-^-
comucopiae) and Tyre (head of the Tyrian Heracles, Mdfcar
and eagle). Tyre also issued a gold decadrachm with the bc^
of the City, and .a double comucopiae. On these azKi cc^
coins Sidon and Tyre daim the rights of asylum. Berytos a:^
AFRICAN COINS
NUMISMATICS
891
coios in this periodt sometimes under the name of Laodicea in
Canaan. Ace-Ptolemais (Acre) was an important mint under
the Ptolemies; for a time, under the Seleucidae, it was called
Antiochia in Ptolemais. Besides the Seleudd era autonomous
eras are in use at some of the cities, as at Aradus (359 b.c.)»
Sidon (ixx B.C.) and Tyre (126 B.C.). Under the empire there
are some very large coinages of bronze, besides a certain amount
of silver resembling that of Antioch. The quasi-autonomous
silver of Tyre was also- issued as late as a.d. 57. Beiytus (a
cohnia) has types relating to the cults of Astarte and Poseidon;
Astarte is also prominent at Sidon (a colonia from Elagabalus
onwards; a common type represents the wheeled shrine of
the goddess) and Tripolis. At Byblus a temple is represented
with a conical fetish. Tyre has many interesting types: Dido
building Carthage; the Ambrosial Rocks; Cadmus fighting
the serpent or founding Thebes, &c. Ptolemais issued coins
as a colony from Claudius onwards.
In Trachonitis, the only city of importance !s Caesarea Panias,
with a famous grotto of Pan, perhaps represented on an imperial
. coin. Several cities in Decapolis issued imperial coins,
*" among them Gadara and Gerasa. In Galilee the coins
struck at Tiberias by its founder, Herod Antipas, may be
mentioned. Samaria has money of Caesarea, both autonomous
and imperial, the last for the most part colonial, and also imperial
of Ncapolis, among the types of which occurs the interesting
subject of Mount Gerizim surmounted by the Samaritan temple.
The coinage of Judaea is an interesting scries. The money of
Jerusalem is of high interest, and more extensive than appears
at first sight. Here was struck the coin of Antiochus VII.,
with the native lily as a type, the series of the Maccabaean
princes, that of the Roman procurators, and the bronze coins
countermarked by the tenth legion, quartered by Titus in the
ruins of the dty. One of these bears the remarkable symbol
of a pig. After the reduction of Judaea in the reign of Haidrian,
Jerusalem was rebuilt as a colonia with the name Aelia Capitolina.
The earliest coin commemorates the foundation. The coinage
lasts as late as Valerian. Ascalon strikes autonomous silver and
bronze, including remarkable tetradrachms with the portraits
of Ptolemy Auletes, of his elder son Ptolemy XIV., and of his
daughter Cleopatra (see PI. II. fig. 31). There is also money of
Gaza of some importance; the earliest coins are Attic drachms,
&C.J of barbarous style, inspired by Greek, especially Athenian
models; on its imperial coins the god Marna, and Minos and
lo arc named.
The independent Jewish coinage begins with the famous
shekels. They have been assigned to various periods, but the
preponderance of evidence would class them to Simon
Maccabaeus, to whom the right of coining was granted
by Antiochus VII. The series is of shekels and half-
shekels, of the weight of Phoenician tetradrachms and di-
dracbms. The obverse of the shekel bears the inscription." the
shekel of Israel,'* and for type a sacred vessel of the temple,
above which (after year z) is the letter indicating the year of
issue and the initial of the word year. The reverse reads " Jcru-
saJccn the Holy," and the type is a flowering branch (PI. II. fig. 19).
The half-shekel differs in having the inscription " half-shekel "
on the obverse. The types are markedly peculiar; the obverse
inscription is equally so, for the regular formula of the neigh-
bouring cities would give nothing but the name of the city;
but the reverse inscription is like that of Tyre and Sidon, for
instance, " of Tyre sacred and inviolable." This agreement is
:onfirniatory of the assignment to Simon Maccabaeus. This
:oinage bears the dates of years x, 3, 3, 4 (rare), and 5 (very
are). There has been much discussion as to the date. It is
test reckoned from the decree of Antiochus VII. granting the
ight of coinage to Simon (139-138 B.C.). The coins of the fifth
car were then struck by John Hyrcanus. The certain coins
f the successors of Simon are small bronze pieces of John
f yrcanus (135-X04), of Judas Aristobulus (i04-xo3),of Alexander
annaeus (103-76), who strikes bilingual Hebrew and Greek
nri also Hebrew coins, showing his native name to have been
oxvathan, and of Antigooua (49-37), who has the Hebrew name
Mattathiah. Tlie types represent only inanimate objects. The
Maccabaean coinage is followed by that of the Herodian family,
equally of bronze, the two most important issues being those of
Herod the Great and Agrippa II. The silver coinage imder the
eariy empire was chiefly supplied by the issues of Antioch and
Roman denarii; the " penny " with Caesar's image and super-
scription was such a denarius. The money of the procurators
of Judaea, in part parallel with the Herodian, is of small bronze
coins, struck between aj>. 6-7 and a.d. 58-59, the latest period
of their administration being as yet unrepresented. These are
followed by two classes, the money of the first revolt (a.d.
66-70) and that of the second (suppressed A.b. 135). Both risings
caused the issue of native coinage, some of which may be assigned
with certainty to each. Of the first revolt are bronze pieces of
years s, 3 and 4. Of the second revolt are restruck Antiochcne
tetradrachms and Roman denarii, usually with the name of
Simon, which appears to have been that of the leader sumamed
Bar Cochebas. The obverse type of the tetradrachms or shekels
is the portico of the temple; on the reverse are a bundle of
branches and a dtron, symbols of the feast of tabernacles.
Besides this native currency there are coins struck in Palestine
by Vespasian, Titus and Domitian.
Of Roman Axalna there are bronze imperial coins of Bostra and
less important mints; the kings of Nabataea alao issued silver and
bronze coita from Aretas III. (e. 87-63 B.C.) to Rabbcl II.
(a.d. 75-101). From S. Arabia comes a remarkable silver ~**"*»
coinage issued by the Himyarites, beginning in the 4th ™^^
century b-C, and imitated originally from Attic tctra- 'jTfU"'.
drachms (bodi of the old and new style) . I n Mesopotamia Ba^toala,
tlie colonia of Carrhae deserves notice, and the dty of Edessa,
which issues imperial money as a colonia, and has a scries of coins
of its kings, striking with Roman emperors in silver and bronze.
Curiously, this and the colonial issue are long contemporary. The
colonial coinages of Nisibis and of Rcsaena, which became a colonia,
close the group. Babylon was probably a mint of Alexander the
Great andof many of the Selcucid kings, certainly of the usurpers
Molon (922^20) and Timarchus (162 B.C.).
Africa,
Tlie onns of Africa are far less numerous then those of the
other two continents, as Greek, Phoenician and Roman civiliza-
tion never penetrated beyond Egypt and the northern
coast to the west. The series of Egypt is first in
geographical order. As yet no coins have been here assigned of
a date anterior to Alexander. The old Egyptians kept their
gold, electrum and silver in rings, and weighed them to ascertain
the value.- During the Persian rule the Persian money must
have been current, and the satrap Aiyandcs is said to have issued
a coinage of silver under Darius I. With Alexander a regular
Greek coinage must have begun, and some of his coins are of
Egyptian mints. A rare bronze coin was struck at Naucratis,
probably during his lifetime. With Ptolemy I. the great Ptole-
maic currency begins, which lasted for three centuries. The
characteristics of this coinage are its splendid series of gold
pieces and the size of the bronze money. The execution of the
earlier heads is good; afterwards they become coarse and
careless. At first the fine pieces were issued by the Phoenician,
Cyprian and other fordgn mints, the Egyptian work, being
usually inferior. While the Scleucids were still striking good
coins, the Ptolemies allowed their money to fall into barbarism
in Egypt and even in Cyprus. The obverse type is a royal head,
that of Ptolemy I. being the ordinary silver type (see PI. II. fig.
23), while that of ArsinoK II. was long but not uninterruptedly
continued on the gold. The head of Zeus Ammon is most usual
on the bronze coinage. A type once adopted was usually
retained. Thus Ptolemy I., ArsinoC II., Ptolemy IV., Cleopatra
I., have a kind of commemoration in the coinage on the analogy
of the priesthoods established in honour of each royal pair.
The almost universal type of reverse cf all metals is the Ptole-
maic badge, the eagle on the thunderbolt, which, in spite of
variety, is dways heraldic. For art and iconography this series
is far inferior to that of the Seleurids. The weight after the
earlier part of the reign of Ptolemy I. (who experimented with
the Attic and Rhodian standards) is Phoenidan for gold and
silver: the metrology of the bronze is obscure. The chief
SgypL
892
NUMISMATICS
(ROMAN COINS
coins are octadrachms in gold and tetradrachms in silver, besides
the abundant bronxe money. Ptolemy I. appears to' have
issued his money while regent for Philip Arrhidaeus (323-3x8);
it only differs in the royal name from that of Alexander. He then
struck money for Alexander IV. (31 7-31 1) on the Attic standard
with the head of Alexander the Great, with the horn of Ammon
in the elephant's skin and Alexander's reverse. He soon adopted
a new reverse, that of Athene Promachos. This money he con-
tinued to strike after the young king's death until ha himself
(30s) took the royal title, when he issued his own money, his
portrait on the one nde and the eagle and thunderbolt with his
name as king on the other. This type in silver, with the in-
scription " Ptolemy the king," is thenceforward the regular
currency. He also issued gold staters (reverse, Alexander the
Great in an dephant-car). Ptolemy U. (Philadelphus, 285-
247), the richest of the family, continued his father's coinage.
Philadelphus also began (after the death and deification of
ArsinoC II., about 271 B.C.), the issue of the gold octadrachms
with the busts of Ptolemy L and Berenice I., Ptolemy II. and
Arsinpe II., and certainly struck beautiful octadrachms in gold
and decadrachms in silver of Arsinoe IL, the gold being long
afterwards continued. Philadelphus also began the great bronze
issues of the system. Ptolemy III. (Euergetes I. c. 247-222)
struck gold octadrachms with bis own portrait, wearing a crown
of rays. His queen Berenice II., strildng in her own right as
heiress of the Cyrcnaica and also as consort, issued a showy
currency with her portrait, both octadrachms and decadrachms
like those of ArsinoS, and a coinage for the Cyrenaica of peculiar
divisions. Under Ptolemy IV. (Philopator, 223-205) the gold
octadrachms are continued with his portrait and that of Arsinoe
III. Ptolemy V. (Epiphancs, 205-181) still strikes octadrachms
with his portrait and with that of ArsinoS, and begins the con-
tinuous series of the tetradrachms of the three great cities of
Cyprus. The coinage henceforward steadily degenerates in
style and eventually also in metal. In the latest series, the
money of the famous Cleopatra VII., it is interesting to note
the Egyptian variety of her head, also occurring on Greek
imperial money and on that of Ascalon.
Under the Roman rule the imperial money of Alexandria, the
coinage of the imperial province of Egypt, is the most remarkable
in its class for its extent and the interest and variety of its
types. It begins under Augustus and ends with the usurper or
patriot Achilleus, called on his money Domitixis Domitianus,
overthrown by Diocletian (aj>. 397),. thus lasting longer than
Greek imperial money elsewhere. In the earlier period there are
base silver coins continuing the base tetradrachms struck by
Auletes, and bronze money of several sia;es. Most <^ the coins
are dated by the regnal years of the emperors, the letter L
being used for " year." The types are very various, and may
be broadly divided into Greek, Graeco-Roman and Graeco-
Egyptian. The Graeco-Roman types have the closest analogy
to those of Rome herself; the Graeco-Egyptian are of high
interest as a special class illustrative of the- Utest phase of
Egyptian mythology. These native types, at first imcommon,
from the time of Domitian are of great frequency. The money
of Trajan, Hadrian and Antoninus Pius is abundant and in-
teresting. A coin of Antoninus, dated in hb sixth year, records
the beginning of a new Sothiac cycle of 1460 years, which
happened in the emperor's second year (a.d. 139). The reverse
type is a crested crane, the Egyptian bennu or phoenix, with a
kind of radiate nimbus r6und its head, and the inscription
AlflN. Under Claudius II. (Gothicus) and thenceforward there
is but a single kind of coin of bronze washed with silver. In
this series we note the money of Zenobia, and of her son
Vabalathus.
Coins bearing the names and local types of the nomes of Egypt
were struck by a few emperors at the Alexandrian mint. Their
metal is bronze, and they are of different sizes.
Passing by the unimportant coinage of the Libyans, we teach
the interesting series of the Cyrenaica, the only truly Greek
currency of Africa. It begins under the line of Battus about the
middle of the 7th century, and reaches to the Roman rule as
far as the reign of Augustus. The coins were issued at Cyreae,
Barca, Euesperides and smaller towns. The wei^t ct the goU
always, and of the silver until some date not kxig after 450 ax.,
is Euboic; afterwards it is Phoenician. The ruling types are the
silphium phmt and its fruit, and the head of 2Seus Ammon, fint
bwded (PI. IL fig. 23) then beardless. The art is vigorous, sad
in the transitional and fine period has the best Greek quaUties.
It is clearly an outlying branch of the school of central Greece.
The oldest coins are uninscribed, so that it cannot always be
said at which mint they were struck. The vatioiey with the name
of Cyrene comprises a fine series of goki Attic staters and silver
tetradrachms. It was an important mint of the Ptolemies.
Barca has a smaller coinage then Cyrene. It oomprisesa wonder-
ful tetxadrachm (Phoenician), with the head ol Ammon beankd,
boldly represented, absolutdy full face, and three sSphluaa
joined,' between their heads an owl, a chaxneleoa and a jerboa.
The money of Euesperides is less important^
Syrtica and Byzacena offer little of interest. Their coins are
late bronze, first with Punfc inscriptions, then in imperial txBMs
with Latin and Punic or Latin. Latin and Gntk are used in the
same cams at Leptis Minor in Byzacena.
In Zeugitana the great currency of Carthage b the last tvpn-
tentative of Greek money, for, despite its OrientaUsm. its oc^iii a
HeUenic, and of this origin it is at first not unworthy. Its
range in time b from about 410 B.C., when the Canha- *■■"*
ginians invaded Sidly, to the fall of Carthage in X46 B.C. The
eariiest coins are Attic tetradradims of the cdass osually called Sicuk>>
Punic. These, and certain gold coins with ttottlar types, were issned
in SicHy down to about 310 B.C. The types owe mtich to the ccwufr
of Sicuian cities, espeoally Syracuse; but they show abo <fisiicrt
Pumc motives, sudi as a lion before a palm-tree, or a head of a Puck
queen. The Punic inscriptions enable tome to be attributed to BOBts
such as Motya, Solus, Eryx; others name *' Carthace.** **tbe
Camp," *' the Paymasters," many, inscribed Zts, were iasned fro'a
Panormus. The coinage from about 340 to 342 B.C., perhaps sS
issu«i at Carthage itacii, b scanty; the typcsj head of PerKphooe
and a hone, or hone and palm-tree, now come m, and DcwaS to xix
end of the independent coinage. The acquisition of the Soa^**
mines about 241 caused the issue of a large coinage, but the gaU asi
silver soon degenerate into dectrum and potin. The me n olq cy of tfae
various series (excepting the Sk;ulo-Punic) b obacnre, but tkr
standard seems to be Phoenician. The late silver 12-dxadhm pieces
and some of the bronzes are among the heaviest struck coins of t^
ancients. The art of the earlier corns b aomet^incs purely Greek d
Sicilian style. There b even in the best class a curious tendeacv to
exaggeration, which gradually devetope itself and fioaOy becoe«s
verybarbarous. Roman Carthage has a bronae ooinan which » b-
significant. There are a few other towns which iasoed mosaey viik
Roman legends, such as Utica. The denarii of Clodius Maoer, «fo
revolted in a.d. 68, are curiously illustrative of hb policy, wbich vsi
to restore the Roman repubUc
The cities of Numidb and Mauretania have a late bcooae coua^ :
but an interesting series of sDver and bronse coins is attributed
with more or less' certainty to the Nunudian kings from ^
Massinbsa (202-148), to tuba L (60-46 B.C.). and to the ^Z^J^
Mauretanian kings fronf Syphax (213-202 B.C.), to Joba TT^
IL (who also struck coins with hb consort Cleopatra,
daughter of Mark Antony and the famous Esyptian qaeen) a^
Ptotemy their son, the last of the great family of the kings of Ksn^
(A.D. 23-40).
n. RoHAK Coins
The Roman couiage b of two great classes,— the repdbBaa
and the imperial; the first hsted from the origin of eac^t"
at Rome to the reform of Augustus in 16 B.C., and the secv- :
from thb date to the fall of the Western empire in a-d. ^-t
The evidence of the coins themselves as to the origin of '^
republican coinage b at variance with thatof theaxkcicntwrirr:^
but the general principles of criticism must be maintftinrr! bor
as in other matters of eariy Roman story.
The tradition which ascribed the introduction of cnsns bcarr?
types to Servius TuUius must be unhesiutmgjy rejected. TVs
style and types of the earliest Roman coins point dcariy tr i
date not earlier than the middle of the 4th century. The Ea=^
copper which the Italians used from primitive times ais a sr*
of medium of exchange, in amorphous blocks (aes ntdr) «%
probably not a state-currency, being produced by private cs:j^
prise. It was not until Rome unified Latium and Casi^*
under her rule that centra! Italy acquired a true covni^e. Tr*
must have'becn about 338 B.C. The hbtory of the repub^^
ROUAN COINS)
NUMISMATICS
893
coinage from 538 to 16 B.c falls into two great periods— the
lecood being marked by the iatroduction of the denarius system
in 369. From 338 to 269 three minor periods may be distin-
guished, indicating in a striking way the growth of the Roman
organization of central Italy. In the period 33^3 la Rome
consolidated her dominion in Latium and Campania as against
her rivals the Samnitcs. In the second period (313 to c, 290)
she finally subdued the Samnites. The system of her coinage
is from the beginning based on a double mint, one in Rome
and one in Capua (perhaps also she struck in some other cities
in south Italy). The weight-units with which she starts are,
for bronze, the Osco-Latin pound of 373 grammes, for silver
the didrachm of 7-58 grammes (the latter being ^ of the former
and more or less coincident with the Phocaic-Campanian
didrachm ctirrent in Campania). The relation between silver
and bronze was 4s i :* 130 or t : 135. The bronze unit was the
as of t pound weight, which was <i|vided into 13 undae. The
reverse type of all bronze denominations was a prow, which
alluded to the establishment of Roman sea-power (in 348 she
concluded her treaty with Carthage, in 338 she subjugated
Antium, her chief rival on the Latin coast, and set up the beaks
of the Antiate ships in her fopim). The denominations are
marked by I (the as), S (semis— i as) and for the smaller de-
nominations a number of pellets indicating the value in undae.
On the obverses appear the beads of ddties: Janus on the as
(see Plate), Jupiter on the semis, Minerva on the triens (4 unciae),
Hercules on the quadrans (3 undae), Mercury on the sextans
(2 undae) and Bellona on the unda. These heavy coins were all
cast at Rome. The Roman mint at Capua, on the other hand,
produced a series of sflver coins (chiefly didrachms) and small
struck bronze change with the inscription ROMANO (see PI. II.
fig. 34). In the second period (313 to c. 390) the mint at Rome
continues to issue cast bronze of the same wdghts and types.
But at C^pua the mint becomes much more active, bdng opened
for cast bronze as well as struck silver. The Osco-Latin silver
standard is superseded by the Roman scruple-standard (i
scruple of 1-137 grammes -lig of the pound of 373 grammes).
Silver being to bronze as i : 130, 3 scruples of silver were equiva-
lent to I bronze as of 373 grammes.- The first Issue of silver
in this period consisted of didrachms (six-scruple pieces) with
a head of Roma in a Phrygian helmet (alluding to her Trojan
foundation), the inscription b ROMANO. Paralld with this
is a Capuan issue of libral cast bronze {aes irove) for the use
of the Latin territory; the 3-asses (tressis), 3-asscs (dupondius)
and as aM have the head of Roma as on the didrachm, and the
reverse type of all denominations is a whed. (This wheel
probably alludes to the completion of the internal routes of
communication in Roman territory, espedally of the via Appia,
which was finished in 3 1 2). Finally, to this first issue is attributed
one of the quadrilateral ingots generally known as aes signatum ;
its types Are the Roman eagle on a thunderbolt, and a Pegasus
with the inscription ROMANOM. These ingots, according
to a plausible but not quite convindng conjecture, were probably
not used as money, but only in sacral and legal ceremonies^
such as dedication to the gods, venditio per aes d libramf &c. —
in which the use of aes rude was traditional. But from this
time onward each issue of sQver and aes grave from the Capuan
mint was, it is supposed, accompanied by a new ingot of this
kind. Three further issues of silver from the Capuan mint
took place in this period, each accompanied by its corresponding
aes grave series and ingot. These heavy bronze pieces are all
uninscribed; on the silver and small struck bronze ROMA
replaces ROMANO. The evidence of hoards shows that in this
period there must have been some sort of convention between
Rome and the autonomous mints of her allies, permitting the
circulation, throughout the bronze-using district under Roman
control, of all the coins issued from Rome and Capua, on the one
hand, aqd, on the other, all the aes grave issued by the autono-
mous mints. In the third sub-period {c. 390-269) the silver
coinage of the Capuan mint becomes thoroughly Romanized;
its inscription is, of course, ROMA; its types are the typically
Roman ones of the youthful head of Janus and Jupiter in his
quadriga (these are the msmmi guadrigati). There is also a
series of struck bronze inscribed ROMA issued from the same
mint. The important feature of this period is that bronze is no
longer regarded as the most important element in the currency,
but is subordinated to silv.er; the result is that we have what
is called the semi-libial reduction, the weight of the as issued
from the Roman mint being half the pound. But opinions vary
as to whether the pound of which the as represented the half
in this period was the old one of 373 grammes or the new Roman
pound of 337*45 grammes. As the latter was certainly used for
a special series of aes pane issued from the Roman mint for
the Latins (see below), we may assume that it was also used
for the regular Roman coinage. Now since the i lb as (163-73
grammes) was equated to i scruple of silver (1137 grammes),
we get a forced relation of silver to copper of i : 144. The as
being regarded merdy as representing so much silver (i scruple),
so long as the state guaranteed the cover, there was no reason
why the as, being merely token money, should not fall in weight;
and that it does, sinking by the end of this or beginning of the
next period to the wdght of ^ of the Oscan or \ (sextans) of the
new Roman pound. We may note the occurrence in this series
of the decussis or lo-as piece. Of the two series of aes grave
issued in this period for the benefit of the Latin district, both
are heavier than in the preceding period; the new Roman
pound of 337*45 grammes is used for a series issued from the
mint of Rome; a still higher weight (perhaps of 341 grammes)
for a series issued from Capua. The relation between silver and
copper involved in this standard is jiot quite dear. In this
period also we have ingots corresponding according to the theory
above mentioned, to the various series of aes grave; one, with
a pair of chickens feeding and a pair of rostra, refers to the
augury taken by the Roman imperator before battle. Two
other ingots commemprate historical events; one, with a
Samnite bull on each side, the subjugation of Rome's great
rival; the other, with an elephant and a pig, the alleged rout of
Pyrrhus's dephants by the grunting of swine at Asculum in 378.
After the introduction in 369 b.c. of the silver denarius (piece of
10 asses, marked X, PI. II. fig. 35) with its half (the quinarius,
V) and its quarter (the sestertius, IIS), no changes of obviously
great economic importance take place in the coinage until near
the dose of the republican period. Although it is not true, as
is sometimes stated, that the coinage of silver at all local mints
in south Italy, except the Bruttian, came to a dose with the
introduction of the denarius, yet the new Roman coin entirely
dominated the currency from the first. Many mints, however,
continued to issue bronze coinage down to 89 b.c, and a Roman
coinage in various metals is also attributed to certain local
mints, such as Croton and Hatria; not to mention the Roman
issues which stOl continued to be made from Capua, though in
a less degree than bdore. At Rome itself the mint was now
localized in the temple of Juno Moneta, who probably received
her surname from, rather than gave it to, money. The denarius,
being equivalent to 10 asses, and weighing 4*55 grammes, would
at the rate of i : iso (which was now restored) be equivalent
to 546 grammes of bronze. The as of the time must therefore
have been the one weighing 54-6 grammes, that is i of the Oscan
pound of 373 grammes, or \ (sextans) of the Attic-Roman pound
of 327-45 grammes. In other words, the legally recognized
as of this period was the as of the sextantal reduction. The
bronze coins of this reduction are, like the silver, struck, not
cast; the process of striking had already been introduced for
the lower denominations of bronze in the previous period. About
34X B.C. the weight of the denarius, having sunk under the stress
of the first Punic war, was fixed at 3*90 grammes. Possibly
the reduction of the as to the weight of an uncia, which Pliny
attributes to the time of the Hanmbalian crisis, may really
have taken place at the same time. In 328 b.c (some critics
prefer to say nearly forty years earlier) a new silver extra-Roman
coin, the tktoriaius, was introduced. It replaced the old Cam-
panian drachm and, wherever it may have been minted, was
meant for drculation outside Rome. The quinarius and sester-
tius at the same time disappeared from the regular coinage, but
894
NUMISMATICS
(ROMAN COINS
the sesterce remained the unit of account. Marks of value occur
on all the coins from 269 B.C. for some time onward, except on
the smallest bronxe and the victoriatus. After the reduction of
the bronze had been carried far, it became possible to issue
large denominations of a circular /orm; thus circular bronac
decusses (equal each to i denarius) are known of various oeriods,
weighing from over 1 100 to 650 grammes.
Gold was not regularly coined by the Romans until the close
of the repubh'c; but certain exceptional issues must be noticed.
The earliest (some time during the first Punic War) consisted of
pieces of 60 (PI. II. fig. 26), 40 and 20 sestertii; they were issued
both from Rome and from some external mint or mints. To
the crisis of the second Punic War may be assigned certain
electrum coins of i) scruple weight (types: janiform female
head, and Jupiter in quadriga). It is to this time that Pliny
attributes the fixing of the as at the weight of an uncia, and
the valuation of the denarius at 16 instead of 10 asses (although
in estimating the pay of soldiers the denarius continued to be
given for 10 asses). Finally there is some probability in the
attribution to the year 209 of the well-known gold coins of 6
and 3 scruples which have on the obverse a head of the young
Janus, and on the reverse two soldiers taking an oath of alliance
over the carcass of a pig— in allusion to the loyalty to Rome of
her Latin colonics (Livy xxvii. 9, 10).
Without following the fortunes of the various denominations,
we may note that in 89 B.C. the lex Papiria suppressed all local
mints throughout Italy, ordered the reissue of the silver sester-
tius, and introduced the semuncial (( ounce) standard for bronze.
This was just after the close of the Social War, which had been
signalized by the issue, on the part of the revolted allies, of an
interesting series of coins (denarii and — most treasonable of all —
a gold piece) chiefly from Italia, as they called Corfinium.
These coins bear in O^n letters the names of the Italian military
leaders, such as C. Papius Mutilus. In 81 B.C. the regular
bronze coinage came to an end, and the denarius remained for a
long time the only coin issued by the Roman mint. Roman
generals sometimes, however, issued exceptional coins in their
own names, such as " bronze sesterces."
We have already dealt with the earliest gold money of the
republic. Another exceptional issue was the gold coin bearing
the name of T. Quinctius Flamininus, the liberator of Hellas
(struck between 198 and 190 B.C.); but it was minted in Greece
and conformed to Greek standards. The earUest Roman aurei
proper (those of Sulla) were also struck outside Rome. They
weigh ^9 or ^r ol a Roman pound. The aurei of Pompeius were
is, those of Julius Caesar iVi of the pound. After Caesar's time
the weight of the aureus fell to ^4 % under Augustus.
or the administrative side of the Roman system of coinage little
is known but what the coins reveal. The earliest indication of
monetaiy magistrates is found in symbols, which occur on the coins
before the close of the first Punic War. Then the names begin to
apj3car, at first abbreviated, then at length. Probably the right of
coinage was in the beginning vested in the consuls, but it would
seem that about the time of the second Punic War it was transferred
to a special board of magistrates, the tresviri acre argento aurofiando
feriundo. Whether they were appointed every year, or only when
need arose, we do not know; but it is improbable that there was an
annual board until the beginning of the 1st century, if then; and
even when annually appointed, they cannot all have exercised their
right. On the other hand, there were in some years, as 92 B.C., no
less than five moncycrs; in c. 86 B.C. there were four, two being
aediles exercising a specially conferred right. Exceptional issuett of
this kind were often authorized by the senate, and bear inscriptions
indicating the fact, such as P.E.S.C. {Pubtict ex Senatus consuUo).
An issue for the purpose of the Apollinarian games, defrayed out of a
special treasury, bears the inscriptbn S.C.D(e) T(hesauro). lulius
Caesar added a fourth moneyer to the board. The first issue 01 gold
by such a board took place in 43 B.C. : all previous issues of gold nad
been made, so far as we knoy. in virtue of military impcrium (in
44 B.C. by the praetors). Augustus, after the troublous period 41-27
was over, returned to the triumviral system; after his reform o«
IS B.C. the bronze coinage which he introduced in that year is signed
bv the triumvirs, although the gold and silver bears no such names.
Shortly afterwards, however, he organized the system which will be
dealt with under the empire.
The types of the Roman republican coins are of great interest,
although their art never rises above mediocrity. The chief types
of the period before 269 have already been mentioned. The
earliest denarii, quinarii and sestertii bear a head of the godden
Roma, hclroeted, and the Dioscuri charging on horseback, as
they appeared at Lake Regillus. Hie victoriatus has a head o{
Jupiter and a figure of Victory crowning a trophy. The types
of the bronze coins are practically the same as in the earlier
period. About 190 B.C. the goddess Diana in her chariot bes^as
to appear on the reverses of some of the denarii. Later, other
types gradually encroach on the reverses; first. Victory in a
chariot; still later such types as the Juno of Lanuvium in a
chariot drawn by goats. Tliis and other types which now be^
to relieve the monotony of the series usually have a personal
allusion to the moneyer, or to hb family history. Thus, od a
denarius of Sex. Pompeius Fostlus is seen the shepherd Faustules
discovering Romulus and Remus suckled by the she-«o)f.
Imaginary or more or less authentic portraits of ancestors, such
as Numa, L. Junius Brutus or M. Claudius Marccllus. beteng
to the same category. An elephant's head on a Macedooiaa
shield, on a coin of M. Caecilius Mctcllus (r. 94 B.C.), alludes to
victories won by Caecilii at Panormus (in 251, over Pook
elephants) and in Macedonia (in 148). The cult of Venus by
the Julian family is illustrated by a denarius of L. Julius Caesar
(c. 90 B.C.) with a head of Mars and a figure of Venus in a car
drawn by two Cupids. The surrender of Jugurtha by Bocduis
to Sulla is represented on a denarius of Sulla's son Faustns (63
B.C., PI. II. fig. 27). The type is probably a copy of the des^
which we know the dictator used for his signet-ring. M. Acxnilias
Lepidus (TVTOR REGis) crowning Ptolemy Epaphanes, cr
Paullus Aemilius erecting a trophy, while King Perseus axMl hiS
two children stand before him, are other historical types. A
contemporary event is commemorated on a special issue in-
scribed AD FRV(mentum) EMV(ndum) EX S(eQatus) C(ob-
sulto), coined by L. Calpumius Piso and Q. Servilias C^pio in
100 B.C. C^epio, quaestor in that year, defeated the proposal
of Satuminus to sell com publicly at a nominal price; but the
senate voted a special issue of money to meet the strain of the
market. On the obverse is a head of Saturn, from wh(»e treasury
the funds for the issue were drawn; on the reverse arc Caej^o
and Piso on their official seat, and two ears of com. Perhaps
the most graphic allusion to a contemporary event to be foasd
on any coin is furnished by the cap of liberty with two daggers
and the inscription EID(ibus) MAR(tiis) 00 omits of Brutcs^
Representations of a less obviously historical character, as
personifications of countries or places (Hispania, Aiexaodria)
or qualities (Honos and Virtus) or mythological figures (ScyiU).
are all, it would seem, inspired by some personal interest. Mazy
types will only be explained when more light is thrown oq the
obscure comers of Roman mythology and ritual; but they
will all probably be found to have some personal refereiice tc
the moneyer. Roman types of the later republic, therefore,
though they may be classified externally as " religious," " histcs-
cal," " canting," &c., are all inspired by some personal motive
The ineviuble outcome of this character was that, when once
contemporary portraiture was regarded as legitinnate on the
coins, it speedily became its most important feature. Tbr
-portrait of Flamininus on his gold coin struck in Greece ksrf
remained without a Roman analogy. In 44 B.C., by order of Cx
senate, the head of Julius Caesar was placed on the silver ross
(PI. III. fig. i; the gold coin bearing his portrait is of doubc^-
authenticity). After Caesar's death portraits occur od cdss
issued by men of aU shades of political opinion, showing iha:
portraiture on the coins was not then regarded as the ids
archical prerogative, which it became from aj>. 6 onvarcs.
when it was limited to members of the imperial family.
The history of the imperial coinage is full of metrologic
difficulties. These arise from the conditions fixed by Ausas»
(16-15 B.C.), by which the emperor abne coined gold ^1—,^
and silver, the senate alone bronze. (Consequently
the senate was wholly at the mercy of the emperor. Ao^ust^
stmck the aureus at 42 to the pound, equal to 25 denarii at v.
to the pound (PI. III. fig. 3). He introduced a new coinage io :*«
metals, the sestertius of 4 asses and dupoodius of z, boUk in ftae
ROMAN COINS!
NUMISMATICS
895
yeUow brass (orichalcum), and the as semis and quadrans in
common red copper. This distinction of metals, however, was
iometimes ignored, as in the time of Nero,when we have sestertius
(PJ. III. fig. 2), dupondius and as, all in brass, and of three different
sizes. The as is usually nearly equal in size and weight to the
dupondius, but is distinguished by its metal and inferior fabric.
All this brass and copper coinage bears the letters S.C, senaius
consulto. Emperors not acknowledged by the senate are without
such money; thus we have no specimens of Otho or Pescennius
Niger.
Nero reduced the denarius to ^th of the pound, and alloyed its
silver with from 5 to 10% of base metal. Henceforward the quality
of the denarius gradually sank, until under Sept. Severus
. the proportion of alloy was from 50 to 60%. CaracaUa
also issued lead plated with silver and. among his aurei,
copper plated with gold. He also introduced a new coin,
called after him the argenteus Antoninianua. It was struck at
lft.th to i^xth of the pound, and seems to have been originally
a double denarius struck on a lower standard. The character*
istic of this coin is that the head of the emperor is radiate as Sol
(PI. I II. fig. 4), that of the empress on a crescent as Luna. Towards the
end of Caracalla's reign the weight of the aureus had fallen to |b lb.
Under Elagabalus the taxes were paid in gold alone; this was
ruinous, for the treasury paid in debased niver at nominal value,
which had to be used to purchase gold by the taxpayer at real value.
Under Gordian III. the silver contained 67% of alloy; and eventu*
ally under Gallienus the " argenteus " frequently contained no stiver
whatever. Aureltan (a.d. 270-275) attempted a reform of the coinage
by which the previous com was reduced from its nominal to its
intrinsic value. The coins were now of bronze with a wash of silver,
and we now find them marked with their value as two denarii.
These coins replace at once the base silver and the bronze, which now
disappear. Tne moneying right of the senate had become illir- ')ry
by the depreciation of silver, which had ceased to haw <\rA- eal
value. Aurelian entirety suppressed this right ; Tacitus .1 lul ft ian
restored it for a few years, after which the S.C. disappcur:. ti.>ri. -.he
coinage. The reform of Aurelian caused a serious outbrt j k a c K > ne,
but was maintained tw him and by Tacitus. Aurelian als 1 : -u 1 ip" led
all local mints but Alexandria. It was the work of lU.-J. lin. to
restore the issue of relatively pure money in the three m tik. He
made no less than four unsuccessful attempts to regulati 1 h. - v-^ : (ht
pf gold. Not later than 290 he restored a pure ulver co r, -c- w . 1 a
piece of «\ lb. His reformed bronze coins are the/c.'.M, m.irl^d
aX, XX- l.,K.KA,&c. (all meaning" 2 denarii «> the un I L J^n! he
half-denarius of centenionalis.
Constantine, probably in a.d. 312 (though some critics attribute
the reform to Constantius Chlorus) desiring to rectify the gold
coinage, which had long been quite irregular in weight, reduced the
chief gold piece tOT'^of tnepound,andissuedthesolidus(PI.III.fig.5),
a piece destined to play a great part in commercial history. It was
never lowered in weight, though many centuries later it was debased,
lone after it had become the parent of the gold coinages of Westerns
and Easterns alike throughout the civilized world. The letters OB,
which are commonly found in the exergue of gold coins from the 4th
century onwards mean Obryzum (refined gold), and the letters rS,
found on silver coins PuUulalum (refined silver). Under Constantius
II. (a.d. 360) and Julian the silver coin of ^4 lb was suppressed, and
the siliqua of liith of the pound (which had already been issued in
small quantities before) took its place. From about 360 there was
a system of 4 bronze coins (follis, denarius, centenionalis and \
centenionalis). The last soon disappeared, and under Honorius (395)
only the centenionalis remained. Honorius and his successors issued
the silver decargyrus ( = 10 denarii). The bronze coinage of this time
was small and mean. It will be seen that a fuller system of bronze
was originated by Anastasius, the Byzantine emperor.
Under Augustus the Roman monetary system became the
official standard of the empire, and no local mint could exist
without the imperial licence. Thus the Greek imperial money
is strictly Roman money coined in the provinces, with the legends
and types of the towns. Many cities were allowed to strike
bronze, several silver. The kings of the Cimmerian Bosporus
enjoyed thee:iceptional privilege of striking gold, which, however,
became rapidly debased. The silver becomes limited about
Nero's time, but lasts under the Antonines, and is also found
under Caracalla and Macrinus. It is chiefly supplied by the
mints of Cacsarea in Cappadocia, Antioch and subsidiary mints
in Syria, and Alexandria in Egypt. None of these were strictly
city-mints, but served the purposes of the provincial govern-
ment. The bronze increased in mints and quantity in the 3nd
century, but, through the debasement of the Roman silver, one
city after another ceased to strike about the middle of the 3rd.
The provincial mint of Alexandria, however, continued to strike
until the end of the obntcny. From the ooihs of the ordinary
Greek and other cities imder the empire must be distinguished
the issues of the Roman colonies. In the west these practically
ceased in Nero's time; in the east they lasted as long as the
other Greek coinage. Purely Roman gold and silver was coined
in certain of the provinces, in Spain and Gaul, and at the cities
of Antioch and Ephesus. When the base silver had drivep the
Greek imperial bronze out of circulation, Gallienus established
local mints which struck pure Roman types. Diocletian in-
creased the number of these mints, which lasted until the fall
of the empire of the West, and in the East longer. These
mints were (with others added later), Londinium (or Augusta),
Camulodunum, Treviri, Lugdunum, Arelate (or Constantina),
Ambianum, Tarraco, Carthago, Roma, Ostia, Ravenna, Aquilela,
Mediolanum, Si^ia, Serdica, Sirmium, Thessalonica, Constan-
tinopolis, Heraclea, Nicomedia, Cyzicus, Antiochia (ultimately
Theupolii) and Alexandria. A few were speedily abandoned.
As regards the internal organization of the mints under the empire,
we know that, although the names of the triumviri moneUdes do not
occur on the coins after 15 B.C., they continued to exist (with the title
Jllviri acre argento auro flando fertundo, although their competence
was restricted to the first metal) until probably the time of Aurelian.
who withdrew the right of coinage from the senate. Officials of the
imperial treasury superintended the gold and silver coinage; Trajan
placed a trocurator monetae Augusti 01 equestrian rank at tne head of
the whofe system, subject to the emperor's rationaiis (the chief
official of the treasury). The svstem of procurators was extended
and regularized by Diocletian. In the Roman colonies (which were
only allowed to issue bronze) the formula D.D. or EX D.D. (ex
decurionum decreto) often occurs, corresponding to the S.C. of the
Roman mint. At many colonies, especially in the west, the monetary
du trt sij^n the coins^ At Rome the impcri:il mint it&t^lf was
sit ) behind ihp CoEasscum, near the Caciian hill, the sci^^lc rt-
ta: .: lis mint an thp Capitol lynobatily unti^ tEiP time of Trajan.
Tl 'irc?e monelae {of the inrct melaU) appear together on
m( lofifi For the fiist time under ^ladrian, and probably indccalp
lb : .:an.ijalton of iht mtnldi for the three metals in one plate.
Fi . Like middle of the jnd century mlni-markA begin lo occur on
th I'lS, indicating the variaii^ mint^ the offkinoi in each mint, Ac-
So -^rM's ihi'F^ m.irlc'^ form ^^ secret combirunioni "; thu4 the
let I. n ,jri 1 KT ^>unit on three dilTerent coins of Diocletiaii
(si : a ilir(..'*lLi! r. !ir i.ificinae), and the letters HP^ KQV and Al
on ' ' ' < ro rri'^; X hh r ! i n i: r i ■ i n !^ of M axiiti ia tl „ c ocnbine im Greek words
rcprf shilling the gcnicivrs of the Latin lilies Icvim and Hercviiitj
as&Luncd by these two emperors
The obverse type of the imperial coins is the portrait of an
imperial personage, emperor, empress or Caesar. The type
only varies in the treatment of the head or bust— if ^^
male, laureate, radiate or bare; if female, sometimes 2^***
veiled, but usually bare. The reverse types of the
pagan period are mythological of divinities, allegorical
of personifications, historical of the acts of the emperors. Thus
the coins of Hadrian, besides bearing the figures of the chief
divim'ties of Rome, commemorate by allegorical representations
of countries or cities the emperor's progresses, and by actual
representations his architectural * works. Types often occur
purely personal to the emperor, such as the sphinx which
Augustus used as his signet, or the capricom, his natal sign.
The most remarkable feature of imperial types is the increase of
personifications, such as Abundantia, Concordia, Liberalitas,
Pudicitia— for the most part drearily conventional. The
inscriptions are either simply descriptive, such as the emperor's
names and titles in the nominative on the obverse, or partly
on the obverse and partly on the reverse, and the name of the
subject on the reverse; or else they are dedicatory, the imperial
names and titles being given on the obverse in the dative and the
name of the type on the reverse. Sometimes the reverse bears
a directly dedicator>' inscription to the emperor. The inscriptions
on the earh'er imperial coins from Tiberius to Severus Alexander
arc generally chix>nological, usually giving the current or last
consulship of the emperor and his tribunitian year. It must be
noted that Christian symbols first made their appearance on
coins in an unsystematic, almost accidental way. The earliest
instance is at the mint of Tarraco in a.d. 314, when a cross occurs
as a symbol on the reverse. In a.d. 320 the Christian monogram
is found as a detail in the field at several mints. But the types
still renuln pagan; these symbols are not introduced by order,
896
NUMISMATICS
(MEDIEVAL AND
although the officials who introduced them doubtless knew they
could do 80 with impunity. As times goes on the Christian
emblems become more popular; on a coin of Constantius II.
we find Victory crowning the emperor, who holds the standard
of the cross; the inscription is HOC SIGNO VICTOR ERIS.
Another type of the same reign is the Christian monogram
flanked by alpha and omega. Under Julian there is a temporary
recrudescence of pagan types; with the revival of Christianity
monotony of type sets in.
The art of Roman imperial coins, although far Inferior to that of
Greek, is well worthy of study in its best ages, for its intrinsk merit,
for its illustration ot contemporary sculpture, and on account of the
influence it exercised on medieval and modem art. On the whole the
finest work is produced under Augustus, when the portraits still
betray a certain refinement of imagination in the artists. Some of it
reflects the beauty of Roman monumental sculpture in relief of the
time, whether that sculpture be regarded as the work of Greeks or of
purely Roman artists. The most vigorous pcntraiture is perhaps
found under the Plains. Under tne Antonines, although still
striking and powerful, the portraiu lost in subtlety and from the
time of Commodus there is a rapid decline. The age of Diocletian
and Constantine shows a well-meant but hopeless attempt at revival
of art. In ^ite of its defects, the fact that many of the greatest
medallists of the Renaissance drew their inspiration from the art of
imperial coins shows that it had many good qualities, of which the
chief was an honest directness of effort. The realism in whkh this
resulted is perhaps best seen in the portraits of Nero, the erowth of
whose bad passions may be seen in the increasing brutamy of his
features and expression. The medallion series is full of charming
subfccts. though when they have been treated by Greek artists 01
earlier ages the contrast is trying: the most satisfactory are the
representations of older statues; the purely new compositions are
either poor inventions, or have a theatrical air that removes them
from tne province of good art.
III. Medieval and Latek Coins or Eubope
The period of the medieval and later coins of Europe must
be considered to begin about the time of the fall of the Western
empire, so that its length to the present day is about 1400 years.
It is impossible to separate the medieval and later coins, either
in the entire class, because the time of change varies, or in each
group, since there are usually pieces indicative of transition
which display characteristics of both periods. The clearest
division of the subject is to place the Byzantine coinage first,
then to notice the characteristics of its descendants, and lastly
to sketch the monetary history of each countiy. The coinage of
the present day, however, having certain definite characteristics,
may be dealt with separately.
The Byzantine money is usually held to begin in the reign of
AnasUsius (a.d. 491-518, PI. III. fig. 6). The coinage is always
in the three metals, but the silver money is rare, and
Za^ ^^ probably struck in small quantities. At first both
0^pkm, the gold and the silver are fine, but towards the close
of the empire they are much alloyed. The gold coin
is the solid us of Constantine, with its half and its third, the so-
called semissis and tremissis. The Byzantine solidus {besant)
had an enormous vogue throughout the middle ages, being the
chief gold coin uhtil the introduction of the Italian gold in the
13th century. The chief silver coin was the miliarision, and
a smaller coin, the sUiqua or keration. Under Heraclius (610-
641) the hexagram or double miliarision was first coined. The
silver money of the restored Greek empire is obscure. In 498
Anastasius introduced a new copper coinage, bearing on the
reverse, at his time, the following indexes of value as the main
type: H, K, I and E, 40 nummi, 20. 10 and $. These coins bear
beneath the indexes the abbreviated name of the place of issue.
Justinian I. added the regnal year in a.d. 538, his twelfth year.
The money of this class presents extraordinary variations of
weight, which indicate the condition of the imperial finances.
The Alexandrian coins of this class begin under Anastasius and
end with the capture of the city by the Arabs. They have two
denominations. IB and S, and F or 12, 6 and 3 denarii, and there
is an isolated variety of Justinian with A r(33)- The Alexandrian
bronze never lost its weight, while that of the empire generally
fell, and thus some of the pieces of Heraclius, while associated
with his sons Heraclius Constantinus and Heraclonas, have the
double index IB and IL Under Basil I. the bronze money
appears to have been reformed, but the absence of indexes of
value makes the whole later history of the coinage in this metal
very difficult. There was one curious change in the aspect
of the money. Early in the nth century the sotidus b^iss
to assume a cup-shaped form, and this subsequently became
the shape of the whole coinage except the smallo- bronze pieces.
These novel coins are called nummi scyphati. The types, except
when they refer simply to the sovereign, are of a religious and
consequently of a Christian character. This feeling increases to
the last. Thus, on the obverse of the eariier coins the emperors
are represented alone, but from about the loth century they are
generally portrayed as aided or supported by some sacred penon-
age or saint. On the reverses of the oldest coins we have such
types as a Victory holding a cross (other personifications all but
disappear), but on those of later ones a representaticm of Our
Saviour or of the Virgin Mary. Christ first appears on a coin
of about AJ>. 450, where He is represented marzying Pnkheria
to Mardan. He does not appear again until the end of the 7th
century, when His bust is introduced by Justinian II. It was
perhaps this type, so offensive to Mahommedan feding, that
caused the Caliph Abdalmalik to initiate the Mussulman ooinagt.
From the 9th century Christ appears in various forms 00 the
rains; about 900 we find the Virgin; a few years later saints
begin to appear. A remarkable type was introduced by Michad
VIII., Palaeologus, who rea>vered Constantinople from the
Latins in 1261, and issued coins with the Virgin standing in the
midst of the walls of the city. The princi^ inscriptioDS for
a long period almost invariably relate to the sovereign, and
express his name and titles. The secondary inscriptions of the
earlier coins indicate the town at which the piece was struck,
and, in the case of the larger bronze pieces, the year of the
emperor's reign is also given. From about the icSih century
there are generally two principal inscriptions, the one relating
to the emperor and the other to the sacred figure of the reverse,
in the form of a prayer. The secondary inscriptioos at the
same time are descriptive, and are merely abbreviations of the
names or titles of the sacred personages near the rcprrtcntatiow
of whom they are placed. From the time of Alexius I. (Corancnus)
the principal inscriptions are almost disused, and descriptive ones
alone given. These are nearly always abbreviations, like the
secondary ones of the earlier period. The language of the m-
scriptions was at first Latin with a partial use of Greek; aboct
the time of Heraclius Greek began to take its place on a rwie
class of coins, probably local; by the 9th century Greek inscrip-
tions occur in the regular coinage; and at the time of Alexias I.
Latin wholly disappears. The Greek inscriptions are remarkahk
for their orthography, which indicates the changes of thelangcafc.
In the nth century we notice a few metrical inscription&. xht
forerunner^ of verse-mottoes on later coins. Of the art of these
coins little need be said. It has its importance in Qlust rating
contemporary ecclesiastical art, but i^ generally inferior to it
both in design and in execution. It is noticeable tbat from tht
beginning of the Byzantine period the facing reprcacntatioa oi
the bust begins to be popular, and that from the time of Justhuas
(6th century) onwards the profile practically disappears frca
the coinage. The last Byzantine gold coin (a piece of John V .
1 341-1 591) shows a figure of Jolm the Baptist imitated fnm
the Florentine coinage.
Besides the regular series of the Byzantine empire, in whki
we include the money assigned to the Latin emperors of Ces-
stantinople, there are several cerate groups connected ^^^
with it.either because of their similarity ,or because the 55*
sovereigns were of the imperial houses. There are the
coinages of the barbarians to be next noticed, and tbe nxsn
of the emperors of Nicaea, of Thessalonica and of TrebiaoBd.
The last group consists of small silver pieces, which were pmi
for their purity; they were called Comnenian white-sooar
(fiffirpa Ko|irl^rara), the princes of Trebizond having sprung fno
the illustrious family of the Comneni.
The coinage of the other states of the West faBs into w&
defined periods, which have been distinguished as (i) traxisitic^
period, from Roman to true medieval coinage, irom tht fx^
UTER EUROPEAN]
NUMISMATICS
897
of Rome (476) to the accession of Charlemagne (768); (3) true
medieval age, during which the Carolingian nM>ney was the
f^,!,^ currency of western Europe, from Charlemagne to the
e/0ttcp fall of the Swabian house (x 368) ; (3) early Renaissance,
from the striking of the florin in Florence (1352) to
the classical Renaissance (1450); (4) the classical
Kenaissance, from 1450 to x6oo; (5) the modem period.
1. The various coinages of the transitioiial period win best be
CDiuidemi together (see bebw).
2. The inconvenience of gold money when it represents a very
large value in the necessaries of life must have caused its abandon-
M§atrmL '^^'^^ '^^ ^^ substitution of silver by the Carlovingians.
*^ The denier (denarius) or penny of about 34 grains was
at first practically the sole coin. The solidus in gold was
•truck but very nuely, pe^ps as a kind of proof of the right of
coining. The Byzantine solidus or besant was used and probabiv the
equivalent Arab gokl. The Arab silver piece, the dirkem. was almost
exactly the double of the denier, and seems to- have been widely
current in the north. The new coinage spread from France, where it
was first royal and then royal and feudal, to Germany, Italy, where
the Bviantme types did not wholly disappear. England. Scandinavia,
Castile and Aruon. In Germany and France feudal money was soon
issued, and in Italy towns and ecclesiasrical foundations laraely
acquired from the empire the right of coinage, which was elsewnere
rare. The conseauence of the extended right of coinage was a de-
preciation in weiffht. and in the middle of tne I3th century the one-
sided pennies called bracteates appeared in Germany, which were so
thin that they coukl only be stamped on one side. The types of this
whole secona coinage are new, except when the bust of tne emperor
ts engraved. The most usual are the cross; and the church as a
temple also appears, ultimately taking the form of a Gothic buikling.
There are also sacred figures, and more rarely heads in the later age.
3* The true herald ot the Renaissance was the emperor Frederick
II. In restorinff the gokl coinage, however, he followed in the steps of
the Norman dukes of Apulia. With a large Arab popula-
tion, these princes had found it convenient to continue
the Oriental gold money of the country, part of the great
currency at that time of all the western Moslems, and
Roger II. (1130-1154) also struck Latin coins of his own as DVX
APVLIAE, the first ducats. Frederick II. (1315-1350), conrinuing
the Arab coinage, also struck his own Roman gold money, solidi and
half solidi, with lus bust as emperor of the Romans, Caesar Augustus,
and on the reverse the imperiaf eagle (PI. III. fig. 7). In workmanship
these were the finest coins produced in the middle ages. But the
(^tamities which overwhelmed the Swabian house and threw back
the Renaissance deprived this effort of any weight, and it was left to
the great republics to carry out the idea of a worthy coinage — a
necessity of their large commercial schemes. The famous gokl IBorin
was first issued in 1353 (PI. III.fig.8). The obverse type is the standing
Krure of St John the Baptist, the reverse bears the lily of Florence,
ihe weight was about 54 grams, but the breadth of the coin and the
xauty of the work gave it dignity. The commercial greatness of
Florence and the punty of the florin caused the issue of similar coins
n almost all parts of Europe. Venice was not k>ng in striking
!in i2Bs) a gold coin of the same weight as the florin, but with the
ypes 01 a standing figureofChrist,and the doge receiving the gonfalon
It the hands of St Mark (see PL III. fie. 9). It was &8t called the
lucat, the name Jt always bears in its inscription : later it is known
ts the zecchino or sequin. Though not so largely imiuted as the
lorin, the extreme purity of the sequin was unquestioned to a time
irithin the memory of living persons. Genoa likewise had a great gold
urrency, and the other ftalian sUtes struck in this metal, ft is
ignificant of the power of the Italian republics that the later Mame-
ike sultans of Egypt found it convenient or necessary for their
osition between Europe and India to adopt the weight of the florin
nd set^uin for their gokl money. Many varieties of gokl money
ppear m course of time in France, Enjgland and to a less extent in
tner countries. The need for a heavier silver coinage caused the
»ue oi the large denier (grossus denarius, gros or groat). This coin
ppears eariy in the i^th century. The types from the 14th century
nwards are very various and distinctly worthy of the art of the
me, which as yet is purely decorative and conventional, so that
ortraits are not possible. The religious intcntk>n also is gradually
iving way to the desire to produce a beautiful result, and the
^rnbol of the cross is varied to suit the decorative needs of the coin.
Icraklic subjects also appear, and in the shield, which is frequently
reverse type, we see the origin of the usual modem reverse of the
lost important coins.
4. 5. With the classical Renaissance we find oursdves in the
-esence of modem ideas. The elaborate systems of ccnnage of the
^ various states of Europe are soon to begin, and the
"y"* 'prcvalenog of a general currency to become for the time
'■*'•' . impossible. Silver money now gains now importance with
°?'_f * the issue of the thaler or dollar in Germany, in 1518.
"'''^ This great coin speedily became the chief European
lece in its me^, but as it was coined of various weights and
trying ptirity it failed to acquire the general character of the denier.
The style of tUs age bat first excellent. The medals gave the tone
to the coinage. Art had wholly thrown off the rules of the age before
and attained the faculty of portraiture and the power ot simply
represen tiiy objects of nature and art. Great masters now executed
medals andeven coins, but s|>eedily this work became a mere matter
of commerce, and by the beginning of the modem period it was fast
falling into the pomty and barbarism in which it has ever sinos
remained. The details of the numismatics of these two* periods
belong to the notices of the money of the several countries.
A word must be added on money of account. While the denier
was the chief and practkally the sole coin, the solidus passed from
use as a focenn ^ece into a money of account. The ^ ^
solidus, like the German schilling (shilling); contained y**^*^
usually la dcniers. As there were 30 shillings to the ■™"""'
poumi of silver, we obtain the leckoning by £ s. d., librae, solidi and
denariL The pound as a weight contained la os., and Its two-thirds
waathe German mark of 8 ox.
It woukl be interesting, did space permit, to notke fuHy the art of
this entire class, to examine its growth, and to trace Its dedioe;
but, as with that of Greek and Ronum coins, we must ^^
mainly limit oursdves to the best period. Thisbanace ^'**
of about a hundred and fifty v<— rt, fh*" nf— of fhr^ rm««?ral Renais-
sance^ from the middle of th ' f the i6ch.
The finest works are limited 1: -l j' .\, hb period,
from a little before 14m to -lIjuuc 1500, in [taEy, ^nU lor as k>ng a
time, b^mning and ending si»in^what iitcf, in Germany. The artists
were then greater than af:t.rward», and mtdd-iriakiri:^ had not
degenerated into a trade; but ulth the larger pn>d urtjon of the
pmod following the work win. mott tnediaoiot], and iq foU into the
hands of inferior men. The
worthily be placed by the sM
only have some of its meda
where there was no room fc
was not thought an unworthy
There are, as we shoukl expert.
I^Ti of thii firjl fwriod may 1
jjl mnod may not un-
ij Ipt u re ana hi pa i nilng. Not
( <.n honouTiabk [lillaccs m a list
riQoic^:, hut To df-^fgn medab
..■.■: ^ .' -MIS artists.
_ , . A, ui*iu.cj*J i.-i.s^4-, Jic ftalian and
the Getman. The former attained a higher excellence, as po s s ess ing
not merdy a nobler styfe but one especially adapted to coins or
medals. The object which the artists strove to attain was to present
a portrait or to commemorate an action in the best manner possible,
without todng sight of the fitness of the designs to the form and use
of the piece on which they were to be placed. For the successful
attainment of thb purpose the style of the bter pre-Raphaelites was
eminently suited. Its general love of truth, synunetrical groumng.
simple orapery and sevcrdy faithful portraiture were qualities
especially fitted to produce a fine portrait and a good medaL It
is to be noted that their idea of portraiture did not depend on such
a feeling for beauty as influenced the Greeks. Rather did it set before
it the moral or intellectual attainments and capabilities, what the
Italiajis called the virtiL of the subject. The German art, as seen in
the medals, b mostly the work of carvers in wood or honcstone. or
Soldsmiths. It excels in vigorous, realistic portraiture, and in
ecorative treatment of heraldic subjects, but b lacking in breadth of
style and in the imagination shown by the best Italian medallists.
.Both these schools, but especially the Italian, afford the best
foundation for a truly exculent modem medallic art. The finest
coins and medab of Italy and Germany have an object similar to
that which it b sought to fulfil In the English, and their nearness in
time makes many detaib entirely appropriate. Thus, without
blindly imitating them, modem artists may derive from them the
greatc^ aid.
There are some delkately beautiful Italbn medab of the i6th
century, too closely imitated from the Roman style. A vigorous
rcahstjc school, the only great one of modem times, arose in France
before the close of the i6th century and lasted into the next. It
was rendered illustrious by Dupr6 and the inferior but still power-
ful Warin. From thb age until the time of Napoleon there b
nothing worthy of note. The style* of hb medallists b the weak
classical manner then in vogue, but yet b superior to what went before
and what has followed.
It is not intended here to enter in any detail into the various
divisions of the subject already treated in its main outlines. The
questions that would require consideratkm are of too complicated
and technical a nature to be illustrated within reasonable limits;
the principal matters of inqniry may, however, be indurated.
We begin with a survey of the transitional coinages in the
various countries of the West. They cover the period from the
5th to the 8th centuries, and are of immense hbtorical
significance. The types throughout are monotonous:
the bust of a Roman emperor or local ruler, a cross of
some kind, a Victory, &c. The style is quite barbarous.
The classification of the eariiest servile imitations of Roman and
Byzantine money rests solely upon provenance and is uncertain.
The following general series are distinguished: (A) The Vandals
(in Africa, 438-534) issued gold (?), silver and bronze from
Honneric (477-484) to Gelamir (53^534) ; the gold b anonymous.
(R) The Sumans (Spain, 409-585) had little but imitations of
898
NUMISMATICS
(MEDIEVAL AND
Byzantine gold; but Ridiiar (44^456) usued a denarius in his
own name. (C) The Ostrogoths (Italy, 489-553) were preceded
by the Hcrulian Odoacer (476-494)1 who coined silver and bronze;
their kings (including Theodoric, 493-526, and Totila or Baduila,
541-553) issued gold, silver and bronze in their own names,
from Rome, Ravenna, Milan, &c. (D) The Lombards (Italy, 568-
774) had no coins in their own names before Grimoald, duke of
Beneventum (662-67 x); later there are gold solidi and thirds
and silver from many mints. Gold was issued for the duchy of
Beneventum in the 8th centtuy. (£) The Bwgundiiuu (Gaul, to
534) first issued recognizable coins under Gondcbald (473-516).
(F) The Visigoths ( South Gaul and Spain) had imitative gold
thirds in the 5th and 6th centuries; the kings' names appear
from Lfcovigild (573-586) to Roderic (710-7 11). Sixty-one mints
were in operation. (G) The Meroring Franks first issued under
Cbvisl. (481-511) coins recognizably Prankish (solidi and thirds).
Royal names first appear on silver and copper under Theuderic oi
Austrasia (511-534) and Childebert I. of Paris (511-558). The
chief Prankish inscribed coinage is, however, of gold solidi
and thirds, from Theodebert I. (534-548), who broke down the
Roman imperial prerogative and issued gold with his own name
in full, to the beginning of the 8th century. The last Merovings
issued no coins in their own names, being mere puppets. And
from the middle of the 6th century the coins with kings* names
are far less numerous than those bearing the names only of
mints and moneyers; some 800 places (not only in what is now
France, but in Germany, the Low Countries and Switzerland)
are thus named (PI. III. fig. 1 2). This coinage seems to have been
intimately connected with the fiscal organization, though the
generally accepted theory that the taxes collected in each place
were there and then converted into money is by no means proved.
Certain religious establishments also possessed the right of
coining in their own name. The dose of the Meroving dynasty
saw a revival of silver in the saiga, which heralded the introduc-
tion of the denier. (H) The Aiiglo-Saxons began with an
imitative coinage similar to the Merovingian, viz. gold, solidi and
thirds, and silver sceattas (= treasure, Ger. Schatz) of about 20
grains troy, and stycas (^t pieces, Ger. SlUck), first of silver, then
of copper. The gold is rare and confined to the south; only two
solidi are known, imitations of Honorius, with runic legends on
the reverse. The types of the gold thirds, as of the coinage in
other metab (which does not begin until the 7th century), are
derived more or less directly from Roman. Some of the inscribed
sceattas bear the name of London in Roman letters; others, in
runes, the names of Epa and Peada (who is perhaps the son of
Penda), king of Mcrcia (d. 655). Sceattas with runic inscriptions
were also issued in East Anglia towards the end of the 8th
century. But the sceatta was superseded by the penny introduced
by 0£Fa (757-796). Offa also struck a gold coin, bearing his name
and an inscription copied directly from an almost contemporary
Arab coin; but this is quite an exceptional issue, represented
now by a unique specimen. The styca, which begins c, 670, was
characteristic of the Northumbrian comage, bsting, long after the
introduction of the penny farther south, down to the Danish
invasions of the second half of the 9th century. A series was
issued by the archbishops of York. Wigmund (837-854) struck
a gold solidus inscribed MVNVS DIVINVM, copied from the
solidi of Louis le Debonnaire, and evidently meant for a religious
purpose (PI. III. fig. X i). For the whole question of Anglo-Saxon
coins see Britain: An^oSaxon. (I) The Frisians had a small
coinage of gold thirds (imitated from Byzantine), and one
with the name of Audulfus also exists (end of the 6th century?).
The chief mint was probably Doccum.
We now proceed to the consideration of the coinages of the
various countries from the 8th century to modem times. The
PoriagaL ^^^^y ®^ Portugal begins, after the expulsion of the
"^^ Moors, with Alphonso I. ( 1 1 x 2) ; it b exclusively regal,
and not of great interest except as affording indications of the
wealth and commercial activity of the state in the early part of
the i8th century. The coinage of Spain, after the reconquest
from the Moors, is almost without exception regal. The king-
dom of Navarre bad a coinage from the time of Sancho III. (xoo»-
1035). '^c series of C^tile and Leon begins with Alphooso VI.
(1053) with deniers and obols. Aragon first has coins under
Sancho Ramirez I. (1063). Gold (imitated from ^^
Moorish money) is introduced in the middle of the lath . ^*^
century. A plentiful coinage was issued after the unk» of the
crowns in X479. '^^^ Spanish dollar of the x 7th and xSth centuries
was one of the most widely circulating currencies in the West (see
PL V. fig. 5). The medals of Spain are not important.
In 755 IHppin abolished the gold coinage of his MecDvinpaa
predecessors and introduced the silver denier (see PL IIL fig. ic) ;
the coinage became a royal prerogative once more, and am»
was confined to a few mints. The denier, which at first
weighed c. 1*28 gnunme (19} grains), was for centuries the
most important ot European silver coins. Under Charlemagne
the weight was slightly raised; the Caroline monogram appears,
and there are other modifications in the types. Charlrmagne
also issued money from various Italian, German and Spani^
mints. He also introduced the obol, and struck gold (chiefly at
Italian mints). Among his types must be noted the temple with
the inscription XPISTIANA REUGIO. Louis le Drixmnaize
(8x4-840) was the last Carolingian to strike gold. In the 9th
century are perceptible the first traces of the movement wbidi ltd
to the extensive feudal coinage. The advent of the bouse ol
Capet made no great change in the system, but the feudal issues
now become important. The most widespread denier was that
of the abbey of St Martin at Tours {denier Ummois); the royal
coinage was known as the monnaie parisis. St Louis ( x 226-1 270)
effected a great reform late in his reign, making the sou (hitherto a
money of account) into a real coin as the gros (sec ¥L III. fig. i4\
and introducingagold coinage. Henceforward the coinage increases
in complexity; in the 14th century it has great artistic merit (see
PL III. fig. 17). The French medals are for more interesting then
the modem coins. The ^rliest of artistic importaxice not by
Italian artists show nevertheless strong Italian infiuence (medals
of Charles VIII. and Anne of Brittany, of Philibcrt of Savoy and
Margaret of Austria). A scries of large medallions of the Vakas
is attributed to Germain Ptlon. The most characteristically
French artists are Guillaume Dupr6 (working i59S~x643) and
Jean and Claude Warin (middle and second half of X7lh cenlur>}.
The long historical serin of Louis XIV. has ix> artistic vakc;
but that of the Napoleonic period shows great technical abiliiy
on the part of artists like Andrieu, in spite of the false rlassar«rTtn
of their designs.
The silver penny was introduced into England by Offa, kis^
of Mercia (757*796), following the lead of Pippin in France (see
PLIII.fig.x3). It soon rose in weight to about 22 grains ~ m nt
troy (x-42 gramme), at which it long remained. The
types were usually, obverse the king's head, or some form of
cross or religious symbol; reverse some form of cross, rdigtcus
symbol or ornament. The inscriptions gave the names of :>:
king and of the moneyer, later also the mint. An imp<ntant gc .
coin of Offa was imitated from an Arab dinar of 774, with t^
addition of the words OFFA REX. The Mercian coinage cacs
about 874. The peimies of the kings of Kent extend from 765 !•*
825; the archbishops of Canterbury went on striking to t^£
beginning of the xoth century. The East Anglian regal sens
extends to 890; the memorial comage of St Edmund circuloicc
largely in East Anglia in the 9th century. The penny appears b
Northumbria with the Dane Halfdan (875-877) and continues t.
the middle of the next century. A coinage of " St Peter '
pennies was issued from York c 920-940. Tbe oovaagr c;
Wessex begins with Ecgbert, probably c. 825, when be got posses-
sion of the mint at (^terbury (see PL III. fig. 15 with tbe tant
of London). The coinage marks the gradual growth of W'csaex
until England is united under Edgar (957-975). There is bcacr^
forward for a long time no change of great importance to tk
coinage, which continued to consist of pennies, with rare b±.^
pennies (the pennies were usually cut into halves and quartr^
along the lines of the cross to make small change). During rir
reign of Stephen the monotony is relieved by a few issues ^^
barons like Robert, eari of Gloucester. The number of xnirts is
much reduced by the time of Henry III., and the moncyen cs^
UTER EUROPEAN)
NUMISMATICS
899
to sign the coins in Edward I/s reign. Henry HI. made an
abortive attempt to introduce a gold coinage, which was success-
fully established by Edward III. in 1343, with the gold florin, and
io 1344 with the gold noble (see Pi. III. fig. 20). (The obveiae type
of the noble, the king in a ship, is generally thought to refer to the
victory of Sluys in 1 340.) He also introduced the silver groat (4d.)
and half-groat. The English coinage, both gold and silver, was
DOW of such high quality and reputation that it (especially the
silver sterling) was largely exported and imitated, chiefly in the
Low Countries. The gold coinage of Edward III. is perhaps
the most successful, from an artistic point of view, in the English
aeries. Subsequent devebpments of the coinage now become
very complicated. Edward IV. distinguished his noble by
a rose on the obverse and a sun on the reverse, and introduced
a new gold coin, the angeL The Tudor period b distinguished
by the splendour, variety and size of the coins; Henry VII.
intnxiuced the sovereign of sos. (240 grains) and the shilling, and
on his coins the first serious attempt at portraiture is found (see
PI. III. fig. 2 r). Under Henry Vlll.the quality of the silver money
declines, being not effectually restored until the reign of Elizabeth,
when an unsuccessful attempt was made to introduce a copper
coinage. Pdvate tokens came into use, but the official copper
coinage does not begin until the next rcigxL The use of the mill,
as distinct from the hammer, was begun in 1562, but it took just
a century to oust the old-fashioned method. In 161 3 John,
Lord Harrington, obtained a patent for the issue of copper
farthings, and private tradesmen's tokens were prohibited.
The gold sovereign of James I., from its inscription (FACIAM
EOS IN GENTEM VNAM) and the fact that it was meant to
circulate on both sides of the Border, was known as the unite.
The coinage of Charles I. presents great varieties owing to the
dvil war. The best workmanship is seen on the milled coins
issued by Nicolas Briot 3ut the majority of the money was still
hammered. The scarcity of gold in the royal treasury during
the troubles induced the king to coin twenty- and ten-shilling
pieces of silver, in addition to the crowns and smaller denomina-
tions. Gold three-pound pieces, or triple-unites, however, were
issued from the (Mord mint. One of the most remarkable
of his pieces is a crown struck at Oxford by Rawlins. It bears
on the obverse the king on horseback, with a representation of
the town beneath the horse, and on the reverse the heads of the
" Oxford Declaration." The so-called " Juxon medal," given by
Charles to Bishop Juxon on the scaffold, is really a pattern-piece by
Rawlins (see PI. V. fig. i). Of equal interest are the siege-pieces of
many castles famous in the axmals of those days. They are mostly
of silver, often mere pieces of plate with a stamp; but Colchester
and Pontefract issued gold. The coinage of the Commonwealth
is of a plainness proper to the principles of those who sanctioned
it. The great Protector, however, caused money to be designed
of his own bearing his head. It is not certain that this was ever
sent forth, and it is therefore put in the class of patterns.
Simon, the chief of English medallists, designed the coins, which
are unequalled in the whole series for the vigour of the portrait
(a worthy presentment of the head of Cromwell) and the beauty
and fitness of every portion of the work. The finest coin pro-
duced under Charles II., and technically the best executed piece
in the whole English series, is the "Petition Crown" (see
PI. V. fig. 2), a pattern by Simon, to which, however— probably
for political reasons— the work pf Jan Roettier was preferred.
Maundy money was first struck in this reign, and the luime
guinea was now applied to the 208. piece. In 1672 a true copper
coinage of halfpence and farthings was introduced. Hence-
forward there is a decline in the coinage, although skill is perceived
In the portrait of William III., whose grand features could scarcely
lave failed to stimulate an artist to more than a common effort,
^een Anne's money is also worthy of note, on account of the
ittempt, on Dean Swift's suggestion, to commemorate current
lustory on the copper coinage, which led to the issue of the famous
farthings (see PI. V. fig. 4) . These have been the cause of an extra-
ordinary delusion, to the effect that a very small number (some
say three) of these pieces were struck, and that their value is a
thousand pounds each, instead of usually some shillings. Worth-
less casts of genuine farthings, and counters made in imitation of
the sixpence of the time, are constantly mistaken for such
farthing After this there is little to remark, except the baseness
of the art of the coins under the first three Georges, until the
talent of Pistrucd gave a worthier form to the currency. Be-
tween 1760 and 18x6 hardly any silver or copper money was
issued. The gap was filled by the use of Spanish dollars counter-
stamped, and silver tokens issued by the Banks of England
and Irdand, as well as by vast quantities of tokens issued by
private persons. In 1816 the new coinage of gold and silver was
issued, since when there have been few changes in the British
currency.
The English medals are far more interesting for thdr bearing
on events than as works of art. The best are almost all by
foreigners, but the fine pieces of the Simons form notable
exceptions. The medals of the Tudors are good in
style, and show some excellent portraits, in particular
those by Trezzo and Stephen H. (generally known as Stephen
of Holland). There is one of Mary queen of Scots by Primavera,
representing her in middle life, which is perhaps her most
characteristic portrait. Elizabeth's are of historical importance,
and some of them, as the Armada medals (see PLV. fig. 7)^ have a
certain barbaric grandeur, being probably the work of English
artists. The richer scries of the Stuart period contains some
medals of fine style. These indude works by Warin, the Simons
and the Roettiers, besides the excellent coin engravers Briot
and Rawlins. The numerous badges worn by adherents of
various parties during the dvil war and Commonwealth have a
personal and historical interest. The most curious pieces are
those popular issues rcbting to current events, such as the so-
called " Popish plot," and a certain interest attaches to medals
of the exiled Stuarts. From this time there are no works deserv-
ing notice except military and naval medals, the historical
interest of which makes some amends for their poverty of design
and execution. The English tokens form a curious dass. They
are of two periods: the earlier, which are almost always of copper,
were issued chiefly at the middle of the X7th century and some-
what later; the later, which are mainly of copper, but also
sometimes of silver, were struck during the scarcity of the royal
coinage in this metal at the end of the i8th century, and during
the earlier years of the i gth century. Both were chiefly coined by
tradesmen and bear their names. The colonial money of England
was until lately unimportant, but now (except in style) it is not
unworthy of the wealth and activity of the dcpendendes.
The " Anglo-Gallic " money struck by the English kings for
thdr French dominions forms a peculiar dass. It was begun
by Henry II., who struck dcnicrs and half-denicrs for Aquitaine.
Richard I. (whose name is not found on his English coinage)
struck for most of the French domains, but no coins are attri-
buted to John or Henry III. Edward I.'s coins are of billon;
of Edward II. there are none. Gold was introduced before 1337,
and there are fine series of gold, silver, and billon of Edward III.
(see PL III. fig. 19) and the Black Prince. Henry, earl of Lan-
caster, struck silver at Bergerac (1345-1361). The succeeding
kings down to Henry VI. (first reign) all issued Anglo-Gallic coins.
There was a temporary revival under Henry VIU. at Tournay
(1513-1519). The whole series, with the exception of the Calais
coinage, is French in character.
The coinaffe of 6cotIand is allied to that of England, although
generally ruder; but it seems to have been more influenced in the
early period from England, and towards its dose from
France. The oldest pieces are silver pennies or stcrlim^
- .. . ncy of 1
.-JIS3). David II. after 1357 int
coinage. In the istn and i6th centuries there is an important
rcaemblinff the contemporary English money of the reign
of David I. (1124-1153). David II. after 1357 introduced a gold
coinage, both in gold and silver, not the least interesting pieces being
the fine bonnet-piece of James V., and the various issues of Queen
Mary, many of which bear her portrait. The indifferent execution
of thie coins of Mary's reign is traceable to the disturbed state of the
kingdom. The Scottish coinage came to an end in 1709.
wales has never had a coinage of its own. properly speaking. A
unique penny attributed with good reawn to Howcl the Waht.
Good, a contemporary of Edmund (died c. 950), was
perhaps struck at Chester. Various English kings struck coins at
Welsh mints such as Rhuddbn. Pembroke.
900
NUMISMATICS
(MEDIEVAL AND
The mooKV of Irebnd !• more scanty and of lest importance than
that of Scotland. The -pieces roost worthy of notice are the silver
inlamd, pennies of the early Danish kings, the earliest being that
of Sihtric III. (98^1039), copied from contemporary
English pennies. The Anglo-Insh coinage Segins in 1 177, when John
as lord of Ireland received the right of coinage. A copper coinage
was introduced as early as the reign of Henry VI . The quality of the
Irish coinage was exceedingly poor in the l6th century, espedally
under Elizabeth. Between 1642 and 1647 various kinds of money
of necessity were issued, including the only gold Irish coin, the
Inchiquin pistole. After his expulsion from England James II.
issued enormous quantities of corns of necessity made oi^nmetal
or pewter. The latest Irish o^na were the penny and hal^ienay of
182a.
The Isle of Man had a regular copper coinase. beginning in 1709
with pence and halfpence jindcr the Derby family, contmued by
tmimn§ James, duke of Athol (issue of 1758), and by the English
^ry' sovereigns from 1786 to 1864. The badge of the island
is the three-legged symbol, with the motto Quoeunjue
jecerit stabiL
Belgium occupies the next place in our arrangemeht. Its
coinage, which, except for the few mints operating under the
Merovingians and Carolingians, docs not begin until
JjJ*" the nth century, comprises many pieces struck by
jfottuiA foreign rulers, and has little of an Independent character
in either the regal or the seignorial class. The most
important coinages are those of the house of Burgundy and
Charies V. and his son, and of the bishops of Li^ge. In character
the coinage of Belgium approximates to the French on the one
■ide, the German on the other. About 1400 the Burgundian
school produced a remarkable aeries of medals representing
Roman emperors, of which two (those of Constantine and
Heraclius) have come down to us; these form a link between
the late Roman medallion and the Italian medal of the Re-
naissance. The series of Holland is similar in character until
the period of the revolt of the provinces. The Dutch dollars
of the i6th to the x8th centuries had an immense circulation
(see PI. V. fig. 3) . Among the early Dutch medallists must be men-
tioned Stephen H., generally without reason known as Stephen
of Holland (working X5S8-X573), whose portraits show great
charm. The Dutch historical medals are of great interest, more
especially those which were struck by the Protestants in com-
memoration of current events.. There is also a remarkable
series of bronze medallets or jettons, which form a continuous
commentary on history during the x6th and early part of the
17th centuries. Both are interesting as largely i}lustrating not
only local events but also those of the chief European states.
Such are the pieces recording the raising of the siege of Leiden,
likened to the destruction of Sennacherib's army, the assassina-
tion of William the Silent, and the discomfiture of the Armada,
affording striking indications of the zeal, the piety and the con-
fidence in the light which built up the great political structure of
the Dutch republic After this time the medals lose much of
their interest.
The money of Switzerland Ulustrates the varying fortunes of
this central state, and the gradual growth of the stronghold of
European freedom. First we have the gold money
g} ^ **^ of the Prankish kings, among whose mints Basel,
Lausanne, St Maurice-en- Vslais and Sitten (Sion)
already appear. The silver denien, which Charlemagne made
the coinage of the empire, are issued by fewer mints; the dukes
of Swabia began to strike at Zurich in the loth century, and the
empire granted during the xoth and to the 13th century the right
of coinage to various ecclesiastical foundations, bishoprics and
abbeys. Bern was allowed a mint by the emperor Frederick II.
in I2i8, and other towns and seigneurs subsequently gained the
same right. The demi-bracteate appears about the middle of the
nth century, an4 about 1125 is superseded by the true bracteate,
which lasts until about 1300. The 14th century witnessed the rise
of the Swiss confederation, and by degrees the cantons struck
their own money. These, together with the coins of some few
sees and abbacies, form the bulk of Swiss money of the medieval
and modem periods. The separate cantonal coinage, inter-
rupted by the French occupation, was finally suppressed in
Z848, when a uniform currency was adopted by the whole
republic. The monetary systems of the cantonal and ecdcsias-
tical mints were extremely complicated. Tliis was partly due
to' the variety of coins, partly to the debasement practised by
the ecclesiastical mints. Geneva had a peculiar system of bo-
own.
Italy, ^th Sicny, has peculiar features. Here the barbaric
coinages were mixed with the Byzantine issues which marked
the recovery of the Eastern empire, and left a lasting
influence in the north at Venice, and in the south at JSj^yotf
Beneventum. Later the Arab conquest left its mark auiy,
in the curious Oriental coinages of the Normans of
Sidly and the emperor Frederick 11., mixed after his fashioa
with Latin coinage. The earliest money is that of the barbarians,
Ostrogoths and Lombards, and local Byzantine issues in SkSy.
This is followed by the deniets of Charlemagne and his suc-
cessors, supplanted by the gold currencies of the Ncmnans axkd
Frederick II. The age of the. free cities is marked by the great
coinages of Florence, Venice and Genoa, while the Angevin and
Aragonese princes coined in the south, and the popes began to issue
a regular currency of their own at Rome. The Italian princes ci
the next period coined in Savoy, and at Florence, Modena, Mantua
and other dtics, while Rome and the fordgn rulers of the soaih
continued their mintages, Venice and Genoa of Ihe republics alone
surviving. The Italian monetary systems have already been
touched on in the introductory notice. For art the scries is
invaluable. First in Italy the revival influenced the coins, and ia.
them every step of advance found its record. The Italian medaU
are without rivals in the works of modem times.
Following the geographical order which is best suited to the
Italian coinage, we first notice the money of Savoy, wfaibh ^
inferior in art to that of the rest of the country. It begins villi
Umberto II. (1080); in 1720 the dukes became kings of Sardinia^
and their coinage merged eventually in x86x in that of the king-
dom of Italy. Genoa is the first. of the great republics. St^
obtained the right of coinage from Conrad II. in 1x39, and stracV
gold coins from the time of the general origin ol dvic cnns^e
in that metal; these are ducats and their divisions, and after a
time their multiples also. In the X7th century tbetc are vil\
large silver pieces. In the money of Mantua there are fine aa^
of Gianfrancesco III. (1484-15x9) and Vincenzo II. (1627— z62S'* .
these last splendid examples of the late Renaissance, large p fecjeA
of gold and silver; the portrait is fine, and the hound on tbe x«- :
verse a powerful design. The vicissitudes of the story of lil3&=i <
find their record in no less than ten groups of money — ^Lomhau'^ i
regal coins, Carolingian deniers, money of the republic (la^c-.
1310), next of the Visconti famfly (X329-X447), succeeded by rh-^i
republic (1447-1450) and by the Sforza line, next of Louis XU
and Francis L of France, of the restored Sforza, of Charles V. t?. i
Spanish right and his successors of Spain, and lastly of Austx^,
liiere are extremely fine coins of the x 5th century, showing ^re&.i
beauty in their portraits (see PI. III. fig. 22). The mone^r «d
Florence is disappointing in its art. The Athens of the middle atfsi
had the same reason as her prototype to preserve as faithftJ3> 2.{
might be the types and aspect of her most famous coin, the ^' ]
florin (see PL UI. fig. 8), and thus those who expect to seeic: t v^
series the story of Italian art will be much disappointed. Tt^
silver florin was first struck ini 189. It is heavier than the dcr^ ^ 1
weighing about 27 grains, and bears the lily of Florence an«d * ri
bust of St John the Baptist. These are thenceforward the k=a.f±;r \
types, the flower never changing, but the representation ckt t -\
saint being varied. On the gold florin, first issued in 1 25 2 . - -j
Baptist is represented standing,, while in the conteni^oc-Aq
silver florins be is seated. In the 14th cenlury the aims «^ 1
moncyer appear in the field, two such officers have had the x-^ j
of striking yearly, each for six months. The coins of the «S^3 j
from 1532, in spite of their new types, are not a fine acri^& ~ 7 1
best are those of Alessandro, designed by Cellini.
Venice as a mint even surpasses Florence in conservatisrv^ , ^--^
the early style being distinctly Byzantine, this is the «r» 1
striking in a great artbtic dty. We find Venice as an irr»^>kc' i
mint issuing Carolingian deniers, but the doges begin to e 1
placing their own names on their currency, in the 1 3th oca&r
•1
NUMISMATICS
Plate 1
Greek Coins.
Plate II.
NUMISMATICS
•#ca##ti
«••
25
2-2
27
Greek and Roman Coins.
NUMISMATICS
Plate III.
Roman and Medieval Coins.
Plate IV
NUMISMATICS
Oriental Coins,
NUMISMATICS
Plate V.
Modem Coins and Medals.
TE VI.
NUMISMATICS
Italian Medals.
LATER EUROPEAN)
NUMISMATICS
901
Tbe most famous silver coin, the matapan, was fiist struck in the
brilliant time of Enrico Dandolo (1192-1205). This coin is a
grossus weighing about 33 grains, with on the obverse St Mark
giving the standard or gonfalon to the doge, both figures standing,
and on the reverse the seated figure of the Saviour. The famous
Venetian zccchino or 5equin(see P1.I1I. fig. 9) , the rival of the florin
of Florence, appears to have been first issued under Giovanni
Dandolo (1284). On the obverse St Mark gives the gonfalon to
the kneeling doge, and on the reverse is a standing figure of the
Saviour within an oval nimbus. Niccolo Trono (1471-1473)
introduces his portrait on most of his coins, but this custom is not
continued. By the latest part of the xsth century large silver
coins appear. The archaic style changes in the beginning of the
x6th century, but there is no later movement. The large silver
pieces increase in size, and large gold is also struck; the last doge,
Ludovico Manin (1788-1797), issued the loo-sequin piece in gold,
a monstrous coin, worth over £40. The doges of Venice from
1 52 1 to 1797 issueda peculiar silver token or medallct, the osella,
five of which they annually presented to every member of the
Great Council. They replaced the wild ducks (uccelle) which it
had been customary to present at Christmas. Two dogartssas
struck similar mcdallets. Their types are usually allegorical;
some are commemorative.
The series of the coins of Rome is rather of historical than of
artbtlc merit. The popes begin to strike money with Adrian I.
(a.d. 772-795), whose deniers are in a Byzantino-
J^Sn. Lombard style. The coins of his successors, with few
exceptions, down to Leo IX. (1049) associate the
names of pope and emperor. From Leo IX. to Urban V. (1362)
there is no papal coinage at Rome. The 'Roman senate strikes
from 1 188 onwards. We then see on the silver the style of the
senate and Roman people^ and ROMA CAPUT MUNDI. Some
coins have the figures of St Paul and St Peter, others Rome
sealed and a lion. Charles of Anjou, king of Sicily (i 263-1 285),
strikes as a senator, and Cola di Rienzo (1347-1348) as tribune.
The gold ducat of about 1300 imitates the types of the Venetian
sequin. St Peter here gives the gonfalon to a kneeling senator.
The arms of the moneying senator next appear in the field.
The papal coinage is resumed at Avignon; and Urban V., on his
return to Rome, takes the sole right of the mint. From Martin
V. (141 7) to Pius IX. there is a continuous papal coinage. The
later coins, though they have an interest from their bearing on
the history of art, are disappointing in style. There is indeed a
silver coin of Julius II. struck at Bologna and attributed to
Francia, with a very fine portrait. We have beautiful gold coins
of Giovanni Bentivoglio (see PI. III. fig. 23), lord of Bologna, who
employed Francia at his mint, and we know that the artist
remained at his post after Julius II. had taken the city. There
arc also pieces of Clement VII. by Cellini, vigorous in design
but careless in execution. There were papal mints at Ancona,
Bologna, Piacenza, Parma, Ferrara and other Italian towns;
and coins were also struck at Avignon from 1342 to 1700. The
papal portraits are highly characteristic and interesting. It is,
however, in the fine series of papal medals that we find a worthier
artistic record.
The coinage of Sicily, afterwards that of the Two Sicilies,
or Naples and Sicily, begins with the Normans. Theirs is a
^^_ curiously mixed series. It begins with Robert Guiscard
^^^* as duke of Apulia (1075) and Roger I. of Sicily (1072).
The gold money is almost wholly Arabic, though Roger II. struck
the Latin ducat, the earliest of its class; the silver is Arabic,
except the great Latin scyphati of Roger II. with Roger III.;
the copper is both Latin and Arabic. The gold series (Augustalcs)
of the emperor Frederick II. ( 1 1 98-1 250) shows the first sentiment
of reviving classical art, its work being far in advance of the age.
These are Latin coins; he also struck small Arabic pieces in
gold. Under Conrad and Manfred there isan insignificant coinage,
copper only^but with Charles I. of Anjou (i 266-1 285) the gold
money in purely medieval style is very beautiful, quite equal to
that of his brother, St Louis of France. After this time there is
a great issue of gigliati, silver coins with, for reverse, a cross
fleurdelis^ cantoned with fleurs-de-lis. These coins acquired
XIX 15*
a great reputation in the Levant, and were even struck by the
emirs of Asia Minor. With Alphonso* the founder of the
Aragonese line, we note the old style of the coins, which are m
singular contrast to his fine medids. Good portraiture begins
on the money*of Ferdinand I., his successor. The later coinage
is interesting only for its illustration of the varying fortunes of
the Two Sicilies. The curious early gold coinage of the Lombard
dukes of Beneventum, which follows the Byzantine type, has
been mentioned under the transitional series; the dukes and
princes of Beneventum and the princes of Salerno rantinued to
issue coins (sometimes gold, usually deniers) down to the middle
of the nth century.
Italian medals (PI. VI.) are next in merit to the works of the
Greek die-engravers. Certain small pieces of a medallic character
were made in Italy, at Padua, as early as the end of the
X4th century, and there existed ^also large cast and
chased pieces representing various Roman emperors
(perhaps Burgundian work of the 14th century), which influenced
the beginnings of the true medaL This began, and also reached
its highest excellence, with Vittore Pisano (Pisanello), the
Veronese painter, whose medals date from 1438 (or earlier)
to 1449. The finest work of Italian medallists is seen in the
cast medals of the X5th and early x6th century; with the increase
of classicism in the i6th the style declines rapidly. The earlier
medals are independent works, marked by simple vigorous
truthfulness. The designs are skilful and the portraits strongly
characteristic; the expression of character and virtU takes
precedence over ideal beauty, especially in the work of the
Florentine school. As the art became popular the execution
of medals passed into the hands of inferior artists, and by degrees
striking became usual for the smaller pieces; at the same time,
a slavish imitation of the classical style weakened or destroyed
originality and stamped the works with the feebleness of copies.
The great medallists of the first age are Pisano, Matteo de' Pasti»
Enzola, Boldd, Sperandio, Guazzalotti, Bertoldo, Gambello,
Niccold Fiorentino, Lysippus, Candida, Caradosso. Some of
the most beautiful medals, however, are by unknown artists
(PI. VI. fig. 3). In the i6th century must be mentioned
Pomedello, Bcnvenuto Cellini, Leone Leoni, Giovanni Cavino
" the Paduan," Pastorino of Siena, Giacomo da Trezzo, Pietro
Paolo Galeotto, called Romano, and Antonio Abondio. Incom-
parably the finest of all Italian medals are the works of Pisano,
particularly the medals of Alphonso the Magnanimous, with the
reverses of the boar-hunt and the eagle and lesser birds of prey,
those of Sigismondo Malatesta, his brother sumamed Novello (see
PI. VI. fig. i), LeoneUo d'Este, John VUI. (Palaeologus), Nicold
Picdnino, Inigo d'Avalos (marquis of Pcscara), Ludovico and
Cecilia Gonzaga of the same family, the great humanists Vittorino
da Feltre and Pier Candido Deccmbrio. Pisano is great in
portraiture, great in composition and design, and marvellously
skilful in depicting animals. He alone represents the moral
qualities of his subject in their highest expression and even
capability. That he has high ideal power is seen at once if we
compare with his portrait Fasti's inferior though powerful
head of Sigismondo Malatesta. Fasti's medal of Isotta, wife of
Sigismondo, is also noteworthy, likewise the medal by the
otherwise unknown Constantius of Mahomet II., the conqueror
of Constantinople— interesting works, but lacking Pisano's
technical skill and inspiration. An artist of great power is
Sperandio of Mantua; but his productions lack the finish
necessary to good medallic work, his drawing and composition
are careless, and his realism too often becomes brutal or vulgar.
The work of Niccold Fiorentino and of his pupils is astonishingly
vigorous in portraiture, but they lack the power of designing
reverses (see PI. VI. fig. 3). In the later age Cavino executed a
remarkable series of imitations of Roman sestertii, which have
been frequently mistaken for originals. In art these Italian works
frequently surpass the originals in spite of a degree of weakness
inseparable from copies. A comparison of the Italian with the
Roman pieces is thus most instructive. The works of Pastorino
of Siena (who had an extraordinary facility in graceful port raiture)
areespedally charming (see PI. VI. fig. 4). Historically the Italian
902
NUMISMATICS (medieval and later el-ropean
medab supply the defects of the coina^ies of Florence and Rome,
and in a le» degree of Venice. The papal series is invaluable
as a continuous chronicle, although artistically, after the earliest
period, it is monotonous.
The money of Germany is, like that of Italy, far too various
for it to be possible here to do more than sketch some of its
g^^^ main features. In the Prankish period mints were in
^'"'*^* operation at cities in the west, such as Mainz, Strass-
burg, Spires, Treves, Worms, Cologne. Pippin issued denarii
from Strassburg and Mainz; under his successors denarii and
obob were also coined at other mints, as Bonn, Cologne, Spires,
Treves. After the reign of Louis the Child (9x0-911) the
Carolingian system was continued until the advent of the
Swabians with Conrad III. (1138-1 152). In the. succeeding
period, which ends with the introduction of the grossus and
the gold coinage under Louis of Bavaria (13x4-1347), the
uniformity of the currency disappears. In the west (in Lothar-
ingia, including the southern Low Countries, the Moselle and
Rhine-lands, in Frisia, Bavaria, parts of Franconia and Swabia)
the denier continues; but elsewhere we' find the bracteate.
The right of coinage is acquired in an increasing measure by the
feudatories of the empire. These local coinages entirely domin-
ated the system, so that even the imperial coinage is not uniform,
but consists of denarii in the west and bracteates in the east.
The earUest imperial bracteate is of Frederick I.; the large fine
bracteates last but a short time, reaching their acme about the
end of the xath century (see PI. III. fig. 18). The fine pieces of
the bishops of Halberstadt and the abbesses of Quediinburg are
characteristic of this class. With the introduction of the regular
gold coinage (chiefly florins) and the grosses in the X4th century,
Germany enters on the modem period. From the x6th century
the thaler (so called from Joaddmsthal in Bohemia, where the
counts of Schlick first struck the coin in 1518) dominates the
silver currency (see Fl. V. fig. 6). The thalets and other large coins
of the i6th and xyth centuries are often good and always vigorous
in workmanship. By the convention of 1857 the thaler was
recognized as the unit for. Berlin and the north, the florin of
xoo kreuzers for Austria, the florin of 60 kr. for the south. The
present system, based on the gold reichsmark of 100 pfenm'gs,
was established all over the German empire in 1876. Of particular
currencies in Germany we must be content with the bare mention
of some of the more important. Among the great rulers we
note the duka of Bavaria, who coined from Henry I. (948-955).
and issued fine thalers in the i6th century. The Counts Palatine
of the Rhine coined from 1294, their mints being at Heidelberg,
Frankfort, &c. The Saxon coinage begins with Duke Bernard
(973) And includes a large series of bracteates and thalers, the
latter being especially famous. The Brunswick coinage begins in
the nth century; besides its bracteates we note the large mining-
thalers of the x6th and 17th centuries (up to ten-thaler pieces)^
There are good bracteates and thalers of the margraves of
Brandenburg; from X70X they coin as kings of Prussia. In
Austria there is a ducal coinage from the X2th century; the gold
florin of Florentine character appears under Albert II. (X330-
1358). The marriage<oin of Maximilian and Maria of Burgundy
(a z6th-century reproduction of a medal made by the Italian
Candida in 1479) is a striking piece, and in the x6th century
there is a large series of fine thalers. The thalers of Maria Theresa
had an enormous circulation among savage races, and those of
the date 1780 were reooined for the purposes of the Abyssinian
War of X867. In Bohemia there is a ducal coinage from the
early zoth century to 1x92; then came the regal bracteates.
Wenceslas II. (x 278-1305) struck the first German grossus at
Prague (see PI. IIL fig. 16). The gold florin appears under John
of Luxemburg (13x0-1347). In Hungary the regal coinage begins
with St Stephen (xooo). Charles I. of Anjou (13x0-1342) intro-
duced the florin and grossus. Of historical interest is the money
of John Hunyady as regent (144X-X452). The abundance of gold
about this time and later shows the metallic wealth of the land.
The jame is true of the rich gold coinage of the Transylvanian
princes in the x6th and x 7th cent uries. Of ecclesiastical coinages
the most important are at Mflnster, Cologne, Mainz, Treves,
Augsburg, Magdeburg, Spires, Warzburg. Salzburg. The Cologne
series of coins is almost continuous from the Frankish period;
the archbishops first received the right from Otto I., Bruoo
(953-965) being the first to coin; irom Pilgrim (1021-1036)
the series, issueid at various mints in the Rhincland, is very
complete down to x8o2. The series of Treves nnges from
Theodoric I. (965-975) to Qement Wenceslas (1794). The
archiepjscopal coinage of Mainz begins with WiDigis (975) and
lasts until x8o2; its mints included Erfurt, Bingen an4 many
other places. The Salzburg series (beginning 996) is remarkable
for its fine thalers (especially of Mathias Lang, x 519-1540).
The patriarchs of Aquileia, who may be mentiocied here, acquired
the right of coinage from Louis II. in the 9th ceatury, but the
first who can be identified on the coins is Godfrey (1x84) ; thence
onwards there is an interesting series of denarii and smaller coins
down to the eariy 15th century. Of dries with lar;ge roinagn k
is sufiident to mention Aix-b-Chapdle (from the time of Frederick
I. to 1795), Frankfort-on-the-Main, Hamburg (with great-gold
pieces of the x6th and 17th centuries, up to xo ducats) and
Nuremberg. Lastly, we may mention the coins of the grasd-
masters of the Teutonic Order, issued in Prussia from 1351 to
X512.
German medals perhaps rank next to Italian, altbou^ they
lack the higher artistic qualities. They are the work of craftsmea
—jewellers, wood*carvers, workers in hone-stone — and sh»w great
facility of minute workmanship and chasing and* dccoratK-e
design (the last is e^>ecially dear in the heraldic revctses); the
faults of these qualities are to some extent redeemed by ibe
native German vigour and directness of the portraiture. The
originsl models from which the medals were cast were in many
cases made in hone-stone or box-wood, which did not, liLc t)^
favourite wax of the Italian artists, give much scope for subtlety.
The chief centres of the art were Nuremberg and Augsburg.
Many medals have been attributed to Albrecht Diirer; whether
he did more than design them is unccrtaiiL Ataaog other
medallists may be mentioned Hans Scfawaiz (workiog X5t6-
1527), Ludwig Rrug, Friedrich Hagexuiuer (working xs2S-iS46.
see PI. V. fig. 8), Peter Fldtner (c. X538, although it is doubtful
whether this artist, whose plaquettes are famous, made any
of the portrait-medals ascribed to him). Mattes Gebei, Haas
Reinhardt the Elder, &c Some other good artists are kaova
only by thdr initials, or quite unidentified. After the middb
of the x6th century the art declines, although we stifl have
skilful artists like Valentin Maler (X568-X593). In this later
period striking gradually supersedes casting.
The earliest Polish onns are of the loth century; the types as^
copied from English, German and Byzantine louices. In the 13U
and X3th centuries there is a bracteate coina^. The p^^^
grossus was introduced about 1300. . In later tunes the
town of Danzig, while belonging to the kingdom, issued remarkaMc
gold pieces, thalers, &c.. down to its restoration to Pniaaa (1793)
The origin of the coinage of the Scandinavian states: Norsav
Denmark and Sweden, is cleariy English and due to the Da&i^
conquest of England. The runic alphaba is employed, -p ^,
though not by any means exclusively, on many of the ^^^
early coins of Dennaark and Norway. The NorvegiaB •^
series beeins with Hakon Jari (980-996), who copies the poaics e£
iEthelred II. In the second half of the nth century bqiios a cobusv
of small, thin pennies, which develop into bracteates. Magmts IV
(1363-1380) restores the coinage, more or less imiuting the Ea^Ua^
sterhnn of the rime. Norway and Denmark were united oader
Eric of Pomerania in 1396. The money of Denmark begins %T(th
pennies of Sweyn (985-roi4) which are coned from the coiatasr
of iEthdred II.; the coins of Canute the Great (1014-1035) »rJ
Hardicanute (1036-XO43) are mainly English in character. >h~£'.''
Magnus (1043-1047) other influences, especially Byzantiae. mppcjc
and the latter is very strong under Sweyn iEstrithtton (1047-10?^
Bracteates come in m the second half of the I3th century. Tbe
coinage is very difficult of classification until the time of Ezk d
Pomerania (1396). There are important episce '
Roskilde and Lund in the 12th and 13th centuries,
few eariy coins, beginning with imitations by Olaf S
of Enghsh pennies and showing the usual 1
money was restored by Albert of Mecklenburg (i363-i597>. Tbe
thaler is introduced by Sten Sture the younger (1512-1530), The
money of GusUvus Adolphus is historically interesting. VbAt
Charles XII. there is highly curious money of Becesatty. The d»kf
is struck as a small copper coin, sometimes plated. Thetypcsiachtt
hMVTTT
ORIENTAL)
the Roman divinities. At the Bane time and later there was a larve
tssuc of enormous plates of copper, stamped with their full value m
silver money as a countermark.
The earliest Russian coinage begins with the princes of Kiev as
early as the end of the xoth centuiy; it shows strong Bysantine
J. -I influence. The grand pnnces from the early 15th cen-
^^^ tury struck curious little wlver pieces. The coinage was
modernized by Peter the Great, who introduced a regular gold
coinaee. The large silver and copper coins of his successors are very
plentiful Nicholas I. (1825-1855) introduced a platinum coinage
of about two-fifths the value of gold.
The Christian coinages of the northern Balkan States are of great
interest. They are chiefly ulver grossi, showing a mixture of
Bysantine and Venetian influences. The Bulgarians had
a regular silver coinage from Aden I. (i 186-1 196) to
Tohn Sismana (1371-1395). The Servian coinage lasts
from Vladtslas I. (1334-1240) to the middle of the 15th century.
There is also a coinage of the Bans of Bosnia (late 13th to 15th
century). The modem coinage of the Balkan States is of interest
only as a revival. The independent city of Ragusa is remarkable for
the bold style of its early copper (13th century, inspired by Roman
models of the 4th century) and tne richness and variety of its
later issues.
There is a most interestiag class of coins struck during the
middle ages within the limits of the present Turkish empire,
the money of the crusaders and other Latin princes
of the East. The multitude of states thus designated
have been classed by Schlumberger, the authority on
the subject, in the following order, the chief divisions of which
arc here given: First group, principalities of Syria and Palestine,
counts of Edessa, princes of Antioch, kings of Jerusalem, coimls of
Tripoli^ fiefs of Jerusalem, crusaders who struck imitations of
Arab coins, kings of Cyprus, lords of Rhodes, grand-roasters of the
order of St John at Rhodes, to which may be added the later
grand-masters at Malta; second group, Latin emperors of
Constantinople, Prankish princes and lords of Greece and' the
Archipelago whose power was due to the crusade of 1204, such
as the princes of Achaia, the dukes of Athens, Neapolitan kings
who struck money for their Eastern possessions, Latin lords
of the Archipelago, the Genoese at Chios, the Gattilusi at
Mytilcne, the Genoese colonics, the Venetian colonies, the
Turkoman emirs of western Asia Minor who struck Latin coins.
The most important currencies are the billon and copper of the
princes of Antioch (Bobemund I., 1098, to Bohemund IV.,
1 201-1232) and the kings of Jerusalem (Baldwin IL, 11x8, to
Conrad, 1243), the silver and copper of the counts of Tripoli
( 1 2th and 13th centuries) and the gold imitations of Arab din&rs,
the currency in that metal of the crusaders of Palestine. These
Bisantn Sarracenali, or Saracen bezants, arc at first imitations
of Fatimite dinars, known to have been struck by Venetian
moneycrs at Acre, and probably at Tyre and Tripoli also. After
these coins had been current for neariy a century and a half they
were forbidden on account of their Mahommedan aspect by
Pope Innocent IV. The Venetians then issued gold and silver
coins with the same aspect but with Christian inscriptions.
The kings of Cyprus issued a really good coinage in the three
metals and in billon from Guy dc Lusignan (1192) to Catherina
Cornaro; from 1489 to 1571 the Venetians issued coins for the
island. The coinage of the order of St John begins on the con-
quest of the island of Rhodes (1309) and the suppression of the
Templars; the earliest coins known are of Foulques de Villaret
<i305-i3i9), and th^ last of the Rhodian series are of Villicrs
de risle-Adam, the gallant defender of the island who was
forced to capitulate to the Turks and sail for a new home in 1522.
"The coinage b of fine gold, silver, billon and copper. On the
establishment of the order at Malta in 1530 it is resumed there till
the capture of the ishind by the French at the close of the i8th
century; it has little interest except as showing the wealth of
the order. The other currcndes of the crusaders, notwithstanding
their great historical interest, are far less remarkable numis-
matically; the influence of the denier Umrnois is. however,
noticeable on the coinage of the princes of Achaia (i 245-1364),
And the dukes of Athens (i 225-1308).
Of the money of America little need be said here. Neither the
coinages of the Spanish and Portuguese dependencies, and of the
9£ates which succeeded them, nor those of the English colonies
NUMISMATICS
903
and of the Um'ted States, present much that is worthy of iiote.
In style they all resemble those of the parent countries, but^
originatinginthededineof art, they are inferior in style and work.
They are most remarkable in the south for the abundance of
gold and silver. The chief coin is the dollar. Some coins are of
historical interest, and there are a few rarities, such as the colonial
money of Lord Baltimore struck for Maryland, the pine-tree
coins of Massachusetts, and the hog-money of Bermuda.
IV.— OiiENTAL Coins
Oriental coins may be best classed as ancient Persian, Arab,
modem Persian and Afghan, Indian and Chinese, and other issues
of the far East. The first place is hdd by the money of the old
Persian empire, the Parthlans and the Sassanians. The conquests
of the Arabs introduce a new currency, carried on by the Moslem
inheritors of their empire. The modem Persian and Afghan money,
though of Arab origin, is distinguished by the use of the Persian
language with Arabic. The Indian curzendes, though Greek,
Sanskrit, Arab and Persian in their inscriptions, must be grouped
together on account of their mutual dependence. They rise with
the Bactrian kings, whose Greek types are gradually debased by
the Indo-Scythians and Guptas; these are followed by a group
of currcndes with Sanskrit legends; neit follow the money
of Arab conquerors and the great series of the Pathans of Delhi
and subsidiary dynasties, with Arabic inscriptions; the Inain
series is continued in the currency of the Moguls, who largely
use Persian, and the last series is dosed by local currcndes
mainly with Sanskrit or Arabic legends. The Chinese coinages
form the source and centre of the group of the far East,
which, however, includes certain exceptional issues. The
order throughout is historical, each empire or kingdom bdng
followed by the smaller states into which it broke up, and then
by the larger ones which were formed by the union of these
fragments.
The Persian coinage was probably ori|^nated by Darius I. about
the time that he organircd the empire m satrapies. The regular
taxation thus introduced made a uniform coinage necessary. Avoid-
ing the complex gold system of Croesus, which was intended to
accommodate the Greek dties in commercial relation with Lydia,
Darius chose two weighu, the gold shekel of 8'4 grammes and the
silver drachm of V58 grammes. One gold piece was equal to twenty
silver. The gold coin was called the daric. the silver the siglos.
The metal was voy pure, especially that of the daric. Thus not
only were the Lydian gold and silver coins of inferior weight thrown
out of circulation, but the Persian gold, from its purity, became
dominant, and was the chief gold currency of the andent world so
long as the empire lasted. The issuing of gold was a royal pre-
rogative. Silver money was coined not only by the king but in the
provinces by satraps, who used local types, and by tributary states.
The following classes must be distinguished: (i) regal, (2) satrapal.
(3) of tribuury states. The art of Persian coins varies according
to the locality, from the beautiful purely Greek work of the west coast
of Asia Minor to the more formal style of Cilicia and the thoroughly
hieratic stiffness of Phoenicia and Persia.
The regal coinage is of darics (PI. IV. fig. 2) and subdivisions in gold
and of sigli and subdivisions in silver. The obverse type is the king
as an archer, the reverse an irregular oblong incuse. The darics show
differences of style, and must extend through the whole period of the
empire. The sigli no doubt run parallel with them*. Both these
denominations are uninscribcd.
The satrapal coinage is very important and interesting. It
belongs mainly to Cilicia. The most remarkable series is that with
a bearded head wearing a tiara, with various reverses, struck appar-
ently at Colophon, Cvzicus and Lampsacus, and in one instance
bearing the name of tne satrap Phamabazus, but usually the word
" king ' in Greek. The coin of Colophon shows a splendid portrait,
one (» the finest instances of Ionian work. It probably represents
Phamabazus (sec PI. IV. fig. i). Of other satrapal issues those of
Datames, of Tiribazus and Cilician issues, struck .at Tarsus, are
specially noteworthy. Their inscriptions are Aramaic.
The coinages of the tributary states have been in part noticed in
their geographical order.
After the fall of the empire, the generals and satrafM such as
Mazaeus who governed Alexander's newly-acquired dominions issued
coins from various mints, especially Babyloq. The gold coins were
double darics of the same types as their single predecessors. The
silver coins were mainly modelled on the coins which Mazaeus had
previously issued in Cilicia with the types of Baal-Taro and Lion.
Some of them may have been issued as far East as Bactria and North
West India. These are followed by the first native coinage, in-
scribed below under India.
904
NUMISMATICS
The conquest of Alexander did not whoHy destroy the independ-
ence of Persia. Within leas than a century the warlike Paitnians,
once subjects of Persia, revolted (249-348 B.C.) against
Parthiamt, ^^ Seleucids and formed a kingdom which speedily
became an empire, ultimately the one successful rival of Rome.
Their money b Greek in standard and inscriptions, as well as
in the origin of types. The coins, are silver, following the Attic
weight, the chief piece being the drachm, though the tetradrachm is
not inlrequent; there are also bronze coins, but none in gold are
known. The drachm has the head of the king on the obverse,
diademed or with a regal head-dress, and on the reverse the founder
Arsaces seated, holding a strung bow, the later tetradrachms vaxving
this uniformity. Every king is styled Arsaces, to which many oi the
later sovereigns add their proper names. The inscriptions are
usually Ions, reaching a climax in such as BAl^ARftS BASIAEftN
MErAAO? AP£AKOY AKAIOY Eni«AN0Y2 OEOY EYIIA-
TOPOS «IA£AAHN02 of Mithradates III. (^7-54 B.C.; see PI. IV.
fig. 4). where we see the double influence of Persian and Selcudd styles
and the desire to conciliate the Greek cities. Very noticeable are the
coins which bear the portraits of Phraataces (3 B.C.-A.D.4) and his
mother, the Italian slave Musa. with the title queen (6EA£
OYPANIAS MOYZHS BASIAIS2HS). The Ust o7 the P^hian
coins are those attributed to Artavasdes (c. a.o. 227).
The coinage of Persis, beeinning in the second half of the 3rd
century B.C., consists of suver tetradrachms and drachms; the
earliest have fine portraits of the kings, but the style
*''"*'• rapidly degenerates. The prevailing reverse type is the
Persian iire-altar.
The dynasts <A Characene, on the lower Tigris, issued coins (silver,
bronze and base metal) from the time of the founder, Hyspaosines
(c. 124 B.C.), down to the 2nd century a.d. The obverses
CBarsosM. Qf jj^g tetradrachms have portraits of the kings; the
usual reverse type is a seated Heracles.
The Persian line of the Sassanians arose about A.D. 220, and
wrested the empire from the Parthians in 226-227, under the leader-
ship of Ardashir or Artaxerxes. This dynasty issued a
national and thus Oriental coinage in gold and silver.
The denominations follow the Roman system, and there
are but two coins, equivalent to the aureus or solidus and the denarius.
The obverse has the kind's bust, usually wearing a very large and
elaborate head-dress, vaned with each sovereign, and the reverse the
sacred fire-altar (see PI. IV. fig. 3) ordinarily iUnked by the king and
a priest. The attachment which Ardashir, the founder, bore to Zoro-
astrianism established this national reverse type, which endured
through the four hundred years of the sovereignty ci his line to
A.D. 652. The inscriptions are Pahlavi.
The Arab coinage forms the- most important Oriental ^up. It
has a duration 01 twelve centuries ana a half, and at its widest
Cmn hmi0 Kcographical extension was coined from Morocco to the
GMUpnaua, borders ©f China. When the Arabs made their great con-
quests money became a necessity. They first afl opted in the
East imitations of the current Persian silver pi*> i-^ of tb:- list
Sassanians, but in Syria and Palestine of the Byzai.t'me ccpjicr. in
Africa of the gold of the same currency. Of thea ■ iriy corns ihe
Sassanian imitations are very curious with Pahlav! ; -cnptions and
shorter ones in Arabic (Cunc). The regular coin .c wiih pur^jly
Moslem inscriptions begins with the issue of a silver -in n r hi : ih,
in 40 A.H. (a.d. 660), by the caliph 'AH; aftersubsectu> i 1 . -i us
to replace the Sassanian currency, the orthodox mir" > 1 v lly
established, in 76 A.H. (a.d. 695), by Abdalmalik. '] ! he
denominations and the weight of the gold are plai of
Byzantine influence. There were three coins. Th >ld
(Pi. IV. fig. 6) took its name from the aureus or de. ^li.lu_, of
which the solidus must have been held to be the representative, for
the weight of the Arab coin(about 4-3 grammes)is dearivdcrived from
the Byzantine gold piece. The dirhem of silver (see PI. IV. fie. 7) is
in name a revival of the Greek drachm; it weighs at most about 3
grammes. The copper piece is the fcls, taking its name from the
follis of the Greek empire. Commercially the gold easily exchanged,
and the silver soon passed as the double of the Carolingian denier.
For long these were the only coins issued, except, and this but rarely,
half and quarter dinars. There are properly no types. There was
indeed an attempt in the earlv Byzantino-Arab money to re(>rcsent
the caliph, and in the course of ages we shall observe some deviations
from the general practice of Islam, particularly in the coinage of the
atabegs and in Mahommedan coinages not of the Arab group, the
modem Persian and that of the Moguls of Delhi. The inscriptions
are uniformly religious, save in some Tatar coinages and that of the
Turks. In general the coins are for the first five centuries of their
issue remarkably uniform in fabric and general appearance. They
are always flat and generally thin. The whole of both sides of the
coins b occupied by inscriptions in the formal Cufic character
usually arranged horizontally in the area and in a single or double
band around. Towards the fall of the caliphate a new type of coin
begins, mainly differing in the greater size of the pieces. There are
new multiples of the dinSr and ultimately of the dirhem, and the
silver pieces frequently have their inscriptions within and around a
square, a form also used for gold. The Cufic character becomes
highly ornamental, and speedily gives way to the flcxuous naskhi of
modem writing. The inscriptions are religious, with the addition
IQRIENTAL
of the year by the era of the Flight (a.d. 622), the month sometinKS
being added, and the mint occurs uniformly on silver and copper, but
does not appear on the gold until after the fall of the <JiDa>>^
dynasty. Subsequently the ofiicial name cA the caliph occurs. Tlie
religious part of the inscriptions is various, the most usual formube
being the profession of the Moslem faith : " There b no deity but
God; Mahomet is the apostle of God," to which the Shi'ites or
followers of 'Ali in Persia and Africa add " *Ali is the friend of God."
The Moorish coins give long formulae and religious dtatkans and
ejaculations, and they, like the money of the Patluns of Delhi of
the Indian class, have occasionally admonitions urging or sugge^tin;
the purer use of wealth. As Arab and other dynasties arose from
the dismemberment of the caliphate, the names of kings occur, but
for centuries they continued to respect the authority of their re-
lieious chief by coining in his name, even in the case of the shadcw
AbbcLsids of E^gypt, adfding their own names even when at war vitii
the caliph, as though they were mere provincial governors. After xhe
fall of the caliphate some new denominations came in, chkflv 1^
heavier weight than the dirhem and diiilr, but the influence of the
commercial states of Italy made the later Egyptian Mamelukes, the
Turks and the later Moors adopt the gold sequin. In more modem
times the dollar found its way into the Modem coinage of the states
bordering on the Mediterranean* It can be readily seen that Arab
coins have no art in the same sense as those of tne Greeks. The
beautiful inscriptions and the arabesque devices of the fneoes of xbe
close of the middle ages have, however, a dbtinct artistic merit.
The Omayyad coins owe their only historical value to the e%ndc«ce
which the silver affords of the extent of the empire at diffexest
times. The first separatbn of that empire dates from ^,^_
.1 Lt r .ufTj _. t-.ui^u lJj :* i*-t ^^ OM^J>i^>
j>ital Bagdad)
caliphate of the West with its capital at Cordova. ^ The ^***"**^
Abbftsid money has the same interest as that which it succeeded, bot
its information is fuller. Towards the fall of the line (which ende^t at
Bagdid in 1258) it becomes very handsome in the great coins, which
are multiples of the dinSr (see PI. IV. fig. 10). The Spanish Omawadi
(756-1031) struck silver admost exclusively. Their rise was fotio^cd
by that <^ various lesser lines — the Idrisites (788-985, silver) ar^
Aghlabites (800^-909, gold chiefly) in western Africa, the Beni Tui:^^
(868-905, gold), and, after a short interval, the Ikhshidids (93$-9«.
gold), both of Turkish orinn, in Egypt. Meanwhile a new caliphate
arose (ooo) in wcstem Africa which subdued Egypt (969 K the
Fatimid of the line of *Ali, and for a while the allegiance oi the
Moslems was divided between three rival lines, the Oma>"\-ad5 oi
Spain, the Fatimids of Africa, and the Abbasids of Bagdad. The
Fatimids introduced a new type of dln^r, ^kith the inscriptions in
concentric circles, and struck little but gold. In the interim the
Persians, who had long exercised a growing influence at the court of
Bagdad, revived their power in a succession of dynasties whkh ic-
knowlcdgcd the supremacy of the caliphate of Bagdad, but »t.-^
virtually independent. These were the Tahirids (820-872), Safl"ark!^
(8^- .^-> <:'^rnirHs (874-999), ZiySrids (928-1042), and BuwcA^iki,
or 5)1 who mostly struck siKxr, but the last goki ol^o.
As ad supjp4anted the Arabs, so they were in tum
fo : I . . : ■ to the Turks. The Charnevids formed a po'ipcrf J
ki iJoTi in Afj^l.anistan (962-1186, gold and silver), and the
Se ijks »4ablish(.i an empire (gold), which divided into scattJ
ki ;f{Qins, ocritpving the best port of the East (1037-1 104). Of ttsx
d> j-tic^ ibe Si'liuks of RQm or Asia Minor (1077-1300) first stnkf*
m^ ''-rn ty^ of Arab coinage (silver, PI. IV. fig. 9).
lite SeliQk dominions separated into many '^raall states, tbr
central ruled by atabe^ or generals (i2th-i3th cctit.), and tbe
umilar Turkoman Urtukis (1101-1312). Theatabcg money and that
of the Turks of the house of Urtuk are mainly large copCRrr pier«
bearing on one side a figure borrowed from Greek, Roman, Byzaot.Pf
and other sources. They form a most remarkable innovation (PI IV.
fig. 1 1 ). In the same age thc^rcat but short-lived empire of Khwamra
(Khiva, 1150-1231) arose in the far East. The nrst caliphatr tL>
disappear was that of Spain, which broke up (c. 1031) into spvi3
dvnastics, some claiming the prerogative of the c^iphates. TSr?
chiefly struck base silver (billon) coins. The Christian king^ P^'''
ally overthrew most of these lines. In the meantime \-ariovs Bcrtet
families had gained power in wcstem Africa and the Almocavicks ind
the Almoha(Ms crossed the straits and restored the Moslem po*t=T =
Spain. They struck gold money of fine work, and that of the brrr
Muwabbids is remarkable for its size and thinness. At the fall 0/ '^
Muwabbids the only powerful kingdom remaining was the .\r.
house of Granada (Nasrids), which, supportod by the B^bcrv ^
Africa, lingered on until the days of Ferdinand and Isabella (Us^'
The FStimite dynasty was supplanted by the Kurdish line oi '^
Ayyubites, the family of Saladin. who from 1169 to 1750 n^-
Egypt, Syria and Mesopotamia, with a number of vassal states, "rof
governed by princes of their own family, some by the older line* ci ' Sf
atabeg class which they allowed to survive. In Eg^rpt the A>->--^*
coinage is of gold, elsewhere of silver and Vopper. The caliphatr H
Bagdad, whicn latterly was almost limited to that town, thocci ^
abundant heavy gold coinage at this very time indicates great wn':^
was overthrown by the new power of the Mosgcds (a.o. 1^58 .. wS^
established a group of empires and kingdoms, comprisiag the wbde
ORIENTAL)
NUMISMATICS
905
Eastern world eastward of the Euphiatea and thence extending
northward and reaching into Europe. The most important ot these
sutes for their money are that of tbe Mongols of Persia (1356-1^49),
founded by Hulagu. the conqueror of Bagoid, and that of the khans
of the Golden Horde (1234-1503). Both struck silver, but there is
also cold coinage of the Mongob of Persia, who more frequently use
the Moneol character for their names and titles than is done under the
kindred line. The power of the Mongols was held in check by the
Mameluke kings of c^pt and Syria, slave-princes of two dynasties,
the Babri (1250-1390) and the Burji (1382-1517), who struck money
in the three metau. The Mongol fmwer wanuea, but was revived by
Timur (Tamerlane), who during his rule (1369-1405) recovered ail
that had been lost. He and his successors (to 1500) struck silver,
copper, and brass money (see PI. IV. fig. 13). The Ottoman Turks,
whose power had been gradually growing from 1299 onwards, after a
desperate struggle with TimQr (defeat of Bayezid I. at Angora in
1403), gradually absorbed the whole Mahommedan world west of the
Tigris, except only Morocco, where they had but a momentary
dominion. Constantinople fell to them in 1453, Syria. Egypt and
Arabia in 1^17. Their money of sold, silver, ba^ metal aiuj oronse
is devoid of historical interest. In Tunis and Morocco a group of
Berber lines long maintained themselves, but at length only one
survived, that of the sharifs of Morocco, claiming Arab descent, now
ruling as the sole independent Moslem dynasty of northern Africa.
Its recent coinage is singulariy barbarous. It may be remarked that
Tunis and Egypt have long coined Turkish money in their own
mints, the more western state latteriy adding the name of its here-
ditary prince to that of the sultan.
The coins of the shahs of Persia have their origin with IsmS'Tl
(1502). They are struck in the three metals, and are remarkable
-^ . for the elegance of their inscriptions, sometimes in flowing
nnu. Arabic, sometimes in the still more flexuous native char-
acter (see PI. IV. fig. 12). The inscriptions are at first Arabic ; after a
time the religious formulae are in this language and the royal legend in
Persbn. usually as a poetical distich. The Persian series is aho re-
markable for the autonomous issues of its cities in copper, the obverse
bearing some type, usualljr an animal. The coins of the Afghan amirs
form a class resembline in inscriptions those of the Persians, and
equally using Persian disticlu. Tney commence with Ahmad Sh2h
Durr5ni (i747)-
The first native Indian coinage consists of primitive pieces (the
eaHicst perhaps of the 4th century B.C.) of silver and copper
with countermarks (known as " punch-marked " coins).
iaau. Foreign ccins (Persian and Athenian) circulated in the
country from the 5th century; the silver coinage of Sophy tcs, a con-
temporary of Alexander the Great, shows Athenian mfuience; and
there are not a few coins of Indian provenance showing direct imita-
tion or modification of Athenian types (as the substitution of an eagle
for the owl). Alexander himself is represented by a coinage of
square bronze pieces. Certain tetradrachms and diobols with the
name of Alexander and types: head of Zeus and eagle, probably
belong to the end of the 4th century. But the coinage which was to
have most effect on that of India was the Bactrian (see also under
Bactria). This is at first a pure Greek coinage, of fine style, begin-
ning with Diodotus (gold, silver, bronze), who revolted from Antiocnus
H.. c. 250 B.C. For about a century the art of these coins, at least
as rc^rds portraiture, ranks very high for realism and vigour.
The Bactrian rulers seem first to have made incursions into the
Kabul valley and north India about 200 B.C., the first Indian con-
quests being perhaps mi^ci by Euthydcmus and Demetrius. Of the
latter there exists a br n^c coin with the rcRubr Grtek types, but
of the characteristic s(iu-Te Indlcin rorm, with a translation on the
reverse into Kharosh^i^ cliLiractcra of the tib verse Greek inscription.
Some of the coins of 1 uctrccdinE kin^^ arc ^-ery remarkable, as the
tetradrachms of Antin - -Fi?i=i r-^x: PI. IV* (is- 5). *ith a portrait re-
minding us of good Ital ■ 's and the uniiiuc ao-stater cold piece
of Eucratides (the larg : ^olfl ccrin kr.own to us, although its
genuineness has been (] !'. Thr- miflirr from about 160 B.C.
becomes more and more in[]..in, the C- ;r being definitely
transferred south of the Para nan 1:^ms ^ id half of the 2nd
century. The Attic standanf which I : used for the silver
graduall]^ gave way to the Pcr^art. jj.^ ^Jnv^jk princes went on
reigning in India to about 20 B.C.; their chronology is very obscure.
During the last two centuries B.C. several other coinages existed in
north India, (i) The Scythic Sacae or ^kas invaded Bactria and
then India: the earliest &ka coinage of north India (that of Maues
in the Punjab, c. 120 B.C.) shows Parthian influence] so do the
slightly later coins of Vonones and others who reigned in Kandahar
and Seistan. (2) Another large and varied group of coins consists
of the issues of native states, some of which go back to before 200 B.C.
Df these we may note the coins of Eran (Sagar district) showing the
gradual development of the punch-marked coin into the coin with a
type, made up of a collection of such punch-symbols struck from one
iie ; and the coins of Taxila, the earliest of which are struck with a
:yp>c on one side only. From these were imitated the copper coins
>f the Greeks, Pantaleon and Agathocles (c. 190 B.C.), which again
n spired the later coins of Taxila with t>'pes on both sides. — In the
irst century of our era the Indo- Parthian dynasty of (3ondophares
Ounrjophorus of the Apocryphal Acts of St Thomas) reigned in
Candahar and Seistan and in India, and is represented by coins.
About 25 B.C. the Kushanas (as the Yue<hi were called, after their
most important tribe) conquered the remains of the Greek kingdom
in the Kabul valley, and in the 1st century of our era they subdued
the Punjab and the territory as far as the Jumna. The well-known
gold coinage of the Kushanas (due probably to the influx of Roman
gold into India) is begun by Hima Kadphises (c. a.d. 30-78; see
PI. IV. fig. 14). The best-known kin^s are Kanishka, Huvishka and
Vasudeva. The types are interesting, combining deities of the
Greeks, Scythians, the Avesta and the Vedas and Buddha. The
Greek inscriptions become meaningless after c. a.d. 180. The coinage
in eold (of Roman we^ht) and copper, however, continues probably
as late as a.d. 425 in the Kabul valley and the Punjab. Of other
dynasties contemporary with the Kushanas, the most unportant are:
(1.) The Andhras, a south Indian power, with territory extending across
the peninsula from the Kistna and Godavari deltas to Kolhapuf.
The ccnns are chiefly of lead, but copper and silver are also known,
(ii.) the satraps of Sur&shtra and Ntalwa. whose coinage (chiefly of
silver) is copied from the nalf-drachms of the Greek princes of the
Punjab; it lasts until the end of the 4th century, (iii.) Early in
the 4th century the important imperial Gupta coinage begins with
Chandragupta, and continues unbroken to the death ofSkandagupta.
c. A.D. 480. The empire at its greatest extent comprised the whofe of
north India, except the Punjab. The earliest gold coinage was de-
rived from that 01 the Kushanas (see PI. IV. fig. 15) ; later there was
silver derived from the coinage oi the satraps; the copper is more
original in style. After c. a.d. 480 the empire broke up into various
dynasties which lasted until a.d. 606. The Great Kushanas had been
succeeded in Gandh&ra (Kabul valley and Punjab) by the Kid&ra
Kushanas, and these, c. 465-470, were conquerra by the HQoas (a
branch of the Ephthalites or White Huns). The HOna coinage
consists almost entirely of imitations of Sassanian, Kushana or
Gupta coins. Their power probably broke up c. a.d. ^44. Of other
ancient and medie\ral non-Mahommedan coinages in India the
following may be mentioned: (i) Various scries of dynasties reign-
ing in Kanauj and Delhi, from the 7th to the 12th centunr. (2)
Kashmir — coinage beginning probably as early as Kanishka and
continuing with the same types (obverse, kin^ standing, reverse,
goddess seated) until the Mahomnucdan coinage in the 13th century.
The coins are ^nery rude; but the succes«on otthe kings from c, a.d.
850 is fairly certain. (3) Later Sh&hi coinage of Gandhara, especially
the " bull and horseman " coins {c. a.d. 860-9^). (4) P&odya> in the
extreme south : this district used first the early punch-marked coins,
then coins with a type on one side only, and later double-type coins;
these are earlier than c. a.d. 300. There is a later gold ccnnage (type,
fish) from the 7th to loth century. (5) Cola: an earlier cmnage,
before c. A.D. 1022, with the Cola emblem, a ti^cr; the later coinage
(obverse, king standing, reverse, king seated) influenced the coinag;e
over most of south India. (6) Ceylon: a coinage of the raias imi-
tated from the Cola coins, from a.d. 1153 to 1296. (7) Ctialukya
coinage, chiefly of gold, in west Deccan and in Pallava country
between the Kistna and Ckxlavari; the emblem is a boar. They
range from the 7th to the nth century. (8) Vijayanagar: this
power preserved the old character of the coinage south of the Kistna
long after the Mahommedan conquest had transformed the coinage
north of that boundary. The later coinage of South India is too
obscure to be dealt with here.
The Arabs in the first days of conquest had subdued Sind and
founded an independent state on the banks of the Indus, which was
ruled by them for nearly two centuries from 711 ; but it is hard to
subdue India from this direction, and the strangers decaved and
disappeared. The way into India was first really openea by the
campaigns of Mahmud of Ghazni (1001-1024) who annexed the
Punjab and gave a raja to Gujarat. The Pathan kings came of the
Ghuri stock which rose on the ruins of the empire of Chazni (i 186).
Mohammad ibn S&m (d. 1206) made Delhi his capital, and here he
and his successors, Pathans or slave-kings, ruled in great splendour
as the first exclusively Mahommedan Indian dynasty, latterly
rivalled by a line of Pathans of Bengal. Of the Pathans of Delhi
( 1 206-1 554) we have an abundant coinage, the principal pieces
being the gold mohur of about 168 grains and the silver rupee of
about the same weight, besides many pieces of bronze, and at one
period of base metal. The coins are large and thick, with the pro-
fession of Islam or the style of the caliph on one side, on the other the
nameand titlesof the reigning Idng. Mohammad ibnTu|hlak(i324>
I35it PI. IV. fig. 8) struck coins with a great variety of inscriptions,
some in the name of the shadowy ' AbbSsid caliphs of Egypt, whose
successors were for a time similariy honoured by later sovereigns.
Towards the close of the rule of the Pathans several dynasties arose
(about 1400) in central and southern India and struck similar
money, the kings of Gujarat, of M&lw& and the Bahmanids of the
Deccan (i 347-1 526). The Pathan lines closed with Sher Shfih, an
Afghan, the last ruler of Bengal (d. 1539). Babar, the Turki, of the
family of Timur, seeking a kingdom, adventured (1525) on the
conquest of Hindustan; and after long wars with Sh5r Shah, carried
on by B&bar's son HumftyQn, the famous Sh3h Akbar, grandson of
the invader, was at length peaceably settled on the throne of Delhi,
and he and his successors, the so-called Moguk of Delhi, practically
subdued the whole of India. They retained the existingrtandard, but
used the Arabic and Persian languages like the shahs of Persia. Akbar
( 1 556-i6o5)is8ued a splendkl coinage in gold and silver(Pl. IV. fig. 16},
9o6
NUMISMATICS
far more elenint than that of the Pathans, but the money of hit ion,
JahSngir (1605-1628} is still more remarkable. He iMuea the famous
iodia<^ mohurs and rupees, as well as those astonishing Bacchanalian
mohurs on which he is represented holding the wine-cup (see PI. IV.
fig. 17). Scarcely less strange is the money of the beautiful queen
NQr-Jahin. Under ShSh JflhSn (1628-1659) there is a visible fallinsr
away in the merit of the coins, and an ordinary modem style is reached
in the reign of Aurungzib (16^9-1707). To the dose of the rule of
Sh&h *Alain, the last Mogul who actually reigned (1750-1806), gold
and silver money is abundant. Much of the money 01 the East India
Company is closely imitated from this late Mogul coinage. Latterly,
native states coin with Arabic and also with Sanskrit inscriptions.
The most important are the kings of Oudh, the nizams of the Deccan.
and the kings of Mysore, besides the maharajas of Indore and the
kings of Nepal. The coinage of Tipu SultSn (Tippu S&hib) is ex-
tremely curious from his innovations in the calendar. Besides these
there are a multitude of small states. Most of the Indian princes ac-
knowledged the emperor of Delhi, but some struck independently.
At last the English coinaf^ of India has swept away ncariy all these
moneys, though some native states still issue their own.
We must be content with the briefest summary of the strange
coinages of China and the Further East.
The money of China, more certainly than the square punch-
marked coinage of India, may^ claim an origin independent of the
^^ Lydian and Greek issues. Although '* money " is men-
tioned in Chinese literary sources as having been in use
from a very early period (jrd millennium b.c.) it is probable that
before the 7th century B.C. it consisted either of uncoined metal or
of other media, such as silk, tortoise-shell, cowries. The shell-
currency indeed played a very important part in China even in later
times. It was suppressed in 335 B.C., but the usurper Wang Mang,
whose rtign (a.d. 9-23) seiarates the two Han dynasties, made an
abortive attempt to revive it. The earliest metal currency of which
specimens are extant is, like nearly all subsequent Chinese money, of
cast bronze. The gold and silver currency, which appeared sporadic-
ally, can never have been of much importance; a ««», or cubic inch,
of gold, representing currency of Han times, is preserved in the Paris
collection. The bronxe coins fall into two main classes. The eariier
(as a rule) have the shape of implements, such as spades, knives,
&c. ; the later are the well-known round " cash " with a square
hole in the centre (sec PI. IV. figs. 18, 19). They are carried strung
together, and their value is minute. From the earliest knife-money
should be distinguished that of Wang Mang; his coins are short and
thick, and the pMain ring at the end of the handle is replaced by a
f'ece resembling in shape a cash with ring and sauare central hole,
he older knife-currency practically came to an end with the founda-
tion of the Ts'in dynasty in 221 B.C., though it doubtless lingered on
in remote districts. With this dynasty appears the first organized
state mintage. Nevertheless the economic history of Chinese coinage
continues to be a melancholy record of doubtful financial expedients,
debasement and forgery. The value of the coins was supposed to
depend on their weight; but the weight inscribed on them was by
no means always the true one. The bronze coinage from the reform
of Wu-ti in 138 B.C. down to A.D. 622 is fairiy uniform ; it is chiefly
cash of 5 chu (see PI. IV. fig. 18). Iron money was issued at various
periods. The disturbance of the coinage by the usurper Wang Mang
has already been noted. The modem coinage may be said in a sense
to date from the introduction of the K'ai yuan pattern of 7) chu
under the Tang dynasty in A.D. 622. On the reverse of this coin was
a mark (supposea to ha\-e been made by the empress Wen-teh in
touching with her nail the wax model submitted to het) which has been
much copied on coins of other countries in the Far East (lee PI. IV.
fig- 19)' From this time to the present there has been little change.
Paper-money was introduced in the 9th century. The modem cash
usually bears on the obverse the name of the reign and the words
rung pao (" current money ")• on the revene the name of the mint.
The coina^ under the present (Manchu) dynasty has been regular,
except dunn^ the Taiping rebellion, when some iron coins and copper
tokens were issued, owing to the failure of the copper supply. Cold
and silver have not been issued by the government until quite
recent times (lee below), with one or two unimportant exceptions,
but circulate by weight. Imitations of Spanish and Mexican dollars,
bearing numerous punch-marks placed on them by successive owners,
are common. The most interesting Chinese coins are those of small
rival dynasties and of rebels, the study of which is important for the
elucidation of the obscurities of the history of the country. The
Chinese medals are talismans, usually larger than coins, and bear both
subjects and inscriptions. They are distributed by Taoist and
Buddhist priests of temples. The money of Korea and Annam is
similar to that of China, and Chinese coins were long the currency
of Java, which more recently has issued the money of its Mahom-
medan pnnces.
The empire of Japan shows in its coinage that Chinese source
modified by the influence of native independence which marks all its
Jaoaa. institutions. The use of a metallic currency probably
'^ began in the 5th century of our era. In character the
coins show strong Chinese influence. Amongst the earliest are rude
stiver pieces, disks of somewhat irregular shape, with a central hole,
attributed to the early 5th century: and there arc also copper coins
Of similar character dating from the end of the 7th century. A
[PRESEKT DAY COINS
regular copper coinage, Chinese in pattern, began vfah the espkaka-
tion of the copper mines in A.D. 708. There was a adver collide ia
A.D. 760, and a gradually deteriorating copper cnnracy was issoed at
various dates down to a.o. 958. The twelve varieties issued in these
two and a half centuries are known as the twelve anuque sen (are
PI. IV. fi(^ 20). No copper was issued by the eovcnunent for six
hundred years after this date; but coins oc the dd patterns in lead
or tin circulated down to 1302. The lack of oopper was sappUed by
the importation and imitation of Chinese cash, tlieaeunitatioasvefe
due to the great nobles, who made them on their own domains. At
the end of the i6th century {Ten^ko period) a regular cunency of
gold, nlver and copper, and also iron was instituted, which tasted,
with modifications, down to recent times (ifoa coins with wa-v^
pattern reverse being cast as late as i860). There is a billon cooiafe
of bean-shaped pieces issued at various dates from 1601-1S59.
Silver also was frequently issued on the same pattern as the o^jper
coinage; but the greater part of it drculated in iagou or f^tn.
The small obk>ng pieces known as ichi-bu and ni-ba belocq; to the
19th century (not issued after 1868). Large plates of silver, like the
gold coins to be mentioned immediately, were issued in the itAh
century by aotae provinces. Round coins of gold of the Chinese shape
were rarely cast (one in a.o. 760, another in a.d. iSf99). But frcsn
the i6th century to modem times gold circulated ciueAy in lan^
oblong plates, with rounded angles, varying from over 6) to | in. m
length. These are called o-ban (" large pute " of 10 ryo), io^ox
(" amall plate " of i m>; tee PI. IV. fig. 21). &c. They bQce\-arious
countermarks, induoing the mikado s crest, nunt-assayer's test-
marks, &c; some bear the attestations merely written in ink (a
device of the imperial officials, who charged fees lor the attestations^
and were not sorry that they should be easily obliterated). Sma'J
Sold oblong pieces were cast at various times from 1601-1856 (PL IV.
g. 22). A^Europeansyatemof currency, with coins in gold ( 20 yea
and under), silver (l yen and under), nickel (5 sen) and copper (2 sen
and under), was adopted in 1870. Japan has also '* picture sen "
(E-sen) of a magical and religious character like the temple medaJa
already noticed under Chinau
, Korea has had a copper coinage of Chinese style from the befinnn^
of the twelfth century durii^ iu intervals of independence; bet
its coins do not become common until 1790. During
the 19th century it issued an extensive copper coinage
from various mints.
The earliest coins of Annam were imitatiotts of Chinese coins, but
since the loth centuiy its kings have issued a legular ooiBage
bearing their regnal titles as in China. Since iftso round ^~^^^_
and oblong silver coins have been struck, the tad and its '^^■^-
subdivisions. Peculiar to Annam are the fine series of medab in
gold, silver and copper struck rince 1841 by iu kings for presentation
puriMses, bearing lucky inscriptions, quotations Tram the f^if»tTf
of silwrwire
The peculiar forms of primitive currency characteristic of oertaia
parts of Further India and the Malay Peiunsula can only be barely
mentioned here. Burma provides nlver-money in the ,>
shape of snail-shells (a relic of a still more primitive shell- ^,3^
currency).^ The earlier Siamese ticals are derived from a J!3^^
ring of nlver wire doubled up and oountenaailnd. j~^^*
From Pahang come very curious tin " hat coins,*' shaped
like a hollow square pyramid, truncated, with broad, aq
projecting from its haw. The peoples of the Indian (
Persian-Gulf used in the i6th and I7tn centuries
called larins which in Ceylon took the diape of i
V. Coins Of the Pscsent Day
United Kingdom. — ^The standard of gold and silver faas re-
mained unchanged for over two himdred years, and until 1887
the denominations were practically the same as instituted at
the great recoinage of 18x6. The substitution of a bioiiae far
a copper currency had already taken place in i860. On ihe
occasion of Quota. Victoria's Jubilee in 1887 it was dctcraiiiKd
to mark the event by a new coinage oi gc4d and silver, and to
revise the royal portrait. Two new denominations of five and
two pounds were added to the gold series, and the double fians
to the silver. For the re-
verse type of all the gold
and of the five-shilling
piece, Pistrucd's design of
St George and the Dragon
was used, and former types
of Anne and George IV.
were revived for the double
florin, florin, half-crown
and sixpence; that of the
last was, however, soon abandoned. This new coinage &i
not meet with general approval, especially as regar ds the
portrait of the Queen, and in conseauence a third pcnrait vas
Queen Victoria ^ibmae by Brocks
PRESENT DAY COINS]
NUMISMATICS
907
Fic. a. — Sovereign (gold), England :
Kine Edward VII. l&bverse by de
SauUes).
adopted for the gold and silver in 1893, new reverse types were
prepared for the half-crown, florin and shilling, and the issue
of the double florin was discontinued. The portrait of the queen
was the work of the sculptor Thomas Brock, R.A., who was
careful to avoid the defects which had been somewhat severely
criticized in Sir J. Edgar Boehm's design of 1887. The new type
for the half-crown, a spade-shaped shield within the garter,
was also executed by Mr Brock; and those for the florin and
shillmg, three shields placed triangularly, were by Sir Edward
Poynter. In 1895 a new
issue of bronze money
was ordered, when the
queen's bust of 1893 was
adopted, and a slight
alteration made in the
reverse type, the repre-
.sentation of a lighthouse
and a ship, which had
been added to the design
in i860, being eliminated.
The coinage of Edward VII. differed but slightly from that
of Queen Victoria. The denominations were the same; but
on the obverse the head of the king (by G.' W. dc Saulles,
engraver to the Mint) was represented bare, the title " Britarmi-
arum " was changed to " Britannianim Omnium Rex," the reverse
of the florin showed Britannia standing on a ship, and that
of the shilling the royal crest, the lion on a crown, as on (he
so-called " lion-shillings " of 1826.. The designing of the new
coinage of George V. was entrusted to Mr Bertram MackennaL
Prance.—On the establishment of the Third Republic in France
in 1870, the coinage was continued on the same lines as before,
the types only bemg altered. The silver franc of 5 grammes
(78 grains) as ordered in 1793 and confirmed by the Latin
Monetary Union of 1865, which included Belgium, Italy and
Switzerland, and subsequently
in 1868 Greece, has remained
the unit of value. The de-
nominations ordered were, in
gold, the 100, 50 and ao
francs; in silver, the 5, a
and I franc, and 50 and ao
centimes; and bi bronUf
the xo, 5, a and x centime.
The types adopted were those
which had been used previously — thus for the gold that
of a gem'us inscribing the tables of the law, as designed
by Augusthi Dupr6 for the reverse of the constitutional
coinage of Louis XVI.; for the silver and copper the head
of the Republic as executed by Oudin6 for the money of 1848.
Subsequently, in 1871, the type of the 5 francs was changed
for that of Hercules leaning on Liberty and Strength, as made
by Dupr6 for the First Republic. In 1889 the xo francs in gold
was added to the list, having the head of the Republic crowned
with com, the work of Merley for the Republic of 1848; but
only a small number of these coins was struck in that year
and in 1895. No further alteration was made till after 1895,
when, in consequence
of suggestions that
the types should be
modified so as to
mark the Third Rc-
pubUc, the artists
Chaplain, Roty and
Dupuis were com-
missioned to execute
Fic. 4.— Two Francs (silver). France (Roty). "®^ designs— the
first for the gold,
the second for the silver, and the last for the bronze. The
types approved were: for the gold ao francs, the head of
the Republic with a Phrygian cap, and the Gallic cock;
for the silver a and x franc and 50 centimes, the sower
sowing, with the rising sun in the background, and a laurel'
FiG^ 3.— Twenty Francs (gold)t
France (Chaplain).
branch; and for the bronze, the bust of the Republic wearing
a Phrygian cap, and on the reverse Frano) seated amidst clouds,
holding a branch and a flag, and accompanied by a genius.
These coins were not issued simultaneously— the 50 centimes
appearing in X897, and a and x franc and 10, 5, a and x centime
in 1898, and the 20 francs in 1899. In X903 a nickel piece of
as centimes was introduced, since 1904 with a polygonal edge
to facilitate distinction from the silver. The quartering of the
franc is a departure from the strictly decimal system, also adopted
in Italy. These later coins are characteristic of modem French
medallic art, which has a strong tendency to imitate that of
Italy of the i6th century.
Belgium. — Of the other states which formed the Latin
Monetary Union, Belgium had already in 1832 adopted the
French decimal and bimetallic S3rst«m, with the franc as the unit
of value. Her accessbn to the Un^on, therefore, only entailed
a slight modification of type and denominations, which latter
were the same as in France, except that the only gold coin was
the aairancs, the 2$ centimes in silver was not issued, and the
pieces of xo and 5 centimes are now in nickel. The gold and
silver coins have -for types the head of the king and the royal
shield, those in nickel the Belgic lion and mark of value, and those
in bronze the royal monogram and the lion holding the tables
of the constitution. Some of the silver coins have the inscriptions
in Flemish. The nickel coinage introduced in 190a is perforated
in the centre to prevent confusion with silver.
Switzerland. — Like Belgium, Switzerland nad before her
adhesion to the Latin Monetary Union adopted the French
system, with the franc of xoo centimes or rappen as the unit of
value. The denominations in gold and silver were the same as
issued for Belgium, but no gold was struck before X883. The
coins of baser metal were the
ao, xo and 5 centimes in
billon, which metal was in i
1879 changed for the nickel, and /
in copper the a and x centime.
Certain changes of type have
from time to time occurred.
iThe first issue of the ao francs „ ^ « . ....
in X883 shows the head of the Fig. 5.-Tw«n^Centtmc8 (nickel),
RepubUc and the shield of the ^witxcriana
Confederation; but this was changed in 1897 for the head of
Helvetia above a range of mountains, and on the reverse a
wreath with mark of value. On the silver coins from 1874
Helvetia is reprcsonted standing instead of seated, and on the
nickel money of 1879 the shield of the Republic is replaced by
the head of Helvetia. The mark of value and a wrcalh form the
general reverse type of all the silver, nickel and copper coins.
Since x888 a 5-franc piece, similar in type to the ao francs of
X883, has been issued.
Italy. — When Italy joined the Latin Monetary Union in 1865,
she adopted as the unit of her coinage the lira of 100 centesimi,
equal to the franc. The coins were of gold, silver and bronze,
and of the same de-
nominations as those
struck in Belgium
and Switzerland. In
1894 a nickel coinage
of ao centesimi was
ordered. The general
tjrpe for all the coin-
age b the head of the
king and the royal
arms, but on the re-
verse of the copper is the mark of value; and the nickel money
has on the reverse a crown with a wreath. A new nickel piece
of 2$ centesimi indicates a departure from the strictly decimal
system. The coinages of all the small Italian states, including
the Papal, have now passed out of currency.
Greece. — A special stipulation was made, when Greece was
enrolled in the Latin Monetary Union in 1868, that all her money
should be struck at a French mint. The unit of the coinage
Fic. 6.— Two Lire (silver). Italy.
9o8
NUMISMATICS
is the drachm of loo lepU, which, like the lira, is equivalent
to the franc. The denominations are — ^in goid, the loo, 50, ao,
xo and $ drachms; in silver, the $, 2 and i drachm, and 50 and
20 lepta; and in bromCf the xo, 5, a and i lepton. In 1893
nickel was substituted for bronze, and coins of the value of 20,
10 and 5 lepta were issued in this metal. The types of the coins
of Greece are similar to those of Italy. Crete has had since xgoo
a coinage of its own similar to the Greek (silver of 5, 2 drachmae,
X and i drachma; bronze and nickel of 30, xo, 5, 2 lepta and
X Iq>ton).
Germany.— Since 187 x the coinage of the German empire
has been entirely remodelled. By a convention in 1857 between
the states of Germany, north and south, and Austria a general
coinage of a silver standard was established on the basis of the
new pound of 500 grammes as sanctioned by the ZoUverein. The
contracting countries were divided into Uiree sections, North
Germany, South Germany and Austria. From the poxmd of
fine silver of 500 grammes the Northern States struck 30 thalcrs,
Austria 45 florins and the Southern States 52^ florins; their
relation being i North German thaler »x} Austrian florins-
x} South German florins. The free towns of Hamburg, Liibcck
and Bremen did not join the convention. The first reform in
the coinage of the German empire occurred in x 871, when a new
gold money was introduced, which hod for its unit the silver
mark (a money of account) of xoo pfennigs weighing 5*555
grammes. The new gold pieces were of the value of 10 and 20
marks, called crowns and double crowns, and the fineness was
^ pure to iV alloy. This new issue necessitated a readjustment
of the current values of the various silver coinages in circulation.
In 1873 a further step was mode by the introduction of an
entirely new silver coinage throughout the empire, which was
also based on the silver mark, and of a new base metal coinage
in nickel and bronze. The silver coins were the 5, a and i mark
and 50 and 20 pfennigs; those in m'ckel the 10 and 5 pfennigs,
and in bronze the 2 and i pfennig. The silver coins were, like
the gold, 1^ fine, so that 90 marks were struck to the pound of
pure metal. The gold 5 marks was struck in 1877 and 1878,
and the 30 pfennigs in silver was repUced by a coin of the same
value in nickel in 1886. The reverse type for all the coins it
the imperial eagle, but that of the obverse varies; the gold and
silver showing the portrait of the reigning king or prince, but
the mark, and all lesser
denominations, the current
value. An exception was
made in the case of the
coinage of the Free Towns
struck at Hamburg, which
has the arms of the city
instead of a portrait. Each
state retained its full rights
of coinage, and the various
mints throughout the empire with their special marks
are: Berlin, A; Hanover, B; Frankfort, C; Munich, D;
Dresden (removed since 1877 to Miildner-Hutte), E; Stutt-
gart, F; Karlsruhe, G; Darmstadt, H; and Hamburg, J. In
1876 a gold standard was proclaimed, and henceforth no person
was legally bound to accept in payment more than 20 marks
in silver and the value of i mark in nickel or bronze. The old
thalers (worth 3 marks) still circulate.
A ustria'Hungary.—AilCT the convention of X857 with Germany
(see above), when Austria based her coinage on the silver standard
of the florin, two series were issued — (i.) Vereinsraunzen (money
of the union), in gold, the crown and half-crown; in silver, the
double thaler (03 florins) and thaler; (ii.) Landesmiinzcn
(money of the state), in gold, the 4 and x ducat; in silver, the
double florin and florin; in billon, the 20, xo and 5 kreuzers^
and in copper, the 4, 3, i and } kreuzer. In x868 Austria aban-
doned the convention, but made no change in her money;
and in the same year the coinage of Hungary was made uniform
with that of the empire, both in standard and denominations.
In 1870 the Vcreinsmiinzen crown and half-crown were dis-
continued, and their place was taken by 8- and 4-florin pieces
Fic. 7.— Twenty Marks (gold).
Germany.
IPRESENT DAY COINS
which were of the current value of 20 and xo francs. In 1S92
the monetary system of Austria-Hungary was entirely reformed
on a gold standard, the unit of account being the crown of xso
hellers. This is a decimal coinage, and the denominations are,
in gold, the 20 crowns (of 164 from the kilogramme of fixw gold),
xo crowns and ducat (-9 silver crowns 60 heUers); in siher,
the crown (-xod.) and half-crown; in mctd, the 20 aiui 10
hellers; and in bronze, the 2 and x heller. The gold ducat -ns
a trade-money (Handelsmtinze) of the current value of xo francs,
and it displaced the 8- and 4-florin pieces of x87a The t>"pes of
the Austrian
and Hungarian
coins somewhat
vary. The Aus-
trian gold coins I
show the head '
of the emperor
and the two-
headed eagle,
nlgJ^r'tfuSi F'0.«-Florin(«lver).Auaria-H.«po..
length figure of the emperor and the national shield surmounted
by the crown of St Stephen held by angels. The silver coins c{
both series have the head of the emperor and the mark of vduc
under the imperial or royal crown. The nickel and bronze
money of Austria displays the imperial eagle on the obvTrsc.
whilst that of Hungary has the crown of St Stephen. The
legends are respectively in Latin and Magyar.
Spain. — ^The unit of the Spanish coinage from XS64 to iS65
was the silver escudo of 200 grains divisible into xo reals. Os
the dethronement of Isabella in x868 the provisional govcmmerit
adopted the principles of the lAtin Monetary Union and m:i'le
the peseta the unit of account, this coin being equivalent to ibe
franc. The coins struck during 1869-1870 were, in fold, the
xoo pesetas; in silver, the 5, 2 and x peseta, and the 50 and x>
centimos; and in bronze, the xo, 5, 2 axul 1 ccntixno. The
obverse type of each metal varied; on the gold Spain is standing,
on the silver she is reclining; and on the bronze she is scate^l
During his short reign (i 870-1 873) Amadeus I. struck onl/
gold coins of 100 and 25 pesetas and silver of 5 pesetas, ani
there was practically no money issued during the republic vhkh
followed his abdication. Don Carlos during the insurrection
of X874-X875 struck 5 pesetas in silver and 10 and 5 centissos
in bronze bearing his portrait and title " Carolus VII-" After
the restoration of Alphonso XII. the coinage consisted of 25
and 10 pesetas in gold;
5, 2 and X peseta and 50
centimos in silver; and
10 and 5 centimos in
bronze. This coinage was
continued under Alphonso
XIII., but in 1887 the 20
pesetas in gold was sub-
stituted for the 25 pesetas,
and in 1897 large coins
were struck of 100 pesetas. The types show the head of the
king on the obverse and the shield with or without the piUais ctf
Hercules on the reverse.
Porlugal.—A gold standard was adopted by PoitugaJ h
1854, the unit of value being the milreis of xooo rets. The coi=s
are, in gold, the crown or 10 milreis and the half, fifth and teetit
crown or milreis; in silver, the 10, 5 and 2 tcstoon; in micL-i
the 100 and 50 reis; and in bronze, the 20, xo and 5 rcisw Tic
general type of the gold and silver is the head or bust of t^c
king and the royal shield; but the bronze varies in havi:^
on the obverse a shield and on the reverse the mark of valae.
Denmark, Sioeden and JV^nwy.— Previous to x87a in Dennsar^
the unit of value was the silver rigshankdoler of 96 skiSiar^.
in Sweden, the rigsdaler of 100 6re; and in Norri-ay. the spedsz-
thaler of 120 skillings; but in that year a monetary convrBikr.
was concluded between these countries establishing a dcdxrai
coinage, which had for its unit the krone of too ore. and of vhkb
FiC. 9.— Peseu (stiver). Spain.
PRESENT DAY CX}IMSI
NUMISMATICS
909
Fig. 10. — ^Seven and one-half
Roubles (gold), Russia.
the standard was gold. The denominations are, in goldf the
20, 10 and 5 kroner; in sUver, the 3 and x krone, and 50, 25 and
10 dre; and in bronUf the 5, 2 and i dr. The gold and silver
money of Sweden and Norway to the 50 6re bears the head
of the king and the royal shield; the silver of smaller denomina-
tions and the bronze, the monogram of the king and the mark
of value. Since the separation of the t^o kingdoms in 1906,
Norway has a o>inageiof its own in the name of Haakon VII.
In Denmark the goM and silver have the head of the king, and,
for reverse type, a figure of Denmark, a shield, or the mark
of value. The bronze coins are similar to those of Nor?ray and
Sweden*
Russia.^-Tbe Russian comage previous to 1885 was based
on the silver rouble of 378 grains of pure metal; but during
the greater part of the reign of Alexander II. (1855-1881) the
currency consisted almost entirely of paper money. In 1885
Alexander III. determined to place the coinage on a proper
footing, and introduced the rouble of 100 copeks as the unit
of account, with a relative value of gold and silver of i to 15I.
The coins Issued were, in goldf the imperial of to roubles, and the
balMmpcrial; in silver, the rouble, and the 50, 25, 20, 15, 10
and 5 copeks; and in copper , the 5, 3, 2, i, | and I copek.
In 1897 the relative value of gold and silver was advanced to
_ I to 23^, thus raising the
current value of the imperial
. to 15 roubles; but no change
I was made in the weights
ijof the coins, and the silver
' rouble remained the unit of
account. In the same year a
piece of 5 roubles, called the
one-third imperial, was added
to the gold coins. The
general types of the gold and silver show the head of the
emperor and the imperial eagle; and of the copper, the
imperial eagle and mark of value.
Georgia, Poland and Finland. — ^The separate issues of Georgia
and Poland were suppressed in 1833 and 1847 respectively;
but Finland in 1878 established a decimal coinage of gold, silver
and bronze on the principles of the Latin Monetary Union,
having the tnarkhaa ( «• i franc) as its imlt of value.
rw^O'-"-There has been practically no change in the money
of the Ottoman empire since the reforms of Abdul-Medjid in
1844, when the piastre, or 40-para piece, of the current value
of 3id., was made the unit of the coinage; 100 piastres go to
the gold medjidieh or poimd. The denominations are, in gold,
the 500, 250, 100, 50 and 25 piastres; in silver, the 20, 10, 5, 2, x
and i piastre; and in copper, the 40, 20, 10, 5 and i para. *The
type in all metab is, on the obverse, the Sultan's tughra, or
cipher, and on the reverse, a wreath, and the name of the mint,
date, &c
Balkan States. — Since the dismemberment of the Ottoman
empire the kingdoms of Rumania and Scrvia, and the principality
of Bulgaria, have each adopted the decimal system of the Latin
Monetary Union. In Rumania the unit of account is the leu
of xoo bani; in Servia, the dinar or 100 paras; and in Bulgaria,
the lev of xoo stolinki — each of these units being the equivalent
of the franc In all these states gold, silver, bronze and nickel
is current money.
United States. — ^In America the most important event con-
nected with the coinage was a change of standard. (See Money).
Previous to X873 the standard was silver, having for its unit the
dollar of 412I grains of -^ fine; but in that year a gold standard
-was adopted, the gold dollar of 25-8 grains and -ff fine being the
sole unit of value. This change of sUndard was accompanied
by a slight modification of the denominations, which became, in
gold, the double-eagle, eagle, half and quarter eagle, three dollars
and dollar; in silver, the half and quarter dollar, 20 cents and
dime; in nickel, the 5 and 3 cents; and in bronze, the ceni.
In addition to these a silver piece called the " trade dollar " of
420 grains was struck, not for circulation in the States, but for
export to China. The following changes have since occurred:
In X878 the silver dollar of 41 3| grains was resumed, ^d the
ao cents discontinued; in X887 the issue of the " trade dollar "
was suspended; and in x8go the same fate befell the three
dollars and dollar in gold, and the three cents in nickeL The
types zxe—gold, head of Liberty and eagle, silver, head of
Liberty, or Liberty seated, and eagle, except the dime, which
has the mark of value; nickd, shield (5 cents) and head of
Liberty; bronze, head of an Indian, and (1910) bust of Lincoln;
with reverse types for either metal, the mark of value.
Canada, &c.— The currency for the Dominion of Canada,
which includes Nova Scotia, New Brunswick and British
Columbia, is of silver and bronze, based on the system of the
United States. The denominations are 50, 25, 20, xo and 5 cents
in silver, and the cent in bronze; and they also have a uniform
type of the sovereign's head and mark of value. The same
system prevails in Newfoimdland, which also issues the double
dollar in gold: this is the only gold coin issued in a British
colony whose standard is not the same as that of the
mother country. There is a separate coinage for Jamaica,
but of nickel only, and consisting of the penny, halfpenny and
farthing.
Mexico, Gtc.—V/e need not give any detailed account of the coins
of Mexico, and of the various states of Central and South America, in
neariy all of which there have been radical changes since 1870. Most
of them have adopted the decimal system, with a gold, silver or
bi-metallic standard; the unit of value in the gold standard being
generally the peso of 3-225 grammes, and in the silver also the peso,
but of silver of 20, 25 or 27 grammes.
India. — As to the coins of the East and Far East, we will limit our
remarks to the more important countries. In British India the rupee
of silver of 150 grains is still the unit of value. In 1893 the mmta
were closed to the unrestricted coinage of silver for the public. In
i8c)9 they were opened to the free coinage of gold, the sovereign
being declared legal tender. At present £1 » 15 rupees of is. 4af. ;
I rupee- 16 annas; I annaB4 pice; x picc»3 pic*- 1 farthing.
Persia. — In Persia since 1879 a decimal system in conformitv with
the principles of the Latin Monetary Union has been adopted, having
for Its unit the krdn weighing 78 grs., thus being equivalent to the
franc, but since reduced to 71 grs. or even less. The denominatwns
are: in gold, the 10, 5, 2. I, i and i toman (the toman > 10 kriins);
in silver, the 5, 2 and i kr&n 7*20 shahis), and the 10 and 5 shahis;
and in copper, the 4, 2 and i snaht ( -2 pals), and the pal.
Japan. — Since 1870 Japan has formed its coinage on the European
decimal system in place of the ancient national coins, the oban^s
and ilsibus, the unit being the yen of 100 sen. The standard was bt-
metallic, and the relation of gokl and silver stood at i-i6-i7. In
1898 a gold standard was adopted, the issue of the silver yen was
suspended, and the weight of the gold money was reduced by one-
half. The coins*issucd since that date are, in gM, the 20, 10 and 5
yea; in iilscr, the 50^ ro and 10 7ZTi\ in nkld, the 5 sen; and in
oronu-t t)m sen and Imlf-jieri. Tiiprt' \--
nlvcr, fiick(;l and bronze coins, bcin^ l^n
a wreath ol tiowcrs with nuirk of valu':
varies in having f^A^ and ftawer& on tlie r^vcr
eral type for all the
1 on tnc obverse and
! reverse. The gold
On the silver and
bronze coins the legends are in £n£lish as well is in Japanese.
CAiiw.^ln 1890 China foUowca ibe example of Japan, but only
to a limited dtcnt, and inatitutt'd a GJIver coi n ige havine as its unit
a dollar of the Kiinc value a& thif United StaiiL-!^ silver dollar and the
Japanese yrn. It is calculated in fractions ol the tael, a money of
account of the value of 2fi. 1 1 3d. The coLna ^vi the dollar, and the
50, 35, 10 and 5 cents, with the Chinese dmqon and inscriptions,
mint and mark of value xn English on theobve-r «, and on the reverse
thi mark of vaEue In Chinese and Manchu. 'lUy were first struck at
Cinion and Uei-ChanR, but taicf other minis li ive been established.
TI ' :.L are notn strtcUy speaking, imperii I m^ ley, the sole official
COM tj^p and monetary unit twing the t 1 : sh. A decree of the
201 '1 oF NovembtT ijros pnposcd lo ' an official dollar on
th Ktdi ol the Kurnfig tii^rL An cdli 1 1910 provides for a
stundard currency dollar uf 72 c^ndarcrns. wiiJi a subsidiary decimal
coinage in silver, nickel ana copper, for circulation throughout the
empire.
korea has had since 1905 a new coinage on the Japanese system,
but with the Korean date.
Hong Kong. — ^The only other Asiatic coinage we shall note is that
of Hong Kong, where in 1866 was esublished a coinage, which was
also based on the United States sUndard, having the silver dollar
as its unit. The denominations are the dollar and 50. 20and 5 cents
in silver, and the cent and mill in bronie; and. with the exception of
the mill, they all have for type the sovereign's head and the mark
of value. In connexbn with this coinage there was issued in 1895
a " trade dollar " for special currency in the Straits Settlements
and Hong Kong in lieu of the Mexican dollar, the scarcity of which
was a considerable hindrance of trade. This coin, whurh was struck
at the Bombay mint, shows on the obverse Briunnia holding a
9IO
NUMISMATICS
trident and shield, and on the revetBe within an ornamental design
the deoooiiaation in Chinese and Malay. Since 1903, however a new
Fig. M-— " Trade Dollar " (silver). Hong Kong.
special dollar with the king's head has been issued for the Straita
settlements. ,
£|^M. -^Glancing cursorily at the coinage of Africa, we may note
that since 188^ Egypt has adbpted a gold standard with the gold
pound of 100 piastres as the unit of account. The piastre is no longer
di visible into 40 paras, but into to ochr-tl-guercne or tenths. The
types are similar to the Turkish money, and th<High bearing the
legend " struck at Cairo " the coins are really made at Birmingnam.
For some years gold has not been issued.
Ahyssinux. — In Abyssinia since 1803 there has been a silver coinage,
but tbe Austrian Maria Theresa dollar is still ^:urTent. The new
coins are. in silver, the talari (-dollar, worth about 2s.). |. ^ and i
talari, and in cooper, the guerche, and | and i guerche. Thev show
on one side the ncad of the king, and on the other a lion holding a
banner.
Zantt6ar. — Zanzibar has also issued a dollar of the fixed value of
a rupees and 2 annas, and a copper coin called a pessa (<■ 136th
of a dollar).
Sudan. — The African coinages which have attracted exceptional
attention are those of the Sudan and the South African Republic.
The former dates from 1885, when the Mahdi struck the pound of
100 piastres in gold and the 30 piastres in silver, of the same type as
the Egyptian coins, but on the silver piece were placed the words
" By order of the Mahdi," but no mint name. His successor,
Abdullah, struck pieces of 20, 10. 5. 2 and I piastre in ulver and 10
Siras in copper, but no gold. They bear the name of the mint,
mdurman. and the word makbtU, t.e. accepted. At first the silver
coins were of 6 parts silver and 2 copper, but in a few years they
were so debased that they degenentted into mere pieces of copper
washed with silver. The last issue is dated 1897 (a.h. i^is).
Congo Free State (Belgian Congo).— The coinage issued since 1887
consists of ulver of 5. 3, i fr. and 50 centimes, and copper (with
central hole) from 10 centimes to i centime.
Transvaal. — ^The first attempt at a separate coinage in the Trans-
vaal was in 1874, when President Burgers issued sovereigns or
pounds showing his portrait on the obverse and the shield of the
Republic on the reverse. They were struck by Messrs Heaton of
Birmingham, but as each {Mece of the current value of 20s. cost 26s.
to strilK, only £680 worth was issued, and but few of these passed
into circulation, being preserved as curiosities. No further attempt
was. made till 1891, wncn President KruKer induced the Raad to
order a coinage in gold, silver and bronze alter the English standard.
The first issue occurred in 1892, and consisted of the pound and half-
pound in gold; the crown, half-crown, florin, shilling, sixpence and
threepence in silver; and the penny in bronze. They are all of the
same type as the pound of 1874, but with (he portrait of President
Kruger on the obverse. The first issue of the pound, half-pound and
crown was minted at Beriin, and a curious mistake was made in the
arms of the state, the wagon being represented with two shafts
instead of with one. This blunder was soon noticed, and a recoinage
took place in the same year at Pretoria. Since the annexation
British coins have been l^al tender, but a new copper coinage was
approved in 1904-
BlBLIOG]
liBLiOGRAFU Y.> — I. Periodlcalt : Numismatic Chronicle (London) ;
Revue numismaliaue (Paris) : Zeitsckrifl (Ur NumisnuUik (Berlin) ;
Numismatische Zeitschrifl (Vienna); Rtvista italiana di numU'
matica (Milan): Revue bage de numismatique (Brussels).
monnaie (1807); A. von ballet, MUnaen und iiedaillen (1898);
G. Macdonald, Coin-Types (1905); L. Forrer, Biographical Diction-
ary of Medallists, &c. (1904— }.
In. Greek and Soman: A. General: T. H. von Eckhel. Doctrine
numonOn veterum (1792-1798); J. C. Kasche, Lexicon univ. rei
num. veterum (1785-1804); T. E. Mionnet, Descr. de nUdailles gr* et
. (1807-1837); W.M
>lc.B.V.Head.P.Ga
Poole,
ofCreeh Coins inM^y,M^.,, . , , ^,. -
&c., Ix^n in 1873); F. Lenormant. La Monnaie dams rmmtiipati
"•. Gardner, Types of Creek Coins (1882): F. Imhocrf-
annates grecaues (1883); F. Imhool-Blumer and P.
^ In this bibliography no mention is made as a rule of articles in
periodicals, or of monographs on the coinage of tpcdaX cities or small
districts.
CPRESENT DAY COINS
... Leake, Numismaia HeUeniea Ci85«-i8S9);
Gardner, W. Wroth and G. F. Hill, KiL Mus.
Catal. of Creek Coins (Italy, Sicily. Greece, Asia Minor. Syria, E(yp(.
Stc., began in if- ' " * ^ »- ^ •. ^-_- » -.«
(1878. 1879); P.
Blumer, Monnat ^ , «, .
Gardner, Numismatic Commentary on Pausamias (1885. 1886);
B. V. Head. Historia numorum (1887; new ed. in prepantioo):
F. Imboof-Blumer. Griechische M&nun (1890); Head. G^ide to the
Coins of the Ancients (4th ed., 1895): HiU Handbook of Creek OMd
Raman Coins (1899); G. Macdopald, Catalogue of the HmmtenaB
Collection (3 vols.. 1899-1905); E. Babekm. Tratti des mommates
grecques et ropt- (1901- ) ; In. Rcinacb, L'Histaire par les memaaaa
(1902); Corolla jtumismattca, Numism. Essays in honour of B. V.
Head (1906): G. F. Hill, Historical Creek Onus (1906); K. Regling.
SamnUung Warren (1906); Periodicab: /Mcnial uUe m a ttaeel
d'archSohgie numismattque (Athens) ; Nomisma (Berlin).
B. Metrt^gy: J. Bnindis, MUnt-, Mass- und Cewtckts^esen
(1866): F. Hultsch, Criech. u. r6m, Metrologie* (1882): GesKke
des AUertums (1898) ; C. F. Lehmann. articles m Verhandl. dlr BerL
Ges.Jiir Antkropolope (1889, 1891): Das aU-babylomiscke Mass-
is: (See also the respective volumes of the
lalogue.) (a) Spain. — A. Hciss, Monrn. ami. de
I'Espagne (1870); Zobel de Zangr6niz, Estudio historica i^ la wtom.
ant. ftp. (i8;S-i8So): E Hr*-"- if.«,.- »• -g JUricea (1893).
{h} Gaul.— E. Murct And X[ l. des asMS. gatd.
(iBS^); H. de]:tTQur, .1/.'- J. %., .. |; J. A. Blancfaet.
Trait£ dti rnvri't. gaitt. (l^5)- {*■} Bm^cn ^ L £vaBS. Andest
British Coins ( t ^4, 1890), {d) tialy,— F. C^n I h , Num. JtaL teierit
(1850); I- Sambofi. Presqu'tk itaii^ue {ti^jo} ; K. Garrucd. Mem.
dili Italia ani. (laSs) : A. J. E^^ns. Tke " Hmsiemen " of Taremhm
(1&S4J \ Btrhn Museum fa^slofHft UL t (1804); A. Sn m bon. Momm.
eni. de i'ltaiie (1904^ J. {e) SicUy*— B- V, Head. Cswafc of
Syracuie {i»74y7 A, h Evan^. articles in Nam, Ckr. (1800-1894):
A. Holm, " Gpsch, dw skil Miltuwesens " (in vrf. ui. of kis Cesik.
SirUirm. 1896): G, F. HUU Coins ef Amient SicUj (1903). (.0
Nofthi^rn Gfwtc. — L. M iillirf, Akxandre U Grand (1855) ; Lyst meck u
fi85Bh F. ItnhoQf Bliimtr, Mun^n At.it^^miems (1^78): P
BunicKkov, Crrek Ctilunits 171 S. Russia (Russiiin, 1S84); Beritm
Museum Catalij^iir, L, 11. (iSita, t«acj); Efrrlin Academy. Die amtiJkcm
Muncrn Nt>r4£rifch£itland% (iSo^^ )■ UY Central Gcrece,
Prloporini^iiii and litUnd^i — E. &pult, Afoun. d'Athhtes (185^);
j. N.Svurono^^Cr^^ oin:i i ■ '-■^-■.■- ^^ 1^ .U Minor. — M. Piiwicr,
Vber die CtiiiTphotert (1 7- ,1 roramma £Ane
iltmure (i8tt8); F. lui..uv<->'iu»M.-f. it.>m^mi^Ji^ Mumaem (1890);
E. Babebn, Le^ Perses achhninides, &c. (1893); F. Imhoof-Blamer.
Lydische Stadtmtinaen (1897); E. Babek>n. Inaentaire de la. caiL
Waddington (1898); F. Imhoof- Blumer. Kleinasiatische Mmmxn
(1901, 1902); W. H. Waddington. Th. Rcinach and £. Babeloa.
Recueil finiral des monn. gr. d'Asie Mineurt (1904- )• (>> S\ria,
Phoenicia, and the Greek East (see also Oriental). — F. de Saakrv.
Num. de la terre sainte (1874): F. W. Madden. Coins of the Jems
(1881); E. Babebn, Rris de Syrie, &c. (1890): Perses ad^mhuda
(1803): Th. Reinach, Jewish Coins (trans. M. HiU, 1903)- (j) E«>p<
ana Africa. — L. Mailer, Monn. de Vancienne Afrique (1860-1S74);
G. Dattari, Numi Augg. Alexandrini (1001): J. N. Svon»xm
No^ rov KpArovi rfir nroX<Mai«tfr (1904). (k) Roman. — ^Th. MoouBsea.
Hist, de la monn. rom., trans. Due de Blacas and j. dc Witte (1S65-
1875); H. A. Grueber. "Roman Medallions." BriL Mus. Ca^oL
(1874); W. Fr6hner, MUaUlons de I' empire r<wii. (1878); H. Cohes.
Monn. frappfes sous Fempire rom.* (1880-1892); E. Babek». Mourn.
de la rtpublique rum. (1885. 1886); H. A. Grueber. " Rooian Re-
publkaui Coins," BriL Mus. Catal. ; E. J. Haebcrlin. SysJrmatxhda
dltesten rOmischen MUnxwesens (190^); G. F. HiU. Historical Rssis*
Coins (1909) ; H. Willers. CeschichU der romischen Kupferprdnmg vmm
Bundesgenossenkrieg bis auf Kaiser Claudius (1909) : H. A. Grueber.
CiUalogue ^ the Roman Republican Coinages in the Britisk Mmsevm
(1910). (/) Byzantine. — J. Sabatier, Monnaies byutntina (186; :
Warwkk Wroth. Catalogue of the Imperial Byaantina Coisu sa the
BriHsh Museum, 2 vols. (looS).
IV. Medieval and Modem: A. General: J. Neumann, Beacfcrn-
bung der bekanntesten KupfermUnsen (1858-1872); 1. A. BJandirt.
Numism. du moyen dge et modeme (1890): A. tngel ct R. Serrssc
Numism. du moym 4g«. (1891-190O; Numism. modeme (1I97-
1899); A. Luschin von Eboigreutn. Allgemeine Muuxkumde u
COdgesch. (1904).
B. Transitional Period: J. FriedUnder, Mumaeu der OstgiAet
(1844) ; A. Heiss, Monn. des rois trisigoths d^Esfagne (1873) -. C F
Keaiy. Coinages of Western Europe (1879); BriL Mus. CabL .^
English Coins, L (1887); M. Prou, Les Monn. nUrcoingieumes (189:
A. de Belfort, Descr. thUrale des monn. mirovingiemtes (1892-1895
C. Countries: (a) Portugal.— A. C. Teixeim de AngiSo, Descr
das moedas de Portugal (1874-1880). (6) Spain.— A. Hass. M*^'
kispano-cristianas ii96s-i869). (c) France.— F. Poey d'Avasi
Monn. fiodales de Franu (1858-1862); supplement by E. Caros^
1882-1884): H. Hoffmann, Monn. royales de France (1878): Gant-i
Monn. roy. de Ftance sous la race caroHntienne (1883-18S4): U
Prou, Les Monn. carolingiennes (1806); " M£dailles fiancaiaev
'M^daiUesde la r6vQl. franc.
Miff, (ic i'emp. NapoM(m/^7>^
NUMMULITE— NUNEATON
911
d€ numismatigue (1834-1840); N. Roadot, Les MUaUUuts «t Us
S amirs de monnaies, 6fc., en France (1904): F. MaaeroUe, Les
Hdailieurs franfais (1902-1904) ; Periodical, Heme numismatique.
li) Great Britain and Ireland.— R. Ruding, Annals of the Coinage
(1840): B. E. HUdebrand, An^osachsiska Mynt (1881); E. Hawkins,
SilMr Coins of England (3rd ed. by Kenyon, 1887): R. LI. Kenyon.
CM Coins of England (1884); C. F. Keary and H. A. Gnieber. BrU.
Mus. Catal. of English Coins, I iL (1887, 189A): H. A. Grueber,
Handbook of Coins of Great Britain and Ireland (1899) ; E. Hawkins,-,
A. W. Franks and H. A. Grucber, MedaUic JUustradons of the History ^
of Great Britain and Ireland (1885: plates to ditto, from looii in
progress): R. W. Cochran-Patrick. Records of the Coinagf of ScoUdnd
(1875); E. Bums, Coinagf oj^ Scotland (1887): Ric h a r dson, Catal,
of ty
— ^:
C'lins in tiu JV^
'. . Cataicgui <7f : ■■■ ^; '... Ua
SmJih, ^.itiuijs pafftra on lrisln:oiTi.ipiL>; ih 1 . b.ur'\', Liipptr i^f^in.ice
ofGrati BHU^in, IffUnd, Su.. (tSbS-iiigSh W. Bo>nc. fradt Tokt'ns
Ejjvf^ in ihA ijlk Cininr:^ {>tA. Q. C, WiLlLunson, tBS^); ptriodic.ils,
Cuuntriet. — Pi O- van der CKijij Afunitn der HerU>g.dommm Bmbond
trtitB^i) 4rkd other warkA (t&^i-t^di): R. Serrurp, DkL
f&er. de Htist, mfiH* b^gf Ci&Bq); X ~de Witt«, Histeire morUioire
ftttBrabarH {iB^4~ii9Q}-, G. van Uoou, Hist. nUsaUique . . .jUj P-jys-
Bai (Fr.wl. i7i?-i7J7). wippk-meM to ditto {iS6i-tS?i)^ Pcnodkal,
Itnf. W« di numi^iAdft^t. (J) SwitJCtTLand, — R. S. Poole, Coi^sL of
Smis Cmni in iViaM KcHiirxl!^/t^ Mju* (ia78); Wundcrly v. MurJt,
Miina- lu HirdaiUcn-^^rKmiuni (iScjj-ift™): L. „,. ^ .
AfunsgesdL dn ifckmris (jSot); periodic^, B^ime suiise dt numis-
tK^tique. jij iuly.— F, and E. Cncs:chi> Bitltti^^mfia, nnm\sm(iilca
dilie Ztfilu tldiane (iSto); V. Promif. Tat(fte itHiiUiche dditt manete
baitMti! in Italia (i«6q): Mon. dei Rmli 4i S<itvin (1841) : A. Chi.j^U,
Mm. 4ti Papi (184*): F- nnd E, GnrccKi, Mfmtte di Md^-. i);
N. Papiidoponp A/<J«, 4i Vstfisia U*J^) ; C* Dciimoni. :. ua
Ztcca di GtiMva (i89t); I. Fripdlindcr, Ititiirnistfus iV.'i. ■ - tn
fiS&>-iaSJ3; A- Vkiia, AlhlaiitniTs de la Renaissance {i^Hi-ibxii);
A- Artnai5d< AiMaiilrun iSnlieni {1*83^1*67)1 C, veil FsbrH-zy,
liiUmn Medfdf (trans. Hamilton^ 1904); perineal, Rimia itaimna
'di nmnismaiiia (MtLin). (A) Ctrrnany. — H. P. Cappc, Munitn ier
deutMhen Kaiser u. Ki^nive (iS^S-iftso); G. SchlumtpcrEcr, Br^t*^tes
d'Ai^m^gne (1873): H. DanncDberg, Deuticke Mnnzcn dtr i^ih^. u.
ff^itk. Kaisersnt (1876-1905); A. Engcl et E. Lelir. Num. d'Mice
fjSSj); M+ DonebAuer, SamntiuRf, bokmisiker Munzen «. JVf rtfii pj'ten
(ia&a-iP9o\; E. Bahrfddt^ Muft^nitjnt d^r Mark Brnnirnhnrg
^h. I):
Deutsche Medailleure (1884): K. Domanig, Portrdtmedaillen des
Ertkauses Osterreich (1896); A An. Museen eu Berlin, Schauminxen
des Houses Hohensollem (1901); IC Domanig, Die deutsche MedaiUe
i}907)',Cj IT-iLicu, " f tudienzurdiijtochaiRaaisance'MedaiUe "in
Berlin J^ihrimih {i^a^^ ). Pmodkals, Zcii^hnji fa? Ntttnis-
matik (Ik^rlin). Numismaii&sihe ZtHicUnft fV'icnwi), (0 Pakcad. —
E. Huttcii C^dpiki, Msmn. ei mid. ttekmaifiJ (iB7i-t8eo). {J)
Russia ar<d Scaiidlnavi^. — Bafun de Chuudci'ir, Mtntn, fMsm (i6j&-
1837); (c. J. Tolfttoi. C(fins Qf Ku§ {\M2), Cmns i>f Greet Nat'snrod
(1884), CVirtJ fi/Pjio/(i8S6; in RkJMLin) ; Mansfcld-BOUnct, DoTiike
Mynter ' 1 H^hj); ?► Haubet^T Danmufki Myntwtssen fff MynUr^ si.ji-
J277 (lh":55K i886h Mynjforhoid oj Udmyniinter i Danmark iisdtil
J 1 46 (i-jE-O). {k) Latin East, ac,-— G. SchTiimbergcr, iV«it!. de
I'orient Imn (1*78); E. H. Furw, L'Otdrf sotiwTatn de St Jran de
Jirusale-n (iS^sJ- U) America.— D, K, Watson, Hist, of A mf man
Coinage tt8g«j}; A. VVeyl, Fonrobertjicht Samntiuni (1878]: A. Rina.
Monetarto amiricaH& (JS92); J. Mcili^ O Mth rinui^nig no
Bratil ([*>7-J9o5). (jb) Money of NeccBsity. — P* MiUKti, Mmn.
obsidiomiiti tide fUcasM tiSjo-iSjj); A, ^r^uie-Nfan^tld. F^ii-,
Not- und Belagertingifniinaufi (1897-1903).
V. Oriental —A, FrtAfatiammidan: (a) Pcrsb and the Cri«k
East. — A- tW l.angr»:5rit-r, ^f^.dJilkl dtj T<yi5_^f^fs d^ fc dyn. Sfjjtu tjide
(1H40); B. V. Head, Coimige of Lydia Ah^ M „i ^iti (i^jj); P. GarUner.
Parthian Coinage (1877) ; E. Babeton, L«« Perses achtmhiides (1893) ;
W Wroth, " Parthia.'*^ BrU. Mus. Catal. (1903). (6) India, &c—
J. Prinsep, Essays on Indian Antiquities (ed. Thomas, iSKSy, A.
Cunningham. Alexander's Successors in the East (1873) ; T. W. Rhys
Davids. Ancient Coins, €fc., of Ceylon (1877): P. Gardner. " Greek
and Scythic Kings of Bactria and India," Bnt. Mus. Catal. (1986) ;
W. Elliott. Coins of Southern India (1886); A. Cunningham, Coins of
Ancient India (1801); Coins of the Indo-Scythians (1802}; Coins of
Medieval India (1894): E. J. Rapson, " Indian Coins *' (m BOhler s
Crundriss, 1898); Vincent A. Smith, Catal. of Coins in the Indian
Museum, Calcutta, vol. i. (1906).
B. Mahommedan: W. Marsden, Numismata orientalia (1823);
CM. Fraehn. Recensio num. Muhammedanorum (1826); F. Soret,
Numismattque musulmane (1864); W. Tiesenhausen, Coins of the
Oriental Khalifs (1873. Russian); R. S. Poole and S. Lane-Poole,
Catal. of Oriental Coins in the British Museum (187^-1891): R. S.
Poole, Catalogue of Persian Coins in the British Museum (1887):
S. Lane-Poole. Catalogue of Indian Coins in the British Museum
(1884-1892); F. Codera y Zaidin. Numismatica arabito-^paftola
V1879): H. Lavoix. Catal. des monn. musulmanes de la bibliothique
nationale, i.-iii. (1887-1891); C. J. Rodgers.t:ato/. of the Coins ^ the
Indian Museum (1893-1896); Catal. of the Coins of the Lahore
Museum (1893-1893); KOn. Museen zu Berlin. H. Uutxel, Katalog
derorientalischenMiinsen,i.-u.{ir " ' •
of Mustdman Numismatics: H. '
tn the Indian Museum, Calcuttay
Moghul Emperors (1907-1908).
C The Far East: W. Vissering, Chineu Currency (1877) ; Tcrrien
de la Couperie, Catal. of the Chineu Coins in the Brit. Mus., 7th
century b.c.-a.d. 621 (1892); J. H. S. Lockhart, Currency of the
Farther East (1895-1898); N. G. Munro, Coins of Japan (1964);
p. Lacroix, Numismahque annamite (1900); A. Schroeder, Annam,
Eludes numismaiiques (1905); C. T. Gardner, Coinaui of Coreo,
(Joum. North China Branch oif R. Asiatic Soc.. vol. xxvii.).
(R.S.P.;H.A.G.;C.F.H.»)
HUMHULITE. NUMHUUTES. A. d'Orbigny's name for a
genus of Perforate Foraminifera (9.V.), distinguished by the
flattened, lenticular discoid shell of many turns, finely perforated ;
chambers subdivided by incomplete septa into squarish chamber*
lets. This genus is especially abundant in Eocene Limestones,
which attain great thickness around the Mediterranean basin;
the Pyramids of Egypt are built of it.
NUN (O. Eng. nunnCf from Lat. nonnust nonna^ familiar terms
for an old man or woman), a member of a community of women,
livingunder vows a life of religious observance (see MoNASTiasu).
In ecclesiastical Latin nonnus was used by the younger members
of a religious community for their elders, and so, in the regula
of St Benedict, cap. 62, Jumores aulem Priores sues nonnos
vocanl quod intelligitur patema reverentia (Du Cange, Clossarfunt,
s.v. nonnus). While nonna has remained as the generic name
of a female religious, nonnus has been replaced by monackus
and its various derivatives (see Monk).
NUVATAK, a name applied in Greenland (and thence extended
in use elsewhere) to a hill or mountain peak appearing above
the surface of a glacier. Greenland is for the most part covered
by an ice-cap of a certain thickness which moves ^owly down-
wards to the sea. It will rise upwards and pass over a barrief-
if there is no outlet, but it will flow between and around mountain
peaks leaving them standing as hills (nunataks) above the
general surface of the ice-cap. These prominences are sometimes
covered with arctic vegeUtion, and arctic flowers bloom freely
upon -them in the summer.
HUNCIO. or NuNTnrs Apostoucus, a represenUtive of the
pope sent on diplomatic mission. The nuncios are of lower
rank than the legali a latere, but have practically superseded
them as ambassadors of the papacy. Nuncios were permanently
established at various courts and ecclesiastical centres during
the z6th century. According to the decision of the congress of
Vienna the diplomatic rank of a papal nundo corresponds to
that of an ambassador. The powers *of a nundo are limited
by his instructions. If a cardinal, as rarely is the case, he uses
the title pro-nuntlus. The pro-nuntius at Vienna has practically
the position of a legatuf a latere.
NUNOOHAR or Nanda kvmar (d. 1775), Indian official, best
known for his connekion with Warren Hastings (q.v.), was
governor of Hugll in 1 756, and in 1764 he was appointed collector
of Burdwan in place of Hastings, which resulted in a long-stand-
ing enmity. In 1775, when Hastings was governor-general,
Nuncomar brought accusations of peculation against him,
which were entertained by Frands and the other members of
coundl inimical to Hastings. While the matter was still pending
Nuncomar was irdicted for forgery, condemned and executed.
Warren Hastings and Sir Elijah Impey, the chief justice, were
both impeached, and were accused by Burke and afterwards
by Macaulay of committing a judicial murder; but Sir James
Stephen, who examined the trial in detail, states that the indict-
ment for forgery arose in the ordinary course, was not brought
forward by Hastings, and that Impey conducted the trial with
fairness and impartiality.
See Sir James Stephen, The Story of Nuncomar (2 vols., 1885);
and. for another treatment of the case, H. Bcvcridge, The Trial of
Nanda Kumar (Caknjtta. 1886).
NUNEATON, a market town and munidpal borough in the
Nuneaton parliamentary division of Warwickshire, England,
on the river Anker, a tributary of the Tame, and on the Coventry
cana). It is an important junction of the London- and North
912
NUNEZ— NUPE
Western railway, by which it Is 97 m. N.W. from London, and
it is served by the Leicester-Biimingham branch oC the Midland
railway. Pop. (1901) 24,996, rapidly increasing. The situation
is low and almost encircled by rising ground. The church of
St Nicholas is a large and handsome structure in various styles of
architecture, and consists of nave, chancel and aisles, with a
square embattled tower having pinnacles at the angles. It
contains several interesting monuments. A free grammar school
was founded in the reign of Edward VI., and an English free
school for the instruction of forty boys and thirty girb by Richard
Smith in 171 2. The ribbon industry is of less importance than
formerly, but there are ironworks, cotton, hat, clastic and
worsted factories, and tanneries; the making of drain-pipes,
tiles and blue and red bricks is a considerable industry. In the
neighbourhood there are also coal and ironstone mines. The
prefix of the name of the town is derived from a priory of nuns
founded here in 11 50. In the reign of Henry IH* a weekly
market was granted to the prioress. Nuneaton was incorporated
in 190/, and the corporation consists of a mayor, six aldermen
and twelve councillors. Area 10,597 acres.
NUNEZ, PEDRO (Petrus Nonius) (1492-1577), Portuguese
mathematician and geographer, was bom at Alcaccr do Sal,
and died, at Coimbra, where he was professor of mathematics.
He publbhed several works, including a copiously-annotated
translation of portions of Ptolemy (1537), and a treatise in two
books, De arte atque ratione navigandi (1546). His clear state-
ment of the scientific equipment of the early Portuguese explorers
has become famous. A complete edition of all his writings
appeared at Basel in 1592.
bee F. de B. Garc2o-StockIcr, Ensaio histonco sobre a ortgem r
progressos das mathemalicas em Portugal (Paris, 1819); R. H. Major.
Frtnce Henry the Navigator (London. 1868, p. 55).
NUNEZ CABEJCA DE VACA, ALVARO (c. 1490 -c. 1564).
Spanish explorer, was the lieutenant of Pamfilo de Narvaea
in the expedition which sailed from Spain in 1537; when
Narvaez was lost in the Gulf of Mexico, Cabeza de Vaca succeeded
in reaching the mainland somewhere to the west of the mouths
of the Mississippi, and, striking inland with three companions,
succeeded, after long wandering and incredible hardship, in
reaching the city of Mexico in 1536. Returning to Spain in 1537,
he was appointed " adelantado " or administrator of the province
of Rio de la Plata in 1 540. Sailing from Cadiz in the end of that
year, after touching at Cananea (Brazil), he landed at the island
of St Catharine in the end of March 1541. Leaving his ships
to proceed to Buenos Aires, he set out in November with about
I so men to find his way overland to Ascension (Asunci6n) for
the relief of his countrymen there. The little band reached
their destination in the following year. After various successes
in war and diplomacy in his dealings with the Indians, Nufiez
was sent home under arrest in 15441 and in 1551 was banished
to Africa by the council of the Indies for eight years. He was
recalled in about a year and appointed to a judgeship in Seville,
where he died not later than 1564.
The Naufragtos (" Shipwrecks ") of Cabeza de Vaca. which relate
to the Florida expedition and his loumey to the city of Mexico,
appeared at Zamora in 1542; trie work has frequently been
reprinted, and an annotated English translation was published by
T. Buckingham Smith in 18;$ i. His Comeutarios (1555) chronicle
the events of the South Amcncan expedition. See Fanny Bandclier,
Journey oJA. NuMez Cabeza de Vaca (ed. A. F. Bandelier, New York,
X905).
MUNEZ de ARCB. CASPAR (1834-1903), Spanish poet,
dramatist and statesman, was bom at ValladoUd, where he was
educated for the priesthood. He had no vocation for the
ecclesiastical state, plunged into literature, and produced a play
entitled Amor y Orgullo which was acted at Toledo in 1849
To the displeasure of his father, an official in the post office,
the youth refused to enter the seminary, and escaped to Madrid,
where he obtained emplo)rment on the staff of El Obscrvador,
Si Liberal newspaper He afterwards founded El Bachillcr
Honduras, a journal in which he advocated a policy of Liberal
concentration, and he attracted sufficient notice to justify his
appointment as governor of LogrofU>. and his nommalion as
deputy for ValladoUd in 1865 He was imprisoned at C&ccrcs
for his violent attacks on the re&ctionaiy ministfy oC Namaes,
acted as secretary to the revolutionary Junta of CataJooia vlia
Isabella was dethroned, and wrote the " Manifesto to the Nation "
published by the provisional government on the 26th of Ociober
1868. During the next few years he practically withdrew from
political life till the restoration, when he attached himself to
Sagasta's party. He served under Sa^asta as minister for the
cplonies, the interior, the exchequer and education; but iO-
health compelled him to resign on the 27th of July 1890, aad
henceforth he refused to take office again. He was dected to
the Spanish Academy on the 8th of January X874 and «as
appointed a life-senator in 1886. He died at Biadiid on tbe
13th of February 1903.
Nufiez de Arce first came into notice as a dramatist, and ht
remained faithful to the stage for nearly a quarter of a ccntuiy.
In addition to three plays written in collaboratioa with Antoaio
Hurtado, he produced iQuiin es d aulorf (1859), La CmaUaid
Zapatero (1859), iComo se empeOa un maridot (i860), Dnda
de la konra (1863), Ni tanto ni tan poco (1865), ^iirit debe^ fii^
(1867) and El has de Una (1872). But Nufiez de Aire's tolcat
was more lyncal than dramatic, and his celebrity dates from tbe
appearance of Critos dd combate (1875), a odleclion of pocos
exhorting Spaniards to lay aside domestic quarrels and to save
their country from anarchy, more dangerous than a foreign foe.
He maintained his position (in popidar esteem) as tbe only possible
rival of Campoamor by a series of phlloGophic,degiac and symbolic
poenos: — Raimundo Lvlio, Ultima lametUacidn de Lcrd Byrsm
(1879), Un Idilio y una Elegta (1879), La Sdva osntra (iS:g)
and La Visi6H de Pray Martin (1880). The old brilliance sets
off the naturalistic observation of £a Pesca (1S84) and La
Maruja (1886). The list of his worksls completed by Peemas certcs
(1895) and /Sursum cordat (1900); Hemdn d loba, published
in El Liberal (January 23, 1881) and Lushd remain unfinishfd
His strength lies in the gradousness of his vision, ha sincerity
and command of his instrument; his weakness derives from hb
divided sympathies, his moods of obvious sentiment and his
rhetorical facility. But at his best, as in the Critcs dH ambaie,
he is a master of virile music and patriotic doctrine. O- F.-K.)
NUORO. a town and episcopal see of Sardinia, Italy, in the
province of Sassari, 38I m. E. of Macomer by nuL Fop. (looi .
6739. It is situated 1905 ft. above sca-levd m the east central
portion of the island, amid fine scenery. Nuoro was the capital
of a province from 1848 to i860. It is connected by road wiih
Fonni, Bitti and OroseL An inscription discovered in sii*.
about 13 m. W. of Nuoro in 1889, near Orotelli, has the lettess
FIN NVRR {fin{fis)Nurr. . . ), which are explained as rdcrriag
to the boundaries of the territory of Nuoro in Roman times,
showing (what was not known before) that the name and the
place are of Roman origin (F. Vivanet in Notisie dctfi xczi
1889, 2oa). (T. AsJ
NUPE, formerly an independent state of W. Africa, now a
province in the British protectorate of Nigeria. Under Fula rtde.
Nupe occupied both banks of the Niger for a distance of sods
1 50 m. above the Benue confluence. Only the part of N upe Donh
of the Niger now constitutes the province; area 6400 sq. b.;
estimated pop. about 150,000. It is in many portions iu^j
cultivated, and owing to its admirable water supply is likely 10
prove particulariy valuable as a field for the extensive cultivatks
of cotton. Bida (9.V.), the capital, is connected by railway (be.
1 907- 1 908) with Baro, a port on the Niger 70 m. above Lo4o;*.
Nupe had an ancient and very interesting consUtutioa «.-
which the leading features were adopted by the Fula when their
rule was established about the year 1859. Bida was fouz^ieC
in that year Nupe was conquered by the troops of the X^r
Company in 1897, and the legal status of slavery was tbca
nommally abolished. The company was, however, unable t::
occupy the country, and on the withdrawal of its troops 'be
deposed emir returned In 1901 it became necessary to sab«^=r
Nupe a second time British troops marched to Bida. T^
emir fled without fighting and was deposed. Another c^.
was appointed in his place, took the oath of allegiance to tb*
British crown, and wprked cordially with the Britisb 1
NUREMBERG
913
who was stationed at Bida. The province is divided into three
administrative districts— Bida, Lapai and Agaie. These are again
divided into nine native districts, five to the west and four to
the east of the Kaduna river. Provincial ooorts of justice have
been established.
See Nigeria, Bida. For an interesting account of the ancient
coastitution of Nupe see " The Fulani Emirates of Northern Nigeria,"
by Major J. A. Burdon in the Ceo Journ., voL xxiv (London, 1904).
NUREMBERG (Gcr. NUrnberg), a city of Germany, the second
town in Bavaria in size, and the first in commercial importance.
It lies in the district of Middle Franconia in a sandy but well-
oiltivated plain, 124 m. by rail N.W. from Munich. The city
is divided by the small river Pegnitz, a tributary of the Main,
into two parts, called respectively the Lorenzer Seite and the
Scbalder Seite, after the two principal churches. There are
four islands in the Pegnitz, which is crossed here by fourteen
bridges. Formerly among the richest and most influential of
the free imperial towns, Nuremberg is one of the few cities of
Europe that have retained their medieval aspect largely un-
impaired. Considerable sections of the andent walls aind moat
still remain, though the demolition of portions to meet the
exigencies of modem traffic and expansion has somewhat
destroyed its quaint medieval character. Of the 365 bastibns
which formerly strengthened the walls, however, nearly zoo
are still in sUu^ and a few of the interesting old gateways have
also been preserved. Most of the streets are narrow and crooked,
and the majority of the houses have their gables turned towards
the street. The general type of architecture is Gothic, but the
rich details, which are lavished with especial freedom in the
interior courts, are usually borrowed from the Renaissance.
Most of the private dwellings date from the i6th century, and
there are practically none of earlier date than the xsth century.
A praiseworthy desire to maintain the picturesqueness of the
town has led most of the builders of new houses to imitate the
lofty peaked gables, oriel windows and red-tiled roofs of the
older dwellings. Altogether Nuremberg presents a faithful
picture of a prosperous toWn of three hundred years ago.
The old burg, or castle (Kaiserscfaloss), is picturesquely
placed on a rock on the north side of the town. This dates
most probably from. the early part of the nth century, but it
received its present form mainly during the reign of the emperor
Frederick I. about 150 years later. It was restored in careful
harmony with its original appearance in 1854-1856, and part
of the interior is fitted up as a royal residence, the families of
the German emperor and of the king of Bavaria ha\'ing apart-
ments therein. In the Heidenturm are two late Romanesque
chapels, one above the other. Other parts of the castle are the
pentagonal tower, the oldest btiilding in the town, wherein are
preserved the famous " iron virgin of Nuremberg," and other
instruments of torture; the granary (Kornhaus), also called
the Kaiscrstallung; and the Vestnertor or Vestnerturm. The
castle of Nuremberg was a favourite residence of the German
sovereigns in the later middle ages, and the imperial regah'a
were kept here from 1434 to 1796. Near it are the remains of
the burg of the HohenzoUems, the principal existing part of
which is the chapel of St Walpurgis, which was destroyed with
the rest of the building in 1420, but was restored in 1892. Not
far from these ruins stands the Luginsland, a stronghold with
four corner turrets, said to have been built by the burghers in
1367 as a watch-tower against the burg of the HohensoUcms.
Nuremberg contains several interesting churches, the finest
of which are those of St Lorenz, of St Sebald and of Our Lady.
All three are Gothic edifices and are notable for their elaborately
carved doorwa3rs, in which free play has been given to the
exuberant fancy of the Gothic style, and all three enshrine
valuable treasures of art. The Church of St Lawrence, the
largest of the three, was built in the X3th and 14th centuries
and has recently been restored. In it is the masterpiece of the
sculptor, Adam KrafTt, consisting of a ciborium, or receptacle
for the host, in the form of a florid Gothic spire 65 ft. high;
the carving of this work is exquisitely minute and delicate, llie
west front contains a magnificent rose-window, and some of
the stained glass dates from the xsth and x6th centuries. In
front of the altar hangs a curious piece of wood-carving by Vcit
Stoss, representing the Salutation. The shrine of St Sebald,
in the church of St Sebald, consbting of a bronze sarcophagus
and canopy, in the richest Gothic style, adorned with numerous
statues and reliefs, is looked upon as one of the greatest achieve-
ments of German art. It was executed by Peter Vischer, the
celebrated artist in bronze, who was occupied on the work
for thirteen years (1506-X5X9), and has here shown himself
no unworthy rival of Lorenzo Ghiberti. The church of Our
Lady possesses some fine old stained-glass windows and some
paintings by Michael Wohlgemuth. ^ The Tuchersche altar, with
its winged picture, is one of the finest works of the Nuremberg
school about the middle of the xsth century. This church was
restored in X878-X88X. Other noteworthy churches are those
of St Jacob, founded about 1200 and restored in 1824; and of
St Aegidius.
The town hall (Rathaus), an edifice in the Italian style,
erected in x6x6-x6x9, contaiiu frescoes by Dilrcr, and a curious
stucco relief of a tournament held at Nuremberg in X446. The
building incorporated an older one of the 14th century, of which
the great hall, with its timber roof, is part. The most interesting
secular buildings are the houses of the old patrician families.
Among the most characteristic of these are the old residence of
the counts of Nassau, and the houses of the Tucher, Funk and
Pcller families. A spedal interest attaches to the dwellings of
Albert Dfirer, Hans Sachs, the cobblcr-poct, and Johann Palm,
the patriotic bookseller who was shot by order of Napoleon
in x8o6. There are statues of DQrer, Sachs, Mclanchthon, the
reputed founder of the grammar-school, the navigator Martin
Behaim, and Peter Henlein, the inventor of the watch; and.
the streets are further embellished with several fountains, the
most noteworthy of which are the Schdne Brunnen, X38S-X396,
in the form of a large Gothic pyramid, adorned with statues
of the seven electors, the " nine worthies," and Moses and the
prophets; and the G&nsemAnnchen or goose-mannikin, a clever
little bronze figure by Pankratz Labenwolf. On the way to the
cemetery of St John, which contains the graves of Diirer, Sachs,'
Behaim and other Nuremberg worthies, are Krafft's stations,
seven pillars bearing stone reliefs of the Passion, and ranked
among the finest works of the sculptor.
The Germanic national museum, established in an old Car-
thusian monastery, has developed into one of the largest and
most important institutions of its kind in Germany. It includes
a picture-gallery, principally of German works of the xsth and
x6th centuries, including masterpieces* by Holbein, DQrer,
Wohlgemuth and others. The municipal library contains about
3000 manuscripts and 80,000 printed books, some of which are
of great rarity.
The population of Nuremberg was, in 1905, including a
garrison of about 3000 men, 294,344, of whom X4S,354 were males
and 148,990 females. Of these again X96,907 were Protestants
(Evangelical), 86,939 Roman Catholics and 6819 Jews. At the
height of its prosperity in the middle ages the population has
been estimated at as high a figure as x 50,000, but there seems good
reason to believe that it did not exceed 40,000 to 50,000 souls.
In x8i8 it had sunk to 27,000, but since then has steadily
increased. On the xst of January 1899, thirteen outlying
communes were incorporated, extending the area of the town
from 2805 to 13,700 acres.
Nuremberg occupies a high place among the industrial and
commercial centres of Europe. The principal manufactures
are toys and fancy articles in metal, carved wood and ivory,
which are collectively known as Nuremberg wares. Nuremberg
is the chief market in Eur<^ for hops. It is an important
junction for railways to all parts of Germany, and is on the
main line from Cologne and Frankfort-on-Maln to Munich,
Vienna and Eger. In addition to its railways, trade is facilitated
by the Ludwig canal, connecting the Danube and the Main.
History.— The fiist authentic mention of Nuremberg, which
seems to have been called into existence by the foundation of the
casUe, occurs in a document of X050; and about the same period
9H
NURSE— NURSING
it received from the emperor Henry m. permission to establish
a mint and a maikct. It is said to have been destroyed by the
emperor Henry V. in 1 105, but if tliis was the case the town must
have been very speedily rebuilt, as in 11 27 we find the emperor
Lothair taking it from the duke of Swabia and assigning it to
Henry the Proud, duke of Bavaria. An imperial officer, styled
the burggrave of Nuremberg, who, however, seems to have been
merely the military governor of the castle, and to have ezerdsed
no sway over the citizens, became prominent in the 1 2th century.
This office came into the hands of the counts of Hohcnzollem at
the beginning of the X3th century, and burggrave of Nuremberg
is still one of the titles of their descendant, the German emperor.
The government of the town was vested in the patrician families,
who, contrary to the usual course of events in the free towns,
succeeded in permanently excluding the civic gilds from all
sharo of municipal power, although in. 1347 there was a sharp
rising against this oligarchy. The town was specially favoured
by the German monarrhs, who frequently resided and held diets
here, and in 12 19 Frederick IL coniferred upon it the rights of a
free imperial town. By the terms of this charter the town
appears to have been immediately subjea to the king, who was
represented by his magistrate (or SchuUMeiss), In a short time,
however, the latter appears to have been assisted by a council,
consisting of 13 consides (burgomasters) and 13 scabini (assessors),
who collectively formed the governing and administrative body
under the presidency of the bailiff. The last-named official
soon confined himself to the judicial magisterial office, and a
further increase in the numbers of the coundl having taken place
by the appointment of 8 nominees of the king, a municipal council
of 34, under the direction of the senior consul or burgomaster,
dealt with matters exclusively dvic. Later this council (the
kleine Rat) was increased to 42 members, 8 of whom belonged
to the artisan class.
In X356 Nuremberg witnessed the promulgation of the famous
Golden Bull of the emperor Charles IV. At the beginning of the
Z5th century the burggraves of Nuremberg, who had in the
meantime raised themselves to the rank of princes of the Empire,
were invested with the margraviate of Brandenburg, and sold
their casUe to the town. They, however, reserved certain rights,
and their insistence on these led to fierce and sanguinary feuds
between the burghers and the margraves Albert Achilles and
Frederick and Albert Aid blades of Bayreuth.
The quarrel with the margraves, however, did not interfere
with the growth of the town's prosperity, which reached its acme
in the x6th century. Like Augsburg, Nuremberg attained
great wealth as an intermediary between Italy and the East
on the one hand, and northern Europe on the other. Its manu-
factures were so well known that' it passed into a proverb —
" Nuremberg's hand goes through every land." Its dtizens
lived in such luxury that Aeneas Sylvius (Pope Pius II.) has
left it on record that a simple burgher of Nuremberg was better
lodged than the king of 3cotland. The town had gradually
extended its sway over a territory nearly 500 sq. m. in extent,
and was able to furnish the emperor Maximilian with a contingent
of 6060 troops. But perhaps the great glory of Nuremberg lies
in its claim to be the prindpal fount of German art. Its important
architectural features have already been described. Ilie love
of its dtizens for sculpture is abundantly manifest in the statues
and carvings on their houses. Adam Kraff t, Vdt Stoss and Peter
Vischer form a trinity of sculptors of which any dty might be
proud. In painting Nuremberg is not less prominent, as the
names of Wohlgemuth and Dttrer sufficiently indicate. In the
decorative arts the Nuremberg handicraftsman attained great
perfection in ministering to the luxurious tastes of the burghers,
and a large proportion of the old German furniture, silver-plate,
stoves and the like, which are now admired in industrial museums,
was made in Nuremberg workslu^. Wenzd Jamnitzer (1508-
z 585), the worker in silver, is perhaps eminent enough to be added
to the above list of artists. Its place in literary history— by
no means an unimportant one — it owes to Hans Sachs and the
other meisters&nger. A final proof of its vigorous vitality at
this period may be found in the numerous inventions of .its
inhabitants, whiph indude watches, at first called ** Nur em b et g
eggs," the air-gun, gun-locks, the terrestrial and cdcstial gbbcs,
the composition now called brass, and the art of wire-drawii^
Nuremberg was the first of the imperial towns to throw in its
lot with the Reformation, and it embraced Protestantism with
iu wonted vigour about 1525. Its name is associaUed with a
peace conduded between Charles V. and the Protestants in 1532.
The first blow to its prosperity was the discovery of the sea-roate
to India in 1497; and the second was inflicted by the Thirty
Years' War, during which Gustavus Adolphus was besieged here
in an entrenched camp by Wallenstdn. During the eight or tea
weeks that the blockade lasted no fewer, than xo,ooo of the
inhabitants are said to have.died of want or disease. .The down-
fall of the town was accelerated by the illiberal policy of its
patrician rulers; and the French Revolutipn zeduoed it to such
a degree that in 1796 it offeited itself and its territories to the
king of Prussia on condition that he would pay its debts.
Prussia, however, refused the offer. In 1803 Nuremberg was
allowed to maintain its nominal position as a free dty, but in
x8o6 it was annexed to Bavaria.
See Lotbucr, NUrnUr^er Jahrbuchef his ntj (Nuremberg. i83>-
tflJS): NurtiUrgs V0fUU HHd GitfimpaH (Nuremberg. 1&45); and
Ctschichte dtr IwKssiadt Iftimbcrt rtr Ztil Kaiser Karls IV. (Berlin.
JS7j); PrieiWi G€Hkkhi£ der StsM NvrrtWri bis auf die lumsU Zeit
(Nurcmbcrgi 1874)^ B, Schfrnl^Ftk, Aknumitrtiscke Studitn (Lripzi|.
1894); L' R04tl, AtNiitnbfr^ {Nurembcrc, 1S95); E. MummenJiofi.
AtinUtnb^g bij fum Jattre rjjo {i^J; R. Hagcn, Bilder e%s
NiirnUrgi Cachichii {NufCRikrg, iB&g): I'. Koth, Die Einfuhntni
dcf Refcnmaiion in NiimbfTi tWurfburs. ifiSs); J. M. Lotter. Scgen,
Legettdin und CackUhita der^i^i Niirnbtrg (Nuremberg. 18^): the
SudStnschriften but ^taaii- und Ktdtur^isckichte der ReukutaiL
UrnbeFg (Nuremberg, 1*93, lol.); 3nd the iiiUeilumten of the
Vtrnnjur Geichkhie. dcrSiadi Numb£rf (NMrpmberg, 1879. foL). See
alio C* Headlam, Th^ Jiarj 0/ ^'uTemh!rg (Lond o n, 1899).
MURSB (a shortened form of the earlier " ziourice," adapted
through the French from Lat. nutriXt nuirire, to nourish),
primarily a woman who suckles and takes care of an ^"fa*!T.
and more generally one who has the general charge of childrea;
also a person, male or female, who attends to the sick, and
particularly one who has been trained professionally for that
purpose (see Nursing).
NURSING. The devdopment of sick-nursing, which has
brought into existence a large, highly-skilled, and organised
profession, is one of the most notable features of
modem social life. The evolution of the sick-nurse is
maizUy due to three very diverse influences— religion, war and
sdence — ^to name them in chronological order. It was religicA
which first induced ladies, in the earlier centuries of Christianity,
to take up the care of the sick as a charitable duty. The earikst
forerunner of the great sisterhood of nurses of whom we have
any record was Fabiola, a patrician Roman lady, who in aj>. 3S0
founded a hospital in Rome with a convalescent home attached,
and devoted herself and her fortune to the care of the sick poor.
She had a rival in the empress Flaccilla, the pious consort d
Theodosius I. (a.d. 379-39S)i who also personally visited the
hospitals and attended on the sick. Organized nursing does
not appear to have formed any part of medical treatzDcat.
except in «o far as the deacons of the church attended on the
poor, until the 4th century of the Christian era. After that date
the employment of women for this purpose must have developed
rapidly, for in the reign of Honorius (a.d. 395-423) six hundred
women were engaged in the hospitals of Alexandria. These
institutions were managed by the dergy, and throu^oot the
dark and middle ages the ho^ital and nursing systems weft
connected with religious bodies. Nurses were provided by the
male and female monastic orders, an arrangement which siiH
omtinues in most Roman Catholic countries, though it is grado-
ally being abandoned through the increasing demands oC medk*i
sdence, which have led the hospitals to esublish training sdiods
of their own. The names of the oldest foundations which st2
survive, such as the H6td Dieu in Paris, St Thomas's and
St Bartholomew's in London, the order of St Augustine, ard
(in the form of a modem revival) that of St John of JemsaksL
suffidently indicate the original religious connerion, Tbt
NURSING
915
Older of St Vincent de Paul, founded in 1653 for the express
puipose, is still the largest nursing organiaation in the world.
Even in Protestant England, where purely secular training
schoob have reached their highest development, the generic
title of Sister, alike prised by its holders and honoured by the
public, remains the popular and professional synonym for head
i\ane, and perpetuates the old association. Nursing, as a
popular or fashionable occupation, is not a modem invention.
Sir Henry Burdett quotes an order, dated 30th May 1578,
directing the master and the prior of the H6tel Dieu "not to
receive henceforth any novices without speaking of it to the
company, because there are an excessive number of nuns and
novices, who cause great expense to the said H6tel Dieu.''
In Protestant countries a secular nursing system came in with
the Reformation. The staff appointed for St Bartholomew's,
on its re-establishment by Henry VIII. in 1544, consisted of a
matron and twelve nurses, who were engaged in domestic
occupations when off duty. Thus nursing became a menial
office and an inferior means of livelihood, adopted by women
of the lower orders without any training or special skill; and
so it continued down to the middle of the xgth century, when
a new movement began which was destined to revolutionize the
status of the nurse.
Its distinctive feature was the systematic training of nurses for
their vocation. Previously a certain amount of regular instruc-
tion had no doubt been given here and there by individual
physicians and surgeons; l^tures to nurses were delivered in the
New York Hospital as early as xyga But these were isolated
efforts. Such skill as nurses possessed was picked up in the wards.
No qualifications were required, nor indeed would they have
been forthcoming, so low had the -calling sunk in public estima-
tion. The credit of inaugurating the new order of things belongs
to Germany, and here again the religious influence came into play/
The beginning of the modem system dates from the foundation
of the institute for training deaconesses at Kaiserswerth by
Pastor Fliedner in X836. It is trao'that state training schools
for male nurses had previously existed in Prussia, the oldest
having been founded at Magdeburg in 1799; but the employment
of men in hospital wards is a feature of the German s^tem which
has not been o>pied by other advanced countries, and seems
to be in pcocess of abandonment in Germany. It is a heritage
from the middle ages, when the Knights Hospitallers undertook
for men the duties discharged in female institutions by the nuns.
The male schools, therefore, stand somewhat apart, though they
mark a stage in the evolution of nursing as the earliest regular
training establishments. The Kaiserswerth Institute, on the
contrary, had a far-reaching and lasting influence, and may
fairly claim to be the mother of the modem system. England,
in particular, owes much to it, for there Florence Nightingale
acquired the practical knowledge which enabled her afterwards
to turn her remarkable gift of organization to such brilliant
account. The example of Kaiserswerth was soon followed, and
not in Germany only. In 1838 the Society of Friends founded
a nursing organization iir Philadelphia, and in 1840 Mrs Fry, a
member of the same community, started the Institution of
Nursing Sisters in London. In 1857 the nurses attached to it
numbered ninety. They received their practical training at
Guy's and St Thomas's Hospitals. On the continent institutes
for nursing deaconesses were founded at Strassburg, Utrecht,
Berlin, Bi^sLau, K5nigsberg and Carlsruhe between 1842 and
385Z. In London a -Churdi of England training institution
(3t John's House) was opened in 1848. There were three classes
— (t) sisters, (3) probationers, (3) nurses. The nursing at King's
College Hospital was for many years undertaken by this society,
whose members were trained at the hospitaL
The training system, thus inaugurated on a semi-religious
basis, received a new impetus from the Crimean War, which
waK further emphasized by the Civil War in America and the
subsequent great conflicts on the continent. The despatch of
Florence Nightingale with a staff of trained nurses, to super-
intend the administration of the military hospitals was the
direct result of the publicity given to the details of the Crimean
War by The Times, and it formed a new departure which riveted
the ^yes of the civilized world. The work undertaken and
accomplished by this lady was far more important than the mere
nursing of sick and wounded soldiers. She had grasped the
prind^es of hygiene, which were then beginning to be under-
stood, and she applied them to the reform of the hospital
administration. In civil life it had a marked effect in stimulating
the training movement and raising the status of the nurse;
but substantial results were only obtained by degrees. It was
not until x86o that the modem hospital school system was
definitely inaugurated by the opening of the Nightingale Fund
School at St Thomas's Hospital, founded with the money sub-
scribed by the British public in recognition of Miss Nightingale's
national services, and worked on principles laid down by her.
In the meantime several nuzsidg sodeties, in- addition to those
previously mentioned, had been founded in England, and else-
where. Among them the Baden Ladies' Sodety, founded in
1859 by the Grand Duchess Luise, deserves mention. In the
same year the first district nurse began work in Liverpool;
and in X865 the reform of the much-neglected workhouse nursing
was inaugurated by Miss Agnes Jones and twelve nurses from
St Thomas's, who took up the work in LiverpooL At this time
England took a dedded lead, which she has never lost. Other
countries gradually followed. In Germany the Albert Nursing
Sodety was founded by Queen Carola of Saxony, and the Alice
Sodety by the Grand Duchess Alice of Hesse, both in 1867.
In France, where the nursing was comparativdy well performed
by the reUgious orders> no change was made \mtil 1877, when
a training school was opened in Paris by the municipality,
and two others by the Assistance Publique, in connexion with
the Salp^tridre and Bic£tre Hospitals. In the United Sutes
schools were opened m New York, New Haven and Boston in
X873. The British colonies, Austria, and other Europeao
countries followed some years latef.
It remained for the third influence to complete the work begus
and to devdop sjrstematic nursing to its present dimensions.
Since x88o the increasing demands of medical knowledge have
well-nigh revolutionized the craft in the home, the hospital
and the workhouse. A large part of the change may be summed
up in the words " sdentific deanliness." The outcome has been
tq. raise the dignity of the calling, to induce persons of a
superior dass to adopt it in increasing numbers, to enlarge
the demand for their services, and to multiply the means of
educating them.
Nursing does not appear, to be regulated by law In any
country, though attempts in this direction had been made is
England.^ Its organisation is voluntary, and even in
state or munidpal institutions is dependent on the mm4
direction of the administration. In Great Britain
nearly all the general and spedal hospitals and many ""^
of the poor-law infirmaries offer systematic professional training
to nurses. The provisions differ considerably in detail, but m
the larger schools the system is uniform in all important respects.
Candidates must be between a$ (sometimes 21 or 22) and 35
years of age, and must produce satisfactory evidence of character,
education, health and physique; after a personal interview
and one, two or three months' trial they are admitted for three
years' training. During this period they receive regular Instruc-
tion in theoretical and practical knowledge, and have to pass
periodical examinations. At the end of it they are granted
certificates and mayserve as staff nurses. Theypay no premium,
and generally receive a salary of £8 to* £12 in the first year,
rising annually to £30 or £35 as staff nurse, and subsequently
to £40 or £50 as sister or head nurse. They live in a home
attached to the institution, under a matron, and in the most
modem establishments each nurse has a .separate bedroom,
with common dining and recreation rooms. Private nursing
staffs are attached to several of the hospitals; they are recruited
from the staff nurses and probationers on completion of their
course, and supply nurses to private patients. In the special
* In 1902 an act was passed to establish a Central Midwivcs Board
and regulated the trairnqg and employment of midwives.
9i6
NURSING
hospitals the tninteg is shorter, being folr one or two years.
There seems to be a constant tendency to increase the require-
ments. At St Bartholomew's, St George's, the London Hospital,
St Thomas's and others, probationen must enter for four years,
and at St Bartholomew's they have to pass an entrance examina-
tion in elementary anatomy, physiology and other subjects.
At all the more important schools the number of applications
is many times greater than the vacancies.
. In Great Britain trained and certificated nurses generally
belong to a society or association. The most noteworthy of
the associations is Queen Victoria's Jubilee Institute for Nurses.
It was founded in 1887 with the object of providing skilled
nursing for the sick poor in their own homes. A great many of
the provincial nursing associations are affiliated to it. The
number of nurses supported by each branch varies. The qualifica-
tions for a Queen's nurse are as follows: (i) training at an
approved general ho^ital or infirmary for two years; (2)
approved training in district nursing for not less than six months,
including the nursing of mothers and infants after child-birth;
(3) nurses in country districts must in addition have had at least
three months' approved training in midwifery. Candidates
possessing the first qualification are received on trial for one
month, after which they complete their six months' training
for the second qualification, at the same time entering into an
agreement to serve as district nurse for one or two years at the
end of the six months. The salary during training is£i 3, los., and
afterwards £30 to £35 a year, with board, lodging, kundry and
uniform. With regard to the earnings of nurses in generd, the
salaries paid in hospitals have alrndy been mentioned; for
private work the scales in force at different institutions vary
considerably, according to the other advantages and benefits
provided. At some the nurses receive all their own earnings,
minus a percentage deducted for the maintenance of the institute;
at others they are paid a fixed sahuy, as a rule from £25 to £30
a year, plus a varying percentage on their earnings or a periodical
bonus according to length of service. This is perhaps the
commonest system, but some of the best nursing homes give a
somewhat higher fixed salary without any percentage. In all
these cases the nurses receive in addition board and lodging,
laundry and uniform, or an equivalent allowance. For spedal
cases— infectious, massage, mental and nuitemity— nurses on
a fixed salary usually receive extra pay. The fees commonly
charged by high-class institutions for the services of a trained
and certificated nurse are— for ordinary cases £3, 3S. a week,
for special cases £2, 1 3s. 6d. or £3, 3s. a week; but many provindal
associations supply nurses for£z, xs. a week and upwards.
The discrepancy between the fees paid by patients and the
salaries received by nurses, especially in London, has occasionally
excited unfavourable comment, but it is to be remembered that
the nurses are maintained when out of work or ill, and have other
advantages; many institutions either provide pensions or assist
the members of their staff to join the Royal National Pension
Fund.
To complete this account of the orpnization in Great Britain a
few details with regard to special nursing are added.
FeotT. — Regular training on the same plan as in eeneral hospitals
is provided in London at the fever hospitals of the Metropolitan
Asylums Board (i3 in number, with from 360 to 760 bods each),
and at a considerable number of provincial institutions. '
Insanity. — ^The Mcdlco-p8ychologic£l Association of Great Britain
and Ireland holds examinations and grants certificates in mental
nursing; candidates must undergo three years* regular training, with
instruction by loctureft, &c., which may be obtained in a large
number of public asylums by arran^ment with the Association;
one county asylum (Northampton) gives its own certificates after a
three years' course.
Distria Nursing. — In addition to the Queen's nurses, of whom
details have been given above, many local associations train their
own nurses for this work. CoUage and village nursing are varieties
of the same department; the former is organized on the benefit
system, and aims at supplying domestic nelp and rick-nursing
combined in rural districts for an annual subscription of from 3s.
to los.. according to the class in life of the family, and a weekly
fee of the same amount during attendance.
MonMy Nursing and ATiVlvt/rfy.— Systematic instruction in these
•ubjccu is given at some fifty lying-in institutMos in different parts
of the kingdom. The usual course fornuning is not leas than ttoce
months, and for midwifery not less than six months; a prauoa
is retiuired of la or 13 guineas for three moncha, and 35 goiaeas
for six months.
Male Nursing.— Two or three associations in London soppty male
nurses ffees 3 to 4 guineas a week), but there appears to be only ooc
institution, apart from the military and naval services, at wlucfa tbey
are systematically trained — namely, the National Hoqsttal for tbe
Paralysed and Epileptic.
Massage b taught regularly at the hospital just named, and at a
few other special hospitals. Competent operators acv sopplaed by
the Incorporated Sodety of Trained Masseuses and. to tone cstesc.
b]r other nurring associations; but this branch of tbe professson t»
still imperfealy organized (see Massage).
Children. — A large number of children's hospitals throngboot
the country give regular training in the nurring of dilldren; they
take probationers at a somewhat earlier age than tbe general
schools; the course is usually shorter (one or two years), and the
salaries dightly lower.
The State offers employment to niirses in the naval and miStary
hospitals. Queen Alexandra's Imperial Nursing Service mmaar^maeA
in 190a. Candidates for it must be between 25 and 35 yean, single
or widows and of good social status. They must have bad three
years' training in a general hospital Foreign Service must be takes
as required. Nurses are eligible for a penrion after 10 years' service,
the amount increaring up to the age of ^5 when retirement is coid-
pulsory. The Royal Naoal Nursing Servtce is organized on mudi tl«
same baris. Other organizations are Tke Army Nursing Reserve and
Queen Alexandra's Imperial Military Nursini^ Reserve, and there >»
also a nurring reserve attached to the territorial fwcea.
In the more important British co^ie^— Australasia, Canada
and South Africa — there are now a conriderable number of
hospital schools and other institutions framed and oonductcd
on the English model. Salaries and fees are very much the same
in Australia; in Canada and South Africa they are hxgber.
In the Untied States a similar S3rstem prevails in New York,
Boston, Brooklyn, Chicago, Baltimore, Philadelphia, New
Haven and many other large towns. The period of trainicg is
either two or three years. At the Johns Hopkins School at
Baltimore twelve scholarships of $100 and $120 each are
awarded annually; graduate nurses are paid $360 (£72) a
year. Salaries arc altogether much higher in the United States.
At the Boston City Hospital graduate nurses receive $420 (£84)
a year, and at the Indianapolis City Hospital those on pri\~atc
duty are paid $73 a month, which is equivalent to £173 a ycir,
with board, lodging, laundry and uniform. This may be taken
to indicate the possible earnings of trained nurses workir.g
independently, as they usually do in America. The fees charged
for trained nurses run from $1 3 to $35 a week, and even more for
special cases. Male nurses are trained at the Bellcvue Ho^tal,
New York, the Grace Hospital, Detroit, and elsewhere. In the
American schools more attention is paid to the preparatioB of
nurses for private work than in the British (Burdett), aad a
directory or registry of them is kept in most large towiK.
In Germany^ their original home, both training schools acJ
societies have multiplied and developed. The period of training
appears to be considerably shorter than in Great Britain and
America. Members of the Albert Sodety of Saxony, bowevtr,
spend two years in the wards at Dresden, and a third at Jjops^
attending lectures and demonstrations. They are sent oat to
nurse rich and poor alike, and their pay is very smalL Most
of the German institutes have pension funds.
In Prance a great deal of the nursing was formerly in the
hands of reh'gious orders, but there too the hospital school
system, inaugurated in 1877, has grown. The schoob managed
by the Assistance PiMique in Paris give a very thorougfi oonzae
of instruction.
In Russia nurring is mainly in the hands of the Red Croak
Society, whose members are, however, trained in the has^iul
schools.
In /to/y, SpaUif Portugal and Bdgium scientific nurung k
in a backward state. The old religious system still prevail
to a large extent, and, though some of the orders do their work
with great devotion, the standard of knowledge and skill b net
up to modem requirements. At San Rcmo and Rome |iistit9>
tions have been established for providing English trained nuxxa
to private <
NUSHKI— NUT
917
Austria is also in a very backward state, in spite of the fame
of the Vienna cliniques. The Red Cross Society provides a
certain amount of trained nursing, and next to it the best-
organized work is done by religious orders; but the nursing
in the hospitals appears to be still in a neglected state. The
Brothers of Mercy have charge of sopie of the men's
hospitals, and also carry on a remarkable system of district
nursing.
In Holland and the Scandinavian countries the organization
is more modem and fairly adequate.
For full details on the large subject of the duties and qualifica-
tions of nurses the reader is referred to the numerous text-books
and other technical authorities. Only a few general
DmOem mad observations can be made here. Many candidates
approadh the calling with a very imperfea apprecia-
tion of its exacting character. The work is not easy
or to be taken up lightly. It demands physical strength, sound
health, scrupulous cleanliness, good temper, self-control, intelli-
gence and a strong sense of duty. It embraces many duties —
some of them menial and disagreeable — besides the purely
medical and surgical functions. This is especially the case
with district nursing, which is the highest and most exact-
ing branch of the profession, because it imposes the greatest
responsibility with the fewest resources and demands the most
varied qualifications, while affording none of the attractions
incidental to hospital work or private nursing among the rich.
It is comparatively easy to fulfil routine duties, when every
means is at hand and the standing conditions are the most
favourable possible; when ventilation, warmth, light and
cleanliness are all provided of the best, and when assistance
can be summoned in a momenL To be thrown on your own
resources and make the best of adverse conditions is an entirely
different matter; it requires a thorough knowledge not of
routine, but of principles. It is impossible, therefore, for nurses
to be over-educated in the fullest sense of the word; but it is
possible for them to be inappropriately educated, and perhaps
that is sometimes the case now. Probably nursing has been
elaborated to the inevitable point of specialization, and a some-
what different preparation is needed for different branches of
the art.
Allusion has been made above to the subject of male nursing.
It hardly finds a place in the British civil system, and was con-
demned for hospitals in Germany, where it is at its best, by so
eminent an authority as Professor Virchow. In the South
African War of 1899-1902 it was even suggested that female
nurses should replace orderlies at the front. The only valid
reason for preferring women to attend men rather than members
of their own sex is tbe difficulty of obtaining a supply of equally
well qualified and satisfactory male nurses. But tMs difficulty
need not be permanent, and the assumption is much to be
deprecated. It is, indeed, most desirable that men should be
nursed by men. The advantages are many and real. For one
thing women do not possess the physical strength which is
often required. They cannot lift a heavy man, and ought not
to be asked to do it. Then it is excessively irksome to a sensitive
man to be attended by women for various necessary offices. In
order to avoid it he will endeavour to do without assistance, and
seriously prejudice his chances of recovery.
Authorities.— Sir Henry C. Burdett. Hospitals and Asylums of
the World; The Nursing Profession (annual); Hampton, Nursing;
Percy G. Lewis, Nursing, its Theory and Practue; Eva C. E. Luckcs,
Jfospiial Sisters and their Duties i Morten, How to become a Nurse;
Florence Nighting;a1c, Notes on Nursing; Nightingale Boyd,
• • Nursing," in Quain's Dictionary of Medicine,
NUSHKI, a town and district of BaluchisUn. The town
lies 70 m. south-west of Quetta, and is situated in a pUiin at the
base of the Quetta plateau, 2900 ft. above the sea. Pop. (1901)
^44. From this point the flat BaluchisUn desert stretches away
northwards and westwards to the Helmund river. The adminis-
t r-ation of the Nushki district was taken over from the khan of
ICalat by the Indian government in 1896, and was leased from
liim on a perpetual quit rent in 1899. In 1902 a railway of
9 X m. was sanaioned from Quetta to Nushki, which was com-
pleted in 1905. This railway makes Nushki the starting-point
of the caravan route to Seistan. From the strategic point of
view a force operating from Nushki would flank any advance
from the north on Kandahar, and would also guard the south-
west approach to the fortress of Quetu.
NUSKU, the luime of the light and fire-god in Babylonia and
Assyria, who is hardly to be distinguished, from a certain time
on, from a god Girru— formerly read Gibil. Nusku-Girru is
the symbol of the heavenly as well as of the terrestrial fire. As
the former he is the son of Anu, the god of heaven, but he is
h'kewise associated with Bel of Nippur as the god of the earth
and regarded as his first-bom son. A centre of his cult in
Assyria was in Harran, where, because of the predominating
character of the moon-cult, he is viewed as the son of the moon-
god Sin (q.v.). Nusku-Girru is by the side of Ea, the god of water,
the great purifier. It is he, therefore, who is called upon to
cleanse the sick and suffering from disease, which, superinduced
by the demons, was looked upon as a species of impurity affecting
the body
The fire-god is also viewed as the patron of the arts and the
god of civilization in general, because of the natural association
of all human progress with the discovery and use of fire. As
among other nations, the fire-god was in the third instance looked
upon as the protector of the family. He becomes the mediator
between humanity and the gods, since it is through the fire on
the altar that the offering is brought into the presence of
the gods.
While temples and sanctuaries to Nusku-Girru are found in
Babylonia and Assyria, he is worshipped more in symbolical
form than the other gods. For the very reason that his presence
is common and universal he is not localized to the same extent
as his fellow-deities, and, while alwa3rs enumerated in a list of
the great gods, his place in the systematized pantheon is more
or less vague. The conceptions connected with Nusku are of
distinctly popular origin, as is shown by his prominence in
incantations, which represent the popular element in the cult,
and it is significant that in .the astro-theological system of the
Babylonian priests Nusku-Girru is not assigned to any particular
pkice in the heavens. (M. Ja.)
NUSRETABAD, the capital of Persian Seistan, so called after
Nusret d Mulk, a former deputy governor of Seistan; when
built, c. 1870, it was first called Nasirabad in honour of Nasr-ud-
din Shah; other names, used locally, are Shahr (town) i Seistan,
Shahr i Nassiriyeh, or simply Shahr, the town. It is the residence
of British and Russian consuls, and has post and telegraph
offices.'
NUT (O. Eng. knulu, cf. Dutch noot, Ger. Nuss\ allied with
Gael. cno\ it is not of the same form as Lat. nux), a term applied
to that class of fruit which consists generally of a single kernel
enclosed in a hard shelL Botanically speaking, nuts are one-
celled fruits with hardened pericarps, sometimes more or less
enveloped in a cupule or cup, formed by the aggregation of the
bracts as in the hazel and the acorn. In commerce, however, the
term has a wider application and embraces many fruits having
hard woody indehiscent shells or coverings without reference to
their enclosed seeds or kernels, besides leguminous pods, and
even tuberous roots. A great number of nuts enter into commerce
for various purposes, principally as articles of food or sources
of oil, and for several ornamental and useful purposes. For the
most part the edible nuts are very rich in oil, with only a small
percentage of the other carbohydrates, starch, sugar, &c., and
they also contain a large proportion of nitrogenous constituents.
Thus possessing rich nutrient principles in a highly concentrated
form, nuts are by themselves rather difficult of digestion, and
the liability of many of them to become rancid is also a source
of danger and a hindrance to their free use. Oleaginous nuts
used for food are likewise employed more or less as sources of
oil, but on the other hand there are many oil-nuts of commercial
importance not embraced in the list of edible nuts.
On the following page b set out an alphabetical enumeration
of the more important nuts, and of products passing under that
name, used either as articles of food or as sources of oil.
9i8
NUT
Name.
Source.
Locality.
RemarKS
Almond
Amyidalus eommtmut
var.dtdcis
S.Europe ....
Food.oiL
Almond (bitted) . .
Amygdalus eommumSt
var. amara
oa.
Ar nut or earth nut .
Tubers of BuniumJUxu^
fwn and other species
W. Eutope (Britain) .
Fbod.
Bambarra ground nut
Voandatia svbUnanta
Tropics, especially
Africa
India
Food.
Ben nut
""nusa"^
Oil.
Bitternut ....
""mo^^r" ^~"^
N.America . . .
See HiCKOKT.
Brazil nut . . . .
BerlkoUetia excelsa . .
S. America. . . .
Food, oil.
Bread nut . . . .
Brosimum Alicastnim
W.Indies ....
Food.
Butter or Souari nut .
Caryocar nuciferum . .
Guiana
Food.
Cahoun nut . . .
AUaUaCohune . . .
Honduras ....
Oil.
Candle nut. . . .
AUuriUs triloba . . .
S. Sea Islands . . .
Oil.
Cashew nut . . .
Anacardium ocddetUale .
W. Indies and Tropical
America
S. Europe ....
Food. OIL
Chestnut ....
Casianeavesca . . .
Corylus AveUana . . .
Food.
Cob, filbert, or haxel .
Europe (Britain), &c.
SceHAZBL.
Cob nut oi Jamaica .
W.Indies and Tropical
America
Tropics
Food.
Coco-nut ....
Coeos nucifera . . .
Food. otL
Cola nut ... .
Cola acuminata ...
W.Africa . . . .
Food.
Dilcanut . t . .
Irringia Barteri . . .
W.Africa ....
Food, oiL
Ginkgo nut . . .
Ginkgo biloba (seed) . .
Arachis kypogfiea . .
Japan, China . . ^
TropioB
N.America . . .
Food, oil.
Ground nut or pea nut
See GROUND Not..
Hickory nut . . .
Caryaalba ....
See Hickory.
Hog nut ....
Caryaporcina, . . .
N.America . .• .
Eaten by animals.
Icsuit'snut . . .
Mocker nut ...
Trapanatano. . . .
S. Europe ....
Food.
N.America . . .
See Hickory.
Moreton Bay chestnut
Castanoipermum austraU
Australia ....
Food.
Nutmeg ....
Myristica fatua, li. lom-
entosa^ dec.
EUocarfnts Ganitnu, &c.
E. Indies . . . .
Spice. See Nutmeg.
Nutmeg (wild). . .
Tropics
Spice. See Nutmeg.
Olive nut ....
E. Indies . . . .
Food.
Palm nut . . . .
Eiaeis guineensis . . .
W.Africa ....
Oil. Sec Palm.
Pecan nut ....
Carya mvaeformis . .
N. America . . .
Food, oil. See Hickory.
Pekea nut . . . .
Caryocar butyrosum . .
Guiana
Food.
Physic nut . . . .
Curcas purgans . . .
PtiiM5 Finea, &c . .
Tropical America . .
Oil.
Pine nut . . . .
Italy
S. Europe, Ac. . . .
Food.
Pistachio nut . . .
Pistachia vera . . .
Food.
Quandang nut . .
Ravensara nut . . .
Fusanus acuminatus . .
Australia ....
Food.
Agathophyllum aromaticum
Madagascar . . .
Spice,
Rush nut ... .
CyPerusesculentus (tubers]
S. Europe, Ac. . . .
Food.
Sapucaya nut . . .
Tahiti chestnut . .
Lecytkis OUaria . . .
Brazil
Food.
Inocarpus edtdis . . .
S. Sea IsUnds . . .
Food.
Walnut
Juglans regia ....
Asia, Europe . . .
Food.oiL
Water chestnut . .
Various species of Trapa
S. Europe. India, &c. .
Food.
There reniain to be enumerated a number of nuts of commercial
value for turnery and ornatpental purposes, for medicinal use,
and for several miscellaneous applications in the arts. These
include:
Name.
Betel nut . .
Bladder nut
Boomah nut
Bonduc nut
Clearing nut
Coquilla nut
Corozo nut or vegetable
ivory
Cumara nut (Tonka
bean)
Grugru nut.
Horse chestnut . .
Marking nut . . .
Nut galls . . . .
Poison nut ....
Sassafras nut .. . .
Snake nut ....
Soap nut ....
Source.
Areca Catechu
Staphylea pinnata . .
Pycnocoma macrophylla .
Cuilandina Bonduc . .
Slrycknos potatorum .
Attalea funifera . . .
Pkytele^uu macrocarpa .
Dipterix odorata . . .
Acrocomia selerocarpa
Aesculus Hippocastanum
Senucarpus Anacardium
Quercus infectoria . .
Strycknos Niae-Vomica .
Nectandra Puckury . .
Opkiocaryon paradoxum .
Sapindus Saponaria . .
Locality.
importanoe are or wOI be
separately notioed, and here
further allusion is only made
to a few which form canent
articles of commeroe, not
otherwise treated of.
The bread nut of Jamaica
is the fruit of a lofty tree,
Brosimum. Alicastnim. It is
about an inch in diameter,
and encloses a sin^ seed,
which, toasted or boiled, is
a pleasant and Dutiitioos
article of food.
The souari or svuahwa
nut, called also the " Butter
nut of Demerara," and by
fruiteren the " Sttwanow
nut,*' is the fruit of Caryocar
nuciferum, a native of the
foresu of Gttiaaa, growing
.80 ft. in height. This is
perhaps the finest of all the
fruits called nuts. The
kernel is lazge, soft, and
even sweeter than the
almond, which it someiriiat
resembles in taste. The few
that are imported come from
Demerara, and are about the
sixe of an egg, loinewhat
kidney-shaped, of a xkh
reddi^-brown oolonr, and
covered with lazge rounded
tuberclo.
The pekea nut, similar in
appearance and properties^
is the produce of Ceryaccr
butyrosumf growing in the
same regions of tropkal
America.
The Jamaica cob nut is
the produce of a enpbor-
biaceous tree, Ompkclea
diandra, the seeds of which resemble in taste the ordinary cob
or hazel nut. The seed, however, contains a dektezious em-
bryo, which must not be eaten.
Cola, kola or goora nut9 are the seeds of Ccia acitmimsia
(Sterculiaceae), a tree, native
E. Indies
S. Europe
Africa .
India
India
Brazil .
Tropical S. America
Tropical S. America
S. America . . .
S. Europe . . .
E. Indies . . .
Levant ....
E. Indies .
S. America .
S America .
W. Indies .
Remarks.
Necklaces.
Tanning.
Medicine, beads.
Clearing water.
Turnery.
See Palm.
Perfume.
Beads.
Starch.
Marking ink and varnish.
Dyeing and ink making.
Sec Galls.
Medicine. See Nux
Vomica.
Aromatic.
Curiosity.
Washing; ornamental
The application of the term nut to many of these products is
purely arbitrary, and it is obvious that numerous other bodies
not known commercially as nuts might with equal propriety
be included in the list. Most of the nuts of real commeidal
of tropical Africa, now inuo>
duccd into the West Indies
and South America. The
nuts form an importaax.
article of commerce through-
out Central Africa, bciag
used over a wide area as a
kind of stimulant condimci^
The nuts, of which there are
numerous varieties, are
found to contain a iK«*«Ha*>
proportion of theine, as raac&
as 3* 13 %, besides tlieoUro>
mine and other impoctast
food-constituents, to which
circumstances, doulHlesa,
their valuable properties are
due.
Coquilla nuts, tlie hard
inner portion (" stone ") of the palm, AltaUafunifera, the piassaSa
of Brazil, are highly valued for turnery purposes. They have xa
elongated oval form, 3 to 4 in. in length, and being intensely h^rd
they take a fine polish, displaying a richly streaked browai ooIiksj
NUTATION— NUTMEG
919
The marking nut, Semecarpus Anaeardium, b a fruit dosely
allied in its source and properties to the cashew nut {q.v.). The
marlcing nut is a native of the East Indies, where the extremely
acrid juice of the shell of the fruit in its unnpe state is mixed
with quicklime and used as a marking-ink. The juice also
possesses medicinal virtues as an external application, and when
dry it is the basis of a valuable caulking material and black
varnish. The seeds are edible, and the source of a useful oil.
Physic nuts are the produce of the euphorbiaceous tree,
Curcas purgansj whence a valuable oil, having similar purgative
properties to castor oil, is obtained. The plant Is a native
of South America, but is now found throughout all tropical
countries.
Pine nuts are the seeds of several species of PinuSt eaten in
the countries of their growth, and also serving to some extent
as sources of oiL Of these the most important are the stone
pine, Pinus Pinea^ of Italy and the Mediterranean coasts, and
the Russian stone pine, Pinus Cembra. The Pinus Sdbimana
of California and P, Cerardiana of the Himalayas similarly
yield edible seeds. These seeds possess a pleasant, slightly
resinous flavour.
Ravensara nuts, the fruit of AgaihopkyUum aramaticum
(Lauraceae), a native of Madagascar, is useid as a spice under the
name of the Madagascar dove nutmeg.
The Sapucaya nut, a native of Brazil, is seen occasionally
in fruit-shops. It is produced by a large tree, Lecythis GUaria,
or " cannon-ball tree." Its spedfic name is taken from the large
urn-shaped capsules, called " monkey-pots " by the inhabitants,
which contain the nuts. The sapucaya nut has a sweet flavour,
resembling the almond, and if better known would be highly
appreciate. It is, however, scarce, as the monkeys and other
wild animals are said to be particularly fond of it. This nut,
which is of a rich amber-brown, is not unlike the Brazil nut,
but it has a smooth shell furrowed with deep longitudinal
wrinkles.
Soap nuts are the fruits of various spedes of Sapindus, especially
S. SaPimanat natives of tropical regions. They are so called
because their rind or outer covering contains a prindple, saponine,
which lathers in water, and so is useful in washing. Tlie pods of
Acacia concirinoy a native of India, possess the same properties,
and are also known as soap nuts.
NUTATION (from Lat. nutarCy to nod), a revolution of the
cdestial pole around its mean position, due to inequalities in
the action of the sun and moon, on an earth of ellipsoidal form.
When either of these attracting bodies is in the plane of the
equator, it produces no change in the direction of the celestial
pole. The greater their distance from this plane, the greater
the change, for reasons shown in the article Astronomy {Celestial
Mechanics). The Result is a motion which can be divided into
two components. One of these is the progressive and nearly
uniform motion of a fictitious mean pole, called precession (q.v.),
and the other a revolution of the true around the mean pole, de-
pending on the varying declinations of the sun and moon, and
called nutation. Owing to the revolution of the moon's node
and the inclination of its orbit, this body moves through a wider
range of declination in some positions of the node than in others.
The period of the revolution of the node is i8-6 years. At one
time of this period the limits of its declination are more than
38" north and south, while, at the opposite point, they are little
more than 18". The result of these periodic changes is that the
nutation takes place nearly in an ellipse, differing little from a
circle, at a distance of about 9', in a period of about i8*6 years.
The motion is not exactly an ellipse, having a great number of
minute inequalities arising from the ellipticity of the orbits
of the sun and moon and their varying declinations. The amount
and formulae of nutation from year to year are given in the
Nautical Almanac.
NUTCRACKER, the name given by G. Edwards in 1758
(Cleaninis, No. 340) to a bird which had hitherto borne no
English appellation, though described in 1544 by Turner, who,
meeting with it in the Rhaetic Alps, where it was called " Nous-
brecber " (Judie " Kussbrecher "), translated that term into
Latin as Nucifrata. In 1555 C. Gesner figured It and conferred
upon it another designation, Caryocalactes. It is the Corvus
caryocatacUs of Linnaeus and the Nuctfraga caryocalactes of
modern ornithology. F. Willughby and J. Ray obtained it
on the road from Vienna to Venice as they crossed what must have
been the Sdmmerring Pass, a6th September 1663. The first
known to have occurred in Britain was, according to T. Pennant,
shot at Mostyn in Flintshire, 5th October 1753, and about
fifteen more examples have since been procured, and others seen,
in the island. Contrary to what was for many years bdieved,
the nest of the Nutcracker seems to be invariably built on the
bough of a tree, some 20 ft. from the ground, and is a compara-
tively large structure of sticks, lined with grass. The eggs are
of a very pale bluish-green, sometimes nearly spotless, but
usually more or less freckled with pale olive or ash-colour. The
chief food of the Nutcracker appears to be the seeds of various
conifers, which it extracts as it holds the cones in its foot, and
it has been questioned whether the bird has the faculty of crack-
ing nuts— properly so called— with its bill, though that can be
used with much force and, at least in confinement, with no
little ingenuity. The old supposition that the NutcraidLers had
any afiBinity to the Woodpeckers (Picidae) or were intermediate
in position between them and the Crows (Corvidae) is now known
to hf wholly erroneous, for they undoubtedly bdong to the latter
family (see also Crow). (A. N.)
NUTHATCH, in older English Nutback, from its habit of
hacking or chipping nuts, "wUch it deverly fixes, as though in a
vice, in a chink or crevice of the bark of a tree, and then hammers
them with the point of its bill till the shell b broken. TUs bird
was long thought to be the SiUa europaea of Linnaeus; but that is
now admitted to be the northern form, with the lower parts white,
and its buif-breasted representative in central, southern and
western Europe, induding England, is known as Sitta caesia.
It is not found in Ireland, and in Scotland its appearance is
merdy accidental. Without being very plentiful anywhere, it is
generally distributed in suitable localities throughout its range —
those localities being such as .afford it a suifident supply of food,
consisting during the greater part of the year of insects, which it
diligently seeks on the boles and larger limbs of old trees; but
in autumn and ^nter it feeds on nuts, beech-mast, the stones of
yew-berries and hard seeds. Being of a bold disposition, and
the trees favouring its mode of life often growing near houses, it
will become on slight encouragement familiar with men; and its
neat attire of ash-grey and warm buff, together with its sprightly
gestures, render it an attractive visitor. It generally makes its
nest in a hollow branch, plastering up the opening with clay,
leaving only a circular hole just large enough to afford entrance
and exit; and the interior contains a bed of dry leaves or the
filmy flakes of the inner bark of a fir or cedar, on which the eggs
are laid. In the Levant occurs another species, S. syriaca, with
somewhat different habits, as it haunU rocks rather than trees;
and four or five representatives of the European arboreal spedes
have thdr respective ranges from Asia Minor to the Himalayas
and Northern China. North America possesses nearly as many;
but, curiously enough, the geographical difference of coloration
is just the reverse of what it is in Europe — the spedes with a deep
rufous breast, S. canadensis, being that which has the most
northern range, while the white-bellied S. carolinensis, with its
western form, 5. aculeata, inhabits more southern latitudes.
The Ethiopian Region has as representative of the group the
HyposiUa caraUiroslris of Madagascar. Callisitta and DeTulrth'l
pkila are nearly allied genera, inhabiting the Indian Region, and]
remarkable for their beautiful blue plumage. SUUlla, with four!
or five species, is found in Australia and New Guinea, whilst!
Dapknoesilta occurs in New Guinea. The nuthatches are placed'
in the Passerine family SiUidae, intermediate between thel
Paridae and the Certkiidae. (A. N.)
NUTMBO (from " nut," and 0. Fr. mugue, musk, Lat. muscus),]
the commercial name of a spice representing the kemd of the
seed of Myrislica fragrans (fig. x), a dioecious evergreen tree,
about 50 to 60 ft. high, found wild in the Banda Islands and a
few of the neighbouring islands, extending to New Guinea.
920
NUTRITION
Nutmeg and mace are almost exclusively obtained from the
Banda Islands, although the cultivation has been attempted with
varying success in Singapore, Penang, Bengal, R6union, Brazil,
French Guiana and the West Indies. The trees yield fruit in eight
From Stnibafser'B LtkrhMck dtr Boiamik, by pcrmiHioo of CufUv Fkcber.
Fig. 1. — Myristica fragrans. (Official.)
1. Twig with male flowers.
2. Ripe pendulous fruit opening.
3. Fruit after removal of one-half of the pericarp, showing the dark
brown seed surrounded by the ruptured arillus.
4. Kernel freed from the seed-coat.
years after sowing the seed, reach their prime in twenty-five years,
and bear for sixty years or longer. Almost the whole surface of
the Banda Islands is planted with nutmeg trees, which thrive
under the shade of the lofty Canarium commune. In Bencoolen
the tree bears all the yea^ round, but the chief harvest takes
place in the kiter months of the year, and a smaller one in April,
May and June. The ripe fruit is about 2 in. in diameter, of a
roimded pear-shape, and when mature
splits into two, exposing a crimson ariUus
surrounding a single seed (figs, i, 2). When
the fruit is collected the pericarp is first
removed; then the arillus is carefully
stripped off and dried, in which state it
forms the mace of commerce. The seed
consists of a thin, hard testa or shell,
enclosing a wrinkled kernel, which, when
dried, is the nutmeg. The kernel consists
mainly of the abundant endosperm, which
r ^*f,^^-"v ^)."l^^ >s firm, whitish in colour and marbled
rroai strubuxscrs LeltroucM . , ' • .• • i . t.,
der £0iM</k, by penniuioo With numerous reddish-brown vem-like
oiGurt.vFkb«. partitions, into which the inner sced-
/rai^iTseJd'^S^ S^' penetrates, forming what is known
through longitudmally. botamcally as rummated endosperm.
(Official.) To prepare the nutmegs for use, the
i • Aril. ^ seed enclosing the kernel is dried at a
?ntcJrumX"?by 8*°'^ ^^^ ^ * drying-house over a
the raphe. smouldering fire for about two months,
m, Ruminated endo- the seeds being turned every second or
sperm. third day. When thoroughly dried the
n. Embryo (nat. sue). gheUs ^e broken with a wooden maUet
or fiat board and the nutmegs picked out and sorted, the
smaller and inferior ones being reserved for the expression of
the fixed oil which they contain, and which forms the so-called
oil of mace.
The dried nutmegs are then rubbed over with dry sifted lime.
The prooesi of liming, which originated at the time when the
Dutch held a monopoly of the trade, was with the view of pre-
venting the germination of the seeds, which were formeriy
immersed for three months in milk of lime for this pari>oae,
and a preference is still nuwifested in some
countries for nutmegs so prepared. It has,
however, been shown that this treatment
is by no means necessary, since exposure
to the sun for a week destroys the vitality
of the kemeL Penang nutmegs are never
limed. The entire fruit preserved in syrup
is used as a sweetmeat in the Dutch East
Indies.
—iiyns.
" Oil of mace," or nutmeg butter, b a solid i. Male flower
fatt)r substance of a reddish- brown colour, 2! Female flower,
obtained by grinding the refuse nutmegs to a
fine powder, endodng it in bags and steaming it over large caiddroos
for Ave or six hours, and then compressine it while still warm betweea
powerful wedges, the brownie fluid which flows out bdog after-
wards allowed to sdidify. Nutmegs yield about one-fourth of tbetr
weight of this substance. It is partly dissolved by cold alcohol, the
remainder being soluble in ether. The latter portion, about 10% of
the weight of the nutmegs, consists chiefly of myristin, which is a
compound of myristie acta, Ci«Hs/)i, with glycerin. The fat which is
soluble in alcohol appears to consist, according to Sdimidt and
Roemer {Arch. Pkarm. [3], xxi. 34-48), of free myristie and stearic
adds; the brown colouring matter has not been satisfactorily in-
vestigated. Nutmeg butter yields on distillation with water a
volatue oil to the extent of about 6%, consisting almost entindy of a
hydrocarbon called myristicene^ Ci^m, boiling at Ite* C It is
accompanied by a small quanuty of an oxygenated ou. myristit^
isomenc with carvol, but differing from it in not forming a crystalline
compound with hydrosulphuric add. Mace contains a similar
volatile oil, moceiie, ootling at 160* C, which is said by ao€s to differ
from that of nutmegs in yidding a solid compound when treated with
hydrochloric add gaa.
The name nutmeg is also applied to other fruits or seeds in
different countries. The Jamaica or calabash nutmeg is dcri^-ed
from Monodora Myristica, the Brazilian from Cryptoairya
mosckata, the Peruvian from Laurdia sempervircns, the Mada-
gascar or dove nutmeg from AgaikopkyUum aromaticnm, and
the Califomian or stinking nutmeg from Torreya Myristica.
The cotyledons of Nectandra Fuckury were at one time offered
in Engla nd as nutmegs.
NUTRITION. The physiology of nutrition involves the study
of the way in which the tissues of the body, and more especially
the great master tissues, musde and nerve, obtain the material
for growth and repair and the energy for mechanical work acd
heat production, and of the mode in which they get rid of the
waste products of their activity. The study is thcreCore very
largdy a study of the history of the food of the body, since it is
in the food that the necessary matter and energy are supplied.
Under Dietetics the composition and special importance cf
various foods and the laws which regulate the supply of food
tmder different conditions of the body are scparatdy dealt with.
Here the mode of digestion, the utilization and the dimination
of the end products of the three great constituents, protcina,
carbohydrates and fats, are alone considered. Thc>' are treated
under the following heads: I. The Chemistry of Di|;estica;
II. The Mode of Formation of the Digestive Secretions; III. Tbe
Mechanism by which the Food is passed along the Alimentarr
Canal; IV. The Absorption of Food; V. Metabolism; VL
Excretion.
I. Chemistry of Digestion
The essential step which prepares the ordinary food fee
utilization in the body, for the change into h'ving matter, ;s
digestion, a process which the food undergoes imder the influence
of the ferments or enzymes present in the gastro-intestinal tract.
By this process it is broken down into ampler substances, whkrh
can be utilized by the body tissues for conversion into proio-
plasm and as the supply of energy. That part which is unsuited
for use in the body is dther passed as faeces or absorbed and
excreted in the urine.
I. Emyme Action generally.—Tht substances which brir^g
about this change are known as ferments, enzymes or zymlnv
Formerly it was believed that there were two distinct dasacs
NUTRITION
921
of ensymes, those which were living or associated with living
cells, and those which were non-living. In 1897, however, E.
Buchner and M. Hahn showed that from living cells (yeast)
a ferment could be obtained which acted quite as well
extracellularly as when it was bound up within the cell.
Subsequent work has shown that other organisms act by the
enzymes they contain, so that it is now recognized that there is
no essential diilerence between the living or organized ferment
uid the non-living or imorganized ferment. All ferments prob-
ably act as catalysators or catalysts. Catalysis is the process
by which reactions are either initiated or accelerated by the mere
presence of certain substances which remain unchanged during
the process; to these substances the name of catalysators has
been given. As an example of such catalytic action the accelera-
tion of the decomposition of hyiirogen peroxide (HtOi) into
water (H|0) and oxygen (0) by the action of a colloidal solution
of platinum may be given. C. Oppenheimer defines an enzyme
as a substance produced by living cells, which acts by catalysis.
E. Fischer has shown that the action of ferments is specific, that
Is, the ferment only exerts its action on definite substances or
substrates of definite structural arrangement. He has compeared
the relation of ferment to substrate to that of a key to its lock.
Ferments which bring about the breakdown of proteins are with-
out influence on fats and carbohydrates; those which decompose
fats leave proteins and carbohydrates untouched, and so on.
The diemical composition of eiueymea is unknown. It has been
assumed that tliey are protein in nature, but this is mainly because it
has been found that when they arc extracted from tissues they are
apparently in combination with proteins. In all probability the
protein is there as an impurity owing to incomplete separation.
As regards the general properties 01 enzymes, most m them can be
precipitated from their solutions by means of alcohol. They can
also be carried down by fine precipitates of certain inorganic salts or
by protein precipitation, e.|. when a precipitate of casein is produced
by acidifving a casein solution with acetic acid. Most of the ferments
are soluble in water or saline solutions, and in glycerin and water.
The ferments are found to have an optimum temperature of action.
This temperature in most cases ranges from 37* to 40® C. All true
ferments are thermolabilc, being destroyed at about 70® C. Ferments
are hindered in their action to some extent by the general proto-
plasmic poisons, such as salicylic add, chloroform, &c The action
of many of them is retarded when the products of their action are
allowed to accumulate. Just as when a chemical reaction is set up
its rate tends to decrease and finally comes to a standstill before the
reaction u completed — an equilibrium being established — so the
reactions set up by enzymes also tend to come to an equilibrium
before the complete conversion of the oripiinal substance. In the
case of certain enzymes at least this equilibrium may be reached from
eithei side; thus the enzyme maltase may either bring about the
breakdown <A the sugar maltose to dextrose or cause a. synthesis of
dextrose to maltose.
A number ct the body ferments have now been shown to exist in
the tissues in an inactive form. This condition is known as the jpro-
ferment or zymogen state, and before any action can be exerted it
must be activated, usually by some specific substance, as in the case
of the activation of trypsinogen by means of cnterokinase. The fol-
lowing table gives a list of the principal ferments concerned in the di-
gestion and metabolism of food-stuns: —
Materia] acted on.
Enzyme.
Where found.
'
r Pepsin
Gastric juice
Trypsin
Pancreatic, juice
I. Protein . .
Ercpsin
Small intestine
Various autolytic
Tissues generally
V. enzymes
II. Fats . , .
Lipasb
Pancreatic juice and
certain tissues
Ptyalin
(salivarydiastase)
SaUva
Pancreatic diastase
Pancreatic juk»
Maltase
Pancreatic juice
III. Caibohydiates
Small intestine
Invertaae
Small intestine
Lactase
Small intestine
Various tissue
Liver, muscle, &c.
^ diastases
Certain oxydases, catalases and de-amidizing enzymes are found
in the tissues generally and play an important part in the various
wnctabcAk processes.
3. Digestion in the Moutk.—Tbs first of the digestive secxe-
tions which food comes into contact with it the saliva. This
is the mixed secretion from the various ghmds, salivary and
other, the ducts of which open in the mouthy The saliva, which
is for the most part produced by the three large salivary glands,
the parotid, the sub-maxillary and the sub-lingual, is a colour-
less or a slightly turbid viscous fluid with a faintly alkah'ne
reaction and of low specific gravity. It contains a very small
proportion of solids, which vary somewhat in amount and
character in the secretions of the different glands. Mucin and
traces of other proteins are present. Small amoimts of potassium
sulphocyanide may nearly always be detected. The fxmctions
of the saliva are twofold. First, it has a mechanical action
moistening the mouth and the food and thus aiding mastication
and swallowing by securing the formation of a proper bolus
of food; it also assists by binding the particles together, an
action of special importance when the food is dry. Second,
in man and in some of the lower animals the enzyme ptyalin
exerts an action in digestion on part of the carbohydrates of
the diet. The starches or polysaccharides are broken down,
first of all to the simple dextrins and then to the still more
simple disaccharide, maltose. The further breakdown of the
maltose is carried out in the intestine by the action of a ferment
maltase which does not exist at all or only in the merest traces
in the buccal secretion. The action of ptyalin on starches is
thus very similar to that of acids, except that it stops at the
formation of maltose. Ptyalin acts best at a temperature of
about 40^ C. and in a neutral or faintly alkaline medium, its
action being inhibited by the presence of even very dilute
solutions of the mineral acids. If the acid be in sufficient
amount the enzyme is destroyed. For this reason the action
ceases in the stomach whenever the bolus is completely per-
meated by the gastric juice. As it takes time for the gastric
juice thoroughly to permeate the food mass, which remains
for a considerable periodin the fundus of the stomach unmixed
with the secretion, salivary digestion goes on for about half
an hour after food is taken.
3. Gastric Digestion.— The passage of food from the mouth
to the stomach will be dealt with later. The stomach has two
digestive functions: (i) It acts as a store chamber permitting
a full meal to be taken j (a) It acts as a digestive organ of
importance in preparing the food for further attack in the
intestinxil canal. But the stomach cannot be regarded as an
essential organ, since it has been removed in dogs and in man
without apparent interference with nutrition and health.
Gastric digestion is brought about by the action of the gastric
Juice, a dear watery, colourless and strongly acid fluid with a
specific gravity of about X003. The amount of solids present
is extremdy small, about 0*3 %. They consist of protein,
nuddc acid, ledthin and inorganic salts, in addition to the
more important constituents, the enzymes and hydrochloric
add.
The amount of hydrochloric add present in the juice varies
with the period of digestion. In man the maximum add con-
centration is about o*2 %. The add exists in the stomach in
two forms as free hydrochloric add and as combined hydro-
chloric acid. The amount of each depends on various factors:
(i) the secretion itself; (2) the nature of the food; and (3) the
rapidity with which the stomach empties itself, &c. For instance,
after a protein-free meal the hydrochloric add is for the most
part free, whereas, when protein is present, it combines with it
and, unless secreted in very brge amount, most of the add is
in a fixed condition.
The hydrochloric add is formed by the activities of certain
gland cdls in the middle region of the stomach, and the fact
that it does not exist as such in the blood proves that it is formed
within these cells. Further, it has been found that the gastric
mucous membranes of starving dogs contain 0*74 % of sodium
and potassium chloride, much more than is present in any other
organ or in the blood plasma. That the chlorine comes from
the sodium chbride in the food has been shown by the fact
that, when the tissues are deprived of this salt, and sodium
bromide is given, hydrobromic add may appear in the gastric
secretion.
922
NUTRITIOlSr
The hydrochloric add is essential for the action of tbe gastric
enzyme, pepsin, in splitting up the protein of the food. In
addition to this, the add has a slight action in splitting poly-
saccharides a^d disaccharides. Lastly, it acts as a bactericidal
agent, preventing bacterial decomposition from taking place, and
it may thus prevent certain noxious bacteria, taken in in the
food, from gaining access to the intestinal tract, where there
is a chance of their flourishing in the rich alkaline medium. It
is owing to the presence of hydrochloric add that gastric juice
can be kept for prolonged periods without undergoing putre-
faction.
The quantity of juice secreted varies with the nature of theiood
consumed. Thus m one experifnent, after the use of a test meal
consisting of 2$ grammes bread and 250 cc tea, there was a flow of
106 cc, whereas in another case with an ordinary meal there was an
output of practically 600 ex. gastric juice.
Pawlow has shown that not only does tbe amount of juice secreted
vary with the nature of the food ingested but that the digestive
activity of the secretion also varies in the same way. He gives the
following table:—*
Quantities and Propertits of Gastric Juice with Different Di^:
200 gms. Flesh, 200 gms. Bread, 600 ex. Milk.
Hour.
Quantities of Juice in cc
Digestive Power
in mm.
Flesh.
Bread.
Milk.
Hesh.
Bread.
Milk.
1st
II*3
ro-6
1:2
4-94
6-ro
421
and
"A
5-4
303
7-97
2-35
3rd
40
9-2
301
751
Ul
4th
5*i
3-4
7-7
287
6-19
II!:
3*8
3-3
40
320
529
j:?l
3.2
2-a
05
3-58
5-72
KH
i-a
3-6
225
5-48
0-6
36
3-87
550
9th
09
5-75
roth
• •
04
Thus each separate food gives rise to a definite hourly secretion of
the juice and to a characteristic alteration in its properties. The
meat diet brings about a very rapid flow, the maximum output
taking place within the first two houra; with bread the maximum
output IS even earlier. With milk somewhat later. When the juice
is examined as regards its digestive acrivityj it is found that with
meat the most active juice is secreted within the first hour, with
bread in the second ana third hours, and with milk in the sixth hour.
According to the nature of the food, the stomach seems to be
stimulated to form a secretion which will best serve its purpose and
give the minimum of waste. It thus works economically.
The principal ferment found in the gastric juke is pepsin, a ferment
which acts only in the presence of a mineral add. The action pro-
ceeds best at a temperature of about ^7* C. in an add medium of
0-2 % to o*3 %• Pepsin is elaborated in the 8o<alled chief cells of
the gastric glands as an inert precursor— propepsin. It is only when
it comes into contact with the acid of the juice that it is acdvated and
rendered capable of attacking the protein of the food.
As already mentioned, the main function of the gastric Juice is to
deal with the protein moiety of the food and to prepare it for further,
digestion in the intestine.
The first result of the action of this secretion on protein matter is
to render it soluble — a metaprotdn or add albumin (syntonin).
being formed. This body may be r^rded mainly as the product of
the action of the hydrochloric acid independently of tbe ixpsin.
The following steps of decomposition are the result of the action
of pepsin^ From the metaprotein primary and secondary proteoses,
the so-called proto-, hetero- and dcutero-albumoscs are formed, and
from these peptones are finally produced. The result of this process
of digestion or hydrolysis induced by the pepsin is that complex
protein substances cS high mokcukir wdehe are converted into
simpler bodies of coitnparatively low molecular wd^t. Formeriy it
was believed that the action of the pepsin on protein could not carry
the decomposition further than the peptones, out recently It has been
shown that still further splitting can be brought about, and that the
simple amino adds of which the protdn molecule is built up can be
produced. This latter process, however, takes a very long time even
under favourable circumstances, and it probably never occura under
normal conditions. The contents of the stomach — products of
protein digestion^— are passed on into the duodenumi chiefly as
proteoses and peptones.
In additk>n to the prindpal ferment of thejnstric' juice some
workers hold that another enzyme is present. This is the ferment
rennet, rennin, or chymonn, the sole action of which, so far as is known
at present, is to brine about the curdling of milk, the curd formed bdng
dealt with in the ordinary way by the pepsin. Clotting of milk under
the action of rennin occurs at a suitable temperature with great _ , ^_
npidlty. Tbisprocess is said to take place in two stages: '(ij the J tbe protein is buut up.
rennin converts the caseinogen of the milk into paracasein, and (2)
this paracasein unites with the lime salts present in the "«nw ^nA lono*
the curd or precipitate. That lime salts arc absolutdy essential for
this process of clotting has been shown by the fact that, tf they arc
rcmoved by precipitation as by oxalates, no dotting will take place
even after the addition of a large amount of active rennin. Immedi-
ate clotting takes place, however, when the necessary lime salts arc
restored. Many observers now hold that this rennet action is not tbe
property oi a specific ferment but simply another phase ai the actioa
of pepsin. For this view, which has been put forward by well-
known workers, there is much to be said and certainly tbe poiwcr of
curdling milk is not confined to the stomach, but has been toond in
various tissue extracts, and, indeed, .wherever proteolytic enzymes
are found.
The speed with which the stomach is emptk^l depends to a great
extent on the nature <A the food. Plain water leaves tbe sromarh
almost at once, salt and sugar solutions at a somewhat slower rate.
M ilk under the acdon of rennin curdles. Tbe whey rapidly leaves the
stomach, whereas the casein and fat are retained for further treat-
ment. On a mixed diet, emptying of the stomach in man p ro cee d s
very slowly, requiring about four hours. Cannon, by feedmg vith
food impregnated with bismuth and using X-ray3, showed that
carbohydrates leave most rapidly, then mixtures of carbc^ydntes and
protdns, then protdns, then fats, and finally mixtures of fats and
protdns. The diet whuJi remains longest in the stomach b a
mixture of fats and protdns— rich food, as it ia popularly called.
Here two facton enter to prevent rapid emptying: (i) tbe pecatmx
of much fat, and (2) the acid secretion engendered by the abundant
protein.
There is no doubt that fats present in fine emolsioo can be de-
composed in the stomach. The action proceeds in a medinm whidi
is slightly add or neutral, being entirdv prevented b^ the presen c e
Evidence is accumulating to show that thb view is cxxrect.
By means of peprin and gastrolipaae proteins and fats are dealt
with. No qiecihc enzyme for carbohydrates has been found in the
stomach in man. Certainly a small amount of polysaccharide
decomposition takes place, but this is dependent (i) on the ptyalia
which comes from the mouth, and (a) on a certain amount of oydr»>
lyris due to tho action of the free hydrochferic add.
4. Digeslian in the Intestine.— Tht passage of food from the
stomach to the intestine will be considered later. Tbe food
so far digested in the stomach b known as chyme, axid it b passed
on to undergo intestinal digestion under the influence of (i)
the tDzyxMs of the pantpreas, and (3) of other enzymes present
in the different secretions of the intestine. Digestioa in the
intestine may accordingly be described under these two hcadls. ,
(a) Pancreaiic Digestion. — ^The pancreatic juice is tbe secretjOB
from the pancreas and is discharged into the duodenum. Tbe
secretion obtained from a fistula of the pancreatic duct varies
in character according to whether the opening into the dnct
has been made recently or some time before the rxaminatioa.
It is a dear, usually thin fluid with a spedfic gravity of aboot
1008, and with an alkaline reaction. It contains a oertam
amount of protdn and ash. The most important inoq^axuc
constituent is sodium carbonate, which gives the ftltaK^t^ te.
action (alkalbity is, as NaOH-o-47%)* This alkaline salt,
along with that contained in the intestinal juice, plays an im-
portant part in neutralizing the add ch3rme.
\ In the pancreatk secretion there are at least three importsat
enzymes, each with a definite action: (a) trypan, the proteolytic
enzyme which brings about the further breakdown of tbe iooi
protdns; (fr) a diabase which deals' with the carbohydimtesi» aad
(c) a lipase which acts on the fats.
(a) Trypsin. — ^This ferment j in the form in which it is 1
trypsinogen — b inert. Before it can exert its hydrolytk actioa its
be activated. This activation b brought about by another «iu
which b found in the intestinal tract— enteroktnase. Tbe
verrion b brought about as soon as tbe trypsinogen comes into c
tact with tbe enteTOkinase, the merest trace ct which suffices
acrivate a large amount of trypsinogen.
Trypsin acts on the protein just as pepsin does, by
hydr^ytic changes. It diffen from tbe latter in acting I
alkaline or neutral medium. Its effect b much more energetic thsa
that of pepsin, so that the protein molcaile b more coraplctciv
decomposed. Whilst it generally finishes the decompositSon wUdk
the pep«n has begun, it can break down the orijpnal protein quite as
earily if not more easily than does pepsin, and it carries tbe «p£ttieg
as far as the comparatively simple crystalline bodies, tbe muas»
acids, or groups of these, the polypeptides, bodies intennediace
between the complex peptones and the simple amino adds of whkb
NUTRITION
923
The character and properties of the product* formed in such
digestion depend on the nature of the protein acted upon. As will
be seen from the following table these proteins vary fairly widely in
the proportion of amino adds which they contra.
100 Grammes Protein yielded
Globine
GeUtine.
from Oxy-
haemoglobine.
Elastine.
GlycocoU
Alanine . .
09
tl
419
i:ji
Leucine . .
10-5
7'i
2904
»1-3S
aPrdline . .
3-1
5-3
2*34
.vu
Phenyalanine
3a
0.4
4-24
Glutamic add
10-7
0.88
1*73
o»76
AsparUc acid
12
o»56
4*43
Cystine . .
0-065
..
031
..
Serine . .
0-23
0-56
Oxyproline .
025
3-0
104
Tyrosine
Lysine . .
riistidine
a:io
3-75
10*96
0-34
Arginine . .
5-4^
0-3
Tryptophiiie
1-5
Present
Whether any of the polypepttdes found in digestion are further
broken down in the course of normal pancreatic digestion is a moot
p<^nt, but E. Fischer aiid £. Abderhalden have shown that many of
the synthetic polypeptides prepared by them can be broken mto
their constituents py the action of trypsin. The previous peptic
digestion, seems to play some part in the extent to which tryptic
digestion is carried out, as one of these observers has demonstrated
that protein diecsted first with pepsin and then with tryp«n gives a
smaller yield of polypeptide And a larger yield of monamino adds
than when d^estion na« been carried out with trypsin alone.
b. DiasUise. — ^This ferment is found in the pancreatic juice appa-
rently secreted in an active form, althouch some observers hold
that It also b secreted in a zymoeen form. It is practically identical
in its action with tlte ptyalip of the saliva, converting starch, into
maltose. It deab with all the starchy food which has escaped con-
version into the simple sugars by the ptyalin.
c. Lipase. — Most of this ferment, if not all, is apparently secreted
in the form of a zymogen. ' There is evidence that the bile b the
activating agent here, just as the enterokinase acts in the case of
trypsin. Lipase can act in any mediiim add, neutral, and alkaline,
and both on emulsified and non-emulsified fats. It converts the fats
by a process of hydf oly«s into fatty acids and glycerin. Kastle and
Loevcnhart found that not only can thb enzyme break up fats into
their components, but that it abo has the power to act in the reverse
direction, and in this way bring about the union of fatty acids and
glycerin so as to form fats, a process which occurs in the intestinal
epithelial cells after absorption.
In addition to these three enzymes the pancreatic juice may con-
tain traces of others, for example, a rennet-like tcrment which
curdles milk. Thb again, as. in the case of the stomach rennet.
is held by some to be only another phase of proteolytic action.
Maltase b also said to be present in small amount, as b also lactase
under certain conditions. In pancreatic as in gastric digestion, the
nature of the food is said to play a part in controlling the amount
and the composition of the secrerion with respect to its ferraentis.
The action, it it docs exist, b not very well defined.
b. Inlesiind Digestion. — By thb b meant the other digestive
processes which go on in the intestine under the action of the
secretion of Lieberkilhn's follicles— the succus tntericus. This
is a yellowish, often opalescent, strongly alkaline £uid. The
alkalinity b due to the presence of sodium carbonate. It con-
tains a small amount of protein, shed epithelial ceUs, &c. The
secretion of some 17Q c.c. in 24 hours has been observed in a
short loop of human intestine by H. S. Hamburger and £.
Hckma, but it b almost impossible to get a measure of the actual
amount of secretion from the whole gut. Most o£ the ferments
are present in very small amount in the intestinal juice. They seem
to be actually within the epithelial lining of the intestine, for
extracts made from the intestinal mucous membrane are richer
in ferments than the secretion.
Apparently the intestinal secretion contains no trace of a ferment
acting on native protein, but a ferment — erepsin — is present in fair
amount in the intestinal mucous membrane and in small amount in
the secretion, which acts in an atlciline medium on proteoses,
peptones, and on casdn, converting them into crystalline products
of the nature of amino adds.
Another ferment, arginase, has been isolated from the intestinal
mucous membrane by A. Kossel and H. D. Dakin. which splits the
d iamin o add ax^inin into ur^ and omithin. A lipase has also been
detected which b veiy similar to panereatk lipase; it, however,
attacks only emulsified fats.
Several carbohydrate hydrolysing enzymes have been described
in the small intestme. Invcrtin. the ferment which splits cane-sugar,
b present in small amount in the secretion, more abundantly in the
extract of mucous membrane. In all probability it deals with the
saccharose after or in process of absorption. Maltase b also present
in large amount, and here again in greater amount in the extract
than m the secretion. The presence of lactase has been much dis-
cussed, and it seems probable that suckling animab do possess thb
enzvme. Some workers have stated that an intestinal diastase b to
be found, but, if so, it b present in very small amount.
In the large intestine a small amount of erepsin has been dis-
covered at the upper end. Any digestion which does take place b
probably either bacterial in origin, or due to ferments which have
originated in the lower end of the small intestine, and which have
been carried down.
5. BUe.—This fluid, in all probability, has little direct action
in ordinary digestion, although it contains substances which
act indirectly. The bile salts act as solvents for fats and fatty
adds, and as activators of pancreatic lipase. The salts also
serve to keep cholestrin in solution. Bile b to be looked upon
rather as the excretion, the result of the hepatic metabolism,
than as a digestive juice. Various workers have shown that
when the bile b prevented from entering the intestine owing
to a fistula having been made, the animal or patient may con-
tinue to enjoy good health, thus proving that thb fluid b not
essential to any of the digestive processes. which normally take
place.
Bile as secreted has an otange-brown colour, but the colour varies
according to the pigment present. It is more or less viscous (not
so viscous as bile taken from the ^11 bladder} and has a specific
gravity of about loio. It has a slightly alkaline reaction, a bitter
taste and a characteristic smell. The daily output b, for a normal
individual, over 500 cc. On analyas it b found to have over 2 % of
solids, of which more than half are organic. It contains in addition
to a nudco-albumin, derived mainly trom the bile passages and Kail
bladder, bile adds, bile pigments, choleSterin, lecithin, fats, &c. The
m~-t t^-r-rlnnt telids are the salts of the bile acidsj of which in man
th :..i< rtant b sodium glycocholate, sodium taurocholate
b( I t in very small amount. The bile adds are formed in
th' ; . ll>, .Lod when the duct b ligatured they tend to accumu-
late in tbc D'A-d.
The pigmcnu amount to only about o*2 %. In human bile the
qhicf pigincnl ii bilirubin, whilst in herbivora biliverdin b more
abundant, Ttu-y are derived from the haemoglobin of the blood,
but the plgmcpts arc iron-free. They may be regarded as purely
excretory prof!ucts arising from the breakdown of the haemoglobin
of <rT'.i>: hU'A corpuscles.
LU.Lr i. riri U a monatomic alcohol, and is probably a waste pro-
duct. It occurs in the bile only in small amount, and there b some
evidence that it is not secreted by the liver cells but is added to the
bile from the bile passai|[es. Fats and ledthin are both derived from
the liver cells. Ot the inorganic constituents phosphate of calcium
is the most abundant.
The secretion of bile b practically contiiluous, but it seems to enter
the duodenum intermittently. The taking of food increases the flow
of bile, the amount of the increase depending to a certain extent on
the nature of the food. A protdii meal has been found to have the
greatest effect and a carbohydrate one the least. The entry of the
acid chyme into the duodenum b the stimulus which brings about the
ejection of the bile. Pressure on the liver also seems to cause a flow
(see section II.).
In connexion with bile secretion attention may be drawn here to a
peculiar enterohepatic drculation which b stated to cnst. The bile
salts are partly absorbed from the intestine, to be carried again by
the portal blood to the liver and to be again eliminated. By this
circulation the entrance of various alkaloidal and ptomaine poisons
into the general drcularion may be prevented.
Faeces. — ^The bulk of the waste matter arising irom the foods along
with the secretions from the alimentary canal form the faeces. On
an abftH-bable diet the faeces are almost purely intestinal in origin.
As a channel of excretion of nitrogenous metabolic waste products
they are not very important, although the work of C. Voit indicates
that they do play a ceruin part. The nature of the excreted nitrogen-
ous subsunces has not been fully examined. Of the inorganic con-
sjtituents iron b probably for the most part excreted into the large
intestine. It is, however, very difficult to come to any definite con-
clusion as to what is unabsorbed material and what excreted.
n. The Mode of Formation op the Digestive
Secretions
I. Salivary Glands. — ^The secretion from the various glands
is generally evoked by nervous impulses, tbroUgh the secretory
924
NUTRITION
nerves. K. Ludwig found that the stimulation of the chorda
tympani produced a copious flow of watery saliva from the
submaxillary gland, and a general dilatation of the blood-vesaeb
supplying the gland. The same is the case in the sublingual
gland. In addition to the chorda tympani fibres also pass to
the gland through the cervical sympathetic, and when these
are stimulated the saliva excreted is viscous and turbid, and
contains much solid matter, whOe the blood-vessels are con-
tracted. The conclusion formerly drawn was that the flow of
saliva was dependent on the increased blood supply. But it
has been definitely proved that true secretoiy fibres exist. If
<.tropine be administered before stimulation of the chorda
tympam*, the dilatation of the vessels takes place, but no flow
of saliva. Further, if the circulation be cut ofif from the gland
the stimulation of the chorda tympani may catjse a temporary
flow of saliva.
The parotid gland is suppUed by the auricttlo>temporal nerve which
receives its secreting fibres from the glossopharyngeal. Stimulation
of these fibres brings about an abundant watery secretion poor in
solids. Stimulation of the sympathetic fibres system is not followed
by any salivary flow, yet it has an effect on the gland, for, if after the
sjrmpathetic has been stimulated a secretion be evoked by stimub-
tion of the glossopharyngeal nerve, the saliva secreted is very rich in
organic solids.
a. Gastric Qands.—The control of the gastric secretion seems
to be under two entirely different mechanisms. Pawlow has
dearly shown that the stomach is supplied with secretory nerves
which reach that organ throu^ the vagus. The stimuli which
bring these nerves into action are the sight, the odour or the taste
of food. That the course of the stimidus is through the vagus
b shown by the fact that an abundant flow of juice may be caused
so bng as the vagi are intact, but this flow does not take place
when these nerves are cut. Between the stimulation and the
secretion thete is a lengthy latent time amounting to several
minutes. The other stimulus of the secretion is apparently a
chemical one. l*awlow states that mechanical stimulation of
the mucous membrane fails to bring about a flow of juice, but
Beaumont in his classical observation on the stomach of St
Martin found that the insertion of a tube did cause a flow. There
may be certain substances either present in the food or developed
in the course of digestion, which directly stimulate the secretion
originally started by a nervous reflex. £. Starling has drawn
attention to this chemical mode of stimulating different organs.
To the substances known and unknown which evoke the action,
he gives the name of hormones, and such " hormone " action
he does not limit merely to- the secretory organs but extends
to all cases where one. organ is stimulated by chemical products
formed in. the same or another organ. Attention has alrea'*}*
been drawn to the influence of different food-stuffs on the amo .
and nature of the gastric secretion.
3. Pancreatic Secretion. — The stimuli which evoke this secre-
tion are again two in number. Many have failed to demonstrate
that the secretion of the pancreas is under nervous control, but
Pawlow and his school have shown that stimulation of the vagus
evokes a secretion of pancreatic juice. This flow, as in the case
of the stomach, has a latent period of several minutes. Most
modem workers hold that the most effective stimulus to the
pancreatic flow is the chemical one— a hormone discovered by
W. Bayliss and E. Starling, who found that extracts of the
duodenal mucous membrane made with dilute hydrochloric
acid when injected into the blood caused a flow of pancreatic
juice. The active substance present in this extract is known as
" secretin," and is supposed to be formed under natural conditions
by the action of the acid chyme on a prosecretin. This secretin
is not of the ordinary zymin nature, as it is not destroyed by
boiling and is soluble in alcohol. The .secretin when formed
must be absorbed into the blood and then carried round the
circulation to the pancreas before it can act.
4. Intestincl Juice. — The mode of action of the stimuli which
evoke this secretion has not yet been fully investigated. As
has been stated, it is quite possible that very little ferment b
secreted, and that ferment action mainly takes place within
the ceUs after the various substances have been absorbed.
Row far the flow b controlled by nervous action, and bow £tr
by hormone action, b not known.
m. MoToa Mechanism or the AiDfENTAEY Cakal
Masticalion.~-l\kVi b a purely voluntary act, and consists of
a great variety of movements produced by the various muscles ia
connexion with the lower jaw. By the act of chewing (he food
b thoroughly broken up and intimately mixed with the saliva.
De^utition.— The food after thorough mastication b collected
on the surface of the tongue, principally by the action (voluntary)
of the buccinator muscles, and by the contraaion of the tongue
muscles it b paissed backwards. As soon as the food by the
action of the tongue enters the pillars of the fauces the actioa
becomes involuntary and reflex. The soft palate h raised to
prevent the food entering the nasal cavity, and the larynx
b shut off by closure of the glottis, and approximation of the
arytenoid cartilages to one another and to the back of the
epiglottis. The food b now passed on into the oesophagus
proper by the constricto» of the pharynx. In the oc9(^>faagLs
the downward movement varies with the nature of the food
swallowed. If it be fluid it reaches the lower end of the oeso-
phagus in about three seconds and lies at the lower end of the
gullet for two or three seconds before entering the stomacL
When the consistency b firmer the progress downwards b much
slower. Either by the force exerted by the wave of coniractwa
passing down the gullet or by some inhibition of the sphinaer,
the cardiac orifice opens and permits the food to enter the
stomach.
Stomach Itooements. — For our knowledge of tbeSc we are
indebted principally to the work of Cannon, who studied them
by feeding an animal with food containing bismuth andtbco
following the movements of the shadow of the food on a screen by
means of the X-rays. Soon after food b taken it b found that
a contraction begins somewhere about the middle of the stomach
and slowly passes towards the pylorus. Thb b followed by
others, in man at regular intervals of abuut twenty seconds,, so
that the pyloric part of the organ b soon in active peristalsis.
The fundus of the stomach b iK>t activdy concctiked in these
movements; it simply acts as a reservoir. At certain periods,
but not with each peristaltic wave, the pyloric sphincter relaxes
and allows a portion of the fluid add chyme to escape into the
duodenum. It only opens when stimulated by fluid material ^
if solid food be forced against it it remains tightly dosed.
GrQtzner, by experiments with feeding with different coloured
foods, has shown that the food at the fundus may remoia on-
dbturbed for quite prolonged periods. In thb connexioo i:
must be remembered, of course, that the food b iwt lying loose
in a sack larger than the contents. The cavity of the stomach
b only the size of the amount of food present; in other words,
the f(xxl exactly filb the cavity. The motor nerve fibres to the
stomach run in the vagi, which also contain fibres inhibltocy to
the cardiac sphincter. The splanchnic nerves mainly contal-.
inhibitory fibres. The automatic movements are probably In
connexion with the intrinsic plexus of Auerbach, since th^ con-
tinue after section of the extrinsic nerves.
Intestinal. Movements. — ^The intestines owe their peculiar
movements to the arrangement of their muscular coats, which
are dbposed in two byers, an inner circular, and an outer loc^
tudinal. The movements are of two kinds, the so-called swaying
myogenic contraction and the peristaltic waves. The fonacr
are rapid and have very little to do with the downward iik>veiaeni
of the contents. Probably their action b to mix the contents,
since Caimon has shown that these contents, in the lower »««iTUiW
at least, get divided into segments. From time to time the
separated segments are cau^t in the course of a pcristaltk
wave and carried downward a short distance. Then a^ain ia
their new situation the rhythmic contractions break up the
contents anew.
The peristaltic movements are much more powerfuL Under
normal conditions they begin at the pylorus and passing dowr-
tvards carry the intestinal contents onwards. The normal
movement progresses slowly, althoitgh under abnormal cooditaoM
NUTRITION
925
peristaltic waves may become extremely violent and rapid, and
may indeed run over the whole length of the intestine within a
minute. The muscular coat in front of the contracting cone is
relaxed, as is that behind the wave. The waves are probably
due mainly to the circular fibres, the longitudinal pulling the
gut up over the contents as they are forced onwards. The
downward movement seems to be due to some definite arrange-
ment within the intestinal wall, since it has been shown that,
when a segment of bowel has been cut out and then the continuity
of the canal made good by fixing the section so that the lower
end of the excised portion is fixed to the upper divided end of the
real gut, upward peristalsis takes place in this segment. An
anti-peristalsis has been described in which the movements
are all towards the stomach. Under certain conditions the
introduction of foreign substances, as hairs, &c, may evoke such
anti-peristaltic waves.
The rhythmical movements are held by some to be purely
myogenic in origin, as they still continue after section of all the
nerves and when the intrinsic ganglia in the intestinal wall have
been thrown out of action by the application of nicotine. But
recent work by R. Magnus would tend to show that they are
controlled by Auerbach's plexus. Peristaltic waves, on the
other hand, according to W. Bayliss and £. Starling, although
they continue and indeed may become more energetic after
section of the extrinsic nerves, are prevented by the application
of nicotine and cocaine; in other words^ it is presumed that
peristalsis is a complicated reflex action through the intrinsic
ganglia. The intestines are therefore not dependent for their
movement on their connexion with the central nervous system,
although of course their activity is more or less regulated by
such a connexion.
As regards the movements of the large Intestine, they resemble
those of the small, although they are much less frequent. The
forward movement is slow, thus permitting of the solidification
of the contents by the removal of the water. In the first part
of the large intestine anti-peristaltic movements are frequent,
the regular peristaltic downward movements only becoming
prominent when the descending colon is reached to carry contents
to the rectum. The anti-peristalsis serves a useful purpose in
giving time for the absorption of the fluid in the formation of
faeces. The rate at which the contents travel along the intestine
varies greatly. Under average conditions the food residue
reaches the ilco-caecal valve between the small and large intes-
tine at about four to four and a half hours after a meal, while
it takes nine hours to reach the splenic flexure of the colon.
Defof cation. — Food residues, cellular ddbris and substances derived
from the various secretions of the gastro- intestinal tract are forced
downwards by peristalsis, and eventually reach the rectum and
accumulate there as the faeces. The pressure of the solid and semi-
solid mass eivcs rise to a definite sensation and a desire to empty the
rectum. The faeces are retained within the canal partly by the
horizontal direction of the rectum before it opens into the anal canal,
and partly bv the action of two sphincter muscles. At the act ol
dcfaccation the strong internal sphincter is first of all relaxed, but
unless the rectal stimulus is very strong, the ear* •' < — *" '":pt
contracted, as it is to a certain extent, under the ill.
The act of dcfaecation normally is partly vol 1 ■ tly
involuntary. The voluntary part consists m the ■! f r he
abdominal muscles, the closure of the glottis, ar J :S. [ of
the external sphincter and of the levator ani mu. ■ 3^ , i3iu> .... . . .ng
the horizontal part of the rectum to become inure vcriLi'al: the
involuntary in tne energetic contractions of the m Lt^ruljr v.all5 of the
colon and rectum which sweep the contents cT ihc whale co'on
downwards. There i^ a centre in the lumbar ciiJir^ement of the
spinal cord which presides over the sphincter muJK;lcs anU probaaly
over the whole involuntary mechanism of defaecation.
Vomiting. — Sometimes the gastric contents are ejected through
the cardiac opening of the stomach instead of through the pylorus.
The act is a reflex one, probably originally protective in nature,
irritation of the gastric mucous membrane being the most frequent
cause. The act is generally preceded by a feehng of nausea and a
copious salivation, succeeded by a senes of powerful expiratory
efforts with the glottis closed. The diaphragm is held firmly con-
tracted, then a convulsive contraction of the abdominal muscles with
a simultaneous opening of the cardiac orifice of the stomach brings
alx)ut the sudden ejection of the contents. The wall of the stomach
may also contract and press upon the contents. During the act the
glottis is firmly closed, and at the same time, if the act be not too
violent, the gastric contents are prevented from entering the nasal
cavity by the contraction of the soft pdate.
IV. AssoitpnoN
Montk.—'No absorption of food-stuffs takes place hei«.
Stomach. — ^Absorption from the stomach occurs only to a small
extent. Water passes rapidly through the stomach and is
practically unabsorbed. Salts are apparently absorbed in a
limited amount from their watery solution, the extent of absorp-
tion depending to some extent on the concentration of the
solution. Sugar is also absorbed to a small extent from its
solutions, the greater the concentration the greater being the
amount of sugar taken up. Alcohol is readily absorbed from the
stomach. A small amotmt of the products of protein digestion
may be absorbed. There is no evidence that fats are absorbed
under any conditions in the stonuu:h.
Intestine.— Tht greatest absorption of the foods takes place in
the intestine, especially in the small intestine. It has been shown
that over 85% of the protein has disappeared before the lower
end of the small intestine is reached. How does the absorption
take place? There are two channds for the removal of the
material from the intestine: (i) the blood capillaries spread
in the villi, and (2) the lacteals also present in the villi. The
foods may reach the blood direct or through the various lymph
channels into the thoradc duct and finally into the blood.
The lacteals of the villi are channels for the absorption of the
fatty parts of the food. The products of the digestion of the
proteins and carbohydrates reach the body, diiectly through
the capillaries via the portal system.
Can absorption be explained by the ordinary laws of diffusion
and osmosis, or are there certain selective activities of the living
cpitheh'al lining ? The work of R. Heidenhain, E. Weymouth
Reid, and others shows clearly that whatever part the physical
laws play in this exchange, there are other activities also at work.
For instance, an animal's own scrum can be readily absorbed
from its intestine, as can also salt and other solutions of higher
concentration than that of the blood. Such absorption cannot
be explained by ordinary physical laws. In all such cases of
absorption the epithelial lining of the gut must be intact and
uninjured. O. Cohnheim and others have shown that when the
epithelial lining is damaged or destroyed, the intestinal wall
behaves like any other animal membrane, and the physical laws
governing osmotic pressure come into play. Whether the nervous
system plays any part in this absorption is not yet determined.
The form in which the various products resulting from digestion
are absorbed must next be considered.
Carbohvdrates. — These reach the body, as already mentioned, by
way of the blood, and in the form of^ monosaccharides or simple
surars. F. Rohmann found that the absorption of the disaccharides
is dependent on the invert ferment action, and not upon their osmotic
characters. £. Weinland too has shown that if lactose be put into
a lactase-frce intestine, no absorption takes place, the lactose gradu-
ally disappearing under bacterial action, whereas when the ferment
lactase is present glucose and galactose the products of its splitting
are absorbed as readily as cane-sugar and maltose. E. Voit has
also deinonstrated the fact that the body deals with its carbohydrate
supply in the form of mono-saccharides. He injected solutions of
various sugars, mono- and di-saccharides, and found that the simple
sugars were retained, whereas the double sugars were excreted in the
urine. The only di-saccharide which can 1^ dealt with in the body
is maltose, as there b a maltaae present in the blood which splits it.
Carbohydrates which arc not absorbed from the intestine are dis-
posed of by bacterial action, giving rise to various fatty acids, carbon
dioxide, &c.
Fats. -Fats are absorbed from the intestine in the form of fatty
acids and glycerin; i.e. in the form in which they exist after the
action of the lipase. That a resynthesis takes place in the epithelium
is shown by the fact that fatty acids are of equal value with fat as a
source of energy, and that as fat absorption goes on fat droplets are
seen to grow in the protoplasm away from the free margin of the cells.
As already mentioned, the fat b removed by the lacteals from the
cells to the thoracic duct, and then to the general circulation. A
small amount of the fat may pass into the body via the blood, but
this b practically all retained by the liver. The amount of fat
absorbed depends a good deal on the nature of the fat, especially
irith reference to its melting-point, fats of low melting-point being
most readily taken up.
Protein. — ^Tbe older workers held that the protein was absorbed in
926
NUTRITION
the form of proteose and peptone. In support of this it was stated
that bothproteoses and peptones could be detected in the blood
stream. The result of the most recent work tends to show that the
material is absorbed in the form of the amino adds either simple or in
complex groups, the polypeptides, and that if proteoses or peptones
be absorbed they are attacked by the intta-cellular enzyme isrepsin,
which breaks them down into the simpler products as soon as they
are within the intestinal mucous membrane. Certain proteins appear
to be absorbed unchanged ; for instance, blood serum disappears from
the intestine vrithout api)arcntly anv change through zymin attack.
This fact is made use of in practical mediane, as, when administra-
tion of food b^ the mouth is impossible* patients are frequently kept
alive by the giving of nutrient enemata. That the food thus given is
absorbed is snown by the increase of nitrogen excretion in the urine.
In the large intestine very little absorption of nutrient matter takes
place under normal conditions, mainljr of course because most of the
absorbable material is removed whilst the food is in the small
intestine. That proteiA matter can be absorbed is ^own by the
above statement regarding nutrient enemata. The principal sub-
sunce absorbed here is water; and thus the excreta become brm and
formed.
V. Metabolism
In all living matter there ia a constant cycle of chemical
changes going on, a constant breaking down (catabolism), and a
correspondingly constant building up (anabolism). Unless the
former is covered by the latter wasting and finally death must
supervene. These two changes together make up the metabolism,
and the study of this involves a study of the fate of the food
absorbed both when it is used immediately and after it has been
stored in the tissues of the body. Protein matter is undoubtedly
the main constituent of protoplasm, but in what form it exists
there is absolutely unknown* One thing is certain, that for the
maintenance of life a constant supply of protein matter is
necessary. In fact it might be said that this is the essential
food and keeps the body alive, fats and carbohydrates being
merely subsidiary. In the mammalian organism with which we
are specially concerned a supply of these latter substances is also
necessary to yield the energy required. The amounts of these
various food stuffs which should be present in a suitable diet are
dealt with under Dietetics iq.v.). Here we are only concerned
with the part played by. the different materials in the various
chemical changes which are the basis of vital activity.
Not many years ago physiologists were very much in the
position of unskilled labourers who saw load^ of heterogeneous
material being " dimiped " for building purposes, but who did
not know for what particular purpose each individual substance
was used. Thanks, however, to the brilliant work of E. Fischer
we are no longer in this position. Gradually our knowledge is
being broadened by actual facts obtained by direct experiment,
or by inference from previous experiments. But it is still far from
complete. It is only possible to outline what is at present known
about the part played by the different food constituents in
metabolism.
Proteins. — ^Since these alone contain the nitrogen necessary for
the buildinjs: up and repair of the tissues they are essential and will
be dealt with first. In considering the digestion of proteins it was
shown that in all probability all protein food was reduced in the
intestine to comparatively simple crystalline bodies. O. Loewi has
shown that an animal can be maintained in health without loss of
weight by feeding it on a diet consisting of amino adds obtained by
prolonged pancreatic digestion in place of protdns. In addition to
these acids abundant carbohydrates and fats were given. It has
since been shown that the presence of carbohydrate a certain amount
of is absolutely essential before utilization of the amino adds can take
place. Further, it has been demonstrated that only a mere fraction
of the total amino acids resulting from pancreatic digestion is
sufficient as the source of nitrogen supply for the animal organism.
Not only so, but, in spite of the attempt to insist on the polypeptides
as being the valuable nuclei for the rebuilding up of protein m the
body, it has been shown that mijctures of amino acids from which the
polypeptides have been removed can serve as the nitrogen suppljr.
What then does the bod>r gain by breaking down food material to
such simple bodies, if it is immediately to be resynthenzed ?. This
complete breakdown appears to be to facilitate rebuilding^ The
protdn in the protoplasm of each animal is characteristic and to build
up these different proteins the material must be separated into iu
nudd. An experiment carried out by E. Abderhalden shows this
very clearly. A protdn gliadin absolutely differert in constitution
from the protdns of blood plasma was fed to an animal from which
much of iu blood had been removed, so that aniUrtive reformation
had to take place. The question to be solved was whether by feecfiag
with a protein so absolutely different in constitution the nature of the
freshly forming serum protdn could be radkally changed. But the
newly-formed serum was found to be exactly the same in coasdtution
as the old. The tissues had selected simply those nudd of the
gliadin which were required and had rejected the others.
In addition to this breakdown of protein in the incestine. another
factor of importance comes into play. After absorptioo from the
lumen of the gut the amino acids are not wholly conveyed as such by
the portal blood to the liver. That the portal blood cont^s6 a
gTL-ittT amaunt of ammonia than the £y±[c[Liic blood has long been
kno'A:i, and Jacoby and Lan^ have ahawn ihat many tissues, and
aniMii^ ihcm ihc tntciitinal ti&j'ijes, arc abk to split off from the
aniin'> achds tlicir amino group SH^ Thm it would seem probable
th.li jny excels, of the amino acida formed diaes not reach tbe hver
as f'Uch but dcnitriilcd as members of the (atty audd series. The
am rtiijnia »plit oR ii also coovuycd to the liver and is excreted for the
m(i-t part as urcan wiihin the dnx. few hours after a protein mcaL
Thus, in all probability very early after abikNption and before the
pr hJ ':j r I s of digET&tion c n tcr i nto co mblna tian or anv synthesis oocnrs*
all L-'\crs3 d{ tnc absorbed nitrogen is di^postd of. The rest of the
pr '.liirH circubje in ihc blood, yielding to Ehe cells the materiak of
wliLi 1i ihry arcr in need. On the other hand >Mnne investigators stiB
hoM [fii^it r<;&ynih(-^i^ into a neutrdL protcm l^ke serum albumin takes
pLu ■ in (he intciirmal *\ill immcdkvidy a ft it ibsorption of the digest
pru 111.: I*.. That ihe leucocyte* pby an iirp-irtanl part in carrying
thi j^TiKlucts ci priJtcin digestion to the ti^-uea is indicated by the
eiiMinDiji!* increase in thtif number which rirurs during the (figestioa
ar i lUsorpticjn of proteM food*, How lUw Mct, whether r — *^ -
cat : ti f i of the products gf prottin digf stion <r p>:nbined or uno
an 'I hijw thty gfve ihc material to the ti^^^u^ is unknown. '
C^rhokydfotti are generally A^mmcd simply to serve the p ur pose
of > 1L Iding energy in their combustion to CUi and H^, and to act as
pr 1. id ftpanySf i.e. they &ivc the ingestion of large amounts of
CO 1 y protein niaierial aa a iourcc of energy. There may, however,
be .:rh£r acttv^ticti in \fhhlch the ingmed sugars play a part, for
in -[.L lice, in the utilization of thu^ niiri];^f:n rif proteias. It has already
bc' II iitdicated that the nju > ■'■' rts of pancreatic <Sgc»>
tiofi cin be Uscd only when .<. suui.i.jjiL anio;ant of cartx>hydrmtes is
given at the same time. Only carbdiydrates seem to be able to do
this, for it has been found that when isodynanuc amounts of Cat are
given the utilization does not take place.
When taken, into the body in excess of the immediate re q uir e^-
ments the sugar is not utilized all at once, but any eaoeas b stored ia
the form of glycogen both in the liver and the muscles. This glycogen
is an insoluble polysaccharide, and i» only utilized according to ^k
requirements <u the body, especially during muscular exertica.
Carbohydrates, when taken in in excess, are also stored in due tnsues
in the form of fat. This was demonstrated by the feeding experi-
ments of Lawes and Gilbert at Rothamstead. They took two yout%
pigs of a litter, killed and analysed one, then fed the other for a
dennite time upon food of known composition, determimng the
amount of protein absorbed by analysing the urine and the faeces.
They then Killed the pig and by analysts ascertained the amcttirt
of fat put on. They found that this was far in excess of the amoiuit
of the protdn of the food which had been absorbed and was also ia
excess of what could have been formed from the small amount of fat
in the food. The fat must therefore have been formed frocn the
carbohydrates of the food. The consumption of larger amounts of
sugar than can be used or stored as glycogen results in its pass^
straight through the body and being excreted in the urine. Tbts
condition is known as alimentary glycosuria. The power of sasng
and storing sugar varies greatly lo different individuals and in the
same individual at different times.
F<Us. — The fats simply serve as stores oi energy. After iiyestion.
if in snuU amount, they are, like carbohydrates, oxidized to tne sasne
final products COi, ana H|0. If in larger ammmt they are stand as
fat, to serve as a reserve in case of need, in the body tissues. Like
the carbohydrates they serve as the sources of part of the energy
disnpated as heat, but they are not so efficient as sparers of pctsten
material, evidently in part at least because they are tea* cnaily
digrstfd and absorbed.
Factors which infiuenu Normal hieiabeiism,
I. PasHng. — During fasting the body draws upon its own reserve
of stored material for the requirements in the production of energy,
and the rate of breakdown varies with the energy requii^ensents.
An individual who is kept warm in bed therefore stands fasts^
longer than one who is compelled to take exerdse in a cold pl^^
The breakdown of tissue during the eariy days of a fast is muc^
greater than later, for aa the fast progresses the body becoomes ntore
economical in its utilization of tissue. During a fast the tissocs do
not all waste at an equal rate; those which are not essential aie
utilized at a much greater rate than those which are essential to the
maintenance of the organism. For instance, it has been diown that
during a fast the skeletal muscles may kwe overdo % of their weight.
whereas an essential organ like the heart loses only some 3 %.
The essential tissues obtain their nourishment from the Vs
essential probably by ferment action, a process which ha» been
termed aotoiytu. ine antoiyuc prodoctt oi toe gtored outniai in
the tisnet are practically identical with thoie which arise during the
ordinary gaatro-intestinal digestion*
2. Muuular Work. — ^The muscular tinue playt the meet important
]Mrt in general metaboUsm. Not only is muscle the most abundant
tissue present, but it is constantly active and is the great energy-
liberatiog machine of the body. Formeriy it was beCcved on the
authority of Liebig that muscular worlt was done at the expense
of the protein material, but it has been conclusively shown that
the real source of energy in moderate Work is the non-protein
material, carbohydrates and fats; of these the former plays the
greater part in a man on ordinary diet. If, however, the supply of
oon-oitrogenous material be insufficient, then the energy has to be
supplied by the protein and the output of nitrogen is thus increased.
Vanatioos in the amount of crcatinin and uric acid (both products
of muscle metabolism) excreted have been described. In hard work
it is sometimes found that therp may be no immediate rise in the
nitroeen output on the day of the work, but that an increase is
manliest on the second or third cuty after. While the excretion of
nitrogen shows no increase proportionate to the work done, the output
of carbon dioxide produced by the combustion of the carbohydrates
and of the fats is increased proportionately to the work done.
3. Inkmal Secretions. — Evidence is accumulating to show that
the activities of the various tissues of the body are presided over and
contrdled not merely by the action of the nervous system but
also by chemical substances, the result of the activity of certain
organs. To these chemical substances, as already stated, the name of
hormones has been ^ven.
The hormone which has been most thoroughly invcsti^ted is
adrenalin, a perfectly definite chemical compound consisting of a
secondary alcohol linked to a benzene ring. It is a product of the
central or medullary part of the suprarenal bodies. The medullary
part of these organs u developed from the sympathetic part of the
nervous system, and adrenalin acts as a stimulant to the termina-
tions oif the sympathetic nerves which spring from the thoraco-
abdominal region. These nerves control the small arteries, and the
main actk>n qf adrenalin is to cause a powerful contraction of these
vessels, and as a result a great rise in the arterial blood pressure.
For this purpose it is now largely used in medicine. The constant
supply 01 adrenalin in small quantities seems to play an important
part m keeping up »he toAe of the blood vessels, and when, as a
result of disease of the suprarenals, the supply is cut off a serious
train of symptoms supervenes.
Allied to adrenalin is a hormone derived from the pituitary body.
This also causes a constriction of the small arteries except those of
the kidney, which it dilates. An increased flow of urine is produced.
In the thyroid fland a substance, iodotkyrin, is constantly being
produced, and this appears to exercise a stimulating action on the
rate of chemical excnange in the various tissues. Under its ad-
ministration the waste of DOth proteins and fats is increased. When
the thyroid is removed or destroyed by disease a condition of de-
creased chemkal change and mental sluggishness results, accom-
panied often by nervous tremors.
A difficulty in explaining these symptoms u caused by the fact
that in the tnyroid are imbedded four small parathyroids, and it is
possible that tnese produce a special hormone. It
has been suggested that this exercises a particular
influence upon the nervous system, but further
evidence is wanting.
The well-known effects of removal of the
ovaries or testes on the development and character
of an animal is due to the absence of the special
hormone or hormones of these structures. These
hormones appear to be produced, in the case of
the testes at least, not m the true genital cells,
but in the intermediate cells, since it has been
found that ligature of the duct, which leads to
destruction 01 the genital cells, does not abolish the development
of the sexual characters of the animaL
There is growing evidence that from the ovaries different hormones
may be pr<xluced m varying amounts which play an important part
in regulating the phenomena of sexual life.
The thymus gland is a structure lying in the front of the neck, which
is best developed at the time of birth, ^ws vcnr slowly after birth,
and atroohies when the age of puberty is reached. In castrated male
animals it continues to grow and persists throughout life. There is
some evidence that it may exercise some effect upon the growth of the
testes, probably by hormone action. ,
Pancreas. — Within recent years it has been shown that the internal
secretion of this organ pbys a very important part in the metabolism
of sug:ar. When the organ is completely extirpated the animal
becomes diabetic, i.e. sugar appears in the urine and the animal
emaciates. How the internal secretion effects the combustion of
the sug:ar is not yet known. Some workers hold that the action of
the pancreatic internal secretion is to control the sugar forrnation in
the various sugar-forming organs, of which the liver is the chief,
others- that it dominates the utilization of sugar as a source of
energy by the muscles.
These are some of the best-known examples of the way in which
the products of the activity, of one organ modify the functions of
otfier organs, in all proDatMUty many more examples of hormone
action will be discovered, and it will be found that it plays protnbly
even a more important part than the nervous system in the co-
ordination of function in the animaL
Other factors, besides these 'already dealt with, play a part in
modifying the various metabolic proce s s es , as age, temperature,
climate, &c. Very little, however, is definitely known about these
various factors.
Water and inorganic salts are quite as essential for the well-being
of the body as the energy-yielding r -oteins, carbohydrates and fats.
They, however, probably undei]^ little or no change in the body;
they are excreted pretty much in the same form in which they are
ingested. Although they are not subjected to any very great change
yet they are of immense importance. No animal tissue can cany on
Its work in the absence of the various salts. Many experiments have
been carried out in which animals have been fed on food as free from
salts as possible, and, althoush the food was much in excess of the
energy requirements^ yet au these animals died, whereas other
animals to which similar food with salts was given throve well. The
most important acids are hydrochloric and phosphoric, and the
most important bases sodium of potassium. Calcium and magnesium
are also of importance, especially where bone formation is takinjs
place. Another element ot really vital importance is iron, which is
required for the formation of haemoglobin.
VI. EXOLETION
While we know comparatively little of the intermediate stages
in the breakdown of the food constituents, and more particularly
of the protein moiety, our knowledge of the final products of the
metabolic changes excreted is fairiy full. The urine is the main
channel of excretion for the nitrogenotis waste products. COi,
arising for the most part from the metabolism of carbohydrates
and fats, is excreted mainly through the lungs. Water is excreted
by the lungs, the kidneys and the skin.
- ' ; . ' . lj .1 1 d . u . k ; > icv, 1 : -; u,.L L ^ry explanation has been given of how a
flu J like urine, having on acid reaction and containing about one
hiJH' f rtd tifneft as much urea and senerally more than twice as much
soJJum chloride a» the blood, is formed m the kidneys. The urine
is a yelbiAJah fluid which varies greatly in its depth of colour, from
pate amber id a deep brown. It has a specific gravity of about 1020,
vaninc with the percentn^^ of solids in solution, and it usually has
an u'lii reactuin. ft l» a tluid of complex character, containing, as
air- LiJy rnenHksncdt pnictir.iUy all the waste nitrogen of the IxKly.
Ai :i^ thr priEiclpalori^nir substances present arc urea, ammonia,
pi ' £^dd and: ihv so-called purin bases, xanthin, &c.).
cr :ijue:a.tcd ^tilpb;]Tes, various aromatic bodies and many
pt I inccs in snia)i ;i mounts together with the water and
inorj;.T,nic salts.
The following table from Folin gives a gooa idea of the average
cotnpoiilEioii of the urine as regards the nitrogen-containing con-
stiiucnts, and its ^'ariation, nccoraing to the nature of the diet when
tbii is free c^ crratln cn^tinln and the precursors of the purins:—
Nitrogen-rich Diet.
Nitrogen-poor Diet.
Total nitrogen ....
Urea nitrogen
Ammonia nitrogen . . .
Creatinin nitrogen . .
Uric acid nitrogen . . .
Undetermined nitrogen . .
14-8- 1 8-2 grms. per day
86-3-89-4% of total
3-3- 51% »
3-2- 4-5% r.
0-5- io% „
3-7- 5-3% ..
4-8- 8-0 grms. per day
62 •0-80-4 % of total
4-2-11.7 % „
5-5-1 i-i % „
1-2- a-a % „
4-8-14-6 % „
Urea, which forms the chief nitrogenous constituent, amounting
on an ordinary diet to about 30 grms. per diem, is for the most part
formed in the liver, from ammonia obtained either directly from the
blood after absorption from the intestine, or resulting from the
denitrification of the amino acids. It may also arise in part from the
diamino acids and from uric acid.
Ammonia b present in the form of ammonium salts, and forms
about 4 % of the total urinary nitrogen. It may exceed this amount
under certain conditions, for the most part pathological. The
ammonia is utilized by the body to neutralize acids which arise
during the various metabolic processes.
Purins (uric acid, xanthin. hypoxanthin, &c.) arc all members of a
series which have as their common nucleus a body which E. Fischer
called purin. The most important member of this series is uric acid.
It forms about 3% of the total urinary nitrogen. Recent work has
shown that it has two quite definite sources of origin: (i) from
ingested food containing the precursors, and (2) from the tissue
metabolism. The first is known as the exogenous source, and the
second as the endogenous. This acid is chemically known as tri-
oxy-purin, and may be regarded as the union of two urea molecules
with a three-carbon chain Tatty acid. All the uric acid formed in the
body is not excreted as such, part bein^. as already mentioned, con-
verted into urea. The amount which is converted into urea varies
928
NUTTALL— NYASA
with the fpecIeB of animal. In man, Burian and Sdiur state that one
half of the total amount is so converted. Some worken, like Wiener,
hold that uric acid may be svnthesised in the body, but while this is
undoubtedly so in the case of the bird, in the mammal it has not been
definitely established. The other chief purin bodies present in urine
are xanthin and hypoxanthin, purins less oaddized than uric acid;
the first is a dioxypurin, and the second b a monoacypurin. The
ma^i source of total purin supply would seem to be muscle meta-
bolism. The mother substances from which all ate derived in the
bodv are the nucleins. These complex bodies are apparently first
broken down by enzyme action to aminopurins. These in their turn
have their amino sroups split off, and then, according to the degree
of oxidation, the different purin bodies are formed.
Qreatinin, — ^The physiologica] significance of this substance
is as yet unknown. The daily excretion varies little with the
character of the diet, juxnoded, of oouxse, that the diet be creatin
creatinin free. It appears to be proportional to the muscular de-
velopment and muscular activity of the individual. Hence it would
seem to be derived from the creatin ol nkuscle, a substance which is
very readily changed into creatinin outside the body. In the body
the conversion of creatin into creatinin seems to be strictly limited,
and hence when creatin is taken in flesh in the food it tends to appear
as such in the urine. It would seem that it is either in great
part decomposed in the body into what we do not at present know
or that, as suggested by Fobn, it may be used as a specialized food.
Whatever its source, alter urea and ammonia it is one of the most
important nitrogenous substances excreted^ the daily excretion
being about 1*9 grms.
The sulphur excreted in the urine comes chiefly from the sulphur
of the protein molecule. It is excreted in various forms, (i) As
the ordinary preformed sulphates, that is, sulphur in the form of
sulphuric acid combined with the ordinary bases. (2) As ethereal
sulphates, that is, in combination with various aromatic substances
like phenol, indol, &c. (3) In the form of so-called neutral sulfdiurin
such substances as cysun, which are intermediate products in the
complete oxidation of sulphur.
Phosphorus appears Uiikcd to the alkaUs and alkaline earths as
phosphoric acid. A very small part of the phosphoric add may be
eliminated in orgaiuc combination such as the glyom-phosphates, &c.
Sodium (mostly as sodium chloride), potasnum, caidum and
magnesium are the common bases present in the urine.
The lungs are the important channel of excretion for the waste
product of carbon metabolism COi (see Respiratory System); and
also a very important channel for the excretion of water. As regards
the skin, the sweat carries off a large amount of the water, but it is
difficult to determine the total amount. It has been estimated that
about 500 c.c. is excreted per diem under normal conditions.
Sweat contains salts, chiefly sodium chloride, and oigamc waste
products. Of the organic solids excreted from this source urea forms
the most important under normal conditions. Under pathological
conditions, 'especially when there is interference with free renal
action, the amount <h nitrogenous waste excreted may become quite
important. There u also a small amount of COi excreted by this
chSneL (D.N.P.:E.P.C.>
NUTTALL, THOMAS (1786-1859), English botanist and orni-
thologist, who lived and worked in Ainerica from x8o8 until 1843,
was bom at Settle in Yorkshire on the sth of January 1786,
and spent some years as a journeyman printer in England. Soon
after going to the United States he was induced by Professor
B. S. Barton (1766-1815) to apply himself to the study of the
plants of that country. In 182 5-1 834 he was curator of
the botanic gardens of Harvard university. In 1834 he crossed
the continent to the Pacific Ocean, and visited the Hawaiian
Islands. Some property having been left him in England on
condition of his residing on it during part of each year, he left
America in 1842, and did not again revisit it except for a short
time in 1852. He died at St Hdens, Lancashire, on the zoth of
September 1859.
Almost the whole of his scientific work was done in the United
States, and his published works appeared there. The more im-
portant of these are. The Genera of North American Ptants, and
a Cat^^rue of the Spuies to the year 1817 (3 vols., 1818); Journal
of Travels into the Arkansas Territory during the year i8to (1821);
The North American Sylva: Trees not descried by F. A. Michaux (3
vols., 1 843-1 840); Manual of the OmUhology of the United Stales
and of Canada (1833 and 1834); and numerous papers in American
scientific periodical.
NUWARA EUTA, a town and sanatorium of Ceylon. Pop.
(1901) 5026, with 1000 additional visitors during the season.
It is situated 6240 ft. above sea-level, with the highest mountain
in the island, Pedrotallagalla, towering over the plain for 2056 ft.
more. Nuwara Eliya is reached from Colombo by railway,
eight hours to Namuoya, and thence, bya light 3|-ft.-gauge line,
running up to the heart of the sanatorium. The average shade
temperature for the year is 58^ F. ; the rainfall, 95 in. Considerable
sums have been ^>ent by the government in improving the place.
MUX VOMICA, a poisonous drug, consisting of the seed of
Strycknos Nux-Vomica, a tree belonging to the natural order
Loganiaceae, indigenous, to moat parts of India, aiKl found also
in Burma, Siam, Cochin China and northern Australia. The
tree is of moderate size, with a short, thick, often crooked, ixaa,
and ovate entire leaves, marked with three to five veins radiatbg
from the base of the leaf. The flowers are small, greenish-while
and tubular, and are arranged in terminal corymbs. The fniit
is of the size of a small orange, and has a thin hard shdl, endosirg
a bitter, gelatinous white pulp, in which from z to 5 seeds are
vertically embedded. The seed is disk-shaped, rather lest thas
z in. in diameter, and about i in. in thickness, slightly depressed
towards the «ntre, and ia some varieties fumkhcd with an acute
ked'like ridge at the margin. The external surface of the seci
is of a gre^sh-green colour and satiny appearance, due to a
coating of appressed silky hairs. The interior of the seed conssts
chiefly of homy albumen, which is easily divided along iu ovtcr
edge into halves by a fissure, in which lies the emt^yo. The
latter is about -^ in. long, and has & pair of heait-shaped
membranous cotyledons.
The chief constituents of the seeds are the alkaloids strychniBe
(q.v.) and brudne, the former averaging about 0*4%, and ih«
latter about half this amoimt. The seeds also contain an add,
strychnic or igasuric add; a glucoside, loganin; sugar and lot.
The dose of the seeds is z to 4 grains. The British Pfaarmacopodi
contains three preparations of nux vomica. The liquid cxtizct
is standardized to contain z*5% of strychnine; the extmct
is standardized to contain 5%; and the tincture, which is
the most widely us^, is standardized to contain 0-25%.
Tlw pharmacolo^ of nux vomica is practically that ol strychnia^
The tincture 'b chiefly used in cases of atonic dyspepsia, and U
superior to all other bitter tonics, in that it b antiseptic and hj> ^
more powerful action upon the movements of the gastric snXL T^~r
cxtract b of great value in the treatment of nmplc constipatioo.
MTACK, a village of Rockland county. New York, U.S.A .
in the town of Orangetown, on the western bank of the Hudsca
river, about 25 m. north of New York City. Pop. (zSgo) 41 n,
(1900) 4275, of whom 583 were foreign-bom; (1905) 4441; (i9io>
46x9. Nyack is served by the Northern Railroad of New Jenty
(a branch of the Erie), and is connected by ferry with Tarrytowii.
nearly opposite, on the eastem bank of the Hudson. The Nr«
York, Ontario & Western and the West Shore railways pis&
through West Nyack, a small village about a zn. vest. Fur
about 3 m. above and 3 m. below Nyack the river expands iri '
Tappan Zee or Bay, which is about 3 m. wide iznmediaicy
opposite the village. The first grant of land within the prcsr:::
limits of Nyack was made by Ciovemor Philip Caxtcrct, of Xt?
Jersey, to one Claus Jansen, in Z67Z, but the pcnnanent sdtV
ment apparently dates from about Z700. The adjacent viUsgs
of Upper Nyack, pop. (1905) 648, (1910) 59 z. azKl Sou:'::
Nyack, pop. (Z910) 2068, form with Nyack practically one cosy
munity. Nyack was named from a tribe of Algonguian Indsasa
See David Cole, History of Rockland county, (New York, 16&4).
MYANZA (from the andent Bantu root word ansa, a river <r
lake), the Bantu name for any sheet or stream of water of cci-
sidcrable size; especially applied to the great lakes of ctn
Central Africa. The word is variously apelt, and the fc?r
" Nyasa " has become the prop<^ zuune of a particular Ukjt
Nyanza is the spelling used in designating the great lakes whiJ
are the main reservoirs of the river Nile.
NYASA, the third in size of the great lakes of Cezitral Africa
occupying the southern end of the great rif t>vallcy system vh>:^
traverses the eastem half of the equatorial region from north i-
south. Extending from 9^ 29' to Z4^ 25' S., or throizsh nearV<
5** of latitude, the lake measures along its major airis, which s
dlghtly inclined to the west of north, exactly 350 m., while '><^
greatest breadth, which occurs near the middle o£ its Wnr^
between zz^ 30' and Z2^ 20' S., b 45 m. In the ziorthem ssi
southern thirds of the length the br^th varies generally ircz.
20 to 30 m.» and the total area may be estimated at z 1 ,000 sq. ^
NYBORG— NYE
929
The lake lies at an altitude of about 1650 ft. above the sea.
The sules of the valley in which Nyasa lies, which are somewhat
irregular towards its southern end, take a decided character of
fault scarps in the northern third, and are continued as such
beyond the northern extremity. Apart from the recent alluvium
on the immediate shores, the lake lies almost entirely in granite
and gneiss formations, broken, however, by a band of horizontally-
bedded sandstones, which cuts the axis of the lake in about
lo** 30' S., the flat-topped, terraced form of the latter contrasting
strangely with the jagg^ or rounded outlines of the former.
Near the margin, overlying the sandstones, there are beds of
limestone with remains of recent molluscs, pointing, like the
raised beaches which occur elsewhere, to an upward movement
of the coasts. Lacustrine deposits up to 700 ft. above the present
lake-level have been discovered. Geologically, t he lake is believed
to be of no great age, a view supported by topographical evidence.
The depth of the lake seems to vary in accordance with the
steepness of the shores, increasing from south to north. The
greater part of the northern half shows depthsof over 300 fathoms,
while a maximum of 430 fathoms was obtained by Mr. J. £. S.
Moore in 1899, off the high western coast in about ix^ 40' S.
A more complete series of soundings, however, since made by
Lieut. Rhoadcs, and published in the Geographical Journal in
1902, gives a maximum of 386 fathoms off the same coast in
1 1® 10' S. The lake receives its water-supply chiefly from the
streams which descend from the mountains to the north, all
the rest becoming very small in the dry season. Like other
lakes of Central Africa it is subject to fluctuations of level,
apparently caused by alternations of dry and wet series of years.
At the north-western end is a plain of great fertility, traversed
by the Kivira, Songwe and other streams, rising cither among the
volcanic masses to the north or on the we:»tcm plateau. Just
north of 10* S. on the delta ol the Rukuru. is the British station of
Karonga, the northern port of call for the lake steamers, though
with but an open roadstead. Southwards the plain narrows, and m
about 10)* S. the sandstone scarp of Mount Waller ri-ses sheer above
the indentation of Florence Bay, the high western plateaus continuing
to fall steeply to the water m wooded cliffs for more than 80 m.
In this stretch occur the land-Iockcd bays of Ruarwe(ii"5' S.)
and Nkata (ii" 36' S.). and the mouth of the Rukuru (ro*f3'S).,
which drains the plateau from south to north. At Cape Chirombo
(i I " 40' S.) the coast bends to the west, and soon the plateau escarp-
ments recede, and arc separated from the bke along its southern half
by an undulating plain of varying width. In 1 1* ^6' S.'is the British
station of Bandawe, and in 13** 55' that of Kota Kota, on a lake-like
inlet, forming a sheltered harbour. A little north of the latter the
Bua river, coming from a remote source on the upper plateau, enters
by a projecting delta. At Domira Bay, in I3* 3$', the coast turns
suddenly cast, contracting the lake to a comparatively narrow neck,
with the British stations of Fort Rifu on the west, and Fort Maguire.
near the headland of Makanjira Point, on the east. Beyond this
the lake runs southwards into two bays separated by a granitoid
peninsula, off which lie several small rocky islands. On this peninsula
was placed the mission station of Livingstonia, the first to be
established on the shores of Nyasa. From the extremity of the eastern
bay the Shir6 makes its exit to the Zambezi. On the eastern side the
plateau escarpments keep generally close to the lake, leaving few
plains of any extent along its shores. The crest of the eastern water-
shed runs generally parallel to the shore, which it approaches in
f>lace9 within 30 m. From the north point to lo** 30' S. the coast is
ormed by the unbroken wall of the Livingstone or Kinga ranffc,
riajng where highest (9** 41' S.) fully 6000 ft. above the water. On
this coast, on a projecting spit of land, is the German station of
Old Langenburg, some ro m. from the northern extremity. In
10** 30' the plateau is broken by the valley of the Ruhuhu, the only
important stream which enters the lake from the east. The forma-
tion is here sandstone, corresponding to that of Mount Waller on the
opposite shore. Just north of the Ruhuhu is the German station of
Wiedhafen, on an excellent harbour, formerly Amelia Bay. South
of the Ruhuhu the wall of mountains recedes somewhat, and the
remainder of the eastern shore shows a variation between rocky
cliffs, marshy plains of restricted area and groups of low hills. In
1 1* 16' is the deep inlet of Mbampa Bay, offering a sheltered anchor-
age. South of it the coast forms a wide semicircular bay, generally
rock-bound, and ending south in Malo Point (13" 10' S.). off which are
the largest islands the lake possesses. Likoma and Chisamulu, the
former measuring about 4 m. by 3. In the southern half the coast is
highest in about 13" 10' S., where the MapangihiUs riseto300oft.
Nyasa, reached in 1859 both by David Livingstone (from
the south) and by the German traveller Albrecht Roscher (from
the east), was explored by the former to about 11*, and to its
northern end by E. D. Young in 1876. From this date onwards
it has been the scene of much civilizing work on the part of
British ((principally Scottish) missionaries, traders and govern-
ment officials, and, in more recent years, of Gennans also. Its
shores have been divided between Great Britain, Portugal
and Germany, Great Britain holding (within the British Nyasa-
land Protectorate) all the west coast south of the Songwe, and
the southern extremity of the east coast (south of 13}^ S.);
Portugal the rest of the east coast south of i li** S. ; and Germany
the remainder. British steamers, including two or three gun-
boats, have been launched on Nyasa, which forms an important
link in the water-route from the 21ambezi mouth to the heart
of the continent. Germany also has a gunboat on the lake. The
first detailed survey of its shores was executed by Dr James
Stewart (1876-1877), but this has been superseded by later
work, especially that of Lieuts. Rhoades and Phillips.
See Proc. R.C.S. (1883), p. 689; Ceorr. Journal, vol. xii. p. 580;
1. E.S. Moore, ib. vol. x. p. 389, and " The Geology of Nyasaland."
by A. R. Andrew and T. £. G. Bailey, with note on fossil plants, fish
remains, &c., by E. A. N. Arber and others and bibliography in
vol. 66 of Quart, Jnl, G€0g. Society (May I9ro). (£. He.)
NTBORG, a seaport of Denmark on the east side of the island
of FOnen, in the ami (county) of Svendborg, and the point from
which the ferry crosses the Great Belt to Korsdr in Zealand
(15 m.). Pop. (1901) 7790. The fortress, built by Christian IV.
and Frederick III., was dismantled in 1869, and the ruins of
the castle are used as a prison. In the 12th century the town
was founded and a castle erected on Knudshoved (Canute's
Head) by Knud, nephew of Waldemar the Great; and from the
13th to the 15th century Nyborg was one of the most important
places in Denmark. In 1658 it surrendered to the Swedes;
but by the defeat of the latter under the walls of the fortress
on the 34th of November 1659, the a>untry was freed from
their dominion. In 180S the Marquis La Romana, who with
a body of Spanish troops garrisoned the fortress for France,
revolted from his allegiance, and held out till he and a portion
of his men escaped with the English fleet.
NYCKELHARPA (Swed. fiycibe/-key, Aar^a-harp; Ger.
Scklitssdfiedd)^ a kind of bowed hurdy-gurdy, much used io
Scandinavia during the late middle ages, and still in use in some
parts of Sweden. It consists of a body some 2 ft. long, shaped
like an elongated viol, with sloping shoulders and highly arched
sound-board glued over a less arched back, and ribs cut out of a
single block of wood. There is no fingerboard, but along the
neck, arranged like frets, are a number of keys or wooden
tangents, which when pressed inwards bring a little knob or stud
into contact with the first string of thin catgut, thus stopping
it and raising the pitch as in the hurdy-gurdy. At three points
these ke3rs also act upon the third string. There are in the
comparatively modem instruments usually four melody strings
of catgut and three drones of fine spun wire. The bridge is
quite flat, so that when the bow is passed over the strings, they
all sound at once. The tailpiece is very long, extending over
half the length of the body, and the two oval sound-holes, far
removed from the strings, are at the tail end of the instrument.
NYE, EDGAR WILSON (1850-1896), American humorist,
was bom at Shirley, Maine, on the 25th of August 1850. Hia
parents removed to a farm on the St Croix river in northern
Wisconsin in 1852, and young Nye was educated in Wisconsin
at the academy at River Falls, where he studied law. In 1876
he was admitted to the bar at Laramie, Wyoming, where he
served as justice of the peace, superintendent of schools, member
of the city council and postmaster. Here he began to contribute
humorous articles under the pseudonym of " Bill Nye " to news-
papers, especially the Cheyenne Sun and the Denver Tribune. In
1 88 1 he founded at Laramie the Boomerang, and his reputation
as a humorist was soon widespread. Later he became a success-
ful lecturer, and in 1885, with James Whitcomb Riley, the
poet, made an extended tour through the country, each reading
from his own writings. Nye removed to New York City in 1886,
and passed the later years of his life at Arden, a village in Bun-
combe county, North Carolina (about 10 m. south of Asheville),
where he died on the 22nd of February 1896. His prindpftl
books are Bill Nye and Boomerang (1881); Forty Liars and
Other Lies (1882); Nye and RiUy^s Railway Guide (1886), with
James Whitcomb Riley; and two comic histories, Bill Nye's
History of the United Stales (1894) and Bill Nye's History of
England from the Druids to the Reign of Henry VIII. (1896).
NYEZHIN or Nezuzn, a town of Russia, in the government
of Chernigov, 62 m. by rail S.E. of the town of Chernigov and
79 m. N.E. of Kiev, on the railway between Kursk and Kiev. The
old town is built on the left bank of the (canalized) river Otter, and
its suburbs, Novoye-Myesto and Magerki, on the right. It has an
old cathedral, a technical school and a former high school (lyceum
of Bezborodko, at which N. V. Gogol, the novelist, was a student),
now transformed into a philological institute. The inhabitants
(33,000), are mostly Little-Russians and Jews; there are also some
Greeks, descendants of those who immigrated in the 17th century
at the invitation of the Cossack chieftain Bogdan Chmielnicki.
Unyezh, which is supposed to have been the former name of
Nyezhl.i, is mentioned as early as 1 147. At that time it belonged
to the principality of Ch6migov; afterwards it fell under the
rule of Poland. It was ceded to Russia about 1 500, but again
became a Polish possession after the treaty of Deulina (1619)
between Poland and Russia. In 1649, after the revolt of Little
Russia and its Uberation from the Polish rule, Nyeshin was
the chief town of one of the most important Cossack regiments.
It was annexed to Russia in 1664.
NTIRBGTHAzA, the capital of the county of Szaboks, in
Hungary, 169 m. E.N.E. of Budapest by nil. Pop. (1900)
31,875. It is a busy railway junction, and its inhabitants are
engaged in agriculture, wine-growing and the manufacture
of soda, matches and saltpetre. About 20 m. to the N.W. lies
the famous wine-producing district of Tokaj (Tokay).
NTKJOBING, a seaport of Denmark, in the amt (county)
of Maribo,onthe west ^ore of the island of Falster, 94 m. S.S.W.
of Copenhagen by rail. Pop. (1901) 7345. Its church contains
a genealogical tree of the Mecldenburg ducal family, with por-
traits, dating from 1627 or earlier. Here is the house occupied
by Peter the Great of Russia in 1716, restored in 1898. A
railway runs south to Gjedser (14 m.), from which the sea-passage
(39 m.) to Wamemiinde links the fastest route between Copen-
lagen and Berlin.
Other towns of the name of NykiObikg in Denmark are (i) on
Limf jord in Thistod amt (pop. 4492) ; and (2) in Zealand, Holbaek
amt (pop. aooo).
NYKOPIVO. a seaport of Sweden, chief town of the district
Qdn) of SOdermanland, 98 m. S.W. of Stockholm by a branch
from the Stockholm-Malmd railway. Pop. (1900) 7375. It
lies at the head of the Byf jord, an inlet of the Baltic The ruins
of its once famous castle, the town hall (1662), and the district
governor's residence, are notable buildings. The port, together
with that of Oxeldsimd (10 m. S.E.) at the mouUi of the bay,
which is seldom dosed in winter, exports iron and anc ore,
timber, wood-pulp arid oats.
NykOping (t.«. New-Market, Latinized as Nicopia) begins to
appear as a town early in the 13th century. Its castle was the
seat of the kings of Sodermanland, and after those of Stockholm
and Kalmar was the strongest in Sweden. The death of Walde>
mar in 1293, the starving to death of Dukes Waldemar and
Eric in 13 1 8, the marriage and the deaths both of Charles IX.
and his consort Christina of Holstein, the birth of their daughter
Princess Catherine and in 1622 the birth of her son Charles X.
are the main incidents of which it was the scene. Burned down
in 1665 and again damaged by fire in 17 19, it still remained
the seat of the provincial authorities till 1760. The town was
burned by Albert of Mecklenburg's party in 1389, by an acddental
conflagration in 1665, and by the Russians in 17x9.
NYLSTROOH, a town of the Transvaal, South Africa, capital
of the Waterberg district, and 8z m. N. of Pretoria by rail;
altitude 4250 ft. Pop. (1904) 599. It was founded about z86o
and owes its name to the belief of the early Boer trekkers that
the river which they had discovered was the head stream of the
Nile. The Waterberg gold-fields are ao m. N.N.E. of the town.
NTHPHAEUM (Gs. rCyi^oior, rvM^aior),in Greek and Roman
antiquities, a monument consecrated to the nymphs (f.r),
especially those of springs. These monuments were origiiuUx
natural grottoes, which tradition assigned as habzUtioos to the
local nymphs. They were sometimes so arranged as to furoi^
a supply of water. Subsequently, artificial took the place of
natural grottoes. The nymphaea of the Roman period were
borrowed from the constructions of the Hellenistic east. The
majority of them were rotundas, and were adorned with statues
and paintings. They served the threefold purpose of sanctuaries,
reservoirs and assembly-rooms. A special feature was their
use for the celebration of marriages. Such nymphaea existed
at Corinth, Antioch and Constantinople; the remains of some
twenty have been found at Rome and of many in Africa. The
so<aIled exedra of Herodes Atticus (which answers in all respeas
to a nymphaeum in the Roman style), the nymphaeum in the
palace of Domitian and those in the villa of Hadrian at Tibur
(five in number) may be spedaily mentioned. The term
nymphaeum was also applied to the fountains of water in the
atrium of the Christian basilica, which according to Eusefaios
(x. 4) were ^rmbols of purification.
NYHPHBVBURO, formerly a village, but since 1899 an m-
corporated suburb of Munich, in the kingdom of Bavaria. It
has a palace, built about the middle of the 17th century, on the
modd of that at Versailles, and long a favx>urite residence of
the Bavarian dector, Maximilian Joseph. The famous china
manufactory of Nymphenburg, founded in 1754 at Nendeck
by a potter named Niedermeyer, was shortly afterwards removed
hither and, after being long under royal patronage, is now a
private undertaking. The dector Charles Albert of Bavaria
was reputed to have made a treaty with Louis XV. of France
in May i74r at the beginning of the War of the Austrian Succession
for the division of Atistria, and this was called the treaty of
Nymphenburg. It has, however, been condusivdy proved a
forgery. But a treaty was conduded here on the aSth of May
1741, between Bavaria and Spain, and another between Bavaria
and the Rhenish Palatinate in 1766.
NYMPHS, in Greek mythology, the generic name of a large
number of female divinities of inferior rank, personificatioiB of
the creative and fostering activities of nature. The word is
possibly connected with the root of i*<i^, nubes (** dood **),
and originally meant " veiled," referring to the custom kA a bride
being led veiled from her home to that of the husband: hence,
a married woman, and, in general, one of mairiageable age.
Others rder the word (and also Lat. nubert and the Gcr. Knospe)
to a root expressing the Idea of "swelling" (according to
Hesychius, one of the meanings of wbii^ is rose-bud **)- The
home of the nymphs is on mountains and in groves, by spring
and rivers, in valleys and cool grottoes. They are freqiiienily
assodated with the superior divinities, the huntress Artemis, the
prophetic Apollo, the revdier and god of trees Dionysus, and
with rustic gods such as Pan and Hermes (as the god of
shepherds).
The nymphs were distinguished according to the different
spheres of nature with which they were connected. Sea nyxnpbs
were Oeeanids or Nereids^ daughters of Occanus or Nercus.
Naiades (from Gr. vdccy, flow, cf. voimi, '* stream '*) presukd
over springs, rivers and lakes. Oreades (Spos, niountaia)
were nymphs of mountains and grottoes, one of the moat
famous of whom was Echo. Napaeae (i^«ir, dcU) and AlseUes
(&X(ror, grove) were nymphs of glens and groves. Dryoda
Iq.v.) or Hamadryades were nymphs of forests and trees.
The Greek nymphs, after the introduction of thdr cult into
Latium, gradually absorbed into thdr ranks the indigeiKK^s
Italian divinities of springs and streams (Jutuma, Egera.
Caimentis, Pons), whUe the Lymphae (originally Lumpae),
Italian water-goddesses, owing to the acddental similarity of
name, were identified with the Greek Nymphae. Among the
Romans thdr sphere of influence was restricted, and they appear
almost exdusivdy as divinities of the watery dement.
F. G. Ballentine. " Some Phases of the Cult of the Nymphs ** i»
Harvard Studies in Classical Philotogy, xv. (1904).
^
O— OAK
931
OThe sixteenth letter of the Phoenidan and early
Greek alphabets, the fifteenth in English and the
fourteenth in Latin. Between N and O the Phoenician
and the Ionic Greek alphabet have a sibilant —
in Greek H-x. The Western Greek alphabet had a different
symbol, X, for the sound of x and placed it at the end,
as did its descendant the Latin alphabet. The original form
of was a more or less roughly formed circle. The Aramaic ^
and Hebrew p, which seem so different, arise from a circle left
open at the top, O, a form which can be traced in Aramaic
from the 5th or 6th century B.C. In the Greek alphabets the
drcle appears sometimes with a dot in the centre, but in many
cases it is doubtful whether this mark is intentional, or is only
the result of fixing a sharp point there while describing the
circle. Sometimes O is lozenge-shaped and rarely (in Arcadia
and Elis) rectangular D In many varieties of the Greek
alphabet this symbol was used, as it always was in Latin, for
the long as well as the short o-sound and also for the long vowel
(in the Ionic alphabet written ov) which arose from contraction
of two vowels or the loss of a consonant (^XoDrc»5i}X6rri,
oIxovs^oUovs). As early as the 8th century Ionic Greek
had invented a separate symbol for the long 9-sound, viz. 0.
This when borrowed by other dialects showed at first some
variety of usage, though practically none in form. As this was
placed at the end of .the ordinary (not the numeral) Greek
alphabet, " alpha and omega *' has become a proverbial phrase
for first and last. The Greeks themselves, however, did not
call Q omega (great 0) nor did they call O omicron (little 0),
though these names are given even in modern Greek grammars.
The former was called simply and the latter u (ov, pronounced
as 00 in moon). The Hebrew and probably the Phoenidan name
for O was Ain (Ayin), and in the Semitic alphabet, which does
not indicate vowels, the symbol stood for a "voiced glottal
stop " and also for a " voiced velar spirant " (Zimmem). The
most important feature of this vowel is the rounding of the lips
in its production, which, according to its degree, modifies the
nature of the vowel considdrably, as can be observed in the
pronundation of the increasingly rounded series saw, 110, who.
In Attic Greek and R were not really a pair, for o + became
not u but ov, o bdng a dose and u an open sound. In Latin the
converse was more nearly true. Though short changed in
the Latin of the last age of the Roman republic to « in un-
accented syllables always (except after u whether vowd or con-
sonant), and sometimes also in accented syllables, this was
not equally true of vulgar Latin, as is shown by the Romance
langxiages. In English also the short and the long are of
different qualities, the short in words like not, got being in
Sweet's phonetic terminology a low-back- wide-round, the long
in words like no a mid-back-wide-round. The long vowel
becomes more rounded as it is being pronounced, so that it
ends in a M-sound, though this is not so noticeable in weak
syllables like the final syllable oi follow. The so-called modified
^ is a rounded r-sound found in seveial varieties. The sound
heard in words like the German CdUer is, according to Sweet, a
low-front -wide-round, while Jespersea regards it as not low
but middle. A mid-front-narrow-round vowd is found short
in French words like pcu, long in jei^ne and in endings like
that of honteuse The Norse sound written ^ is of the same
nature (P. Gi.)
OAK (O Eng., Ac), a word found, variously modified, in all
Germanic languages, and applied to plants of the genus Quercus,
natural order Fagaccae (Cupuliferae of de Candolle). including
some of the most important timber trees of the north temperate
cone. All the spedcs are arborescent or shrubby, varying in
size from the most stately of forest trees to the dwarfish bush
Monoedous. and bearing their male flowers in catkins, they are
leadily distinguished from the rest of the catkin-bearing trees
by their peculiar fruit, an acorn or nut, endosed at the base in a
woody cup, formed by the consolidation of numerous involucrol
bracts developed beneath the fertile flower, simultaneously with
a cup-like expansion of the thalamus, to which the bracteal
scales are more or less adherent. The ovary, three-celled at
first, but becoming one-celled and one-seeded by abortion, is
surmounted by an inconspicuous perianth with six small teeth.
The male flowers are in sniall dusters on the usually slender and
pendent stalk, forming an interrupted catkin; the stamens
vary in number, \isually six to twdve. The alternate leaves are
more or less deeply sinuated or cut in many spedes, but in
some of the dedduous and many of the evergreen kinds
are nearly or quite entire on the margin.
The oaks are widdy distributed ovor the temperate parts of
Europe, Asia, North Africa and North America. In the western
hemisphere they range along the Mexican highlands and the
Andes far into the tropics, while in the Old World the genus,
well represented in the Himalayas and the hills of China, exists
likewise in the peninsida of Malacca, in the Indian Archipelago
and Malaya to the Philippine Islands and Borneo. On the
Fhn KotidQr. Dk Eickm Emnpai, Vieiuia. t86i. Plate XX3CII.
Fio. I.— Flowers of Oak (Qtunus),
a. Diagram of male flower.
b. Diagram of female flower.
c. Female flowers of Q.
eidunculata, slightly en-
rged.
Male flowers of Q. sessUiflora,
much enlarged.
Female flowers of Q. sesnli'
flora, after fertilization, en-
larged.
mountains of Europe and North America they grow only at
moderate elevations, and none approach the arctic drcle. The
multitude of spedes and the many intermediate forms render
their exact limitation difficult, but those presenting sufficiently
marked characters to justify specific rank probably approach
300 in number.
The well-known Q. Robur, one of the most valued of the
genus, and the most celebrated in history and myth, may be
taken as a type of the oaks with sinuated leaves. Though known
in England, where it is the only indigenous spedes, as the
British oak, it is a native of most of the milder parts of Europe,
extending from the shores of the Atlantic to the Ural; its
most northern limit is attained in Norway, where it is found
wild up to lat. 63*, and near the Lindesnaes forms woods of some
extent, the trees occasionally acquiring a considerable siz^ In
western Russia it flourishes in lat. 60^, but on the slope of the
Ural the 56th parallel is about its utmost range. Its northern
limit nearly coinddes with that of successful wheat cultivation.
Southwards it extends to Sardinia, Sicily and the Morea. In
Asia it is found on the Caucasus, but does not pass the Ural ridge
into Siberia. In Britain and in most of its Continental habitats
two varieties exist, regarded by many as distinct species: one,
Q pedunculata, has the acorns, generally two or more together,
on long stalks, and the leaves nearly sessile; while in the other,
Q sesstliflora, the fruit is without or with a very short pedunde,
and the leaves are furnished with wdl-devdop^ petioles. But,
932
OAK
though the extreme forms of these varieties are very dissimilar,
innumerable modifications are found between them; hence it
is more convenient to regard them as at most sub-spedes of Q.
Robur. The British oak is one of the largest trees of the genus,
though old specimens are often more remarkable for the great
size of the trunk and main boughs than for very lofty growth.
The spreading branches have a tendency to assume a tortuous
form, owing to the central shoots becoming abortive, and the
growth thus being continued laterally, causing a zigzag develop-
ment, more exaggerated in old trees and those standing in
Fran E«acl^ . -^? "-t V^Tyvy,}
Fic. 2. — Q. pedunculata,
exposed situations; to this pecub'arity the picturesque aspect of
ancient oaks is largely due. When standing in dense woods the
trees are rather straight and formal in early growth, especially
the sessile-fruited kinds, and the gnarled character traditionally
assigned to the oak applies chiefly to its advanced age. The
broad deeply-sinuated leaves with blunt rounded lobes are of a
peculiar yellowish colour when the buds unfold in May, but
assume a more decided green towards midsummer, and eventually
become rather dark in lint; they do not change to their brown
autumnal hue until late in October, and on brushwood and
saplings the withered foliage is often retained until the spring.
The catkins appear soon after the young leaves, usually in
England towards the end of May; the acorns, oblong in form,
are in shallow cups with short, scarcely projecting scales;
the fruit is shed the first autumn, often before the foliage
changes.
Vast oak forests still covered the greater part of England
and central Europe in the earlier historic period; and, though
they have been gradually cleared in the progress of cultivation,
oak is yet the prevailing tree in most of the woods of France,
Germany and southern Russia, while in England the coppices
and the few fragments of natural forest yet left are mainly
composed of this species. The pedunculated variety is most
abundant in the southern and midland counties, the sessile-
fruited kinds in the northern parts and in Wales, especially
in upland districts; the straightcr growth and abundant acorns
of this sub-species have led to its extensive introduction into
plantations. The name of " durmast " oak, originally given
to a dark-fruilcd variety of Q. scssiliflora in the New Forest,
has been adopted by foresters as a general term for this kind of
oak; it seems to be the most prevalent form in Germany and
in the south of Europe. Many of the ancient oaks that remain
in England may date from Saxon times, and some perhaps
from an earlier period; the growth of trees after the trunk has
become hollow is extremely slow, and the age of such venerable
giants only matter of vague surmise. The celebrated Newland
oak in Gloucestershire, kno%\'n for centuries as " the great
oak," was by the latest measurement 47J ft. in girth at 5 ft.
from the ground. The Cowihorpe oak, standing (a ruin) near
Welhcrby in Yorkshire, at the same height measures 38 J ft.,
and seems to have been of no smaller dimensions when described
by Evdyn two centoriet «8o; like mott ol the giut oib d
Britain, it is of the pedunculate variety.
The wood of the British oak, when grown in perfectko, ii
the most valuable produced in temperate climates. The heart-
wood varies in colour from dark brown to pale yeUovisb-
brown; hard, dose-grained, and little liable to split accidentaiiljr,
it is, for a hard wood, easy to woric. Under water it excds
most woods in durability, and none stand better ahenuu
exposure to drought and moisture, while tinder co\'er it b neaxij
indestructible as long as dry-rot is prevented by free ■<<'w;««m
of air. lu weight varies from 48 to about 55 !b the cubic foot,
but in very hard slowly-grown trunks sometimes approaches
60 lb. The sap-wood is Ughter and much more perishable, but
is of value for numy purposes of rural economy. The relati^T
qualities of the two varieties have been the frequent subject
of debate, the balance of practical testimony seeming to esublak
the superiority of Q. pedmuulata as far as durability in vata
is concerned; but when grown under favourable drcumstacces
the sessile oak is certainly equally lasting if kept dr>'. The
wood of the durmast oak is commonly heavier and of a darker
colour, hence the other is sometimes called by woodmen tk
white oak, and in France is known as the ** chcne bbnc." The
oak of Britain is still in demand for the construction of mcrchut
shipping, though teak has become in some measure its suhsxitote,
and foreign oak of various quality and origin largely takes
iu place. lu great abundance of curved trunks and bootbs
rendered the oak peculiariy valuable to the shipwright vbea
the process of bending timber artificially was le^ undexstood;
the curved pieces are still useful for knees. The >'ouncer oab
are employed by the carpenter, wheelwright, wagonboilder
and for innumerable purposes by the country artisan. Hie
most durable of fences are those formed of snull oaks, iplk
lengthwise by the wedge into thin boards. The findy-graioed
heart- wood is sought by the cabinetmaker for the miniifsftge
Fran Kotachy. •>. tiL Plau XXXIL
Fig. 3. — Q. ussUifior<u
of furniture, and high prices are often given for the gnsiU
and knotted portions of slowly-grown trees, to be sava vm
veneers. Oak was formerly largely used by wood-carv-en. a*
is still in some demand for those artists, bdng harder fl'
more durable than lime and other woods that yield mott re«£^
to the sculptor's tool. Oak was thus applied at a very cs^
date; the shrine of Edward the Confessor, still existing ia tk
abbey at Westminster, sound after the lapse of 800 yean,ii^
dark-coloured oak-wood. The wood, of unknown age, i^d
submerged in peat-bogs, and of a black hue, is largely ^
in decorative art imder the name of " bog-oak."
The oak grows most luxuriantly on deep strong 6xf%, ^
careous mari or stiff loam, but will flourish in nearly any ^
well-drained soil, excepting peat or loose sand; in reankjr*
moist places the tree may grow well for a time, but the vaif
is rardy sound; on hard rocky ground and exposed VH^
the growth is eztitmdy slow and the trees small, but the «^
OAK
933
is generally very hard and dtinble. The oak will not bear
exposure to the full force of the sea gale, though in ravines
and on sheltered slopes oak woods sometimes extend nearly
to the shore. The cultivation of this tree in Europe forms one
of the most important branches of the forester's art. It is
frequently raised at once by sowing the acorns on the ground
where the trees are required, the fruit being gathered in the
autumn as soon as shed, and perfectly ripe seeds selected;
but the risk of destruction by mice and other vermin is so great
that transplanting from a nuxaery-bed is in most cases to be
preferred.
The acorns ahouio oe sown in November on weU>prepared ground,
and covered to a depth of i| or 3 in.; the seeds germinate in the
spring, and the leedrings arc usually transplanted when one or two
years oU to nuTKry-bods, where they are allowed to grow from
two to four years, till required for the plantation. Some authorities
recommend the tap-roots to be cut in the second year, with the view
of increasing the ball of fibre; but, if the trees are removed from
the seed-bed sufficiently eariy, the root is best left to its natural
de\-elopnient. The oak requires shelter in the early suges of growth ;
in England the Scotch pine is thought best for this purpose, though
Norway spruce answers as well on suitable ground, and larch and other
trees are sometimes substituted. The conifers are allowed to grow
to a height of from 3 to 5 ft. before the young oaks are planted,
and are gradually thmned out as the latter increase in siae. The
distance between the oaks depends upon the growth intended before
thinning the young wood; usually they are placed from 8 to 13 ft
aijart. and the superabundant trees cut out as they begin to interfere
with each other. The lower branches often require removal, to
ensure the formation of a tall straight trunk, and this operation
should be performed before the superfluous shooU get too large,
or the timber will be injured; but, as with all trees, unnecessary
pruning should be avoided, as every branch removed lessens the
vigour of growth. Where artificial copsewood is the object, haxcl,
hornbeam and other bushes may be planted between the oaks; but,
when large timbor is required, the trees are best without undergrowth.
The growth of the oak is slow, though it varies greatly in
different trees; Loudon states that an oak, raised from the
acorn in a garden at Sheffield Place, Sussex, became in seventy
years 12 ft. in circumference; but the increase of the trunk
is usually very much slower, and when grown for large timber
oak can rarely be profitably felled till the first century of its
growth is completed. The tree will continue to form wood
for 150 or 200 years before showing any ^mptoms of decay.
As firewood oak holds a high position, though in Germany it
is considered inferior to beech for that purpose. It makes
excellent charcoal, especially for metallurgic processes; the
Sussex iron, formerly regarded as the best produced in Britain,
was smelted with oak charcoal from the great woods of the
adjacent Weald, until they became so thinned that the precious
fuel was no longer obtainable.
An important product of oak woods is the blrk that from a remote
period has been the chief tanning material of Europe. The most
valuable kind im that obtained from young trees of twenty to thirty
years' growth, but the trunks and boughs of timber trees also furnish
a lai]ge supply; it is sefxirated from the tree roost easily when the
sap IS rising m the spring. It b then carefully dried by the free
action of the air, and when dry built into bng narrow stacks until
needed for use. The value oioak hark depends upon the amount
of tannin contained in it, which varies much, depending not only
on the erowth of the tree but on the care bestowed on the preparation
of the bark itself, as it soon ferments and spoils by exposure to wet,
while too much sun-heat u injurious. That obtained from the sessile-
fruited oak is richer in unnic acid than that yielded by Q. pedun-
ctdata, and the bark of trees growing in the open is more valuable
than the produce of the dense forest or coppice. The bark of young
oak branches has been employed in medicine from the days 01
Dioscorides, but is not used in modem practice. The astringent
principle is a peculiar kind of tannic add, called by chemists querci-
tannic, which, yielding mote suble compounds with gelatine than
other forms, gives oak bark its high value to the tanner. According
to Neubauer, the bark of young oaks contains from 7 to 10% 01
this principle: in old trees the proportk>n is much less.
The acorns of the oak possess a considerable economic importance
AS food for swine. In the Saxon period the " mast " seems to have
been regarded as the most valuable produce of an oak wood; nor
was its use always confined to the support of the herds, for in time
of dearth acorns were boiled and eaten by the poor as a substitute
for bread both in England and France, as the sweeter produce
of g. EscmIus is still empk>yed in southern Europe. Large herds of
swine in all the great oak woods of Germany depend for their autumn
maintenance on acorns; aixl in the remaining royal forests of
England th*; inhabitants of the neighbouring vilUges yet claim their
ancient right of " pannage," turning their hogs into the woods in
October aind November. Some trees of the sessile-fruited oak bear
sweet acorns in Britain, and several varieties were valued by the
ancient Italians for their edible fruit. A peculiar kind of sugar called
qutrciU exists in all acorns. A bitter principle to which the name of
qntrcin has been applied by Gerber, its discoverer, has also been
detected in the acorn of the common oak; the nutritive portion
seems chiefly a form of starch. A spirit has been distilled from
acorns in process of germination, when the saccharine principle is
most abundant.
The British oak grows well in the northern and middle states
of America; and, from the superiority of the wood to that of
Q. dba and iU more abundant produaion of acorns, it will
probably be much planted as the natural forests are destroyed.
The young trees require protection from storms and late frosts
even more than in England; the red pine of the north-eastern
states, Pinus rmnosa^ answers well as a n^irse, but the pitch
pine and other species may be employed. In the southern
parts of Australia and in New Zealand the tree seems to flourish
as well as in its native home.
The oak in Europe is liable to injury from a great variety
of insect enemies: the young wood is attacked by the larvae of
the small stag-beetle and several other CoUoptera, and those of
the wood-leopard moth, goat moth and other LepidopUra feed
upon it occasionally; the foliage is devoured by iimumerable
larvae; indeed, it has been stated that half the plant-eating
insects of England prey more or less upon the oak, and in some
seasons it is difficult to find a leaf perfectly free from their
depredations. The young shoots are chosen by many species of
Cynipidae and their allies as a receptacle for their eggs, giving
rise to a variety of gall-like excrescences, from which few oak
trees are quite free.
Of the European timber trees of the genus, the next in importa n ce
to the British oak is Q. Orris, the Turicey oak of the nurserymen.
Tht« i- a fine Ef^^rif^s, having when young straighter branches than
Q. R^-:-uf. hui EiL 'd age the boughs generally curve downwards,
and tiic wic nncunres a wide spreading head; the baiic is dark
brown, bcizomioi^ ^irey and furrowed in large trees; the foliage
varies much, bat i«i the prevailing kinds the leaves are very deeply
sinuiattd. lArith pcinted, often irregular lobes, the footstalks short,
and furni^vd At the base with long linear stipules that do not fall
wiih I he (cat, bt3i remain attached to the bud till the following
spring, frivtng n m^arked feature to the young shoots. The Urge
ses<.i]c Acvtn* An' r.inger than those of Q. Robur, and are dark-brown
when t\pt^- ttit ]<^ itiispherical cups are covered with long, narrow,
alrni:-bt brUtly iLAk-i, giving them a mossy aspect; the fruit ripens
the- iitit J lit limn. The foliage in some of the numerous varieties is
almost evergreen, and in Britain is retained bng after the autumnal
withering.
This oak abounds all over the Turkish peninsula, and forms a large
portion of the vast forests that clothe the slopes of the Taurus ranges
and the south shores of the Black Sea; it is likewise common in
Italy and Sardinia, and occurs in the south of France and also in
Hungary. It was introduced into England by Philip Miller about
1735. and is now common in parks and planUtions, where it seems
to flourish in neariy all soils. The Turkey oak in southern England
gr — — '— T^ fi t Ds Q. Robur: in the mild climate of Devonshire
ar ' ; eached a height of 100 ft. and a diameter of
4 - . . „ ., I. J r-, hich is about the limit of its profitable growth
fof liriiUr. 'Die wo<:hJ is hard, heavy and of fine grain, quite equal
to tUi bc^i Britith ocik for indoor use, but of very variable durability
where otpoH^ to wiather. The ships of Greece and Turkey are
lart^ely built of it* tut it has not always proved satisfactory in
En^Lii^h docky^rff-i. Vhe heart-wood is dark in cobur, ukes a fine
pclidh, and from the prominence of the medullary rays is valuable
to the furniiure mikif r; it weighs from 40 to 50 lb the cubic foot.
The t!inm para lively raf>id growth of the tree is its great recommenda-
ticin ro the plant rr; ir. is best raised from acorns sown on the spot,
as ihvY lire vcrv >>i:r>r and little liable to the attacks of vermin;
the tree ^ndft dv^u d bng taproot, which should be curtailed by
cutting or early transplanting, if the young trees are to be removed.
It seems peculuuiy adapted for the mild moist climate of Ireland.
In North America, where the species of oak are very numerous,
the most important member of the group is Q. alba, the white
oak, abounding all over the eastern districts to the continent
from Lake Winnipeg and the St Lawrence countries of the
shores of the Mexican Gulf. In aspect it more nearly resembles
Q. Rdbur than any other species, forming a thick trui^ with
spreading base and, when growing in glades or other open places,
huge spreading boughs, less twisted and gnaried than those of
la
the English oak, and covered with a whitish bark that gives
a marked character to the tree. The leaves are large, often
irregular in form, usually with a few deep lobes dilated at the
end; they are of a bright light green on the upper surface, but
whitish beneath; they turn to a violet tint in autumn. The
egg-shaped acorns
ft re placed singly
or two together on
short stalks; they
are in most years
sparingly pro-
duced, but are
occasionally borne
in some abund-
ance. On rich
I Dams and the
aEluvial soils of
r iver-valleys,
when well drained,
tlie tree attains a
large size, often
rivalling the giant
f'Xiks of Europe;
t mnks of 3 or 4 ft.
in diameter are
frequently found,
and sometimes
these dimensions
are greatly ex-
ceeded. The wood
is variable m quality and, though hard in texture, is less durable
than the best oak of British growth; the heart-wood is of a
light reddish brown varying to an olive tint; a Canadian
specimen weighs 5 si lb the cubic foot.
Q. obtusiloba, the post oak of the backwoodsman, a smaller tree
with rough leaves and notched upper lobes, produces an abundance
of acorns and good timber, said to be more durable than that of
the white oak.
The pin oak, sometimes called the " burr-oak," Q. macrocarta,
is remarkable for iu large acorns, the cups bordered on the edge
by a fringe of long narrow scales; the leaves are very large, some-
times from 10 in. to i ft. in length, with very deep lobes at the lower
part, but dilated widely at the apex, and there notched. The tree is
described by Prof. C. S. Sargent {Silva 0/ North A merica) as one of the
From Michun, BiOtiH ia ehlaa it VAuiriqm,
Fig. 4.—^. aiba.
Ftaa ICkhM^ •#. dL Fbtc XZ3CV.
FlQ. 5-— C- fvbfO,
most valuable timber trees of North America, its wood being'superior
in strength even to that of Q. aiba, with which it is commerdally
confounded.
The over-cup oak, Q. lyrata, is a large tree, chiefly found on
swampy land in the southern states; the lyrate leaves are dilated at
the emi; the globose acorns are nearly covered by the tuberculated
cupt.
In the woods of Oregon, from the Columbia river southwards,
an oak is found bearing some resemblance to the British oak in
foliage and in iu thick trunk and widely-spreading boughs, but
the bark is white as in Q. alba; it is Q. Garryana, the western oak
of T. Nuttall. This tree acquires large dimensions, the trunk being
often from 4 to 6 ft. in diameter; the wood is strong, hard and close-
grained; the acorns are produced in great quantity, and are used by
ihc IndUni as food.
The red o^k. Q. rubra, has rhin brgo luves o(i long pttioiea. the
kibcs very long and acutCn the potmi iliriGit bristK'; tbn" i« inak
when ih«y fir^t cKpjLiid in ipno|f, bui btcom^ o* a brighi ffwssy
£rccn when full-gi^own; in autumn ihey chaa^e to the tHixp purple-
rird which givfs the tree it& namC' Cgm*
ini^n throughout thi? northern and middle
Etdic5 and Canada, the red oak atuins a
Urge »ic only an pood khIi^ the wood
i»oC lit t It Viilue, bcins coarw and poro^if,
but itiski^'cly used lor €2&k> staves^ the
bark h a valuabb tannine materiaL
A ipecie» nearly allied li the acafkt
oak, ^. ttKcinPc, otten confounded with
the rc^ oak, but with larger leaves, with
lang lobes ending in several acute potntA;
I hey change to a brilliant scarkt with tht
firvt October frosts. i:i\'in(j one of the mcM
striking of ihc various glcwinf^ lints thai
render the American forests bO beautiful
in ^utuiTinr The trunk, thQU{;h often of
con^idirrable eife, yields but an indifferent
vi'OocIi fTnployctl for similar purposei to
that gf Q. tuhra*, the bark tt one of the
be*t tanning materials of the country.
Boih thtsc 03 ks grow well in Briti^
fjbciLaijons, where their bright Autumn
oli^ige. thqiijih ^Idpni « decided in lint
aft i[i I heir native womls, gi^'Cs tbtm a
certain pii'tyre«iuc value-
NearK'^ akin to these art tcvrrat other
forms cf little but boEanlcal interest ; not
far renroved is the bbclc or dyer'ft oak,
Q, itnutcria, a la roe and handaopne
specit'^K with a trunk «cimetimes 4 ft. in Fic. 6- — Q^ tjistsmtaifclic
diameter, not uncommon in nio^t fan^&ti
east of the Miaisistylppi, espcrJally in
somewhat upland districts. The leaves are freqaeiitly irregular ia
out linen the lobes rather shnrt and blunt, widening ioti-a.rds the
end, but with si'tacoaus ptoints; the arorns jre n<-arly gl4)bttLxr.
The wood is coar«f^ly era i nod, at in all the rrd-ook {roup, but
harder and more durable than that of Q. tubra. ukI is of tea
employed for building: and for flour-bamcU and otk^itaves^ Th>e
barkn virry dark externally, is an excellient tannini; Mibstaosre; rtv
inni?r layrr* form the puralran of commerce, nse^ by dver* (or
cciniraunic.li ting lo fabnfM various tints of ycUowr, anU. »ii:h iroo
wit*, yirlding a ^rtei of brown and drab hue^; the colouriftg
properly depends on a crynalliiu^ principle called mj^crz-^n, ci
\* hi.: h it bhiiuld contain about »%► The cut-Waved oaVs arr rcpre-
$t^nKd in eastern Aiia by several tpedes, o{ which Q. mon^ilica b
Frao EobdtjT, ff. e^ flzlK XL
Frmi EdUcIj, j^. at Pliie XXXV t[L
Fig. j.—Q. Hex.
widely spread over Dahuria. north China and the adtaccat t,
one of the Chinese silkwonnsi s^ laid to feed on the leave*.
The chestnut oaks of America nepnrscnt a section rli tiiiiii;iiiifcn1
by the merely serrated leav«, wiih parallel ^Tina running !« tbe twi
of the Rcrraturci. Q. Frinus. a bcautUul tree of Urge gruirth. and in
^ub^pecie^ aiiUiHra and numiatuSy yidd good tirnbcr. Q, Cktny^ap^
or prtncndei, a dwarf ipecie^, often only 1 ft- in hcigbt, lorr^i deox
miniature thickets on the barren uplandt ci Kaiuos mod Mbsoori
And ;}fTords abundant iweet acon»| the tne itcaUed by the hmtr"
of the ^iat the " ^Hu-oak/' Q. oMiPfH^alia, f tpfmLii ird {3 fi^. 6
M A native of the woods of the TnuiMaucaaiaii regioii of wcttera
Alia.
Everi^reen oaks with entire leaves are represented in Nonh America
by Q. wiiniana, also known as Q. virens, the live oak of the southern
tutes; more or less abundant on the Atlantic coasts of the Carolinas
and Florida, its true home is the country around the Mexican Gulf,
where it rarely grows more than ijo or 60 m. inland. The oval leaves
are dark-green above, and whitish with stellate hairs beneath, the
margin entire and slightly recurved. The live oak is one of the most
valuable timber trees of the genus, the wood being extremely
durable, both exposed to air and under water: heavy and close-
grained, it u perhaps the best of the American oaks for shipbuilding,
and is invaluable for water-wheels and mill-work. The tree in
Ensland b scarcely hardy, though it will grow freely in some
shdtered places:
': 'it •muihcm Europe It Q. lia^ usually a tmalkr
iru'. ! T.ithrr shrub'ljkc apptrjrance, with :ibund^nt
gLr>'.-i- ■\-^t generally o\'ale in »hape iartd more or Il'ss
prirlily . .. i:ih but sQmctimco wirh the trdgcs entire; the
yri<ter syrfio; u !iuar>'; xht accirti arc obUmg on short Kralk^.' The
Ilex, also known aa the "' halm 03 k " from its rr^mbliaEicf ttuht' holly,
i& bounds in all the Mediternicieani counTrirs, Erho^'lng a partUUty Jor
the sea ai/« Thr atcm lometirries grows 80 or 90 i\. in height h and
oltj ipcomenj are occaiionally of large diameter; but it tfoes not
often reach a ^leat lize. In its native landf it attaini a vast af^;
Plin/ altributet to Mrv?ral trees then grov^'in^ in Rome a gruacer
andnuity than iht city^ itwll. The wood 11 very heavy and Lird,
nti'aihing 70 lb the cubic foot; th* colouf li dark brown: it i? 'x^^^A
in ^pain ami lialy for furriiturc, and in tht former zm-.r-— ' z ■ -u-
wood and charcoal. In Britain the e^ifrgften oak is y\ in
cirdinary winters, and is u«eM to the ornam*nial pU ts
capacity lor re^i^Ling' the sea gaici; but It generally rcin^>ML- ,x. r, .>ill
eLze. ^. Baihta, a. clo^ly allied tpecies abundant in Mr^r^ixno,
hczn tarsc edible icxi^rnB, which form an article ol trade ^hiih S|>^Ln;
an oilf resembling that ol the oli^'e, 11 obtfilned Irom them by HX'
pffM ikrtit Q. lit^Xi VAfr GramunSiOt also fyrnis^he] a fry it which,
afttr icqijinitg Bweet^n<i by kccpingi \% eaten by the Spaniards.
In Afiwrica Mveral ijaki ejdil with narrow bnccolatc leaves,
frein wfaidi chariiAcriitii: they or* kjiown as '' willow oaks." Q.
Pkrllos, A rathef Urge
tree found 00 iwiainpy
Land in the AOuthtrn
ftates. La the most im-
portant of this sroup;
It stimber isof Indiff crvnt
qu^vlity,
Thi? rork oak, Q.
Stiiffr, the birk of which
yields cark tat)* i* a
nitiw of the west
Mediterranean area, fa
Spain the wood is of
«ome value, beine; ha.rd
and close-grained, and
the inner bark is used
lor tnnningn Ffom its
mggcd silveT>^ liark and
il^r k'gr^n fatiage, it is
FioEi EMKby, t^ tit, ruti VIT,
Fig. S.—Q.Vattcnea,
a handiome iree^ quite
harijy in Cornwall ^nd
Devonshire, where it has
grown to a large size.
The vak>nia of commerce, one of the richest of unning materials,
is the acorn of Q. AetUops, a fine species indigenous to Greece and
the coasts of the Levant, and sometimes called the " Oak of Bashan."
The very large acorns are remarkable for their thkk cups with long
f e ftex ed scales; the leaves are large, oblong, with deep serratures
terminating in a bristle-like point. The cups are the most valuable
portion of the valonia, abounding in tannk; acid; immature acorns
are sometimes exported under the name of " caroatina." The allied
Q. VaUonea of Asia Minor likewise yields valonia.
Soine oaks are of indirect importance from products formed by
their insect enemks. Of these the Aleppo gall (see Galls) is yielded
by Q. inftctoria, a native of Asia Minor and western Asia. Q.
coccuera, a small bush growing in Spain and many countries around
the Mediterranean, furnishes the kcrmes dye (Kermbs). Q. persica,
or according to some Q. mannifera, attacked by a kind of Coccus,
yields a sweet exudation which the Kurds collect and use as manna,
or as a substitute for honey or sugar in various confections (see
Manma).
OAKHAM, a market town, and the county town of Rutland,
EIngland, 94 m. N. by W. of London by the Midland raUway.
Pop. (1901) 3294. The church of All Saints ranges in style
from Eariy En^^ish to Perpendicular, belonging in appearance
mainly to the latter style. Of Oakham Castle, founds! in the
reign of Henry IL, the principal remnant is the notable Norman
hall, used as the county hall. The manor came in the time of
Henry 11. into the hands of Wakheline de Ferrers, and subse-
quently passed, through many owners, to the duchy of Bucking-
ham, whence it descended to the earls of Winchelsea. A peculiar
custom attaching to the manor is to claim a horseshoe from every
peer who, for the first time, passes through the town. Flore's
House in the main street is an interesting building dating from
the 13th century. Oakham school was endowed as a grammar
school by Robert Johnson, archdeacon of Leicester, in 1584;
it now has classical and modem sides. Not far from the town
are the kennels of the Cottesmore hunt.
OAKLAND, a city and the county-seat of Alameda county,
California, U.S.A., situated opposite and about 6 m. distant
from San Francisco, on the eastern shore of San Francisco Bay.
Pop. (1890) 48,682; (1900) 66,960, of whom 17,356 were foreign-
born, 3197 being Irish, 2742 German, 2026 English, 1544 English-
Canadians, X020 Portuguese and 994 Swedish; (1910 census)
1 50,1 74. It is the terminus of the Ogden branch of the Southern
(formerly Central) Pacific, of the Coast Line of the Atchison,
Topeka & Santa F£, and of the Western Pacific railways.
Passengers and freight from the East to San Francisco are
transferred by ferry from Oakland. A branch of the bay (called
Oakland Harbour) divides Oakland from Alameda, and the rail-
way piers of Oakland run directly out into the bay for more than
2 m. toward San Francisco, thus shortening the ferry connexions.
Lake Merritt, in the heart of the dty, a favourite pleasure resort,
is the centre of the dty's park system. Oakland is the seat of
California College (co^ucational, Baptist, opened in 1870),
and of St Mary's College (Roman Catholic, 1863) for men;
and in the suburban village of Mills College, west of the city,
is Mills College (non-sectarian, 1871) for women, an institu-
tion of high rank. Electric power for the city is derived
from Colgate, on the Yuba river, 2x9 m. distant. Oakland
has important manufacturing interests, the total value of
its factory products in 1905 being $9,073,539, 69% more than
in 1900.
The site of the present city (as well as that of Alameda and
Berkeley) lay originally within the limiu of a great private
Mexican grant which was confirmed by the United States
authorities. A settlement was begun— at first by " squatters "
in defiance of the private claim — in 1850; in May 1852 this
was incorporated as a town (the name being derived from a
wood of oaks in the midst of which the first settlement was made),
and in March 1854 it was chartered as a dty. In 1869 it was
fleeted as the western terminus of the Central Padfic, a choice
which greatly promoted Oakland's commerdal importance.
The water front was recklessly given away in 1853, and the
resulting disputes and litigation lasted for more than thirty
years; in 1908 the water front reverted to the dty. The
population increased more than sixfold from i860 to 1870, and
doubled in 1900-1910. It became the county-seat in 1874. In
December 19 10 a commission form of government was adopted.
OAKUM (O. Eng. daimfteoi^«c«w6f, tow, literally "off-comb-
fngs "), a preparation of tarred fibre used in shipbuilding, for
caulking or packing joints of timbers in wood vessels and the
deck planking of iron and sted ships. Oakum is made by pre-
ference from old tarry ropes and cordage of vessels, and its
picking and preparation has been a common penal occupation
in prisons and workhouses. White oakum is made from tmtarred
materials.
OAMARU, a munidpal borough on the east coast of South
Island, New Zealand, in the county of Waitaki and provincial
district of Otago; on the main railway between Christchurch
(152 m. N.E.) and Dunedin (78 m. S.S.W.). Pop. (1906) 5071.
It is the outlet of the largest agriculttural district in New Zealand.
A breakwater and mole, constructed of blocks of concrete,
endose a conunodious basin, forming one of the safest harbours
in the colony. The export of frozen meat is important. The
town is bunt of white Oamaru limestone. Brown coal is ob-
tained at the entrance of Shag valley, 40 m. S. The district is
famed for its stock, and the fine quality of its grain; also for
the character of the English grasses laid down there, which
flourish in a rich black loam on a limestone formation.
936
OANl^ES— OAR
OANNES, in Babylonian mythology, the name given by
Berossus to a mythical being who taught mankind wisdom.
He is identical with the god Ea (9.9.), although there may not
be any direct connexion between the two names. Berossus
describes Oannes as having the body of a fish but underneath
the figure of a man. He is described as dwelling in the Persian
Gulf, and rising out of the waters in the daytime and furnishing
mankind instruction in writing, the arts and the various sciences.
The culture-myth on which the account of Berossus rests has
not yet been found in Babybnian literature, but there are
numerous indications in hymns and incantations that confirm
the indentification with Ea, and also prove the substantial
correctness of the conceptions regarding Oannes-Ea as given by
Berossus. (M. J a.)
OAR (A.S. dr; M. Eng. are; Lat. rimms; Gr. ^p6i : Sans.
antra; Fr. rame; Ital. Span., Port, rama), the instrument used for
propelling a boat in rowing (q.v.). The word " oar " is probably
derived from an old root or, meaning to drive, to force away
(cf. ar-ar-e, aratrum, plough). Such an appellation would easily
be suggested by the visible difference in the action of the power
employed by means of the oar against a thowl, or rowlock,
from that of the more primitive paddle, where the power is
gained by the action of one hand against the other. In the
development of rowing from paddling the task of shaping the
instrument of propulsion must have followed gradually the
necessities indicated by use. In rowing, as well as in paddling,
the leverage is of the second order, in which the weight lies
between the power and the fulcrum. The point at which the
power pressed the arm of the lever against the weight in rowing
would soon attract attention by the frequent breakage of the
paddle so employed. Experience would demand a thicker loom,
and would soon teach the desirability of increasing the leverage
where possible, and upon this would arise naturally the practical
questions of the length of the oar, of the breadth of the blade,
and of the right proportion of the parts of the oar, inboard and
outboard, to each other. Then would also occur the problem
of how to keep this proportion, which
in practice would be liable to dis-
arrangement by the slipping outward
of the oar during the recovery from
each stroke. Hence would arise the
use of the thong (rpoir6s, rpomarfip),
familiar to ancient Greek and modem
Levantine, and, in northern and
western waters, the invention of the
"button," with which in various
shapes the rowing world is now pro-
vided. Other devices, such as a hole
bored in a piece of wood attached to
the oar, or even a metal ring, will, in
different localities, be found answering
the same purpose.
In the early stages of the transition
from paddling to rowing, the oar
would naturally be used at an acute
angle vertically to the boat's side.
In paddling the upper hand is used
to pi^ from you, the lower hand to
pull towards you. But in rowing
both hands are used to pull towards
you. As long as the oar was used at
an acute angle vertically to the boat's
as oars. Paddle-shaped also are the oars of the Phoesidaa
ships shown on the Assyrian sculptures at Koyunjik (Layard),
the date of which is about 700 b.c. The same form b seen 00
some of the early vases, but in some that are attributed to tvo
centuries later the form is modified, and the oar blade proper
begins to take shape.
Tlie types exhibited in the representations of the Roman
galleys are generally heavy and clumsy enough in appearance.
Still they are veritable oars, not paddles. The material of
which the ancient oars were usually made was pine, whxdx
then, as now, was most suitable for the purpose, being tough
and comparatively light and easily shaped as regards looin
and blade.
The oars of the Attic trireme were, if we may judge by those
of which only we have the measurement recorded, not much
longer for the upper bank than those of a modem radng ci^t,
while those of the middle and lower banks could not have beea
much longer than those used now in the whalers and Hingtiw^
of the Royal Navy. As the oarsmen on either side probably sat
in the same vertical plane, the inboard portion of the oon
amidships was longer than the inboard of those fore and aft,
having to conform to the curvature of the vessel's sides (d.
Aristotle, Meckanka, v.). No doubt in vessels of larger siae
the upper tiers of oars would be longer, and, if we axe to
beh'eve Callixenus, as dted by Athenaeus, in the great dup
of Ptolemy the oars of the upper tier were over 50 ft. in length
with handles leaded so as to equalise the weight inboard and
outboard.
It is difficult to trace any detail of difference between the
oars of the Roman period and those of the Byxantine and
medieval galleys. In the medieval galley by the invention of the
" apostis," a framework on which the thowls were fixed, Miflf^itpf
room was given for the play of longer oars, and, as the necessity
of combining speed with greater carrying poorer in the galky
became pressing, the arrangement aUa scatouh came into vogue,
employing four or five or even seven men to each of the k>cg
Tabu skewing Oars used in Royal Nary.
Description of
Velisel.
Oars.
Blades.
MatetiaL
No.
allowed.
Ungth.
Thickness.
Ungth.
Breadth.
I. Launches, 43' .
17-16
17 2\-l\
5; 8;
It-
18
16 2i-l}
5' 4'
2. Pinnaces, 36' .
32' .
17-16
lo-iS
15 ai-if
S'o'
Si'
16
14
30' . .
16-is
12
3.Cutten. 34 . •
15-14
142-1I
4' 8'
si'
&
u
3a' . .
15-14
..
«4
3i • •
i5-«4
\s
12
28^" . .
15-14
..
1
10
26' . .
15-14
..
10
4.Gii.5f ^r: :
17-16
••
"
i
S-Gigs, 30;. .
6. Whalers, 2/ !
17-16
17-16
15-14
••
"
^
6
'.'.
5
I3a*-i|
4*4'
5!.
7. Skiff dinghies, 16' .
1(HB
lOlf-l
3; 4'
^1'
4*
8. Dinghies. 13 J'. .
10-8
w.
2'lO'
jr
"* 1
* Allowed spoon-blade oars.
Noles.*^i) Since 1893 some curved or spoon-bladed oars have been made at Deiroopoct.
(2) There is no record of buttons being used, but on fir oars, which were covered witli cmirvss
.n .r,.t«.n«i« v#.rt,r.iiw tn tno rw>flr'« on the looffl. it was sometimes customary to work a Turk's head at the end of the cmavAs {or
an acute angle yerticauy to tne Doat s on^ament. (3) As regard* sweepa, they used to be made of ash and were 30 ft. kmc. Tbev
side, the position of the upper hand ^^^re used last tn training brigs, but there is no record of them for the last twenty years.
on the oar would have to be reversed,
as it would more easily grasp the oar with the wrist turned
inward towards the body. In many of the earlier representations
of rowing this position of the upper hand seems to be indicated.
This distinction should not be lost sight of, as the position of
the hands on the oar affects not only the character of the stroke,
but also the requirements as to the length of the oar and the
breadth of the blade. The form of the oars given in the repre-
sentations of early Egyptian ships is suggestive of paddles used
sweeps by which the galleys and g allriMfs were prapeOed.
For these large oars we hear of ash and beech beiEis used as
well as pine.
In the Mediterranean the galley propelled by oars loag re>
mained the prindpal type of war vessel. In the Atlantic, nad
in the northern seas, it was otherwise.
The emptoymenl of artillery on board ship gradually dctcr^
mined a change in the method of propulaioa. The me of sa^
OASIS— OAT
937
became Decenary, and remamed dominant untfl the intixxlnction
of steam (see Ship). But as late as the time of the Spanish
Armada, and even later, large sea-going vessels were provided
with long sweeps which came into use when sailing was not
available. In our own time, in the lighters on tidal rivers, may
be seen loog oa^, plied by one or two or more men, which recall
the type of oars once in general use in large galleys three centuries
ago.
The oais used by the Northmen were, to Judge by the remains
discovered along with old Viking ships * at Gokstad and else-
where, very similar to those in use at the present time in the
fishing boats around' otur coasts. Those o( the large craift were,
to judge by the length of one found whole, somewhat over x8 ft.
in length with a 5-in. blade and a diameter of 3 in. halfway
down the loom. Some smaller oars, evidently used for boaU,
measured xi ft. with a 4-in. blade. The oars were of pine, and
the looms of some of them showed a groove cut for a clamp at
the place where the oar rested on the sill of the rowlock. Com-
paring these oars with the measurements given below of oars
now in use in the Royal Navy, it is apparent that there is no
great difference in type between them.
Passing on to oars used on rivers and fresh waier generally,
we find the type differs considerably from that of the oars used
in sea-going craft. The chief difference consbts in the shape of
the blade, which, instead of continuing the straight line of the
loom in its expansion to its proper breadth, is fashioned in a
curve calculated to offer a rigid resistance to the water during
the stroke.' The loom below the button is not rounded but is
more of an oval to the front with a flat back. From the oval
front a' spine runs down into the blade, in some cases to nearly
half its length. During the last few years the so-called " girder "
oars, with much thicker looms but double grooved along their
iength, have been used for racing purposes. This invention
gives additional strength and stiffness, without increasing the
weight of the oar, which varies a little but is usually about 8 lb.
The blades vary much in breadth, as indeed do the oars in total
length, and in proportion of inboard to outboard. The neces-
sities of the sliding seat in racing boats have given rise to much
difference of opinion among rowing men as to the right proportion.
In the middle of the 19th century the use of square looms
inboard, and of a button to turn inside and against the thowl,
was common, and most oars had a small slab of hard wood let in
below the button, so as to save the oar from wear and tear at
the rowlock. But since round looms came into vogue the round
leather ear has taken the place of the old square button, and the
lopra is covered with leather for some inches above and below
this so as to protea it from abrasion.
Of late the introduction of swivel rowlocks for racing boats
has caused a further modification in the form of buttons. Swivel
rowlocks have come into general use for sculling boats, pair oars
and coxswainless fours. But as yet they do not appear to have
captured the racing eight, except in a few instances. Neither
crews nor coaches in English waters seem Inclined to part with
the time-honoured rhythmic music of the oar in the rowlock,
which from the days of antiquity even until now has, to practised
ears, told its own tale as to the crew being together or not in the
stroke.
In the case of radng eights, when the round loom oars
superseded the square loom, the early patterns were com-
monly (e.g. in 1857) za' 6' over all, 3' 8' inboard, with a
long blade 4I' to 5' in breadth. These were succeeded by
a pattern 12' 6' over aU, 3' 6' inboard, with a much shorter
blade 6' broad.
Since sliding seats came in the average oar has been is' 4'
over all, 3' H' inboard, with 5I' to 61' blades. The modem
racing oar may be said to date from 1869, the year of the Oxford
and Harvard race at Putney. Until very lately no material
alteration bad taken place in this pattern, except in the matter
)f width of blade. Some authorities, however, are, as has been
« See Viking Skip, Nicolayien (Christiania, 1882).
* Since 1890 the curved blade seems to have been adopted in
ome cases in the oats made at Devonport for the Royal Navy.
said above, far from satisfied with the present average oar, and
are using shorter patterns, i x' xo' or x 2' o' over all, 3' 7' inboard,
and 7' blades.
Single grooved oars were first made in America.'^ But with
the single groove a side weakness is often developed in the loom,
and hence the double girder, invented by G. Ayling, has generally
superseded the single groove, though many oarsmen furefer the
box kx>m by the same inventor.
It is clear, however, that no finality has been reached in the
making of oars. Tubular oars, first introduced at Henley by
the Belgian crew in X906, are now being tried, with circular or
quadrangular bores, strengthened by the insertion of an
aluminium shell.
For much of the information above g^vea respecting the recent
developments in oar-makins for racing parpoaes and river work,
the writer is indebted to Mc«rs Ayling & Sons of Putney, whose
patented inventions and improvements are well known to rowing
men. (E. Wa.)
OASIS (Gr. 5a<ns, the name given by Herodotus to the fertile
spots in the Libyan desert: it probably represents an Egyptian
word, cf. Coptic ouahe, ouih, to dwell, from which the Egyptian
Arabic wd is derived), a fertile spot surrounded by desert. For
example, where the high plateau of the Libyan desert descends
into a longitudinal valley between Syrtis and the Nile delta there
are a few spots where the water comes to the surface or is found
in shallow wells. It may come to the surface in springs, upon
the artesian principle, or it may collect and remain in mountain
hollows. These areas are of small extent and are closely culti-
vated, and support thick forests of date-palms. All kinds of
tropical vegetables, grains and small fruits grow xmder cultiva-
tion, and land is so predous in these limited areas of great
richness and fertility that very narrow pathways divide each
owner's plot from his neighbour's. Wherever oases are found
they present similar features, and are naturally the halting-places
and points of departure of desert caravans.
OAST (O. Eng. dj<, cf. Dutch eest, " kiln "; the Teutonic root is
ttidk- " to bum"; the pre-Teutonic idk- is seen in Lat. aestus,
" heat," aesUu, ** summer," Gr. oTAk, "burning heat"), a kihi,
particularly one used for drying hops; the word usually appears
in the term " oast-house," a building containing several of such
kihis (see Hop). " Oast " is also sometimes used of a kiln for
drying tobacco.
OASTLER, RICHARD (X789-186X), English reformer, was
bom at Leeds on the 20th of December X789, and in 1820 suc-
ceeded his father as steward of the Thomhills' extensive Fixby
estates at Huddersfield, Yorkshire. In X830 John Wood, a
Bradford manufacturer, called Oastler's attention to the evib
of child employment in the factories of the district. Oastler
at once started a campaign against the existing labour conditions
by a vigorous letter, under the title " Yorkshire Slavery," to
the Leeds Mercury, Public opinion was eventually aroused,
and, after many years of agitation, in which Oastler played a
leacUng part, the Ten Hours Bill and other Factory Acts were
passed, Oastler's energetic advocacy of the factory-workers'
cause procuring him the title of " The Factory King." In X838,
however, owing to his opposition to the new poor law and his
resistance of the commissioners, he had been dismissed from
his stewardship at Fixby; and, in X840, being unable to
repay £2000 which he owed his late employer, Thomas
ThomhiU, he was sent to the Fleet prison, where he re-
mained for over three years. From prison he published the
Fleet Paperst a weekly paper devoted to the discussion of
factory and poor-law questions. In X844 his friends raised a
fund to pay his debt, and on his release he made a triumphant
entry into Huddersfield. Oastler died at Harrogate on the 22nd
of August 1861. A statue to his memory was erected at Bradford
in 1869.
OAT (O. Eng. Ote; the word is not found in cognate languages;
it may be allied wiUi Fr. eiteif knot, nodule, cf. Gr. ^Sos
swellinig)| a cereal {Avena satipa) belonging to the tribe Avenea
of the order Gramineae or grasses. The genus Avena contains
about fifty species mostly dispersed through the temperate
regions of the Old World. The spikdets form a loose panicle.
familiar in the cultivated oat (fig. x), the flowexiag gjnmt having
its donal rib prolonged into an awn (fig. 2), whidi is in some
ipedes twisted and bent near the base.
The origin of the cultivated o^t is generally believed to be
A.fatua, or " wild oat," or some similar spedes, of which several
exist in southern Europe and
western Asia. Professor J.
Buckman succeeded in raising
"the potato-oat type" and
"the white Tatarian oat"
from grain of this spedes.
A. strigosa, Schreb, "the
bristle-pointed oat," is the
origin of the Scotch oat,
according to Budunan. The
white and black varieties of
this spedes were cultivated
in Enjjand and Scotland from
remote times, and are still
grown as a crop in Orkney and
Shetland. A, strigosa is prob-
ably only a variety of the cul-
tivated oat. The "naked oat,"
A. nudOf was found by Bunge
in waste ground about Peking;
it was identified by the
botanist Lindley with the pil-
com of the old agriculture,
and we see from Rogers *■ that
it was in cultivation in England
in the xjth centuxy. Both
this and the " common otes,"
A . vescd, are described by Gerard.* Parkinson tells us that in his
time (early in the 17th century) the naked oat was sown in sundry
places, but " nothing so frequent " as the common sort. The
chief differences between A. fatua and A. saliva, are, that
in the former the chaff-scales which adhere to the grain are
thick and hairy, and in the latter they are not so coarse and
are hairless. The wild oat, moreover, has a bng stiff awn,
usually twisted near the base. In the cultivated oat it may
be wanting, and if present it is not so stiff and is seldom
bent. The grain is very small and worthless in the one, but
larger and full in the other. There are now many varieties of
the cultivated oat induded imder two prindpal races— common
Fig. I.— Panidc of Oat, Avena
saliva, (After Le Maout.)
Flo. 3.— Spikdet of Wild Oat,
A.falwh glumea hairy and long-
pointed, awn twisted at base.
(After Buckman.)
Fig. 2.— Spikdet of Oat, A.
saliva, with two fertile florets,
and one terminal, rudimentary.
oat or panided oats with a spreading paniae, A. saliva proper,
and Tatarian oats or baxmer oats which hzs sometimes been
regarded as a distinct species, A. orientalis/'wixh contracted
one-sided panicles. With regard to the antiquity of the oat,
A. de CandoUe* observes that it was not cultivated by the
Hebrews, the Egyptians, the andent Greeks and the Romans.
Central Europe appears to be the locality where it was cultivated
earliest, at l^ot in Europe, for grains have been found ainoxig
* Rarer Kinds of Grain, U. X73.
•Herbaa,p,68(iS97)'
9 Origin of CnUwated Planls, p. 373.
the remains of the Swiss lake-dwellings perhaps imc cttiier thu
the bronze age, while Pliny alludes to bread made of it by the
andent Germaxis. Pickering also records Galen's observatioes
(De Alim. Pae. L 14), that it was abundant in Asia Minor,
especially Mysia, where it was made into bread as wdl as ghreo
to horses.
Besides the use of the straw when cut up and miaed with other
food for fodder, the oat grain constitutes an important Ibod for
both man and beasL The oat grain (excepting the naked oat),
like that of bariey. Is dosdy invested by the husk. Oatmeal
is made from the kiln-dried grain from which the husks have beco
removed ; and the form of the food is the weU-kxM>wn *' pocxidse.''
In Ireland, where it is wometimfs mixed with Indian-corn meal,
it is called'' stirabout." GroaU or grits are the whole kenxl
from which the husk is removed. Their use is for gruel, whidi
used to be consumed as an ordinary drink in the xjth century
at the coffee-houses in London. The xneal can be baked ints
" cake " or biscuit, as the Passover cake of the Jews; but it
cannot be made into k>aves in consequence of the great difficulty
in ruptuxing the starch grains, unless the temperature be raised
to a considerable heighL With regard to the nutritive vahse
of oatmeal, as compared with that of wheat flour, it contains
a higher percentage of albuminoids than any other grain, vix.
X2-6 — that of wheat being xo*8— and less of starch, 5^4 as
against 66-3 in wheaL It has nther more sugar, viz. 5-4— wheat
having 4*2 — and a good deal more fat, viz. 5*6, as against 2-0
in flotur. Lastly, salts amount to 3-0% in oat, but are only 1-7
in wheat. Its nutritive value, therefore, is higher tham that of
ordinary seconds flour.
GATES, TITUS (1649-1705), English conspirator, was the sn
of Samud Gates (x6xo-x683), an Anabaptist preacher, chaplais
to Pride, and afterwards rector of All Saints' Church, Hacymgc
He was admitted on the xxth of June 1665 to Mexchant Taylors'
school, having, aroording to one authority, been prcvioosiy
at Oakham. There he remained a year, more or less, and
".seems afterwards to have gone to Sedlesoombe school is
Sussex, from whence he passed to Caius College, Cambadge,
on the 29th of June 1667, and was admitted a sizar of St JohnX
on the 2nd of Februaxy X668-X669, aged 18." Upon veiy
doubtful authority he is stated to have been also at Westminster
school before going to the univexsity. On leaving the nniversitj
he apparently took Anglican ordos, and officiated in sevenl
parishes, Hastings among them. Having brought malidoas
charges in which his evidence was rejected, he naxrowly escaped
prosecution for perjuxy. He next obtaiiked a chaplaincy in the
navy, from which he appeaxs to have been speedily H•|«ll;*^ ^
for bad conduct with the reputation of worse. He now, h
is said, applied for hdp to Dr Israd Tonge, rector of St Mkhad s
in Wood Street, an honest half-crazy man, who even then was
exdting people's xninds by giving out quaxtexly " treatises k
print to alarm and awake his majesty's subjects." Gates
offered his hdp, and it was axxanged that he should pretend to
be a Roman Catholic so as the better to unearth the Jesaci
plots which possessed Tonge's brain. Accordingly he wss
recdved into the church by one Berxy, himself aa apostase,'
and entered the Jesuit College of Valladolid as Brother Ambnvt.
Hence he was soon expelled. In October X677 he xnade a second
application, and was admitted to St Omer on xoth DeccsnbcL
So scandalous, however, was his conduct that he was ficalhr
dismissed in 1678. Retuxning in June 1678 to Tonge, he sec
himself to forge a pk>t by piecing together things true azid fabe.
or true facts falsdy interpreted, aiid by inventing trcnaotaik
letters and accounts of |Meparations for military a^tt^m T^
whole story was written by Gates in Greek cfaaractcis, copied
into English by Tonge, and finally tok) to one of n**«4*t Us
confidential servants named Kiikby. Kitkby having given the
king his informatk>n, Oates was sent for (x3th August), and a
a private interview gave details, in forty-three articles, of the
pk>t and the persons who had engaged to assasinate Charks.
The general improbability of the stoxy was so xnaxufcst, a»i
the discrepancies were so glaring, that ndther then nor at vsy
subsequent time did Charles express anything b«t
OATH
939
incredttlity. To bolster up the caae a fresh packet of five forged
letter was concocted (3zst August); but the foigeiy was txaas-
parenty and even Sir William Jones, the attorney-general,
though a violent upholder of the plot, dared not produce them
as evidence.
Oates now (6th September) made an affidavit before Sir
Edmond Berry Godfrey (g.v.) to an improved edition of his
story, in eighty-one articles. Among the persons named was
Coleman, secretary to the duchess of York, whom Godfrey
knew, and to whom he sent word of the charges. Coleman
in turn informed the duke, and he, since the immediate exposure
of the plot was of the utmost consequence to him, induced
Charles to compel Oates to appear (28th September) before the
privy coundl. Here Oates delivered himself of a story the
falsehood of which was so obvious that the king was able to
expose him by a few simple questions. At this moment an
accident most fortunate fbr Oates took place. Amongst the
papers seized at his request were Coleman's, and in them
were found copies of letters written by the latter to Pire la
Chaise, suggesting that Louis should furnish him with money,
which he would use in the French and Catholic interest among
members of parliament. Among them, too, were these passages:
" Success will give the greatest blow to the Protestant religion
that it has received since its birth "; "we have here a mighty
work upon our hands, no less than the conversion of three
kingdoms, and by that perhaps the utter subduing of a pestilent
heresy, which has so long domineered over great part of the
northern world." The credit of Oates was thus, in the eyes of
the people, re-established, and Coleman and others named were
imprisoned. Charles was anxious for his brother's sake to bring
the matter to a conclusion, but he dared not appear to stifle
Ihe plot; so, when starting for Newmarket, he left orders with
Danby (see Leeds, Duke of,) that he should finish the investiga-
tion at once. But Danby purposely delayed; an impeachment
was hanging over his head, and anything which took men's
minds off that was welcome.
On the 1 2th of October occurred the murder of Godfrey, and
the excitement was at its highest pitch. On the axst of October
parliament met, and, though Charles in his speech had barely
alluded to the plot, all other business was put aside and Oates
was called before the House. A new witness was wanted to
support Oates's story, and in November a man named William
Bedloe came forward. At first he remembered little; by degrees
he remembered everything that was wanted. Not even so,
however, did their witness agree together, so, as a bold stroke,
Oates, with great circumstantiality, acctued the queen before
Charles of high treason. Charles both disbelieved and exposed
him, whereupon Oates carried his tale before the House of
Commons. The Conmions voted for the queen's removal from
court, but, the Lords refusing to concur, the matter dropped.
It was not, however, until the 18th of July 1679 that the slau^ter
of Jesuits and other Roman Catholics upon Oates's testimony
and that of his accomplices was to some extent checked. Sir
George Wakeman, the queen's physician, was accused of pur-
posing to poison the kiiig, and the queen was named as being
concerned in the plot. The refusals of Charles to credit or to
cotmtenance the attacks on his wife are the most creditable
episodes in his life. Scroggs had intimation that he was to be
lenient. Sir Philip Lloyd proved Oates to have perjured himself
in open court, and Wakenuin was acquitted. On the 36th of
June x68o, upon Oates's testimony, the duke of York was pre-
sented as a recusant at Westminster. But the panic had now
worn itself out, and the importance of Oates rapidly declined;
so much so that after the dissolution in 1682 he was no more
heard of during Charles's reign, but enjoyed his pension of £600
or jCqoo, it is uncertain which, h quiet. Shortly before the
death of Charles, James brought, and won, a dvil action against
Oates, with damages of £100,000; in default of payment Oates
was taken to prison; while there he was indicted for perjury,
and was tried in May 1685, soon after the accession of James II.
He was convicted and received a severe sentence, with repeated
floggings, the execution of which was expected to kill him, and
which was rigorously carried out; but to the astonishment of
all he survived.
Oates was in prison for three and a half years. Upon the
flight of James, and during the exdtement against the Catholics,
he partially gained his liberty, and brought an appeal against
his sentence before the Lords, who, while admitting the sentence
to be unjust, confirmed it by a majority oi thirty-five to twenty-
three. The Commons, however, passed a bill annulling the
sentence; and a conference was held in which the Lords, while
again acknowledging that legally they were wrong, adhered to
their former determination. The matter was finally settled by
Oates receiving a royal pardon, with a pension of £300 a year.
The remainder of his life was spent in retirement, varied by a
good deal of sordid intrigue. In 1691 he became acquainted
with William Fuller, whom he induced to forge another plot,
though not with the success he had himself attained. He
married a wealthy widow in 1693, but his extravagance soon
brought him into straits. In 1696 he dedicated to WiUiam III.
a book called Eikon Basilike, an elaborate tissue of invection
against " the late king James." In 1698 he obtained admission
as a member of the Baptist Chiuxh, and used to preach at
Wapping; but in 1701, as the result of a financial scandal, he
was formally expelled from the sect. He died on the 12th of
July 1705.
AcTiiORiTiES.— Oates's, Dangerfield's and Bedloe's NamUioes;
State Trials; JomrnaU of Houses of Parliament; North's Examen;
the various memoirs and diaries 01 the period; Fuller's Narrative;
Dryden's Absalom and AckUolihd; Burnet's History; Narcissus
Luttrell's Relation, Lin£ard's History gives an exhausUve and trust-
worthy account of the Popish terror and its victims; and the chief
incidents in Oates's career ate raaphically described by Macaulay.
On the question of the place of nis education see Notes and Quertes
(22nd December 1883). See also T. Scccombe's essay in Tvelve Bad
Men (1894), where a biblioKraphy is given.
OATH (O. Eng. ddk), a term which may be defined as an asse-
veration or promise made imder non-human penalty or sanction.
The word is found throughout the Teutonic languages (Goth.
aiths. Mod. Ger. £«0, but without ascertainable etymology.
The verb to swear is also Old Teutonic (Goth, staran, Mod. Ger.
schwSren); this word, too, is not dear in original meaning, but
is in some way connected with the notion of answering — indeed
it still forms part of the word answer, O. Eng. and-swarian ; it has
been suggested that the swearer answered by word or gesture
to a solenm formula or act. Among other terms in this con-
nexion, the lA\.,jurar€, whence English law has such derivatives
as jtiry, seems grounded on the metaphorical idea of binding
(root j«, as in fungo) ; the similar idea of a bond or restraint may
perhaps be traced in Gr. ipms. It may be worth notice that
Lat. sacramenium (whence Mod. Fr. sermeni) does not really
imply the sacredness of an oath, but had its origin in the money
paid into court in a Roman lawsuit, the loser forfeiting his
pledge, which went to pay for the public rites (sacra); thence
the word passed to signify other solenm pledges, such as military
and judidal oaths.
Writers viewing the subject' among dvih'zed nadons only
have sometimes defined the oath as an appeal to a deity. . It will
be seen, however, by some following examples, that the harm or
penalty consequent on perjuxy may be considered to result
directly, without any spirit or ddty being mentioned; indeed
it is not unlikdy that these mere direct curses invoked on!himself
by the swearer may be more primitive than the invocation of
divinities to punish. Examples of the simplest kind of curse-
oath may be seen among the Nagas of Assam, where two men
will lay hold of a dog or a fowl by head and feet, which is then
chopped in two with a single blow of the dao, this being em-
blematic of the fate expected to befall the perjurer. Or a man
will stand within a drde of rope, with the implication that if he
breaks his vow he may rot as a rope does, or he will take hold of
the barrel of a gun, a spear-head or a tiger's tooth, and solemnly
dedare, " If I do not faithfully perform this my promise, may I
fall by thisl " (Butler in Joum, Asiatic Soc. Bengal, 1875, p. 316).
Another stage in the history of oaths is that in which the swearer
calls on some fierce beast to punish him if he lies, believing that
it has the intelligence to know what he says and the power to
interfere in his afifairs. In Siberia, in laivsuits between Rusalana
and the wild Ostiaks, it is described as customary to bring into
court the head of a b^r, the Ostiak making the gesture of eating,
and calling on the bear to devour him in like manner if he docs
not tell the truth (G. A. Erman, Travels itt Siberia^ I 49a,
London, 1848). Similar oaths axe still sworn on the head or
skin of a tiger by the Santals and other indigenous tribes of
India. To modem views, a bear or a tiger seems at any rate a
more rational being to appeal to than a river or the sun, but in
the earlier stage of nature-religion these and other great objects
of nature are regarded as animate and peiaonaL The prevalence
of river-worship is seen in the extent to which in the old and
modem world oaths by rivers are most sacred. In earlier ages
men swore inviolably by Styx or Tiber, and to this day an
oath on water of the Ganges is to the Hindu the most binding of
pledges, for the goddess ^rill take awful vengeance on the children
of the perjurer. The Tungus brandishes a knife before the sun,
saying, " If I lie may the sun pltmge sickness into my entrails
like this knife." The natural transition from swearing by these
great objects of nature to invoking gods conceived inhuman
form is well shown in the treaty-oath between the Macedonians
and the Carthaginians recorded by Polybius (vii. 9); here the
sun and moon and earth, the rivers and meadows and waters,
are invoked side by side with Zeus and Hera and Apollo, and
the gods of the Carthaginians. The heaven-god, able to smite
the perjurer with his lightning, was invoked by the Romans,
when a hog was slain with Uie sacred flint representing the
thunderbolt, with the invocation to Jove so to smite the Roman
people if they broke the oath (Liv. i. 34; Folyb. iiL as). Another
form of this Aryan rite was preserved by the old Slavonic nation
of Prussia, where a man would lay his right hand on hisown
neck and his left on the holy oak, saying, " May Ferkun (the
tbimder-god) destroy me!" The daths of the lower culture
show a remarkable <U£ferenoe from those of later stages. In the
apparently primitive forms the curse on the perjurer is to take
effect in this world. But as nations became more observant,
experience must have shown that bears and tigers were as apt
to kill trath-tellers as perjurers, and that even the lightning-
flash falls without moral discrimination. In the Clouds of
Aristophanes, indeed, men have o>me openly to ridicule such
beliefs, the Socrates of the play pointing out that notorious
perjurers go imharmed, while Zeus hurls his bolts at his own
temple, and the tall oaks, as if an oak-tree could perjure itself.
The doctrine of miraculous earthly retribution on the perjurer
lasted on in legend, as where Eusebius rdates how three villains
conspired to bring a false accusation against Narcissus, bishop
of Jerusalem, which accusation they confirmed by solemn oath
before the church, one wishing that if he swore falsely he might
perish by fire, one that he might die of the pestilence, one that
he might lose his eyes; a spark no man knew from whence
bumed to ashes the first perjurer's house and all within, the
second was consumed by the plague from head to foot, whereupon
the third confessed the crime with tears so copious that he lost
lus sight (Euseb. Hist. Ecd. vi. 9). As a gencaral rule, however,
the supernatural retribution on perjury has been transferred
from the present world to the regions beyond the grave, as is
evident from any collection of customary oaths. A single
instance will show at once the combination of retributions in
and after the present life, and the tendency to heap up remote
penalties in the vain hope of securing present honesty. The
Siamese Buddhist in his oath, not content to call down on himself
various kinds of death if he breaks it, desires that he may after-
wards be cast into hell to go through innumerable tortures,
among them to carry water over the flames in a wicker basket
to assuage the thirst of the infernal judge, then that he may
migrate into the body of a slave for as many years as there are
grains of sand in four seas, and after this that he may be bom a
beast through five hundred generations and an hermaphrodite
five hundred more.
The forms of oath belonging to all nations and ages, various
as they are in detail, come under a few general heads. It may
be first observed that gestures such as grasping hands, or putting
one hand between the hands of another in token of homage, aze
sometimes treated as of the nature of oaths, but wrongly so,
they being rather of the nature of ceremonies of oompacL The
Hebrew practice of putting the hand under anotho's thigh is
usually reckoned among oath-rites, but it may have been
merely a ceremony of covenant (Gen. xxiv. 2, xhrn. 29; see
Joseph. AfU. L x6). Even the covenant among many andent
and modem nations by the parties mixing their blood or driskiag
one another's is in itsdf only a solenm rite of union, not an ostk
proper, unless some such ceremony is introduced asdipm
weapons into the blood, as in the form among the andest
Sc3rthians (Herod, iv. 70); this, by bringing in the idea of death
befalling the covenant-breaker, converts the proceeding into sa
oath of the strongest kind. The custom of swearing by maptas,
though frequent in the world, is far from consistent in wM^"««g
It may signify, in esses such as those just mentioned, that the
swearer if forswom is to die by such a weapon; or the waizior
may appeal to his weapon as a powerful or divine object, a
Parthenopaeus swears by his q>ear that he will levd to the
ground the walls of Thebes (Aeschyl. Sept. comira Theb. S3o;
see the custom of the (^uadi in Ammian. Marcellin. zviL); cr
the weapon may be a divine emblem, as when the Scythius
swore l^ the wind and the sword as denoting life and death
(Ludan, ToxariSf 38). Oaths by weapons lasted into the Christan
period; for instance, the Lombards swore lesser oaths by
consecrated weapons and greater on the Gospels (see Dn Cange,
s.v. " Juramenta super arma "; Grimm, DetOscke Rrchlsaliefik.
p. 896). Stretching forth the hand towards the object or deity
sworn by is a natural gesture, well shown in the oath of Agameo-
non, who with uplifted hands ( Att x«P<u ^oox^) takes HeavcB
to witness with Sun and Earth and the Erinyes who bdow the
earth wreak vengeance on the perjurer (Homer //. xix. 354;
see also Pindar, Olymp. vii. lao). The gesture of lilting the
hand towards heaven was also an Israelite form of oath:
Abraham says, ** I have lifted up my hand to Jehovah," whik
Jehovah Himself is represented as so swearing, '' For I Ef t tp
My hand to heaven, and say, I live for ever" (Gen. ziv. 2s;
Deut. xxxxL 40; see Dan. xii. 7; Rev. x. 5). TMs gesture
established itself in Christendom, and has continued to noodess
times. In England, for example, in the parliament at Shrew
bury in 1398, when the Lords took an oath on the cross of
Canterbury never to suffer the transactions of that parfiaKent
to be changed, the members of the Commons held vp their
hands to signify their taking upon themselves the same oath
(J. E. Tyler, OatkSf p. 99). In France a juror takes oath bj
raising his hand, saying, "Je jure!" The Scottish judicial oath
is taken by the witness holding up his right hand uncovered.
and repeating after the usher, *' I swear by Almighty God, mlA
as I shall answer to (k>d at the great day of judgment, that I
wifl," &c
In the ancient world ayrifice often formed part of the cr re meg y
of the oath; typkal examples may be found in the Homeric poea=\
as in Agamemnon's oath already mentjoned, or the compact bcfcta
the Greeks and Trojans (//. iii. 276). where wine is potxrad ost is
libation, -with prayer to Zeus and the immortal gods that the per-
jurer's brains soali, like the wine, be poured on tme ground: the rise
thus passes into a symbolic curse-oath of the ordinary barbanc t^re
Connected with such sacrificial oaths is the practice of hyi^ tbe
hand on the victim or the altar, or touching the image of the eod
A classic instance is in a comedy of Plautus (Ruiens, v. a, 45}. wbcir
Gripus says, "Tan^ aram hanc Veneris," and Labrajc anwcn
" Tango ** (Greek instance, Thucyd. v. 47: see Tustia acBv. :«.
Thus Livy (xxi. i) introduces the phrase " toucning the sacr^
objects " {tactis sacris) into the picturesque story of Haanibftl's c^K
Details of the old Scandinavian oath have been preserved is Icrtaac
b the Landn6mab6k {tdendinpi Signr, Copenhagen, 1843!: a
bracelet (baugr) of two rings or more was to oe kept on theV'.^
in every neadcourt. which the godi or priest Should wear at all Ivs-
things ndd by him, and should redden in the blood of the bt^Ikxk
sacrificed, the witness pronouncing the remarkable formula : ** Nace
I to witness that I take oath by the ring, law-oath, so hdip me Ftw.
and Ntdrd, and almighty Thor " (hialpi roer svft Preyr. ok Nidrdr.
ok hinn alm&ttki Ass), &c. This was doubtless the great osrt>. ca
the holy ring or bracelet which the Danes swore to Kxa^ Alfred »
quit his kingdom ("on tham halgan beage." ^afb^Sax. C
" in eorum armilla sacra," Ethdwnd, Ckrok. iv.). Ao oatk. 1
not necessarily expreand in words, is usually sow la tlM f
OATH
9+1
instances the prayer which constitutes the oath ha» a somewhat con-
ventional form, and in the classical ages we find we El- [na rleod forrn u Lu.
These are often references to deities, as " by ^uil" "1 call Zvui co
witness" (wU m^ Ala: l^« Zdn); " by the immofial gwls ! "
" I call to witness the ashes of my ancestcr^ " (per dcaa imniDrtalci;
tester majorum cineres). Sometimes a cur^- h Invoked on him ^ If
by the swearer, that he may perish if he fa Li u^ ki^-op hisi oath, a» " the
gods destroy me," "let mc perish if," Scc. fdv me ptT^ant; dis-
peream si). An important class of Ronu '....<].. v; y
to favour or preserve the swearer in so far i , ; le
— " as the gods may pr es er ve roe," " as i *. x^i *.]ic i,otL to Le pii>
pitious to me " (me ita di servent; ita deos mihi velim propitios).
The best Roman collection is to be found in the old work of Brimonius,
Dt Formulis et SoUmnibus Populi Romani Verbis (Paris, 1583).
Biblical examples of these classes of oaths are " as the Lord liveth *
(i Sam. xiv. 39, and elsewhere), " so do (jod to me, and more also "
(2 Sam. iii. 35, and elsewhere).
The history of oaths in the early Christian ages opens a con-
troversy which can hardly be said even yet to have closed. Under
Christ's injunction, " Swear not at all " (Matt, v, 34; also
James v. 12), many Christians seem at first to have shrunk from
taking oaths, and, though after a time the usual customs of
judicial and even colloquial oaths came to prevail among them,
the writings of the Fathers show efforts to resist the practice.
Chrysostom perhaps goes furthest in inveighing against this
" snare of Satan '*: " Do as you choose; I lay it down as a law
that there be no swearing at all. If any bid you swear, tell him,
Christ has spoken, and I do not swear" (Homil. iz. in Act,
'AposloL; sec a collection of patristic passages in Sixt..Senens.
Bibliothec. Sanct. vi. adnot. 26). The line mostly taken by
influential teachers, however, was that swearing should indeed
be avoided as much as possible from its leading to perjury, but
that the passages forbidding i£ only applied to superfluous or
trifling oaths, or those sworn by created objects, sudi as heaven
or earth or one's own head. On the other hand, they argued that
judicial and other serious swearing could not have been forbidden,
seeing that Paul in his epistles repeatedly introduces oaths
(2 Cor. i. 23; Phil. i. 8; Gal. i. 20). Thus Athanasius writes:
" I stretch out my hand, and as I have learned of the apostle,
I call God to witness on my soul " {Apd. ad Imp. Const. ; see
Augustine, De Mend. 28; Epist. d. iii. 9; d. iv. 250; Enarr.
in Psalm, btxxviii. (4); Serm. 307, 319). This argument is
the more forcible from Paul's expressions being actually oaths
in accepted forms, and it has also been fairly adduced that
Christ, by answering to the adjuration of the high priest, took
the judicial oath in solemn form (Matt. zxvi. 63). The passages
here referred to will give an idea of the theological grounds on
which in more modem times Anabaptists, Mennonites and
(fakers have refused to take even judicial oaths, while, on the
other hand, the Uws of Christendom from early ages have been
only directed against such swearing as was considered profane
or otherwise improper, and against perjury. Thus from the
3rd or 4th century we find oaths taking much the same place
in Christian as in non-Christian society. In the 4th century the
Christian military oath by Ckxi, Christ, the Holy Spirit, and the
majesty of the emperor is recorded by Vegetius {Ret Milit.
Inst. ii. 5). Constantine's laws required every witness in a cause
to take oath; this Is confirmed in Justinian's code, which even
in some cases requires also the parties and advocates to be sworn
{Cod. Tkcod. xi. 39; Justin. Cod. iv. 20, 59). Bishops and clergy
were called upon to take oath in ordination, monastic vows,
and other ecclesiastical matters (see details in Bingham, Antiq. of
Chr. Church, xvi. 7). By the middle ages oaths had increased
and multiplied in (Christendom far beyond the practice of any
other age or religion. The Reformation made no change in
principle, as is seen, for instance, in Art. xxxix. of the church of
England: " As we confess that vain and rash swearing is
forbidden Christian men by our Lord Jesus Christ, and James
His apostle, so we judge, that Christian Religion doth not
prohibit, but that a man may swear when the Magistrate re-
quireth, in a cause of faith and charity, so it be done according
to the Prophet's teaching, in justice, judgement and truth."
The history of swearing in early (Christendom would lead us
to expect that the forms used would be adopted with more or
less modification from Hebrew or Roman sources, as indeed
proves to be the case. The oath introduced in the body of one
of Constantine's laws—" As the Most High Divinity may ever
be propitious to me " (Ita mihi summa Divinitas semper propitia
sit)— follows an old Roman form. The Roman oath by the genius
of the emperor bdng objected to by Christians as recognizing a
demon, they swore by his safety (TertulL Apd. 32). The
gesture of holding up the hand in swearing has been already
spoken of. The Christian oath on a copy of the Gospels seems
derived from the late Jewish oath taken holding in the hand
the scroll of the law (or the phylacteries), a ceremony itself
possibly adapted from Roman custom (see treatise " Shebuoth "
in Ctmara), Among the various mentions of the oath on the
Gospels in eariy Christian writers is that characteristic passage
of Chrysostom in a sermon to the people of Antioch: " But do
thou, if nothing else, at least reverence the very book thou
boldest forth to be sworn by, open the Gospd thou takest in
thy hands to administer the oath, and, hearing what Christ
therdn saith of oaths, tremble and desist " {Serm. ad pop,
Antioch. Homil. xv.). The usual mode was to lay the hand on
the Gospel, as b often stated in the records, and was kept up to
a modem date in the oath in the university of Oxford, " tactis
sacrosanctis Evangeliis"; the practice of kissing the book,
which became so well established in England, appears in the
middle ages (J. E. Tyler, Oaths, pp. X19, 151). The book was
often laid on the altar, or (after the manner of andent Rome)
the swearer laid his hand on the altar itself, or looked towards
it; above all, it became customary to touch relics of saints on
the altar, a ceremony of which the typical instance is seen in the
representation of Harold's oath in the Bayeux tapestry. (Xher
objects, as the cross, the bishop's crosier, &c., were swom by
(see Du Cange, s.v. *' Jurare "). An oath ratified by contact or
inspection of a sacred object was called a " corporal " or bodily
oath, as distinguished from a merely spoken or written oath;
this is wdl seen in an old English coronation oath, " so hdpe
me God, and these holy euangelists by me bodily touched vppon
this hooly awter." The English word signifying the " sacred
object" on which oath is taken is haiidome (A.S. hdligddm;
Ger. Heiligthum); the haiidome on which oaths are now swom
in England is a copy of the New Testament. Jews are swom
on the Old Testament; the sacred books of other rdigions are
used in like manner, a Mohammedan swearing on the Koran,
a Hindu on the Vedas.
Among the oath-formulas tised in Christendom, that taken
by provincial governors under Justmian is typical of one class:
" I swear by (iod Almighty, and His only begotten Son our Lord
Jesus Christ, and the Holy Ghost, and the Most Holy Glorious
Mother of God and ever Virgin Mary, and by the Four Gospels
which I hold in my hand, and by the Holy Archangels Michad
and Gabriel," &c. The famous oath of the kings Louis and
Charles at Strassburg in 842 (a.d.) mns: " By God's love and
the Christian people and our common salvation, as God shall give
me knowledge and power," &c. Earlier than this, as in the oath
of fealty in the capitularies of Charlemagne in 802, is found the
familiar form " Sic me adjuvet Dcus," dosely corresponding to
above-mentioned formulas of pre-Christian Rome. Tliis became
widdy spread in Europe, appearing in Old French " Si m'ait
Dex," German " So mir Gott hdfc," English " So hdp me God."
A remarkable point in its history Is Its occurrence in the " So
help me Frey," &c., of the old Scandinavian ring-oath already
described. Among the curiosities of the subject are quaint oaths
of kings and other great personages: William Rufus swore " by
that and that " (per hoc et per hoc), William the Conqueror
" by the splendour of God," Richard I. " by God's legs." John
" by God's teeth "; other phrases are given in Du Cange (/.c), as
" per omnes gentes," " per coronam," " par la sainte figure de
Dieu," " par la mort Dieu," &c
Profane swearing, the trifling or colloquial use of sacred
oaths, is not without historical interest, formulas used being apt
to keep up traces of old manners and extinct religions. Thus the
early Christians were reproved for continuing to say " meherdel "
some of them not knowing that they were swearing by Hercules
(TertuU. De idol, 20). Oaths by duties of pre-Christian Europe
9+2
\jj\,in
lasted into the modern world, as when a few generations a^o
Swedish peasants might be heard to swear, " Odin taice me if
it is not true I" (Hylten-Cavallius, WOrend ock Wirdame,
i. 328). The thunder-god holds his place still in vulgar German
exclamations, such as "Donner 1" (Grimm. DnOsdU MytkologU,
pp. xo, i66). The affected revival of classical deities in Italy m
the middle ages still lingers in such forms as '*per Baccol"
"cospetto di Baccol" (by Bacchus! face of Bacchus I). In
France the eonduding oath of the last paragraph dwindled into
" mordieu I " or " morbleu 1" much as in England the old oaths
by God's body and wounds became converted into " oddsbodi-
kins!" and '« zounds!" (E. B. T.)
Law. — Politicians and moralists have placed much reliance
on oaths as a practical security. It has been held, as Lycurgus
the orator said to the Athenians, that " an oath is thebwid that
keeps the state together " (Lycurg. Leocr. 8o; see Montesquieu,
Spirit of Lavs) . Thus modem law-books quote from the leading
case of Omichund v. Barker: " No country can subsist a twelve-
month where an oath is thought not binding; for the want of
it must necessarily dissolve society." On the other hand,
wherever the belief in supernatural interference becomes weak-
ened, and oaths are taken with solemn form but secret contempt
or open ridicule, they become a serious moral scandal, as had
already begun to happen in fla^fml times. The yet more
disastrous effect of the practice of swearing is the public infer-
ence that, if a man has to swear in order to be believed, he need
not speak the truth when not under oath. The early Christian
fathers were alive to this depredation of ordinary truthfulness
by the practice of swearing, and opposed, though unavailingly,
the system of oaths which more and more pervaded public
business. How in the course of the middle ages oaths were
multiplied is best seen by examining a collection of formulas
such as the Book of Oaths (London, 1649), which range from
the coronation oath to the oaths sworn by such as valuers of
cloths and the dty scavengers.^ Oaths of allegiance and other
official oaths are still taken throughout Europe, but experience
shows that in times of revolution they are violated with little
scrui^e, and in the case of Che United Kingdom it is doubtful
whether they have any more practical value than, if so much as,
simple declarations. The question of legal oaths is more difficult.
On the one hand, it is adnaitted that d^ey do induce witnesses,
especially the ignorant and superstitious, to give evidence more
truthfully than they would do on even solemn declaration. On
the other hand, oil who practise in courts of justice declare
that a large proportion of the evidence given under oath is
knowingly false, and that such perjury is perceptibly detri-
mental to public morals.
The oaths now administered among dvilized nations are
chiefly intended for maintaining governments and securing the
performance of public business. In England the coronation
oath is to be administered by one of the archbishops or bishops
in the presence of all the people, who, on their parts, redprocally
take the oath of allegiance to the crown. The archbishop or
bishop shell say : " Will you solemnly promise and swear to
govern the people of this United Kingdom of Great Britain and
Ireland and the dominions thereto belonging according to the
statutes in parliament agreed on, and the respective kws and cus-
toms of the same?" . The king shall say: " I solemnly promise
so to do." Archbishop or bishop: " Will you to the utmost of
your power cause law and justice, in mercy, to be executed in
all your judgements?" King: '* I will" Archbishop or bishop:
" Will you, to the utmost of your power, maintain the laws of
God, the true profession of the Gospd, and the Protestant re-
formed religion established by kw? And will you maintain
and preserve inviolably the settlement of the Church of England
and the doctrine, worship, disdpUne and government thereof,
as by law established in England. And fnH 3rou preserve unto
the bishops and clergy of England, and to the churdies therein
all such rights and privileges as by law do or shall appertain to
them, or any of them ? " King: " All this I promise to do."
■ As to reform of the excessive multiplication of oaths, see Psley,
Moral Philosophy, bk. iii. pt. L ch. 16; and J. E. Tyler, OaOu.
After this the king, laying his hand upon the holy Cotpeis, shaB
say: " The things which 1 have here before pcooised I will
perform and keep; so help me God," asid them sktU kiss tht
book.
The chief officers of sute take an " official " oath wdl and
truly to serve his majesty. Special oaths are taken by privy
coundUors. archbishops and bishops, peers, baroaeu and knights,
recruits and others. The old oath of allegiance, as administeted
(says Blackstone) upwards of 600 years, contained a promise
" to be true and faithful to the king and his heirs, and truth and
faith to bear of life and Umb and terrene honour, and not to
know or hear of any ill or damage intended him without defend-
ing him therefrom " (Blackstone, CMUHcyitanes, book L chsp.
X.). In the reign of William m. it was replaced by a shorter
form; and it now runs: " I . . . do swear that I wiD be
faithful and bear true allegiance to His Majesty . . . , hi^ beiis
and successors, according to law." Statutes of Charles IL and
George I. enacted that no member should vote or sit in dthcr
house of parliament without having taken the several oaths
of allegiance, supremacy and abjuration. Theoathof supremao
in the rdgn of William III. was: " I A B doe swear that I 6ct
from my heart abhorr detest and abjure as impious and hcietica]]
this damnable doctrine and position that princes czcocun;mi'
cated or deprived by the pope or any authority of the see ci
Rome may be deposed or murdered by thdr subjects or any
other whatsoever. And I doe declare that no forieigiie prince
person prelate sUte or potentate hath or ought to have any
jurisdiction power superiority preeminence or authoritie ecdcsi-
asticall or spirituall within this realme. Soe," &c The catb
of abjuration introduced in the time of William HL recognizes
the king's rights,, engages the juror to support him and disck^e
all traitorous conspirades against him, promises to maintain
the Hanoverian Protestant succession, and expressly renounoes
any claim of the descendants of the late Pretender. This oath
was not only taken by persons in office, but mi^t be te n dered
by two justices to any person suspected of disaffection. la
modem times a single parliamentary oath was substituted for
the three, and this was altered to enable Roman Catholics to
take it, and Jews were enabled to sit in parliament by being
allowed to omit the words " on the true faith of t Christian."
In its present form the parliamentary oath cotisists of an oath
of allegiance and a promise to maintain the succession to the
crown as limited and settled in the reign of William IIL
The " judicial " oath taken by judges of the court ol appal
or of the High Court of Justice, and by justices of the peace,
is " to do right to all manner of people after the laws azid usages
of this realm, without fear or favour, affection or iB-viU."
Jurors are sworn, whence indeed their name {jttratores); ia
fdonies the oath administered is: '* You shall well and trcK
try and true deliverance make between our sovereign lord the
king and the prisoner at the bar whom you shall have in char^.
and a true verdict give according to the evidence.** In sus-
demeanours the form is: " Well and truly try the issoe joizcd
between our sovereign lord the king and the defendant and a
true verdict," &c. The oath of the jurors in the Scottish criminal
couru is: " You [the jury collectivdy] swear in the name cs
Almighty God and as you shall answer to God at the great day
of judgment that you will truth say and no truth 0DD>.&al in h;
far as you are to pass upon this assise." The oldest trace of th:
form of oath in Scotland is in Reg. maj. L cap. 11, oc^ned frac
GlanWll, which points to an origin in the Norman inquest cr
", recognition." In the andent custom of compurgation, oacr
prevalent in Europe, the accused's oath was supported by thr
oaths of a ntmiber of hdpers or compurgators who swore to their
bdief in its validity.
Witnesses in English law courts must give their evidcxacr
under the sanction of an oath, or of what is equivalent to ar
oath, and the ordinary form of oath adapted to Christians is
" The evidence you shall give . . . shall be the truth, the wfaoue
truth, and nothing but the truth. So help you God.*' Maa>
alterations of the English law as to oaths have been made rz.
rdief of (i) those Christians who object on conscieatioua grounds
OAXACA
to the taking of an oath, and (3) of thoae penons who refuse
to admit the binding force of an oath. Spedal provision was
first made for Quakers, Moravians and Separatists; then
followed general enactments relating to dvfl and criminal pro-
ceedings respectively, till finally the law was embodied in the
Oaths Act 1888, which enacted that " every person upon object-
ing to being sworn, and suting, as the ground of such objection,
cither that he has no religious belief, or that the taking of an
oath is contrary to his religious belief, shall be permitted to
make his solemn affirmation instead of taking an oath in all
places and for all purposes where an oath is or shall be required
by law, which affirmation shall be of the same force and effect
as if he had taken the oath; and if any person making such
affirmation shall wilfully, falsely and corruptly affirm any
matter or thing which, if deposed on oath, would have amounted
to wilful and corrupt perjury, he shall be liable to prosecution,
indictment, sentence and punishment in all respects as if he had
committed wilful and corrupt perjury. " The form of affirmation
prescribed by the Oaths Act was as follows: "I, A, B., do
solemnly, sincerely, and truly declare and affirm," &c. Under
8. 5 of the same act a person might swear in the Scottish form,
with uplifted hand (no book of any kind being used) and if he
desired to do so " the oath shall be administered to him in such
form and manner without question." With the desire of making
univenal this method of administering the oath the Oaths Act
X909 was passed. It enacted that any oath might be adminis*
tered and taken in the following form: "The person taking
the oath shall hold the New Testament, or in the case of a Jew,
the Old Testament, in his uplifted hand, and shall say or repeat
after the officer administering the oath the words ' I swear by
Almighty God that . . . ,' foUowed by the words of the oath
prescribed by .law." The officer also is directed by the act to
administer it in this fashion, unless the person about to take
it voluntarily objects or is physically incapable of taking it
so. To a person who is neither a Christian nor a Jew the
oath may be administered in any way in which it was previously
lawful.
The form of affirmation given above is that used for Quakers,
Moravians and Separatists in the witness-box: "l^ A, B., being
one of the people called Quakers (one of the United Brethren
called Moravians), do, &c." A Christian swears on the Gospels,
holding a copy of the New Testament in jiis right hand (the
hand being uncovered), and his head being also uncovered. A
witness may elect to be sworn on any version of the Bible which
he considers most binding on him, as a Roman Catholic on the
Douai Testament or Bible. A Jew is sworn on the Pentateuch,
holding a copy thereof in his right hand, the head being covered.
A Mahommedan is sworn upon the Koran. He places his right
hand flat upon the book and puts the other hand upon his fore-
bead, bringing his head down to Ihe book and in contact with
it. He then looks at the book for some moments. Buddhists
are sworn on the Buddhist doctrines, Sikhs upon the Granth,
Parsees upon the Zend Avesta, Hindus upon the Vedas, or by
touching the Brahmin's foot, and, according to caste custom,
Indian witnesses sometimes insist upon the oath being ad-
ministered by a Brahmin; but in India witnesses now generally
afllrm. Kaffir witnesses swear by their own chief, and a Kaffir
chief by the king of England. When a Chinese witness is to be
sworn, a saucer is handed to him, which he takes in his hand
and kneeling down breaks into fragments. The colonial legis-
latures generally make provision for receiving unsworn evidence
of barbarous and uncivilized people who have no religious belief.
The great number of oaths formerly required was much reduced
by the Promissory Oaths Act x868, which prescribed the forms
of oath of allegiance, the official oath and the judicial oath. The
right to affirm in lieu of taking the parliamentary oath in the
case of atheists was first raised in the case of Charies Bradlaugh
(q.v.).
Profane swearing andcurting is punishable by the Profane Oaths
Act 1745. any labourer, sailor or soldier being liable to forfeit
la., every other person under the degree of a gentleman 38., and
every gentleman or person of superior rank 5s., to the poor of the
panab.
Theadf
and Scots
1799. 181
latter act
II I
tioa whicl;
oath. Su ;
Children c
sufficient i :
evidence* :
In the I I
in which i i
latitude a
different s
every dvi 1
is not so I
Germany
except in 1
of an oath.
Author i
CommeHta$ 1
Ori<«if,iVai 1
OAXAC^ I
southern 1 1
the great . I
part of th
N.E. and I
and W. b;
of whom t
broken by 1
chiefly Ijrin ;
however,}] ,
coast linei
lying with :
disappears,
shore. Th !
petl (xz,i4
knot of siei 1
eastern ma
del Leone, !
the Sierra ] !
western qv !
headstream
across the :
the Gulf a 1
tributary, I
Cruz. The
in the state
is the Teh I
aggregate U 1
inland and
small and 1< :
foreign traci
Pacific tern I
artificial hai
harbour, th!
railway. Tl
with high su:
conditions,
districts, thi
the border 1
of the peopli
sugar, rubb<
variety of t
are cotton, v
beer, fumitii
late, flour ar
the state— t
ports of Sal
the Mexican
with branchi
Guatemalan
on the coasi
Mexico, the
of the prehi
the ruins of
I
944
OAXACA— OBADIAH
{ AntiquUies) now stand, still fonn the greater part of the
population.
OAXACA, Oajaca (from Aztec Huaxyacac), or Oaxaca de
Juarez (official title), capital of the Mexican state of Oaxaca,
in the central part of the state 288 m. S.E. of the City of Mexico,
and about 153 m. from Puerto Angel on the Pacific; in lat.
17* 3' N., long. 96** 40' W. Pop. (1900) 35,049, largely Indians,
most of whom are Mixtecas and Zapotecas. Oaxaca is con-
neaed with Puebla (21X m.) by the Mexican Southern railway.
The dty lies in a broad, piauresque valley 5085 ft. above sea-
level, and has a mild temperate climate; annual rainfall about
33 in.; mean annual temperature 68** F. It forms the see of a
bishopric dating from 1535, and has a fine old cathedral (occupy-
ing the north side of the plaza mayor), built in the Spanish
Renaissance style and dating from 1553; rebuilt in 1762.
According to tradition the Aztec military post and town of
Huaxyacac was founded in 1486. The date of the first Spanish
settlement is uncertain, but it was probably between 1522 and
1528. The Oaxaca Valley, including several native towns, had
been given to Cort6s, together with the title marques del Valle
de Oaxaca. To injure him, the audkncia then administering
the government, founded the vUla of Antequera in close proximity
to Huaxyacac and on lands belonging to Cort6s in 1529, though
a settlement had been made at the Indian town at an earlier
date. Antequera was made a dty in 1532 and the see of a
bishopric in 1535, though it had but few Spanish inhabitants
and no opportunity to expand. This anomalous state of affairs
was eventually settled, Antequera was absorbed by Huaxyacac,
and the Spanish corrupted the pronunciation to Oaxaca. The
dty suffered severely in the earthquakes of 1727 and 1787, the
cathedral being greatly damaged in the former. It had a
chequered career in the War of Independence, being o^tured
by Morelos in 18x2, reoccupied by the royalists in 18x4, and
recaptured by Antonio Leon in 182 1. In 1823 it was again
captured by Nicolas Bravo in the revolution against Iturbide.
In 1865 it was besieged by the French under Bazaine and sur-
rendered by General Diaz (4th Feb.) but was recaptured by him
on the ist of November 1866, after his eacajte from Puebla.
In the revolution promoted by Diaz in X871-X872 the dty was
captured by the Juarist general Alatorre on the 4th of January
1873, and in a second revolution of 1876 it Y^as captured by the
friends of Diaz on the 27th of January of that year.
OB, or Obi, a river of West Siberia, known to the Ostiaks
as the As, Yag, Kolta and Yema; to the Samoyedes as the
Kolta or Kuay; and to the Tatars as the Omar or Umar. It
is formed, 8 m. S.W. of Biysk in the government of Tomsk,
by the confluence of the Biya and the Katun. Both these
streams have their origin in the Altai (Sailughem) Mountains,
the former issuing from Lake Teletskoye, the latter, 400 m.
long, bursting out of a glacier on Mount Bydukha. The Ob
zigzags W. and N. until it reaches 55** N.; thence it cxirves
round to the N.W., and again N., wheeling finally eastwards
into the GuU of Ob, a deep (600 m.) bay of the Arctic Ocean.
The river splits up into more than one arm, espedally after
receiving the large river Irtysh (from the left) in 69* E. Other
noteworthy tributaries are: on the right, the Tom, the Chulym,
the Ket, the Tym and the Vakh; and, on the left, the Vasyugan,
the Irtysh (with the Ishim and the Tobol) and the Sosva. The
navigable waters within its basin reach a total length of 9300 m.
By means of the Tura, an affluent of the Tobol, it secures
connexion with the Ekaterinburg- Perm railway at Tyumen,
and thus is linked on to the rivers Kama and Volga in the heart
of Russia. Its own length is 2260 m., and the area of its basin
1,125,200 sq. m. A system of canals, utilizing the Ket river,
560 m. long in all, connects the Ob with the Yenisei. The Ob
is ice-bound at Barnaul from early in November to near the end
of April, and at Obdursk, 100 m. above its mouth, from the end
of October to the beginning of June. Its middle reaches have
been navigated by steamboats since 1845.
OBADIAH, the name prefixed to the fourth of the Old Testa-
ment " minor prophets," meaning " servant " or " worshipper "
of Yahweh; of a type common in Semitic proper names; cf.
the Arabic *AbdaIllh, Taimallit, *Abd Manlt, he., tlie Hdxcv
Abdid and Obed Edom, and many Phoenician lona^ *"rht
vision of Obadiah " bears no date, or other historical note, aof
can we connect. Obadiah the prophet with any other Obadiab
of the Old Testament,* and our only due to the dau and coo-
position of the book lies in internal evidence.
The prophecy is directed against Edom. Yahweh has sent
a messenger forth among the nations to stir tbem up to bstdr
against the proud inhabitants of Mount Seir, to bring them 6omt
from the rocky fastnesses which they deem imi»cgnable. Edoo
shall be not only plundered but utterly undone and ezpeDed
from his borders, and this he shall suffer (throu^ his own idly)
atthehandof trusted allies (vers. 1-9). The cause of this ju%-
mentis his crudty to his brother Jacob. Intbedayof JensaJm't
overthrow the Edomites rejcuced over the calamity, grasped
at a shaxe Of the spoil, lay in wait to cut off the fugitives (vexi
10-14). But now the day of Yahweh is near upon all natioos,
Esau and all the heathen shall drink full retribution for xba
banquet of carnage axid plunder on Yahweh's holy moantaia.
A rescued Israd shall dwell in Mount Zion in restoml holiBeaii
the house of Jacob shall regain their old possessions; Edom
shall be burned up before them as chaff before the flame; tbcy
shall spread over all Canaan, over the noountain of Esau and the
south of Judah, as well as over Gilead and the Philistine sad
Phoenician coast. The victorious Isradites shall come cp oa
Mount Zion to rule the mountain of Esau, and the kisydoa
shall be Yahweh's (vers. 15-21).
The most obvious evidence of dste lies in the cause assigDed
for the judgment on Edom (vers, xo-14). The calamity of
Jerusalem can only be the sack of the dty by Nebuchadreaai
(586 B.C.) ; the malevolence and crudty of Edom on this occasioo
are characterized in similar terms by several writers of the ezik
or subsequent periods, but by none with the same circumstaDce
and vividness of detail as here (Ezck. xxv. 8, 12 f., xxzr.;
Lam. iv. 21; Psalm cxxxvii. 7). The prominenoe given to
Edom, and the fact that Chakiea is not mentioned at all, make
it probable that the passage was not written in Babyfeaia.
On this evidence, taken alone, we should be justified in sa}iQC
that the prophecy was written at some time after $86 a.c^
at a period when misfortunes incurred by Edom were interpreted
as a Divine judgment on its unforgotten treachery in thai ytt:
of tragedy.
The critical problem is, however, complicated by ceitaia
phenomena of literary relationship.* Obad. x -6, 8 agree so doscK
and in part verbally with Jer. xlix. 14-16, q, xo, 7 that the i^ti
passages cannot be iiKlependent; nor does it seem possKie
that Obadiah quotes from Jeremiah, for Ol>ad. 1-8 b a vefl-
connected whole, while the paralld verses in Jeremiah appear
tg different order, interspersed with other matter, and in a mc^
less ludd connexion. In Jeremiah the picture is vsgoe, acd
Edom's unwisdom (ver. 7) stands without proof. In OtadUk
the conception is quite definite. Edom is attacked by his on
allies, and his folly appears in that he exposes himself to sack
treachery. Again, the probability that the passage in jatsdak
incorporates disjointed fragments of an <dder oracle is greti^
increased by the fact that the prophecy against Moab ia tic
preceding chapter uses, in the same way, Isa. xv., xvL. aed tbe
prophecy of Balaam. Scholars who assign the passage o
Jeremiah to 604 B.C. {e.g. Driver, L.O.T, chap. \'i. § 4). expbia
this relationship by assuming with Ewald {PrepkeUn, L 4S0 i ■
Graf {Jeremia, p. 558 f.), Robertson Smith and others, ibtf
Jeremiah and our book of Obadiah alike qiiote from aa aide
orade. Others, however, who do not regard Jer. xlix. as Jcs^
mianic, explain the relationship as one of dependence on Obadiii
This explanation, simpler in itself, is not discredited by *>
fact that in some details (d. Obad. 2 and Jer. tI?'* 15) the tei:
> An early Hebrew tradition recorded by Jetome {C«mm. « <!* '
identified the prophet with the best-known Obadiah cf the htstond
books, the protector of the prophets in the leign of Ahab (1 Kstp
xviii.).
* Between Joel and Obadiah there are points of matrrul td
verbal agreement so dose as to imply that Joel used the carfrr book
(Joel iiL 19-Ob. 10, 14; Jod iiL3--0b. 11 ; Jod iL 32.10. j-Ob-i')-
OBAN-OBELISK
945
of the dependent piigff may be piefcfiMe to that of the citginaL
On this Utter, and more probable, view (taken by WeDhausen,
Nowacfc and Marti) there is no need to separate Obad. x-7
from' 10-14. The immediate occasion of the prophecy* was
doubtkm the prcaBure of nomadic Arabs ("the men of thy
covenant/' ** the men of thy peace," *. 7) upon Edom, whidi
had resulted, by 3x3 B.& at latest, in the occupation by Arabs
of Petra, the chief city of the Edomites (Wellhausen, p. 2x4).
But the desolation of Edom has already been accomplished in
the time of Malachi i. 1-5, a passage belonging to the earlier
half of the 5th century. We may, therefore, with Wcllbauseii,
Nowack and Marti, assign Obadiah x-X4 to the same period.
The remainder of the book, vers. (15) x6-2X, must belong to
a later date. That the book of Obadiah, short as it is, is a
oumplez document might have been suspected from an apparent
change of view between vers. 1-7 and vers, xs f. In the former
vieraes Esau is destroyed by hisa]lies,and they occupy his territory,
but in the latter he perishes with the other heathen in the day
of universal retribution, he disappears before the victorious
advance of Israel, and the southern Judaeans occupy his land.*
The ideas of this passage belong to the eschatological outlook
of later centuries, but afford no daU for chronology. The
conceptions of the " rescued ones " (R.V. " those that escape,"
fL* 17), of the sanctity of Zion, of the kingship of Yahweh, are
the common property of the post-exilic writers. The restoration
of the old borders of Israel and the conquest of Edom and the
Philistines are ideas as old as Amos ix., Isa. xL X4; but such
passages represent this conquest as a suserainty of Israel ove*
its neighbours, as in the days of David, while in Obadiah, as
in other later books, the intensified antithesis— religious as well
as political— between Judah and the surrounding heathen finds
its expression in the idea of a consuming judgment on the latter
— the great " day of Yahweh." The chief interest of the book
of Obadiah Ues in its references to the historical relations between
Israel and Edom. From the point of view of religion, we may
ix>tice the emphasis on the doctrine of strict retribution (vers.
10 f., 156) which remains applicable to other peoples, even when
its inadequacy as a complete theory of providence has been slowly
L4TE fLiktv IE.— Wcl Ihauscn ,£> i* kieinen pTephtUTt ' { 1 M^S) ; No«ac k.
" '^ 7» and pd,» TQ04): C. A, Smi^h, Tk$ B&&k of ihi Tv-tlti^
,iS^): J. A. ScEbw, art. " Obadiah, " in H^tuttg^'v Dkt. *f
ik* Bible, iii. 577-581LI (1900) ; Ch^yne, i4r in Bfuy. BiblUa. tii.
id. <i»g7» and «!.. 19
voi ii. (18
45^346? (incGrporating the article of W. Robertson Smkh in ihc
?th (tditiofi of the Entiy. Brit.} {[903]; Martj. Bodrka^wphtt<m
1903), For ki iketcK of the histoiy of th* Edomilci, kc Nijldckc^t
ani Jc " Edom '■ m the En^y, BiuCca. (W. IL S. ; II. W. R.*J
OBAN, a utunicEpai and police burgb and seaport of Argyll-
shire, Scotland* Pop, (1901) 5374^ It b situated 1 1 j a. NAV»
of Glasgow by the Caledonian railway via StirUng and Callander,
and about the same distance by water via the Crinan Canal.
The fine bay on which it lies is screened from the Atlantic gales
by the island of Kerrera (4} m. long by 3 m. broad), which
practically converts it into a land-locked harbour. Being also
sheltered from the north and east by the hills at the foot of which
it nestles, the town enjoys an exceptionally mild climate for its
latitude. The public buUdings include the Roman Catholic
pro-cathedral, erected by the 3rd marquis of Bute, the county
> Wellhausen and Nowack rc^rd tn. 8, o as a later addition,
intended to apply vo. 1-7 to the future; so Marti, who croups with
these verses 150, because of the common reference to '^thc day of
Yahweh."
* The Judacani «r? addn^ard in t. 16 ("as ye have drunk **)•
not the Ed[:Tmitt4. V^rsc jo anticipates that the exiles from northern
Israel will occupy PhijenlcUn territory, whilst those from Jerusalem
•• which an? In ScpKarad " *S1I occupy the southern districts in the
Messianic rc^tonnion^ " Stpharad " has been connected with various
places, e.g. Soparda jti *outh-*e*C Media (G. A Smith), and Cparda
of Darius in the Ekhistun iiiEcnption (Robertson Smith); whilst,
according to Winckler {K.A.T.* p. y>\), it is the name, from the
Pernan period citiwafda, for Asta Minor. Many of the Jews were
doubtless soU ;if »1 A vcji by Nebuch^d rczu r. Lydia was a great slave-
market, and A^^ Minor ^azm a rhl^r spat of the Diaspora at an early
date (comp. Gutschmidt, Neue Beitrdte, p. 77). »> that " Sepharad '*
in itself does not supply ground for Hitz;g's argrument that Obadiah
was written in the Greek period, when we read of many Jews being
tran^)lanted to Asia Minor (Jos. ^fit xii. 3).
Iraildingi and two hospitals. It b the centre of tdiirist traflk
for western Argyllshire and the islands. Oban was a small
village at the date of Johnson's visit during his Hebridean tour;
in X786 it became a government fishing station; it was made
a burgh of barony in x8ii and a parliamentary burgh in 1832.
With Ayr, Campbeltown, Inveraray and Irvine (the Ayr buighs)
it unites to send one member to parliament.
At the north end of the bay stands the ruin of DunoDy Castle,
the old stronghold of the Macdougalls of Lome, whose modem
mansion adjoins it. In the grounds is a huge conglomerate rock
called the Dog Stone {Clack-Orckoin), from the legend that Fing^
used to fasten his favourite dog Bran to it. About 3 m. N.E.
are the ruins of Dunstaffnage Castle. It was here that the
" Stone of Destiny," now contained in the base of the coronation
chair at Westminster Abbey, was kept before its removal to
Scone. At the south end of the island of Kerrera stand the ruins
of Gylen Castle, an old fortalice of the Macdougalls.
OBBUOATO, or Obucato, in the modem sense, a musical
term (adopted from the Italian, and strictly meaning obligatory
or binding) for an instrumental accompaniment to a musical
composition which, whfle in one way independent, is included
by the composer on purpose and in a prescribed form, instesd of
being left to the discretion {ad libitum) of a performer.
OBELISK (Gr. bfiMagos, diminutive of ^^3eX6s, a spit), a form
of monimiental pillar; and also the term for a bibliographical
reference-mark in the form of a dagger. The typical Egyptian
obelisk is an upright monolith of nearly square section, generally
zo diameters in height, the sides slightly convex, tapering up-
wards very gradually and evenly, and terminated by a pyramidion
whose faces are inclined at an ang^e of 60**. Obelisks were usually
raised on pedestals of cubical form resting on one or two steps,
and were set up in pairs in front of the entrance of templea.
Small obelisks have been found in tombs of the age of the Old
Kingdom. The earliest temple obelisk still in position is that of
Senwosri I. of the Xllth Dynasty at Hcliopolis (68 ft. hi^).
A pair of Rameses II. (77 and 75 ft. high respectively) stood at
Luxor until one of them was taken to Paris in 183 1. Single
ones of Tethmosis I. and Hatshepsut (109 ft. high) still stand
at Kamak and remains of others exist there and elsewhere in
Egypt. Colossal granite obelisks were erected by only a few
kings, Senwosri I. in the Middle Kingdom and Tethmosis I.,
Hatshepsut, Tethm(»is III. and Rameses II. of the Empire.
Smaller obelisks were made in the Salte period. Tlie Romans
admired them, and the emperors carried off some from their
original sites and caused others to be made in imitation {e.g. that
for Antinous at Benevento): twelve are at Rome, one in Con-
stantinople; two, originally set up by Tethmosis III. at Helio-
polis, were taken by Augustus to adorn the Caesareum at Alex-
andria: one of these, " Cleopatra's Needle," was removed in
Z877 to London, the other in 1879 to New York. Such obelisks
were probably more than mere embeUishments of the temples.
The pyramidions were sheathed in bright metal, catching and
reflecting the sun's rays as if they were thrones of the sunlight.
They were dedicated to solar deities, and were especially numer-
ous at Hcliopolis, where there was probably a single one sacred
to the sun of immemorial antiquity. The prindi^l part of the
sun-temple at Abusir built by Neuserre of the Vth Dynasty
appears to have been in the shape of a stumpy obelisk on a vast
scale, only the base now remains, but hiero^yphic pictures
indicate this form. The hiero^yph of some other eariy tun-
temples shows a disk on the pyramidion \\, The material
employed for the great obelisks was a pink granite from the
quarries of Syene, and in these quarries there still remains,
partially detached, an example 70 to 80 ft. long. The largest;
obelisk known is that in the piazza of St John Lateran at Rome;,
this had been set up by Tethmosis III. at Hcliopolis in the xsth
century B.C., was brought over from Egypt by Constantine the
Great and erected in the Cimis Maximus, being ultimately
re-erected in 1553 by Pope Sixtus V. It was 105 ft. 9 in. high,
including the pyramidion, and its sides measured 9 ft. 10 in.
and ft. 8 in. respectively. On the base of the magnificent
obelisk of Hatahepsut at Karnak, 97 ft. 6 in. high, there is an
inscription stating that it and its fellow were made within the
short space of seven months. In consequence of the breaking
away of the lower part of " Cleopatra's Needles " when removed
to Alexandria and re-erected, the Roman engineers supported
the angles on bronze crabs, one of which with three reproductions
now supports the angles of the obelisk on the Thames Embank-
ment.
There was another form of obelisk, also tapering, but more
squat than the usual type, with two of the sides narrow and ter-
minating in a rounded top. One such of Senwosri I., covered with
sculpture and inscriptions, lies at Ebgig in the Fayum. Stelae,
inscribed with the names of the kings, occurred in pairs in the
royal tombt of the 1st Dynasty at Abydos, and pairs of small
obelisks are said to have been found in private tombs of the
I Vth Dynasty. The origin of the obelisk may be sought in sacred
upright stones set up in honour of gods and doid, like the
menhirs, and the Semitic Massebahs and bethels.
In Abyssinia, at Azum and elsewhere, there is a marvellous
series of obelisk-like monuments, probably sepulchraL They
range from rude menhirs a few feet high to elaborately sculptured
monoliths of 100 ft. The loftiest of those still standing at Aium
is about 60 ft. high, 8 ft. 7 in. wide, and about 18 in. thick, and
is terminated by a rounded apex united by a necking to the
shaft. The back of the obelisk b plain, but the front and sides
are subdivided into storeys by a series of bands and plates, each
storey having panels suxik into it which seem to tepresent
windows with mullions and transom. These architectural
decorations are derived from a style of building found by the
recent German expedition extant in an ancient church; courses
of stone here alternate in the walls (both inside and out) with
beams of wood held by circular clamps. In front of the best-
preserved obelisk is a raised altar with holes sunk in it apparently
to receive the blood of the sacrifice to the ancestors. Most of
these must date before the adoption of Christianity as the state
religion in the 6th century.
b« C*. M :i:^pcTfi, £/irLV£t£iM5(> t'^ vpfffnini; (new ed., Paris, 1907),
p. 105; H* H* Gcifringu^ Egy}>tmii Obtiisks (New York, 1882;
Loddciii. i8S5h &c.)! F. W. vqb Wi^i^m^ md L. Borchardt, Das
JU-Htth^mt dts K^ip Ne-%vifT-R£ (Bcrliti, 1905): on the ancient
outbod oT nwiiK obeuski^ L. Borchardt. " Zur fiaugeschichtc des
Ai»«iiC«npel von Kaimkt" irtSeihc'a Umtrsuchungen tur Geschichte
ttnd AUertnmikunde Attypitnj, v. 13. For the Abyssinian
obelisks fc& c?pecb!ly Eh Litnin^inn and D. Krencker, Vorbericht der
deutickcH Aksum Expeditim (IkrUn, I9CK?). (F. Ll. G.)
OBBRAMMEROAU, a village of Bavaria, Germany, district
of Upper Bavaria, situated amongst the foot-hills of the Alps
in the valley of the Ammer, 64 m. S.S.W. of Munich. Pop.
about Z400. The village folk are nuunly engaged in making
toys, and carving crucifixes, rosaries and images of saints.
The place is famous for their performance of a Passion
Play every tenth year («.£. in 19x0), to which thousands of
visitors flock. This dramatic representation of the su£Ferings
of Christ is not a survival of a medieval mystery or mirade-
play, but took its rise from a vow made by the inhabitants
in 1633, with the hope of sUying a plague then raging.
The original text and arrangements were probably made by the
monks of Ettal, a monastery a little higher up the valley; but
they were carefully remodelled by the parish priest at the
beginning of the present century, when the Oberanmiergau play
obtained exemption from the general suppression of such per-
formances by the Bavarian government. The music was com-
posed by Rochus Dedler, schoolmaster of the parish in 1814.
The performances take place on the Sundays of sununer, in a
large open-air theatre holding 6000 persons, and each lasts about
nine hours, with a short intermission at noon. Each scene from
the history of Christ is prefaced by a Ubleau of typical import
from the (M TeMament. About 700 actors are required, all
belonging to the village. The proceeds of the performances are
devoted to the good of the community, after defrayal of the costs
and payment of a small remuneration to the actors. The villagers
regard the Passion Play as a solemn act of religious worship,
and the performances are characterized by the greatest reverence.
The principal parts are usually hereditary in certain famifies.
and are assigned with regard to moral character as weU as dra-
matic ability. It is considered a disgrace not to be aUowed
to take part in the pUy, and the part of Christ is looked upon as
one of the neatest of earthly honours.
Edward Devrient (in 1850) was among the first to direct general
attention to Oberammcrgau ; and numerous accounts have since
appeared. An English version of the text of the Psmioo Play has
been published by E. Childc (1880).
OBERHAUSEN, a town of Germany, In the Prussian Rhine
province. It is situated 5 m. from the east bank of the Rhine,
ao m. N J^. of Dfisseldorf , on the main line of railway to Hanover
and Berlin, and at the centre of an important network of lines
radiating hence into the extensive Westphalian coal and iron
fields. Pop. (1905) 52,096. The town possesses large iron-
works, coal-mines, rolling-mills, zinc smelting-works, railway
workshops and numufactures of wire-rope, glass, chemicals,
porcelain and soap. The first houses of Oberhausen were built
in 1845, and it rcmved its mimicipal character in 1874.
OBERLAHNSTEIN, a town of Germany, in the Prussian
province of Hesse-Nassau, on the right bank of the Rhine, at
the confluence of the Lahn 4 m. above Coblenz, on the raHvay
from Cologne to Frankfort-on-Main. Pop. (1905) 8473. It
still retains parts of its andent walls and towers, and possesses
a castle, the Schloss Martinsburg, formerly the residence of the
dectors of Mainz, and the chapel, Marien Kapelle, in which the
German king Wenceslaus was deposed by the electors in 1400.
Near the town is the castle of Lahncck, built about x 290, destrc^^
by the French in 1689, and restored in 1854. In the oeif^
bourhood are lead and silver mines.
See J. Wegeler, Lakneck und Obertahnsiein (Trier, 1881).
OBBRLXNDER, ADAM ADOLF (1845- ). German cari-
caturist, was bom at Ratisbon, but after 1847 lived in Munich.
He studied painting at the Munich Academy under Piloty, and
soon discovered that the true expression of his genius was in the
field of caricature and comic drawings. He joined the staff of
the Pliegende BUiUer^ to which he became a constant contributor.
Unlike Busch, whose aim was the utmost simplidty of line and
whose drawings form a running commentary to the legend.
OberULnder's work is essentially pictorial, and expressive in
itself, without the extraneous aid of the written Une. Among
his best drawings are his parodies on the style of well-known
painters, such as the " Variations on the Kissing Theme." His
works have been collected in the Oberldnder-Albim, pablisbed by
Braim and Schndder in Mimich.
OBERUN, JEAN FR^DteC (1740-1826), German Protestant
pastor and philanthropist, the son of a teacher, was bom on the
31st of August 1740 at Strassburg, where he studied tbeotegy.
In 1766 he became Protestant pastor of Waldbach, a remote
and barren region in the Stdnthal (Ban-de-la-Roche), a valle>'
in the Vosges on the borders of Alsace and Lorraine. He set
himself to better the material equally with the spirittial con-
dition of the inhabitants. He began by constracting roads
through the valley and erecting bridges, indting the peasantry
to the enteiprise by his personal example. He introduced an
improved system of agriculture. Substantial cottages were
erected, and various industrial arts were introduced. He
founded an itinerant library, ori^nated infant srhoob, and
established an ordiiuiry school at each of the five villages in the
pari<di. In the work of education he recdved great asststance
from his housekeeper, Louisa Schcppler (x 763-«837). He died cm
the ist of June x8a6, and was interred with great manifestations
of honour and affection at the village of Urbach.
Among the many accounts of the labours of Oberlin, mention may
be made of Thomas Sims, Brief Memorials of Oberlin (London, t S50 1 :
Memoirs of ObeHin, with a short m^ice of Louisa Sckeppler (Londc-n.
1838, ancl ed. 1852); H. Ware, Biography of Oberiim (B<»tcn.
1845); L. Spach. Oberiin le pasteuf (Strassburg. 1865, 2nd (^
1868); F. W. Bodemann, /. P. Oberlin gund ed.. 1879): K. F. Rirt.
Drei BiUer aus dem Leben von Papa Oberlin (Strassburr. 18S0 .
Josephine Butler, Life of J. P. Oberim (i88a): G. H. von Schubort,
zage aus iem Leben Oberliru (nth ed., 1890); Armin Stdn. Joha^^
Frtedrick Oberlin, ein LebendtUd (1899). See also the article in Herzos:-
Hauck, Realencykhpddie. The collected writings of Oberlia vexe
published by Burkhardt at Stuttgart in 1843 in 4 vola^
OBERLIN, J. J.
OBERUN, jfefiMIB JACQUES (1755-1806), Alsatian philo-
logist and archaeologist, brother of Jean Fr£d6ric Oberlin, was
bom at Strassburg on the 8th of August 1735. While studying
theology at the university he devoted spedal attention to
Biblical archaeology. In 1755 he was chosen professor at the
gymnasium of his native town, in 1763 librarian to the university,
in X 7 70 professor of rhetoric, and in x 782 of logic and metaphysics.
Oberlin published several manuals on archaeology and andent
geography, and made frequent excursions into di£ferent provinces
of France to investigate antiquarian remains and study provincial
dialects, the result appearing in Essai sur U patois Lorrain
(1775); Dissertations sur Us Minnesingers (1782-1789); and
Observations coTicemant le patois et les nusurs dcs gens de la
campagne (1791). He also published several editions of Latin
authors. He died on the loth of October x8o6.
OBERLIN, a village of Lorain county, Ohio, U.S.A., 34 m.
W.S.W. of Qeveland. Pop. (1890) 4376; (1900) 408a (641 ne-
groes) ; (19x0) 4365. It is served by the Lake Shore & Michigan
Southern railway, and by the Cleveland & South-Westem
(electric) railway, which furnishes connexions directly with
Cleveland and Elyria, and at the village of Wellington (about
10 m. S.) connects with the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago &
St Louis, and the Wheeling & Lake Erie railways. Oberlin is
primarily an educational centre, the seat of Oberlin College,
named in honour of Jean Fr^^ric Oberlin, and open to both
sexes; it embraces a college of arts and sciences, an academy,
a Theological Seminary (Congregational), which has a Slavic
department for the training of clergy for Slavic immigrants, and
a conservatory of music. In 1909 it had twenty buildings, and
a Memorial Arch of Indiana buff limestone, dedicated in X903,
In honour of Congregational missionaries, many of them Oberlin
graduates, killed in China in 1900 Its libraries contained in
1909 98,000 bound volumes and an equal number of pamphlets,
and the college had a faculty numbering X13 and a student
enrolment of 1944. The resources of the college in 1909 were
about $3,500,000. Under the editorship of a professor emeritus
b published the Bibliotkeca Sacra^ a quarterly founded in 1843,
and for many years the organ of the Andover Theological
Seminary.
The village was founded as Oberlin Colony in X833 (in X846
it was incorporated as the village of Oberlin), by the Rev. John J.
Shipherd (1802-1844), pastor of a church in Elyria, and the
Rev. PhOo Penficld Stewart (1798-1868), a missionary to the
Choctaws of Mississippi, as a home for Oberlin Collegiate In-
stitute, which was chartered in 1834; the name Oberlin College
was adopted in 1850. To the Theological Seminary, opened in
1835, there came in the same year forty students from Lane
Theological Seminary in Cincinnati, after the discussion of slavery
there had been forbidden by its board of trustees. A former
member of the board, Asa Mahan (X80&-X889), who had strongly
disapproved of the action of the trustees, came to Oberlin, and
became the first president of the college. Oberlin was the first
American college to adopt coeducation of sexes, and was a
|)ioneer in America (1835) in the coeducation of the white and
black races.' The village became a station on the Underground
Railway, and an important centre of anti-slavery sentiment.
Manual labour was adopted at first as a means for students to
defray their college expenses. As late as 1906 it was estimated
that nearly two-thirds of the men were to a greater or less degree
self-supporting, as were many of the young women. What is
known as the " Oberlin Theology " (no longer identified with the
college) centred in the teaching of Charles Grandison Finney
(1792-1875), who became professor of theology in 1835 and was
Mahan's successor in the presidency (1851-1866). He was a
powerful preacher and teacher, who broke from Calvinism in
denying imputation and teaching perfect freedom of the will,
by which perfect holiness might be attained Finney carried
> A runaway slave, Littlejohn, was taken at Oberlin m September
1858 by a United States marshal, but was rescued at Wellington
Several of the rescuers, notably Professor Henry Everard Peck of
Oberlin College, were arrested and were imprisoned in Cleveland
for several mootha. This was a famous fugitive slave case.
ness (k
TheLn <
SeeF I
Fairchil
Leonard I
ofJ.H. t
OBEI ]
Goth, r I
pi. elbi, •
history ' :
and is t 1
eldest s 1
In the i i
but was I
oiOrtni 1
the kin£ ;
asimUai ;
the rom. i
Midsum .
his epic 1
or the I
to the V I
Garden i
Alberich [
Rhine n 1
throughc I
him in t! (
the origi
doubt of
by the p '
from Ce :
the virtu •
and Julii i
of the t: I
Scandina '
Loki and
which he :
with the (
the Volsi I
German 1 (
See alsc
Huon von i
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OBERSI
BirkenfeM
river Nah!
am^Stein.
setting of
has been
of Idar, si
in the xat
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Sec Hiss
OBIT (t
down, to <
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f\}k. ix. ch.
I
\JU1. X JU J.X A^XKJ X W J.WX"
of a penon's death (now *' oUtua^ '0- An " obit " was also
a service performed at a funeral or in cpmmemoration of a dead
person, particularly the founder or benefactor of a church,
collego or other institution, hence "obit-days," "obit Sunday,"
&c. A " post-obit " is a bond given as a security for the repay-
ment of money lent upon the death of a person from whom the
borr ower h as eipec totions (see Bond).
OBITER DICTUM, that which is said by the way or in passing
(Lat. obf by, and iter, road); 4>ecifically, in law, an opinion
expressed by a judge incidentally in the course of a case, on a
point of law not necessarily connected with the issue or not
forming part of the grounds of the decision; such obiter dicta
have no binding authority.
OBJECT and SUBJECT, in philosophy, the terms used to
denote -respectively the external world and consciousness. The
term " objea " (from Lat. ob, over against, andyacere,to throw)
is used generally in philosophy for that in which an activity of
the mind ends, or towards which it is directed. With these
may be compared the ordinary uses of the term for " thing "
simply, or for that after which one strives, or at which one alms.
" Subject," literally that which is " thrown under " {sub), is
originally the material or content of a discussion or thought,
but in philosophy is used for the thought or the thinking person.
The relation between the thinking subject and the object thought
Is analogous to the grammatical antithesis of the same terms:
the " subject " of a verb is the person or thing from which the
action proceeds, while the " object," direct or indirect, is the
person or thing affected. The true relation between mind or
thought (subject) and matter or extension (object) is the chief
problem of philosophy, and may be investigated from various
standpoints (see Psycholooy and Metaphysics). It should
be observed that the philosophical use of " subject " is precisely
the opposite of the common use. In ordinary language the
" subject " of discussion, of a poem, of a work of art, is that
which the speaker, author or artist treats.
OBJECTIVE, or Object Glass, the lens of any optical system
which first receives the light from the object viewed; in a
compound system the rays subsequently traverse the eye-piece.
The theoretiod investigations upon which the construction of
an optical system having specified properties b based, are treated
in the article Abekkation, and, from another standpoint, in
the article DtFrRAcnoN. Here we deal with the methods by
which the theoretical deductions arc employed by the practical
optician. It should be noted that the mathematical calcula-
tions provide data which are really only approximations, and
consequently it is often found that a system constructed on such
data requires modification before it fulfils the practical require-
ments. For example, take the case of a photographic objective.
Calculations of the paths of two extreme rays in the meridional
section of an oblique pencil of large aperture may prove that the
rays intersect on a plane containing the axial focus, but similar
calculations of many other rays would be necessary before the
mean point of intersection could be settled with sufficient
exactness. Suppose, however, that the ot>tician has accurately
realized the results of the mathematician, he can then determine
the divergence of the practical from the theoretical properties
by measuring the positions and conformation of the most distinct
or mean fod, and, if sufficiently acquainted with the theory of
the construction, he can modify one or more curvatures or tMck-
nesses and so attain to a closer agreement with the ideal. Theory
and practice co-operate in the realisation of an original system.
The order, is net always the same, but generally the mathe-
matician, by notoriously laborious calculatioif^, supplies daU
which are at first closely followed by the constructor and after-
wards modified in accordance with experimental observations.
In addition to the problem of constructing an original sjrstem,
the optician has to deal with the reproduction of a realized system
in different sizes. Two questions then arise: (i) To what
degree of accuracy the radii of curvature can, or should, be re-
peated, and (a) to what degree of uniformity the surfaces can,
or should be figured. With regard to the first point there is
no great difficulty in working the requisite iron or brass tools
/x^iajv^xa vxa
of any curvature to within an error oif iVrth% of the radius;
male and female templets being used for very deep curves, and
the spherometer for tools of longer radii (by af^ropriate grinding
together, the radii are alterable at will within nazxow, bi:t
sufficient, limits). The accuracy attained in the gxiiMfing,
however, is open to very perceptible modification by the sub-
sequent polishing and figuring processes. This is particulariy
undesbable In the case of deep curves and large apertures. A
variation in a radius of curvature may occasion a little spkencal
aberration at the axial focus, but if the amount be small it
nuty be neutralized by imparting to the lens a parabolic fonn
or its opposite. Such an artifice is frequently adopted in
correcting large telescope objectives.
With optical systems which transmit large pendls with con-
siderable obliquity (such as wide angle photographic objectives)
the curves are very deep, and a departure from the true radius
which would be tolerated in a telescope cannot be permitted
here. Such lenses are usually tested by means of a master curve
worked in glass. The master curve b fitted to the experimental
lens, and an inspection of the interference fringes shows the
quality of the fit — whether it be perfect, or too shallow or too
deep. The workman then modifies his polisher or stroke in ocder
to correct the divergence. Flat surfaces are tested similariy.
This test by contact has been strongly advocated and has been
regarded as sufficient to detect all irrq^nlarities of any moment.
T^s daim, however, is not justified, for the test is not scnsiiive
to erron sufficient in amount to render a telescope objective
almost valueless; but such erron are easQy disceiuble by
other optical devices. In general, accuracy in the radn of
curvature is of primary importance and trueness of figuring
is of secondaxy importance in photographic objectives, whik
the reverse holds with telescopic objectives; in wide an^
microscopic objectives these two conditions are of equal moment.
Eye lueces do not require the same degree of accuracy either
in the curvature or the figuring.
A rough idea of the exactitude to which the Curiae of the finest
telescope objectives must be carried out is readily deduced. If two
slips oi paper, bearing printed letters jy of an m. hig|a be placed
in almost exact ali^ment, one 31*2 in. from tbe ejre and the otJher
29 in., and viewed in moderate daylight with the eye ha\iiw a pupil-
iry aperture of i of an in., one*aet of the letters will be IrgiUe
while the other » not. In tlus case the difference of coovciicsicc or
refracting power exerciaed by the eye in transferring its focus fnm
one slip to the other b tit crone quarter differ. If an image 00 the
retina is i diopter out of locus, then each point of the object b repK^
aented by a circle of conf udon o<O004 in. or 7' 45' in aosular measure
in dbmeter, the focal length of the ey^ being assumed to be 0-5 in.
and the pupilbry aperture I of an in. It the effective apertniv
of the pupil or Uie aperture of a pendl traversing the jpapa be i/sth
of thb standard, the sixe of the disk of confusion wOl be the sarae
{vU. OK)0O4 in.) if the retinal image be n quarter diopters oat of foetid
In general, for a constant siie oitlie circle of confusio n or, in other
words, the same amount of visual blurring, the apertures of the
pencib traversing the pupil and the focuamg enon (expressed in
quarter diopters) vary inveiaely.
If a portion of a figured surface of a telescope objective (fiSen
in curvature from the major portion of the lens so as to fonn a circle
of confusion 00 the retina of a diameter not kas than a' 45*. h b
clear that the lens b faulty, the image formed by the perfect parrim
being diarp and well denned, and that formed by the imperfect
portion blurred to the extent above determined, and to a greater
extent if we allow for the effect of diffraction in the foroiataoa of tiar
image. For example, a protuberance 1 in. in dbmeter at the oesitxe
of an object glass of 12 in. aperture refracting to a separate focvs
would theoretically form a spurious disk of about 5 seconds diameter,
which would subtend a dbmeter of 50 minutes at the retina under a
power of 600.
Regarding 2' 4s' as the manmum dbmeter of a geometric circle of
confusion permissible in a telescopic object glass, we rauc w d to
determine the heights of the protuberance or depressioo whkh caases
it. If / be the equivalent focal length of the eye-piece and F that ef
the objective (the back focal length in the case of the microscope),
then the linear error at the focus of the eye-piece b ^ hi*, or.
as a variatMO of i/F. Th(f/F)'. (-^)- If a lens baa one side
refractive index, we may write rmg{ji~ 1) and obtain
l-AV^O»-i)
(U.
OBJECTIVISM— OBLIGATION
It is deir that for lenses to w&ich the focal leogth is lafje coippai«d
with the aperture, the thickness / is independent of the shape of the
kns so bnc as the focal length and aperture remain constant.
Conseguentiy a protuberance may be reg^uded as a thin meniscus
lens with mathematically sharp cajpcs accurately fitted to a perfectly
regular spherical surface. Substituting tori/gtht Ti« (//F)' obtained
above it follows that a* i /f\* , %
^'W^-isS-W ' ' • <^^-
The effective aperture of the eye has been supposed to be I in.;
calling this P. it is then obvious that (since F//[ is the magnifying
power) P(F/0 .is the theoretical aperture of objective requisite to
supply the jF in. eye-pendl. Subeututing F(JFlf) for A in equation
(a) we obtam
<-P»/80- 0X156 ... (3).
This relation gives the thickneis of a meniflcus protuberance fitted
to an objective (assumed to have an unlimited aperture) which fills
the I in. pupil and oocasuns the ma»imtim blurring r«*«ii— ?KU
If M be x«f , I IS equal to 1/39.936 in.
If the thiclmess t correspond to the aperture A, then for another
aperture a to produce the same blurring we must have A' (i/F) •
A(i/F)A/a, f^. the focal length of the protuberance, and thereiore
the thickness I must vary as A. Consider a telescope of la in.
aperture, focal length of objective (F) " 180 in., focal length of eye-
piece (/) o«3 in. and magnifying power (F//) "600. The aperture
theoretically requisite to transmit the pupillary pencil of | in.
aperture is i«6oo > 75 in. If the permissible protubersnce cover the
entire aperture of 75 in. its thickness would be 1/39,936 in. as above,
but if restricted to a diameter of I in., then the maximum allowable
thickness would be I /75X 1/39.936 in." say 1/3,000,000 m. Since
the latter protuberance, is assumed to fill only 7V of the aperture
of the pupu of the eye, it produces an error in focussing equivalent
to 75 quarter diopters or ^A. If we uke the power of the eye-
piece to be I/-3 in. and subtract from it 75/150, we obtaini /'df ,
10 that AFb- -OK in.
Either the kniie-edge test, or the more usual method of testing
figuring by examinin|; the out-of-focus disks formed on the retina
When the eye-piece is inside and outside its correct focus, would
certainly show the effect of this protuberance as a bright central
spot when inside focus, and a dark central patch when outinde;
a practised eye can detect one-half the above error, and a quarter
when the power is laoo instead of 600. It may be noticed that,
under the same circumstances, the error permissible in a reflecting
telescope is onl^r one quarter of that admitted in the refractor. In
the case of a micixncobe objective of 10 in. back-focal-lengtn used
with a I in. eye-piece, the aperture required to transmit the pupillary
pencil of i m. aperture is i} in. Regardii^ the supposititious
protuberance or depression as ^ in. in diameter, its thick-
ness or depth must not exceed 1/39.936 Xo^S/i -as, or say i /i «ooo.ooo
in. Therefore the accuracy 01 ngiiring required in the best micro-
scopes does not fall far short of that required in telescopes.
The best optical workmanship, as applied to large reflecting sur-
faces, aims at reducing local protuberances or depressions to within
the limiting height or depth of one twelve-miUionth part of their
diameter (A) and the optical methods which detect these errors are
exceedingly delicate. The finest spherometer detects errora down
to about tnree-millionths of an inch, below which it is valueless. The
same appliies to the study of the interference fringes formed ndien a
master curve 'is fitted. It will not show up such fine errors. The
figuring of spherical surfaces la in. or more in diameter by abrasion
with a polisher so that no part of the surface is elevated or depressed
above the average level by more than the above defined amounts is
commonly practised, but much technical knowledge is necessary for
success. It is a sine qua mm that the material of the polisher should
be as plastic and inelastic as is consistent with a moderate degree of
hardness. The best material for large work is Stockholm pitch from
which the greater part of the turpentine has been removed by
evaporation, and the abrasive used is the finest rouge and water.
For unall work certain waxes, more or less mixed with rouge or putty
powder, are used. Water u used as the lubricant. During delicate
figuring temperature changes must be carefully avoided, otherwise
buckling and consequent had figuring of the lens or a variation in
the hardness of the polisher may supervene. The motion of the
polisher must therefore be leisurely. Moreover, any surface must be
allowed to attain a uniform temperature before testing. When,
as often happens, an elevation or depression on a large lens appar-
ently refuses to be dislodged by straightforward polishing, recourse
IS had to local retouching. The faulty parts are localised by optical
tests and then rubbed down by sinafl polishers of an inch or more
*" J?'*?****'^' '" ***** **y * central protuberance i in. in diameter
and 1/3,000.000 of an in. high standing on the centre of a large
**J**t»ve may be removed by a polisher less than an inch in diameter
y®*^!^ at 200 half inch stroxes per minutfc and at a pressure of 6 ois.
in about a minute. Great care is required , for if the process be carried
too lar, the whole surface must be re-figurcd. Local retouching
•crves to remove those conspicuous sones of aberration to which
certain photographic lenses of large relative aperture are necessarily
» t * An annular channel is polished out at a mean distance equal
to ^ of the semi-aperture from the centre of the lens, and thu is
9+9
carefully shaded off towaids the centre and also towards the edge,
this corrects the zone of ray* which focus at a point short of the
focus of the centre and edge rays. This correction b partkularly
necessary in the case of certain lenses designed for stellar photo-
graphy. (H. D. T.)
OBJECnVISlI, in phUosopliy, a tenn used, in contradistinc-
tion to Subjectivism, for any theoxy of knowledge which to a
greater or less extent attributes reality (as the source and
necessary pre-requisite of knowledge) to the external world.
The distinction is bssed upon the philosophical antithesis
of the tenns Object and Subject, and their respective
adjectival forms " objective " and " subjective." In common use
these terms are opposed as qmonymous respectively with " real "
and " imaginary," " practical " and " theoretical," " physical "
and " psychic." A man " sees " an apparition; was there any
physical manifestation, or was it merely a creation of his mind ?
If the latter the phenomenon is described as purely subjective.
Subjectivism in its extreme form denies that mind can know
more than iu own sUtes. Objects, s.e. things-in-themselves,
may or may not exist: the mind knows only its own sensa-
tions, perceptions, ideal constructions and so forth. In a
modified form "subjectivism" is that theory which attaches
spedal importance to the part played by the mind in the
accumulation of experience. See Psycholooy; Reiativity
OrKMOWLtOOX.
OBLATION, an offering (Late Lat. oUaiiOf from cfferre,
oUatum, to offer), a term, piauticularly in ecclesiastical usage,
for a solemn offering or presentation to (jod. It is thus applied
to certain parU of the Eucharistic service in the Roman Church.
Tliere are "two oblations," the "lesser oblation," generally
known as the "offertory," in which the bread and wine yet
uhoonsecrated are presented, and the "greater oblation," the
"oblation" proper, forming the latter part of the prayer of
consecration, when the "Body and Blood" are ceremonially
presented. The word "oblate" is an ecclesiastical term for
penoDs who have devoted themselves or have been devoted
as children by their parents to a monastic life. " ObUte " is
more familiar in the Roman Church as the name of a religious
congregation of secular priests, the Oblate Fathers of St Charles.
They are placed under the absolute authority of the bishop of
the diocese in which they are established and can be employed
by him on any duties he may think fit. This congregation was
founded in 1578 under the name of Oblates of the Blened Virgin
and St Ambrose by St Charles Borromeo, archbishop of Milan
(see BoutOMEO, Caklo). There b a similar congregation of
secular priesU, the Oblates of Maxy the Immaculate, founded
at Marseilles in 18x5.
OBUOATION, in law, a term derived from the Roman law,
in which Migatio signified a tie of law {vinculum jwis) whereby
one person is bound to perform or forbear some act for another.
The obligaiio of Roman law arose either from voluntary acts
or from drcumstances to which legal consequences were annexed.
In the former case it was said to arise ex contractu, from contract,
in the latter quasi ex contractu, ex delicto, or quasi ex delicto—
that is to say, from tort, or from acts or omissions to which the
law practically attached the same results as it did to contract
or tort. Obligatio was used to denote either end of the legal
chain that bound the parties, the right of the party who could
compel fulfilment of the obligatio, the creditor, or the duty of
the party who could be compelled to fulfilment, the debitor.
In English law obligation has only the latter sense. Creditor
and debtor have also lost their Roman law signification; they
have been narrowed to mean the parties where the obligation
is the payment of a sum of money. In English law obligation
is used in at least four senses— (x) any duty imposed by law;
(2) the special duty created by a vinculum juris; (3) not the
duty, but the evidence of the duty—^t is to say, an instrument
under seal, otherwise called a bond; (4) the operative part of
a bond. The thixd use of the word is chiefly confined to the
older writers. Simplex and duplex obligatio were the old names
for what are now more commonly called a single and a double
or conditional bond. The party bound is still called the obligor,
the party in whose favour the bond is made the obligee. The
950
OBNOXIOUS— OBOE
fourth, like the third, is a use scarcely found except in the older
writers. The word " bond " is of course^ a mere translation
of oUigatio. Obligations may be either perfect or imperfect.
A perfect obligation is one which is directly enforceable by
legal proceedings; an imperfect or moral obligation (the
naturalis obligatio of Roman law) is one in which the vinculum
juris is in some respects incomplete, so that it cannot be directly
enforced, though it is not entirely destitute of legal effect. A
perfect obligation may become imperfea by lapse of time or
other means, and, conversely, an imperfect obligation may under
certain circumsUnces become perfect. Thus a debt may be
barred by the Statute of Limitations and so cease to be enforce-
able. The obligation, however, remains, though imperfect,
for if there be a subsequent acknowledgment by the debtor,
the debt revives, and the imperfect obligation becomes again
perfect. At one period there was some doubt among English
lawyers whether a moral obligation could be regarded as sufficient
consideration for a contract; it has now, however, been long
decided that it cannot be so regarded.
American law is in general agreement with English, except in
the case of Louisiana, where the terms obligor and obligee are
used in as wide a sense as the delntor and creditor of Roman law.
By art. 3522 of the Louisiana dvil code obligor or debtor means
the person who has engaged to perform some obligation, obligee
or creditor the person.in favour of whom some obligation is con-
tracted, whether such obligation be to pay money or to do or
not to do something. The term obligation b important in
America from its use in art. L s. 10 of the constitution of the
United States, " No state . . . shall pass any . . . law . . . impairing
the obligatbn of contracts." This does not affect the power
of Congress to pass such a law. Contracts between private
individuals are of course within the provision. So are private
conveyances, charters of private corporations and statutory
and other grants by a state. On the other hand, marriage and
divorce, and arrangements which are political in their nature,
such as charters of municipal corporations, licences to carry on
particular trades or regulations of police are not within the
provision. In order to fall within it, the law must act upon the
terms of the agreement, and not mmly upon the mode of pro-
cedure. If it act not upon the terms but upon the remedy, it
impairs the obligation if it purport to be retrospective, but it
b valid so far as it applies to subsequent contracts.
OBNOXIOUS (Lat. obnoxiosus, from ob, over, against, and
noxaf harm), a word originally meaning " exposed to harm or
injury," but now " exciting averuon or dislike." The current
use dates from the hter 17th century.
OBOE, or Hautboy (Fr. hautbois, Ger. Hobot, Ital. oboe),
the treble member of the class of wood-wind instruments, having
a conical bore and a double reed mouthpiece. The oboe consists
of a conical wooden tube, composed of three Joints, upper,
middle and bell, and of a short metal tube to which are bound
by many turns of waxed silk the two thin pieces of cane that form
the mouthpiece. These pieces of cane are so bevelled and
thinned at the end which is taken into the mouth that the
gentlest stream of compressed air suffices to set them vibrating.
Practice has demonstrated that the reed stalk of which the
double reed mouthpiece is made, should not be of narrower
internal diameter than the pipe containing the column of air
upon which it is destmed to act. The phiyer breathes gently
into the aperture, which has the form of a very narrow ellipse,
managing his breath as for singing. The vibrations of the double
reed produce in the stream of compressed air issuing from the
player's lips the rhythmical series of pulses necessary to generate
sound waves in the stationary cdunm of air within the main tube
of the instrument.
In the upper and middle Joints are the rings and keys covering
lateral holes bored through the tube, by means of which the
column of air, and consequently the wave length, may be shortened
at will; the bell joint contains one or two keys normally open,
which when closed extend the lowest register by lengthening
the air column. These holes and keys produce the fundamental
scale of the oboe, which possesses notes sufficient for an octave
with all chromatic intervals. The next ocUves are obtained
by means of cross fingering (Fr. doigU jourcku^ Ger. C&bdgpJ),
and of the octave keys, which do not give out an independent
note of their own, but determine a node in the coliunn of air,
whereby the latter divides and vibrates in two half sections
producing the second harmonic overtone or octave. In order
to obtain this result the player increases the pnastoe of hs
breath and also the tension of his lips against the reed.
The compass of the oboe is from
M
= viih all
chromatic semitones. The G clef is used in noution and all
notes are sounded as written.
The quality of tone or timbre depends primarily on the ood-
figuralion of the sound waves (see Horn), which is '
by the special characteristics of the mouth-
piece: the musical tone of an instnunent
may be said to be due more directly to the
prevalence and reUtive strength of the
many harmonics which go to make up a
composite tone or clang. The quality of the
oboe tone resembles that of the £ string of
the violin, but is more nasal, more penetrat-
ing and shriller. The lower register is thin
and somewhat sweeter, approximating to the
upper register of the cor anglais. But the
timbre does not vary appreciably in the
different registers, and to this want of variety
in tone colour is due the unpopularity of the
oboe as a solo instrument, although it is
invaluable as a melody-leading instrument in
the orchestra, balanced by clarinets and flutes.
The oboe lends itself admimbly to pastoral
music. The technical capabilities of the in-
strument are very varied. It is possible to
play on it diatonic and chromatic scale and
arpeggio passages, legato and staccato, leaps;
canlabile passages; sustained notes, cres-
cendo and diminuendo, grace notes and shakes
(with reservations). The keys having many
sharps and flats are the most difficult for the
oboist.
The double reed is the most simple, as it is
probably the oldest, of all reed contnvancea. it
IS sufficient to flatten the end of a wheat straw
to conititutc an apparatus capable of setting in
vibration by the breath the column of air con-
tained in the rudimcnury tube; the inventbn
of this reed u cenainly due to chance An
apparatus for sonorous disturbance thus found,
it was easy to improve it : for the wheat stalk
a reed sulk was substituted, and in the extremity
of its pipe another reed stalk much shorter in
lenfi;th was inserted, pared and flattened at the
end; and then came the lateral holes, probably
another discovery of the great inventor chance.
For the reed tube a wooden one «ras substituted,
still oreserving the reed tongue, and it is In
this form, after having played an iroporunt
part amongst the sonorous contrivances of ai»<
tiquity, that we find the ancestor of the oboe
playing a part no Ics^ important in the l6ch
century, in which it formed the interesting
families of the cromomcs, the conhols and the
cervelas. All these families have disappeared
from the instrumental combinations of Europe,
but they are still to be found in Eastern wind instnunents. sucb
as the Caucasian salamourit the Chinese haamtu, and the kUsktnk, U
RiMfaR. Cute It G»
Fic.i.— The Otoe.
^ri
X is impossible to say when it was that man first employed i^e
phenomena of double reeds and conical pipes, but the knowk d jirg H
them must at least ha\T been later than that of tlse c>l3act*^ ^
pipe, which we may rerard as direaly furnished by nature. Th^*
antiquity made use of them, however, has been proved by Cc%^ar*t
in his admirable Hisloin d$ la mutique dans rantiqmilf.: tmx ti^ii
learned author states that the doubte-recd pipes held but &bi b>
significant place In the instrumental musk of ancient. Gcveoe axs!
Rome, a statement which is (^)en to challenge (see Aclos).
OBOE
The fint tppeftrance of the iiMtniineiit we call oboe in a muiical
work occurs in Sebastian- Virdung's Musica tjHutscht und aussfooien
(131 1). It there beara the name of Scialmty, and is already
aaodated with an instrument of similar construction called Bom'
bardt.
There esdsta, however* much earlier evidence, in the illuminated
MSS. and in the romances of the middle am of the great popularity
of the instrument in all parts of Europe. The origin of wind instru-
ments with conical tubes mutt be sought in the East, in Asia. An
early medieval Schalmey with three holes may be seen on the silver
cupof the goddess Nana-Anat.*
There are two or three Schalmeys in the fine ijth-century Spanish
M& CatUtms d4 Santa Maria executed for Alphonao the Wise, pre-
served in the Library of the Escorial ' (J. b 2).
The oboe was known during the eariy middle aaet as Calamus,
CJuUumeau (France), Schaimet (Germany), Shawn (England). It is
mentioned in the Rtman i« Brut fisth century) nine 10.822 see).)
" Lyres, tymprea, et chalemiax." An interesting MS. at the British
Museum, Sloane 3983. contains amcng other musical instruments
oa foL 13 a huge shawm with 6 fiiq;er*&>les described at the side as
CdamuM annus.
A miniature in the Paris Manesae MS.' of the 14th century depicu
Heiitfich von Meissen, better known as Frauenlob, conducting, from
a raised platform, a band of musicians* one of whom is holding a
Schalmey with 6 or 7 holes.
Thechaunter of the bagpipe was a ih^twin. having; t ' ' ied
concealed within an air-cluimb4.'r. whilif the dronca h.i' ' ing
reeds concealed in the same rrnnner Mencnnp caLL . iu-
meaux.* The comcmuse or ch i leniJe u( EJiephcrds u [id e icli ^^ i n t ? ^vas
of this kind, but a special cornL'rnuK^ usai in iFic 17th CLUiur^ in
concert with the hautbois de I'oitou^ had double rceti» thTi»\-^hout
in cbaunter and drone. The h.iLiEboia de Prjitau mtsm n [Friiuiiive
oboe with the reed placed in a Inslb^ hrminif, an ak-chnmltct. fuv ing
a raised slit at the top throL^;]! whk^h ihe ptTformpr brL.irhLfl in
compressed air; as the reed c-:\hi not be contrurietj by the li^jsi, it
was impossible to play with ex; ma^un on the hdutl>:)ta de Poi'ruu or
to obtam the harmonic octave^; the compau was th^rt-k^rc^ limiied.
The kind of bagpipe (9.9.) knuwa as Mnseiif* inflatrd by bellows,
also had double reeds throughout in tptic of having a cytindricai
chaunter.
The manufacture of musical instruments oouM not remain un-
affected by the great artistic movement known as the Renaissance;
accordingly, we find them not only improved and purified in form
in the i6tn century, but also ran^ in complete families from the
soprano to the bass. Practorius, in his Syntajma Musicum (1615-
1620), gives us the full nomenclature of the family with which we
are concerned, composed of the following individuals: (i) The little
Schalmey, rarely employed, measured about 17 in. in length, and had
six lateral holes. Its deepest note was
r^-
(2) The discant
Schalmey (fig. 2), the primitive type of the modem oboe; its length
was about 26 in., and its deepest note ^ q: j. (3) The
alto Pommer (fig. 3), 30! in. long, with iu deepest note SL^ -j
(4) The tenor Pommer (fig. 4), measuring about 4 ft. 4 in.; beskles
the six lateral holes of the preceding numbers there were four keys
which produced the notes BErl/'igEgJg ^ . (5) The bass Pommer,
having a length of neariy 6 ft. ; it had six lateral holes and four keys
which produced Q~J'~p ^ P-j=J. (6) The great double quint
Pommer« measuring about .9 ft. 8 in. in length; its four keys
permitted the production ol the notes '•
These in-
•tnimenta, and especially numbers (2), (3). (4) and (5), occupied'an
important place on the continent of Europe in the instrumental
combinations of the i6th-iBth centuries, rig. 5, borrowed from a
>See Cat. ArcJUcl. (Paris, 1886), xL pp. 70 et seq. R X.; also
1885, Pp. a88-2^. ,
• A facsimile in colours of part of the Cantigas containing figures of
^ instrumentalisU has been published by the Real Academia
&pafioJa (Madrid, 1880), and can be seen at the British MuseunK
A reproduction in bbck and white is included in Juan F. Riafio's
Critical and Bibliograpkical Notes on Early Spanish Music (Quaritch.
1887).
*T!be miniature is reproduced in Naumann'a History cf Music, L
p. 240, fig. 151.
* Harmonie umverseUe, ii. pp. 282-289 and mk.
* See Mersenne — op. cit. h. pp. 287-292 and Hotteterre le Romain.
Mtthode pour la musette, le hautbois, &c (Paris, 1737), chap, xvl
picture* e
playing tr
position in
become tl;
(German '
alto Pomn
The 171
the constn
family. M
the archive
for hautbo
John • (i4t
were there
bois," to di
instrument
words " grc
bois in Frei
and Italian
distinguish
strumentol
During t
some of thi
names conn
mental mu
to be foui
GrdndsHau
£curie du 1
teterre 0<
Nicholas),
and Andr6
Dcstouches,
In Germa
was repreae
band, m th
Church orct
in that of th<
it is record
chcstra of
Brandenbun
meysandBo
den the ore
(i593).nole!
meys, large a
rich SchQtx,
fint Opera
Dresden, usi
eariy oboes i
his works."
The little S
tenor Pommi
disappeared
tury; it u tl
improvement
orchestra. T
in the orchcs
firrt two keyi
It is not kn<
however, a d
third Randle
known to ha\
shown. The
the time, and
the transform
earlier, since
the flautist Qi
place when tn
the same time
In 1727 G
m
'Thb pictu
represents a p
werp on the Ic
'For furthc
Conservatoire ri
•See I. Ec
de la Grande fc
• lb., Table
*• See Gropiu
"Complete «
schichte der Bl
Dissertation, i
u See British
» See Versucl
i«See Matth
U5a*r(x, p. 96.
I
the i8th century much-apprecUtcd improveinentt in the boring
of the inttniment. The iitthode of Sellner, published at Vienna
in 1835, shows nine Iceys CT I I g ^-|^y£W^-p3 .andone.
the octave key, which^ when opened, establishes a loop or ventral
segment of vioration in the column of air, facilitating the pro-
duction of sounds in the octave higher. Triebert of Pans owes his
great reputation to the numerous improvements he introduced in
the construction of the oboe.
The alto Pommer was but sk<^ly Lran^3\/ir!i.tii. iL was called in
French ". hautbois de chasse," in Italian " obor di cAcckr'' I'l ihe
1 8th century we find it mote elManc in torrn. but viih all the 4('!Vcts
of the primitive instrument. The idea of bending the iir^trcjri'Hnit
into a naif circular form to facilitate the handling in ii«u;)L!l>' .^uri-
buted to an oboist of Bergamo, une lean Ferlendis, who i/viii. c-ub-
lished at Salzburg at about 1760. Thi* is obvinusly incoitftt, «.! nee
Ferlendis would then have been five year* f>ld> It ha* been iug-
gested that the fact of the instrument's r^eienibliDf a Idnd of hunting
ALSIOOT.
homuaedt
1 at that time in England probably gained for it th'^ r< ■ tne
of " como inglete," which it ttill retains (" cor anglais " in F r > !i).*
The first employment of it in the orchestra is referred to ■ ck,
who had two " cors anglab " in his AUesU, as played at Vi in
1767. But it was not until 1808 that the cor anglais was fir ird
in tne Paris opera; it was played by the obout Vogt in Ay< < .■ irt
cka ApelU by CateL The improvements in manufacture cl shis
instrument closely foUowed those introduced in the oboe. The 1 Hth
century produced an intermediate oboe between. (2) and (%), uhich
was called hautbou d'amour, and was frequently empk>yed by J . S.
Bach. It was a third lower than the ordinary oboe, and wj . 1. fiar-
acteiized by the pear-shaped bell with narrow apNerture common to
all wind instruments known as d'amour to which b due their veiled
sweet quality. In the Spanish Cantigas, there are two Schalmeys
with pear-diaped bells. This b in all probabiUty the doufaitu
mentioned in the 13th and i^th<entury romances. The oboe
d'amore fell into dbuse after the death of the great German composer.
It has bMn resuscitated by the firm of C. Mahilbn of Brussels, and
reconstructed with the improvements of modem manufacture.
A similar timbre was artifidally produced in the oboe by means of
mutes or sordini composed of bollow cones of wood. baUs of paper.*
pieces of sponge,* &c
After the l6th century we find the instruments which were
designated by the name of '* gros bois.*' the (5) and (6) of Praetorius,
traiuformed into shorter instruments, the Faeott and Contrafagott,
having a column of air of the same length and form as the Pommers,
but the instrument itself consisted of two conical tubes communicat-
ing at the bwer part of the instrument ; they were pierced in a single
piece of wood. It is probably owing to the aspect of this double
fiipe that the satirical name of fagot was given, preserved in
calian as fagotto, and in German as Fagott. A canon of
Ferrara named Afranio has been named as the author of the
transformation, about 1530. of the bass Pommer, but Count
Valdrighi. the curator of the Estense library,* and Wasielewski,*
who has reproduced the drawing of Afranio's invention, deprive
him of the merit of the innovation. The fagottino 1
in the same fashion.
I tranaoraed
We
telli
Sigismund Schnitser of Nurembers * acquired a great repotatioa ia
the i6th century for making the " oasson." a French word sabsti-
tuted for the old fagot, and adopted in England aa bassoon, His
instrument had only two keys Q J « 1 .
the bassoon gained its present form, but it was probably at the
end of the iTtb century. It was used in the orchestra is
Germany by H. SchOu in 1619 (ctr.),* and in 1625. 5 fagotti vere
in use.*
Cesti, in hb ^nd opera il Porno d*oro,^ which was performed with
the utmost bnllbncy at the nuptbis of the emperor Leopoki b
Vienna, where printed editions of 1667 and 1668 are p re ser v ed, used
fagotti combined with two cornets, three trombones and a regal to
sunest the terrors of Hades.
Michael Praetorius (1618) exprenly mentions the fagotto as aa
orchestral instrument.
In France it was used with the oboe in 1671 in Cambert's Ptmt c m
in the newly founded French Opera, for which Cambert & Pcnia
had received in 1669 a Royal Frmttfs expiring in 1673, and there-
after granted to LuUy.
IJ M . J
It had three keys then " | ^J— J . The B flat key render-
ing a lengthening of the instrument necessary, we may
it took its modem form at that epoch. The fourth key Q - Jj
b found in a bassoon sumped Sunesby Junior. London. 1747 °
and also in one without makers name, obviously earlier, to jndge by
the very early pattern of the keys.** The bassoon appears vita
four keys in the En^ydopidie of Diderot and d'Alenbert (Parii«.
1751-1765). The number of keys increased by the b^inning of the
present century to eight, viz.:
a. and t«o
keys to fDciritate the production of acute harmonica^ It was im-
? roved by Almcnrikler in Germany, Savari. and more recesoly
ri(^bert and Coumas. Paris, and C. Mahillon, Brusseh. (See aho
Bashoon.J
The refonn in the conjtniction of the flute due toTbeobaU Boeha
of Munkh about 1 640, a reform which principally consisted in the
ra'iktnal division of the tube by the position of the lateral boles.
K>Tnpted Triebert to try to adapt the innovation to the oboes a»d
ssix^ns; hut he failed. be<;4use the application of the sysuo
dcnaiuralLEed The timbre uf the instruments, which it was ocressarjr.
before all things, to prc«^i%'«. I>ut further improvements madt Bpca
the same lines by Ibrrct and Uter by Rudall Carte, faa\-e traas-
fonned the oboe into the mo^t delicate and perfect of teed isstrv-
mciua. [n tS^b a French bandmaster, M. Sarrus, thoogfat out tbe
con at met Ion at a lamily of brass instriioaents with conical tubes
pierij^t-d ^t rc^t^br di«tancei, \ihich, by diminishing the leiwtb of the
air colymn, nai rendered a series of fundamental aounds <
metre equdl aiid f fee in timbre than that of the oboe family. Gaotroc
of I 'ari9 real itcd the iDvmtor's idea, and, under the name of " sarrvaD-
phones." hai ctvated a asmplete family, from the anps-amwo a
E ilat to the eoDtnbBH bt B flat, of which hb firm p r taei - vcs the
mon<^)dy. •
In order to replace the old ^nible-baasoon of wood, tlie fina d
C. Mahillon, Bnisseb, produced in 1868, a reed contrabasaof asct^
since much used in orchestras and military bands. The first idea ci tha
instmment goes back to 1839, and b attributed to SchSBaMst & Sos
of Prcssburg. It b a conical brass tube of very large proportJoD*.
with Uteral holes placed as theory demands, in geometrical reiatKvi
with a dbmeter almost equal to the section of the tvbe at tte
point where the hole b cut. From this it results that for eaKrli soctu'
one key only b required, and the seventeen keys giv<e tfac pU^rr
almost the facility of a keyboard. The compaas written for ttJ
*See Henri Lavoix. Histoire de rinstrumenlaHon (Paris), p.
Ill; also Gerber's Lexikon, "Giuseppe Ferlcndb"; and Robert
Eitner, QueUenUxikon der TonkifutUr, "Gioaeffo Ferlendis,"
bom 1755.
* This question is more fully treated under Coft ANGLAIS.
* See Mattheson, Orchester, p. 266.
* See Quanu, o^. cit. p. 203.
* MusurgUna, // Phagohu d^ Afranio.
*Geukithte der Instrumentalmusik im x6^ Jakriundert (Berlin,
1878), p. 74.
contrabass b comprised b etween^ t 1 and (
an octave kiwer. See CoNTSAFACono.
(V. M.:ICS
*See Doppelmayr. Historiscke NackrickUn worn NirmbgrziaAtm
MaUmaUkem und KinsUem, NQmbeig. 1710.
* See complete ecUtion, vol. ilL Na 4.
•Vol.xiii. No. I.
**A fine edition has been published with reprodoctioafea of t^^
original sketches for the scenes and the full score by Adkr ia Dkca^ '
miUer der Tonkunst im Oesterreick, Bd. iiL p. xzv.
» See Capuin C. R. Day's Catahne of tke ifanoal fwTti—ii'
exkibited at tke Royal Military ExkOition (Loodoo, 1891). p. :>
No. 151.
** lb. p. 7S. Na 150.
OBOK, i seaport on the north shore of the Gulf of Tajnn,
N.E. Africa, acquired by France in i86a. It gave iu name to the
colony of Obok, now merged in the French Somali coast pro-
tectorate (see Somaliland: French). The port is separated
from the open sea by coral reefs, but is only partially sheltered
from the winds. This led to the practical abimdonment of the
town by the French, who in 1896 transferred to Jibuti, on the
opposite shore of the Gulf of Tajura, the seat of government of
the colony. Obok h coimected with Aden and Jibuti by sub-
marine cables. Population about 50a
OBRA, a river of Germany, in the Prussian province of Posen,
a left-bank tributary of the Warthe. It rises nearObra, N.W.
from Koschmin, and forms in its course marshes, lakes and
the so-called Great Obrabruch (f|en). The latter, 50 m. long
and about 5 m. broad, is a deep depression in the undulating
country of south-west Posen. The river is here dammed in
and canalized and a£fords excellent water transit for the agri-
cultural produce of the district.
CTBRIEH. WILLIAM SMITH (1801-X864), Irish revolutionary
politician, son of Sir Edward O'Brien, a descendant of Brian
Boroimhe (d. Z014), king of Ireland (see Clare), was bom
in Co. CUre on the 17th of October 1803, and received his
education at Harrow and at Cambridge. He took the additional
name of Smith on inheriting his maternal grandfather's estates
in Limerick. He entered parliament in i8a8 as member for
Ennis, and from 1835 to 1848 represented the county of Limerick.
Although he spoke in 1828 in favour of Catholic emancipation,
he for many years continued to differ on other points from the
general policy of O'ConneO. But he opposed the Irish Arms
Act of 1843, and became an active member of the Repeal Associa-
tion. Though he was destitute of oratorical gifts, his arraign-
ment of the English government of Ireland secured Mm
enthusiastic attachment as a popular leader: In July 1846 the
" Young Ireland " party, with Smith O'Brien and' Gavan
Duffy at their head, left the Repeal Association, and in the
beginning of 1847 established the Irish Confederation. In May
1848 he was tried at Dublin for sedition, but the jury disagreed.
In the following July he established a war directory, and
attempted to make a rising among the peasantry of Ballingarry,
but although he wiA at first joined by a large following the
movement wanted tohesion, and the vacillating crowd dispersed
as soon as news reached them of the approach of the dragoons.
O'Brien was arrested at Thurles, tried and sentenced to death.
The sentence was, however, commuted to tran^wrtation to
Tasmania for life. In February 1854 he received his liberty on
condition of never revisiting the United Kingdom; and in May
1856 he obtained a full pardon, and returned to Irchmd. In
1856 he published Principles of Gcvemmentt or MediUOums in
ExQe. He died at Bangor, north Wales, on the x8th of June,
1864. He had five sons and two daughters. His eldest brother,
Ludus, became Z3th Baron Inchiquin in 1855, as heir male to
the 3rd marquis of Thomond, at whose death in 1855 the mar-
quisate of Thomond and the earldom of Inchiquin became
extinct. (See Inchiqxtin, ist Eau. or.)
OBSCENITY (from the adjective "obscene," Lat. obscenus,
evil-looking, filthy). By English law it is an indictable mis-
demeanour to show an obscene exhibition or to publish any
obscene matter, whether it be in writing or by pictures, effigy
or otherwise. The precise meaning of " obscene " is, however,
deddedly ambiguous. It has been defined as " something offen-
sive to modesty or decency, or expressing or suggesting tmchaste
or lust{\il ideas or being impure, indecent or lewd." But the test
of criminality as accepted in England and Canada is whether
the exhibition or matter complained of tends to deprave and
corrupt those whose minds are open to inmioral influences
and who are likely to visit the exhibition, or to see the matter
published. U the odiibition or publication is calculated to have
this effect, the motive of the publisher or exhibitor is immateriaL
Even in the case of judicial proceedings, new^npers are not
privileged to publish evidence which falls within the definition.
In deding with writings alleged to be obscene, the court and
jury have to consider the effect of the whole work and not merely
the particular extract challenged as improper; and in practice
it is difficult to induce juries to convict the publishers of well-
known and old-established works of real literary quality on the
ground that they contain passages offensive to modem notions
of propriety. In the case of exhibitions of sculpture and pictures
some difficulty is fotmd in drawing the line between representa-
tions of the nude and works which fall within the definition
above stated— a difficulty raised in a somewhat acute form
before the London County Council in 1907 by theatrical repre-
sentations of " living statuary."
Besides the remedy by fadictment there are sUtutory pro-
visions for punishing as vagabonds persons who expose to
public view hi public streets or adjacent premises obscene
prints, pictures or other indecent exhibitions. These are
supplemented by similar provisions, applicable to the metropolis
and to cotmty towns, and (by a statute of 1889) for suppressing
certain kinds oi indecent advertisements. By an act of 1857
powers are given for srarrhing premises on which obscene
books, &c., are kept for sale, distribution, &c, and for ordering
their destruction, and the post office authorities have power
to seize postal packets containing such matter and to prosecute
the sender. In 1906 the London publisher of a weekly comic
paper was punished for inserting advertisements inviting readers
to acquire by post from abroad matter of this kind.
The use oi obscene or indecent language in public places is
punishable as a misdemeanour at common law, but it is usually
dealt with summarily, under the Metropolitan Police Act 1839,
or the Town Police Clauses Act 1847, or under local by-laws.
British Possessions. — In British India obaocne publications,
hibitiont, &c, are puiUshed under articles 392, 393 and 394 of
Penal Code. Spedal exception is made for representations '
the
^ . intemples
or on cars used for conveyance of idols or kept or used for religious
purposes. In those British poss ess ions whose law u based on the
common law the offences above dealt with are offences at common
law or under colonial statutes embodying the common law, «.f.
1903, provisions have been made for dealing sumroarilv with in-
decent and obscene publications based to some extent on the English
legislation of 1889 M;ain8t indecent advertisements. In the Colonial
acts no penalty u Incurred if the defence can prove that the in-
criminated publication is a work of recogiuxed literary merit, e.g.
Aristophanes or Boccaccio's Decameron, or b a bon&-fide medical
work circulated in the manner permitted by the statutes.
UniUd States.— VnAa the Federal Law (Revised Statutes, s.
3893) penalties are imposed for transmitting obscene matter by the
Ui. mail s; see 1 7.5. v. Wales (1893). 51 Fed. Rep. 41* (W.F.C.)
OBSBQUENS. JUUUS, a Latin writer of uncertain date,
generally placed about the middle of the 4th century a.d. He
is the author of a small extant work De prodigiis, taken from
an epitome of Livy, and giving an account of the prodigies and
portents that occurred in Rome between 249-1 a B.C.
The editb princeps was published by Aldus (1508); later editions
by F. Oudendorp 07^) and O. Jahn (1853, with the periochae of
Livy).
OBSEQUIES (Med. Lat ohseguiae, formed after class. Lat.
«xseqtiuie)f a term for funeral rites and ceremonies, especially
such as are carried out vrith great ceremony. The Lat. oh-
sequiuM (from obsequif to follow dose after) produced the
obsolete English " obsequy," in the sense of ready complaisant
service, especially of an inferior to a superior, still found in the
adjective " obsequious."
OBSERVATORY. Up to a comparatively recent date an
" observatory " was a place exclusively devoted to the takmg
of astronomical observations, although frequently a rough
account of the weather was kept When the progress of terres-
trial magnetism and nr. jteorology began to make regular observa-
tions necessary, the duty of taking these was often thrown on
astronomical observatories, although in some cases separate
institutions were created for the purpose. In this article the
astronomical observatories will be chiefly considered.
Up to about 300 B.C. it can scarcely be said that an observatory
existed anywhere, as the crude observations of the heavens then
taken were only made by individuals and at intervals, employing
the simplest possible apparatus. Thus, according to Strabo.
954
OBSERVATORY
Eudoxus had an observatory at Cniduft. But, when philo-
sophical speculation had exhausted its resources, and an accumu«
lation of facts was found to be necessary before the knowledge
of the construction of the universe could advance farther, the
first observatory was founded at Alexandria, and continued in
activity for about four hundred years, or until the middle or
end of the and century of the Christian era. Hipparchus of
Rhodes, the founder of modem astronomy, by repeating ob-
servations made at Alexandria, discovered the precession of
the equinoxes, and investigated with considerable success the
motions of the sun, moon and planets. His work was continued
by more or less distinguished astronomers, until Ptolemy (in
the and century a.d.) gave the astronomy of Alexandria its
final development. When science again began to be cultivated
after the dark ages whidi followed, we find several observatories
founded by Arabian princes; first one at Damascus, next one
at Bagdad built by the caliph Al-Mamtm early in the 9th
century, then one on the Mo^^ttam near Cairo, buQt for Ibn
Yunis-by the caliph Qakim (about zooo a.d.), where the Qaki-
mite tables of the sun, moon and planets were constructed. The
Mongol khans followed the example; thus arose the splendid
observatory at Maragha in the north-west of Persia, fotmded
about A.D. z36o by llulagu Khan, where Nasir Uddin constructed
the Uohkhanic tables; and in the 15th century the observatory
at Samarkand was founded by Ulu^ Beg, and served not only
in the construction of new planetary tables but also in the forma-
tion of a new catalogue of stars.
With the commencement, of scientific studies In Europe in
the 15th century the necessity of sstronomical observations
became at once felt, as they afforded the only hope of improving
the theory of the motions of the celestial bodies. Although
astronomy was taught in aU univeruties, the taking of observa-
tions was for two hundred years left to private individuals. He
first observatory in Europe was erected at Nuremberg in 1472
by a wealthy citizen, Bemhard Walther, who for some years
enjoyed the co-operation of the celebrated astronomer Regio-
montanus. At this observatory, where the work was continued
till the founder's death in 1504, many new methods of observing
were invented, so that the revival of practical astronomy may
be dated from its foundation. The two celebrated observatories
of the 16th century, Tycho Brahe's on the Danish island of
Hven (in activity from 1576 to 1597) and that of Landgrave
William IV. at Cassel (156Z-Z597), made a complete revolution
in the art of observing. Tycho Brahe may claim the honour
of having been the first to see the necessity of carrying on for
a number of years an extensive and carefully-planned series
of observations with various instruments, worked by himself
and a staff of assistants. In this respect his observatory (Urani-
burgum) resembles our modem larger institutions more closely
than do many observatories of much more recent date. The
mighty impulse which Tycho Brahe gave to practical astronomy
at last installed this science at the universities, among which
those of Leiden and Copenhagen were the first to found observa-
tories. We still find a large private observatory in the middle
of the Z7th century, that of Johannes Hevelius at Danzig, but
the foundation of the royal observatories at Paris and Greenwich
and of numerous university observatories shows how rapidly
the importance of observations had become recognized by
governments and public bodies, and it is not until within the
last hundred and thirty yean that the development of various
new branches of astronomy has enabled private observers to
compete with public institutions.
The instruments employed in observatories have of course
changed considerably during the last two hundred years. When
the first royal observatories were founded, the prindpal instm-
roents were the mural quadrant for measuring meridian zenith
distances of stars, and the sextant for measuring distances of
stars inter se, with a view of determining their difference of
right ascension by a simple calculation. ' These instraments
were introduced by Tycho Brahe, but were subsequently much
improved by the addition of telescopes and micrometers. When
the law of gravitation was discovered it became necessary to
test the correctness of the theoretical condusioiis drawn from
it as to the motions within the solar system, and this Decesaarily
added to the importance of observations. By degrees, as theory
progressed, it made greater dfmsnds for the accuracy of observa-
tions, and accordingly the instruments had to be impcoved.
The transit instrument superseded the sextant and offered the
advantage of furnishing the difference of ri^t ascmsinp direct^-;
the docks and chronometeis were grutly impcoved; and
lastly astronomers began early in the 19th century to beat
thdr instruments, not as faultless apparatuses but as imperfect
ones, whose errors of construction had to be detected, stodied
and taken into account before the results of obseryatkos cooid
be used to test the theory. That century also witnessed the
combination of the transit instrument and the mural quadrut
or drde in one instrument — ^the transit or meridian drde.
While the necessity of following the sun, moon and planets
as regularly as possible increased tbe daily work of observatories,
other branches of astronomy were opened and demanded other
observations. Hitherto observations of the *' fixed stais ** had
been supposed to be of little importance beyond fiang points of
comparison for observations of the movable bodies. Bot v^teo
many of the fixed stars were found to be endowed witli ** proper
motion," it became necessary to indude them among the objects
of constant attention, and in their turn the hitherto totally
neglected tdescopic stars had to be observed with pndsioB,
when they were required as comparison stars for comets or
minor planets. Thus the fidd of work for mnidian intram#m«
became very considerably enlarged.
In addition to this, the increase of optical power oC te fcato pc s
revealed hitherto unknown objects— douUe stars and ndtolae—
and brought the study of the physical constitution of the lieavesly
bodies within the range of observatory work. Re search es
connected with these matters were, however, for a number of
years chiefly left to amateur observers, and it is only since aboet
r83o that many public observatories have taken up this kind of
work. The application of spectrum analysis, photometry, &c^
in astronomy has stiU more increased the number and variety
of observations to be made, while the use of photography in work
of predsion has completdy revolutionized many branches of
practical astronomy. It has now become necessary for most
observatories to devote themsdves to one or two special fields
of work.
It would be difficult to arrange the existing observatories
into dasses dther according to the work pursued in them or
thdr organization, as the work in many cases at different times
has been directed to different objects, while the organicttloB
depends mostly on national and local drcumstanoes. Asalrendy
alluded to above, one of the prindpal characteristics off the laicer
observatories of the present day is the distribution of the woik
among a number of assistants under the general sr^wriBtcDdes^e
of a director. This applies prindpaUy to the great obsenratorks,
where the sun, moon, planets and a limited number of fixed stars
are without interraption being observed, but even among these
institutions hardly two are conducted on the same principles.
Thutf in Greenwich the instruments and observations axe aU
treated according to strict rules laid down by the Astrooomer-
royal, while in Washington or Pulkowa each astronomer bats to
a certain extent his choice as to the treatment of the iastmmcKi
and arrangement of the observations. The same Is the case
with the smaller institutions, in most of which these azxangemests
vary very much with change of personnd.
The way in which the results of observations are publislied
depends prindpaUy on the size of the institutions. Tbe lazg^
observatories issue their " aimals " or " observations " as separate
periodically-published volumes, vdiile the smaller ones dueiiy
depend on sdentific journals to lay thdr results before tlK ooUic.
naturally less fully as to details.
Subjoined is a catalogue of pubUc and private ob s qva todes
still in activity in Z9Z0 or in existence within the past huwiPBd
years. (4*" z* of long.)
lAhbreviaUoiu'.wp.t aperture: equat., equatorial; oba., oboer**-
ap., aperture
tory or observations; o^., '
pbot., pho4ngFa|ihics wA^
OBSERVATORY
955
re fle cto r; icfr., reCnctor; t-f., snveml ekn; vis.. v^mmU nTih\,
univenity. Vfhtrt the naniet of two makers are givm, th« 6m u
W! s p» ns ihlc for the optical, the second for the mechintcal put of the
iBstmnieiit*)
GftBAT BaiTAIN AND ISBLAKD
A. PMic Observatories.
CnewmUkt royal obs., lat. +51 * 2%' 3jB*4'. FoundetJ in 1 6f 1 for the
otion of astronomer and navigation. The obs. I'utve tAcrdfore
the first been prindpallv intended to determine \\\t poiltioos of
•taodard stars, the sun and planets, and above all to fotUiw the
motion of 'the moon with as little interruption as po«8ibl<>. both on and
outside the meridian. Since 1873 spectroscopic oba.aei(i a diilyphct.
record of sun-spots have been taken. Theeighthsatf^lliLcof Jui^iitfrr
was discovered photographically in 1908. The ob<i. U tinutr itm
direction of the astronomer-ro)^ ; and from the ticni; of it^ htM.
astronomer, Flamsteed^ the institution has always ruintajn^ iu
place in the foremost rank of obs. Thus the oba. of Br^kry {oh.
176a) form the foundation of modem stellar astronomy ; but it w;i]i
v-i/^-i-^-'. ^Il^ilj;^ iLl ■:Li_..U'r_::j.- ■.■, Airy i,L- ij; iHSi) ihit the oltei.
rcAc to Lu pre^nt hi^fi *ULc d tJ-bckiicy* TbiTc arc no* two chief
ansUt^int], tix jusiatiinta, and a &taJi of com put tn cinplcntd* _ The
pdpcipal InAtnimjcnti oow in use at?: a mcrtdkin circIC' by 5imm»
(And !viLn.iDm(!SJind Mayaflcnginecra), erected ifi [850* Havinf aciiX'le^
oC A^rt. diameter and a tcL^opc of fi.-in> tLp*t LaaKlL'fl i-lt^ ifiJ-f
FTiectcd tMi; t^-^n- pliot. refrH with lo-in^ vHs, ^ng^ by Gn^bb;
aS^iit- rcfr. by ibrubb; 16-ia. phot* rcfr. by Grubbi with the old
r J^S^in- refr- om guirtin^ telracopi^: ^-Ln. photh refr. by Grubbi and
^o^iti- %!g. FcQ- by Cooinion, the ^t four beinf; on one Rtand; S-ip-
Jittauimitb by Simmfi^ erected 1B96, The J6^in. and the ^An* wrre
i bV 5<r IL ThonipKHi. The oandard " mocof clock ** i^
. e ol m system o^ eleetrically<ontrol;ltd clocks scattered oVicT
tl^e Uoitcd Klngdoin- Tlie inagiic'tjc a.nd meteorologioil depaitment
wai founded in t^J^; it cont^inj a complete Bet of inBtrutnent)
Sivlag coiitinuDU4 phot' recordf. The QbitTvalioTii are published wtih
aJ] details froti) 1750, bc^tnnini; with i%}Jb in annual bulLry quartet
VDlumes; ipedal fitftilta— <.f.. Star CaMlo^uts, Rtdmii^mi of Lunar
^md PioMtiafy Obirrmiiifni—^Tt^ published in separate volumes.
S0*Uk Ktminpsn^ 5.>Ur phywea oba,. Lat. -f 51* 29' 48-0% knj|.
O h. o nu 4rs fc W. Founded i^l^^, undtrSir N. Locfevef i yiu rrfl.
^nA. 30-111+ rrli* by Common; to-in- rclr. by Conkc, and wvCTal «idc*
roftat* with atCJirhmfnt* for *pKtroscDpk and phot, work*
OxMdt RAjdcUfle tibs.» lat. +5* ' 45' 35'4% IwR « b- 5 m. 3-6 r, W.
FcMinded in 1771 by the KadctilTe tnssttes, Ob*, weit: rej^larly
fTiAde, bill none weft pgbtished oticil 1S39* when ivstttnatic obs,
were bc^un w^th an 9-h. iran*st instrument by Uira (I77:jli and a
fc-ft. mural circle by laoes (i^yj)^ Heliometer (7! in.) by Rcpcnid
f 1^491 : meridian circle by Troy^hton and laimnis, mounted in 1861*
fomicriy bclanping to Mr Cirri figt on; jo-in. relr- by Cooke {iBfl?)*
Crubb n(r. with ^4-111, phot, ana IS in* vjs. o.g. (19^0): ietf-ircord-
iiig melciirtilogicAl instrument i- Be*4f)e» the annual Svo T*k, of
ODstrvaJkms (fmm iS^o). four cataJog^ies of itara have been
published.
Oxford^ univ. obs., lat. +51* 45' 34*2'. long, o h. 5 m. 0^4 s. W.
Finished in 1875; b under the SaviUan professor of utmiKMnv;
ia|-in. refr. by Grubb, and a 13-in. refl. made and pfescitied by iJe
La Rue. The former has been used for photometric ot>it. ; the bitter
for taking lunar photographs, by means of which thr Ute Profeuor
Pritchard investigated the libration of the moon; 13 in- phot* refr.
by Grubb attached to the i2\-\a., used for phot, scnc w.^rk.
Oumbridge, lat. +S2* 13' 51 •6'. long, o h. o m. 32*8 ^. B- Founded
by the univ. senate m 1820. Chiefly devoted to mend 1.1 n work— up
to 1870 with a 5-in. transit by Dollond and a mural cinrle by Jones;
a new meridian circle by Simms, of 8-in. ap. and 3-ft. cirdcj;^, wfiu then
erected. The " Northumberland equatorial " was mounted m the
•• English " fashion in 1838; the o.g. by Cauchotx is of rii-ln- ap.
R. S. Newall's 25-in. refr. by Cooke, erected 1891, used for spcclm-
naphic work; stdcrostatic refr. with 12-in. o.g. by Cooke^ itofl.
In IQ08 the instruments of Sir W. Huggins' obs. wene presented by
the Royal Society.
Durham, univ. obs., lat. +54* 46' 6-2', lonjf. o h. 6 m* 19-* s. W.
Founded in 1841 ; small meridian circle by Simms, refr* by Friup-
hofer of 6|-in. ap., Almucantar of 6-in. ap. by Cooke (tooo).
Liverpool (Bidston, Birkenhead), lat. +53* 34' 4& , lotiij. o h.
13 m. 17'3 s. VV. Founded in i8;j8 by the municipal counciU Itans-
ferrcd in 1856 to the Docks and tiarbour Board: moved to Birken-
head in 1867. Specially intended for testing the rs^tes of ehrano-
meters under different temperatures. Transit uistnimcnt by
Troughton and Simms, and an 8-in. refr. by Merz.
Kew (Richmond), lat. +51* 38' 6', lonjf. o h. i m. 15*1 b. W* The
central meteorological <^s. of the United Kingdom, with lelf-
registering meteorological and magnetical instrumental EiiablishiKl
in 1843 under the auspices of the British Associate i>n. afterwards
transferred to the Royal Society. Since 1900 a dep.^rt ment of the
National Laboratorv. A photohcliograph was empUtyed at De La
Rue's expense to talce daily sun-picturcs from 1863 to iUfi,
FMnbwfih, royal obs., Blackford Hill, lat. +55' 57* *&0%
lone- o h. I3 m. 44*3 s. W. Founded in 181 1 by subHrripHon: thv
building on Calton Hill erected in I818. In 1834 the founderr
h.indcd over the administration to the sovemment, and in %%^t^ the
owneilhip wai similarly timnsfeffred. Sincv 1034 the obs. has been
under the direction 01 the astronomer-royal for Scotland, who is
also orofessor of practical astronomy in the univ. Professor T.
Henderson (i83|^i84{) began extensive meridian obs. of fixed stars
with a mural cirde 01 6-ft. diameter and an 8-ft. transit. '
s.g. refl. by Grubb was erected in 1873.
* 1 Hill ir ' ' •
S-i , -
l?-m. »-g. n:9. by Browning, two 6-in. refrs. and a
Bbckf Old
Crawford; is
A 3-ft.
New obs. erected on
189A-1895 for the instruntents presented by Lord
I. refr. by Grubb, transit circle by Simms of 8-tn. ap.,
., >y Browning, two 6-in. refrs. and a very fine Ubraiy ;
aUn the 3- ft. refl. The old obs. on Calton Hill now belongs to the
eiiy and is used for instruction; a 9i-in. refr. by Wragge has been
erected.
Gitisfjm, univ. oba., hit. +55*53' a3'8*, long, c h. 17 m. io«6 s. ^,
Oqrdniied In 1840 by subscription, aided by subsidies from the univ.
and the state. Meridian circle by Ertel of 6-in. apjT 9-in. refr. by
€i dice, ^o-in. sg. refl. by Grubb with spectrograph. Two catak>gue8
of fitxini were published by the late director, K. Grant.
PutJtmj Aituated about 4 m. N.W. of Dublin at Dunsink, lat.
+SJ* ^4' J3'»'» ^8- o h. 35 m. 3i'l 8. W. Belongs to the univ.;
ertttofi 111 1785; is under the direction of the " Andrews professor
of ' 'ly and royal astrcnomer of Ireland." In i8io8 a re-
versible meridian circle by Ramsden and Bcrge of 8-ft. diameter was
put up, with which Brinkley observed assiduously till 1837. In
1868 was erected a refr. of iif-in. ap. by Cauchou (o.r. formerly
bek)nging to and nven by Sir J. South), which has been used for
research^ on steuar parallax. A meridian circle by Pistor and
Martins of 6'a-in. ap. was mounted in 1873. and a 15-in. s.g. refl.
for phot. worK in 1889. Astronomical Observations and Reuofches
made at Dunsink in 4to parts.
Armofkt lat. +m 3i 137', long, o 1
and endowed by Archbishop R. Robin
„ o h. 36 m. 35-4 s. W. Founded
Robinson in 1790. Possessed very
few instruments until the obs. was enlarged by Archbishop Lord
John George Beresford in 1837, when a mural drcle and a transit by
Jones were provided, with which meridian obs. were made till 1883.
1)ublished in two star catalogues; lo-in. refr. by Grubb (1835) used
or micrometer work.
B. Principal Private Observatories in 1906.
Mr W, Cakmixn's obs.. Buckland. Dover, lat. +51^ 3^ 13', kmg.
o h, s m. 11 1. i£, Cooke S^in. refr. uKrd for obs, of double stars.
Mr X Franklin' Adawn*i obkt Mervel Htllp fliimblHlon* Surrey,
btr +51 " %' M-h*. long* o k 1 m, 30-3 9. W. Erected 1903; twin
equatorial by Cooke with T3^in. and 6-in. lenses, another with 8-itt*
und 6-m* tensea, up^d Cor phot, aurvey of iht heavens with spedal
rvferr'ncv to the Milky Way. The former inBtnimeni was used at tliD-
Cape in 1903-1^.
Rev. T. K. Espin's ob*,, Tow Law, Dsrtiogton, lat. +54* 43' 30*t
bng, h. 7 m. 14 s. W. i7|^n. trfl, by Ca{vcr> used since 1888 for
apectroscwpy and obs. of double st^r^.
Mr W. II. Mavf's ot** Kcnsinciont lat* -\-%i' ^ 3-8'. kmg.
D h. o m. 4^-4 s- W., 6-in. refr. by Lookc (1SS6). AIbo at Outwood,
Surrey, lat. +si* IJ' 38', loftg. o h, o m. 33 7 s. W.^ 8-in« refr. by
fSi" 1 .
Coolce (t^), both used on dovibic stars.
Sir Wtlfrid Ferk's ahv., RouhJoOh Lytr
long, cj h. 11 m. SO'O &. W- Ermerl by
* i88j; 6'a-in. refr. by Merx used for ot
£arf of Rosse's obs., Birr Castle, King's county. Ireland, lat.
Sir Wttfrid Ftek's abif., RohwIoOh Lyme firci*. iat. +w>*43'38',
ng. CJ h. II n3. SO'O &. W- Ermerl by j ■ > f 1 -^ ^ art Ptek
in 1883; 6'4;^in. refr. by Merz used for obs. variable stars.
+53* 5' 47*1 long, o h. 31 m. 40-9 s. W. In i8;^9 the earl made and
mounted a refl. of 3-ft. ap. (remounted as equat. in 1876), and in i8a5
he completed the celebrated refl. of 6-ft. ap. and 54-ft. focal length.
These instruments, particularly the latter, were used from 1848 to
1878 for oba. of nebulae, and revealed many new features in these
bodies; results published in the Phil. Trans, and collected system-
atically in the Trans. Roy. Dubl. Soc. (1870-1880). Experiments
were made by the present earl tc determine the amount of neat radi-
ated from the moon.
Rugby School (Temple Obs.). hit. +53* 33' 7', long, o h. 5 m. 3 s W.
Founded in 1873; 8i-in. refr. by Clark, used for obs. of double stars
and of stellar spectra.
Stonyhurst CoUere obs., Lancashire, lat. +53* 5o' 40', long, o h.
^ m. 53>7 s. W. An 8-in. refr. by Troughton ana Simms, mounted
in i8o;r. used for spectroscopic and micrometric obs.; 15-in. P^rry
memorial refr. by Grubb mounted in 1893, used chiefly for solar
work.
C Private Observatories mm discontinued.
Mr J. G. Barcla/s obs.. Leyton, Essex, lat. +51* 34' 34'. long,
o h. o m. o«o s. W. In activity from 1863 till 1886, ic-in. refr. by
Cooke; chiefly devoted to douUe stars.
Mr G. Bishop's obs.. South Villa, Regent's Park, London, lat.
+51* 3»' *9-9't k)ng. o h. o m. ^7*1 s. W. In activity from 1836 to
1 861, then removed to Twickenham, and discontinued in 1874; had
a j-ia. refr. by Ddlond, with which Mr J. R. Hind discovered ten
minor planets and several comets, and constructed maps of stars
near the ecliptic.
Mr R. C. Cam^. . ^. _ ^
oh. o m. 41 -3 s. W. Established in 1854; had a 4i-in. refr. and transit
Mr R. C. Carrineton's obs., Redhni, lat. +^i* 14' 35-3'. lon^.
Ii. o m. 41 -3 s. W. Established in 1854; had a 4f-in. refr. and transit
circle of 5-in. ap. (nowat Radcliffe Obs.). With the latter a catalogue
of the poaitfamt of 3735 surs within 9* of the pole, with the former
regular obs. of nin-spoU. were made from 1853 to 1861.
956
OBSERVATORY
Mr A. A. OmmmCs kAm., EaltnK. London, W. (1876-1901).
i8-in. s.g. refl. erected ia 1976. s-g. refl. of 36-in. a^ (mirror by
Calver. mounting by the owner), erected in 1879; cluefly uted for
celestial photography, replaced by ajpcfl.^ of j^-ft. ap. in 1889.
\ the late'E. f .
Zoapet, who in I834 erected a refr. of I3*vin. ap. (o-g. by Cauchoix).
This inatruroent was from 1848 to 1850 used for determining the
CoUmd CooMr^s obs.. Markree Castle. Co. SUgo, Ii
+54* kg' 3 1 '8', long, o h. 33 m. a8-4 s. W. Founded by t)
Cooper, wno in 1834 erected a refr. of I3*vin. ap. (o.g. by
This inatruroent was from 1848 to 1850 used for deter . .
approximate places of 60,000 stars near the ecliptic The obs.
was restored m 1874, and the refr. was used for double-star obs.
till 1883.
Earl 0/ Crawfor^s obs., Dunecht, Aberdeenshire, lat. +57* 9' 36',.
long, o h. 9 m. ^ s. W. Founded in 1872; 15-in. refr. bv Grubb,
i3-m. s.g. refl. by Browning, two 6-in. and several smaller refrs.
meridian circle by Simms stmuar to the one at Cambridge, numerous
spectroscopes and minor instruments, also a laree uorary and a
collection of physical instruments. Chiefly devoted to ^KCtroecopic
and cometary mm. Whole equipment presented to Edmburgh obs.
in 1888.
Mr E. Crossley*s obs., Bermerside, Halifax, Yorlcshire. Equatorial
refr. by Cooke of 9*3 in. ap., erected in 1871, chiefly used for obs. of
double stars till 190a.
Rn W, R, Dawa*s obs., first at Onnskirk (1830-1839), lat.
+55* 43' 1 8'* long, o h. II m. 36 a. W.; afterwards at Cranbrook,
Kent (i84A-i8«>), lat. +51*" 6^ 31', long, o h. a m. io-8 s. E.;
then at Watenngbuiy. near Maidstone, fait. +51* i< la', tong.
o h. I m. 39'8 s. £.. tul 1897 ; and finally at Hopefield, Haddenham,
lat. +51* ^' 54*. long, o h. 3 m. 43-4 s. W., till Mr Dawes's death
in i8ii68. PosseBsed at first only small instruments, then suoses-
sively a 6-in. refr. by Mers, a 74-in. and an 8}-in. refr. by Clark, and
an 8-in. refr. by Cooke, with au of which a great many measures of
double stars were made.
Mr W. De La Rue's obs., Cranfotd, Middlesex, Ut. +51 * a8' ^7-8',
k>ng. o h. I m. 37-5 s. W. Established in 1857; with 13-in. refl., de-
voted to solar and lunar photography. The Kew photoheliograph
was employed here from 1858 to i86i to uke daily photograpns of
t. +51 * 30' 30', long. oh. am. 24 S.W. William Herschel settled at
atchct in 1782, and at Sbugh m 1786, and erected several ao-ft.
the sun. The refl. was presented to the Oxford univ. dbs. in I874.
Mr S, Groombridte*s obs., Bfaickheath, lat. +51^ a8' a*7'. Ions,
o h. o m. 0-6 8. E. In 1806 Mr Groombridge obtained a new transit
circle of 4-ft. diameter by Troughton, with which he up to 1816
observed stars within 50*^ of the pole forming a catabgue of 4243
stars.
Sir Wittiam and Sir John HeruheTs obs. at Slough near Windsor,
lat, * ■ • *
Dai
refl. (of i8-in. ap.}. and in 178a his 40-ft. refl. of 4-ft. ap. The hitter
was comparatively little used (two satellites ol Saturn were dis-
covered with it), while the former served to discover about asoo
nebulae and clusters, 800 double stars, and two satellites of Uranus,
as also to make the innumerable other obs. whkh have made the
name of Herschel so celebrated. Sir J. Herschel used a ao-ft. refl.
at Sloueh from 1835 to 1833, and from 1834 to 1838 at the Cape of
Good Hope, to examine the nebulae and double stars of the whole
of the visible heavens, discovering a 100 new nebulae and 5500 ^new
double stars.
Sir William Huggins's obs., Upper Tulse Hill, London, lat.
-i-51 * 26' 4;7', long, o h. o m. 277 s. W. Founded in 1856 ; furnished
with an 8-in. refr. (by Clark and Cooke). In 1870 was erected an
equat. mounting with a 15-in. refr. and a Cassegrain refl. of 18-in. ap.,
both made by Grubb for the Royal Society. With these Sir W.
Huggins has made his well-known spectroscopic observations and
photographs o( stellar spectra. The instruments were transferred to
the Cambridge obs. in 1908.
Rn T. J. Hussey*s obs., Hayes, Kent, lat. +51* aa' 38', long,
o h. o m. 3*6 s. E. In activity from about 1825 for about twelve
years; 64-in. refr. by Fraunhoier, used for making one of the star
maps published by the Berlin Academy,
Mr G. KnoU's obs., '" * ' " " "
croft, lat. +51* o' diMong. o h. o m. 34 s.
Knowles Lodge, Cuckfiela) ; 7*3-in. refr. by Clark, used for observing
G. KnoU's obs., Cuckfield, Sussex (from i860 to 1873 at
Woodcroft, lat. +5i'* o' ai", long, o h. o m. 34 s. W.. afterwards at
double stars and variable stars till 1894.
Mr W. LasseWs obs., from 1840 to 1861 at Starfield near Liver-
pool, lat. +53** 25' 28', long, o h. II m. 387 s. W.; conUined refl. of
9- and 24-in. ap. ; employed Tor obs. of the satellites of Saturn, Uranus
and Neptune, and of nebulae. The 2-ft. refl. was used at Malu in
1852-1853. and a 4-ft. refl. was mounted in 1861, also at MalU, and
used till I 86a for obs. of satellites and nebulae. The eighth satellite
of Saturn, the two inner satellites of Uranus and the satellite of
Neptune were discovered at Starfield by Mr Lassell.
Dr J. Lee's obs., Hartwcll, Bucks, lat. +51* 48' 36', loAg.
o h. 3 m. a4'3 a. W. Ini 836 Dr Lee came into possession of Captain
Smyth's 6-in. refr., and mounted it at Hartwell House where it
continued to be occasionally employed for double-star obs. and
other work up to about 1864.
Mr P. McClean's obs., Rusthall house, Tunoridge Wells. Phot.
i2-in. refr. and o.g. prism by Grubb used for photos, of star q)ectra.
Jiff RS. NewalTs obs., Gateshead. Newcastle-on-Tyne. A a^ht.
refr. by Cooke was mounted in 1870 but never used; presented to
Cambridge obs. in 1891.
Dr Isaac Roberts's obs., Crovboroagh, Sosaex. lat. +51* 3' 7',
long, o h. o m. ^7 s. E. ao-in. s.g. refl. by Grubb (with 7-ia. icf r.) used
for phot, of nebulae and clusters 1 890-1904.
daptoiu W. H, Smyth's obs., BedfordT lat. +5a* 8' 27-6'. Ions,
oh. I m. 5a*o s. W. In 1830 Captain (afterwards Admiial) Smyui
erected a 6-in. refr. by Tulky, and observed the double stars and
nebulae contained in hb " Bedford Catak)gue " (18x4).
Sir James Smith's obs., from 1816 to 1824 at Bbcknan Street,
Southwark, long, o h. o m. 21 '8 s. W. Here bouth took transt obt.
of the sun, and ne and J. Herschel measured double stan, is 1821-
1823. In 1826 South erected an obs. at Campden Hill. Kcnsi^tca.
lat. +St * so' la', long, o h. o m. 46*8 s. W., and procured a la-in. oug.
from Cauchoix. As Troughtoo, however, failed to make a atis-
factory mounting, the glass was never used till after it had bees
presented to Dublin obs. in i86a.
Celond Tomline's obs. at Orwell Park, Ipswich, tat. +52* & 33',
long, o h. 4 m. sv8 s. E. 10-in.refr. by Merx,usedforoba.ofcoBKa
from 1874 to 1889.
Mr w. E. Wilson's (d. 1908), obs., Daramona, Stxvete, Co. West-
meath, Ireland, lat. +53* 41' 12', long, o h. 29 m. 59 s. W. 24t. refl.
by Grubb. and other instruments tor phot, and scS^r work.
Lord WroUesley's obs., from 1829 to 1841 at Blackiieatit, Ul
+51* a8' a', long, o h. o m. a'7 s. £.. where a catalogue of the ri^t
ascendons of 131B stars was formed from obs. with a tramit iastni-
ment by Jones. In 184a a new obs. was built at Wrottesley Hall,
hit. +5a* 37' a>V, long, o h. 8 m. 53*6 s. Wm where the tiaasit and a
7I in.-refr. by l)oUond
double I
nd were mounted. Oba, were here made of
Fbancb
Paris, national obs., lat. +48* 50' i i*a'. k>ng. o h. 9 m. ao-9 a E.
Founded in 1667, when the construction of a uuree and monuiBeaul
building was commenced by the architect Claude Perraalt. J. D.
Cassini s obs. made the institution for some time the moat celebxated
obs. existing, but later the activity declined, although srver^
eminent men, as Bouvard and Arago, have held the post of tfiicctor.
Since 1854, when Leverrier assumed the directorship, the oba. haw
been conducted with regularity, and, together with a number of most
important theoretical works, published in the i4«iM^ iOtsermttum
and Memoirs), The principal instruments now in use are: a
meridian drcle by Secretan and Bchens, with an oug. of 9-5-in. a(k.
another by Eictens (pven by M. Bisdioffsheim) oif 7;S-ia. ap.. a
ijj-in. refr. by Lerebours and Brttnner, a la-in. refr. t^Seoetaa sjsd
Eichens, a refr. of 9*5-tn. ap., an equat. coud£e by Henry aad
Gautier of lof-in. ap. (1883), another by the same of 234-ia. ap.. vis.
and phoL (1891), phot. refr. of 13 in. by the same. A s^ raA. d
4-ft. ap. was naounted in 187 c. but has never been r ^
In alddition to this natioiud obs. there were during the latter hal
of the i8th century several minor oba. in Paris, w&li osily based
for some years. Among these were the obs. at C a ff l ft Mamrim lat.
+48^ 51' ao', where LacaiUe observed from 1746 to 1750, and froa
17^ to 1762, and the obs. at the £caU Miliiasre, lat. +48' 51' s*.
built in 1768 and furnished with an 8-ft. mural quadrant by Bird,
with whKh J. L. d'Agelet observed telescopic stan (iTSa-i^c).
and which was afterwards (i78i»-i8oi), under Lalande^a direc^M.
employed for observing more than 50,000 stars, pabUafaed ia the
Histove Ctieste (1801).
Mendon, ckne to Paris, lat. +48* 48' 18', k»g. o h. 8 m. 55-6 s. E.
Founded in 1875; devoted to physxal astrooomy, aad especia&v
to celestial photography, under the direction of J. Janaaen: 3a-«-
vis. and a4}-in^bot. refr. by Henry and Gautier, rd. by the mex
of 39-in. ap. There is a branch obs. on Moot Blanc, where a pobr
siderostat with la-in. o.g. and ao-in. mirror b oocawxally naed far
solar and spectroscopic work (i§,78o ft. above sea4evd).
Montsouris, situated in the Montsouris Park, aotith of Pteia, fat.
+48* 49' 18', long, o h. 9 m. ao*7 a. E. Founded an 1875 fo** the
training of naval (uiicers.
Jnvissy (Seine-et-Oise), private obs. of N. C Flamoiarkm. fax.
+48* 41' 37', long, o h. 9 m. a9-o a.' E. 9f-in. refr. naed fcr oba.
of planets.
Chevreuse ^ne^-Oise), private obs. of M. Fannaa (1903). fac
+48* 4a' 33', long, o h. 8 m. 4-5 s. E.; 8-in. refr. by Maiflttt wsed
on double stars.
Besancottt chronoroetric and metcorol. obs., fat. +47* 14' 590*.
long, o h. a3 m. 57-1 s. E. Opened 1884; 8-in. refr, la-in. c«|aax.
coud£e, 7}-in. transit circle, all by Gautier.
Ljfons, old obs. in fat. 45" 45' 46', long, o h. 19 m. 18 a^ E.^ at the
Jesuit college. A new obs. was erected in 1877 at St G^ia-La-val. at
some distance from the city. fat. + 45* 41' 41 -o*. kmg. o h. 19 on. 6-s •-
E. Transit circle by Eidiens (6-in. o.g.), la-m. equat. *^"irf*r oy
Gautier, la-in. siderostat.
Bordeaux, univ. obs. at Floirac, 4 km. N.W. of the city, fat
+44* 5<>' 7-3'. long, o h. a m. 5*5 a. W. Founded 188a ; T^in. traastf
cirele by Eichens, i4-in. refr. by Merz and Gautier, 13-in. pbot. r£k
by Henry and Gautier.
Marseilles, fat. 43* 18' 17*5', long, o h. 21 m. 34-6 a. E. QriswS^
belonging to the Jesuits, taken over by the ministry of the aa^y ia
1749. It was here that J. L. Pons made his ntuneroos daaoorma
of comets. New buikHnga erected in 1869: 9l-in. Mcfx. i^..
refl. of 3a-in. ap. s.g. by Foucault, 7f>iB. trmnait ciick.
OBSERVATORY
957
Totdamse, lat. 43* 36' 45-0". long. oh. 5 m. 49^ •, E. Erected In
841 (Darquier had obMrvcd at the Lyceum towards the end of the
Stb century): rconjanizcd 187^; 9-in. refr. and I3*in. phot. rcfr.
ly Gautier, i^-in. and ^a-in. refl. .
Nice, lat. + 43* 43' 16-9'', Ions, o h. 90 m. ia*3 s. E., founded and
lbyR.L.BiKboBsheini7ortheBu " '
oh.7in.o«it.
the Puis Acad.
aowea oy ine late ur pl, Kemeu, compiccca 1009; 7S-in.
;ter by Nfcrx and Repaold, io|-in. refr. by Schr6der.
II, rojral ob»., lat. + M* 30' 167", long, o h. « m. xa-i) s. E.
Kted in 1 705 as part 01 the building of the Academy <A Sciences
, Bureau de Longitude (1880),
Ntuated at Mont Gro«, north-cast of Nice; a refr. of ^in. ap. by
Henry and Gautier, a meridian circle by Brflnner of 8*ui. ap., I5>in.
«fr. and isl-in. equat. coud6e by Henry and Gautier.
Abbadia (3asses Pyr6n6es). lat. +43^33' 53-3'Mong.
IV. Founded by A. d'Abbadie, 1858, belongs now to th
3f Science. 6-in. transit drcle.
GSRMANY
AUona,
'^i ...
xocurod, to which in l8<(8 was added a 4Hn. equat. by Repsold.
rhe obs. is best known by the fact that the Astronomxukt Nack-
rickten, the principal astronomical journal, was published here from
iSai (by H. C. Schumacher up to 1850, by C. F. W. Petersirom 1854).
rhe obs. was moved to Kiel m 1874.
Bamberg, lat. + 49* S3' 6'0", long, o h. 43 m. 33-6 s. E. Founded
ind endowed by the late Dr K. Remeis, completed 1889: 7}-in.
beltomcter "" *~
Berlin, n , -» - w •
(Vas erected in 1 705 as part 01 the building of the Academy
(lat. + 52* 31' I3'S". long, o h. ^ m. ^ B. E.), a very unsuitable
locality. A new obs. was built m the southern part of the city,
!ini»hed in 1835. Refr. by Utzschneidcr and Fraunnofer of 9-in. ap.
(used chiefly Tor obs. of minor planets), a meridian circle by Pistor
snd Martins of 4-in. ap., another by the same makers of 7-in. ap.
Berlin, obs. of Urania Society for diffusing natural knowledge,
lat. -1- 52** 31' 30'7", long, o h. 53 m. 27-4 s. E. Opened 1889; 12-m.
refr. by Schott. In the Treptow Chaussoc is a popular obs. with a
t7-in. refr. by Schott and StcinheiL
Bcnn, univ. obs., lat. -H 5o* 43' 45-o", lone, o h. 28 m. 2^-2 s. E.
Finished in 1845; meridian circle by Pistor 01 4|*in. ap., hcTiometer
by Merz of 6-in. ap. The former was used by r . \V. A. Argcbnder
for observing the stars contained in his tnrce great catalogues.
The obs. is chiefly known by the zone obs., made from 1852 to 1859.
•rxth a small comet-sccker, on which Argelandcr's great atlas of
334,198 stars between the north pole and -2* dccl. is founded,
continued with a 6-in. rcfr. from -2* to -31* decl. by Schdnfeld.
A meridian circle of 6-in. ap. by Repsold was mounted in
Bothkamp, F. G. von BQtow's obs., lat. -|- Kl* 12' 9*6", long, o h.
40 m. 31-2 s. E. Situated a few miles from Kid. founded in 1870.
with a rcfr. of ii-in. ap. by Schrdder. Dr K. H. Vogcl obtained
valuable results in 1871-1S74; Mnce then it has only been used
occasionally.
Bremen. In the third storey of his house in Sandstrasse. H. W. M.
Olbers (d.1840} had his obs., lat. + 53*4' 38". long, o h. 3^ m. ion. E. ;
though the pnncipal instrument was only a 3)-in. rcfr. by DoUond,
many comets and the planets Pallas and Vesta were discovered and
observed here.
BresJau, univ. obs., lat. + 51* 6' 55-8", long, i h. 8 m. 87 s. E.
Founded 1790. In a small and unsuiuble locality; 8-in. rcfr. by
Clark and Kcp9t)ld erected 1898.
Dresden, Baron von Engclhardt s obs., lat. -f- 51* 2' i6-8", long,
o h. M m. 548 s. E. A 12-in. rcfr. by Grubb (mounted 1880), used
for <^s. of comets and double stars, presented to Kasan obs. in 1897.
Diisuldcrf (Bilk, originally a suburb, now pan of the city), lat.
-♦- 51 • 12' 25-0", long, o h. 27 m. 5-5 s. E. Founded and endowed by
Professor J. F. Btmzenbcrg (d. I&t6); best known by the discovery
of twenty-one minor planets by K. T. R. Luther; 4)-in. refr. by
Merz. 7)-in. rcfr. by Merz and Bamberg.
Cotka. — In 1791 an obs. was founded by Duke Ernest II. at
Seeberv. bt. -\- 50* 56' 5-2", lone, o h. 42 m. 55-8 s. E., on a hill a
few mues from Ootha, the chief instrument being a large transit
instrument by Ramsden. Throueh the labours, principally theo-
retical, of F. A. Zach. B. A. von Lindenau. J. F. Encke and P. A.
Hansen, the institution ranked with the first obs. A new obs. was
built at Gotha in 1857, lat. -I- 50* 56' 37-5". long, o h. a2 m. 504 s. E..
which received the instruments from Seeberg, including a small
transit circle by Ertel (made in 1824), also a new equat. by Repsold
of ii-in-ap-
Go'/f f fm . univ. obs,. lat. -1- 51 * 3 1 ' 48-2", long. o h. w m. 462 s. E.
An obs. had existed here from 1751, where Tobias Mayer worked.
In 181 1 a new building was constructed. Besides his mathematical
works, K. F. Gauss found time to engage in important geodetic and
maj^netic obs.; meridian circle by Repsold (4)-in. ap.). another by
Reichenbach (4|-in.), 6-in. heliometer by Repsold (1888)^
Hamburg, lat. -f- M* 33' 7'0", long. on. 30 m. 536 s. E. Built In
the year 1825. Witn a meridian circle of 4-in. ap. by Repsold.
K. L. C. RQmker observed the places of 12.000 stars. A refr. of
lo-in. ap. by Merz and Repsold was mounted in 1868. A new obs.
is now being built 20 km. south-east of the city, lat. + 53** 28' 46",
long, o h. 40 m. s&ji s. E., with a 23i-in. refr by Stemheil and
Repsold, 7}-in. transit circle by Repsokl, and a 39-in. rcfl.
The former has a i^-in. rcfr. b)r Steinheil and Repsokl, an 8-in. refr.
by Merc and a 6|-in. transit circle by Repsold. The astrophyskfal
department is chiefly devoted to phot, work with a triple equat.
with two 1 6-in. lenses and lo-in. gukiing tdesoope, as well as with
A iS'iq. s.gf, rcfl. by Ztr'\ia.
/ata, univ. obs.,llit»+ 50''55'34'9"^ l«ig. oh. 4611L 30-31^ 7-tj). refr.
mauotod 1891,
Kielt univ. obfc* lat. + 54* 3o' 3f?-6*', long, o h. 40 m- 35-6 i E.
Con La] HI the inftrumeniu removed from Altona in 197^, tSo an 8'ifl
refr. by Stcinhei] and a 9.111, tran^k (ircle by Repsold.
K&nifiiberpumv. obs., lat. + 54"* ^J' $^--i", long, i h. 21 m. 59-0 j. E.
Buik iBii: F. W. Ik-sicl was liie cjittciof till hi« death in 1S46, sjid
nearly all his cdcbriated in\'«iicationt *crtf carried out here, e.g.
obs. ol fuRdamenLal stars, zone 0^4, tji jtats, fc-sfcirchci on refrafrtion,
hrljcmetrie obi,, by which the annual |i;iraJl.ix o( the star 6t Cygni
was first determined, &c. The inatfuFni^nts -tft ^ 4'inr tra.r£Jt circle
by Rcptold (1B41}, a 6-in. hcliomner by l)i£schAcidcr (1SJ9K and a
1 3- in. volt, by Keinfclder and RepiDid {[^Jh
LandiStM {Faldtinate]l. private ob$. of f, P^ H. Fauth, lat.
-I- 49' 24' 42 y, ItTE, o h. 30 in. I&-3 i, E, ; 7Hfi' t^if-
Leifrtig, yniv. ob*. Erected i787*-f79o on the "' Pleiseenburg":
lat. -I- 51*30' 70 s", kng. o h. 49 nu 30 3 fc E,; potiWHcd only imM
j I iftRi mentis iSe ht^cti bciriB a 4|f-in^ rcfr* by Fmunhfifcf (1630).
In 1861 n new ob». wa* wrctcd. bu + 51 * 20' s-g"» bng, a h, 40 m
jj-5> t E,. *3th a fcfr of a J in. ap. by Steinheil, rtpUtcedin iflfli by a
rj-in, rtfr, by Rrinfelder and Kcpsqld, a meridian circle hv Tittor
and Manliu of 6 j-in. ap, and a ^in. heliometer by Rcpiold.
IMientktUy near Brctacn, Ut- + 53' *' 25", long, o k j^ m, 1 1- E.
J. H. SchftHcr's private ob*.; fftim 1779 to iltij. Conuincd a
number of refl. by Herschcl and Schradcr. the larRcsf bcinj; of 27-ft.
Joe J I length and Jo- in. ap. (nripvaUe round the eye- piece), used for
phy&kMl obs., chiefly cf planets. Destroyed during the war in J&ij;
ihc in^rrumcntA (which had been bought by the sovernmenE m
ttoo) were, for the greater part, sent to the GOittint:i:n ob*. ' •
Miinnkrim, jai. + icj" 19' m-*>". tonf. oh 13 m. 505 * E. Butlt in
|,-^. ^...^. f,.„. ^'..^ .. ..,^ p..Hi:.v,j .J..:] .t-. _!.. .'.^^ ^..f_^...i jp
i860, when a 6-in. refr. by Steinheil was procured. In 1879 the obs.
was moved to Karlsruhe and later to Heidelberg.
Munich, at Bogenhausen, royal obs., Uit. + 48* 8' iS'S", long,
o h. 46 m. 26- 1 s. E. Founded in 1 809 ; a transit circle by Reichenbach
was mounted in 1834, an ii-in. equat. refr. by Fraunhofer in
1835. The former was used from i8ao for cone obs. (about
80.000) of telescopk stars. 6-in. transit arcle by Repsold mounted
1891.
Potsdam, lat. + 52* 22' 56-0", long, o h. 52 m. 15-9 s. E. "Astro-
physkral obs.," founded in 1874. devoted to spectroscopic and photo-
graphic obs. A refr. by Schr6der of 1 1 i-in. ap., another by Grubb of
8-in. ap., a refr. by Steinheil and Merz with o-in. vis. and 13-in. phot,
o.g. and a rcfr. by Steinheil and Repsold with 31 -in. phot, and i9)-in.
vis. o.g.. spectroscopes, photometers, &c. Results are published in
4to vols.
Strassburg, univ. obs.. lat. -f- 48* «' 0-3", long, o h. 31 m. 4.5 s. E.
Finished in 1881: an i8*in. refr. by Merz; altazimuth of 5)-in. ap..
meridian circle of 61-ip. ap., and a 6) in. orbit sweeper, all by Repsold.
[Prussia), naval obs., lat. -|- 53* :ji' 52-2", long,
o h. 32 m. 35-1 s. E. : situated on the Jahdc to the north of Oldenburg.
Founded in 1874: meridian circle by Repsold of 4i-in. '*p., and
meteorological, magnctical. and tide-registering instrumer. ..
Austria-Hungary
Vienna, imperial and royal obs. On the univ. building an obs.
was founded in 1756, bt. -f- 48* 12' 35-5", long, i h. 5 m. 31 ^s. E.
Owirfg to the unsuitable locality and the want of instruments, very
few obs. of value were uken until the obs. was rebuilt in 1826, when
some better instruments were procured, especially a meridian circle
of 4-in. ap., and a 6-in. refr. by Fraunhofer (mounted in 1832), used
for obs. of planets and comets. From 1874 to 1879 a large and mag-
nificent building (with four domes) was erected at W&hring, north-
west of the city, lat. -I- 48* 13' 55-4", long. 1 h. 5 m. 21-5 s. E. In
addition to the old instruments, two refrs. were erected, one by Clark
of ii}-in. ap., another by Grubb of 27-in. ap. (n>ounted 1882): later
a 15-in. equat. coudde by Gautier and a i3-in. phot. refr. by Repsold
have been mounted.
Vienna (Josephstadt), private obs. of T. von Oppolzer (d. 1886),
lat. -H jB* 12' %3'S'\ long, i h. 5 m. 25-3 s. E. EsUblished in 1865;
5-in. refr. by Merz, 4-in. meridian circle.
Kieiiiw(Ottakring),private obs.of M.vonKuffner,lat.-f-48*i2'46-7',
long. I h. 5 m. ii'O s. E. Completed 1886; io)-in. vis. and 6*vin.
phot. refr. by Steinheil and Repsold, 8-in. heliometer and 4l-in.
tranut circle by Repsold.
Prague, univ. obs., lat. + 50* 5' iS-8", long, o h. 57 m. 40-3 s. E.
Founded in 1751 at the ColfefHum Clementinum, on a high tower.
6-in. refr. by Steinheil and a 4-in. meridian circle.
Senflenberg (in the east of Bohemia), lat. -I- 50* j' 55". long.
I h. 5 m. 51 s. E. Baron von Senftenherg's obs. : established in 18^.
Obs. of comets and planets made with small instruments till the
owner's death (1858).
3?c
mmutz^ lat. +49 35 4p', long, i n. 9 m. o s. c. iv. von unicrecnts-
berg's obs.; 5-in. refr. by Men. J. F. Julius Schmidt observed
planets and comets from 1852 to i8i8.
KremsmUnsUr (Upper Austria), Ut. +48* 3' 23*i*t long, o h.
> m. 31*6 s. E. Founded in 1748 at the gymnasium of the Bene-
licttnes. 3-in. meridian circle (mounted in 1827); 5|-in. refr.
(mounted m 18^6), used for comets and minor planets. Transit
circle by Repsold (1907).
Pola (sea-coast, Austria), naval obs., lat. +44* 51' 487', long.
h. 55 m. 23-1 B. E. Founded in 1871 ; meridian circle of 6-in. ap.
by Stmms, 6-in. refr. by Stcinhcil, magnetic and meteorological
instruments. Twenty-cignt minor planets were discovered hcrelrom
1874 to 1880 by J. Palisa.
Cracow, univ. obs., lat. +50* 3' 50-o', long. I h. 19 m. 5I-X s. E.
'Possesses only small instruments.
LussinpUcolo (island of Lussin, Adriatic), private obs. of Madame
Manora. lat. +4^** 32' 1 1 •o', long, o h. 57 m. S2'4 s. E. Erected 1894 ;
7*in. refr. by Reinfelder, used for obs. of planets.
Kit KarUU (north-east of Budapest), private obs. of Baron
Podmaniczky, lat. +47* 41' 54'8'i long* > !>• i^ <n. 11-7 s. E. 7i-in.
refr. by Mere and Coolce.
O'Gyalia (near Komom, Hungary), lat. -f-47* 52' 27-3', long.
1 h. 12 m. a^-6 s. E. Nicolas de Konkoly's obs., since 1809 a royal
obs. Established in 1871, rebuilt and enlarged in 1876. devoted to
astrophysics. A lo-tn. s.g. refl. by Browning was in use up to i88r,
when it was disposed of and a 10-m. refr. (o.g. by Mere) mounted ih
its place; also a 6-in. refr. by Mere, and a 6*3 in. phot. refr.
ita/ocsa (south of Budapest), lat. +46^3i'4iMong. i h. i^m.5^a.
E. Obs. of the Jesuit college, founded in 1878 by Cairainal Haynaid ;
7-in. refr. by Mere, used for solar obs.
Heriny (Vas, Hungary), lat. +47* 15' 47*4*. long. I h. 6 m. 24*7 s.
E. E. and A. von C^thard's' obs. rounded in 1881; lo-in. refl.
by Browning.
SWITZBRLAKD
Zurich, lat. +47** 22' 40*0', long. oh. 34 m. I2>3 s. E. An obs.
existed since 1759; handed over to the Polytechnic School in 18^5;
new building erected in 1863. A 6-in. refr. by Mere and Kern with
two phot, telescopes, two transit instruments. &c Sun-spots arc
regularly observed, but the institution b chiefly devoted to educa-
tional purposes.
NeuchAtd, lat. -f-46' 59' 5* •<>', long, o h. 27 m. 40-9 s. E. Erected
in 1858; meridian cirdc of 4i-tn. ap. by Ertef, 6|-in* rc^r* by
Mere.
Ceneta, lat. +46* 1 1 ' 59-3'. lone, o h. 24 m. 36*6 s. E. Founded in
1773: a new building erected in 1830. The om. has been the centre
01 the important geodetic operations carried on in Switzerland uncc
1861. An ii-in. refr. (o.g. by Mere) was presented by the director
E. Plantamour in 1880: 4-in. transit circle.
Spain and Portugal
Madrid, royal obs.. lat. -H40** 24' 29-7'. long, o h. 14 m. 45-1 s. W.
loi-in. refr. By Mere, 8i-in. refr. by Crubb, 6-in. transit circle by
Repsold.
Barcelona, obs. of Acad, of Science, lat. +41* 25' 18', long,
o h. 8 m. 28 s. E. Opened 1904; 15-m. refr., phot, and vis. by
Mailhat, 7Hn. transit circle by the same.
Cadiz, naval obs., at San Fernando, lat. -k36* 27' 42-0', long,
o h. 24 m. 49*3 s. W. Founded in 1797 ; i i-in. »elr. by Brflnner, 13-in.
phot. refr. by Henry and Gautier, 8-m. transit circle by Simms.
Lisbon, royal obs.. lat. +38* a2' 31-3', long, o h. 36 m. 44-7 s. VV.
Founded 1861; I5|-in. refr. by Mere and Repsold, transit circle by
Repsold.
Coimbra, univ. obs.. lat. -^40* 12' aS-S't long, o h. 33 m. 4V l s.
W. Founded 1792; 6}-in. transit circle oy Repsold, i6-in. refl. by
Sccreun.
Italy
Turin, univ. obs., lat. +45* 4' 7'9'. long, o h. $0 m. 47-2 s. E.
Founded in 1790 by the Academy of Science: cebuilt in 1820 on a
tower of the Palazzo Madama, 4)-in. transit circle by Rcichenbach,
i2-in. refr. by Mere; handed over to the univ. in 1865. A new obs.
is being erected 6 km. from the city.
Milan, originally obs. of Brera College, now royal obs. of Brera,
lat. +4^** 27^ 59*2', long, o h. 36 m. 459 s. £. Founded in 1763.
The publicatbn of an annual ephemeris from 1775 to 1675 and
important theoretical works absorbed most of the time of the
directors B. Oriani and F. Carlini, and the instruments were rather
insufficient. In 1875 an 8-in. refr. by Mere was mounted, with which
G. V. Schiaparelli has made valuable obs. of Mars; i8-in. refr. by
Mere.
Padua, univ. obs., lat. +45* H* I'O'i long, o h. 47 m. 29*2 s. E.
Founded in 1767. In 1837 a meridian circle by Starke of 4-in. ap.
was mounted, with which stars from Bessel's cones were reobserved;
the results were published in five catalogues; 4l-in. refr. by Mere
and Starke (1858); Dembowski's 7-in. refr. mounted in 1881.
Caltarate, near Lago Maggiote, from i860 to 1879. Baron E.
Dembowski's obs. From 1852 to 1859 Baron Dembowski had
observed double stars at Naples with a 5-in. dialyte by Pldssl and a
small transit drcle by Surke. From i860 he used a 7-in. refr. by
Mere.
ootogna, univ. odb., ut. -f-44 29 470 t long, o n. 45 m. 24-5 s. K
Founded in 1724 on a tower of the univ.' buildiiw. Obs. have onlv
been made occasionally. A 3|-in. meridian drcle was mrwintcd m
I8a6.
rlorence.^'ln 1774 a museum of science and natural history was
established, part of which was used as an obs.. but very few «^is.
were made; a new obs., built 1872 at Arcetri. lat. -+43* 45* 14-4'.
long o h. 45 m. 1*3 s. E. I i-in. and 9i-im rcfrs. by Amid.
Teramo (Abruzzo). private obs. of V. Cerulli, lat. +42* 39* 27',
long o h. 54 m. 1^ s. E. I5|-in. refr. by Cooke.
Rome, obs. of the Roman Collcf:e. lat. +41* 53' S3*6'. kn(.
o h. 49 m. 55*4 s. E. Established in 1787, taken ovorby the govers-
mcnt 1879. In 1853 a new obs. was erected on the upfintshcd pDes
of the church of St Jgnatius, liJinl fuftiishcd with a o-in. refr. by Mrrz,
a mo rid Ldn circle by Erttl of J^-iri. ap. (in use from 1842). Wuk
tha-^ instruments, lo which were Later added powerful ^Kctroacoprt,
A, !5ccchi iTudc a great many obs., xhiefly rdating to spectrtisi
ari:ily^i5 and ph>'5k£iil af^cronumy ; 15-in. refr. by SceinhdL
Ri?m^, obs. d the Ca pi i ol . lat +41*5^' 336', k>ng- o h. 49 m. 56-3$.
E. £sf childbed in i^j&'i bfbng? 10 the univ.; small transit drcie
and a ^jjln. ftfr, by Ntcft The laiter was used by L. Rcspighi lor
ol- of ii-br pf ?mtnrtir^-*i.
1 • 54' 4-8M?ng- o h- 49 m- 49?s.
i*^'
o/ Mcrz, 13-in. phoc and S-ia.
vis. refr. and 5|-in. photohcliograph by Henry.
Naples^ royal obs., situated at Capo di Monte. lat. +40* 51' 46-3'.
long, o h. 57 m. 1*7 s. E. Erected in 1812-1819: a 4Hn. mendua
circle by Reichenbach, a 6i-in. refr. by Rcichenbach and FraunhoCcr.
6-in. Nlerz. refr.
Palermo, rOyal obs., lat. +38* 6' 44-5', fong. o h. 53 m. 25-9 s. E.
Erected in 1790 on a tower of the royal palace. The principal instru-
ments were a reversible vertical circle by Ramsden of 5-ft. diameter
with a 3*in* telescope, and a transit instrument oi 3-in. ap. Wnh
these C Piazzi observed the stars contained in his celefanted
Caulogue of 7641 Stars (1814); this work kd him to the diaccnTr.-
of the first minor planet, Ceres, on the 1st of January 1801. T^^
activity was revived in 1857, when a meridian drcW by Kstor and
Martins of 5-in. ap. was mounted; a 9i-in. refr. by Merz has beta
used for spectroscopic work.
Catania, lat. +37* 30' 1 1-3', long. i h. o m. 20-6 & E, Fooi»kd
85; ivin. phot. refr. by Henry and Gautier, and a 13-in- rrfr. b\
Mere. Jhe latter is used in summer on a duplicate roountine os
Mount Etna, where in 1879-1880 an obs. was built at the " Caa
degl' Inglcsi, ' 9650 ft. above the sea, for solar obs.
Greece
Athens, lat. +37* 58' 20', long. 1 h. 34 m. 55-7 s. E. Erectc*! a
1846; founded by Baron Sina. With a refr. <h 6\-ul. ap. JuL^
Schmidt (d. 1884) made obs. of the physical appearance of the nsooe.
planets and comets. Reorganized 1095; i5)-in. refr.* by Gataie;.
6i-in. transit drcle.
Russia
St Petersburg, obs. of the Academy of Sciences, lat. +59* 56' 29:'.
long. 2 h. I m. 13*5 s. E. Founded in 1725. restored in i8<^ ; mcnd-as
cirde by Ertel. Abolished in 1884. A univ. obs. was toux^dcd a
1880, lat. +59* 56' 32-0', long. 2 h. I m. 11-4 s. E.; Oi-in. rrir. k>
Reinfelder and Repsold, used on double stars, during tne suaamcr at.
Domkino, lat. +58* 35-6'. long, i h. 59 m. 25 s. E.
Fulkono (Pulkowa), Nicholas Central Obs.. lat. +59* 46' iS :'.
long. 2 h. I m. l8-6 s. E. Finished in 1839. Was under the directs, r.
of F. G. W. Struve till 1861. then of Tiu son O. Struve tiO i£^
The staff consists now of the director, five astrononMrrs, six assascasts
and computers. The principal instruments are : a transit insrnt-
ment by Ertel of 6-in. ap., a vertical drdc by Ertel of 6-ia. 2?^
(the circle of 3l-ft. diameter has been redividcd by Repacdd). — cites
two instruments are for determining standard plaoea of stan; a
meridian circle by Repsold (6-in. ap., 4-ft. drdcs), used suice iS^i
to observe all stars north of -15* ded. down to the 6th n^.. ist
all others observed by Bradley; a prime vertical transit byRepaokJ
with 6}-in. ap., used for determinins the constant of aberratice : i
7 I-in. hdiometer by Mere; a refr. by Mere of 14'9-in. ap. {tcvooukM
by Repsold in 1880), whkh was used by O. Stnive to obsmt
double stant; 30-in. refr. by Clark and Repaok). erected lS^a
chiefly used for spectrographic work; 13-in. phot. refr. See al£
Odessa.
Abo (Finland), univ. obs.. lat. +6o' 26' 56-8', long, i h. 29 m. ^ \ ^
E. Founded in 1819. With the meridian drdc by Reacfaettt^-^
of 4-in. ap. F. W. A. Argelandcr observed the 560 stars cp«-
tair.ed in the Abo catalogue. In conseouence of a great fat a
1827 the univ. and obs. were moved to Hefsingfors.
Hdsingfors (Finland), univ. obs., lat. +60*9^42*6', long, i b. 59 r
49-1 8. E. Erected in l832-i83<; furnished with a 7-in. rrfr. 1-
the instruments from Abo. including a transit instnu
instrument by Fra;-^
.,, 590.
Dorpat (Yuriev), univ. obs.. lat. +58* 22' 46-8', long. 1 h. 46 ■
hoferof 5i-in. ap.; 13-in. phot. refr. erected 1890.
53*2 s. E. Founded in 1808: 1814-1839 under the directioa *
F. G. W. Struve. With a meridian arde by Reichenbach obs. «-?
made from 1822 to 1843, chiefly of double star*. wfaOe the 9V '
rcfr. by Fraunhofer was used irom 1824 to 1837 for tmemsar.'
double stars.
OBSERVATORY
959
IParjmr. tmiv. obt^ lat. +^* f ^ S'7'. Uxtg^. i h. 24 m. 7-3 t. E.
Erected in 1820-1824; meridian drcle by Rcichcnbach; 6-in. refr.
by Men.
Mau^^, unlv. Dbs., lat. +55*45' 19*8'. long. 2 h. 30 m. 17-0 s. E.
An ob^ was built in 1825-1833: the present building was erected
about 1850; 'o-7-in- rdr by Men: a meridian circle by Rcpsold of
S-vin. ap,; 15! in* vi*-; and phot. rcfr. by Henry and KcpM>ld.
AoKit, itniv. ub#., U\, +^* 47' 24-2', long. 3 h. 16 m. 28-9 t. E.
Found<Y] in 18(4, n?^Lared in 1842; 6S*in. refr. by Merz; meridian
circle by Repsc^Jd. N^■w obs. built 18^, lat. +55* 50' 20-o*'. long.
3 h. 15 m. t6 « ». E^, for Engelhardt's instruments (see Dresden).
Kkmrkof^ univ. abi.. tit. +50* o' 9-6', long. 2 h. 24 m. 558 s. E.;
6|-in. trantit circle by Rcpsold.
JCirr, univ. oh*,, Ut. +50*27' 11 -8*, long. 2 h. 2 m. o*6 s E. Erected
in the v--^- T^:r'-T'=:'.; 9.in. refr. by Mcri and Rcpsold; and a
meridian circle.
Odessa, univ. obi,, lat. +46* 28' 36-7', long. 2 h. 3 m. 2-o s. E. ;
6) vis. and 6-in. phot. refr.
Odessa, branch of Pulkowa obs.. lat. +46* 28' 37-0'. long. 2 h. 3 m,
rfy a
2-2 «. E. Established 1898 for obs. of more southerly standard stars.
with a 4-in. transit by Freiberg and a 4-in. vertical circle by R<^psold.
iVfAofopwv. naval obs.. lat. +46" 58' iii*. long. 2 h. 7 m. 538 s. E.
Erected in 1824; meridian circle by Ertel of 4-in. ap.; 9|-in. refr. by
RefMokL
Sweden, Norway and Denmark
StocUuim, lat. +^* 20^ 33;0', lone, i h. 12 m. 14-0 s. E., is under
the Academy of Sciences. Founded in 175a Meridian circle by
Ertel of 4|-in. ap.; 7i-in. vis. and 6i-in. phot. rcfr. by Repsold.
Upsala, univ. obs., bt. +59* 51' 29-4 , long, i h. 10 m. 30-1 s. E.
Founded in 1730, but very little was done until the obs. acquired
a 9-in. refr. by Stcinheil, which was used by Schultz for micrometric
olw. of nebulae. 13-in. phot, and 14-in. vis refr. by Stcinheil.
LsfiMf. univ. obs.. lat. -f55*' Ai' p-o", long, o h. ;S2 m. 45-0 s. E.
Built in 1866; 9|-in. rcfr., o.g. by Merz; nnendian arcle by Kepsold
of 6l-in ap.
Ckrislianut, univ. obs.. lat. +59* 54' 44-0*. long, o h. 42 m. 53-6 s.E.
Erected in 1831 ; meridian circle by Ertel of 4-in. ap. ; 7-tn. rcfr. by
Merz.
Copenka§en, univ. obs. Founded in 1641 on the top of a high
tower, lat. +55* ^' 530'. long, o h. 50 m. ip-8 s. E. The locality
was so very unsuitable that O. ROmcr (the inventor of the transit
instrument and modem cquat., d. 17 10) established his own obs. at
VridUisemagle, at some distance from the city. A new obs. was
erected in 1861. lat. +5^*41' i3-9'. long. oh. 50 m.i8-7s.E.. furnished
with a refr. by Merz 01 ii-in. ap., with which H. L. d'Arrest made
cha. of nebulae, and a meridian circle by Pbtor and Martins of
4i>in. apw Later the refr. was replaced by a .14-in. vis. and 8-in.
poot. rcfr. by Stcinheil.
Copenkag^, Urania obs. (private), lat. +5$* 41' 19-3'. long,
o h. 50 m. 9*1 s. E. EsUblishcd 1898; 92-in. rcfr. by Cooke.
Holland and Belgium
Leiden, univ. obs., lat. +52** 9' 20-0'. long, o h. 17 m. 56-2 s. E.
Founded already in 1632, but the instruments were always very small.
and hardly any obs. were taken until F. Kaiser became director in
1837. In 1858-1860 a new obs. was erected and furnisihed with a
7-in. refr. by Merz, and a meridian circle by Pistor ami Martins of
6-3-in. ap. Later a loj-in. refr. by Clarke and Rei)soId has been
erected.
Craninjien^ astroxi^ Uborstory of tbf univ., lat. +53 13 19*1 .
[ong^ h. 26 in. 15-2 t. E, Enablisbcd 1S96; in^ruments for
rncjiiirin^ tckstial photographs.
V'lffflih univ. obft,, lat. +52"* 5' pS'^ long, o h. ao m. 31-0 s. E.
Erecttd in 1855; lo-in. refr. by Sicmheit.
Bruisth, royal obs., lal, + so" 51 ' J07,' long. oh. 17 m. 28-6 s. E.
Ere<:tH in tS29-i&34. Had a, transit instniment by <-.ambey and a
mur^l dfclc by Tn>yKMon» but the instituiiofi was, t* lule under the
clircctioEi Oif L A. J. pueiclrt, chiefly devoted to phyiio and meteoro-
logy, in 1877 a 6-in. rtfr. by Men wa* mounted, and a meridian
circle by Repaid and a JS4n. rdr. by Cooke provided. A new obs.
was erected in I $9 1 at t'cck\ bt. +S*>' 47' S5 5*^ '"nf- o *»• »7 m.
^6-9 %. Em 'lith the imtrumcnft from Brusselt, a 9-10. phot. rcfr. by
Crubbi and a 13 iti- pTtot. rrfr. tiy C^uTier.
Uiif, un*v, 06*,, tat. +So^ 37' 6', long, o K. 22 m- 154 »• E. ; lO-in.
i«fr. and 7'!il tiaoMt circle by Cooke.
United States
Albany (New York). Dudley obs. Erected in 18M-1856 by
subscription, lat.+42* 39' 49'5'. long. 4 h. 54 m. w«2 s.W. Refr.by
Fitz of 13-in. ap., meridian circle by Pistor and Nfartins of 8-in. ap.
New obs. erected i8k)3, lat. +42* 39' 127', long. 4 h. 55 m. 6-8 s. VV. :
l2-in. refr. by Brasncar.
Atkikeny (Pa.), iat. +40* 27' ai-6'. long. 5 h. 20 m. 2-9 s. W.
Founocd in 1859. transferred to the Western Univ. of Penn. (now
Univ. of I^ttsburgh) in 1867; i3-in. refr. by Fitz (improved by
Clark), mounted in 1867; instruments for researches on solar energy.
Amherst (Mass.), bt. +42" 21' 56-5'. long, a h. 50 m. 5-9 s. W.
Founded in i8<;7 as an annex to Amherst College; 7i-in. refr. bv
Clark. New budding 1903: 18-in. refr. by Clark; 6i-in. transit circle
by Pirtor and Martins.
Ann Arbor (Michigan), lat. +12* 16' 48-8', long 5 h. 34 m. s;*2 s.
W. Detroit <»s. of tne Univ. of Michigan ; erected in 1 854; meridian
circfe by Pistor and Martins of 64 in. ap. ; i2|-in. rcfr. by Fitz.
Berkeley (Cal.), Students' obs. of Univ. of California, lat.
+37* 5^ 23-6', long. 8 h. 9 m. 2-7 s. W.; 8-in. rcfr.
Cambridte (Mass.). Harvard Colk^e obs., lat. +42* 22' 47-6'.
long. 4 h. 44 m. 3^o s. W. Erected in 1839. Refr.' of i^-in. ap.
by NIerz, with which W. C. Bond discovered a satellite of Saturn
(Hyperion) in 1848, cmnloyed by E, C. Pickering for extensive
photometric obs. of fixed stars and satellites; a meridian circle by
Troughton and Simms of 8|-in. an., mounted in 1870; l2-in. hon-
rontal telescope for photometric obs. of faint stars, ii-in. and 8-in.
Draner refrs. for phot, work; 15-in. Draper refl.; 24-in. pJiot.
doublet (Bruce telescope) with which the ninth and tenth satellites
of Saturn have been discovered by VV. II. Pickering. Branch obs. at
Areouioa. Peru.
■ ■■ie (Va.), obs. of Univ. of Vifgitiisi^ lat. +38* 2' la,*
] : ., > :.. 14 ITS. s-2 s, W. Founded t^i; i6-!n. ttfr. by Clark.
CAi(fa£p ^tllinai5)H Dearborn otw.* Lai. +41' 51' t-o , long. 5 h-
50 m. 36' S s, W.^ Attached lo North-* c*Jern Ifniv., founded to iB/i;:
I ft I- in. r^fr. byCJsrfc;6-jii. mcriduin f irek by Repsold. Obs. removed
taFlvan9ionOlK)m I889, kt.+4J*y 3J4MorR. sk 50 m. 423 fi.W.
CiadHwaii (O^io). In 1842 an cbs, ws.i faunnicd by subscript fon*
b'- +39* 6' 36*5% long. S h. 37 m, s^ 9 ». W,, and furnisZied with a
rcfr. of rij-ln. ap. by Men. In 1B73 the obs, ftis removed to m
dj*tancc from the ciiy^ to Mount Lookout, bt. +39' S* I9'5'» Jong.
5 h. 37 m. 41^3 s. W.: s-in. tran^t circle by FatitH.
CitTiiim (New York J, Litch field ob*. m Hamilton Colkge, tal.
+43* 3' i*-S'- lonf- S h. 1 m. 37^4 s. W. ErectKl by ^bsrn|ition
1HS3-1B55; tvk. of 13) irt. by Spencer, employed by C. H. F. iVten
tor Ct'^n struct ion of celestial ch^rtA, En the couie of whkb work he
disrovcrvti fony-one minof pbr^rtj.
Coiumitia. (M^,)* Laws obs. of Univ. of Missouri^ iat. +38* 56* 517%
Ion J. 6 h. 9 m. |8'3 $, VV. Fon tided 1853; 7|H;n. refr. by Men.
t^umbuf (OSio), St.itc Uniy. oba., ht. +40*0' 1', long. ^h. ^2 m^
10 .s. W.; rj-in^ rtrfr hy Br^^hcar nnd Warner & Swascy.
Denver (CoL), Univ.cJf IDeTjvetobs.Jat. +39*40' 36 Monp.fih. Sflni.
J7'6 B. W.; 5400 ft. above «ca-lcvd. Todfiricd 1R91 ; 30-in- rrfr- by
Cla^k: 6-jn. rcfr. by Grubbj 4-10. tfiinsii thdt' by SafEmUllrf.
Fta^itaff (AfiBona), pnvate oby. of P«t:ival Lo^tIK lit,
+:JS' r* 30 s'p long- 7 h' 26 HI. 44'* s- W. ^jioo ft. above sca-lcveH
Erected 1894 ; 24-in. rtfr. by Cbri< : 6-in. viv bv Clark; and S-in. phot,
j-cfr, by UfOihcar, ml\ used chiefly on p|*nct&.
Ge<vg/-iifwn { District 0/ Colun^bia^^Ceorgetovn Univt obs-.lal- +|8*
Si' j6 7', (oTiR. 5 b. ft in. 1&-3 ft. W. Erected in (844 ; t3 in rcfr. by
Cbecy and Sac^mQIIcr^^-En. phot. tr;in!yt injtf £iA^Jby S^tegnmller^
^in. phot- funith telescope by Braihear.
Ukiim^ (;Mi$vjurTK Morrison obi. lat. +»* 16" »6S', long. 6 h,
I r m, 18' I ». W. toiiDded in 1*76; attjched to Priichctt Colkge^
ij|-itu rf'fr. by CLirk; meridian circle by 5inims of (Shin. an.
IlaiKWT (New Hampshire); Shattuck obs, of DArtmouth College,
Founded in iSSJ;
fat* +43* f»' *5'3'. long. 4 b. 49 m. 70 a. W. F
gj-ift- rrff. by Dafk; meridian circle by Simms of 4
rrff. by
, . kin. ap.
IIa%tini5 (New York)» Profcswr Heniy Draper'* obs., lat.
+40*" 59 35 » long.4 b,5;jm*39 7i,W, Buifi in I^'jO: 28in.rcfl.by
the owner, r»-in, refr- (with pfaoto^ lens) by Clark, both used up 10
cht owner'* di?ath (JBS:^) foTCckstfal and sprctruni photography.
Ifawrfard (Pa*>. HavtTfofd College chm,. lat. +40" o' 40-1'. lortg.
5 h I rn. (17 4- W. ; to-in. refr* by Oarir.
_roflg.
Afa4is(m {VVi*coiwinJ, Wa^boni fliu,, tit. +43" 4' 3^ »'.
5 h. S7 01. a^'t *.W, ErcTCtod at the expense of Govcrrtor Washhurn
m 187a; belongs to the Untv. rf ^ATivonstn ^f^eridbn tirtle bv Repsold
of 4 a-in. ap.; isl'iti. nfr. by CJark.
ifoiittl Mnmilian {Ca|.>, Ltck obs, of the Univ. 01 Calif omta, Jat»
+37' 20' 25 6'^ long. H h. 6 tn. 34-9 *■ W., about ijjo ft, above sca-
le veL Erected In pursuance of the wiil ol i^mriLkck (r 796^1876),
opened in tSSS; t6-in. refr. by Clark with 3.3-h. [thc«* rt-nj, J 2 in.
rt>rr by Cliii^fct G^-in. transit cirtlc by RfpwM, j-ft. s-g. ref!. by
Common, several phot, telescopes, a second 3-ft. s.g. refl. by Brashear
with spectrograph. The 5th satellite of Jupiter was discovered by
E. E. Barnard in 1893 with the 36 in., and the 6th and 7th by
C. n. Pcrrine on photos with the refl. in 1904-1905.
Mount WHson (Cal.). Solar obs. of the Carnegie Institution, lat.
+34* 12' Sy-S*. long. 7h. 52 m. 14-3 •. W. Erected 1904; 60-in.
refl. : " Snow teksscope " with 30-in. coelostat and 34*in. concave
mirror uith large spectroheliograph. A loo-in. refl. has been
ordered.
A'rrp /743Tf B fronnecticut), Winchester ob». of Yale College, lat.
+41 -n/ j2-^Mr}ng.4 h. 51 m.40'6 », W. An obs. had existra since
ii^^yt. [»f-^-<^u-\ii ^ H>-in. rtfr. by CUrk and a mendian circle by Ertel.
[n 17-K] [he ah*, wa^ nrLuilt, and furnished with A 6-in. heliometer
[\y F<(ji«>ld,.and an fl-in. refr. by Crubb.
Nt"^ y&rk, L. M. Kiilherftjrd'» obs,, br. +40" 43' 48'5*, long.
4 h' 55 m. 5G'6 *.W,; ij-in. nfr. by Rulhcrfurd and Fit*, used for
nlei&ULil pbotn^raphy. Prewnted to Columbia Cotlege in 1884.
New obt. (Wilde), lat. +40" 45' 331*, long. 4 h. 5*5 m. 536 s.
Nfiffkfieitt (Minnesota), Coodscll obs. of Carleton College, lat.
+44' 27' 4 1-6', lonis;. 6h. 13 m. 35}^ i. W. Erected m 1878. enlarge<l
1S87; 8*-in. tefr. by Clark with phtit,a,E. , ib-in.rtJr.by Brashear;
4]-m. tfanitt clfcle by Rcpookl.
960
OBSERVATORY
PkHaddphia^ Flower oba. of Univ. of Pennsylvania, lat.
+39* 58' 3-i', bng. 5h. 1 m. 6*6 s. W. Founded 189s; 18-in. refr..
4-ui. trannt circle and 4-tn. zenith telescope, all by Brashcar and
Warner & Swasey.
Poughkeepsie (N.Y.). Vassar College oba.. lat. +41* 4i' 18' long.
4h. Mm. 3^78. W. Founded 1865; la-in. refr. by Fitz and Clark;
small transit circle.
Princdon (Piew Jersey). Attached to Princeton Univ. ate two
obs.~thc "Observatory of Instruction." lat. +40* 2o'-57'8', long.
4h. 58m. 37'6s. W.,erectedin i877.4nd furnished with a o|-in. relr.
by Clark; and the Halstcd obs., lat. +40* 2</ 55-8', long. 4 h.
58 m. 39*4 s. W., in which a 33-in. refr. by Clark was mounted in 1 883.
Roduster (New York). Warner obs.. lat. +43* 9' i6-8'. long.
5h. lom. ai-8s. W. Erected by H. H. Warner in 1879^1880: i6-in.
refr. by Clark. Discontinued I895«
Washington (D.C.). U.S. naval obs., Ut. +38<' 53' 388'. long.
5h. 8m. 13*1 s. W. Organised in 184^: obcbcgun in 1845 with a
mural circle by Troughton &. Simms of^4 in., a transit instrument by
Ertcl of 5-^-in. ap., and a 9'6-tn. refr. by Men. A meridian circle by
Pistor & Martins of 8'5-tn. ap., mounted in 1865, and used for
observing sundard stars and planets; a 36-tn. lefr. by Clark,
mounted in 1873 — with this instrument A. Hall discovered the
satellites of Mars in 1877. A new obs. on Georgetown Heights was
opened in 1893, bt. +38* 55' i4*o', long. sh. 8 m. is-8s. W.; in
addition to the old instruments there b a ^ft. photoheliograph c^
5-in. ap., 6-in. transit circle built of steel by Warner & bwasey,
5-in. steel altaamuth by same, 12-in. refr. by Clark.
Washington (D.C.), astrqphyacal obs. of the Smithsonian In-
stitutun. lat, +38** 53' tj-y, bng. ^h. 8 m. 6-3 s. W. Founded 1890
for the study of solar racuation; 20-m. siderostat, spectrobolometer,
&c.
Williams Bay (Wis.).— Ycrkes oba. of Univ. of Chicago, lat.
+43^ 34^ 13*6% long. 5h. 54m. l3-3a. W. Opened 1897; 40-in.
refr. by Clark and Warner & Swasey ; also a i3-m. refr.* 34-in. refl.,
lo-in. phot. refr.
WHliamstoum (Mass.). lat. +A3*43'4p'. lon^. 4h. 53m. 33-5S. W.
Founded in 1836; 7l-in. refr. by Clark; meridian circle of 4l-in.
ap. by Repsold. mounted in 1883 in the Field Memorial obs., lat.
,+43*^40' 30% long. 4 h. 53 m. 50 s. W.
Canada
Ottawa, Dominion obs., lat. +4;^* 33', long. sh. 3m. W. Founded
1903; is-in. relr. by Brashear; 8-m. transit circle by Simms; i6-in.
coelostat.
Msxico
Tacttiaya.— National oba. erected 1883. lat. +19* 34' 17*5'.
long. 6h. 36m. 467s. W.. 7600 ft. above sea-level; i5-in. refr. by
Grubb, 13-in. phot. refr. by Henry & Gautier, 8-in. transit circle by
^mms.
SotTTH AMEKICA
Santiago (Chile), national oba., lat. -33* 36' 43-0', long. 4 h.
43 m. 46*3 s. W. In 1849 the U.S. government sent an astrono-
mical expedition to Chile. When the expedition returned in 18^3,
the government of Chile bought the instruments — a 6-in. meridian
circle by Pistor and Martins, a 6i-in. refr. by Fitz, &c. New building
erected i860; 9i-in. refr. by Merz and Repsold, 13-in. phot. refr. by
Gautier.
Areqnipa (Peru).— Branch of Harvard College obs.. lat. -16* 3d',
lons^ 4 h. 45 m. 30 s. W., 8060 ft. above sea-level; 34-in. Bruce relr.
by Clark; and 13-in. Boydcn telescope for phot, charts and spectra
of faint surs; 4-in. transit photometer extends the Harvard photo-
metry to the south pole.
Rio de Janeiro (Brazil), national obs.; lat. -33* 54' a37*', long.
3 h. 53 m. 41*4 s. W. Founded in 1845; no work done until 18;^ i.
The principal instruments are a meridian circle by Gautier of 7i-in.
ap., an altazimuth, a 9i-in. refr. by Henry, &c.
Cordoba (Argentina), national obs., lat. ~3i* 35' I5*4', long.
4 h. 16 m. 45*1 s. W. Erected in 187 1 under tne direction ot B. A.
C^culd till i88a. With a meridian circle by Repsold of 5-in. ap.
105,000 zone oos. dl stars between —33* and —80" decl. have been
made; ii|-in. phot. refr. by Clarke; 5-in. phot. refr. by Henry &
Gautier.
La Plata (Argentina), univ. obs., lat. —34* 54' 30'3', long.
3 h. 51 m. 37'0 s. W. Founded 1883; 18-in. equat. cottd6e, 13-iEk
phot. refr. and transit circle, all by Henry & Gautier.
Africa
Cape of Good Hope, royal obs., lat. —33* 56' 3-5', long. 1 h. 13 m.
^'8 s. £. Founded in 1830; erected in 1835-1839, about 3} m.
from Cape Town. Obs. were begun in 1839 with a transit instru<
ment by Dollond of 5-in. ap. and a mural circle by Jones. Thomas
Maclear undertook to verify and extend the arc of meridian measured
by N. L. de Lacaille in 1751-1753. which work occupied the obs.
stafF for a number of years. In 1849 a 7-in. refr. by Merz was
mounted, and in 1855 a new meridian circle, a facsimile of the one
at Greenwich, superseded the older instruments. Maclear was suc-
ceeded by E. T. Stone (1870 to 1879), who devoted himself and the
StafF to obs. of stars, embodied in a catalogue of 13^1 stars for the
epoch 1880. Under Sir David Gill (1879-1906) a 7-in. heliometer by
Iccpsold baa been used since 1887 for researches 00 solar parallax
and annual parallax of stars, while ft complete reviev of the heavvm
has been made south of —33* decL with a 6-in. phot. Dallneytr
bns. A 34-in. phot, and l8-in. vis. refr. by Grubb, with 34-in. o^.
prism, and a 6-m. transit circle by Simms have al$o been OKHuitea.
Besides the obs. of Lacaille in Cape Town (lat. ^33* »' i6-i'.
long. I h. 13 m. 41 s. E.). another temporaiy obs. at Fdufhansen,
lat. -33^ 58* 56*6% long. 1 h. 13 m. 51 8. E., 6 m. from Cape Town,
deserves to be mentbned. It was here that Sir John HcTschd
observed nebulae and double stars from 1834 to 1838 with a red. of
i8l-in. ap.
Durban (Natal).— (jovemment oba., lat. "99* SO^ 46-6'. bag.
3 h. 4 m. 1*3 B. E. Erected in 1883; 8-in. refr. by Grnbb.
Mauritius. — Royal Alfred oba., lat. — 30* 5' 99', bog. 3 h. 50 m.
13-5 s. E. Chiefly metcorobgical, but solar photos regularly ukeo.
Ilelwdn (near Cairo, igsypt), khedivial obs.. lat. +30* 51' 34'.
long. 3 h. 5 m. 33 a. E. Erected in 1904; 30-in. refl. itsea for photos
of southern nebulae.
Algiers (Algeria), national obs., lat. -I-36* 47' 50', bng. o h. 13 m.
8-A s. E. Founded 1881: i3-5-in. equat. coudee and 13-tn. pboc
refr. by Gautier; trannt circle.
St Helena, lat. - 15* 55' 36-0'. bng. o h. 33 m. 54-6 s. W. With a
transit instrument and mural circle. M. Johnson obaerwed the places
of 606 southern scars from 1839 to 1833.
India
Madras, eovemment oba., hit. -I- 13* 4' 8*0', bog. 5 h. ao a.
50-6 s. E. In 18^1 a transit instrument and a mural dide^ both of
3i-in. ap., by Dolbnd, were mounted, and with these T. G. Taykr
observed it.ooo stars. A meridian circle by Simms was moonted
in 1858, and in 1865 an 8-in. refr., also by Simms, was pat up; «ith
the former ^303 surs were observed in 1863-1887. New obs. buiU
in 1899 at Kodaikanal (Palni Hills), lat. +10* 13' 50', bng. 5 h. 9 m.
53 s. £., 7700 ft. above sea-levd; 13-in. sideroctat and phot. vis.
o.g. by Cooke, spectroheliograph, Ac To be ckvoted chiefly to uniu
physics.
PoMia.— Obs. of College of Science. Founded 1888. 13-ia
siderostat by Cooke with 9-in. lens by Grubb; l6i-ia. %jm. refl. by
Grubb. with 6-in. refr. by Cooke; q)ectn>6copes, Ac. diiefly kx
solar work.
Dehra /><».— Oba. of Indian Survey, lat. +30* 18' 51-8'. kM«.
5 h. 13 m. 13*5 s. E. Regular solar phot. work.
Trvfandrum, lat.. -k- 8* 30' 33', long. 5 h. 7 m. ^ a. E. Foonded bv
the raja of Travancore in 1836. No astronooucal work done, be:
valuable magnetical and meteorologkal obs. were made by J. A.
Broun from 1853 to 1863.
Japan
Tokyo, univ. obs., lat. +35* 39' 17*5'. bng. 9 h. 18 m. 58^) s. E.;
5|-in. transit circle by Repsold; 6}-ui. refr.
Cbina
Zo'Se (near Shanghai), Jesuit obs.. lat. +31* 5' 47-1 '. k»&
8 h. 4 m. 447 s. E. Erected 1899-1901 ; i6-in. vis., and pboit. nit.
ior solar and stellar phot, and spectroscope work,
lat. +33* 18 IV3', long. 7 h. .
government established an obs..
refr., a small transit instrument and full equipment of magnctka;
3-3', long. 7 h. 36 m. 41-9 8^ E. IniSFs
;ovemment established an obs., furnished with a 6-tn
Hong Kong, lat. +33* 18
the colonial
and meteorological instruments.
Turkestan
Tashkent, hit. +41 * 19' 31 •^'. long. 4 h. 37 m. io-8 s. E.' Fournkd
in 1874; 6-in. refr: and meridian circle by Repsold; 13-in. plioc. rrfr.
by Henry & Repsold.
Australia
Paramatta (New South Wales), lat. —33* 48' 50*. bog. 10 k. 4 is.
6*3 s. E. Erected by Sir Thomas Macoougall Brisbane in i92i;
handed over to the New South Wales government in 1826; fumuiM^
with a transit instrument and a muru circle by Troughton. Froaa
about 1835 no oba. aeem to have been made; the obs. was abo Hk b oi
in 1855.
Sydney (New South Wales), lat. —33* 51' 41-1', bng.* 10 k. 4 &
f9'5 s. E. Founded in 1855; furnished with the instnioaents Itcob
^aramatta. In 1861 a 7i-in. refr. by Merz, and in 1874 *n ii|-ia.
refr. by SchrGder. were mounted ; in 1879 a meridian circl^ by Simn&
of 6-in. aa was acquired, and later a i3-in. phot. refr. by Cnrubb.
Windsor (New South Wabs). lat. -33* 36' 38-9', bag. 10 lu % r
317 8. E. Private obs. of Mr f. Tebbutt, who has devoted kiiex!
Mnce 1861 to discoveries and obs. of comets, using a 4i-au ivCr. Ij
Cooke and an 8-in. refr. by Grubb.
ir«/6ottf»< (Victoria).— Founded in iSMatWtlliainstaram. Int. ^ST*
53' 7*3', long. 9 h.39m. 38'8s. E. In 1861 a meridian circle by Snnr-.*
of 5-in. ap. was mounted, but in 1863 the obs. was removed to Me.-
bourne, lat. —37* 49' 53'3', bng. 9 h. 30 m. 54-0 s. E. " Tfce g-ra:
Melbourne telescope.* a Cassegram rnt., equatorially moaBted. *J
4-ft. ap.. made by T. Grubb. was erected in 1869, but very little tncd
there is also an 8-in. refr. by Cooke and a ivin. phor. relr. by Grwk'C
Adelaide (South Australia), lat. —34* 55 33*8', b<w. ^h. 14 r<
31*3 s. E. In operation since 1861; has been gradually imptwr*
and contains now an 8-tn.rcfr. by Cotte and a 6-in. transit cucic by
OBSIDIAN
961
Perth pVest Australia), lat. -^i* 57' 7-4". long. 7 b. 43 m. 217 s. E.
Founded 1897; i^-in. phot, and lo-in. vis. refr. by Grubb; 6-in.
transit circle by Stmms.
Authorities.— In addition to their Annals or Obsenaiions, the
leadins national obs. (Greenwich. Paris. Washington, &c.) publish
annuafreports stating the nature of the work and changes in personnel
and instruments. Shon reports from nearly all British obs. are
annually published in the February number of the Monthly Notices
R. Astr. Soc., and from most German and some other continental
obs. in the Vierteljakrsschrift d. astr. Cesellsehaft. Since 1889 much
information about American obs. is given in the PiMkations of the
Astr. Soc. of the Pacific. Stroobant's Les Observatoires astronomiques
cl les astrottomes (Brussels, 1907) gives a convenient summary of the
personnel and equipment of all existing obs. (J. L. E. D.)
OBSIDIAM, a glassy volcanic rock of add composition. A
similar rock was named obsianus by medieval writers, from its
resemblance to a rock discovered in Ethiopia by one Obsius.
The early printed editions of Pliny erroneously named the
discoverer Obsidius, and the rock obsidianus. Rhyolitic lavas
frequently are more or less vitreous, and when the glassy matter
greatly predominates and the crystaisarefewand inconspicuous
the rock becomes an obsidian; the chemical composition is
essentially the same as that of granite; the difference in the
physical condition of the two rocks is due to the fact that one
consolidated at the surface, rapidly and under low pressures,
while the other cooled slowly at great depths and under such
pressures that the escape of the steam and other gases it contained
was greatly impeded. Few obsidians are entirely vitreous;
usually they have small crystals of felspar, quartz, biotite or
iron oxides, and. when these are numerous the rock b called a
porphyritic obsidian (or hyalo-liparite). These crystals have,
as a rule, very good crystalline form, but the quartx and felspar
are often filled with enclosures of glass.
All obsidians have a low specific gravity (about 9*4) both
because they are acid rocks and because they are non-crystalline.
Their lustre is vitreous except when they contain many minute
crystals; they are then velvety or even resinous in appearance.
Thin splinters and the sharp edges of fragments are transparent.
Black, grey, yellow and brown are the prevalent colours of these
rocks. In hand specimens they often show a well-marked banding
which is sometimes flat and parallel, but may be sinuous and
occasionally is very irregular, resembUng the pattern of dama-
scened steel. In such cases the molten rock cannot have been
homogeneous, and as it flowed along the ground the different
portions of it were drawn out into long parallel streaks. As the
rock was highly viscous and the surface over which it moved was
often irregular the motion was disturbed and fluctuating;
hence the sinuous and contorted appearance frequently assumed
by the banding. When crystals arc present they generally have
their long axes parallel to the fluxion.
Even when conspicuous and well formed crystals are not
visible in the rock there is nearly always an abundance of minute
imperfect crystallizations (microlites, &c.). They are often so
small that high magnifications may be necessary to ascertain
their presence. Some are globular and others are rod-shaped;
they may be grouped in clusters, stars, rosettes, rows, chains
or swarms of indefinite shape. In banded obsidians these
microlites may be numerous in some parts but few or absent in
others. The larger ones polarize light, have angular outlines
like those of crystals, and may even show twinning and definite
optical properties by which they can be identified as belonging
to felspar, augite or some other rock-forming mineral. The
variety of their shapes is endless. Some are black, very thin and
curved like threads or hairs (trichites); often a group of these
is seated on a small crystal of augite or magnetite and spreads
outwards on all sides. Others have hollow or funnel-shaped
ends and are constricted at the middle like a dice cup. In some
rocks small rod-like microlites are grouped together in a regular
way to form growths which resemble fir branches, fern leaves^
brushes or networks, in the same manner as minute needles of
ice produce star-like snow crystals or the frost growths on a
window pane.
These crystallites {q.v.) show that the glassy rock has a tendency
to crystallize which is inhibited only by the very viKOUS sute
of the glass and the rapidity with which it was cooled. Another
type of incipient crystallization which is excessively common in
c^idian is spherulites (9.V.), or small rounded bodies which have
a radiating fibrous structure. They are of globular shape, less
frequently irregular or branching, and may be elongated and
cylindrical (axiolites). In some obsidians from Teneriffe and
Upari the whole rock consists of them, so closely packed .together
that they assume polygonal shapes like the cells of a honeycomb,
(n polarized light they show a weak grey colour with a black
cross, the arms of which are parallel to the cobwebs in the eye-
piece of the microscope and remain stationary when the section
is rotated. Often bands of spherulites alternate with bands of
pure glass, a fact which seems to indicate that the growth of
these bodies took place before the rock ceased to flow.
As cooling progresses the glassy rock contracts and stram
phenomena appear in consequence. Porphyritic crystals often
contract less than the surrounding gloss, which accordingly
becomes strained, and in polarized light may show a weak double
refraction in a limited area surrounding the crystal. Minute
cracks are sometimes produced by the contraction; they are often
more or less straight, but in other cases a very perfect system of
rounded fissures arises. These surround little spherules of gloss
which are detached when the rock is struck with a hammer.
There may be concentric series of crocks one within another.
The minute globular bodies have occasionally a sub-pcorly lustre,
and glassy rocks which possess this structure have been called
perlites {.q.v.). If we take a thin layer of natural Canada balsam
and heat it strongly for a little time most of the volatile oils are
driven out of it. When it cools it becomes hard, but if before it
is quite cold we plunge it into cold water a very perfect pcrlitic
structure will arise in it. Occasionally the rounded cracks
extend from the matrix into some of the crystals especially those
of quartz which have naturally a conchoidal fracture. If the
matrix, however, is originally crystalline it does not seem
probable that perlitic structure caif develop in it. Hence it may
be regarded as diagnostic of rocks which were vitreous when they
consolidated.
In mineralogical collections rounded nodules of brown glass,
varying from the size of a pea to that of an orange, may often
be seen labelled marekanite. They have long been known to
geologists and are found at Okhotsk, Siberia, in association
with a large mass of perlitic obsidian. These globular bodies
are, in fact, merely the more coherent portions of a pcrlitc;
the rest of the rock falls down in a fine powder setting free the
glassy spheres. They are subject to considerable internal strain,
as is shown by the fact that when struck with a hammer or
sliced with a lapidary's saw they often burst into fragments.
Their behaviour in this respect closely resembles the balls of
rapidly cooled, unannealed glass which arc called Prince Rupert's
drops. In their natural condition the marekanite spheres are
doubly refracting, but when they have been heated and very
slowly cooled they lose this property and no longer exhibit any
tendency to sudden disintegration.
Aliliou^h rocks wholly or in Urge part vitreous arc known from
very ancHriit grologic^l <y:itPm*, such as the Devonian, ihcy are
rcnamly mo&t frctjuern In re«nt vtiteanic countries. Yet among
itic oUIct rocks thtrc aTu many which, thouch finely crystalline.
hjvF the chemical campmiTion or modern ob«idbns ana possess
structtsTics, lUtb a* ihc pfrUtic and sphcrulitic, which are very
chiracteri^tk: of vkrffou* roclci, By many lines of evidence wc are
led to believe tt>JT pb*idLiri5 in toiirte of time suffer devitrification,
in othtrr woni* ihey pass from the vitreous into a cr>'stalHnc state,
but A*r the chiinii^i's take pLicc in a ^oHd mass they require a very
l^ng time for ihtir achieveTncnt, and the crystals produced are only
of i'ltircrriety small size. A dull i>lony-looking rock results, the
T,ntn\TU* lusiTP having entirely disappeared, and in microscopic
Knion ihi* exhibits a cryptocr>'4taUine structure, bcine made up of
eatftxetinjlly mifiuie gmina priticipally of quartz and felspar. Oitcn
ihui fcli-iTic dcvUrif^ed gl^si if flo bne-framed that its constituents
carl not be directly determined even with the aid of the microscope,
byr ctiemiral gniiy**' leave* little doubt as to the real nature of the
miiwraU which have been larmed. Many vitreous rocks show
alieraiioit ot thb type in certain parrs where either the glass has
been of lun-irsble fl^Ture or where agencies of change such as pcrcolat-
ifig water have hod enatest acce*» fas along joints, perlitic cracks
awl the macgiiu «f dikes and sUls)^ Obsid'uns from Upari often
962
OBSTETRICS
have felntic bands alternating with othen which are purely glaisy.
In Arran there are pttchstone dikes, some of which are very com-
pletcly vitreous, while others are changed to spherulitic felsites more
or less silicified. The pitchstone of the Scuir 01 Eigg is at its margins
characterized by a dull semi-opaque matrix which seems to be the
result of secondary devitrification. In the same way anificial glass
can be devitrificd if it be kept at a temperature slightly below the
furing point for some days. Window glass exposed to alkaline
vapours often shows a thin iridescent surface film which is supposed
to be due to crystallization ; the same change is found in pieces of
Roman glass which have been dug out of the ruins of PompeiL
Ob«dians occur in many parts of the world along with rhyolites
and pumice. In Europe the best-known localities for them are the
Lipari Islands, Pantellaria. Iceland and Hui^ary. Very fine obsi-
dians are also obtained in Mexico, at the Yellowstone Park, in New
Zealand, Ascension and in the Caucasus. Included in this group
are some rocks which are more properly to be regarded as vitreous
forms of trachyte than as glassy rhyolites (Iceland), but except by
chemKal analyses they cannot be separated. It is certain, however,
that most obsidians are very acid or rhyolitic. The dark, semi-
opaque glassy forms of the basic igneous rocks are known as tachy-
lytes. The typical obsidians exhibit the chemical peculiarities of
the acid igneous rocks (viz. high percentage of silica, low iron, lime
and magnesia, and a consideraote amount of potash and soda).
The chemical composition of typical obudians is shown by the
following analyses : —
SiO,.
A,0..
FcO.
FcO,.
CaO.
MgO.
K,0.
Na,0.
H,0.
I. Yellowstone Park .
11. Iceland . . .
III. Mexk:o . . .
74.70
75-^8
73-63
«3-72
IO'23
H-25
0-62
180
I'd
4-34
0-78
I -81
tr.
014
025
1.4a
402
2-44
4-39
3-90
0'6a
023
Obsidian, when broken, shows a conchoidal fracture, like
that of glass, and yields sharp-edged fragments, which have been
used in many localities as arrow-points, spear-heads, knives
and razors. For such purposes, as also for use as mirrors, masks
and labrets, it was extensively employed, under the name of
itsUi, by the ancient Mexicans, who quarried it at the Cerro de
las Navajas, or '* Hill of Knives," near Timapan. The natives
of the Admiralty Islands have used it for the heads of spears.
By the ancient Greeks and Romans obsidian was worked as a
gem-stone; and in consequence of its having been often imitated
in glass there arose among collectors of gems in the i8th century
the practice of calling all antique pastes " obsidians." At the
present time obsidian is sometimes cut and polished as an
ornamental stone, but its softness (H-s to 55) detracts
from its value. (Certain varieties, notably some from Russia,
possess a beautiful metallic sheen, referable to the presence
of either microscopic fissures or enclosures. The substance
known as moldavite, often regarded as an obsidian, and the
so-called obsidian bombs, or obsidianitcs, are described under
Moldavite. (J. S. F.)
OBSTETRICS, the science and art of midwifery (Lat. obstetrix,
a midwife, from ohstare, to stand before). Along with Medicine
and Surgery, Obstetrics goes to form what has been called the
Tripos of the medical profession, because every person desiring
to be registered under the Medical Acts must pass a qualifying
examination alike in medicine, surgery and midwifery. The term
Gynaecology {q.v.), which has come to be applied to the study
of the diseases of the female generative system, in its primary
sense includes all that pertains to women both in health and
disease. Obstetrics, or midwifery, is more specially that part
of the science of gynaecology which deals with the care of a
pregnant woman and the ushering of her child into the world.
Tokology — the doctrine of parturition — is the most distinctive
sphere of interest for obstetricians, and here their activities
bring them into a closer approximation to the work of surgeons.
As a science it demands a study of the phenomena of labour,
which in their ordered succession are seen to present three distinct
stages: one of preparation, during which the uterus dilates
sufficiently to allow of the escape of the infant; a second, of
progress, during which the infant is expelled; and a third, of
the extrusion of the after-birth or placenta. In each of the
stages analysis of the phenomena reveals the presence of three
elements which arc known as the factors of labour, vix. the powers
or forces which are engaged in the emptying of the uterus;
the passages or canals through which the ovum is driven; and
the passenger or body that is being extruded. Tbe mechaaism
of labour depends on the balance of these (actors as they become
adjusted to each other in the varying phenomcBa of tbe sevtnl
stages. The diversities that are met with in different laboors
even of tbe same woman have Ifd to their being dasofied into
different groups. A natural labour is commonly defined as oee
where tbe child presents by the head and the labour is tcnninated
within twenty-four hours. From this it is obviom that no case
of labour can be defined at its onset. The reUtion of the facton
may warrant a favourable expectation; but until tbe laboar
is completed, and completed within a reasonably sale period,
it cannot be classed as natural! The element of time has this
importance, that it is found that, apart from all accidents and
interferences, the mortality both to mother and child becomes
greater the longer the duration of the labour. Hence lingeriitg
or tedious labours, in which the child still presents with thebea<
but is not expelled within twenty-four hours after the onset
of labour-pains, are properly grouped in a separate class, althouf^
they are terminated without operative interference. In the
class of preternatural labours, where the head comes last instead
of first, there are two subdivisions, according as the child presents
by the breech and feet, or Ues transversely
as a cross-birth, and has usually to be
delivered artificially. Operative or instru-
mental labours vary according as the pro-
cedures adopted are safe in principle to
mother and child, such as turning and
the application of the midwifery forceps; or as they invohT
damage to the infant in the various forms of embryotomy; oar are
more dangerous to the mother, as in the Caesarcan section acd
symphysiotomy. A final dass of labours includes the cases
where some complication or anomaly arises and becomes a
source of danger, independently of disturbances of the mechaaisaB
or of any operative interference. These complex labours are
due to complications that may be maternal, such as haemorrhags
and convulsions; or foetal, such as twins or prolapse of tbe
umbilical cord. To cope with these anomalies an <A»teiridaa
requires all the resource of a physician and all the dexterity of z
surgeon.
The interest of obstetricians in their patients does not end
with the birth of the children, even after natural labours. Ttt
puerpera is still a subject of care. The uterus, that during in
nine months' evolution had been increasing enormoudy in £1
its elements, has in six weeks to undergo an involution that «ul
restore it to its pregravid condition. The allied organs share k
their measure in the change, all the systems of the body fed tbe
influence, and espedally the mammary glands take od tl^^
function of providing milk for the nutriment of the new-bon
infant. A patient with some latent flaw in her coDstitutk^
may pass the test of pregnancy and labour with success, only t^
succumb during the puerperium. Of patienU vho bcooese
insane in connexion with child-bearing, a half manifest tke>
mental disorder first during the days or weeks immediatelT
succeeding their confinement, and numbers more whilst ibey are
suckling thdr infants. A woman may have had an easy labosr.
and may have been thankful at the time for hdp from a bari
that she did not know to be undean; three days later gen=s
left by that hand may have so multiplied within l^r that shf
is in mortal danger from septicaemia. The management of i^^-e
puerperal patient requires not only the warding off of deletcrkss
influences, but the watching of the normal pr o c esses, becioe
slight deviations in these, undetected and unconected no*
may become Uter a source of lifdong invalidism. It vesiu=«
further to be noted that to obstetridans belong the earliest sta^s
of pediatrics in their care of the new-bom child. In sooae o^
works practitioners of this branch of the profession are dcscrJ^
as 6M^oXor6MOt, because their first business was to cut tit
umbilical cord. The causes of the high deaih-cate assorx
infants, whether due to ante-natal, intra-natal or neo-caii.'
conditions, come under thdr observation. They have dkai^ d
the whole wide fidd of the hygiene, pathology and thcrapeuia
of infancy.;'
OBSTETRICS
963
HistoHcai Siekh.^Tbt origin of midwifery is lost in the mists
of human origins. The learned Jean Astruc, who gave a lead to
higher critics in their analysis of the Pentateuch by pointing out
the presence of Elohistic and Jehovistic elements, exercised his
imagination in fancying how the earliest pair comported tliem-
selves at the birth of their first child, and especially how the
husband would have to learn what to do with the pbcenta
and umbilical cord. His speculations are not in the least illumi-
native. The Mosaic writings let us see women of some experience
and authority by the side of a Rachel dying in labour,oraTamar
giving birth to twins, and superintending the easy labours of
Hebrew slaves in Egypt. The Ebers Papyrus (1550 B.C.), which
Moses may have studied when he grew learned in all the wisdom
of the Egyptians, is the oldest known medical production. It
contains prescriptions for causing abortion, for promoting labour,
for curing displacements of the uterus, &c. But there is no
indication as to how labours are to be managed, and with regard
to the child there are only auguries given as to whether it will
live or die, according, e.g. as its first cry after it is bom sounds
like Hi or bd.
The story of the rise and progress of midwifery is intimately
bound up with the history of medicine in general. The obstet-
rician, looking for the dawn of his science, turns like his fellow-
workers in other medical disciplines to the Hippocratic writings
(400 B.C.). Now the father of medicine was not an obstetrician.
As with Egyptians and Hebrews, the skilled attendants on
women in labour among the Greeks were also women. But since
nothing that concerned the ailments of humanity was foreign to
Hippocrates, there are indications in the writings that arc
accounted genuine of his interest in the disorders of females — in
their menstrual troubles, in their sterility, in their gestation
symptoms, and in their puerperal diseases; his oath forswears the
use of abortifacients, and he recommends the use of sternutatories
to hasten the expulsion of the after-birth. In the Hippocratic
writings that are supposed to be products of his followers, some
of these subjects are more fully dealt with; but whilst the
physician is sometimes called in to give advice in difficult
labours, so that he can describe different kinds of presentation
and can speak of the possibility of changing an unfavourable into
a favourable lie of the infant, it is usually only with coses where
the child is already dead that he has to deal, and then he tells
how he has to mutilate and extract it. So these writings furnish
us with the earUest account of the accoucheur's armamentarium,
and let us see him possessed of a /laxolptov — a knife or perforator
for opening the head; a rUarpov — a comminutor for breaking
up the bones; and a JXKV<m^/>— an extractor for hooking out
the infant. The classical writers of Greece give the same impres-
sion as to the primitive stage of obstetrics. Women, like the
mother of Socrates, have the charge of parturient women.
Where divine aid is sought, goddesses are invoked to facilitate
the labour. Gods or men are only called in where graver inter-
ference is required, as when Apollo rescued the infant Aesculapius
by a Caesarcan section performed on the dying Scmclc. Some
midwives are known to history, and extracts from the writings
of one Asposia are embedded in the works of later authors. In
the great medical school of Alexandria, when the science of
human anatomy began to take shape, Herophilus rendered a
service to obstetrics in giving a truer idea of the anatomy of the
female than had previously prevailed; other physicians give
evidence of their interest in midwifery and the diseases of women,
and some experience was gradually being acquired and trans-
mitted through the profession until we find from Celsus (in the
reign of Augustus) that when surgeons were called in to help
the attendant woman they could sometimes bring about the
delivery, without destroying the infant, by the operation of
turning. In the and century Soranus wrote a work on midwifery
for the guidance of midwives, in which for the first time the
uterus is differentiated from the vagina and instruction is given
for the use of a speculum. A contemporary, Moschion, wrote
a guide for midwives which, with that of Soranus, may be said
to touch the high-water mark of archaic midwifery. It is written
in the form of question and answer, was much prized at the time '
of the Renaissance, and was used as the basis of the first obstetric
work that issued from a printing-press. Philumcnos wrote a
treatise of some value at the same epoch, but it is only known
from the free use made of it by subsequent writers, such as
A£tius in the beginning of the 6th century. Like Oribasius, who
preserved in his compilation the work of Soranus, AHtius draws
largely on preceding writers. His treatises on female diseases
constitute an advance on previous knowledge, but there is no
progress in midwifery, though he still makes mention of turning.
This operation has disappeared from the pages of Paulus
Aegineta, an 8th-century author, the last to treat at length of
obstetrics and gynaecology ere the night of the dark ages settled
down on the Roman world, and it is not heard of again till a
millennium had passed. During the centuries when the progress
of medicine was dependent on the work of the Arabian physicians,
the science of obstetrics stood still. We are curious to know
what Rhazes and Avicenna in the 9th and loth centuries have
to say on this subject. But they know little but what they
have learned from the Greek writers, and they show a great
tendency to relapse to the rudest procedures and to have recourse
to operative interferences destructive to the child. Interest
attaches to the work of Albucasis in the 12th century, in that
he is the first to illustrate his pages with figures of the knives,
crushers and extractors that were employed in their gruesome
practices, and that he gives the first history of a case of extra-
uterine pregnancy.
We come down to the i6lh century before we begin to see any
indication of the development of obstetrics towards a place
among the sciences. Medicine and surgery profited earlier by
the intellectual awakenings of the Renaissance and the Re-
formation. In anatomical theatres and hospital wards associated
with universities great anatomists and clinicians began to
discard the dogmas of Galen, and to teach their pupils to study
the body and its diseases with unprejudiced minds. But the
practice of midwifery was still among all people in the hands
of women, and when in 1513 Eucharius Rocsslin of Frankfort
published a work on midwifery, it bore the title Dcr schwangcrcn
FratP€H uttd iKbammen RosaigarUn. Translated into English
by Thomas Raynold with the altered title. The Birth of Mankyiid,
it is mainly compiled from Moschion, and the Soranus and
Philumenos fragments of Oribasius and Aetius, and is intended
as a guide to pregnant women and their attendant nurses.
It was illustrated with fanciful figures of the foetus in uicro
that were reproduced in other works of later date — as in the
KosengaricH of Walter Reiff of Strossburg in 1546 and the
Hebammenbuch of Jacob Rueff of Zurich in 1554, the latter of
which appears in English dress as The Expert Midwife. The
greatest impulse to the progress of midwifery was given in the
middle of the i6th century by the famous French surgeon
Ambroise Par^, who revived the operation of podalic version,
and showed how by means of it surgeons could often rescue the
infant even in cases of head presentation, instead of breaking it
up and extracting it piecemeal. He was ably seconded by his
pupil Guillemeau, who translated his work into Latin, and at a
later period himself wrote a treatise on midwifery, an English
translation of which was published in 161 2 with the title Child-
Birth] or, The Happy Deliver ie of Women. The close of the
1 6th century is rendered further memorable in the annals of
midwifery by the publication of a series of works specially
devoted to it. Three sets of compilations, containing extracts
from the various writers on obstetrics and gynaecology from the
time of Hippocrates onwards, were published under the designa-
tion of Gynaecia or Gynaeciorum — the first edited by Caspar
Wolff of Zurich in 1566, the second by Caspar Bauhin of Basel
in 1586, and the third by Israel Spach of Strassburg in 1597.
Spach includes in his collection not only Park's obstetrical
chapters, but the Latin translation of the imporlant Traitie
nouveaux de I'hyslerototnoiokic published by the French surgeon
Francis Rousset in 1 eo . vfbich is the ftrsl dislinct treatise on
an obstetric operating «nd advocaUs vVvt vtxloTTuaucc o\ Cac-
ic operation and J
sarean section on K^V ". yjottveu VvvVv Av^cvXv \a.\>ouTs. From
this time onwards ^/J^^T^^re ^cumuXaves ^V v\vt ^>KwvsmUiesi
surgeons, in the practice of midwifery, and after the middle of
the 17th century they began to publish the records of their
experiences in spcdal treatises. The most imporunt of these
writers were French— as Mauriceau, Viardel, Paul Portal, Peu
and Dionis. The work of Mauriceau, which first appeared in
1668, is specially interesting from its having been translated
into English in 1672 by Hugh Chamberlen, who in his preface
made the then incredible statement that his father, hb brothers,
and himself had long attained to and practised a way to deliver
women in difficult labours without hooks, where other artists
used them, and without prejudice to mother or child. Many
years had still to elapse before the secret of the Chamberlcns
leaked out. In the course of this century some women who
had large experience in midwifery appeared as authors. Thus
in England Jane Sharp in 167 1 wrote Tht Midwhes' Book, or
tite whole art of Midieijery discovered; in Germany, Justine
Sicgemund, in 1690, Die Chur-Brandcnlmrgische Hojf-Wehe'
mutter; and earlier and better than cither, in France, Louise
Bourgeois in 1626 published Observations sur la sterititi el maladies
dcsfemmes. Perhaps they were beginning to feel that there was
some need to assert their power, for it was during this century
that parturient ladies began to call in men to attend them in
natural labours. According to Astruc, Madame de la Valliire
wished her confinement to be kept secret, and Louis XIV.,
in June 1663, sent for Jules Clement, the court surgeon, to
superintend the delivery. This was accomplished successfully.
The king gave him the title of accoucheur. Clement afterwards
attended the dauphincss and other court ladies, and went thrice
to Madrid to assist at the confinement of the queen of Philip IV.
Up till this epoch physicians and surgeons had only been sum-
moned to the lying-in room by midwives who found themselves
at the end of their resources, to give help in difficult cases where
the child was usually dead and the mother often moribund.
Now that it began to be a fashion for women in their ordinary
confinements to be under the surveillance of a physician, it
became possible for men with their scientific training to study
the normal phenomena of natural labour, and through the
medium of the printirtg-press to communicate the results of their
observation and experience to their professional brethren.
Hence the books of the men already referred to, and of others
that appeared later, such as the Traiti complel des accouckemens
of Dc la Motte, 1721, which is a storehouse of acute observations
and wise discussion of obstetric measures. In other countries
than France physicians and surgeons began to take up midwifery
as a speciality and not as a subsidiary part of their practice, of
which they were somewhat ashamed (le Bon, one of the writers
^hose work is foftnd in Bauhin's Gytiaeda, says: " Haec ars viros
dedecet ")> and it was in Holland that a work was produced that
has earned for its author the designation of the Father of Modem
Midwifery. Hdnrich van Deventer, who practised as an ob-
stetrician at the Hague along with his wife (a Vroedvrow, as
he was a Vroedmecster), published in 1696 a preliminary treatise
called Dageraal (Aurora) der Vroedvrowen, and in 1701 he followed
it up by a more complete second volume, of which the Latin
edition that came out simultaneously with the Dutch has a title
beginning Operaliones Chirurgicae Novum Lumen Exkibentes
Obstetricantibus. It has the supreme value of being the first
work to give a scientific description of the pelvis, and to take
some steps towards the development of the mechanism of labour.
The " obstetricantes " for whom Deventer wrote are both men
and women. In the eariy part of the xSth century women had
still the main and often the sole charge of their parturient sbters;
but the praaice of having a doctor to superintend or to supersede
the midwives kept spreading among the classes who could
afford to pay the doctor's fee; and by the time Deventcr's
treatise was doing its educational work in an English translation,
as The Art of Midwifery Improved, in 1716, the doctors were
getting into their hands the " harmless forceps " with which a
living child could be extracted without detriment to the mother,
in conditions where formeriy her child's life was sacrificed and
her own endangered. This life-saving instnuneot was invented
uuuwu, uuL ujr « soma ooi i
I rsu^^sn Duxn.
William Chamberlen, fled from Paris to escape the St Bazthob-
mew massacres, carrying with him to Southampton his wife,
his two sons, and a daughter. William Cbambeileii seems to
have been a surgeon, and his descendants through four genera-
tions had large and lucrative practices in London. The ddest
son Peter, who was old enough when he came to Enghad to
be able to attest the birth and baptism of a younger brother, is,
on good grounds, credited with being the inventor of the forceps,
which for a century was kept a secret among brothers, sons and
grandsons. Hugh, indeed, a great-grandson of William, and the
translator of Mauriceau, had offered to sell the family secret for
10,000 crowns; but his failure to effect delivery in a test cue
that Mauriceau put to him led the profession to bdieve that
he was a boastful quack. Palfyn of Ghent, when in P^ris in
1 7331 putting a work on anatomy through the pre9S,^la>d before
the Academy of Science a pair of forceps, which was figured in
Hetster's surgery in 1724. Hejias thus the honour of first laying
before the profession a midwifery forceps. But his imfdement
was ill-constructed, and never came into general use. Meanwhile
the knowledge that the Chamberlens were really possessed of a
serviceable instrument must have stimubted other practitioocis.
Perhaps a colleague with a keen eye may ha\*e got sight tkf it
on some occasion, or an intelligent midwife had been able to
describe the •" tongs " which she had seen one of the family
apply. In 1734 Dr Edward Hody published a record of Ccsts
in Midwifery that had been written by Mr William Giffard,
" surgeon and man-midwife." The dates range from January
1724 to 1 73 1. Amongst the cases are several where he effected
the delivery by means of the forceps— " extractor," he calls
it— of which a figure is given; and when Edmund Chapman,
who practised first at Halstead and afterwards in London,
published his Treatise on the Improvement of Midwifery in
i733> he speaks of the use of the forceps as *' now well known
to all the principal men of the orofession both in town and
country."
In the course of the x8th century the devdopment of mid-
wifery in the hands of medical men made greater stride than
in all the preceding ages. The progress was accderated by the
establishment of chairs of midwifery in the univcrutics of
various countries, Edinburgh taking the lead in the appcMntment
of a professor in 1726, and St rassburg coming dosdy after in
1728. In Strassburg the chair had the advantage of being at
once associated with a clinical service. Lecturing was carried
out, moreover, by men who were devoting themsdvcs as
specialists in midwifery and the diseases of women and infants,
and were succeeding in developing lying-in institutions for the
benefit of poor women in labour that became schools of instruc-
tion both for midwifery nurses and for medical students. Tvo
new operations came during this epoch to enhance the powers
of the obstetrician, viz. symphysiotomy, first introdu^d bT
Sigatilt in Paris; and the induction of premature labour, firs:
carried out by Macauley in London in circumstances described
by Denman in the preface to his Midwifery, William Uun:^
in London, Sir Fielding Ould in Dublin, Rdderer in GOiiingea.
Camper in Amsterdam, Baudelocque in Paris, Saxtorph ic
Copenhagen, and many other authors contributed to pcogrcs
by their atlases and their books. But there are three whose
names stand out pre-eminently because of the influence they
exerted on the whole obstetric worid— Lcvret, SmcUie and Boer
Kilian, in his vidimus of the history of midwifery, calls Levm
" one of the greatest masters in the department that ever lived
Of Smellie he says: " Inferior to Levret in nothing, be ezrds
him in much." BoSr he characterizes as *' the most meritoriou
and important of German obstetricians." Levret improvrd
the construction of the forceps, and widened the sphere of the:
appUcability; Smellie worked in the same direction, aa-i
furnished, moreover, descriptions and. illust r ations of nattTil
and morbid labours that are of classical value; and Boer fi?^t
clearly placed pregnancy (which Mauriceau. e.g. had spoken <k
as "a nine months' disease") and parturition in the cateforjf
of physiok)gical processes that might be hindered ratbcr thai
OCALA— OCXIAM
96s
elped by Uie pragmatical ioterfoenoet of meddlesome mk)-
ives.
Throughout the 19th century midwifery continued to advance,
^naecology grew into a spedal department with an extensive
terature, the mechanism of labour developed under the clinical
bservations of men like Nftgele and the study of such frozen
xtions of cadavera as were made by Braune, the indications
nr interference became more dear and the methods of inter-
•Fence more simple and safe, and a whole realm of antenatal
athology and teratology was added to the domain of science,
hile practitioners learned the art of saving premature and
elicate infants by the use of the incubator and proper alimenta-
on. Every advance in all the cognate sciences was appreciated
nd applied for the advancement of obitetrics. But there are
iro achievements which will make the xpth century for ever
lemorable in the annals of midwifery— the abolition of the
ains of labour and the arrest laid on mortility from the so-
lUed puerperal fever. In February 1847 Sir J. Y. Simpsqn,
hoosing a case where he had to deliver by turning, put the
atient asleep with ether. Seeing that the uterine contractions
ontinued, though the attendant pain was abolished, he pro-
eeded to administer ether in cases of natural labour, and in
lovember of the same year demonstrated the virtues of chloro-
>rm, and so fumbhed the most serviceable anaesthetic, not only
9 the obstetrician in the lying-in room, but to the surgeon on
he battlefield, and to the general practitioner in his everyday
rork. Ignaz Philipp Semmelweiss, assistant in the maternity
ospital of Vienna, was struck and saddened with the appalling
mortality that attended the delivery of the women under his
are, as many as one (in some months three) out of every ten
f the pucrperae being carried out dead. He observed that the
aortality was much higher in the wards allotted to the tuition
f students than in those set apart for the training of nurses.
n the spring of 1847 he saw at the post-mortem examination
f a young colleague who had died of a poisoned wound, that
be appearances were the same as he had too often had occasion
o sec at the post-mortem examinations of his puerperae. He
rdered that every student who assisted a woman in her labour
nust first wash his hands in a disinfectant solution of chloride
f lime, and in 1848 already the mortality was less in the students'
ban it was in the nurses' wards. Thus the first light was shed
o the nature of the mischief of which multitudes of puerperal
Atients perished, and the first intelligent step was taken to
asen the mortality. When, some twenty years later. Lister
tad applied the bacteriological principles of Pasteur, with
leneficent results to surgery, obstetricians gladly followed his
taAt and the 19th century beheld added to the comfort of
naesthetic midwifery the confidence of midwifery antiseptic
lod even aseptic
The most exhaustive treatise on the earlier history of midwifery
% von Siebold, Versuch einer CtsckUkU der Gelntrtshulfe (Berlin,
;«39)- CA. R. S.)
OCALA (a Seminole word for green or fertile land), a dty
ind the county-seat of Marion county, Florida, U.S.A., in the
^. central part of the sUte, about 100 m. S.W. of Jacksonville.
Pop. (1900) 3380, (1905) 4493. of whom 2467 were negroes, (1910)
U70. It is served by the Seabord Air Line and the Atlantic
^oast Line railways. About 6 m. E. is Silver Spring, the largest
ind best known of the springs of Florida. Its basin is circular,
ibottt 600 ft. in diameter; it is about 65 ft. in depth, and iu
mUers are remarkable for their transparency and refraaive
powers. According to the estimate of Dr D G. Brinton, the
fpriag discharges more than 300,000,000 gallons of water daily,
tM outflow forming what is known as SUver Spring Run, 9 m.
oog, emptying into the Oklawaha river and navigable by small
iver steamers. For the drainage and sewerage of the city a
mbterranean river whose source and mouth are unknown is
■Cflized. The dty is the seat of the Emerson Memorial and
Endustrial Home (Methodist Episcopal) for negro girls. Ocala
iras settled in 1845, but its development dates from 1880, when
it was first chartered as a dty. In December 1890 it was the
meeting-place of the Natioxial Convention of the Farmers'
XIX 16*
Alliance, which promulgated a sUtement of political prindples
generally known as the "Ocala Platfonn." (See FaaiiEas*
Movement.)
OCAftA, a town of central Spain, in the province of Toledo,
on the extreme north of the tableland known as the Mesa de
Ocafia, with a station on the nulway from Aranjuez to Cuenca.
Pop. (1900) 6616. The town is surrounded by ruined walls,
and in it are the remains of an old castle. In one of its parish
churches is the chapd of Nuestra Sefk>ra de los Remedios, in
which Ferdinand and Isabella were married in 1469. Ocafla
is the Vicus Cuminarius of the Romxms, and was the dowry
that £1 Motamid of Seville gave his daughter Zaida on her
nuirriage with Alphonso VI. of Castile (1072-1109). Near
Ocafia, on the 19th of November 1809, the Spanish under their
Irish general Lacy were routed by the French under Joseph
Bonaparte and Marshal Soult.
OCARINA, a wind instrument mvented in Italy, which must
be classed with musical toys or freaks, although concerted
music has been written for it. The ocarina consists of an earthen-
ware vessd in the shape of an egg with a pointed base and a tube
like a spout in the side, which contains the mouthpiece. There
are usually 10 holes in the front surface of the instrument, nine
for fingers and thumb and a vent hole, the newer models have
8 holes and two keys. By half covering the holes the semi-
tones are obtained.
CCAROLAN (or Carolan), TURLOGH (1670-1738), Irish
bard, son of John O'Carolan, a fanner, was born at Newtown,
near Nobber, in the county of Meath. The family is said to
have bdonged to the sept of MacBradaigh, and the bard's
great-grandfather was a chieftain. The O'Carolans forfeited
their estates during the dvil wars, and Turlogh's father settled
at Alderford, Co. Roscommon, on the invitation of the family
of M'Dermott Roe. In his dghteenth year he became blind
from smallpox. He recdved special instruction in music, and
used to wander with his harp round the houses of the surrounding
gentry, mainly in Connaught. The famous song Receipt for
Drinking may be re^>onsible for the allegation that he was
addicted to intemperate drinking, but Charles O'Conor (1710-
1791), the antiquary,' who had personal knowledge of him,
gives him a good character in private life. The number of
Carolan's musical pieces, to nearly all of which he composed
verses, is said to exceed two hundred. He died on the 25th
March 1738, and was buried at Kilronan.
His poetical Remains in the original Irish, with English metrical
translations by Thomas Furlong, were printed in Haraiman's Irish
Minstrelsy (1831 ). Many of his songs were preserved among the Irish
MSS. in the British Museum.
OCCAM. WILUAH OF (d. c. 1349), English schoolman,
known as Dodor intincibilis and Venerabilis inceptor^ was bom
in the village of (kkham, Surrey, towards the end of the 13th
century. Unattested tradition says that the Franciscans
persuaded him while yet a boy to enter their order, sent him
to Merton College, Oxford (see G. C. Brodrick, Memorials of
Menon College^ p. 194), and to Paris, where he was first the pupil
afterwards the successful rival, of Duns Scotus. He probably
left France about. 13 14, and there are obscure traces of his
presence in Germany, in Italy, and in England during the
following bcven years. It has generally been held that in 1323
he appeared as the provindal of England at the celebrated
assembly of the Frandscan order at Perugia, and that there he
headed the revolt of the Franciscans against Pope John XXII. \
but, according to Little (English Historical Renew, vi. 747),
the provincial minister on this occasion was William of Not-
tingham. Probably, however, (kcam was present at the
assembly. His share in this revolt resulted in his imprison-
ment, on the charge of heresy, for scvetxtetTi weeks in ibe
dungeons of the papal palace at Avignon. He a.t\AYus companions
— Michad of Cesena, General oi the otdet, aivd Bonagtaiia—
managed to escape, an^found their wiv \.o V^^as:^e^,^\vwtvYve'J
v\>Jm& coxvVxovcti
that he wu best k^-?* in to WeVxwvC- »^ m
'^^>«*
died in 1342, and Occam, who bad receivM from him the official
seal of the order, was recognized as general by his party. The
date of his death and the place of his burial are both uncertain.
He probably died at Munich in 1349.
William of Occam was the most promment intellectual leader
m an age which witnessed the disintegration of the old scholastic
realism, the rise of the theological scepticism of the later middle
ages, the great contest between pope and emperor which laid
the foundations of modem theories of government, and the
quarrel between- the Roman curia and the Franciscans which
showed the long-concealed antagonism between the theories
of Hildebrand and Francis of Assisi; and he shared in all these
movements.
The common account of his philosophical position, that he
reintroduced nominalism, which had been in decadence since
the days of Roscellinus and Abelard, by teaching that universals
were only fiatus vocts, is scarcely correct. The expression is
nowhere found in his writings. He revived nominalism by
collecting and uniting isolated opinions upon the meaning of
universals into a compact system, and popularized his views
by associating them with the logical principles which were in
his day commonly taught in the universities. He linked the
doctrines of nominalism on to the principles of the logic of
Psellus, which had been introduced into the West in tht Summulce
of Peter of Spain, and made them intelligible to common under-
standings. The fundamental principles of his system (see
ScHOLASTiasii) are that " Essentia non sunt multiplicanda
praeter necessitatem " ("Occam's Razor"), that nouns, like
algebraical symbols, are merely denotative terms whose mean-
ing is conventionally agreed upon {suppositio), and that the
destructive effect of these principles in theological matters does
not in any way destroy faith (see the Cenlilogium Tkeologicumf
Lyons, 149s. and Traciaius de Sacramento AUaris).
In the OffHS noHaiinla dierum (1330) (written in reply to John
XXII.'s libelluB against Michael of Ccflcna), and in its successors, the
papae (i^>5-i339).
Occam only incidentally expounds his views as a publicist; the
books are mainly, some of them entirely, theological, but they served
the purpose of the emperor and of his party, because they cut at
the root of the spiritual as well as of the temporal supremacy of the
pope. In his writing Super toUstaU summi pontificu octo quaesHo-
num dutiiones (1339-1342) Occam attacks the temporal supremacy
of the pope, insists on the independence of kingly authority, which
he maintains is as much an ordinance of God as is spiritual rule,
and discusses what is meant by the state. His views on the inde-
pendence of civil rule were even more decidedly expressed in the
Tractatus de jurisdictione imperatcris in causis mairtmonialUtus, in
which, in spite of the medieval idea that matrimony is a sacrament,
he demands that it belongs to the civil power to decide cases of affinity
and to state the prohibited degrees. By 1343 there was in circula-
tion his great work the Dialogus (see Goldast ii. 3S>8-957), in which
he attempted to present his views in a complete summary. It
consists of three parts. The first is the De fautoribus hereticorum,
and deals with the pope as arbiter in the matter of heresy. The
second part is the refutation of the doctrines of John XXII. (see
above treatises). The third was to be in nine sections, of which the
first and second sections alone remain to us. It is probable that the
Opus nonaginkx dierum and the Compendium errorum were intended
to form oart of the work. His last work, De Eiectume Caroli IV.,
restates nis opinions upon temporal authority and adds little that is
new.
In all his writings apinst Pope John XXII. (q.v.), Occam inveighs
against the pope's opinions ana decisions on the value of the life of
poverty. The Compendium errorum selects four papal constitutions
which involved a declaration against evangelical poverty, and insists
that they are full of heresy. Occam was a sincere Franciscan, and
believed with his master that salvation was won through rigid
imitation of Jesus in His poverty and obedience, and up to his days
it had always been possible for Franciscans to follow the rules of
their founder within his order. John XX II.. however, condemned
the doctrine and excommunicated its supporters, some of whom
were so convinced of the necessity of evangelical poverty for a truly
Christian life that they denounced the pope when he refused them
leave to practise it as Antichrist. After Occam's days the opinions
of Franas prevailed in many quarters, but the genuine Franciscans
had no place within the church. They were Fratkelli. Beghards,
Lollards or other confraternities unrecognized by the church and in
steady oppo«ition to her government.
Beside the theological and political works above quoted, Occam
wrote 5iMmfia Logices (Paris, 1488. Oxford. 1675)
on Porphyry's Isagqi^, on the Caiegoriae, De Inter preuHaue aad
Elencht of Aristotle. These latter were printed in 1496 at Bokfna,
and entitled ExposiHo Aurea super totam ortemweterem ; QuujHtmt
inquattuor libros sententiamm (Lyons. 1495).
There is no good monograph on Occam. For an aoooont of his
logic, see Prantl. Gesckichte der Lorik (1855-1870) ; for his philoaophy.
see StOckl, CesdnckU der Pkilosopkie des MUteiaiiers (1864-1866), voL
iL, for his publicist writings, see Riezler. Die tilerarisckm Wider'
sacker der Pdpste mr Zeit Ludwig des Baiers (187^). See also
T. M Lindsay's article on " Occam and his coonexMB' with tte
Reformation," in the BriL QnarU Review (July. 1873). Amoag
ancient documents consult Denifle and Chatelain's Chartmlcriwm
UnioersikUts Parisiensis. vol. ii. pt. L (Paris. 1887): Waddi»:'s
Annates Minorum (ed. Fonseca. vols. 7 and 8. Rome. 1733). For
a list of Occam's works, sec Little's Grey Friars, pp. 225^34.
Cr. M. L.)
OCCASIONALISM (Lat. occasio, an event), in plubisophy,
a term applied to that theory of the rdation between matter
and mind which postulates the intervention of God to bring about
in the one a change which corresponds to a similar change in
the other. The theory thus denies any direct interaction bet weea
matter and mind. It was expounded by Geulincz and Male-
branche to avoid the difficulty of Descartes's dual^m of tboogbt
and extension, and to explain causation. Thus mind and
matter are to Geulincx only the ** occasional " causes of each
other's changes, while Malebranche, facing further the eptstemo-
logical problem, maintains that mind cannot even know matter,
which is merely the " occasion " of knowledge.
OCCLEVB (or Hoccleve), THOMAS (i36»-i45o?), EDglish
poet, was bom probably in 1368/9, for, writing in 1431/2 be
says he was fifty-three years oki (Dialog, L 246). He ranks,
like his more voluminous and better known contemporary
Lydgate, among those poets who have a historical rather than
intrinsic importance in English literature. Their work rardy
if ever rises above mediocrity; in neither is there even any-
dear evidence of a poetic temperament. Yet they represented
for the 15th century the literature of their time, and kept ali-re^
however faintly, the torch handed on to them by their " maistrr "
Chaucer, to whom Ocdeve pays an affectionate tribate in
three passages in the De Regisnine Principuwu What is kxkovn
of Ocdeve's life has to be gathered mainly from his works. At
eighteen or nineteen he obtained a clerkship in the Priry
Seal Office, which he retained on and off, in spite of much
grumbling, for about thirty-five years. He had hoped lor a
benefice, but none came; and in 1399 he received instead a
small annuity, which was not always paid as regularly as he
woukl have wished. "The Letter to Cupkl," his first poeo
to which we can affix a date, was translated from L*E^istn
au Dieu d* Amours of Christine de Pisan in 1402, evidently as
a sort of antidote to the moral of Troilus and Cressida, to sosk
MSS. of which we find it atuched. " La Male Regie," one of his
most readable poems, written about 1406, gives some intcrestiof
glimpses of his " misruly " youth. But about 1410 be settled
down to married life, and the composition of moral and r^igiocs
poems. His bngest work, The Regement of Princes or De lUgtmsme
Principum, written for Prince Hal shortly before his 1
is a tedious homUy on the virtues and vices, imitated
Aegidius de Cobnna's work of the same name, from the S2p-
posilitious epistle of Aristotle, known as the Secreia secretor^m,
and the work of Jacques de Cessolcs (fl. 1300) engiidscd later
by Caxton as The Came and Playe of Chesse, It is reUcred by
a proem, about a third of the whole, containing some fartbcT
reminiscences of London tavern and dub life, in the form c£
dialogue between the poet and a beggar. On the mrrt^^in^ ca
Henry V. Ocdeve turned his muse to the service of orthodoxy
and the Church, and one of his poems is a remonstraace addresKo
to Oldcastle, calling upon him to " rise up, a manly knight, out
of the slough of heresy." Then a k>ng illness was followed kr
a time, as he tells us, by insanity. His " Diak>g with a Friead.'*
written after his recovery, gives a naive and pathetic pictc?*
of the poor poet, now fifty-three, with si^t and mind impaired,
but with hopes still left of writing a tale be owes his good patsoa.
Humphrey of Gloucester, and of translating a small Latm
treatise, Scile Mori, before he dies. His hopes were fid&Ued a
OCCULTATION— OCEAN AND OCEANOGRAPHY
967
hb morallied Ules of " Jereslaus' Wife" and of ** Jonathas,"
both from the Cesta Romanorum, which, with his " Learn to die,"
bdong to his old age. After finally retiring from his privy
seal clerkship, he was granted in 1434 sustenance for life in the
priory of South wick, Hants, on which, with his former annuity,
he appears to have Uved till about the middle of the century.
A '* Balade to my gracious Lord of Yorke " probably dates
from X448 or later.
The main interest for us in Ocdevc's poems is that they are
characteristic of his time. His hymns to the Virgin, balades to
patrons, complaints to the king and the king's treasurer, versified
homilies and moral tales, with warnings to heretics like Old-
castle, are illustrative of the blight that had fallen upon poetry
CO the death of Chaucer. The nearest approach to the realistic
touch of his master is to be found in Ocdeve's " Male Regie."
But these pictures of 15th-century London are without even the
occasional flash of humour that lightens up Lydgate's London
Lackpcnny. Yet Occleve has at least the negative virtue of
knowing the limits of his powers. He says simply what he
means, and does not affect what he does not feel. A Londoner,
to whom the country was evidently a bore, he has not afiOicted
us with artificial May mornings; and it is doubtful whether a
single reference to nature can be found among his poems. He
has yet another distinction among his contemporaries: he wrote
no allegory. Whether wc ascribe it to his lack of ** engine," or
to the influence of Chaucer when in his later years he had dis-
covered the limitations of this poetic form, we cannot but be
grateful to the poet who has spared us. As a metrist Occleve is
ako modest of his powers. He confesses that
Fader Chaucer fayn wolde han me taught.
But I was dul and learned lite or naught :
and it is true that the scansion of his verses seems occasionally
to require, in French fashion, an accent on an unstressed syllable.
Yet his seven-line (or rime royale) and eight-line stanzas, to which
he limited himself, are perhaps more frequently reminiscent of
Chaucer's rhythm than are those of Lydgate.
A poem, " Ad bcatam Virginem," generally known as the " Mother
of God," and once attributed to Chaucer, is copied among Occleve's
works in MS. Phillipps 8151 (Cheltenham), and may thus be rcffardcd-
as his work. Occleve found an admirer in the 1 7th century in William
Browne, who included his " Jonathas " in the Shepkeards Pipe
(1 614). Browne added a eulogy of the old poet, whose works he
intended to publish in their entirety {Works, cd. W. C. Hazlitt,
1869. ii. 196-198). In 1796 George Mason printed six Pixms by
Thomas HouUve never before printed . . . ; *' Dc Rcgimine Prin-
cipum " was printed for the Roxburehe Club in i860, and by the
Early English Text Society in 1897. Sec Dr F. J. Fumivall's mtro-
ductfon to HoccUte's Works; I. The Minor Poems, in the Phillipps
MS. 8151, and the Durham MS. J J J. 9 (Early English Text Society.
1892). (W.S. M.)
OCCULTATION (from Lat. occuUare, the frequentative of
ccCMlerCf to hide), in astronomy, the hiding of one celestial body
by another passing in front of it; commonly the passage of the
moon or of a planet between the observer and a star or another
planet.
OCEAN AND OCEANOGRAPHY. "Ocean" is the name
I4>plied to the great connected sheet of water which covers the
greater part of the surface of the Earth. It is convenient to
divide the subject-matter of physical geography into the atmo-
sphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere, and in this sense the ocean
is less than the hydrosphere in so far as the latter term includes
also the water lying on or flowing over the surface of the land.
The conception of an encompassing ocean bounding the habitable
world is found in the creation myths of the most ancient civiliza-
tions. The Babylonians looked on the world as a vast round
mountain rising from the midst of a universal sheet of water.
In the Hebrew scriptures the waters were gathered together in
one place at the word of God, and the dry land appeared. The
Ionian geographers looked on the circular d'sk of the habitable
world as surrounded by a mighty stream named Oceanus, the
name of the primeval god, father of gods and men, and thus the
bond of union between heaven and earth The Greek word
AKtoP^ is related to the Sanskrit aqdyanaSf " the encompassing."
Philologists do not know of any related word in Semitic languages.
Pictet, however, recognizes allied forms in Celtic languages, «.g.
the Irish aigean and Cymric eigiawn.
Since the Pythagorean school of philosophy upheld the
spherical as against the disk-shaped world, some of the ancient
geographers, including Eratosthenes and Strabo, looked upon
the hydrosphere as forming two belu at right angles to each
other, one belt of ocean following the equator, the other sur-
roimding the earth from pole to pole as in the terra quadrifida
of Macrobius; while others, including Aristotle and Ptolemy,
looked upon the inhabited land, or oikumene, as occupying the
greater part of the earth's surface, so that the Indian Ocean
was an enclosed sea and India (t.e. eastern Asia) was only
separated from Europe by the Atlantic Ocean. The latter view
prevailed and was as a rule held by the Arab geographers of the
middle ages, so that until the discovery of America and of the
Pacific Ocean the belief was general that the land surface was
greater than the water surface, or that at least the two were
equal, as Mercator and Varenius held. Thus it was that a great
South Land appeared on the maps, the belief in the prodigious
extension of which certainly received a severe shock by Abel
Tasman's voyage of circtminavigation, but was only overthrown
after Cook's great voyages had proved that any southern land
which existed could not extend appreciably beyond the polar
circle. Only in our own day has the existence of the southern
continent been demonstrated within the modest limits of
Antarctica.
Oceanography is the science which deals with the ocean, and
since the ocean forms a large part of the earth's surface oceano-
graphy is a large department of geography. The science is
termed talassografia by the Italians, and attempts have been
made without success to introduce the name " thalassography."
Of recent years the use of " hydrography " as the equivalent of
physical oceanography has acquired a certain currency, but as
the word is also used with more than one other meaning (see
Surveying) it ought not to be used for oceanography.
Like geography, oceanography may be viewed in two different
ways, and is conveniently divided into general oceanography,
which deals with phenomena common to the whole ocean, and
special oceanography, which has to do with the individual
characteristics of the various divisions of the ocean. This article
is restricted to general oceanography in its physical aspects,
the closely-related meteorological, biological and economic
aspects being dealt with elsewhere.
Melkods of Research. — When research in oceanography began,
the conditions of the sea were of necessity observed only from
the coast and from islands, the information derived from mariners
as to the condition of parts of the sea far from land being for the
most part mere anecdotes bearing on the marvellous or the
frightfuL In recent times, especially since the rapid increase
in the study of the exact sciences during the 19th century,
observations at sea with accurate instruments have become
common, and the ships' logs of to-day are provided with headings
for entering daily observations of the phenomena of the sea-
surface. The contents of the sailors' scientific logs were brought
together by the American enthusiast in the study of the sea,
Matthew Fontaine Maury (1806-1873), whose methods and
plans were discussed and adopted at international congresses held
in Brussels in 1853 and in London in 1873. By 1904 more than
6800 of these meteorological logs with 7,000,000 observations
had been accumulated by the Meteorological Office in London;
20,000 with 10,600,000 observations by the German Marine
Observatory at Hamburg; 4700 with 3,300,000 observations
by the Central Institute of the Netherlands at de Bilt near
Utrecht. The Hydrographic Office of the United States had
collected 3800 meteorological logs with 3,300,000 entries before
1888; but since that time the logs have contained only one
observation daily (at Greenwich noon) and of these 2,380,000
entries had been received by 1904. In the archives of the French
Marine in Paris there were 3300 complete logs with 830,000
entries and 1 1 ,000 abstract logs from men-of-war. The contents
of these logs, it is true, refer more to maritime meteorology than
to oceanography properly so-called, as ihcu main purpose is 10
promote a rational system of navigation espedaUy for sailing
ships, and they are supplied by the voluntary GO-operation of
the sailors themselves.
While the sailors' logs supply the greater part of the scientific
evidence available for the study of the surface phenomena of the
ocean, they have been supplemented by the records of numerous
scientific expeditions and latterly by publications embodying
systematic observations on a permanent basis. Valuable
observations were made in oceanography during the expeditions
of Captain James Cook and the polar explorers, especially those
of Sir John Ross in the north and Sir James Ross in the south,
but the voyage of H.M.S. " Challenger " in 1873-1876 formed an
epoch marking the end of the older order of thLags and the begin-
ning of modem oceanography as a science of precision. The
telegraph cable companies were quick to apply and to extend
the oceanographical methods useful in cable-laying, and to
their practical acuteness many of the most important improve-
ments in apparatus are due. A second epoch comparable to
that of the Challenger " and resulting like it in a leap forward
in the precision of the methods previously emplo3red was marked
by the institution in 1 901 of the International Council for the
Study of the Sea. This council was nominated by the govern-
ments of Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Finland, Russia, Germany,
Great Britain, Holland and Belgium, with headquarters in
Copenhagen and a central laboratory at Christiania, and its aim
was to furnish data for the improvement of the fisheries of the
North Sea and surrounding waters. In the course of investigating
this special problem great improvements were made in the
methods of observing in the deep sea, and also in the representa-
tion and discussion of the data obtained, and a powerful stimulus
was given to the study of oceanography in all the countries of
Europe. The efforts of individual scientific workers cannot as
a rule produce such results in oceanography as in other sciences,
but exceptions are found in the very special services rendered'by
the prince of Monaco, who founded the Oceanographical Institute
in Paris and the Oceanographical Museum in Monaco; and by
Professor Alexander Agassiz in the investigation of the Pacific.
Extent of the Ocean. — ^The hydrosphere covers nearly three-
quarters of the earth's surface as a single and continuous expanse
of water surrounding four great insular land-masses known as
the continenU of the Old World (Europe, Asia, Africa), America,
Australia and Antarctica. As we are still ignorant of the pro-
portions of land and water in the polar regions, it is only possible
to give approximate figures for the extent of the ocean, for the
position of the coast-lines is not known exactly enough to exclude
possible errors of perhaps several hundred thousand square miles
in estimates of the total area. Speaking generally, we may say
with confidence that water predominates in the unexplored north
polar area, and that it is very unlikely that new land of any great
extent exists there. On the other hand, recent Antarctic ex-
ptoration makes it practically certain that a great continent
surrounds the south pole with a total area considerably more
than Sir John Murray's estimate in 1894, when he assigned to
it an area of 9,000,000 sq. km. (3,500,000 sq. statute miles).
It is probable that the Antarctic continent measures about
13.000,000 sq. km. (5,000,000 sq. statute miles); and thus if we
accept Bessel's figure of 509,950,000 sq. km. (196,900,000 sq. m.)
for the whole surface of the sphere, there is a total land area of
148,820,000 sq. km. (57,460,000 sq. m.), and a total water area
of 361,130,000 sq. km. (139435,000 sq. m.), 39% of land and
71 % of water, or a ratio of i : 3-43.
Divisions of the Ocean. — The arrangement of the water surface
on the globe is far from uniform, the ocean forming 61 % of the
total area of the northern and 81% of that of the southern
hemisphere. Of the whole ocean only 43% (154*9 million sq.
km.) lies in the northern hemisphere and 57% (206-3 million
sq. km.) in the southern. If the globe is divided into hemispheres
by the meridians of 30* W. and x6o*' E., as is usual in atlases,
the eastern bemisphere^ to which the Old World belongs, has
6a % of its surface made up of water, while the western hemi-
sphere, including America, has 81%. A great* circle can be
drawn upon a terrestrial globe in such a way as to divide it into
two hemispheres, one of which contains the greatest amoont of
land and the other the greatest amount of sea of any possible
hemispheres. The centre of the 80<alled land-hcmi^ihere lies
near the mouth of the Loire (47!* N. and 3}*' W.), whik the centre
of the so-called water-hemisphere lies to the S.E. of New Zealand
and eastward of Antipodes Island. Even in the land hcmispbere
the water area (x34*s million sq. km.) b in excess of the land area
(i3x million sq. km.), while in the water-hemisphere the amount
of land is quite insigiuficant, being only 24-5 million sq. km.
compared with 230*5 million sq. km. of water.
The outline of the water surface depends on the outline of the
basins in which it is contained, llie four great continental
masses therefore give the ocean a distinctly tripartite form,
the three great divisions being known as the Atlantic, the Indian
and the Pacific Oceans, all three running together into 00^
around Antarctica. Thus the connecting belt of water is narrow
as compared with the extent of the oceans from north to south —
Drake Strait south of South America is bardy 400 m. wide,
from Cape Agulhas to Enderby Land, 2200 m., and from
Tasmania to Wilkes Land, x 550 m., while the meridiaxial extension
of the Indian Ocean is 6200 m., of the Pacific, 9300 m., and of the
Atlantic, 12,500 m., measuring across the North Pole to Bering
Strait. These proportions are not readily grasped from a map
of the worid on Mercator's projection, and must be studied 00 a
globe. A simple, practical boundary between the three oceans
can be obtained by prolonging the meridian of the southern
extremity of each of the three southern continents to the Ant-
arctic circle. A committee of the Royal Geographical Society—
the deliberations of which were interrupted by the departure 00
his last voyage of Sir John Franklin, one of the memben — sug-
gested these meridians as boundaries; the north and south
boundaries of the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans being the poL&r
circles, leaving an Arctic and an Antarctic Ocean to complete the
hydrosphere. We now know, however, that the Antarctic cxrcte
runs so close to the coast of Antarctica that the Antarctic Ocean
may be left out of account. It h^ been found more coovcaieiu
to take as xiorthem boundaries the xunowest part of the straits
near the Arctic circle, Bering Strait on the Padfic side, and on
the Atlantic side the narrowest part of Davb Strait, and at
Denmark Strait, then the shortest line from Icelainl to the
Faeroes, thence to the most, northeriy island of the Shctlands
and thence to Cape Statland in Norway. It has also been found
convenient to take the boundary between the Atlantic aisl
Padfic, as the shortest line across Drake Strait, from Cape Hon
through Snow Island to Cape Guimar, instead of the meridias
of Cape Horn. Possibly ridges of the sea-bed running southward
from the southern continents may yet be discovered which would
form more natural bouiklaries than the meridians. The com-
mittee of the Royal Geographical Society settled the existisf
nomenclature of the three great oceans. Some authors tncls-vie
the Arctic Sea in the AtlanU'c Ocean, and some prefer to coBskkr
the southern part of the Atlantic, Indian and Padfic Oceans is
a Great Southern Ocean. Sir John Herschd took as the northe?:
boundary of the southern ocean the greatest drde which cock
touch the southernmost extremities of the three sooifaetn ex.?
tinents. Such a drde, however, runs so near the coast </
Antarctica as to make the southern ocean very smaU. Oiber^
like Malte Brun (1803) and Supan (1903), take the kncodroses
between the three capes and call the ocean to the south tbt
Antarctic Ocean. G. v. Bogusbwski suggested the parailri *
55* S. and Ratzd that of 40* S. as limits; but in none of ihcsc
schemes has the coast of Antarctica been adequately coosadc^r^
and they have all been too much influenced by the Idescatcc
map. Each of the three oceans, Atlantic, Indian and PMrir
possesses an Antarctic facies in the southern part and a tiofwc-
fades between the tropics, and the Atlantic and Padfic an Akzjl
facies in their northern parts.
Where the ocean touches the continents Ihe margin is in pbcT«
deeply indented by peninsulas and islands marking off poftsoBi
of the water surface which from all antiquity have been kix^vt
as " seas." These seas are entirely dependent on the ocean i^
their regime, being filled with ocean water, though SBbjea .»
OCEAN AND OCEANOGRAPHY
969
influence by the land, and the tides and currents of the ocean
aflfct them to a greater or less extent. They owe their origin
to depressions of the earth's crust of no very wide extent and not
running very far into the continental mass, and geologically they
are of recent age and still subject to change. In these respects
they contrast with the great oceans which owe their origin
to the most extensive and the profoundest depressions of the
crust, date back at least to Mesozoic times, and have perhaps
remained permanently in their present position from still remoter
ages.
Seas may be classified according to their form either as " eti-
dosed " or as " partially enclosed " (or " fringing "). Enclosed
seas extend deeply into the land and originate either by the
breaking through of the ocean or by the overflowing of a subsidiUig
area. They are connected with the ocean by narrow straits,
the salinity of the water contained in them differs in a marked*
degree from that of the ocean, and the tidal waves are of small
amplitude. Four great intercontinental enclosed seas are
included between adjacent continents—the Arctic Sea, the Central
American or West Indian Sea, the Australo- Asiatic or Malay Sea
and the Mediterranean Sea. There are also four smaller con-
tinental enclosed seas each with a single channel of communica-
tion with the ocean, viz. the Baltic Sea and Hudson Bay with very
low salinity,, the Red Sea and Persian Gulf with very high
salinity.
The fringing or partially enclosed seas adjoin the great land
masses and are only separated from the oceans by islands or
peninsulas. Hence their tidal conditions are quite oceanic,
though their salinity is usually rather lower than that of ocean
water. The four fringing seas of eastern Asia, those of Bering,
Okhotsk, Japan and East China, are arranged parallel to the
main lines of dislocation in the neighbouring land-masses, and
90 are the Andaman Sea and the Gulf of California. On the
contrary, the North Sea, the British fringing seas (English
Channel, Irish Sea and Minch), and the Gulf of St Lawrence
cross the main lines of dislocation.
In addition to these seas notice must be taken of the sub-
ordinate marginal features, such as gulfs and straits. Gulfs
may be classified according to their origin as due to fractures
of the crust or overflowing of depressed lands. The former are
either the extensions of oceanic depressions, e.g. the Arabian
Sea, Bay of Bengal and Gulf of Arica, or such caldron-depressions
as the Gulfs of Genoa and Taranto, or rift depressions like the
Gulfs of Aden and Akaba. Compound gulfs are formed sea-
wards by fraaure and landwards by the overflowing of depressed
land, e.g. the Bay of Biscay, Gulf of Alaska and Gulf of the Lion.
Gulfs formed by the overflowing of depressed lands lie upon the
continental shelf, e.g. the Gulf of Maine, Bay of Fundy, Bay of
Odessa, Gulf of Martaban.
Straits have been formed (i) by fracture across isthmuses,
and such may be by longitudinal fracture as in the Strait of
Bab-el-Mandeb, or transverse fracture as in the Strait of
Gibraltar or Cook Strait; (2) by erosion, e.g. the Strait of Dover,
the Dardanelles and Bosporus; (3) by overflowing through
the subsidence of the land, as in the straits of Bering, Torres
and Formosa.
Surface of the Ocean. — If the whole globe were covered with
a uniformly deep ocean, and if there were no diflercncc of density
between one part and another, the surface would form a perfect
ellipsoid of . revolution, that is to say, all the meridians would
be exactly equal eUipses and all parallels perfect circles. At
any point a sounding line would hang in the line of the radius
of curvature of the water surface. But as things are the water-
surface is broken by land, and the mean density of the substance
of the land is 3*6 times as great as that of sea- water, so that
the gravitational attraction of the land must necessarily cause
a heaping up of the sea around the coasts, forming what has
been called the continental wave, and leaving the sea-level
lower in mid-ocean. Hence the geoid or figure of the sea-surface
is not part of an ellipsoid of rotation but Is irregular. The
differences of level between different parts of the geoid have
been greatly overestimated in the past: F. G. Helmert has
shown that they cannot exceed 6so ft. and are probably much
less. Recent pendulum observations have shown that it is
Incorrea to assimie a uniform density of 3-6 in the elevated
part of the earth's crust, that on the contrary there are great
local differences in density, the most important being a con-
firmation of Airy's discovery that there is a marked deficiency
of mass under high mountains and a marked excess under the
bed of the ocean. The intensity of gravity at the surface of
the sea far from land has been measured on several occasions.
During Nansen's expedition on the " Fram " in 1894-1895, Scott
Hansen nuidc observations with a Stemeck's half-seconds
pendulum on the ice where the sea was more than 1600 fathoms
deep and found only an insignificant deviation from the number
of swings corresponding to a normal elUpsoid. In 1901 O.
Hecker took the opportunity of a voyage from Hamburg to La
Plata, and in 1904 and 1905 of voyages in the Indian and Pacific
Oceans to determine the local attraction over the ocean by
comparing the atmospheric pressure measured by means of a
mercurial barometer and a boiling-point thermometer, and
obtained results similar to Scott Hansen's. The inequalities
of the geoid in no case exceed 300 ft. Distortion of the ocean
surface may also arise from meteorological causes, and be
periodic or unperiodic in its occurrence, but it does not amount
to more than a few feet at the utmost. Solar radiation warms
the tropical more. than the polar waters, but, assuming equal
salinity, this cause would not account for a difference of level
of more than 30 ft. between tropical and polar seas. The annual
range of temperature between summer and winter of a surface
layer of water about 35 fathoms thick in the Baltic is as much
as 30** F., but this only corresponds to a difference of level of
i\ in. due to expansion or contraction.
Atmospheric precipitation poured into the sea by the great
rivers must necessarily create a permanent rise of the sea-level
at their mouths, and from this cause the level round the coasts
of rainy lands must be greater than in mid-ocean. H. Mohn
has shown how the inequalities of what he terms the density-
surface can be found from the salinity and temperature; and
he calcxilatcs that the level of the Skagcrrak should be about
3 ft. higher than that of the open Norwegian Sea between Jan
Mayen and the Lofoten Islands. The level of the Gulf of Finland
at Kronstadt and of the Gulf of Bothnia at Haparanda should
similarly be 15 in. higher than that of the Skagerrak. Recent
Icvellings along the Swedish and Danish coasts have confirmed
the higher level of the Baltic; and the level of the Mediterranean
has also been determined by exact measurements to be from
1 5 to 34 in. lower than that of the Atlantic on account of evapora-
tion. Apart from the effects of varying precipitation and
evaporation the atmosphere affects sea-lcvcl also by its varying
pressure, the difference in level of the sea-surface from this
cause between two given points being thirteen times as great
as the difference between the corresponding readings of the
mercurial barometer. In the north tropical belt of high pressure
south of the Azores the atmospheric pressure in January is
087 in. higher than in the Irminger Sea; hence the sea-level
near the Azores is almost i ft. lower than in the northern sea.
In the monsoon region, where the barometer rises 038 in.
between July and January, the level of the sea falls in consequence
by 5 in. Wind also gives rise to differences of level by driving
the water before it, and the prevailing westerly wind of the
southern Baltic is the chief cause of the sea-level at Kiel being
5} in. lower than at Arkona on Rtigen. Periodic variations
of level due to meteorological causes account for the Baltic
being fuller in the time of the summer rains than in winter,
when the rivers and lakes are frozen and most of the precipitation
on the land is in the form of snow. The range on the Arkona
gauge is from 3-5 in. below mean level in April to 2-75 in. above
the mean level in August. A similar range occurs on the Dutch
coast in the North Sea, where the maximum level is reached in
October, the month of highest rainfall, and there is a range of
8 In. to the minimum level at the time of least rainfall in early
spring. In the monsoon regions the half-yearly change from
on-shore to off-shore winds produces ikoVvceaXAe difiLtiences in
levd; thus fifteen years' observations at Aden show a maximum
in May at the end of the north-east monsoon, and a rapid falling
off after the beginning of the south-west monsoon to a minimum
in August, the total range being g} in. The influence of wind
on water-level is most remarkable in heavy storms on the flat
coasts of the North Sea and Baltic, when the rise may amount
to very many feet. In the region of tropical hurricanes the
converging wind system of a circular storm causes a heaping
up of water capable of devastating the low coral islands of the
Pacific. On the ist of November 1876 a cyclone acting in this
way submerged a great area of the level plain of the Ganges
delta to a depth Of 46 ft.; here the influence of the difference
of pressure within and without the cyclone acted in the same
direction as the wind. The old speculations as to a great differ-
ence of level between the Mediterranean and the Red Sea, and
on the two sides of the Isthmus of Panama, which hindered the
projects for canals connecting those waters, have been proved
by modem levelling of high precision to be totally erroneous.
Deep-sea Soundings. — ^The hand-lead attached to a line
divided into fathoms was a well-known aid to navigation even
in high antiquity, and iu use is mentioned in Herodotus (ii. 5)
and in the Acts of the Apostles (xxvii. 39). Greater depths
than those, usually sounded by a hand-line may possibly not have
been beyond the reach of the earlier navigators, for Strabo
says " of measured seas the Sardonian is the deepest with fuU
one thousand fathoms " (i. 3, p. 53 Cas.). Yet we find that the
great discoverers of the modem period were only familiar with
the hand-lead, and the lines in use did not exceed 300 fathoms
in length. Ingenious devices had indeed been tried in the 17th
century and earlier, by which a lead thrown into the sea without
a line detached a float on striking the bottom, and it was proposed
to calculate the depth by the time required for the float to re-
appear. The earliest deep-sea sounding on record is that of
Captain Phipps on the 4th of September 1773 in the Norwegian
Sea, in 65^ N. 3** E., on his return from his expedition to Spits-
bergen. He spliced together all the sounding-lines on board,
and with a weight of 150 lb attached he found bottom in 683
fathoms and secured a sample of fine soft blue mud. He detected
the moment of the lead touching the bottom by the sudden
slackening in the rate at which the line ran out. Polar explorers
frequently repeated those experiments in deep-sea soundings,
both William Scoresby and Sir John Ross obtaining notable
results, though not reaching depths of more than x 200 fathoms.
The honour of first sounding really oceanic depths belongs to
Sir James Clark Ross, who made some excellent measurements
in very deep water, though in a few instances he overestimated
the depth by failing to detect the moment at which the lead
touched bottom. The pursuit of these isolated investigations
received a great impetus from the enthusiasm of the great Ameri-
can oceanographer Captain Matthew Fontaine Maury, U.S.N.,
who directed the whole impetuous strength of his character to
the task of compelling the silent depths of the ocean to tell their
tale. Instead of the expensive mile-long stout hemp lines used
by Ross, Maury introduced a ball of strong twine attached to a
cannon shot, which ran it out rapidly; when the bottom was
reached the twine was cut and the depth deduced from the length
of string left in the ball on board. The time of touching bottom
was judged by timing each xbo-fathom mark and noting the
sudden increase in the time interval When the shot reached the
bottom. Maury, however, recognized that in great depths
the surest guarantee of bottom having been reached was to bring
up a sample of the deposit. To do this with a heavy lead
attached required a very strong hemp line, and the twine used
in the American method was useless for this purpose. In 1854
J. M. Brooke, a midshipman of theU.S.N., invented the principle
already foreshadowed by Nicolaus Cusanus in the isth century
and by Robert Hooke in the 17th, of using a heavy weight so
hung on the sounding-tube that it was automatically released
on striking the bottom and left behind, while the light brass tube
containing a sample of the deposit was easily hauled up. This
principle has been adopted universally for deep soundings, and
is now applied in many forms. In 1855 Maury published
the first chart of the depths of the Atlantic between 52* N. and
xo° S. At this period an exact knowledge of the depths of the ocean
assumed an unlooked-for practical importance from the daring
project for laying a telegraph cable between IrelazKl and
Newfoundland. Deep soundings were made in the Allaniic
for this purpose by vessels both of the British and of the Americaa
navies, while in the Mediterranean and in the Indian Ocean
many soundings were made in connexion with subnuriu
cables to the East. Another stimulus came from the biologists,
who began to realize the importance of a more detailed investiga-
tion of the life conditions of organisms at great depths in the
sea. The lead in this direction was taken by British biologisis,
beginning with Edward Forbes in 1839, and in 186S a party oa
board H.M.S. " Lightning " pursued researches in the waters
to the north of Scotland. In 1869 and 1870 this work was
extended to the Irish Sea and Bay of Biscay in H.M.S. ** Por-
cupine," and to the Mediterranean in H.M.S. " Shearwater."
The last-named vessel secured X57 trustworthy deep soundings,
with samples of the deposits, and also observations of temperature
and salinity in different depths, as well as dredgings for the
collection of the organisms of the deep sea.
These preliminary trips of scientific marine investigatton were
followed by the greatest piirely scientific expedition ever uzMkr-
taken, the voyage of H.M.S. " Challenger " round the world
under the scientific direction of Sir Wyville Thomson and the
naval command of Sir George Nares. This epoch-making
ex[>edition lasted from Christmas 1872 to the end c^ May X876,
and gave the first wide and general view of the physical aiui
biological conditions of the ocean as a whole. Almost simul-
taneously with the " Challenger," a German expedition in S.M^.
" Gazelle " conducted observations in the South Atlantic, Indian
and South Pacific Oceans; and the U.S.S. " Tuscarora " made a
cruise in the North Pacific, sounding out lines for a projected
Pacific cable. The successor of Sir Wyville Thomson in the
editorship of the " Challenger " Reports, Sir John Murray, has
rightly said that since the days of Columbus and Magellan 00
such revelation regarding the surface of our planet had tMcn
made as in that eighth decade of the 19th century. Since that
time the British cable-ships have been busy in all the occaits
making sections across the great expanses of water with e\-er-
increasing accuracy, and in that work the government surveying
ships have also been engaged, vast stretches of the Indian and
Pacific Oceans having been opened up to knowledge by H.M.SS.
"Egeria," " Waterwitch," "Dart," "Penguin," "Stork,"
and "Investigator." American scientific enterprise, mainly
under the guidance of Professor Alexander Agassiz, has been
active in the North Atlantic and especially in the Pacific Ocean,
where very important investigations have been made. The
eastem part of the North Atlantic has been the scene of many
expeditions, often purely biological in their purpose, amongst
which there may be mentioned the cmises of the " Travaflkur *
and " Talisman " under Professor Milne-Edwards in 18S0-1S83,
and since 1887 those of the prince of Monaco in his yachts, as
well as numerous Danish vesels in the sea between Iceland ai^i
Greenland, conspicuous amongst which were the expediiiocs
in 1896-1898 on board the " Ingolf." The Norwegian Sea was
studied by the Norwegian expedition on board the " VOringrn '
in 1876-1878, and the north polar basin by Nansen and Sverdn^
in the " Fram " in 1 893-1896, the Mediterranean by the ItaBacs
on the " Washington " and by the Austrians on the ^^ Pola "
in X890-1893, the latter carrying the investigations to the Rrd
Sea in 1 895-1 898, while the Russians investigated tbe Bbbci
Sea in X890-1893. For high southern latitudes special \-x\ji
attaches to the soundings of the German deep-sea expediii^ -
on the " Valdivia " in 1 898-1899, and to those of the " Belgka "
in 1897-1898, the " Gauss " in 1903-1903, and the '* Scotia *
in 1 903- 1 904. The soundings of the Dutch expedition en
the " Siboga " during 1899-1900 in the eastem part of t^
Malay seas and those of the German surveying ship *' Planet "
fn 1906 in the South Atlantic, Indian and North Pacific Ocras&
were notable, and Sir John Murray's expedition on the '* Mkhaai
SaiS " in the Atlantic in 1910 obtained important results.
OCEAN AND OCEANOGRAPHY
971
Modem surveying ships no longer milce use of hempen lines
with enormously heavy sinkers, such as were employed on the
" Challenger/' but they sound instead with steel piano wire
not more than ^t to Vs of an inch in diameter and a detachable
lead seldom weighing more than 70 lb. The soundings are made
by means of a special machine fitted with a brake so adjusted
that the revolution of the drum is stopped automatically the
instant the lead touches the bottom, and the depth can then be
read directly from an indicator. The line is hauled in by a steam
or electric winch, and the sounding-tube containing a sample
of the bottom depq^t is rapidly brought on board. The sounding
machines most frequently employed are those of Admiral
C. D. Sigsbee, U.S.N., of Lucas, which was perfected in the
Telegraph Construction and Maintenance Company's ships,
and of the Prince of Monaco, constructed by Leblanc of Paris.
All attempts to dispense with a lead and line and to measure
the depth by determining the pressure at the bottom have
hitherto failed when applied to depths greater than 200 fathoms;
m new hydraulic manometer has been tried on board the German
surveying ship " Planet." A. Siemens has pointed out that a
profile of the sea-bed can be delineated by taking account of
the varying strain on a submarine cable while it is being bid,
and the average depth of a section can thus be ascertained with
some accuracy. All deep-sea measurements arc subject to
uncertainty because the sounding machine merely measures
the length of wire which runs out before the lead touches
bottom, and this agrees with the depth only when the wire is
perpendicular throughout its run. It is improbable, however,
that the smooth and slender wire is much influenced by currents,
and the best deep-sea soundings may be taken as accurate to
within 5 fathoms.
Relief of the Ocean Floor. — Recent soundings have shown
that the floor of the ocean on the whole lies some 3 or 3 m.
beneath the surface, and O. Kriimmcl has calculated the mean
depth to be aoio fathoms (12,060 ft.)» while the mean elevation
of the surface of the continents above sea-level is only 2300 ft.
Viewed from the floor of the ocean the continental block would
thus appear as a great plateau rising to a height of 14.360 ft.
Nevertheless, the greatest depths of the ocean below sca-levcl
and the greatest heights of the land above it arc of the same order
of magnitude, the summit of Mount Everest rising to 29,000 ft.
above the sea-level, while the Nero Deep near Guam sinks to
51,600 ft. (5268 fathoms) below sea-level. Of course the area
at great heights is very much less than the area at corre-
sponding depths. Above the height of 15,000 ft. there
are 800,000 sq. km. (310,000 sq. m.), and below the
depth of 15,000 ft. there are 120,000,000 sq. km. (46,300,000
aq. m.); above the height of 20,000 ft. there arc on the whole
surface of the earth only 33,000 sq. km. (12,800 sq. m.),
while below the depth of 20,000 ft. there are no less than
5^00,000 sq. km. (2,100,000 sq. m.). According to KrUmmcl's
calculation the areas of the ocean beyond various depths are
as follows: —
Fathoms.
sq. km.
sq. St. m.
More than
100
350.500.000
135.300.000
500
319.500.000
123,400.000
1000
3oi.o0o.000
276.500.000
117.400.000
iSoo
106.800,000
215.000,000
83.000.000
2500
120,000.000
46.300,000
3000
22.500.000
8.700.000
3500
3,000.000
1,200.000
4000
1 .200.000
460.000
On the whole the floor of the ocean is very smooth in its
contours, and great stretches can almost be called level. Modem
orometry has introduced the calculation of the mean angle of
the slope of a given uneven surface provided that maps can
be prrpaied showing equidistant contour lines. If the distance
between the contour lines is h and the length of the individual
contour lines /. the sum of their lengths S (/), and A the area
of the surface under investigation, then the mean angle of
slope is obtained from the equation
.i|5.
Calculating from sheet A I of the Prince of Monaco's Atlas of
Ocean DeptkSt^ Kriimmel obtained a mean angle of slope of
o® 27' 44* or an average fall of 1 in 124 for the North Atlantic
between o** and 47** N., the enclosed seas being left out of account.
In the same way a mean angle of slope of approximately half a
degree was found for the Adriatic and the Black Sea. Large
angles of slope may, however, occur on the flanks of oceanic
islands and the continental borders. On the submarine slopes
leading up to isolated volcanic islands angles of 15° to 20** are
not uncommon, at St Helena the slopes run up to 38}** and
even 40*, at Tristan d'Acunha to ^^Y*. E. Hull found a mean
angle of slope of 13® to 14® for the edge of the continental shelf
off the west coast of Europe, and off Cape Torifiana(43''4'N.)
as much as 34^ Where the French telegraph cable between
Brest and New York passes from the continental shelf of the
Bay of Biscay to the depths of the Atlantic the angle of slope is
from 30^ to 41°. Such gradients are of a truly mountainous
character, the angle of slope from the Eibsee to the Zugspitze
is 30°, and that from Alpiglen station to the summit of the
Eiger is 42^ Particularly steep slopes are found in the case of
submarine domes, usually incomplete volcanic cones, and there
have been cases in which after such a dome has been discovered
by the soundings of a surveying ship it could net be found again
as its whole area was so small and the deep floor of the ocean
from which it rose so flat that an error of 2 or 3 m. in the position
of the ship would prevent any irregularity of the bottom from
appearing. While such steep mountain walls arc found in the
bed of the ocean it must be remembered that they are very
exceptional, and except where there are great dislocations of
the submarine crust or volcanic outbursts the forms of the ocean
floor are incomparably gentler in their outlines than those of
the continents. Being protected by the water from the rapid
subaerial erosion which sharpens the features of the land, and
subjected to the regular accumulation of deposits, the whole
ocean floor has assumed some approach to uniformity. Still
there are everywhere gentle inequalities on the smoothest ocean
floor which give to its greater features a distinct relief.
In spite of the increase of deep-sea soundings in the last few
decades, they are still very irregularly distributed in the open
ocean, and the attempt to draw isobaths (lines of equal depth)
on a chart of the world is burdened with many diincultics which
can only be evaded by the widest generalizations. Bearing this
caution in mind the existing bathymetrical charts, amongst which
that of the prince of Monaco stands first, give a very fair idea of
the great features of the bed of the oceans. A definite termin-
ology for the larger forms of sub-oceanic relief was put forward
by the International Geographical Congress at Berlin in 1899
and adopted by that at Washington in 1004. Equivalent
terms, which are not necessarily identical or literal translations,
were adopted for the English, French and German languages,
the equivalence being closest and most systematic between the
English and German terms.
The larger forms designated by special generic terms include
the following. The continental shelf is the gentle slope which
extends from the edge of the land to a depth usually about 100,
though in some cases as much as 300 fathoms, and is there
demarcated by an abrupt increase in the steepness of the slope
to ocean depths. In the deep sea two types of feature are
recognized under the general names of depression and elcvaticn.
The depression is distinguished according to form and slope
as (1) a basin when of a roughly round outUtvc, {2) a (rough
when wide and elongated, or (3) a trench vjVctv narrow and
elongated lying along the edge of a conli^^^tvX. T\\c extension
of a basin or trough stretching towards live cQuVvcvtTvV \% uimcd
an embaymenl when relatively wide and ^ «'^^^ 't^'^v '"''"^'r'.
Theelevation includes(,)the gently s^.eWvi>V™trrs^^^
» Carle gfnirale balkymftrique des ocean s dyC^ ooSk>
U Prince Albert de A/owoco, 24 sheets CP^r\»^ t *^
972
OCEAN AND OCEANOGRAPHY
troughs and basins in the middle of the ocean, (2) the steeply
sloping ridge which interposes a narrower barrier between two
depressions, and (3) the gateau or wide elevation rising steeply
on ail sides from a depression. The deepest port of a depression
is termed a deep^ and the highest part of an elevation when not
reaching the surface a keiglU. In addition to these larger forms
a few minor forms must be recognized. Amongst these are the
dome^ an isolated elevation rising steeply but not coming within
100 fathoms of the surface; the bankf an elevation coming
nearer the surface than 100 fathoms, but not so near as 6 fathoms;
and finally the shoal or reef^ which comes within 6 fathoms of
the surface, and so may constitute a danger to shipping. Similarly
we may note the caldron or small steep depression of a roimd out-
line, and the furrow or long narrow groove in the continental
shelf.
According to tlie resolutions of the International Geographical
Congress the larger individual forms which have been described
by generic terms shall have specific names of a purely geo-
graphical character; but in the case of the minor forms the
names of ships and persons are considered applicable^ In 1899
A. Supan published a chart of the oceans with a suggested
nomenclature based on these principles; and the larger forms in
the Prince of Monaco's great chart also are named in accordance
with the rule. Although put forward by the highest inter-
national authority recognized by geographers the system of
nomenclature has not been adopted universally. In partiadar
Sir John Murray considers that only deeps exceeding 3000
fathoms in depth should be named, and in his charts he has
named these deeps after persons whether the individuals thus
honoured had themselves discovered or explored the deeps in
question or not. Some of the " deeps " to which names have
been given disappear or are divided into two or three smaller
deeps when the contour h'nes representing hundreds of fathoms
are translated into contour lines representing hundreds of
metres. A similar change in the contour lines may result from
the substitution of lines in fathoms for those originally drawn
in metres, and hence it is extremely desirable that specific
names should only be given to such features as are pronounced
enough to appear on maps drawn with either unit. For the
sake of uniformity it is to be hoped that the system of nomen-
clature recommended by the International Geographical Congress
will ultimately be adopted.
The continental shelves are parts of the great continental
blocks which have been covered by the sea in comparatively
recent times, and their surface consequently presents many
similarities to that of the land, modified of course by the de-
structive and constructive work of the waters. Waves and tidal
currents produce their full effects in that region, and in high
latitudes the effect of transport of materials by ice is very
important; while in the warm water of the tropics the reef-
building animals and plants (corals and calcareous algae) carry
on their work most effectively there. The continental shelves
include not only the oceanic border of the continents but also
great areas of the enclosed seas and particularly of the fringing
seas, the origin of which through secular subsidence is often very
dearly apparent, as for instance in the North Sea and the
tract lying off the mouth of the English Channel. A closer
investigation of the numerous long, narrow banks which h'e off
the Flemish coast and the Thames estuary shows that they are
composed of fragments of rock abraded and transported by tidal
currents and storms in the same way that the chalk and lime-
stone worn off from the eastern continuation of the island of
Heligoland during the last two centuries has been reduced to the
coarse gravel of the off-lying Ddne. Numerous old river valleys
and furrows entrenched in the continental shelf bear witness
to its land origin. Such valleys are very clearly indicated in
the belts of the western Baltic by furrows a thousand yards wide
and twenty to thirty fathoms deeper than the neighbouring
sea-bed. Amongst the best known of the furrows of the con-
tinenul shelf are the Cape Breton Deep, in the Bay of Biscay,
the Hudson Furrow, southward of New York, the so-called Congo
Cafion, the Swatch oi No Ground off the Ganges delta, the
Bottomless Pit off the Niger delta, and numerous similar fuirovs
on the west coast of North America and outside the fjords of
Norway, Iceland and the west of Scotland, as well as in the
Firth of Forth and Moray Firth.
The seaward edge of the continental shelf often falls steeply
to the greatest depths of the ocean, and not infrequently forms
the slope of a trenckf a form of depression which has usually a
steep slope towards a continent or an island-bearing rise on one
side and a gentler slope towards the general kvd of the ocean
on the other. All the greatest depths of ocean, Le, all aoucdings
exceeding 4000 fathoms, occur in trenches, and there are only a
few small trenches known (on the west coast of Centra! America)
in which the maximum depth is less than 3000 fathoms. Most
trenches are narrow, but of considerable length, and their steeper
side is believed to be due in every case to a great fracture of the
earth's crust. Strong evidence of this is afforded by the associa-
tion of some of the depressions, notably the Japan Trench and
the Atacama Trench, with the origin of frequent submarine
earthquakes. Troughs and rises are features of more frequent
occurrence and are best described as they occur in the particular
oceans.
In the Atlantic the prevailing meridianal direction of the shore
lines extends to the subnuuine features also. Captain Sherar^
Osbom in 1870 was the first to recognize that the North Atlantic
Basin was divided by a central rise running generally from north
to south into two parallel depressions. In 1876 the " CbaDenger "
expedition found that a similar configuration exists in the
South Atlantic also. As the result of all the deep-sea survej-s
now. available we know that the central rise of the Atlantic
starts from Iceland as the Reykjanes Ridge with less than 1000
fathoms of water over it in most parts and runs south-westward
until in 5x^ N. it widens into what was called by Mainy the
Telegraph Plateau. Continuing southwards the rise joins the
Azores PUiteau, which has in parts a very marked relief, ard
runs thence southward almost exactly in the middle of the
ocean, becoming gradually low^er as it goes. As far as 20'* N.
the depth over it is less than 1500 fathoms, thence to i a* N. the
depths are between xsoo and 3000 fathoms, and then it raes
again to about 1500 fathoms and runs eastwaird under the naiae
of the Equatorial Ridge. Crossing the equator in 13* W. the
rise resumes a southerly direction and from Ascension to Tnstaa
d'Actmha, the depth is in many phces less than 1500 fatfaocns.
The soundings of Br^ice's Antarctic expedition in the " Scotia "
showed that the rise cannot be traced beyond 55^ S. where the
depths increase rapidly to over 2000 fathoms. The whole ks^h
of the rise which divides the Atlantic into an eastern and 1
western basin may be taken as 7500 nautical miles. Betweea
30*'and 40" S. two lateral ridges diverge from the great AtJactic
rise, the Rio Grande ridge towards the north-west and the
Walfisch ridge towards the north-east. Ihe existextce of tix
latter, which extends to the African continent, was announcr-J
by Sir WyvOle Thomson in 1876 as a result of his discuscoa cs
the deep-sea temperatxire observations of the " Ghallenf^cr "
expedition, though the fact was not confirmed by soondiags
until many years later.
The West Atlantic Trough lying on the western side of the
Central Rise widens in the north into the North Amerkan Basis.
and its greatest depths appears to be in the Porto Rico Trench.
where in 1883 Capt. W. H. Brownson, U.S.N., obtained a sonndii^
of 4S6x fathoms in 19** 36' N., 66** 26' W. The Brazilian Basa
has also a large area lying at a depth greater than 2500 fatfa(K»
and culminates in the Romanche Deep close to the EquaKma!
Ridge in o** xi' S., x8* 15* W. with a depth of 4050 fathon&
The Eastern Atlantic Trough caimot boast of such great der^hs
though the Peake Deep with 3384 fathoms sinks abruptly froa
the Azores PUiteau in 43° 9' N., 19^ 45' W., and several soundir^
exceeding 2700 fathoms have been obtained in the Bay c£
Biscay east of the meridian of s^ E. The North African Bas:?
has several deeps with more than 3300 fathoms to the ncnh-
west and the south-west of the Cape Verde Islands, but the Soetb
African Basin is less deep. In the South Atlantic there is i»
connexion between the Central Rise and the Antarctic *^?>«*.
OCEAN AND OCEANOGRAPHY
973
for the Indo-AUantic Antarctic Basin stretches from near the
South Sandwich Islands towards Kcrguelen with depths ex-
ceeding 2500 fathoms and reaching in places 3x0a The Cape
Trough runs northward from this basin. It was long believed
on the strength of a sounding of " 4000 fathoms, no bottom "
reported by Sir James Ross in 68® 22' S., i a* 49' W., that the
Indo-Atlantic Basin was of enormous depth, but W. S. Bruce,
in the " Scotia," showed in 1904 that the real depth at that point
is only 2660 fathoms.
In the Indian Ocean the Kerguden Rise stretches broadly
southward, east of the island which gives it a name, to the
Antarctic Shelf with the greatest depths upon it usually less
than 20C0 fathoms, and it stretches northward beyond New
Amsterdam to 30** S. This rise is separated from the Crozet
Rise by a depression extending to 2675 fathom's, through which
the Kerguden Trough (which lies north of Kerguden) is brought
into free communication with the Indo-Atlantic Antarctic
Basin. The greater part of the Indian Ocean is occupied by
the great Indian Basin, which covers 3S,ooo,ooo sq. km.
(13,500,000 sq. m.) and extends from the Chagos Islands eastward
to Australia and south-eastward to Tasmania. The Australian
Shelf rises steeply as a rule from depths of 2500 to 3000 fathoms.
A broad depression with depths of from 3300 to 3500 fathoms
lies to the east of the Cocos Islands and extends into the angle
between the Malay Archipelago and Australia. On the north
this depression sinks into the long and narrow Sunda Trench
south of Java, and here in lo** 15^ S., xo8® 5' £., the German
surveying-ship " Planet " obtained a sounding of 3828 fathoms
in 1Q06. The Sunda Trench is distinguished by the wave-like
configuration of its floor, and this wave-like character is con-
tinued to the westward of Sumatra with islands rising from the
higher portions. The western part of the Indian Ocean has been
shown by the surveys of H.M.S. " Sealark " and the German
surveying-ship " Planet " to have a somewhat complicated
configuration, the island groups and banks of atolls which
occur there rising abruptly as a rule from depths of about 2000
fathoms or more. Between the Seychelles and Sokotra (o°-
9® N.) there are great stretches of the ocean floor forming an
almost level expanse at a depth of 2800 fathoms. The Arabian
Gulf and Gulf of Aden are also very uniform with depths of
about 1900 fathoms, while the floor of the Bay of Bengal rises
very gradually northwards and is xooo fathoms deep close up
to the Ganges Shelf.
The Pacific Ocean consists mainly of one enormous basin
bounded on the west by New Zealand and the Tonga, Marshall
and Marianne ridges, on the north by the festoons of islands
marking off the North Pacific fringing seas, on the east by the
coast of North America and the great Easter Island Rise and
on the south by the Antarctic Shelf. The total area of this
basin is about 80,000,000 sq. km. (30,000,000 sq. m.), its surface
being almost twice that of Asia. Half of this basin lies deeper
than 2750 fathoms, and the greater part of it belongs to the
northern hemisphere. From the floor of this vast and profound
depression numerous isolated volcanic cones rise with abrupt
slopes, and even between the islands of the Hawaiian group
there are depths of more than 2000 fathoms. The Society
Islands and Tahiti crown a rise coming within 1500 fathoms of
the surface, tv/o similar rises form the foundation of the Paumotu
group where Agassis found soundings of 2x87 fathoms between
?.f arokaa and Hao. This greatest of ocean basins contains
also the largest and deepest trenches. The Tuscarora Deep of
the Japan Trench (4655 fathoms in 44® 55' N., 152° 26' E.) was
famed for many years as the deepest depression of the earth's
crust. This great trench is continued along the Luchu Islands
where the cable-steamer " Stephan " sounded in 4080 fathoms,
and through the Bonin Trench (with a maximimi of 3595 fathoms)
to the famous Marianne Trench in which the U.S.S. " Nero "
in X899 found 5269 fathoms in X2* 43' N., X45*' 49' £., the greatest
depth yet measured. The northern part of the Marianne Trench
leads to a wave-like configuration of the ocean floor, the depth
to the east of Saipan being over 4300 fathoms, followed by
a rise to X089 fathoms and then a descent to 3x67 fathoms.
The trenches of Yap (4x22 fathoms) and Palau (Pelew) (4450
fathoms) are not immediatdy connected with that of Marianne.
To the east of the Philippines a soimding of 3490 fathoms is
found dose to the Strait of St Bernardino and north-east of
Talaut there is a trench with 4648 fathoms. To the north-east
the Japan Trench adjoins the Aleutian Trench, where a depth
of 4038 fathoms has been foimd south-west of Attu. Trenches
of great size also occur south of the equator. The Tonga and
Kermadec trenches, both deeper than 4000 fathoms, stretch
from the Samoa Islands southwards toward New Zealand for a
distance of x6oo nautical miles. The deepest sounding obtained
in the Tonga Trench is 5022 fathoms in 23" 39-4' S., 175" 4' W.,
and in the Kermadec Trench, $155 fathoms, 30" 27-7' S.,
X76' 39' W. The steep western sides of these trenches often
show an angle of slope of 7°.
The south-western part of the Pacific Ocean has a very rich
and diversified submarine relief, abounding in small basins
separated by ridges and rises. There arc no depths, however,
much exceeding 2500 fathoms amongst these depressions. The
south-eastern part of the Pacific is mainly occupied by the
Easter Island Rise with depths rarely so great as 2000 fathoms;
but close to the continent of South America the Atacama Trench
IS a typical example of the deepest form of depression culminating
with 4175 fathoms in 25® 42' S., 71*' 3x5' W. The Pacific
Antarctic Basin occupies the vast region south of 50** S. right
up to the Antarctic Shelf, with depths ranging down to 2500-
3000 fathoms, and commimicating with the main Pacific Basin
to the east of New Zealand.
The greatest of the intercontinental seas, the Arctic, comes
nearest to oceanic conditions in the extent and depth of its
depressions. The soundings of Nansen and Sverdrup on the
" Fram " expedition indicate that northward from the Siberian
Shelf the great North Polar Basin has an area of about 4,000,000
sq. km. (1,500,000 sq. m.) with depths down to 2200 fathoms.
A rise between Spitsbergen and Greenland separates the Nor-
wegian Trough (greatest depth 2005 fathoms in 68^ 21' N.,
2* 5' W.) which in turn is divided from the Atlantic by the
Wyville Thomson Ridge which runs between the Faeroe and
Shetland islands and is covered by only 314 fathoms of water at
the deepest point. The ridge across Denmark Strait west of
Iceland nowhere exceeds 300 fathoms in depth, so that the
deeper water of the North Polar Basin is effectively separated
from that of the Atlantic. A third small basin occupies Baffin
Bay and contains a maximum depth of 1050 fathoms. Depths
of from xoo to 300 fathoms are not uncommon amongst the
channels of the Arctic Archipdago north of North America,
and Bering Strait, through which the surface water of the Arctic
Sea meets that of the Pacific, is only 28 fathoms deep.
The Central American Sea communicates with the Atlantic
through the channels between the Antilles, none of which is
quite xooo fathoms deep, and it sinks to a depth of 2843 fathoms
in the Caribbean Basin, 3428 fathoms in the Cayman Trench
and 2080 fathoms in the Gulf of Mexico.
The Austral- Asiatic or Malay Sea is occupied by a great shelf
in the region west of Borneo and north of Java, while in the east
there are eight abruptly simk basins of widely different size.'
The China Sea on the north has a maximum depth of 2715
fathoms off the Philippines, the Sulu Basin reaches 2550 fathoms,
and the Celebes Basin 2795 fathoms. Some of the chaxmds
between the islands are of very great depth. Macassar Strait
exceeding xooo fathoms, the Molucca Passage exceeding 2000
fathoms, and the Halmahera Trough sinking as deep as 2575
fathoms. The deepest of all is the Banda Basin, a large area of
which lies bdow 2500 fathoms and reaches 3557 fathoms in the
Kd Trench. A depth of 2789 fathoms also occurs north of
Flores. The borders of the Malay Sea are everywhere shallower
on the side of the Indian Ocean than on that of the Padfic, and
consequently water from the Pacific preponderates in the
depths.
The Mediterranean Sea, the best-known member of the inter-
continental class, is separated from the Atlantic Ocean by a
ridge running from Cape Spartd to Cape Trafalgar on which
974
OCEAN AND OCEANOGRAPHY
the greatest depth is only 175 fathoms. The depth increases so
rapidly towards the east that soundings exceeding 500 fathoms
occur off Gibraltar. The Balearic Basin, between Spain and the
rise bearing Corsica and Sardinia, has a maximum depth of
1742 fathoms, and the Tyrrhenian Basin between that rise,
Italy and Sicily deepens to 2040 fathoms. The larger Eastern
Mediterranean Basin stretches eastward from Sicily with large
tracts more than 2000 fathoms below the surface, and the greatest
depth ascertained during the detailed researches of the Austrian
expedition on board the " Pola " was 2046 fathoms in 35^ 44*8'
N., 21° 468' E. The Adriatic Sea though very shallow in the
north deepens southward to about 900 fathoms, and the Aegean
Sea has a maximum depth of 1 230 fathoms north of Crete. The
Black Sea, connected with the Mediterranean by long and narrow
channeb, is occupied in the north by an extensive shelf on which
Mgan Depths of Oceans and Seas.
Depth.
Fathoms.
Area.
Volume.
I>iame.
sq. km.
sq. St. m.
cb. km.
cb. St. m.
Atlantic Ocean .
Indian Ocean
Pacific Ocean
2110
2148
2240
81,657,800
73441.960
165.715490
31,529.390
63!985'.370
314,821.680
288,527.610
678,837,190
75.533.900
69,225.200
162.870,600
I. Oceans ...
2186
320.815,250
123,871.910
1.282.186,480
307.629.700
Arctic Sea
Malay Sea
640
595
4.584.570
2.967,570
5.541.630
3.»37.2io
1.770.170
1.145.830
16,794.140
8.848,110
9.579.490
4.249,020
4.029400
2.122,900
2,298.400
I/)19400
Central American Sea
Mediterranean Sea
Intracontinental Seas
718
30,029,540
11.595.840
39470,760
9470.100
BahtcSca ...
Hudson Bay
Red Sea ...
Persian Gulf
30
14
406,720
1,222.610
458480
232.850
157.040
472.070
177.030
89,910
22.360
156.690
223,810
5.910
5.360
37.590
53.700
1420
Smaller Enclosed Stas
96
2,320,660
896.050
408.770
98.070
II. Enclosed Seas
674
32,350.200
12.490.890
39.879.530
9.568.170
Bering Sea . .
Okhotsk Sea
Japan Sea .
East China Sea .
Andaman Sea
Califomian Gulf
North Sea . .
Irish Sea . .
Laurcntian Sea .
Bass Sea
837
H
426
540
51
34
70
39
2,274,800
1.507.610
1,043,820
1,242,480
790.550
166,790
571.910
213.380
219.300
83.170
878.340
582,110
403.040
479.740
305.240
64,400
220,820
84.670
32.110
3.286,230
1,895.100
1.597.040
219.820
615.910
164.590
53.730
n.320
28.100
6/)20
788.500
454.700
383.200
52.700
147.770
39490
12,890
3.200
6.740
1440
HI. Fringing Seas
53»
8,113,810
3,132,860
7,879.860
1.890.630
Seas (Enclosed and Fringing) .
645
40,464,010
15.623.750
47.759.390
11,458.800
Hydrosphere ....
2013
361,279,160
139495.660
1.329.945.870
319.087,500
lies the extremely shallow Gulf of Azov; but the greater part of
the sea consists of a deep basin, the central part of which is an
almost flat expanse at a uniform depth of 1220 fathoms.
The smaller enclosed seas are for the most part very shallow.
The Persian Gulf nowhere exceeds 50 fathoms, the southern
part of Hudson Bay does not exceed 100 fathoms except at one
spot, though in the less-known fjords of the northern part depths
up to 200 fathoms have been reported. The Baltic Sea exceeds
50 fathoms in few places except the broad central portion, though
small caldron-likc depressions here and there may sink bdow
200 fathoms. The Red Sea on the other hand, though shut off
from the Indian Ocean by shallows of the Strait of Bab-cl-
Mandeb with little more than 100 fathoms, sinks to a very
considerable depth in its central trough, which reaches 1209
fathoms in 20° N.
The fringing seas as a rule show little variety of submarine
relief. The Bass Sea (Bass Strait), Irish Sea and North Sea lie
on the continental shelf. In the North Sea the depth of 100
fathoms is only exceeded to any extent in the Norwegian giilly,
which has a maximum depth of 383 fathoms in the Skagerrack.
Most of the other 86SS of this class are fbnned on a commoci phi.
Towards the continent there is a broad shelf, and just befofc tk
chain of islands separating them from the ocean runs a naiTov
and deep trough. In the Bering Sea the trough north of BuUir
in the Aleutian klands sinks to 2237 fathoms, and in the Seiof
Okhotsk, north-west of the Kurilcs, to 1S50 fathoms. Sioibr
conditions prevail in the East China Sea and the Andacuc Sea
The Sea of Japan has a wide shelf only in the north, the ceo'jii
part forms a broad basin with depths of 1650 fathoms. Tbe
Laurentian Sea (Gulf of St Lawrence) has a narrow bnacki^
guUy runmng between wide shelves, in which a depth of 312
fathoms is found south of Anticosti.
The area, general depth and total volume of the oceans utd
principal seas have been recalculated by Krtimmel, and ibe
accompanying table presents these figures.
Oceanic Deposiis.—h bs
long been known that tbe
deposits which carpet tbe
floor of the ocean dicer ta
different places, and coet-
tng saibrs have been acos-
tomed from time immenorjl
to use the kad not ody to
ascertain tbe depth of tbe
water but also to obtain
samples of the bottoai, tbe
appearance of which k oftea
characteristic of the locaHij.
In depths down to i30
fathoms the old-fasfaiffiied
hand-lead, hollow beHaw sad
" armed ''withtaOow.soCccs
to bring up a sample larfc
enough to be recogsiable.
Captain Pbipps in 177J
secured samples of soft blue
day in this manner from a
depth of 683 fathoms, bra
as a rule when sounding ia
great depths the sampie is
washed ofif the taUov before
it can be brought on boinl
Various devices ha\T coo-
sequenUy been attached to
leads intended to catch and
hold the material when so£t
enough to be penetrated.
One of the most effectitt
early forms was tbe snapper
or " deep-sea rlamrn " of
Sir John Ross, a pair of
powerful spring jaws hM
apart by an arrangement which when released on strikiag the
bottom allowed the jaws to close, biting out and holding secczrlf
a substantial portion of the groimd. A simpler form of co£ector.
now almost universally used, is a plain brass tube which is dmra
into the bottom of the sea by the weight of tbe souncfing lead,
and in which the deposit may be retained by a val\Y or cite
contrivance, though in many cases friction alone suffices to bc'i
the pimched-out core. Larger quantities of deposit maj be
conveniently collected by means of the dredge, which can be
worked in any depth and brings up large stones, cunu e tioa arf
nodules or fosuls, of the existence of which a smisdisg-t;^
could give no indicatioiL
The voyage of the " Challenger " supplied f or the fint tc<
the nucleus of a collection of deep-sea deposits sufficiest to sent
as the basis for comprehensive cUssiJEkation and m»pp^
The " Challenger " collections supplnnented by those of ot^tf
expeditions and of many telegraph and surveying-ships vnr
studied in detail by Sir John Murray and Prt^essor A. Reurl
whose monograph,^ published in 1891, laid the foondatkxa tad
^ " CkaUenitr '* RtporU, " Deep Sea Deports.**
OCEAN AND OCEANOGRAPHY
975
reared the greater part of the structure of our present knowledge
on the subject. The classification adopted was a double one,
taking account both of the origin and of the distribution in depth
of the various deposits, thus^—
I. Red Chr.
t. SadloUriui Omr
J. Diatom OnK
4. GtebigtriM Omr
tPtenmodOoa
BIimSIwI
9. Red Mud
L Dcsr Ska Dnosns .
0>«foad>oofftthoni)
n. SBiOLOW Wati*'
Dzvonn (io loi
tfass too fstfaoais)
m. Ijttobai. Dnoon'
0. Vokaiiic Mod
laCbnlMud
Sands, gnvtta. mids, ftc
A. Pnjuac Dipositb
tforawdfaideep
(betma Ugh aad|>
loiMmuriBaika) J
B. Tbbbioimooi Di>
poszn ((bnaed in
deep or uallew water
Krlimmel prefers to simplify this by grouping the deposits in
a smgle category arranged according to their position into:
(a) lAttortd Qncluding Murray and Renard's littoral and shallow
water dcposite (II. and III.]).
(fil Hemipelagu (including Nos. 6-l0 of Deep Sea Deposits).
(y) Bupdagie (including Nos. 1-5 of Deep Sea Deposits).
As so defined the hemipelagic deposits are those which occur
in general on the slope from the continental shelves to the ocean
depths and also in the deep basins of enclosed and fringing seas.
The eupelagic deposits are subdivided by Krlimmel into two
main groups; (a) epthphkt* including the pteropod, globigerina
and diatom ooacs occurring on the rises and ridges and in the
less deep troughs. (6) Abyssal, including the radiolarian ooze
and red clay of the deepest abysses.
The littoral deposits include those of the actual shore on the
iwash of the waves and of the surface of the continental shelf.
Skore Deposits are the product of the waste of the land arranged
and bedded by the action of currents or tidal streams. On the
rocky coast of high latitudes blocks of stone detached by frost
fall on the beach and becoming embedded in ice during winter
are often drifted out to sea and so carry the shore deposits to
some distance from the land. Similar effects are produced along
the boulder-day cliffs of the Baltic. Where the force of the waves
on the beach produces its full effect the coarser material gets
worn down to gravel, sand and silt, the finest particles remaining
long suspended in the water to be finally deposited as mud in
quiet bays. A particularly fine-grained mud is formed on the
low coasts of the eastern border of the North Sea by a mixture of
the finest sediment carried down by the slow-running rivers
with the calcareous or siliceous remains of plankton. Pure
calcareous sand and calcareous mud are formed by wave action
on the shores of coral islands where the only material available
is coral and the accompanying calcareous algae, Crustacea,
molluscs and other organisms secreting carbonate of lime.
Recent limestones are being produced in this way and also in
some places by the precipitation of calcium carbonate by sodium
or ammonium carbonate which has been carried into the sea
or formed by organisms. The precipitated carbonate may
agglomerate on mineral or organic grains which serve as nuclei,
or it may form a sheet of hard deposit on the bottom as occurs
in the Red Sea, off Florida, and round many coral islands in
the Pacific. Only the sand and the finest-grained sediments
of the shore zone are carried outwards over the contbental
shelf by the tides or by the reaction-currents along the bottom
set up by on-shore winds. The very finest sediment is kept in
a state of movement until it drops into the guUeys or furrows
of the shelf, where it can come to rest together with the finer
fragments of the remains of littoral or bank vegetation. Thus
are formed the " mud-holes " of the Hudson Furrow so welcome
as guides telling their position to ship captains making New
York harbour in a fog. Sand may be taken as the predominating
deposit on the continental shelves, often with a large admixture
of remuns of calcareous organisms, for instance the deposits
o£ maM made up of nuUipores off the coasts of Brittany and
near Belle Isle. Amongst the most widely distributed of the
>M U^ffxi the threshold.
deposits actually formed on the continental shelf are pbosphatic
nodules; these are especially abundant on the east coast of the
United States and on the Agulhas Bank, where the amount of
caldum phosphate in the nodules is as much as 50%. Sir John
Murray finds the source of the phosphoric add to be the decom-
position of large quantities of animal matter, and he illustrates
this by the well-known circumstance of the death of vast shdals
of fish when warm Gulf-Stream water displaces the cold current
which usually extends to the American coast. Glacial detritus
naturally pkys a great part in the deposits on the polar
continental shdves.
Hemipdagk depasils are a mixture of deposits of terrigenous
and pelagic origin. The most abundant of the terrigenous
materials are the finest partides of clay and caldtmi carbonate
as well as fragments derived from land vegetation, of which
twigs, leaves, &c, may form a pcrcq;>tible proportion as far as
30O m. from land. Blue mud, according to Murray and Renard,
is usually of a blue or ^ty or grey-green colour when fresh,
the upper siurface having, however, a reddish tint. The blue
colouring substance is ferrous sulphide, the upper reddish layer
contains more ferric oxide, which the predominance of decom«
posing organic matter in the substance of the mud reduces to
ferrous oxide and subsequently by further action to sulphide.
The proportion of caldum carbonate varies greatly according
to the amount of foraminifera and other calcareous organisms
which it contains. Blue mud prevails in large areas of the
Pacific Ocean from the GaLipagos Islands to Acapulco. In the
Indian Ocean it covers the Bay of Bengal, the Arabian Gulf,
the Mozambique Channd and the region to the south-west of
Madagascar. In the Atlantic it is the characteristic deposit
of the slopes of continental shdves of western Europe and of
New England, being largely mixed with ice-borne material to
the south of Newfoundland. It is particularly in evidence round
the whole of the Antarctic Shelf, where it occurs down to depths
of 3500 fathoms. It is the chief deposit, according to Nansen,
of the North Polar Basin and, according to Sdimdck and
B5ggild, of the Norwegian Sea also, where it is largdy mixed
with the shells of the bottom-living foraminifer Biloctilina.
Max Weber states that blue mud occurs in the deep basins of
the eastern part of the MaLiy Sea, In the form of volcanic
mud it is common round the high volcanic islands of the South-
western Pacific.
Red mud may be classed as a variety of blue mud, from which
it differs on account of the larger proportion of ochreous sub-
stance and the absence of suffident organic matter to reduce
the whole of the ferric oxide. This variety surrounds the
tropical parts of the continental shdves of South America,
South Africa and eastern China.
Green mud differs to a greater extent from the blue mud, and
owes its characteristic nature and colour to the presence of
glauconite, which is formed inside the cases of foraminifera,
the spines of echini and the spicules of sponges in a manner not
yet understood. It occurs in such abundance in certain geological
formations as to give rise to the name of green-sand. Green mud
abounds off the east coast of North America seawards of dpe
Hatteras, also to the north of Cuba, and on the west off the coast
of California. The " Challenger ** expedition found it on the
Agulhas Bank, on the eastern coasts of Australia, Japan, South
America and on the west coast of Portugal. When the pro-
portion of caldum carbonate in the blue mud is considerable
there results a calcareous ooze, which when found on the con-
tinental slope and in enclosed seas is largdy composed of remains
of deep-sea corals and bottom-living foraminifera, pelagic
organisms induding pteropods being less frequently represented.
The floors of the Caribbean, Cayman and Mexican Basins in
the Central American Sea are covered with a white calcareous
ooze, which is dearly distinguished from the eu[>elagic pteropod
and globigerina oozes by the presence of abundant large mineral
particles and the remains of land plants. In this deposit the
occurrence of calcareous concretions is very characteristic, as
L. F. de Pourtal^ pointed out in 1870; they consist of remains
of deep-sea corals, serpulae, echinoderms and molluscs united
I
^76
OCEAN AND OCEANOGRAPHY
by a calcareous cement. Similar formations are found in the
Mediterranean, where a dark mud predominates in the western
part, parsing into a grey, marly slime in the Tyrrhenian Basin
and replaced by a typiad calcareous ooze in the Eastern Basin.
The bottom of the Black Sea is covered by a stiff blue mud in
which Sir John Murray found much sulphide of iron,' grains
or needles of pyrites making up nearly 50% of the deposit,
and there are also grains of amorphous calcium carbonate
evidently precipitated from the water. The formation of the
blue mud is largely aided by the putrefaction of organic matter,
and as a result the water deeper than Z20 fathoms b extra-
ordinarily deficient in dissolved oxygen and abounds in sul-
phuretted hydrogen, the formation of which is brought about
by a spedaf bacterium, the only form of life found at dq>ths
greater than 120 fathoms in the Black Sea.
In the Red Sea the " Pola " expedition discovered a calcareous
ooze similar to that of the Mediterranean, and the formation
of a stony crust by precipitation of caldum and magnesium
carbonates may be recognized as giving origin to a recent
dolomite.
The terrigenous ingredients in the deposits become less and
less abundant as one goes farther into the deep ocean and away
from the continental margins. Still, according to Murray and
Irvine, finely divided colloidal day is to be found in all parts
of the ocean however remote from land, though in very small
amount, and there is less in tropioil than in cooler waters. A
minute fraction is always separating out of the water, and as a
prodigious length of time may be accepted for the accomplish-
ment of all the chemical and physical processes in the deep sea,
we must take account of the gradual accumulation of even this
infinitesimal predpitation. As well as the finest of terrigenous
clay there is present in sea-water far from land a different clay
derived from the decomposition of volcanic materiaL Volcanic
dust .thrown into the air settles out slowly, and some of the
products of submarine and littoral volcanoes, like pumice-stone,
possess a remarkable power of floating and may drift into any
part of the ocean before they become wateriogged and sink.
To this inconcdvably slowly-growing deposit of inorganic
material over the ocean floor there is added an overwhelmingly
more rapid contribution of the remains of calcareous and
siliceous planktonic and benthonic organisms, which tend to
bury the slower accumulating material under a blanket of
globigerina, pteropod, diatom or radiolarian ooze. When those
deposits of organic origin are wanting or have been removed,
the red day composed of the mineral constituents is found alone.
It is a remarkable geographical fact that on the rises and in the
basins of moderate depth of the open ocean the organic oozes
preponderate, but in the abysmal depressions below 2500 or
3000 fathoms, whether these lie in the middle or near the edges
of the great ocean spaces, there is found only the red clay, with
a minimum of caldum carbonate, though sometimes with a
considerable admixture of the siliceous remains of radicJarians.
Thus red clay and radiolarian ooze are distinguished as abyssal
deposits in contradistinction to the epilophic calcareous oozes.
Gobigerina ooae was recognized as an important deposit as
soon as the first successfQl deep-sea soundings had beoi made
in the Atlantic. It was described simultaneously in 1853 by
Bailey of West Point and Ehrenberg in Berlin. Murray and
Renard define globigerina ooze as containing at least 30%
of caldum carbonate, in which the remains of pelagic (not
benthonic) foraminifera predominate and in which remains of
pdagic mollusca such as pteropods and heteropods, ostracodes
and also ooccoliths (minute calcareous algae) may also occur.
Not more than 35% of the deposit may consist of bottom-
dwelling foraminifera, echini or worm-tuba, and as a rule these
make up only from 9 to xo%. These peculiarities, combined
with the strildng absence of mineral constituents, distinguish
the eupelagic globigerina ooze from the hemipelagic calcareous
mud. Out of Z18 samples of globigerina ooze obtained by the
" Challenger *' expedition 84 came from depths of 1500 to
2500 fathoms, 13 from depths of 1000 to 1500 and only 16 from
Scok Geog. Mag., vol. 16 (1900), p. 695.
depths greater than 2500 fathoms. Viewed as a whole this
deposit may be taken as a partial pred|Htation of the planktmn
living in the upper waters of the open sea. A small pfoportkei
of organic matter induding the fat globules of the plankton
is mixed with the caldum carbonate, the amount aooocdiog
to GOmbd's analysb being about z part in looa Secondary
products, such as glauconite, phoq)hatic ooncretioiis and man-
ganese nodules, occur though less frequently than in the hexni-
pelaglc sediments. Gbbigerina ooze is the diaractcxistic deposit
of the Atlantic Ocean, where it covers not less than 44,000.000
sq. km. (17,000,000 sq. statute m.). In the Indian Ocean the
area covered is 31,000,000 sq. km. (12,000,000 sq. m.) and in
the -huge Fadfic Ocean only 30,000,000 sq. km. (1x^500,000
sq.m.).
Pteropod oou is merely a local variety of i^obigerina ooze
in whidi the oon^>arativdy large but very delicate qandk-
shaped shells of pteropods happen to abound. These sheOs
do not retain their individuality at depths greater than 1400
or 1500 fathoms, and in fact pteropod ooae is only found in
small patches on the ridges near the Azores, Antilles, Canaries.
Sokotra, Nioobar, Fiji and the Paumotu islands, and on the
central rise of the South Atlantic between Ascension and Tristan
d'Acunha.
Diatom oou was reoognixed by Sir John Murtay as the
characteristic deposit in high latitudes in the Indian Ocean,
and Uter it was found to be characteristic also of the coaespoDA-
ing paru of the Indian and Padfic covering a total area of about
22,000,000 sq. km. (8,500,000 sq. m.). It has been foond spor-
adically near the Aleutian Islands, between the PhUqjpines and
Marianne Islands and to the south of the Galapagos gtoap.
It is made up to a huge extent of the siliceous fnistules of diatoms.
It is usually ydlowish-grey and often straw-coloured when wet,
though when dried it becomes white and mealy.
Red day was discovered and named by Sir Wyville lliomsan
on the " Challenger " in 1873 when sounding in depths of 2700
fathoms on the way from the Canary Islands to St Thomas.
The reddish cobur comes from the presence of oxides of iron,
and particles of manganese also occur in it, especially in the
Pacific region, where the colour is more that of chocolate; bvt
when it is miiced with globigerina ooze it is grey. Red cSay is
the deposit peculiar to the abysmal area; 7ocaiefully tsveszi-
gated samples collected by the " Challenger " canie from an
average depth of 2730 fkthoms, 97 specimens collected by
the " Tuscarora " came from an average depth of 2860 i»>1wmw*^
and 26 samples obtained by the " Albatross " in the Central
Fadfic came from an average depth of 2620 fathoms. Red
day has not yet been found in dq>ths less than 2200 fathons.
The main ingredient of the deposit is a stiff clay whkh m plastic
when fresh, but dries to a stony hardness. Isolated gritty
fragments of minerals may be fdt in the generally fine-graimed
homogeneous mass. The dredge often brings up large nombexs
of nodules formed upon sharks' teeth, the ear-bcNhes of whaks
or turtles or small fragments of pumice or other volcanic ejecta,
and all more or less incnistcd with manganese oxide vntH the
nodules vary in size from that of a potato to that of n man's
head. A very interesting feature is the smaU proportioii <d
caldum carbonate, the amount present being usually less as the
depth is greater; red day from depths exceeding 3000 fathoms
does not contain so much as 1% of calcareous matter.
Murray and Renard recognize the progressive diminatioB oi
carbonate of lime with increase of depth as a characteristic d
all eupelagic deposits. The whole cdlection of 231 ^p^^iwi ^a
of deep-sea deposits brought back by the " Challftigrr '* shows
the following general relationship: —
Proportion of Calcium Carbonate in Deep-Sea DapeaHa,
68 samples from less than 2000 fathoms* 60-80 X
68 „ „ 2000-2500 „ 46-7 ^
6j „ „ 2500-3000 „ 17.4 '
more than 3000
O^t
In deep water there is a regular process of aofaitiefi of the
calcareous shells falling from the surface. Murray and Renard
ascribe this to the greater abundance of carbonic add in the
OCEAN AND OCEANOGRAPHY
977
deeper wtter, wfiiefa «idrd by the iBCruse<i prrasurc adds to
Uie solvtut pc^wer of the wmter for carbQiutt of Hmt^ li iSj,
bowever, « cunoua quntioa liovr, cotisidcfiog Uie tJQcre^ae <d
carbonic add by the dccotnposidoa of orgftoic bodies And
possibic submarine e]ihfli3.i.bn2 of vckanic origin, the water
h2A not in some pkce^ bcrome £a.turatcd and a precipitate of
Amorphous catcium carbonate formed in ihs dcepeat water,
Tbe wbiale subject still requires invKtigalion*
Ainojigst tbe forcigri nTateriai found embedded In tbe red
day are globules of meteoric iron* v^blch are sometinaes very
t bundan t. Deri ved prod uc t s in L he form of crystals of ph illipsite
u« not uncommon, hut Lfie most Abundant of aJI are the in-
crustations of en&ngiae» OKide^ m to the odgla of which M uiruy
and Renard are not fuUy clear. The maitgatiese nod ides afford
the most aJnpIe proof of the prodigious pcnod of tiitie whicih
has eldp^ since the fon[£iA.tiaa of the red clay began; tbe
ihJJrks* teeib and whales' ear-bones which serve as nuclei belong
in some cases to extinct species or even to forms derived from
those familiar tn the fossils from tbe seas of the Tertiary period.
This fact^ together with the extraordinarity rare occuirence
of such remains and meteoric particles la globigerioa ooze,
although there is no rc^isou to suppose that at any ^ne ^tlm e
ib#y arc unequally distributed over the oceao floor, caa only
be eipbined 03 the asatinsption that the rate of foftnatjoa of
the epilopbic depoJts throtigh the accumulatioii ol pelagic
she lis falling frum the surface is rapid enough to bury the slow-
fathering material which letnaini uncovered on the spaces where
t be red clay is forming at an almost infinitely slower rate* Sir
John Murray believes that no more than a few feet of red clay
have accumubted in the deepest depressions since the close
cf the Tcrtiaiy period. The red cb y is the c haracterist ic deposit
of the Pacific Ocean, where about 101^000,000 sq. Icm^ (j9,ooo,ooo
sq. m.) aie covered with it, while only ts,ooo,ooo %q. km,
(3,8o(3,ooo sq, m^} of the Indkn Oce^ti and t4»<»<3HOOO sq. km,
(5^00,000 tq, m.) of the Atlantic are occupied by this deposit ;
il l» Indeed the dominant submarine deposit of the water-
bemisphere just u globigerina oose is the dominant suhmarinc
deposit of the bnd hemisphere.
Sadioiariiin ins£ was recognlied as a distinct deposit and
named by Sir John Murray on the "Challenger^' ejcped it ion,
but it may be viewed as red clay with an eaceptionally large
proportion of siliceous organic remains, cspedaliy those of the
radiobnans which form part of the peUgic pbntton. It doe*
not occur in the Atbntic Ocean at all, »nd in the Indian Ocean
it i# only known round Cocc^ and Christmas Islands; but
it ia abundant in the Pacific, where it covers a large area between
5" nnd IS* N,, westward from the coast of Central America
to i6s^ W,, and It is also found in patches north of the Samoa
IsUndSi in the Marianne Trench and west of the Gabpagos
Isbnds.
The total areas occupied by the various deposits according
to the btest measurements of Rrilmmel are as follows:—
AffQ of Suhmvint Dt posits.
Depose.
Sq.kni.
Sq. at, m.
%.
K Littoral deposit! . ,
33,ocx),ooo
titTwJfOoo
9*t
11. H«nipel«pc„ , . ,
III. Eupefiiic'
55.700.000
371.700,000
31,500^000
I0S,300hOoo
40,800,000
I.V4
75=5
I, Gtobigerina ooxc
105,600,000
Uqa)
3* Fteropod ooxc ,
1400.000
500,000
(*-4
x. Diatom ooxe , .
23,100,000
8,900,000
4. Red day .- , .
150.3,00,000
50,300^000
(,^■0
5. Radiola nan Daze .
11.300,000
4J00,o00
(1-4)
Geologists are agreed that littoral and hemipckgic deposits
flmiiar to those now forming are to be found in all geological
systems^ but the existence in the rocks of eupelagic deposits
and especially of the abysmal red cby, though viewed by some
as probable, is totally denied by olben. There is even some
hesitation in accepting the continuity of the chalk with the globi^
gerina ooze of the modem ocean. From the obvious rarity of
true abysmal rocks in the continental area Sir John Murray
dedtices the permanence of the oceans^ which he holds have
always remained upon those portions of the earth's crust which
they occupy now, and both J. Dana and Louis Agassis had
already arrived at the same conclusion. This theory accords
well with the enormous lapse of time required in the accumulatioa
of tbe red clay.
Salts of SeO'Water, — Sea-water differs from fresh water by
its salt and bitter taste and by its unsuitability for the purposes
of washing and cooking. Tbe process of natural evaporation
in the salines or salt gardens of the margin of warm seas made
the composition of sea-salt familiar at a very early time, and
common salt, Epsom salts, gypsum and magnesium chloride
were reoognised amongst its constituenU. The analyses of
modem chemists have now revealed the existence of 33 out of
the 80 known elements as existing dissolved in sea-water, and
it is scarcely too much to say that the remaining elements also
exist in minute traces which the available methods of analysis
as yet fail to disclose. Many of the elements such as copper,
lead, zinc, nickel, cobalt and manganese have only been found
in the substance of sea-weeds and corals. Silver and gold also
exist in solution in sea-water. Malaguti and Durocher*
estimate the silver in sea-water as i part in 100,000,000 or i
grain in 1430 gallons. If this estimate is correct there exists
dissolved in the ocean a quantity of silver equal to 13,300 million
metric tons, that is to say 46,700 times as much silver as has been
produced from all tbe mines in the world from the discovery
of America down to 1903. No quantitative determination of
the amount of gold in solution is available. E. Sonnstadt'
detected gold by means of a colour test and roughly estimated
the amount as x grain per ton of sea-water, and on this estimate
all the projects for extracting gold from sea-water have beea
based.
The elements in addition to oxygen which exist in largest
amount in sea salt are chlorine, bromine, sulphur, potassium,
sodium, calcium and magnesium. Since the earliest quentitative
analyses of sea-water were made by Lavoisier in 1773, Bergman
in 1774, Vogel in 18x3 and Marcet in 1819 tbe view has been held
that the salts are present in sea-water in tbe form in which they
are deposited when the water is evaporated. The most numerous
analyses have been carried out by Forchhammer, who dealt
with 150 samples, and Dittmar, who made complete analyses
of 77 samples obtained on the " Challenger " expedition. Dittmar
showed that the average proportion of the salts in ocean water
of 35 parts salts per thousand was as follows (calculated as parts
per thousand of the sea-water, as percentage of the total salts
and per hundred molecules of magnesium bromide): —
71b Salts in Ocean Water.
Per 1000
Part* Water.
Vvr centn
Total Salt*.
Per too
Moleeuks
Common salt, sodium
chbridrCNaCl).
Maeoevaum chloride
(IweCli) - . -
Mai^Tiesiiini sulphate
(Sigso,) ,
Gypsum, calcium; stiU
phatc (CaSO.)
Poraiwum sulphate
(K,50*) ....
Calcium c^rixjnate
(CaCOj) and residue
Ma^neiiuni bromide
(KiRDr^ . , . .
a7'ai5
J'*07
i-6si
1-260
0865
OI2J ,
0076
77^758
10-878
4-737
5 '600
3-4*5
0-34S
111,793
21-139
t»70O
too
JS-ooo
too 000
As Marcet had foreshadowed from the analysis of X4 samples
in X819, the larger series of exact analyses proved that the varia-
tions in the proportion of individual salts to the total salts
are very small, and all analyses since Dittmar's have confirmed
this result. Although the salu have been grouped in the above
* Comptes rendus, Acad. Sciences (Pam, 1859), 49. 463. 536-
« Chemical Nttoi UB?©)* ^- "• W** *5» ♦*• ^**7a) vol. 36,
p. 159.
tabic It IS not to be supposed that a dilute solution uke sea-water
contains all the ingredients thus arbitrarily combined. There
must be considerable dissociation of molecules, and as a first
approximation it may be taken that of lo molecules of most of
the components about 9 (or in the case of magnesium sulphate 5)
have been separated into their ions, and that, it is only during
slow concentration as in a natural saline that the ions combine
to produce the various salts in the proportions set out in the above
table. One can look on sea-water as a mixture of very dilute
solutions of particular salts, each one of which after the lapse
of sufficient time fills the whole space as if the other constituents
did not exist, and this interdiffusion accounts easfly for the
uniformity of composition in the sea-water throughout the
ilhole ocean, the only appredable difference from point to point
being the salinity or degree of concentration of the mixed
solutions.
The origin of the salt of the sea is attributed by some modem
authorities entirely to the washing out of salts from the land by
rain and rivers and the gradual concentration by evaporation
in the oceans, and some {e.g. J. Joly) go so far as to base a calcula-
tion of the age of the earth on the assumption that the ocean
was originally filled with fresh water. This hypothesis, however,
does not accord with the theory of the development of the earth
from the state of a sphere of molten rock surrounded by an
atmosphere of gaseous metals by which the first-formed clouds
of aqueous vapour must have been absorbed. The great similarity
between the salu of the ocean and the gaseous products of
volcanic eruptions at the present time, rich in chlorides and
sulphates of all kinds, is a strong argument for the ocean having
been salt from the beginning. Two other facts are t otally opposed
to the origin of all the salinity of the oceans from the concentra-
tion of the washings of the land. The proportions of the salts
of river and sea-water are quite different, as Julius Roth shows
thus:—
Carbonates.
Sulphates.
Chlorides.
River water . . .
Sea water ....
80
0*2
13
10
7
89
The salu of salt lakes which have been formed in the areas
of internal drainage in the hearU of the continenU by the
evaporation of river water are entirely different in composition
from those of the sea, as the existence of the numerous natron
and bitter lakes shows. Magnesium sulphate amounts to 4*7%
of the total salts of sea-water according to Dittmar, but to 23-6%
of the salts of the Caspian, according to Lebedinzeff; in the
ocean magnesium chloride amounts to 10*9% of the total salts,
in the Caspian only to 4-5%; on the other hand calcium
sulphate inr the ocean amounU to 3-6%, in the Caspian to 6-9%.
This disparity makes it extremely difficult to view ocean water
as merely a watery extract of the salts existing in the rocks
of the land.
The determination of salinity was formerly carried out by
evaporating a weighed quantity of sea-water to dryness and
weighing the residue. Forchhainmer, however, pointed out that
this method gave inexact and variable results, as in the act
of evaporating to dryness hydrochloric acid is given off as the
temperature is raised to expel the last of the water, an4 TomOe
found that carbonic acid was also h*berated and that the loss
of both acids was very variable. Tornfie vainly attempted to
apply a correction for this loss by calculation; and subsequently
S. P. L. SOrensen and Martin Knudsen after a careful investiga-
tion decided to abandon the old definition of salinity as the
sum of all the dissolved solids in sea-water and to substitute for
it the weight of the dissolved solids in 1000 parts by weight
of sea-water on the assumption that all the bromine is replaced
by its equivalent of chlorine, all the carbonate converted into
oxide and the organic matter burnt. The advantage of the new
definition lies in the fact that the estimation of the chlorine (or
rather of the total halogen expressed as chlorine) is sufficient
to determine the salinity by a very simple operation. AccortUng
to Knudsen the salinity is given in weigjbt per thousand parts
by the. expression S«o*030-|- 1-8050 CI where S is the salinity
and CI the amount of total halogen *n a sample. Such a simi^^
formula is only possible because the salts of sea-water are of
such uniform composition throughout the whole ocean that the
chlorine henn a constant ratio to the total salinity as nevly
defined whatever the degree of concentration. This 4lefinitioo
was adopted by the International Council for the Study of the
Sea in 1902, and it has since been very widely accepted.
Besides the determination of salinity by titration of tht
chlorides, the method of determination by the ^)ecific gravity
of the sea-water b still often used. In the laboratory the specific
gravity is determined in a pyknometer by actual weighing,
and on board ship by the use of an areometer or hydrometer.
Three types of areometer are in use: (i) the ordinary hydnmcter
of invariable weight with a direa reading scale, a set of fnm
five to ten being necessary to cover the range of specific grivity
from Z'ooo to 1*031 so as to take accoimt of sea-water df all
possible salinities; (2) the ''Challenger" type of areometer
designed by J. Y. Buchanan, which has an arbitrary scale and
can be varied in weight bypladng^small metal rings 00 the stem
so as to depress the scale to any desired depth in sea-water of
any salinity, the specific gravity being calculated for each reading
by dividing the total weight by the immersed volume; (3) the
total immersion areometer, which has no scale and the weight
of which can be adjusted so that the instrument can be brought
so exactly to the specific gravity of the water sampte that it
remains immersed, neither floating nor sinking; this has the
advantage of eliminating the effects of surface tension and in
Fridtjof Nansen's pattern is c&pable of great predsioo.
In all areometer work it is necessary to ascertain the tempera-
ture of the water sample under examination with great exactness,
as the volume of the areometer as well as the q)ecific gravity ol
the water varies with temperature. All determinations must
accordingly be reduced to a standard temperature for comparison.
Following the practice of J. Y. Buchanan on the " ChaUettger "
it has been usual for British investigators to calculate specific
gravities for sea-water at 60* F. compared with pure water at
the maximum density point (39*2^ as unity. On the continent
of Europe it has been more usual to take both at 17-5* C. (6ys*
F.), which is expressed as " S H*f "> ^^ 'of pyknometer work
in all cotmtries where the sample is cooled to 32^ F. before
weighing and pure water at 39*2^ taken as unity the exp r ea a aop
is (o'*/4°). On the authority of the first meeting of the Inter-
national Conference for the Study of the Northern European
Seas at Stockholm in 1899 Martin Knudsen, assisted by Kari
Forch and S. P. L. S6rensen, carried out a careful investigation
of the relation between the amount of chlorine, the total salinity
and the specific gravity of sea-water of different strengths
including an entirely new determination of the thermal expansion
of ^ea-water. The results are published in his Hydrog^a^kical
Tables in a convenient form for use.
The relations between the various conditioRS are set fortli ia
the following equations where n nignifics the specific gravity of the
sea-water in question at o" C, the standard at 4* beinj{ taken as
1000, S the salinity and CI the chlorine, both expressed in parts by
weight per mille.
(i) 9»--oK)93-H>'8i49 S-OKXKH82 9+o<ooooo68 S»
(2) ff«- -0*069-1- 1 ^ZoS Cl-o-00157 CP+o*oooo398 Q*
(3) S - 0*030-1-1 -8050 CL
The temperature of manmum density of sea-water of any ap ec ifk.
gravity was found by Knudsen to be given with sufficient accuracy
for all practical purposes by the formula 9 *3-9^- 0-2669 •, wi»err §
is the temperature of maximum density m oegroes centigrade.
The temperature of maximum denmty is kiwer as the concen u a ii ua
of theaca-water b greater, as is shown in the folbwing table: —
Maximum Density Point of Sea^Water of Different Salimilies,
Salinftypermae. .
e
10
so
JO
as
«o
Tempcnmrcrc .
3M'
rS6»
-osi*
-r47»
-j$**
-4-54*
DcnAyiT,. . . .
OPO»
«i8«
i6o7»
M'l$*
•rta*
»«-*.•
OCEAN AND OCEANOGRAPHY
979
Further Physical Profer^es o/5M-«a/er.— The lawi of physiod
cliemistiy relatiiig to complex dilute solutions apply to sea-
water, and hence there is a definite relation between the osmotic
pressure, freezing-point, vapour tension and boiling-point by
which when one of these constants is given the others can be
calculated.
The taost eaulv observed is the freeancr-point, and according to
the very careful determinationa of H. T. Hanaen the freexinjE-point
r * C. varies with the degree of concentratioa according to the formula
r- -o«oo86— O'0o64633oii-o«oooi055*j?.
According to the investigations of Svante Arrhenius the osmotic
pressure in atmospheres may be obtained by simply multiplying the
temp rature of freesing (r) by the factor -I3H>8, and it vanes with
temperature (f) according to the law which holds good for gaseous
pressure.
Pi-P,(i-|-ooo3670
and can thus be reduced to its value at o" C. Sigurd Stenius has
calculated tables of osmotic pressure for sea-water oldiffereot degrees
of concentration. The relation of the elevation of the boiling-point
it*) to the osmotic pressure (P) b very simply derived from the
formula t- 0*02407 P«, while the reduction of vapour^ pressure
proportiomd to the concentration can be very easily obtained from
the elevation of the boiling-point, or it may be obtained directly
from tables of vapour tension.
Physical Properties of Sea-Water.
Salinity per mille .
10
30
30
35
40
Freezing-point (C.)
-0-53
-107
-1-63
-1-91
-a '20
Osmotic pressure Pt
atmospheres . .
Elevation of boiling-
6-4
130
197
231
266
point (C.)^ . . .
o-i6
031
047
0-56
064
Reduction of vapour
pressure (mm.) . .
4-2
«-5
130
15-a
176
The importance of the osmotic pressure of sea-water in biology
will be easily understood from the fact that a frog placed in
sea- water loses water by exosmosis and soon becomes 30%
lighter than its original weight, while a true salt-water fish
suddenly transferred to fresh water gains water by endosmosis,
swells up and quickly succumbs. The elevation of the boiling-
point is of little practical importance, but the reduction of
vapour pressure means that sea-water evaporates more slowly
than fresh water, and the more slowly the higher the salinity.
Unfortunately no observations of evaporation from the surface
of the open sea have been made and very few comparisons of
the evaporation of salt and fresh water are on record. The
fact that sea-water docs evaporate more slowly than fresh water
has been proved by the observations of Mazelle at Triest and
of Okado in Azino Qapan). Their experiments show that in
similar conditions the evaporation of sea-water amounts to
from 70 to 91 % of the evaporation of fresh water, a fact of some
importance in geophysics on account of the vast expanses of
ocean the evaporation from which determines the rainfall and
to a large extent the heat-transference in the atmosphere.
The optical properties of sea-water are of immediate import-
ance in biology, as they affect the penetration of sunlight into
the depths. The refraction of light passing through sea- water
is dependent 00 the salinity to the extent that the index of
refraction is greater as the salinity increases. From isolated
observations of J. Soret and £. Sarasin and longer series of
experiments by TomOe and Krilmmcl this relation is shown
to be so close that the salinity of a sample can be ascertained by
determining the index of refraction. According to KrUmmel
the following relations hold good at 18° C. for the monochro-
matic light of the D line of the sodium spectrum in units of the
fifth decimal place.
Rdation of Refractive Index and Salinity.
For water of salinity (per
mine)
Refractive index i '33000-1-
units of 5th decimal place
o
308
10
502
30
694
40
1077
The rcfractometer constructed by C. Pulfrich (of the firm of
Zeiss, in Jena) has been successfully used by G. Schott and
£. yon Drygalski for the measurement of salinity at jea, and
was found to have the same degree of accuracy as an areometer
with the great advantage of being quite una£[ected by the
motion of the ship in a sea-way.
The transparency of sea-water has frequently been measured
at sea by the simple expedient of sinking white-painted disks
amd noting the depth at which they become invisible as the
measure of the tranq>arency of the water. For the north
European seas disks of about x8 or 30 in. in diameter are suffidenlT
for this purpose, but in the tropics, where the transparency is
much greater, disks 3 ft. in diameter at least must be used or
the angle of vision for the reflected light Is too small. In shallow
seas the transparency a always reduced in rough weather. la
the North Sea north of the Dogger Bank, for instance, the disk
is visible in calm weather to a depth of from xo to 16 fathoms,
but in rough weather only to 6\ fathoms. Knipovitch occasion-
ally observed great transparency in the cold waters of the
Murman Sea, where he could see the disk in as much as 35
fathoms, and a similar phenomenon has often been reported
from Icelandic waters. The greatest transparency hitherto
reported is in the eastern basin of the Mediterranean, where
J. Luksch found the disk visible as a rule to from 33 to 37
fathoms, and off the Syrian coast even to $s fathoms. In. the
open Atlantic there are great differences in transparency;
Krllnunel observed a 6 ft. disk to depths of 31 and 36 fathoms
in the Sargasso Sea, but in the cold currents of the north and
also in the equatorial current the depth of visibility was only
from II to i6i fathoms. In the tropical parts of the Indian
and the Pacific Oceans the depth of visibility increases again
to from 30 to 37 fathoms. Some allowance should be made
for the elevation of the sun at the time of observation. Mill
has shown that in the North Sea off the Firth of Forth
the average depth of visibility of a disk in the winter
half-year was 4^ fathoms and in the summer half-year
6) fathoms, and, although the greater frequency of rough
weather in winter might tend to obscure the effect, in-j
dividual observations made it plain that the angle of the sun*
was the main factor in increasing the depth to which the disk
remained visible.
There are some observations on the transparency of sear-water
of an entirely different character. Such, for instance, were
those of Spindler and Wrangell in the Block Sea by sinking
an electric Uunp, those of Paul Regnard by measuring the
change of electric resistance in a selenium cell or the chemical
action of the light on a mixture of chlorine and hydrogen, by
which he found a very rapid diminution in the intei^sity of
light even in the surface layers of water. Many experiments
have also been mode by the use of photographic plates in order
to find the greatest depth to Which light penetrates. Fol and
Sarasin detected the last traces of sunUght in the v/estcm
Mediterranean at a depth of 354 to 360 fathoms, and LuVsch
in the eastern Mediterranean at 338 fathoms and in the Red
Sea at 373 fathoms. The chief cause of the different depths
to which light penetrates in sca-water is the varying turbidity
due to the presence of mineral particles in suspension or to
plankton. Schott gives the following as the result of measure-
ments of transparency by means of a white disk at 33 stations
in the open ocean, where quantitative observations of the
plankton under i square metre of suriace were made at thi>
same time.
Mean of 1 1 stations poor in plankton .
Mean of 12 stations rich in plankton .
Volume of
Plankton.
85 cc.
530.,
Depth of
Visibility.
14! fathoms
81 ,.
Any in^ue*»rc o^ transparency wluch may be exercised
by the tei^^ T^^re « sa\ixuty ol the water is quite in-
significant *^^*^
The col^ qcc»^ iwX« ^ itom AaaA \a an slmoit pure
of local disturbances, the usual cause being turbidity of some
kind, and this in the high seas is almost always due to swarms
of plankton. The colour of sea-water as it b seen on board
ship is most readily determined by comparison with the tints
of Forel's xanthometer or colour scale, which consists of a series
of glass tubes fixed like the rungs of a ladder in a frame and
filled with a mixture of blue and yellow liquids in varying
proportions. For this purpose the. zero or pure blue is repre-
sented by a solution of x part of copper sulphate and 9 parts
of ammonia in 190 parts of water. The yellow solution is made
up of I part of neutral potassiimi chromate in 199 parts of
water, and to give the various degrees of the aosk, i, 3, 3, 4,
&c.,% of the yellow solution is mixed with 99, 98, 97, 96, &c.,%
of Uie blue in successive tubes. Observations with the xantho-
meter have not hitherto been numerous, but it appears that
the purest blue (o-x on Forel's scale) is foimd in the Sargasso
Sea, in the North Atlantic and in similarly situated tropical
or subtropical regions in the Indian and Psidfic Oceans. The
northern seas have an increasing tendency towards green, the
Irminger Sea showing 5-9 Forel, while in the North Sea the
water is usually a pure green (10-X4 Forel), the western Medi-
terranean shows 5-9 Forel, but the eastern is as blue as the open
ocean (0-3 Forel). A pure blue colour has been observed in
tbe cold southern region, where the " Valdivia " found 0-3 Forel
in 55* S. between 16" and 31* £., and even the water of the
North Sea has been observed at times to be intensely blue.
The blue of the sea-water as observed by the Ford scale has
of course nothing to do with the blue appearance of any distxmt
water surface due to the reflection of a cloudless sky. Over
shallows even the water of the tropical oceans is always green.
There is a distinct relationship between colour and transparency
in the ocean; the most transparent water which is the most
free from plankton is always the purest blue, while an increasing
turbidity is usually associated with an increasing tint of green.
The natural colour of pure sea-water is blue, and' this is em-
phasized in deep and very dear water, which appears almost
black to the eye. When a quantity of a fine white powder is
thrown in, the light reflected by the white partides as they
sink kssumes an intense blue colour, and the experiments of
J^ Aitken with dear sea-water in long tubes leave no doubt
on the subject.
Discoloration of the water is often observed at sea, but that is
always due to foreif^n substances. Brown or even blood-red
stripes have been observed in the North Atlantic when swarms
of the copepod Calanusfinmarchicus were present; the brown alga
Trichodesmium erytkratum^ as its name suggests, can change the
blue of the tropical seas to red; swarms of diatoms may produce
olive-green patches in the ocean, while some other forms of
minute life have at times been observed to give the colour of
milk to large stretches of the ocean surface.
On account of its salinity, sea-water has a smaller capadty
for heat than pure water. According to Thoulet and Chevallicr
the spedpc heat diminishes as salinity increases, so that for
10 per mille salinity it is 0*968, for 35 permille it is only 0-932,
that of pure water being taken as imity. The thermal con-
ductivity also diminishes as salinity increases, the conductivity
for heat of sea- water of 35 per mille salinity being 4*2% less
than that of pure water. This means that sea-water heats and
cools somewhat more readily than pure water. The surface
tension, on the other hand, is greater than that of pure water
and increases with the salinity, according to Krilmmd, in the
manner shown by the equation a-77'09-Ho«o23i S at o** C,
where a is the coefficient of surface tension and S the salinity in
parts per thousand. The internal friction or viscosity of sea-
water has also been shown by £. Ruppin to increase with the
salinity. Thus at o^ C. the viscosity of sea- water of 35 per mille
satinity is 5*2% greater and at 25° C. 4% greater than that of
pure water at the same temperatures; in absolute units the
viscosity of sea-water at 35^ C. is only half as great as it is at
©•c.
The compressibility of sea-water is not yet fully investigated.
with the degree of pressure. Thus J. Y. Buchanan found a
mean of 30 experiments made by piezometers sank in great
depths on board the " Challenger ** give a coefficient of coco-
pressibilityff*49xXicr^; but ax of these experiments made at
depths. of from 3740 to 3135 fathoms gave K«48oXior«. Tbe
value usually adopted is ffB45oXxo'^ The compressibility
is in itself very small, but so great in its effect on the density
of deep water in situ that the specific gravity (o*/4*) ^ 2000
fathoms increases by 0*017 and at 3000 fathoms by 0-036.
In other words, water which has a specific gravity ol 1*0280 at
the surface would at the same temperature have a specific
gravity of 1*0450 at 3000 and i'054o at 3000 fathooa. If the
whole mass of water in the ocean were relieved from pressure its
volume would expand from 3x9 million cub. m. to 331*7 xniOiQn
cub. m., which for "a surface of X39*5 million aq. m. means an
increased depth of 100 ft. The rate of propagation of sound
depends on the compressibility, and in ocean water at tbe tropical
temperature of 77* F. the speed is 1482*6 metres (4860 ft.) per
second, in Baltic water of 8 per mille salinity and a tanpcrature
of 50* F. it is X448*5 metres (4750 ft.) per second, that is to say,
4) times greater than the velocity of sound in air. This accounts
for the great range of submarine sound signals, which can this
be very serviceable to i^avigation in foggy weather.
The electrical conductivity of sea-water increases with the
salinity; at 59* F. it is given according to E. Ruppin's formula
as L« 0*00x465 3—0*00000978 S'-fo*ooooooo876 S' in reciprocal
ohms.
The radio-activity of'sea-water Is extraordinarily small; in-
deed in samples taken from 50 fathoms in the Bay of Dajizsg
it was imperceptible, and R. T.)Strutt found that salt from
evaporated sea-water did not contain one-third of the
quantity of radium present in the water of the town supply in
Cambridge.
Dissolved Gases of Sea-waUr. — ^The water of the ocean, like
any other liquid, absorbs a certain amount of the ga^es with
wMch it is in contact, and thus sea-water contains dissolved
oxygen, nitrogen and carbonic add absorbed from the Atmo-
sphere. As Gay-Lussac and Humboldt showed in 1805, gases
are absorbed in less amoimt by a saline solution than hy pure
water. The first useful determinations of the dissolved gases
of sea-water were made by Oskar Jacobsen in 1872. Since that
time much work has beui done, and the methods have been
greatly improved. In the method now most generally practised,
which was put forward by O. Petteisson in 1894, two portions of
sea-water are collected in glass tubes which have been exhausted
of air, coated internally with mercuric chloride to prevent the
putrefaction of any organisms, and sealed up beforehand. The
exhausted tube, when inserted in the water sample and tbe tip
broken off, immediately^fills, and is then sealed up so that the
contents cannot change after collection. One portion b used
for determining the oxygen and nitrogen, the other for the
carbonic add. The former determination is made by driving
out the dissolved gases from solution and collecting them in a
Torricellian vacuum, where the volume is measured after the
carbonic add has been removed. The oxygen is then absorbed
by some appropriate means, and the volume of the nitrogen
measured directly, that of the oxygen being given b> difference.
In the second portion the carbonic add is driven out by mcaLCS
of a current of hydrogen, collected over mercury and absorbed
by caustic potash.
C. T. T. FcXf of the Central Laboratory of the Intematio«al
Council atChristiania.has investigated the relation of tbe atsno&pheric
gases to sea-water by very exact ejcperimental methods and arrived
at the following expressions for the abcorption of oxygenand nitroien
of diffcrei " _
MC centimetres of gas ^ .
sea-water; I indicates the temperature in degrees centigrade and O
liffcrent degrees of concentration. Tbe formabr
low the number of cubic centimetres of gas absorbed by i litre of
by sea-water
she
the salinity as shown by the amount of chlonne per mille: —
01-10*391-0*3809 <+o*oo6oo9 <^o*oooo633 /*-
Cl(o*i 161-0*003933 ^-H>K)ooo63 P)
!<!• 18*561-0*4383 1+0*0074527 5-0*000054941*
0(0*214^-0*007117 ^•4-0*0000931 P)
OCEAN AND OCEANOGRAPHY
981
la the case of ocean water with a talinity of 35 per mOle, this pvc»
for Mtuzation with atmospheric gases in cc per litre: —
•
ato'C.
I5^C
a5*C
Oxygen. . .
Nitrogen
803
14-40
584
tiia
4-93
9-78
The reduction of the.absorption of gas by rise of temperature
is thus seen to be considerable. As a rule the amount of both
gases dissolved in sea-water is found to be that which is indicated
by the temperature of the water in situ. Jacobsen on some
occasions found water in the surface layers of the Baltic super-
saturated with oxygen, which he ascribed to the action of the
chlorophyll in vegetable plankton; in other cases when examin-
ing the nearly stagnant water from deep basins he found a
deficiency of oxygen due no doubt to the withdrawal of oxygen
from solution, by the respiration of the animals and by the
oxidation of the deposits on the bottom. When these processes
continue for a long time in deep water shut off from free circukt-
tion so that it does not become aerated by contact with the
atmosphere the water becomes unfit to support the life of fishes,
and when the accumulation of putrefying organic matter gives
rise to sulphuretted hydrogen as in the Black Sea below xas
fathoms, life, other than bacterial, is impossible. The water
from the greatest depths of the Black Sea, 1160 fathoms,
contains 6 cc. of sulphuretted hydrogen per litre.
The distribution of dissolved oxygen in the depths of the
open ocean is still very imperfectly known. Dittmar's analysis
of the " CbalJenger " samples indicated an excess of oxygen in
the surface water of high southern latitudes and a deficiency at
depths below 50 fathoms.
The facts regarding carbonic add in sea-water are even less
understood, for here we have to do not only with the solution of
the gas but also with a chemical combination. On this account
it is very difficult to know when all the gas is driven out of a
sample of sea-water, and a much larger proportion is present than
the partial pressure of the gas in the atmosphere And its co-
efficient of absorption would indicate. These constants would
lead one to expect to find 0-5 cc. per litre at o* C. while as a
matter of fact the amount absorbed approaches 50 cc. The
form of combination is unstable and apparently variable, so
that the quantities of free carbonic acid, bicarbonate and
normal carbonate are liable to alter. Since 1851 it has been
known that all sea-water has an alkaline reaction, and Tornfie
defined the alkalinity of sea-water as the amount of carbonic
acid which is necessary to convert the excess of bases into normal
carbonate. The alkalinity of North Atlantic water of 35 per
mille salinity is 26-86 cc. per litre, corresponding to a total amount
of carbonic acid of 49*07 cc. According to the researches of
August Krogh,* the alkalinity is greatly increased by the ad-
mixture of land water. This is proved by E. Ruppin's analysis
of Baltic water, which has an alkalinity of 16 to 18 instead of
the 5 or 6 which would be the amount proportional to the
salinity, while the water of the Vistula and the Elbe with a
salinity of o*i per mille has an alkalinity of 28 or more. Thus
the alkalinity serves as an index of the admixture of river water
with sea-water. Carbonic acid passes from the atmosphere
into the ocean as soon as its tension in the latter is the smaller;
hence in this respect the ocean acts as a regulator. The amount
of carbonic acid in solution may also be increased by submarine
exhalations in regions of volcam'c disturbance, but it must be
remembered that the critical pressure for this gas is 73 atmo-
spheres, which is reached at a depth of 400 fathoms, so that
carbonic acid produced at the bottom of the ocean must be in
liquid form. The respiration of marine animals in the depths of
deep basins in which there is no circulation adds to the carbonic
acid at the expense of the dissolved oxygen. This is frequently
the case in fjord basins; for instance, in the GuUmar Fjord at a
depth of 50 fathoms with water of 34-14 per mille salinity and
^ MeddeUlser om Crintand (Copenhagen, 19O4), p. 331. ^
a temperature of 40-x^ F., the carbonic add amounts to 51-55 cc.
per litre, and the oxygen only to 2-19 cc. Vegetable plankton
in sunlight can reverse this process, assimilating the carbon of
the carbonic acid and restoring the oxygen to solution, as was
proved by Martin Knudsen and Ostenfeld in the case of diatoms.
Little is known as yet of the distribution of carbonic acid in the
oceans, but the amount present seems to increase with the
salinity as shown by the four observations quoted : —
Water from
Gulf of Finland of 3-2 per mille salinity- 17-2 cc.COi at4-i*C.
Western Baltic of 14-3 „ „ -37-o » at i-6"C.
North Atlantic of 35-0 „ „ ■■49'0 .t at about
Eastern Meditcr- loX.
raneanof 39-0 „ „ "53*0 „ at26-7*C.
Unfortunately the very numerous determinations of carbonic
acid made by J. Y. Buchanan on the " Challenger " were vitiated
by the incompleteness of the method employed, but they are
none the less of value in showing clearly that the waters of the
far south of the Indian Ocean are rdatively rich in carbonic add
and the tropical areas deficient.
Distribution of Salinity. — ^A great deal of material exists on
which to base a study of the surface salinity of the oceans, and
Schott's chart published in Petermanns Mitteilungen for 1902
incorporates the earlier work and substantially confirms the first
trustworthy chart of the kind compiled by J. Y. Buchanan from
the " Challenger " observations. In each of the three oceans
there are two maxima of salinity — one in the north, the other
in t^e south tropical belt, separated by a zone of minimum
salinity in the equatorial region, and giving place poleward to
regions of still lower salinity. The three oceans differ somewhat
between themselves. . The North Atlantic maximimi is the
highest with water of 37-9 per mille salinity; the maximum
in the South Atlantic is 37-6; in the North Indian Ocean,
36-7; the South Indian Ocean, 364; the South Padfic, 36-9;
and the North Pacific has the lowest maximum of all, only.
35-9. The comparatively fresh equatorial belt of watei*, has a
salmity of 35-0 to 34-510 the Atlantic, 35 o to 34-0 in the Indian
Ocean, 34-5 in the Western and 33-5 in the Eastern Pacific.
Taking each of the oceans as a whole the Atlantic has the highest
general surface salinity with 35-37.
The salinity of enclosed seas naturally varies much more than
that of the open ocean. Thesaltcst include the eastern Mediter-
ranean with 39-5 per mille, the Red Sea with 41 to 43 pcr mille
in the Gulf of Suez, and the Persian Gulf with 38. The fresher
enclosed seas include the Malay and the East Asiatic fringing
seas with 30 to 34-5 per mille, the Gulf of St Lawrence with
30 to 31, the North Sea with 35 north of the Dogger Bank
dimini^ing to 32 further south, and the Baltic, which freshens
rapidly from between 25 to 31 in the Skagerrak to 7 or 8 cast-
ward of Bomholro and to practically fresh water at the heads of
the. Gulfs of Bothnia and Finland. The Arctic Sea presents a
great contrast between the salinity of the surface of the ice-free
Norwegian Sea with 35 to 354 and that of the Central Polar
Basin, which is dominated by river water and melted ice, and has
a salinity less than 25 per mille in most parts. The average
salinity of the whole surface of the oceans may be taken as 34-5
per mille.
The vertical distribution of salinity 6as only recently been
investigated systematically, as the earlier expeditions were not
equipped with altogether trustworthy apparatus for collecting
water samples at great depths. Two main types of water-bottle
for collecting samples have been long in use. The older, devised
by Hooke in 1667, is provided with valv^ above and below, both
opening upward, through which the water passes freely during
descent, but which are dosed by some device on hauling up.
The newer or slip water-bottle type consists of a cylinder allowed
to drop on to a base-plate when a sample is to be collected. The
first form of slip water-bottle due to Meyer retained the water
merdy by the weight of the cylinder pressing on the base-plate.
J. Y. Buchanan introduced an improved form on the " Chal-
lenger," also remaining closed by weight, the cylinder being very
heavy and ground to fit the beveUed base-plate very accurately.
982
OCEAN AND OCEANOGRAPHY
H. R. Mill in 1885 devised a self-locking arrangement by which
the bottle once closed was automatically locked and rendered
watertight; H. L. Ekman made further improvements; and,
finally, O. Pettersson and F. Nansen perfected the instrument,
adapting it not only for enclosing a portion of water at any
desired depth, but by a series of concentric divisions insulating
in the central compartment water at the temperature it had at
the moment of collection. By means of a weight dropped along
the line the water-bottle can be shut and a sample enclosed at any
desired depth. The use of a sliding weight is not recommended
in depths much exceeding 300 fathoms on account of the time
required and the risk of the line sagging at a low angle and so
stopping the weight. . In deep water the closing mechanism is
usually actuated by a screw propeller which begins to work when
the line is being hauled in and can be set so as to close the water-
bottle in a very few fathoms. A small but heavy water-bottle
has been devised by Martin Knudsen, provided with a pressure
gauge or bathometer, by which samples may be collected from
any moderate depth down to about xoo fathoms, on board a
vessel going at full speed. This has nuule it possible to obtain
many samples from moderate depths along a long line in a
very short space of time. Sigsbee's small water-bottle on the
double valve principle actuated by a propeller requires extremely
skilful handling to enable it to give good results.
As yet it is only possible to speak with confidence of the vertical
distribution of salinity in the seas surrounding Europe, where
there is a general increase of salinity with depth. For the open
ocean the only quite trustworthy results are those obtained by
the prince of Monaco in the North Atlantic, and by the recent
Antarctic expeditions in the South Atlantic and South Indian
Oceans. The observations made on the "Challenger" and
" Gazelle," though enabling some perfectly sound general
conclusions to be drawn, require to be supplemented. It appears,
as J. Y. Buchanan pointed out in 1876, that the great con-
trasts in surface salinity between the tropical maxima and
the equatorial minima give pUce at the moderate depth of
200 fathoms to a practically uniform salinity in all parts of the
ocean.
In the North Atlantic a strong submarine current, flowing
outward from the Mediterranean leaves the Strait of Gibraltar
with a salinity of 38 per mille, and can be traced as far as Madeira
and the Bay of Biscay in depths of from 600 to 2800 fathoms,
still with a salinity of 35-6 per mille, whereas off the Azores at
equal depths the sidinity is from o- 5 to o- 7 per mille less. In the
tropical and subtropical belts of the Atlantic and Indian Oceans
south of the equator the salinity diminishes rapidly from the
surface downwards, and at 500 fathoms reaches a minimum of
34-3 or 34*4 per mille; after that it increases again to 800 fathoms,
where it is almost 34*7 or 34'8, and this salinity holds good to the
bottom, even to the greatest depths, as was first shown by the
" Gauss " and afterwards by the " Planet " between Durban and
Ceylon.
Our knowledge of the Pacific in this respect is still very im-
perfect, but it appears to be less salt than the other oceans at
depths below 800 fathoms,' as on the surface, the salinity at
considerable depths being 34-6 to 34-7 in the western part of the
ocean, and about 34-4 to 34-5 in the eastern, so that, although
the data are by no means satisfactory, it is impossible to assign
a mass-salinity of more than 34-7 per mille for the whole body of
Pacific water.
The causes of difference of salinity are mainly meteorological.
The* belt of equatorial minimum salinity corresponds with the
excessively rainy belt of calms and of the equatorial counter-
current, the salinity diminishing towards the east. The tropical
maxima of salinity on the poleward side of the trade-winds
coincide with the regions of minimum rainfall, high temperature,
strong winds and consequently of maximum evaporation.
Evaporation is naturally greatest in the enclosed scasof the nearly
rainless subtropical zone such as the Mediterranean and Red Sea.
Where the evaporation is at a minimum, the inflow of rivers from
a large continental area and the precipitation from the atmo-
sphere at a maximum, there is necessarily the greatut dilution
of the sea-water, the Baltic and the Arctic Sea I
examples.
Temperature of the Occam.— There is no difficulty an obscrrii^
the temperature of the surface of the sea on board ship, the only
precautions required being to draw the water in a bucket vhida
has not been heated in the sun in summer or exposed to frost in
winter, to draw it well forward of any dischaige pipes of the
steamer, to place it in the shade on deck, insert the tKerraoractcr
immediately and make the reading without delay. Themeasore-
ment of temperature in the depths, unless a high-speed water-
bottle be used, involves stopping the ship and empbying thcnno-
meters of special construction. Many forms have been tried, bat
only, three types are in general use. The first is the slow-action
thermometer which was originally used with good effea by
de Saussure in the Meditenanean in 178a He covered the bulb
of the thermometer with layers of non-oonducting material and
left it immerMd at the desired depth for a very long time to
enable it to take the temperature of its sunoundings. When
brought up again the thermometer retained iu temperature so
long that there was ample time to take a correct reading. Since
1870 thermometers on this principle have been in use for regular
observations at German coast and light-ship stations. Followirtg
the suggestion of Cavendish, Irving made observations of deep
temperature on Phipps's Spitsbergen voyage of 1773 with a
valved water-bottle, insulated by non-conducting maleriaL A
similar instrument gave excellent results in the hands of £. von
Lena on Kotzebue's second voyage of circumnavigation in 1823-
1826. The last elaboration of the insulated slip water-bottle
by Ekman, Nansen and Pettersson has produced an instrumcot
of great perfection, in which the insulation b effected by layers
of water between a series of concentric ebonite cylindcn, all of
which are ck>sed both above and bdow when the apparatus
encloses a sample, and each of which in turn must be wanned
considerably before there is any rise of temperature in the
chamber within. This can be used with certainty to -ox* C for
water down to 250 fathoms, after uking account of the slight
disturbance produced by the expansion of the greatly compressed
deep water.
The second form of deep-sea thermometer is the self -registering
maximum and minimunf on James Six's prindide. Tbese
instruments must be constructed with the greatest care, but
when well made in accordance with J. Y. Buchanan's large
model they can be trusted to give a good account of the vertical
distribution of temperature, provided the water grows oookr
as the depth increases. They would act equally well if the water
grew continually warmer as the depth increases, but they cannot
give an exact account of a temperature inversion such as is
produced when layers of warmer and colder water alternate.
The third form is the outflow or reversing thermometer, fint
introduced by Aim£, who used a very inconvenient form in the
Mediterranean in 1841-1845, but greatly improved and simplified
by Negretti and Zambra in 1875. The principle is to kavc a
constriction in the tube above the bulb so proportioned that
when the instrument is upright it acts in every way as an ordinary
mercurial thermometer, but when it is inverted the thread U
mercury breaks at the constriction, and the portion above the
point runs down the ik>w reversed tube and remairu there as a
measure of the temperature at the moment of turning o^-cr.
For convenience in reading, the tube is graduated inverted, ani
when it is restored to its original position the mercury thread
joins again and it acts as before. Various modifications of iIjs
form of thermometer have been nuide by Chabaud of Paris and
others. It has the advantage over the thermometer on Six's
principle that, being filled with mercury, it does not require suck
tong immersion to take the temperature of the water. A coi^
rection has, of course, to be made for the expansion or coc-
traction of the mercury thread if the temperature of readies
differs much from that of reversing. Magnaghi introduced a
convenient method of inverting the thermometer by means U
a propeller actuated on beginning to heav^ in the line, nnd this
form is used for all work at great depths. For shallow wa:«r
greater predsioa and certainty are obuined by using a le%<s
OCEAN AND OCEANOGRAPHY
983
actuated by a weight slipped down the line to cause the reversal,
as in the patterns of Rung, Mill and others.
All thermometers sunk into deep water must be protected
against the enormous pressure to which they are exposed. This
may be done by the method suggested by Arago in 1828, intro-
duced by Aim6 in 184 1 and again suggested by Glaisher in 1858,
of sealing up the whole instrument in a glass tube exhausted of
air; or, less eflfectively, by surrounding the bulb alone with a
stipng outer sheath of glass. In both forms it is usual to have
the space between the bulb and the protecting sheath partly
filled with mercury or alcohol to act as a conductor and reduce
the time necessary for the thermometer to acquire the tempera-
ture of its surroundings.
The warming of the ocean is due practically to solar radiation
alone; such heat as may be received from the interior of the
earth can only produce a small effect and is fairly uniformly
distributed. On account of the high specific heat of sea-water
the diurnal range of temperature at the surface is very small.
According to A. Buchan's discussion of the two-hourly observa-
Oions on the " Challenger " the total range between the daily
maximum and minimum in the warmer seas is between 0*7**
and o-8° F., and for the colder seas still less (0*3^ F.), compared
with 3- 2* F. in the overlying air. The maximum usually occurs
between x and 2*30 p.m., the minimum shortly before sunrise.
The temperature of the surface water is generally a h'ttle higher
than that of the overlying air, the daily average difference being
about ©"d® F., varying from o 9* lower at i p.m. to i'6* higher
at I A.ir. There are few observations available for ascertaining
the depth to which warmth from the sim penetrates in the
ocean. The investigations of Aim£ in 2845 and Hensen in 1889
Indicate that the amount of cloud has a great effect. Aim£
flowed that on a calm bright day in the Mediterranean the
temperature rose o-i* C. between the early morning and noon
at a depth of about 13 fathoms. Luksch deduced a much
greater penetration of solar warmth from the comparison of
observations at different hours at neighbouring stations in the
eastern Mediterranean, but his methods were not exact enough
to give confidence in the result. The penetration of warmth
from the surface is effected by direct radiation, and by con-
vection by particles rendered dense by evaporation increasing
salinity. Conduction has practically no effect, for the coefficient
of thermal conductivity in sea-water is so small that if a mass
of sea-water were cooled to o^ C. and the surface kept at a
temperature of 30** C, 6 months would elapse before a tempera-
ture of IS® C. was reached at the depth of i'3 metres, 1 year
at I -8$ metres, and 10 years at 5-8 metres. Great irregular
. variations in radiation and convection sometimes produce a
remarkably abrupt change of temperature at a certain depth in
calm water; the layer in which this sudden change occurs has
t^een termed the Sprungschicht. How closely two bodies of
water at different temperatures may come together is shown
by the fact that in the Baltic in August between 10 and ix
fathoms there is sometimes a fall of temperature from 57** to
46'S® F. Such a condition of things is only possible in very
calm weather, the action of waves having the effect of mixing
the water to a considerable depth. After a storm the whole of
the water in the North Sea assumes a homothermic condition,
i.e. the temperature is the same from surface to bottom, and this
occurs not only south of the Dogger Bank, where the condition
is normal, but also, though less frequently, in the deeper water
farther north. Similar effects are produced in narrow waters
by the action of tidal currents, and the influence of a steady wind
blowing on- or off-shore has a powerful effect in mixing the
water.
The warmest parts of the Indian Ocean and Western Pacific
bavc a mean annual temperature of 82** to 84** F., but such
bigh temperatures are not found in the tropical Atlantic. In the
Indian Ocean between 15" N. and 5** S. the surface temperature
in May averages 84* to 86' F., and in the Bay of Bengal the
temperature is 86^ and no part of the Atlantic has so high a
monthly mean temperature at any season. G. Schott's inves-
tigations show that the annual range of surface temperature
in Jthe open ocean is greatest in 40* N., with i8-4* F., and m
30* S., with 9-2** F.; on the contrary, near the equator it is
less, only 4* F. in 10' N., and in high latitudes it is also small,
5- 2* F. in 50* S. The figures quoted above are differences
between the average surface temperatures of the warmest and
of the coldest month. As to the absolute extremes of surface
temperature, Sir John Murray points out that 90' F. frequently
occurs in the western part of the tropical Padfic, while among
seas the Persian Gulf reaches 96* F., only 2** under blood-heat,
and the Red Sea follows closely with a maximum of 94*. The
greatest change of temperature at any place has been recorded
to the east of Nova Scotia, a minimum of 28' F. and a maximum
of 8o', and to the north-east of Japan with a minimum of 27' F.
and a maximum of 83®. In those localities, however, it is not
the same water which varies in temperature with the season,
but the water of different warm and cold currents which periodic-
ally occupy the same locality as they advance and retreat.
The zones of surface temperature are arranged roughly parallel
to the equator, especially in the southern hemisphere. Between
40' N. and 40' S. the currents produce a considerable rearrange-
ment of this simple order, the belts of warm water being wider
on the western sides of the oceans and narrower on the eastern.
The arrangement of the isotherms thus affords a basis for
valuable deductions as to the direction of ocean currents. The
surface temperature of the Atlantic is relatively lower than that
of the other oceans when the whole area is considered. According
to Kriimmel's calculation the proportional areas at a high
temperature are as follows: —
Percentage of Ocean Surface with Temperature.
^ Atlantic.
Indian.
Padfic.
Over 77* F. (25- C) . . .
Over 68« F. (20" C) .
224
501
380
51-7 ..
401
58-4
This disparity results in some degree at least from the com-
parative narrowness of the inter-tropical Atlantic, and the
absence of a cool northern area in the Indian Ocean. KrUmmel
calculates that the mean temperature of the whole ocean surface
is 63-3° F., while the mean sea-level temperature of the whole
layer of air a^t the surface of the earth is given by Hann as
57-8- F.
We are still ignorant of the depth to which the annual tempera-
ture wave penetrates in the open ocean, but observations in the
Mediterranean enable us to form some opinion on the matter.
The observations of Aim6 in 1845 and of Semmola in the Gulf of
Naples in 1 88 1 show that the surface water in winter cools
until the whole mass of water from the surface to the bottom,
in 1600 fathoms or more, assumes the same temperature. To-
wards the end of summer the upper layers have been warmed to
a depth which indicates how far the influence of solar radiation
and convection have reached. Aim6 estimated this depth at
1 50-200 fathoms, while the observations of the Austrian expe-
dition in the eastern Mediterranean found it to be from 200
to nearly 400 fathoms. In the Red Sea, where a similar seasonal
change occurs, the depth to which the surface layer warms up
is about 275 fathoms. The great difference in salinity between
the surface and the deep water excludes the possibility' of
effective convection in the seas of northern Europe, and in the
open ocean the currents which are felt everywhere, and especially
those with a vertical component, must exercise a very disturbing
influence on convection.
The vertical distribution of temperature in the open ocean
is much better known than that of salinity. The regional
differences of temperature at like depths become less as the
depth increases. Thus at 300 fathoms greater differences than
9° F. hardly ever occur between 50** N.and 50* S., in 800 fathoms
the differences are less than 5*5^ and in 1500 fathoms less than
2®. Even in the tropics the high temperature of the surface
is confined to a very shallow byer; thus in the Central Pacific
where the surface temperature is 83** F. the temperature at 100
98+
OCEAN AND OCEANOGRAPHY
fathoms is only 52** F. The whole ocean must thus form but
a cold dwelling-place for the organisms of the deep sea. Sir
John Murray calculates that at least 80% of the water in the
ocean has a temperature always less than 40^ F., and a recent
calculation by Krtiromel gave in fact a mean temperature of
39° F. for the whole ocean.
The normal vertical distribution of temperature is illustrated
in curve A of fig. x, which represents a sounding in the South
Atlantic; and this arrangement of a rapid fall of temperature
giving place gradually to an extremely slow but steady diminu-
tion as depth increases is termed anathermic (dvA, back, and
OefiljJni warm). Curve B shows the typical distribution of
temperature in an enclosed sea, in this case the Sulu Basin of
the Malay Sea, where from the level of the barrier to the bottom
the temperature remains uniform or homothermic. Curve C
shows a typical summer condition in the polar seas, where
layers of sea-water at different temperatures are superimposed,
the arrangement from the surface to 200 fathoms is termed
''
\M M $r 4a ^s M AA 90 es ro ?J^|
C"
f^
t^
i-p-'
'
/
./
— /J
•i*
/
/
-f —
/
/
(
A.
B
_
Fig. I. — Diagram illustrating Distribution of Sea Temperature.
dichalhermic {hlxo^, apart), from 1000 to 2000 fathoms it is termed
katathcrmic (icard, down). In autumn the enclosed seas of high
latitudes frequently present a thermal stratification in which
a warm middle layer is sandwiched between a cold upper layer
and a cold mass below, the arrangement being termed meso-
thermic (jjiaoi, middle). The nature of the change of
temperature with depth below 2500 fathoms is entirely dependent
on the position of the sub-oceanic elevations, for the rises and
ridges act as true submarine watersheds. As the Arctic Basin
is shut off from the North Atlantic by ridges rising to within
300 fathoms of the surface and from the Pacific by the shallow
shelf of the Bering Sea, and as the ice-laden East Greenland
and Labrador currents consist of fresh surface water which
cannot appreciably influence the underiying mass, the Arctic
region has no practical effect upon the bottom temperature of
the three great oceans, which is entirely dominated by the
influence of the Antarctic. The existence of deep-lying and
extensive rises or ridges in high southern latitudes has been
indicated by the dccp-sca temperature observations of Antarctic
expeditions. Temperatures so low as 31 '5® to 31 "3* F. do not
occur much beyond 50** S. The " Belgica " even found a tempera-
ture of 33- 1° F. in 61° S., 63° W., at a depth of 2018 fathoms.
The conditions of temperature in the South Atlantic are charac-
teristic. South of S5^ S. in approximately 3000 fathoms the
battom temperature is 31-1'* F.j in the Cape Trough it is 32'7®
in 45*" S., and 33-8* to 34-3*' in 35* S., while north of the Walfisch
Ridge and east of the South AtUntic Rise bottom temperatuns
of 36* to 36-7** F. prevail right northwards across the equator
into the Bay of Biscay, showing a steady rise of bottom tempen-
ture as successive submarine elevations restrict communicaiioa
with the Antarctic. On the other hand, in the more open .\rgeo-
tine Basin, which carries deep water far to the south, the botioo
temperature in 40® S. is only from 32*2" to 32-7* F., and the same
low temperature continues throughout the Brazil Basin to the
equator; but in the North American Basin from the West Indies
to the Telegraph Plateau no satisfactory bottom temperature
lower than 35-6® F. has been reported. On the floor of the
Indian Ocean temperatures of 33*3* to 33-6* occur south of
35° S. in depths of 2700 fathoms or more, but north of 35* S.
the prevailing bottom temperatures are from 34-0** to in*.
In similar depths in the Pacific south of the equator temperatures
of 33-8® to 34' 5° are found, and north of the equator bottoa
temperatures at the same depth increase to 33- 1* in the neightour-
hood of the Aleutian Islands, again completely justifyins the
conclusion as to the Antarctic control of deep water tempcnlcic
throughout the ocean.
The marginal rises and continental shelves pre>*ent this cold
bottom water from penetrating into the depths of the cndoxd
and fringing seas. Thus in the Central American Sea below
930 fathoms, the depth on the bar, no water is found at a tempera-
ture lower than that prevailing in the open ocean at that depth,
viz. 39-6** F., not even at the bottom of the great Bartlctt Deep
in 3439 fathoms. Such homothermic masses of water are
characteristic of all deep enclosed seas. Thus in the \lab7
Sea the various minor seas or basins are homothermic bdov
the depth of the rim, at the temperature prevailing at that litpih
in the open ocean: in the China Sea. below 87s fathoms «itb
36-5** F.; in the Sulu Sea (depth 2550 fathoms) below 400 fatbocs
with 50-5° F.; in the Celebes Sea below 820 fathoms with 3SV
F.; in the Banda Sea below 902 fathoms with 37-9* F. In other
enclosed seas which arc shut off from the ocean by averysbalki*
sill the rule holds good that the homothermic water below the
level of the sill is at the lowest temperature reached by the
surface water in the coldest season of the year, provided dviw
that the stratification of salinity is such as to permit of conveaioB
being set up. To this group belongs the Arctic Sea: the
Norwegian Sea is homothermic below 550 fathoms at ig-S^ F .
but this cold water does not penetrate into the Arctic Basis
on account of the ridge between Spitsbergen and GrecnUni,
and there the water below 1400 fathoms has a temperature of
306** to 30- 7° F. because the surface layers of water are too light,
on account of the low salinity due to ice-melting, to etub4e
even the cold of a polar winter to set up a dov^-nward convecti» '
current. The Mediterranean Sea also belongs to this group;
its various deep basins are homothermic (at the wnter surface
temperature) below the level of their respective silis— the
Balearic Basin below 190 fathoms at 55*^ F.; the Eastern Bisis
below 270 fathoms at 5S-9° F; the Ionian Sea at s6-3* F.; and
at 56-7* south of Cyprus. Similarly in the Red Sea the woicr
below 380 fathoms is homothermic at 70-7° F.
An under-current flou-s out from the Red Sea through the Strait
of Bab-el-Mandcb,and from the Mediterranean through the Strait
of Gibraltar, raising the salim'ty as well as the temperature of the
part of the ocean outside the gates of the respective seas. The
action of the Red Sea water affects the whole of the Gulf of
Aden and Arabian Sea, raising the temperature at the depth of
550 fathoms to 52® or 53** F. or 9 Fahrenheit degrees higher lh::B
the water of the Bay of Bengal at the same depth. The eficc*. Ji
the Mediterranean water in the North Atlantic does not requrrt
such large figures to express it, but is none the less extraordirxnhr
far-reaching, as first indicated by the work of the ** ChaUcn^rr "
and subsequently defined by H. N. Dickson's discussion of 'ie
observations of Wolfenden in the little sailing yacht *' Sdm
Belle." The temperature at 550 fathoms is raised to 49* or ?3*
F. between Madeira and the Biscay Shelf, i^. 5-4* F. abov^e the
temperature at the same depth off the Awres.
In shallow s^ such as the North Sea. and the British irasai
OCEAN AND OCEANOGRAPHY
98s
seas, where tidal currents run strong, there is a general mijong
together <rf the surface and deeper water, thus making the arrange-
ment of. vertical temperature anathermic in summer and kata-
thermic in winter, while at the transitional periods in spring
and autumn it is practically homothermic Thus at Station
Es of the international series at the mouth of the English
Channel in 49** 27' N., 4** 42' W., the following distribution of
temperature F. has been observed by Matthews: —
August
1904.
November
1904.
February
1905.
May
1905.
Surface . . .
16} fathoms . .
52 fathoms .
55-5
55-4
56.2-
56-5
56-5
50.7-
508
50-8
5I-3-
505
505
It is noticeable that there is a marked vertical temperature
gradient only at the end of summer when a warm surface layer
is formed, though in August 1904 that was only 8 fathoms
thick. In small nearly land-locked basins shut off from one
anoflier by bars rising to within a short distxmce of the surface
and affected both by strong tidal currents and by a considerable
admixture of land water, the contrasts of vertical distribution
of temperature with the seasons are strongly marked, and there
are also great unperiodic changes effected mainly by wind, as
is shown by the investigations of H. R. Mill in the Qyde Sea
Area, and of O. Pcttersson, J. Hjort and Helland-Hansen in the
Scandinavian fjords.
Sea Ice. — The freezing-point of sea-water is lower as the
salinity increases and normal sea-water of 35 per mille salinity
freezes at 28-6*' F. Experience shows that sea-water can be
cooled considerably below the freezing-point without freezing
if there is no ice or snow in contact with it. Freezing takes
place by the formation of pure ice in flat crystalline plates of
the hexagonal system, which form in perpendicular planes
and unite in bundles to form grains so that a thick covering
of ice exhibits a fibrous structure. It is only the water that
freezes; the dissolved salts are excluded in the process in a
regular order according to temperature. At temperatures
about 17^ F. sodium sulphate is the first ingredient of the salts
to separate out, potassium chloride follows at 12^ F., sodium
chloride at — 7*4** F., magnesium chloride at — 28's'* F., and,
as O. Pettersson was the first to point out, caldimi chloride
not untQ —67^ F. During the rapid formation of ice the still
unfrozen brine is often imprisoned between the little plates of
frozen water; hence without some special treatment sea-ice is
not suitable as a source of drinking water. After long con-
tinued frost the last of the included brine may be frozen and
the salts driven out in crystals on the surface; these crystals
are known to polar explorers by the Siberian name of rassol.
Ice is a very poor conductor of heat and accordingly protects
the surface of the water beneath from rapid cooling; hence
new-formed pancake ice does not increase excessively in thick-
ness in one winter, and even in the centre of the Arctic Basin
the ice-covering only amounts to 6 or at most 9 ft. in the course
of a year, while in the Antarctic regions the season's growth
is only haJf as great; in the latter also the accumulated snow
is an important factor in the thickness of the ice, and snow
is an even worse conductor of heat. The influence of wind and
tide breaks up the frozen surface of the sea, and sheets yielding
to the pressures slide over or under one another and are worked
together into a hummocky ice-pack, the irregularities on the
surface of which, caused by repeated fractures and collisions,
may be from 10 to 20 ft. high. Such formations, termed
toross by the Russians, may extend under water, according to
Ufakaroff's investigations, to at least an equal depth. Such old
sea-ice when prevented from escaping forms the palaeocrystic
sea of Nares; but, as a rule, it is carried southward in the East
Greenland and Labrador currents, and melted in the warmer
seas of lower latitudes. In the southern hemisphere the ice-
pack forms a nearly continuous fence around the Antarctic
continent. Pack-ice forms regularly in the inner part of the
Baltic every winter, but not in the Norwegian fjords. Even
in the Mediterruiean sea-ice b formed annually in the northern
part of the Black Sea, and more rarely in the Gulf of Salonica
and at the head of the Adriatic off Triest. Hudson Bay is blocked
by ice for a great part of the year, and the Gulf of St Lawrence
is blocked every winter. Ice also clothes the continental shores
of the northern fringing seas of eastern Asia. In addition to
sea-ice, icebergs whidi are of land origin occur at sea. In the
north, icebergs break off, as a rule, from the ends of the great
glaciers of Greenland, and in the far south from the edge of the
great Antaraic ice-barrier. The latter often gives birth to pro-
digious icebergs and ice islands, which are carried northward
by ocean currents, nearly as far as the tropical zone before they
melt. Thus in December 2906, an iceberg was seen off the mouth
of the La PUta in 38° S., and in 1840 one was seen near Cape
Agulhas in 35** S. The Antarctic icebergs are of tabular form
and much larger than those of Greenland, but in either case
an iceberg rising to 200 ft. above sea-level is uncommon, and
one cxce^ing 300 ft. is very rare. The Greenland icebergs
are carried by the Labrador current across the great banks
of Newfoundland, where they are often very numerous in the
months from February to August, when they constitute a danger
to shipping as far south as 40** N. No icebergs occur in the
North Padfic, and none has ever been reported nearer the
coasts of Europe than off the Orkney Islands, and there only
once, in 1836.
Oceanic CirctdatUm. — Although observations on marine
ciurrcnts were made near land or between islands even in anti-
quity, accurate observations on the high seas have only been
possible since chronometers furnished a practicable method of
determining longitude, i.e. from the time of Cook, the circum-
navigator. The difference between the position as determined
astronomically and by dead-reckoning gives an excellent idea
of the general direction and velocity of the surface currents.
The first comprehensive study of the currents of the Atlantic
was that carried out by Jjunes Rennell (i 790-1830), and since
that time Findlay in his Directories, Heinrich Berghaus, Maury
and the officials of the various Hydrographic Departments
have produced increasingly accurate descriptions of the ciirrents
of the whole ocean, largely from material supplied by merchant
captains. Direct observations of currents in the open sea
are difficult, and even when the ship is anchored the veering
and rolling of the vessel produce disturbances that greatly
affect the result. Such current-meters as those used by Aim6
in 1841 and by Irminger since 1858 only gave the direction of
the deeper current by comparison with the surface current at the
time of observation. Later apparatus, such as Pettcrsson's
bifilar current-meter or his more recent electric-photographic
apparatus, and Nanscn and Ekman's propeller current-meter,
measure both the direction and the velocity at any moderate
depth from an anchored vessel. One of the indirect methods
of investigating currents is by taking account of the im'tial
temperature of the current and following it by the thermometer
throughout its course; hence the familiar contrast between
warm and cold currents, of which the Gulf Stream and the
Labrador current are types. Benjamin Franklin in 1775 and
Charles Blagdcn in 1781, by means of numerous observations of
temperature made on board the packets plying on the Atlantic
passage, determined the boundaries of these two currents and
their seasonal variations with considerable precision. The
differences of salinity support this method, and, especially in
the northern European seas, often prove a sharper criterion of
the boundaries than temperature itself; this is especially the
case at the entrance to the Baltic. Evidence drawn from
drift-wood, wrecks or special drift bottles is less distinct but
still interesting and often useful; this method of investigation
includes the use of icebergs as indicators of the trend of currents
and also of plankton, the minute swimming or drifting organisms
so abundant at the surface of the sea.
The general lines of the airrents of the oceans are fairly
well understood, and along the most frequented ocean routes
the larger seasonal variations have also been ascertained. The
general scheme ol ocean currents depends on the prevailing
986
OCEAN AND OCEANOGRAPHY
winds taken in conjunction with the configuration of the coast
and its submarine approaches. The trade-wind regions corre-
spond pretty closely with westward-flowing currents, while
in the equatorial calm belts there are eastward-nmning counter-
currents, these lying north of the equator in the Atlantic and
Pacific, but south of the equator in the Indian Ocean. In the
region of the westerly winds on the poleward side of 40* N. and
S. the currents again flow generally eastward. A cyclonic circu-
lation of the atmosphere is associated with a cyclonic circulation
of the water of the ocean, as is well shown in the Norwegian Sea
and North Atlantic between the Azores and Greenland. Where
the trade-winds heap up the surface water against the east
coasts of the continents the currents turn poleward. The north
equatorial current divides into the current entering the Caribbean
Sea and issuing thence by the Strait of Florida as the Gulf Stream,
and the Antilles current passing to the north of the Antilles.
Both currents unite off the coast of the United States and run
northward, turning towards the east when they come within the
influence of the prevailing westerly winds. In a similar manner
the Brazil current, the Agulhas current and the East Australian
current orig^te from the drift of the south-east trades, and
in the North Pacific the Japan current arises from the north-east
trade drift. . The west-wind drifts on the poleward side cany
back part of the water southward to reunite with the equatorial
current, and thus there is set up an anticyclonic circulation
of water between 10* and 40* in each hemisphere, the movement
of the water corresponding very closely with that of the wind.
The coincidence of wind and current direction is most marked
in the region of alternating monsoons in the north of the Indian
Ocean and in the Malay Sea.
The accordance of wind and currents » so obvious that it
was fully recognized by seafaring men in the time of the first
drcumnavigatots. Modem investigations have shown, however,
that the relationship is by no means so simple as appears at first.
We must remember that the ocean is a continuous sheet of water
of a certain depth, and the conditions of continuity which hold
good for all fluids require that there should be no vacant space
within it; hence if a single water particle is set in motion, the
whole ocean must respond, as Varenius pointed out in 1650.
Thus all the water carried forward by any current must have
the place it left immediately occupied by water from another
place, so that only a complete system of circulation can exist
in the ocean. Further, all water particles when moving undergo
a deviation from a straight path due to the forces set up by the
rotation of the earth deflecting them towards the right as they
move in the northern hemisphere and towards the left in the
southern. This deflecting force is directly proportional to the
velocity and the mass of the particle and also to the sine of the
latitude; hence it is zero at the equator and comes to a maximum
at the poles. When the wind acts on the surface of the sea it
drives before it the particles of the surface layer of water, and,
as these cannot be parted from those immediately beneath, the
internal friction of the fluid causes the propelling impulse to act
through a considerable depth, and if the wind continued long
enough it would ultimately set the whole mass of the ocean jn
motion right down to the bottom. The current set up by the
grip of the wind sweeping over the surface is deflected by the
earth's rotation about 45^ to the right of the direction of the
wind in the northern hemisphere and to the left in the southern.
The deeper layers lag behind the upper in deflection and the
velocity of the current rapidly diminishes in consequence. The
older theory of the origin of drift currents enunciated by
Zdppritz in 1878 was modified as indicated above by Nansen
in X 901, and Waif rid Ekman subsequently went further. He
showed that at a certain depth the direction of the current
becomes exactly the opposite of that which has been imposed by
deflection on the surface current, and the strength is reduced
thereby to only one-twentieth of that at tl^e surface. He called
the depth at which the opposed dlrectic ^/a attained the drift-
current depth, and he found it to be dependent on the velocity
of the surface current and on the latitude. According to Ekman 's
calculation with a trade-wind blowing at z6 m. per hour, the
drift-current depth in latitude 5* would be approximately 104
fathoms, in latitude 15°, 55 fathoms, and in latitude 45*^ only
from 33 to 38 fathoms. A strong wind of 38 m. an hour would
produce a drift-current depth of 82 fathoms in latitude 45°, and
a light breeze of 3 m. an hour only 32 fathoms. It follows tiuit
a pure trade-wind drift cannot reach to any great depth, asd
this seems to be confirmed by observation, as when tow-nets
are sunk to dqpths of 50 fathoms and more in the region of the
equatorial current they always show a strong drift away from
the side of the ship, the ship itself following the surface cnirent.
Ekman shows further that in a pure drift current the mean
direction of the whole mass of the cunent is perpendicular to
the direction of the wind which sets it in motion. Tliis produces
a heaping-up of warm water towards the middle of the anti-
cyclonic current circulation between 10^ and 40**, and on the other
hand an updraught of deep water along the outer side of the
cyclonic currents. The latter phenomenon is most cleariy
shown by the stripes of cold water along the west coasts <A Africa
and America, the current running along the coast tending to
draw its water away seawards on the surface and the principle
of continuity requiring the updraught of the cool deep byen
to take its place. For this reason the up-welling coastal water
is coldest close to the shore, and hence it only appears on the
Somali coast during the south-west monsoon. On the flat
coasts of Europe the influence of on-shore wind in driving in
warm water, and of off-shore wind in producing an updraught of
cold water, has long been familiar to bathers. In a similar way
updraughts of cold water to the surface occur in the neq^boor*
hood of the equator, especially in the Central Atlantic and Pacific
When a drift-current impinges directly upon a coast there is a
heaping up of surface water, giving rise to a coimter-current in
the depths, which maintains the level, and this counter-current,
although subject to deflection on accotmt of the rotation of the
earth, is deflected much less than a pure drift-current would be.
Such currents, due to the banking ixp of water, have & laige
share in setting the depths of the sea in motion, and so securing
the vertical circulation and ventilation of the ocean.
The difference in density which occurs between one part of
the ocean and another, shares with the wind in the production
of currents. Vertical movements are also produced by difference
of temperature in the water, but these can only be feeble, as
below xooo fathoms the temperature differences between tn^ical
and polar waters are very small. If we assign to a column of
water at the equator the density S^" 1-022 at the surface and
1*028 at 1000 fathoms, ot an average of x*025, and to a column
of water at the polar circle a mean density of 1028, there would
result a difference of level equal to (1*028^1 -025) X 1000 «
3 fathoms in a distance from the equator to the polar drde of
some 4600 m. A gradient like this, only i in 1,350,000, could
give rise only to an extremely feeble surface current polewards
and an extremely feeble deep current towards the equator.
If there were strong currents at the bottom of the ocean the
uniform accumulation of the deposit of minute shells of g^bi-
gerina and radiolarian ooze would be impossible, the rises and
ridges would necessarily be swept clear of them, and the fact
that this is not the case shows that from whatever cause the
waters of the depths are set in motion, that motion must be of
the most deliberate and gentlest kind. In exceptional cases,
when a strong deep current does flow over a rise, as in the case
of the Wyville Thomson Ridge, the bottom is swept clear oi fine
sediment.
Strongly marked differences in density are produced by the
melting of sea-ice, and this is of particular importance in the
case of the great ice barrier round the Antarctic continent.
O. Pettersson has made a careful study of ice melting as a motlTe
power in oceanic circulation, and points out that it acts ia two
ways: on the surface it produces dilution of the water, forming
a fresh layer and causing an outflow seaward of surface water
with very low salinity; towards the deep water it produces a
strong cooling effect, leading to increase of density and sinking
of the chilled Uyers. Both actions result in the drawins ia of
OCEAN CITY
987
An fat^rmedbte Uycr ol wtter from t. diittnc« which uk«» ps.n
lo the dtniblv sysLi?m af verUcd dfculitioa u ii indiuced Ui
£f . 2 . Tht Ad ual direct Jon ttt thii drcuUit bn ii itroagty mod ifird
by the inEuena oi the nnh'a n>tatJoa. Tlic existence of a U^yer
of w&ter of low ulinLly at a depth of 500 fatbocns in the tropical
Qcuni of the uuthem bcmisphere ii to be referred to this
action of the mcLting tee of the AjitATciic regioDS. Petterauti'A
vinr that ice-mckii^g domjnatei tht whole circulatloii of the
octant A.eid rt^gubt^ in particular tht ctirredts of the leai round
northern Europe must, however, be looked on as carcyin; the
eiplanatiofi too far.
Differences of density betweeD the waten of enclosed seas aod
of the Dceaa Are brought about in some instances by conceotra-
Uon of the water of the sea on account of active evaporation, and
in other instance* by dilution on arwunt of the great mflui of
l^nd water, A very powerful v^tJcaJ clroibtioji is thus set up
between eftclosed teas and the outer ocean. The very dense
W9.UI of the Red Sea and the Meditenancan makes the column
of water sdter and heavier and the level lower than lq the ocean
beyond the Slraita^ Hence a si ronf surf ace current seta in wards
through tbe Straits of Bab-ehKIandeb and Gibraltar, while an
undercurreat flows outwards, raising the temperature and
lAliiiity of the ocean for a long distance beyond the straits.
Fig. 2. — Di4£raitn of the ttrattfiration of temperature and the
vertical componenti ol current 1 in high «iut}iei-n latitudes
Through the Bosporus and Dardanttlcfi at the entrance of the
Black Sca« and through the sound and belts at the entrance of
the Baltk, streams of fresh surface-water flow outwards to the
Salter ^fcditerranean and North Sea, while Salter water enters
is each case as an undercurrent. Wind and tide greatly alter
the itrctigth of these currents due to difference of density, and
the surface outflow may either be stopped ot^ in the case of the
belts, actually reversed by a strong and steady wind^ Both
outBowiog and inJkiwjnir currents are subject to the defiection
towards Lhe right imposed by the earth's rolation.
Modem oceanography has found means to calculate quantita-
tively the cimilatory movements produced by wind and the
distribution of temperature and salinity not only at the surface
but in deep water. The mirthods first suggested by IL Atobn
mad subsequently elaborated by V. Bjerlcnes have l^cn usefully
applied in many eases, but they cannot take the place of direct
observationa of currents and of the fundamental processes and
conditions underlying them. The de terminal ton of the exact
Rktkmship of cause and eflcct in the origin of ocean currents
b & matter of grtal practical importance. The researches of
Petteruon, Meinardus, H. N. Dickson and others leave no doubt,
for ejcample, that the variations in the intensity of the Gulf
Sireiim* whether these be me^urcd by the cbanee in the strength
of the current or in the beat stored in the water, produce great
variations in the character of the weather of northern Europe.
The connexion between variations of current strength and the
conditions of existence and distribution of plankton are no les^
important, especially as they act directly or indirectly on the
life-conditions of food fishes.
AtfTWOmTTtts.— General : M. F. Maury. The Physied Geoiraphy
tfUte Seo end us Metrorohi^ (New York ond London, jMso); J. J.
IfViW, Tkal&Sia: an Esiay on lhe Depiks, Tfmptroiuri itnd C^rrtnu
^tkt (kmx CLondofi, 1^77) ; C. D^ SlgKbee. Dtcp-s<a SoKiidint and
Qnigimg (WuhJugton, 1880)1 O. Krfimmel Handtuek dtr Oteaxo-
iraphu; [7 vok, Stutttart, 190'); O. KrQnsmd. DtrOttan (Leipzig,
190!'): S* Ttfuulvt, CkinHozmphie (2 vaU.^ P^irii), voL Ir Statique
(lioo), vol. ii. Dyfmmiqju fiUfyfii: ). Thoukt^ I'tk^nn. wj lois et ses
pTobikmtj (Pari», 1904 J ; J- Thoulci. Cuidt dr roiitmoirubftu pratique
(Paris, [S95); J^ Wafther, AUtfmeine Meereskande (Lcipiig, 1893):
Laiei KuEuts. (keawttrajia (Turinn 140^); Sir J. prtrttwich, " Tables
of Temptrratun^ of iRe Sea ni Different EU-pths - , ^ tnade between
the yeart 1745 and i868," Fhii. Trans, els v. (1S76), 639-670: A.
Buehan, *' Spoci&c Gravities and Oceaoic Circubtic»n,'* Trans. Roy.
Soc. EdinburiK 3cadv, U^^}. 317-^43 ; Sir juhn Murrny, " Presi-
dential Addreu to Sect ion E t&eoifrapliy)/' ^mijA Asiociaiwn Report
{DiKer}, iSo^i Mk Knudierin Hydmjfraphical TubUi (Copcnhaftcn.
1^1), Sir Juhfi Murray, " Dei.-p-Sca Depoa^ts and their Distnbu-
tjoii in the Patrific Ocean," Gt^atr. Jcvfttal^ 1903, 19, pp. 691-71 1.
charts '^ On the Depth, TcnTpcrature of the Qzean Waters and
Marine Deposits ol the Scuth Pad fie Ocean/' R. Ceoir. Soc. of
Auitraiia, Qiuensiand, igoj. pp. ?i'iJ4» maps and plates; J.
flstiijlci, jHstrvmzjitt £t opiraiumi d'of^nniygraphif praii^ue (Pans,
iqaSi) : Priiii ttanaiysr dfi fondi soits-mafins oituth ft anciens
(f*ari5, ^907)? T. Richard, I70t£avoirqpbit {ParU^ 1 907); List of
Oceuak Dtpthi and Striai Tempcrnturt ObiertnLtioni^ rmived at ike
Admiraity in the year iSSS {fl itqA from H.M. Surifying Ships,
Indian Marine Survey and Briiiih Suhmsrine Tdeinjpk Companies
(OAkial).
Impaitant current and tetnperature charts of the ocean and
Dccastanal metnoirs are publia^hcd for the Admiralty by the Mctcoro-
lopiiCAl Office in LondorF^ by the U.S. Hydroffriphic Office in
\iVishiii|£to(i, the DcutMihe Secwarte in Mambure, and also at
interval? by the Ftencb, Russian, Dutch and Scandinavba admir-
altic*. Fii&t Chftfti of the North Atlantic nnd North Pacific are
is^tjed monthly by tf>e U.S. Hydromphic Dttiicc, and of the North
Atlantic and of the Indian Ocean and Ued Sea by the British Meteoro-
logical Olhce, |;iving a conspectui of the normal eonditloni of weather
and lea.
Tht Dcpthi of lh€ 5ca {cTuiM?s of '* Porcupine '* and ** Liehtninff *')
(London, iB?^): The AHanik- {cruise of " Challeneer ']} (London,
1S77); Die FoTick^vj^srrite S.M.S, *' GauHe " in drn lahren jS^4
bit iSj6 [5 vok., Berlin^ i3So-i390) ; Rtpifrl of the Sdrntific Results
0/ the Vflyofe of II. M.S. " Chaiitniir" in the ytan 18^2-1876 (50
voli., London, 1^80-1895); A. hg^i^iit. Three Cruiiei of the U.S.
Coaii and Crodfti^ Sttnxy Steamer ** Biake '* . . . from ISJJ to tS8o
[2 volt., Button, Ma as., t^i^HJ; S. MakarofT, Le Vitias ct I'Ocian
PaiiJiqMe. jSS6-j8Sq {St P^crsburg, je94); S. Makaraff, The Yermak
in lhe Ice (in Ruiiian) (St Fcttribur^i loot); The Nenne^an North
Atitintk Etpeditim (on the " Vorini^en "}, tS^6-iEfS (Christiania,
[SSo-jqoo); Eapiiditkns scieniifiaiLts du " TravaUltur " et du
'^Taliimnis:* iMo-i&S\ (Paris. 1891 ct seq^s Die Ergthnisse der
PlankiQJi-Expcdiliifn, iSSg (Kiel, tiH)7 ct xqAx R^juiiaa des cam-
ptfriifj idertitjiqvef attfunpli^s sttf joh yackl par Ai^rl /" Prince
^fffftfniTjj de Mftmico (Monaco, from \h>if}^\ the Daninh " Ini^otf"
ExitrdiHoH, 1806 (CopcnhaEen, 1900I: Profn Luksch* Eipeditioncn
SM. Siktf " Pfjia " (ft doj Miitfimetr tmd in dot Rote Mter,
Kali, Akad. Wissenichaftcn (\'iunna, ilM^\~\tp^)\ Die Deutsche
** Viddioia " Tief-Set ExpcdiiioH. 18^-1809 { Derhn. 1900) ; M. W'tbcr,
" Siboea Expedition," Petermnnni AfUleilvngtn (T900); Stbcga
Expeditie (Leiden, t^2 ct ws^.}; F. Nanscn, The Norwegian
Nortk Polar Expfditiflit, tS^j-iS^ (Christiania and London. 1900);
R. S. PL-ake, " Or the Result t of a Deep-sea SoundinE^ Expedition
in. t^e North Atlantic Ocean during the Summer, 1899^^ (Extra Publ.
Geogr. See,, Londonj; BulUitn det rfstdtats acquis pendant Us
couri^ti piTiodi^Hfi (Conicil permanent interna ilonil pour Texplora-
tion dela mer) (CopenhAgtn^ iQoj smj.).
Report* of many minor c^pcditiOTi* and Te«carches have appeared
in the Rcporti of the Fishery iktard for Scotland; ihc Marine
Blologirat Auocbtion at Plymouth; the Kiel Comffitiiijen for the
Investigation of the Baltic t the Berlin Institut f(ir Merrcskunde:
the hluebooka of the l^ydro;;raphic Ekpartmcnt ; the various official
reports to the British, German, Russbn, Finnish, Nor^eKian,
Swedinkh^ Danish, BcIbijio and Dutch Eovcrnmenti on the respective
work of the^e coy n tries in connexion with the international co-
operation in the ^fo^th Sea; the Bulieiin du musft ociano^rapkique
de Monaco [190J stq); the Scofiiih Cectf^phifai Maaasine; the
Gfntrapkiial Journoh, Pflrrmonns MiUfilKafrn, Wacntr's Ceo-
rfathiuhes Jahrbuch; the Fror*f4i»^i ynd Trt^tmiiioni of the Royal
Societies of London and Edinhurph ; the AnnaUn dtr H^df if graphic;
and thi- publication* of the Swedish Academy of ^kiencfft,
(O, K.;H. R. M.>
OCEAN CITY, a ciiy and seaside resort of Cape Mny county.
New Jersey, U.S.A., in the S,E. part of lhe stale, about 10 m.
S.W, of AtlaiiLic City, Pop. (1&90), 451; (1900), 13^7* (i90S)i
1^3 5"p (iQio), T9So» It iaser\'ed by the Atlantic Clly and the West
Jersey & Seashore lilways. The city is laid out lo face both
the ocean and Gre^. Kgg Harbor Bay^ and w a pnpubr resort
during ihc aummer months. Ocean City 'wai incoTporated as a
borough ia iBB^, and ww chartered a« a cUy m ta^T.
988
OCEAN GROVE— OCHILTREE
OCEAN GROVE, a summer resort of Monmouth county, New
Jersey, U.S.A., in the eastern part of the state, on the Atlantic
coast, and 55 ra. by rail S. of New York City. Pop. (1909), aboul
3500. It is served by the Pennsylvam'a and the Central of New
Jersey railways. It is noted as a religious and musical seaside
resort, and in July and August, and especially in the last ten days
of August, during its annual camp-meeting, is visited by
thousands of people. Ocean Grove was founded in 1869 by the
Ocean Grove Camp-Meeting Association of the Methodist
Episcopal Church, as a place for religious worship, rest and
recreation, free from all forms of questionable amusement, and
is governed under a corporation charier, the corporation having
power to place restrictions in all leases.
OCEANIA, or Oceanica, a name used to cover all the islands
of the Pacific Ocean {q.v.) which are included in the divisions of
Polynesia, Micronesia, Melanesia, Australasia, &c.
OCEANUS (Gr. 'S2«ay6s), in Greek mythology, the greatest
of rivers and at the same time a divine personification. Never
mingling with the sea which it encloses, according to Homer it
has neither source not* mouth. On its southern banks, from
east to west, dwell the " blameless Aethiopians " in perfect
happiness, and beyond it on the west, in the realms of eternal
night, the " Cimmerians," wrapped in fogs and darkness. Here
are the grove of Persephone and the entrance of the underworld.
Personified, Oceanus is in Hesiod {Theog. 133, 337-370) the
son of Uranus and Gaea, the husband of Tcthys, father of 3000
streams and 4000 ocean nymphs. In Homer he is the origin of
all things, even the father of the gods, and the equal in rank of
all of them save Zeus. This conception recurs in the theory of
Thalcs, who made water the first principle of all things. The
idea of Oceanus as a river flowing unceasingly round the earth,
which was regarded as a .flat circle, was of long continuance.
Euripides was the first among the tragic poets to speak of it as
a sea, but Herodotus before him ridiculed the notion of Oceanus
as a river as an invention of the poets and described it as the
great world sea. As the geographical knowledge of the Greeks
extended, the name was applied to the outer sea (especially the
Atlantic).
In art, Oceanus was represented as an old man of noble
presence and benevolent expression, with the horns of an ox
and sometimes crab's claws on his head. His attributes are a
pitcher, cornucopiae (" horn of plenty ")f rushes, marine animals
and a sceptre. On the altar of Pcgamum he is depicted taking
part in the battle of the giants.
Homer. Iliad, \. ^3, xiv. 201, 245, xxi. 196; Odyssey, x. 508,
xi. 14; Herodotus ii. 23, iv. 8; Euripides, OraUs, 1376; Caesar,
Bell. Gall. iii. 7, iv. 10.
OCELLUS LUCANUS, a Pythagorean philosopher, born in
Lucania in the 5th century B.C., perhaps a pupil of Pythagoras
himself. Stobaeus (Eel. Phys. i. 13) has preserved a fragment
of his Hepi wS/iou (if he was really the author) in the Doric
dialect, but the only one of his alleged works which is extant b a
short treatise in four chapters in the Ionic dialect generally
known as On the Nature of the Universe. Excerpts from this arc
given in Stobaeus (i. 20), but in Doric. It is certainly not
authentic, and cannot be dated eariier than the 1st century B.C.
It maintains the doctrine that the universe is uncreated and
eternal; that to its three great divisions correspond the three
kinds of beings — ^gods, men and daemons; and, finally, that the
human race with all its institutions (the family, marriage and
the like) must be eternal. It advocates an ascetic mode of life,
with a view to the perfect reproduction of the race and its
training in all that is noble and beautiful.
Editions of the TLipl r^s roH Tamin 4>b<r«ut, by A. F. Rudolph
(1801. with commentary), and by F. W. MuUach in Fragmenta
pkilosophorum graecorum, i. (i860); sec also E. Zcller, History of
Creek Pkilosohky, i. (Enj;. trans.), and J. dc Heydcn-Ziclcwicz in
Breslauer philolozisclie Abhandtungen, via. 3 (1901). There is an
English translation (1831) by Thomas Taylor, the Platonist.
OCELOT (Mexican Flalocelotl, literally field-jaguar, from
Flalli^ field, and ocelotl^ tiger, jaguar), an American member
{Felis pardalis) of the family Felidae, ranging from Arkansas in
the north to Paraguay. The species is subject to great racial
variation. The fur has, however, a tawny yellow or reddish-
grey ground colour, marked with bUck spots, aggregated is
streaks and blotches, or in elongated rings enclosing areas ratbrr
darker than the general ground-colour. In the ty^cal form the
total length may reach 4 ft.; the average measurement of the
Ocelot {Felis pardalis).
head and body lies between 26 in. and 33 in., and of the tail be-
tween 1 1 in. and 15 in. The ocelot is essentially a forest cat, and a
ready climber; its disposition is said to be fierce and bloodthirsty
but in confinement it becomes tame and playfuL In Asia the
group is represented by the Tibetan Felis trislis,
OCHAKOV, a fortified town and port of Russia, in the go\-em-
ment of Kherson, 41 m. E. of Odessa, on a cape oi the Black
Sea, at the entrance to the estuary of the Dnieper, and opposite
to Kinburn. Pop. (1897), 10,784. Strong fortifications have
been built at Ochakov and on the Kinburn promontor)-. to
protect the entrance to the Dnieper. Ochakov stands close
to the site of the old Miletan (Greek) colony uf Oiiij and ii;e
Greek colony of Aleklor. The fortress of Kara-kcnnan or
Ozu-kaleh was built on this spot by the khan of the Crlracz,
Mengli Girai, in 1492. At a later date it became the centre oi
a Turkish province which included Khaji-dcrch (0\-iciop<^),
Khaji-bey (Odessa), and Dubossary, as well as some 1 50 vilUjics.
Russia, regarding it as the main obstacle to the possesrJoo oi
the Black Sea littoral, besieged it in 1737, when it was caplurwd
by Marshal MQnnich, but in the following year it was abandoned,
and in 1739 restored to Turkey. The second siege by Russia
was begun in 1788, and lasted six months, until the fortress «as
stormed and taken, after a terrible loss of life. By the peace ci
1791 it became Russian. In 1855 it was bombarded by the
Anglo-French fleet, and after that the Russians demolished the
fortifications.
OCHILTREE, a barony in the county of Ayr, Scotland, froa
which a title in the Scottish peerage was held in the i6th and
17th centuries by a branch of the house of Stewart. Sir .\ndre«
Stewart (d. 1488), chancellor of Scotland, a great-grandson of
the regent Albany (d. 1420), was created Baron .\vandile or
Avondale about 1457. This peerage became extinct at his
death, but was revived about 1490 in favour of his nephew ar.d
heir Andrew Stewart, who, being killed at the battle of Floddcr.
in 1513, was succeeded by his son .\ndrew, snd Baron .XvaDd^le
of this creation: and the latter obtained an act of pariiatneri
in 1543 empowering him to exchange the title of Lx>rd Avand iL
for that of Lord Ochiltree, or Lord Stewart of OchQtree. Hi
son, Andrew, 2nd Lord Ochiltree (d. c. 1600), was a aeak-s
supporter of the lords of the congregation, and especially of Jo>..
Knox, in the struggle against Mary queen of Scots, and %Ji
wounded at the battle of Langside while fighting against ti.*
queen. Of his five sons, William was slain by the ear) 0^
OCHINO— OCHRIDA
989
Bothwdl in 1588, and James, created eail of Anan in is8i, was
the father of Sir James Stewart of Killdth who became 4th
Lord Ochiltree in 1615; his daughter Maigaret was the second
wife of John Knox. His brother Henry Stewart married
Margaret Tudor, widow of James IV. of. Scotland, and was
created Baron Methven by James V. in 1528; and another
brother, Sir James Stewart of Beath, was ancestor of the Stewart
carls of Moray, through his son James who was created Lord
Dounein 1581.
The second Lord Ochiltree was succeeded in the peerage by
his grandson Andrew, who resigned the title in 16x5, and having
been summoned by writ to the Irish House of Lords was created
Baron Castle Stewart in the Irish peerage in 1619. The barony
of Ochiltree which he t^^is resigned was conferred in 26x5 on
his cousin Sir James Stewart of Killeith (see above), son of the
earl of Arran; and on the death without isue of his son William,
5th Lord Ochiltree, in 1675, the title became extinct. In 1774
Andrew Thomas Stewart successfully claimed the barony of
Castle Stewart in the peerage of Irelimd as heir maler under the
creation of 1619; but although he was permitted in X790 to
vote as Lord Ochiltree in an dection of Scottish representative
peers, his daim to this barony as collateral hdr of the grantee
of 161 5 was disallowed by the House of Lords in 1793.
OCHINO, BERNARDIMO (X487-1564), Italian Reformer,
was born at Siena in 1487. At an early age he entered the order
of Observantine Friars, the strictest sect of the Franciscans,
and rose to be its general, .but, craving a yet stricter rule, trans-
ferred himself in x 554 to the newly founded order of Capuchins,
of which in 1538 he was dectcd vicar-general. In 1539, urged
by Bembo, he visited Venice and delivered a remarkable couzse
of sermons, showing a deddcd tendency to the doctrine of
iustification by faith, which appears still more evidently in his
Dialogi VII. published soon after. He was suspected and
denounced, but nothing ensued until, at the instigation of the
austere zealot Caroffa, the Inquisition was established at Rome,
June 1542. Ochino was at once dted, but was deterred from
presenting himsdf at Rome by the warnings of Peter Martyr
and of Cardinal Contarini, whom he found at Bologna,. dying
of poison administered by the reactionary party. After some
hesitation he escaped across the Alps to Geneva. He was
cordially recdved by Calvin, and within two years published six
volumes of Prediche^ tracts rather than sermons, expUining and
vindicating his change of religion. Twenty-five of these were
published in English at Ipswich in 1548. In 1545 he became
minister of the Italian F^testant oongr^;ation at Augsburg,
which he was compelled to forsake when, in January x^7,
the dty was occupied by the imperial forces in the Schmalkaldic
War. Escaping by way of Strassburg he found an asylum in
England, where he was mode a prebendary of Canterbury,
received a pension from Edward VI.'s privy purse, and com-
posed hb chief work, A Trajedy or Dialogue of ike unjust usurped
Primacy of the BisJiop of Rome (1549). This remarkable per-
formance, originally written in Latin, is extant only in the
translation of John Ponet, bishop of Winchester, a splendid
specimen of nervous English. The conception is highly
dramatic; the form is that of a series of dialogues. .Ludfer,
enraged at the spread of Christ's kingdom, convokes the fiends
in council, and resolves to set up the pope as Antichrist The
state, represented by the emperor Phocas, is persuaded to
connive at the pope's asstmiption of spiritual authority; the
other churches are intimidated into acquiescence; Lucifer's
projects seem fully accomplished, when Heaven raises up Henry
\^II. and his son for their overthrow. The conception bears
a remarkable resemblance to that of Paradise Lost; and it is
almost certain that Milton, whose sympathies with the Italian
Reformation were so strong, must have been acquainted with it,
and with some of his later works. In the Labyrinth (dedicated
to Queen Elizabeth of England), a discussion of the freedom
of the will, he covertly assailed the Calvinistic doctrine of
predestination, and showed that his views were tinged with
Sodnianism.
The accession of Mary in 1553 drove him from England, and
he became pastor of the Italian congregation at ZOrich. In
1 563 the long-gathering storm of obloquy burst upon the occasion
of ^ publication of his Thirty Dialogues, in one of which his
adversaries maintained that he had justified polygamy under
colour of a pretended rdutation. His dialogues on divorce
and the Trinity were also obnoxious. Ochiiu> was banished
from Zttrich, and, after being refused a shelter by other Protestant
dties, directed his steps towards Poland, at that time the most
tolerant state in Europe. He had not resided there long when
the edict of the 6th of August 1564 banished all foreign dis-
sidents. Flying from the country, he encountered the plague
at Pinczoff; three of his four children were carried off; and
he himself, worn out by age and misfortune, died in solitude
and obscurity at Schlakau in Moravia, about the end of 1564.
His reputation among Protestants was at the time so bad that
he was charged with the authorship of the treatise De tribus
impostoribus, as wdl as with having carried his alleged approval
of polygamy into practice. It was reserved for Dr Benrath to
justify him,. and to represent him as a fervent evangelist and
at the same time as a ^}eculative thinker with a passion for
free inquiry. The general tendency of his mind ran counter
to tradition, and he b remarkable as resuming in kis individual
history all the phases of Protestant theology from Luther to
Sodnus.
See Life by B*. O. Benrath (2nd ed., Brunswick, 1802), translated
into English by Helen Zimmem (London, 187^) . In addition to
the books already named, he wrote Italian expositions of Romans
(Geneva, 1545) and Calattans (Augsburg, 1546).
OCHRES, a dass of pigments varying in colour from yellow to
red, and consisting mainly of hydratcd iron oxide. The YeUav
Ochres are native earths coloured with hydrated ferric oxide, the
brownish yellow substance that colours, and is deposited from,
highly ferruginous water. These ochres are of two kinds— one
having an argillaceous basis, while the other is a calcareous earth,
the argillaceous variety being in general the richer and more pure
in ooloiu: of the two. Both kinds are widely distributed, fine
qualities being found in Oxfordshire, the Isle of Wight, near
Jena and Nuremberg in Germany, and in France in the depart-
ments of Yoxme, Cher and Nidvre. The original colour of these
ochres can be modified and varied into browns and reds of more
or less intensity by calcination. The nature of the associate
earth also influences the colour assumed by an ochre under
caldnation, aluminous ochres developing red and violet tints,
while the calcareous varieties take brownish-red and dark-brown
hues. The well-kno^^n ochre Terra da Sienna which in its raw
state is a dull-coloured ochre, becomes when burnt a fine warm
mahogany brown hue highly valued for artistic purposes.
Yellow ochres are also artificially prepared— Afar* Yellow being
either pure hydrated ferric oxide or an intimate mixture of that
substance with an argillaceous or calcareous earth, and such
compounds by careful calcination can be transformed into Mars
Orange, Violet or Red, all highly important, stable and reliable
pigments.
OCHRIDA (also written Okhkida and AcnsroA; Turkish
Ochri), a city of Albania, European Turkey, in the vilayet of
Monastir; on the north-eastern shore of Lake Ochrida, and at the
eastern end of the Roman Via Egnatla. Pop. (1905) about
11,000, induding Albanians, Turks, Greeks and Slavs. Ochrida
occupies the site of the andent Lychnidos, which was added to
the Macedonian empire by Philip II. (382-336 B.C.), and destroyed
by the Bulgarians in a.d. 861. It is the seat of Bulgarian and
Greek bishops. From the creation of the Bulgarian patriarchate
of Ochrida in 893 to its abolition in X767 the dty was the ecdesi-
astical headquarters of the Bulgarians in the west of the Balkan
Peninsula. Lake Ochrida is 2260 ft. above sea-level, in a motm-
tainous limestone region of Karst formation. It measures X07
sq. m., and has a maximum depth of 938 ft. Its waters are
supplied by subterranean streams. Its chief outlet is the river
Black Drin, on the north.
See Gelzer, Der Palriarchat von Achrida (Leipzig, 19M); and
" Dr Jovan Cviii£'t Researches in Macedonia, &c.," in 7m Ce9-'
graphtcal Joumu, vol. xvi. (London, 1900).
990
OCHSENFURT— O'CONNELL, D.
OCHSBIf FURT, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Bavaria,
ntuated on the left bank of the Main, here crossed by a stone
bridge, 13 m. S. from WQrzburg by the railway to Munich,
and at the junction of a line to RSttingen. Pop. (1905) 3333.
It contains an Evangelical and five Roman Catholic churches,
among them that of St Michael, a fine Gothic edifice. There Is
a considerable trade in wine and agricultural produce, other
industries being brewing and malting.
OCHTERLONY, SIR DAVID, Bart. (1758-1825), British
general, was bom at Boston, Mass., U.S.A., on the 12th of
February 1758, and went to India as a cadet in 1777. He served
under Lord Lake in the battles of Koil, Aligarh and Delhi, and
was appointed resident at Delhi in 1803. In 1804, having been
promoted to the rank of major-general, he defended the dty with
a very inadequate force against an attack by Holkar. .On the
outbreak of the Nepal War (1814-15) he was given the command
of one of four converging columns, and his services were rewarded
with a baronetcy in 181 5. Subsequently he was promoted to the
command of the main force in its advance on Katmandu, and
outmanoeuvring the Gurkhas by a flank march at the Kourea
Ghat Pass, brought the war to a successful conclusion and
obtained the signature of the treaty of- Scgauli (18 16), which
dictated the subsequent relations of the British with Nepal.
For this success Ochterlony was created G.C.B., the first time
that honour had been conferred on an officer of the Indian army.
In the Pindari War (18x7-18) he was in conmiand of the Raj*
putana column, made a separate agreement with Amir Khan,
detaching him from the Pindaris, and then, interposing his
own force between the two main divisions of the enemy, brought
the war to an end without an engagement. He was appointed
resident in Rajputana in x8i8, with which the residency at
Delhi was subsequently combined. When Durjan Sal revolted
in 1825 against Balwant Singh, the infant Raja of Bharatpur,
Ochterlony acting on his own responsibility supported the raja
by proclamation and ordered out a force to support him. Lord
Amherst, however, repudiated these proceedings. Ochterlony,
who was bitterly chagrined by this rebuff, resigned his office, and
retired to Delhi. The feeling that the confidence which his length
of service merited had not been given him by the governor-
general is said to have accelerated his death, which occurred
at Mcerut on the X5th of July 1825. The Ochterlony column
at Calcutta commemorates his name.
See Major Ross of Bladensburg, The Marquess of Hastings
(" Rulers of India " aeries) (1893).
OCHTMAN, LEONARD (1854-^ ), American painter, was
bom in Zonnemaire; Zeeland, Holland, on the 21st of October
1854. His family removed to Albany, New York, in 1866.
In 1882 he began to exhibit landscapes at the National
Academy, and he became a National Academician in 1904.
His most characteristic pictures, which recall the work
of Ixmess, are scenes on Long Island Sound and on the Mianus
river.
OCKLEY, SIMON (1678-1720), English orientalist, was bom
at Exeter in 1678. He was educated at Queen's College, Cam-
bridge, became fellow of Jesus College and vicar of Swavesey,
and in X 7 X X was made professor of Arabic at Cambridge. He had
a large family, and the pecuniary embarrassments of his later
days form the subject of a chapter in D 'Israeli's Calamities of
Authors: The preface to the second volume of his History of the
Saracens is dated from Cambridge Castle, where he was imprisoned
for debt. Ockley maintained that a knowledge of Oriental
literature was essential to the proper study of theology, and in
the preface to his first book, the Introductio ad linguas orientales
(1706), he urges the importance of the study. In 1707 he pub-
lished a translation of Leon Modena's History of the Present
Jews throughout the World; and in 1708 The Improvement of
Human Reason, exhibited in the Life of Hat Ebn Yokdhan. His
chief work is The History of the Saracens (1708-X718), of which
a third volume was published posthumously in X757. Un-
fortunately Ockley took as his main authority a MS. in the
Bodleian of the pscudo-Wakidi's Fuluh al-Sham, which is rather
historical romance than history. He also traiislated from the
Arabic the Second Book of Esdras and the Sentences of AIL
Ockley died at Swavesey on the gth of August 1720.
OXLERY, MICHAEL (1575-1643)* Irish chronicler, gnixhoo
of a chief of the sept of O'Clery in Donegal, was bora at Kil-
barrow on'Donegal Bay, and was baptized Tadhg (or ** p^et "),
but took the name of Michael when he became a Frandicu
friar. He was a cousin of Lughaidh O'Clery (fl. isq5-x6js),
who, with his son Cacrigcriche O'Clery (d. 1 664) — one of Midiad's
co-workers— is also famous as an Irish historian. He had
already gained a reputation as an antiquary and student of
Irish history and Uterature, when he entered the Irish Coflege
of St Anthony at Louvain. In 1620, through the Initiati^x of
Hugh Boy Macanward (X580-X635), warden of the college, and
himself a famous Irish historian and poet, and one of as old
family of hereditary bards in Tjrrconnell, he began to collcrt
Irish manuscripts and to transcribe everything he couM fifid of
historical importance; he was assisted by other Irish scholars,
and the results were his Reim Rioghroidke (Royal List) in i6jo.
Leabhar Cahhala (Book of Invasions) in X63X, and his most
famous work, called by John Colgan (d. 1659), the Irish bio-
grapher, the " Annals of the Four Masters " ( 1636) . Subscqutoily
he produced his Mariyrologium of Irish saints, based on \-anous
ancient manuscripu, an Insh glossary and other works. He
lived in poverty, and died at Louvain.
O'CONNELL, DANIEL (X775-X847), Irish statesman,- known
as "the Liberator," was bom on the 6th of August 1775 oear
Cahirciveen, a small town in Kerry. He was sprung from s
race the heads of which had been Celtic chiefs, had VoA their
lands in the wars of Ireland, and had felt the full weight of the
harsh penal code which long held the Catholic Irish dova.
His ancestors in the i8th century had sent recruits to the famous
brigade of Irish exiles in the service of France,' and those «bo
remained at home either lived as tenants on the possessiocs of
which they had once been lords, or gradually made money by
smuggling, a very general calling in that wild region. Thus he
inherited from his earliest years, with certain traditions of birtb
and high station, a strong dislike of British rule in Ireland aad
of the dominant owners of the soil, & firm attachment to his
proscribed faith, and habitual skill in evading the law; and these
influences may be traced in his subsequent career. While a boy
he was adopted by his uncle, Maurice O'ConncU of DerTj-nane.
and sent to a school at Queenstown, one of the first which the
state in those days allowed to be opened for Catholic teaching;
and a few years afterwards he became a student , as was customiry
with Irish youths of his class, in the Engb'sh colleges of St Goer
and Douai in France. These years ya France had a decided
effect in forming his judgment on poh'tical questions of high
moment. He was an eye-witness on more than one occasioD of
the folly and excesses of the French Revolution; and these
scenes not only increased his love for his church, bat sironsly
impressed him with that dread of anarchy, of popular moremcnu
ending in bloodshed, and of communistic and sodaiistic >ievs
which characterized him in after life. To these experiences,
too, we may partly ascribe the reverence for law, for the rights
of property, and for the monarchical form of government which
he appears to have sincerely felt; and, demagogue as he became
in a certain sense, they gave his mind a deep Consen.*ative tinge.
In X798 he was called to the bar of Ireland, and rose before kwg
to the very highest eminence among contemporary Uw>-ers
and advocates. This position was in the main due to a dexterity
in conducting causes, and especially in examining witaessei,
in which he had no rival at the Irish bar. He was, however,
a thorough lawyer besides, inferior In scientific learning to t«o
or three of his most conspicuous rivals, but well read in o-ery
department of law, and especially a master in all that relates
to criminal and constitutional jurisprudence. As an advocate,
too, he stood In the very highest rank; in mere oratory he was
surpassed by Plunket, and in rhetorical gifts by Busbe, the only
* See the account of O'COnnell** uncle. Count Daniet O'Coonefl
(1745-1833), to whose property he fell heir, in Mn O'CoaaeU'j
Last Colonel of the Irish EtrigqiU (1893). and O'CaUaghaB't IhA
Brigade in the Service of France (1870).
0'CX)NNELL, D.
991
qwakers to be nAmed with him in hit beit days at the Irish bar;
but his style, if not of the most perfect kind, and often disfigured
by decided faults, was marked by a peculiar subtlety and
Bumly power, and produced great and striking effects. On the
whole, in the art of winning over juries he had scarcely an equal
in the law courts.
To understand, however, O'Connell's greatness we must look
to the field of Irish politics. From early manhood he had turned
his mind to the condition of Ireland and the mass of her people.
The wors't severities of the penal code had been, in a certain
measure-, relaxed, but the Catholics were still in a state of vassal-
age, and they were still pariahs compared with the Protestants.
The rebellion of 1798 and the union had dashed the hopes of
the Catholic leaders, and their prospects of success seemed very
remote when, in the first years of the 19th century, the still
unknown law>'er took up their cause. Up to this juncture the
question had been in the hands of Grattan and other Protestants,
and of a small knot of Catholic nobles and prelates; but their
efforts had not accomplished much, and they aimed only at
A kind of compromise, which, while conceding their principal
claims, would have placed their church in subjection to the
state. O'Connell inaugurated a different policy, and had soon
given the Catholic movement an energy it had not before
possessed. Himself a Roman Catholic of birth and genius,
unfairly kept back in the race of life, he devoted his heart and
ioul to the cause, and his character and antecedents made him
the champion who ultimately assured its triumph. He formed
tfte bold design of combining the Irish Catholic millionf, under the
superintendence of the native priesthood, into a vast league
a^inst the existing order of things, and of wresting the concession
of the Catholic claims from every opposing party in the state by
an agitation, continually kept up, and embracing almost the
whole of the people, but maintained within constitutional
limits, though menacing and shaking the frame of society. He
gradually succeeded in carrying out his purpose: the Catholic
Association, at first small, but slowly assuming larger proportions,
was formed; attempts of the government and of the local
authorities to put its branches down were skilfully ba£9ed by
legal devices of many kinds; and at last, after a conflict of years,
all Catholic Ireland was arrayed to a man in an organization
of enormous power, that demanded its rights with no uncertain
inrice. O'Conncll, having long before attained an undisputed
and easy ascendancy, stood at the head of this great national
movement; but it will be observed that, having been controlled
from first to last by himself and the priesthood, it had Uttle in
common with the mob rule and violence which he had never
ceased to regard with aversion. His election for Clare in 1828
proved the forerunner of the ineviuble change, and the Catholic
claims were granted the next year, to the intense regret of the
Protestant Irish, by a government avowedly hostile to the last,
but unable to withstand the overwhelming pressure of a people
united to insist on justice. The result, unquestionably, was
almost wholly due to the energy and genius of a sin^e man,
tbou^ the Catholic question would have been settled, in all
probability, in the course of time; and it must be added that
O'Connell's triumph, which showed what agitation could effect
in Ireland, was far from doing his country uncuxed good.
O'Connell joined the ^^Tiigs on entering parliament, and
gave effeaive aid to the cause of reform. The agitation, however,
on the Catholic question had quickened the sense of the wrongs
of Ireland, and the Irish Catholics were engaged ere long. in a
crusade agair.st tithes ar.d the- established church, the most
offensi\x symbols of their inferiority in the slate. It may be
questioned whether O'Cocr.cII was not rather led than a leader
in this, the movement, at least, passed beyond his control
and the country for many months was terrorized by scenes
of appalling criir.e and bloodshed. Lord Grey, very properly,
proposed measures of repression to put this anarchy down,
and O'Conneil opposed them with extreme vehemence, a
tTf*"*'^ departure from his a\'owed principles, but natural
in tht case of a popular tribune. This caused a breach between
him and the l^liigs; but he gradually returned to his allegiance
to them when th^ practically aboh'shed Irish tithes, cut down
the revenues of the established church and endeavoured to
secularize the surplus. By this time O'ConneU had attained
a position of great eminence in the House of Commons: as a
debater he stood in the very first rank, though he had entered
St Stephen's after fifty; and his oratory, massive and strong
in argument, although too often scurrilous and coarse, and marred
by a bearing in which cringing flattery and rude bullying were
strangely blended, made a powerful, if not a pleasing, impression.
O'Connell steadily supported Lord Melbourne's government,
gave it valuable aid in its general measures, and repeatedly
expressed his cordial approval of its policy in advancing Irish
.Catholics to phuxs of trust and power in the sUte, though
personally he refused a high judicial office. Though a strict
adherent of the creed of Rome, he wasaLiberal,nay a Radical,
as regards measures for the vindication of human liberty, and
he sincerely advocated the rights of conscience, the emancipation
of the sUve and freedom of trade. But his rooted aversion to
the democratic theories imported from France, which were
gradually winning their way into England, only grew stronger
with advancing age. His conservatism was most apparent
in his antipathy to socialistic doctrines and his tenacious regard
for the claims of property. He actually opposed the Irish Poor
Law, as encouraging a communistic spirit; be declared a Dx>ve-
ment i^gainst rent a crime; and, though he had a strong sympathy
with the Irish peasant, and advocated a reform of his precarious
tenure, it is difficult to imagine that he could have .approved
the cardinal principle of the Irish Land Act of i88z, the judicial
adjustment <^ rent by the state.
O'Connell changed his policy as regards Ireland when Peel
became minister in Z84Z. He declared that a Tory r6gime in
his country was incompatible with good government, and be
began an agitation for the repeal of the union. One of his motives
in taking this course no doubt was a strong personal dislike
of Ped, with whom he had often been in collision, and who had
singled him out in 1829 for what must be called a marked affronL
O'Connell, nevertheless, was sincere and even consistent in his
conduct: be had denounced the union in early manhood as
an obstacle to the Catholic cause; he had spoken against the
measure in parliament; he believed that the claims of Ireland
were set aside or alighted in what he deemed an alien assembly;
and, though he had ceased for some years to demand repeal,
and regarded it as rather a means than an end, he was throughout
life an avowed repealer. It should be obscr\-ed, however, that
in his judgment the repeal of the union would not weaken the
real bond between Great Britain and Ireland; and he had
nothing in conumm with the revolutxom'sts who, at a later period,
openly declared for the separation of the two countries by
physical force. The organization which had effected such
marvellous results in 1828-1829 was recreated for the new project.
Enormous nxeetings, convened by the priesthood, and directed
or controlled by O'ConneU, assembled in 184 2-1 ^45, and probably
nine-tenths of the Irish Catholics were ur^nimous in the cry
for repeaL O'Connell seems to have thought success certain;
but he had not perceived the essential difference between his
earlier agitation and this. The ezJightened opinion <rf the three
kingdoms for the most part approved the Catholic claims, and
as certainly it condemned repeaL After some besitatitm Peel
reserved to put down the repeal movement. A vast intended
meeting was proclaimed unlawful, and in October 1843 O'Ccmndl
was arrested and held to boil, with ten or tweh-e of his principal
followers. He was con-ricled (February 1S44) after the trials
that followed, but they were not good specimens of equal justice,
and the sentence of i.T.pri.<onment for a year £nd a fine of £2000
was reversed on a writ of error by the House of Lords 'September
i344)« and he and his colleagues were again free. The spell,
however, of O'Cor.nell's power hid vpr.ished; his heal'h kid
suffered much from a short confinement; he was verging upon
his seventieth y^^; and he was alarmed and pained by the
growth of a p«an>, jji the repeal tanks who scoffed at t'j views,
and ad\-ocated t*: -evcAMtwrnaiy doclriivcs which he had al-»ays
feared and a^^^^^ W«e Vmg lacice had fallen o- the
992
0'CX)NNOR, F. E.— OCTAVE
land, and under this visitation the repeal movement, akeady
paralysed, who|Uy collapsed. O'Connell died on the xsth of
May 1847, at Genoa, whilst on his way to Rome. His body
was brought back to Dublin and buried in Glasnevin cemetery.
O'Connell was a remarkable jnan in every sense of the word,
of splendid physique, and with all the attractions of a popular
leader. Catholic Ireland calls him her " Liberator " still; and
history will say of him that, with some failings, he had many
and great gifts, that he was an orator of a high order, and that,
agitator as he was, he possessed the wisdom, the caution and
the tact of a real statesman. Nevertheless he not only failed
to accomplish the chief aim of his life, but Lecky trenchantly
observes that '* by a singular fatality the great advocate of
repeal did more than any one else to make the Union a necessity.
. . , He destroyed the sympathy between the people and their
natural leaders; and he threw the former into the hands of
men who have subordinated all natbnal to ecclesiastical con-
siderations, or into the hands of reckless, ignorant, and dishonest
advcntums." O'Connell married in i8oa his cousin Maxy
O'Connell, by whom he had three daughters and four sons,
Maurice, Morgan, John (1810-1858), known as the "Yoong
Liberator," and Daniel, who all sat in parliament.
His son John published a Life in 1846 and RecoiUelumt and
EjfPeriaues in 1849. There ata also biographies by W. Fagan
(1847). M. F. Cusack (1872). J. O'Rourke and O'Reeffe (1875).
and J. A. Hamilton (1888). See especially W. E. H. Lecky** essay
in the revised edition of his iMiders of PuUk Opinion in Irttamd
voL iL (1903). (W. O. M.)
(rCONliOR, FEARGUS EDWARD (i794-i855)> Chartist
leader, was a son of the Irish Nationalist politician Roger
O'Connor (1762-1834), and nephew of Arthur O'Connor (1763-
1852), who was the agent in France for Emmet's rebellion;
both belonged to the " United Irishmen." He entered parlia-
ment as member for the coimty of Cork in 1832. Though a
sealous supporter of repeal, he endeavoured to supplant O'.Con-
nell as the leader of the party, an attempt which aroused against
him thfe popular antipathy of the Irish. In 1835 he was un-
seated on petition, and after standing unsuccessfully for Oldham
he took to stumping England in favour of the new Radical
doctrines of the day, and the use of physical force for their
adoption. In 2837 he established the Northern Star, newspaper
at Leeds, and became a vehement advocate of the Chartist
movement. He was imprisoned for seditious iibel in 1840, and
after his release became prominent for his attack on John
Bright, and the anti-com-law league. In 1847 he was returned
for Nottingham, and in 1848 he presided at a Chartist demon-
stration on Kennington Common, which caused great alarm
(see Chaktism). But the projected march on Westminster
fizzled, out when the prepa.rations made to receive it became
known. The eccentricity which had characterized his opinions
from the beginning of his career gradually became more marked
until they developed into insanity. He began to conduct
himself in a disordcriy manner in the House of Commons, and
in 1852 he was found to be of imsound mind by a commission
of lunacy. He died at London on the 30th of August. 1855,
and was buried in Kensal Green cemetery.
dCONOMOWOC, a. city of Waukesha county, Wisconsin,
U.S.A., about 33 m. W. of Milwaukee. Pop. (1890) 2729; (1900)
2880; (rgos) 3013; (xQio) 3054. It is served by the Chicago,
Milwaukee & St Paul railway and by an electric railway con-
necting with Milwaukee. Oconomowoc is one of the most
popular summer resorts in the Middle West. Along the shore
of Lakes Fowler and La Belle are some beautiful country estates,
several large hotels and fine club houses, and two sanatoria.
At Delaficld and at Dousman (8 m. S. of Oconomowoc) there
are state fish hatcheries, the former for black bass. Oconomowoc
was settled about 1837 and incorporated in 1875; its name
is an Indian word, said to mean " home of the beaver."
O'CONOR, CHARLES (i 804-1884), American lawyer, was
bom in the city of New York on the 22nd of January 1804,
and was the son of Thomas O'Conor (1770-1855), who in 1801
emigrated from Roscommon county, Ireland, to New York,
where he devoted himself chiefly to journalism. The son
studied law, wns admitted to the bar in 1824, and looo woa
high reputation in his profession. He was United Slates dittzia
attorney for New York in 1853-1854. In politics an eztxene
States'-Rights Democrat, he opposed the coercioa of the South,
and after the Qvil War became senior counsel for Jefleisoa
Davis on his indictment for treason, and was one of h^ boads>
men; these facts and O'Cbnor's connexion with the Rnau
Catholic Church affected unfavourably his political fortooo.
In X872 he was nominated for thepresidency "by the ** BoorboB"
Democrats, who refused to support Horace Greeley, and by the
** Labour Reformers "; he declined the nominatioo but received
21,559 votes. He took a prominent part in the prosecutioa cf
William M. Tweed and members of the '* Tweed Ring." asd
published Peculation Triumphant,. Being the JUecrd if a Fix
Years' Campaign agaitut Official Malversation, ajk iSji-iSis
(1875). He removed to Nantucket, Massachusetts,. in 1881,
and died there on the 12th of May 1884.
OCOIITD, a dty and the county-seat of Oconto county,
Wisconsin, U.S.A., about 130 m. N. of Milwaukee, on the W.
shore of Green Bay, at the mouth of the Oconto river. Fop.
(2890) 5219; (1900) 5646, of whom 1544 were foretgn-bore;
(1905) 57a>; (1910) 5629. It is served by the Chicago & Kortb-
Westem and the Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul rai]wa>-s. Tlie
dty lies in a good farming country, and has a. considerahk hke
commerce in lumber and fish. The first settlement was nuk
here in 184&, and Oconto was chartered as a dty in 1882.
OCBICULUM (mod. Otricoli), an ancient town of Umbra,
Italy, on the >^ Flaminia, near the E. bank of the Tiber, 44 n.
N. of Rome and 12 m. S. of Namla. It conduded an affiuct
with Rome in 308 B.C. The modem village lies higher thaa tbe
andent town, and excavations on tbe site of tbe latter in 177$
and following years led to the discovery of the baths, a theatre,
a basilica and other buOdings. In the baths were found a number
of works of art, now in the Vatican, notably tbe mosaic pave*
ment of the Sala della Rotonda, and the celebrated bead of Zeos
and the head of Claudius in the same room. An anphithettic
is still visible, but the other btiildings have in the main bees
covered up again.
OCTAHEDRON (Gr. ierit, eight, SSpa^ base), a solid bouaded
by eight triangular faces; it has 6 vertices and 12 edges. The
regular octahedron has for its faces equilateral triangks; it
is the redprocal of the cube. Octahedra ha\ing triar^nbr
faces other than equilateral occur as crystal forms. See Pom-
BEOSON and Crystallogsaphy.
OCTAVE (from Lat. ociavus, eighth, ecle, eight), a period
or series of eight members. In ecclesiastical usage tbe octave
is the dghth day after a particular church fesu'val, the feast
day itself and the " octave " being counted. The oaave tbu
always falls on the same day of the week as the festival, and
any event occurring during the period is said to be *' in the
octave." In music, an octave is the eighth full tone above or
below any given note. It is produced by double or half tbe
number of vibrations corresponding to the given note. In the
interval between a note and its octave is contained the full scale,
the octave of a note forming the starting-point of another scale
of similar intervals to the first. Tbe interval between a note
and its octave is also called an octave. The name is also applied
to an open metal stop in an organ, and to a flute (more uscuTy
known as the piccolo) one octave higher in pitch than the
regular flute. It is also a term for a '* parade " in fencirg.
The " law of octaves " was a term applied in 1865 to a rdat»r-
ship among the chemical dements, cntmciated by J. A. R-
Newlands.
In literature an octave b a form of verse consisting of cig^t
iambic lines, and complete in itself. From its use by the poets
of Sicily, the recognixed type of this form is usually called ibc
Sicilian Octave. It is distinguished from a single stanza ui
ottava rima, in which the rhyme-arrangement b ahahckc. by
having only two rhymes, arranged abababab. In German litera-
ture the octave has been used not infrequently since 1820, vfaa
Ruckert published " Sidlianen," as they are called in Gcnnsn,
for the first time. The word octave Is abo ctftcn used to describe
OCTAVIA— OCTORCX)N
993
the d^t opening lines of a sonnet, in which the rhyme-arrange-
ment is abbaabUi, or some modification of this, but properly
always on two rhymes only.
OCTAVIA, the name of two princesses of the Augustan bouse,
(i ) Ocuvia, daughter of Gaius Octavius and sister of the emperor
Augustus, was the wife of Gaius Marceilus, one of the bitterest
enemies of Julius Caesar. In 41 B.C. her husband died, and she
was married to Marcus Antonius, with the idea of bringing about a
reconciliation between him and her brother. Her efforts were
at Arst successful, but in 36 Antony left for the Parthian War
and renewed his intrigue with Cleopatra. Though OcUvia
took out troops and money to him (35), he refused to see her ind
formally divorced her in 3a, but she always protected his children,
even those by Fulvia and Oeopatra. Her beauty and virtues
are praised by all ancient authorities. By her first husband she
was the mother of Marcus Marceilus ig.v.), who died in 33 b.c.
(2) OcTAVU, daughter of the emperor Claudius, was the wife of
Nero, by whom she was put to death. A Latin tragedy on her
late is attributed, though wrongly, to Seneca.
OCTAVO, a shortened form of Lat. in octavOf " in an eighth,
t.e. of a sheet of paper, a term applied to a size of paper and to a
aiae of a printed volume. Paper is in octavo when a whole fingle
ftheet u folded three times to form eight leaves; a book is techni-
cally termed of " ocuvo " size when made up of sheets folded
three times (see Bibuockaphy and Papes).
OCTOBER, the eighth month of the old Roman year, which
began in March. In the Julian calendar, while retaining its
<dd name, it became the tenth month, and had thirty-one days
asiignrd to it. The meditrinalia, when a libation of new wine
was made in honour of Meditrina, were celebrated on the zzth,
the launalia on the 13th, and the equina, when the equus October
was sacrificed to Mars in the Campus Martius, on the zsth.
Several attempts were made to rename the month in honour
of the emperork Thus it was in succession temporarily known
as Germanicus, Antoninus, Tacitus and Herculeus, the latter
a anrname of Commodus. The senate's attempt to christen it
Faustinus in honour of Faustina, wife of Antoninus, was equally
unsuccessf uL The principal ecclesiastical feasts in October are
those of St Luke on the i8th and of St Simon and St Jude on
the 38th. By the Slavs it is called " yellow month," from the
fading of the leaf; to the Anglo-Saxons it was known as Winter-
fyUeth, begtuse at this full moon (Jylktk) winter was supposed
to begin.
OCTODOH, the generic name for a small South American
rodent mammal (Octodon degus) locally known as the degu.
It is the type of the family Octodontidae, the members of which
— <oUectively termed octodonts— are exclusively Central and
South American. Several of them, such as Eckinomys and
LonekereSf are rat-like creatures with spiny or bristly fur (see
Rodentia).
OCTOPUS (Gr. &cr^, eight and iro6r, foot), the name in
scientific zoology belonging to a single genus of eight armed
Cephabpoda (g.v.), one of whose distinguishing characters is that
it has two rows of suckers on each arm. This true octopus occurs
occasionally on the British coasts, at least the south coast, but
is usually rare. It is more common on the southern coasts
of Europe, including those of the Mediterranean. The usual
species of Octopoda on the British south coast is Eiedone cirrosa,
which has only one row of suckers on each arm, and is a smaller
animal. The celebrated account of the octopus given by Victor
Hugo in his TravaUUurs de la mer is not so fictitious as some
critics with a knowledge of natural history have maintained.
It is true that the great French author has made the mistake
of using the name Cephaloptera, which belongs to a large tropical
fish similar to a skate, instep of Cephalopoda, and that he applies
the term devil-fish, which belongs to Cephaloptera, to the
octopus. His description is exaggerated, imaginative and
sensational; but it is correct in its most important particulars,
and bean evidence that the author was to some extent personally
acquainted with the animal and its habits, although he was not
a scientific observer. The octopus feeds on crabs, and crabs feed
on canion, and, thnefore, there is nothing impossible hi Hugo's
account of the skeleton of a drowned man surrounded by the
shells of numbers of crabs which the octopus had devoured.
Whether an octopus would attack and kill a man is another
question, but it certainly might seize him with its arms and
suckers while holding to the rocks by other arms, and a man
seized in tlus way when in the water might be in danger of being
drowned.
The octopus and many of the Octopoda move about by means
of their arms on the sea bottom, and are not free-swimming,
though like other Cephalopoda they can propel themselves
on occasion backwards through the water by means of the funnel.
Other Octopoda, however, are pelagic and free-swimming, and
such habits are not confined to those forms which are provided
with lateral fins. The Argonaut (see Nautilus) is one of the
Octopoda. The separation of one of the arms of the male for
piuposes of reproduction is one of the most remarkable peculi-
arities of the Octopoda. It does not occur, however, in octopus
nor in many other members of the group. One arm is always
considerably modified in structure and employed in copulation,
but it is only in three genera, one of which is Argonauta, that the
arm spontaneously separates. The detached arm is found still
alive and moving in the mantle cavity of the female, and when
first discovered in these circumstances was naturally regarded
by the older naturalists as a parasite. Cuvier, on account of
the numerous suckers of the detached arm, gave it the name
Hectocotylus (hundred suckers). When the arm is not detached
but only altered in structure it is said to be hectocotylized.
In Octopus amd Eiedone it is the third right arm which is hecto-
cotylized. The extremity of this arm is expanded and assumes
the shape of a spoon. Whether detached or not the modified
arm possesses a cavity into which the spermatophores are passed
and the arm serves to convey them to the mantle cavity of the
female.
It has been mentioned above that the true octopus (Octopus
vulgaris) is usually rare on the English coast. In i&qg and 1900,
however, they became so abundant on the south coast as to
attract general notice, and to constitute a veritable plague which
threatened complete ruin to the shell-fish fisheries. This visita-
tion and its effects were described by W. Garstang in the Journal
of the Marine Biological Association. The abnormal abundance
occurted all along the west coast of France, whence it extended
to the Channel, and was probably clue to a succession of unusually
warm summers and mild winters, beginning with the warm
spring and hot summer of 1803. The octopus in the years
mentioned entered the lobster pots of the fishermen and devoured
or killed the crabs and lobsters captured. The pots when hauled
contained usually only living octopus and the mutilated remains
of their victims. One fisherman took in a single week 64 specimens
of octopus and only 15 living uninjured lobsters. The octopus
also almost exterminated the swimming crabs (Portunus) in
Pl3rmouth Sound, and in the tanks of the Plymouth aquarium
attacked and devoured all the specimens of its smaller rehitive
Eiedone cirrosa.
With r^;ard to the size which the oct(^us may attain, the
dimensions of the body are not usually given in records, but it is
stated that the arms in the largest specimens measured 3I ft.,
and in numerous cases were 3 ft. in length. This would enable
the eight arms to extend over a circle 6 ft. in diameter, but the
globular body is not more than about a third of the length of an
arm in diameter. When not in pursuit of pres* the octopus
hides itself in a hole between rocks and covers itself with stones
and shells. Like its victims it seems to be active chiefly at night
and to remain in its nest during the day.
For a technical account of the Octopoda we Cephalopoda; also
W. Garstang," The Plague of Octopus on the South Coast, and its
Effect on the Crab and Lobster Fianeries," Joum. Mar. Biol. Assoc.
voL vi. (1900) p. s6o. (J. T. C.)
OCTOROOH, or Octaxoon (from Lat. oOc, eight, formed on
the example of quadroon), the offspring of a quadroon and a
white ; a pexscMi having oneneighth negro blood. In rare instances
such persons tie caUed tetcerons, as being third in descent from
a negro luiceugr* OccadooaHy persons are called octoroons
99+
OCTOSTYLE— OCYDROME
when the non-white element is not negro but tome other oolooied
blood.
OGTOSTYLB (Gr. dxrCi eight, and crvkos, a column), in archi-
tecture, a portico of eight columns in front (see Teicplb).
OCTROI (O. Fr. octrayer, to grant, authorize; Lat. aucUfr),
a local tax collected on various articles brought into a district
for consumption. Octroi taxes have a respectable antiquity,
being known in Roman times as veciigalia. These vectigalia
were either the parlorium, a tax on the entry from or departure
to the provinces (those cities which were allowed to levy the
portorium shared the profits with the public treasury); the
ansariuM or foricariumy a duty levied at the entrance to towns;
or the edulia, sale imports levied in markets. Vectigalia were
levied on wine and certain articles of food, but it was seldom
that the cities were allowed to use the whole of the profits of the
taxes. Vectigalia were introduced into Gaul by the Romans,
and remained after the invasion by the Franks, imder the name
of tonlieux and couiumes. They were usually levied by the
owners of seigniories. But during the i2th and 13th centuries,
when the io^ra& succeeded in asserting their independence, they
at the same time obtained the recognition of their ri^t to
esUblish local Uxation, and to have control of it. The royal
power, however, gradually asserted itself, and it became the
rule that permission to lc>y local taxes should be obtained from
the king. From the 14th century onwards, we find numerous
charters granting (ociroyer) to French towns the right to tax
themselves. The taxes did not remain strictly municipal, for
an ordinance of Cardinal Mazarin (in 1647) ordered the proceeds
of the octroi to be paid into the public treasury, and at other
times the government claimed a certain percentage of the product,
but this practice was finally abandoned in 1852. From an
early time the octroi was farmed out to associations or private
individuals, and so great were the abtises which arose from the
system that the octroi was abolished during the Revolution.
But such a drastic measure meant the stoppage of all municipal
activities, and in 1798 Paris was allowed to re-esUblish its
octroi. Other cities were allowed gradually to follow suit,
and in 1809 a law was passed laying down the basis on which
octrois might be established. Other laws have been passed
from time to time in France dealing with the octroi, especially
those of 1816, 1843, 1867, 1871, 1884 and 1897. By the law
of 1809 octroi duties were allowed on (z) beverages and liquids;
(3) eaublcs; (3) fuel; (4) forage; (5) building materials.
A scale of rates was fixed, grsiduated according to the population,
and farming out was strictly regulated. A law of 1816 enacted
that an octroi could only be csUblished at the wish of a municipal
council, and that only articles destined for local constmiption
could be taxed. The law of 1853 abolished the 10% of the
gross receipts paid to the treasury. Certain indispensable
commodities are allowed to enter free, such as grain, flour, fruit,
vegetables and fish.
French octroi duties are collected either by the (i) rigU simple,
i.e. by special officers under the direction of the maire; (3) by
the bail d ferme, i.e. farming, the contractor paying yearly a
certain agreed upon sum calculated on the estimated amount;
(3) the rigie interessi, a variation of the preceding method,
the contractor sharing the profits with the municipality when
they reach a given sum; and (4) the abonncmetU avcc la rigie
des conirihtUions indirecUs, under which a department of the
treasury imdertakes to collect the duties. More than half
the octrois are collected under (i), and the numbers tend to
increase; (3) is steadily decreasing, while (3) has been practically
abandoned; (4) tends to increase. The gross receipts in 1901
amounted to £ii,i33^7a A law of 1897 created new sources
of taxation, giving commimes the option of (i) new duties on
alcohol; (3) a municipal licence duty on retailera of beverages;
(3) a special tax on wine in bottle; (4) direct taxes on horses
and carriages, clubs, billiard tables and dogs; (5) additional
centimes to direct taxes.
From time to time there has been agitation in France for
the abolition of octroi duties, but it has never been pushed very
earnestly. In i860 a commission was appointed to consider
the matter^ and reported in favour dt their rel^ntfoo. In Bd^dB.
on the other hand, ibey were abolahcd la 1870, being n^bad
by an increase in customs and excise duties, and ia i^j
thofic tn Egypt w^n iJso abolbtied. Octroi duties tnsi m luijt^^
SpAin^ Portugal] and in some of the towns of AustriL
AuTUORtTtES.^A. GuigiLLrd, Di ia mpprftsiim dfS txinii (Tui];
Saint JuU^n and Bjc^njJm^, Hutoite a^s drtMi ^km^h i Fmn
\L Tofdit i.fld A. Rjpert. Ttniii dts a:l/iKj m^i^up^^M^ (Pint^ iPlJ:
L. Hourcade, lffl»i*(*i encycUfp^iqiu des tiivtt^ifuitifm tmdimki a
ded octrait (Pantt i9*3S); mucli mtial metier Insm wonm ^ ik
farcggiri^ will be found in Report on the Frtw^k CkirM Sjom^ by
Conau^ireflcrjl Hf4rri fBriiiih DipJamAtk and Cotmlaf Be^on^
tqp6) : (W jLbaliiinc] of tK« B«l|i3n octrw producin] a ^^^^upaatm
omn'iAl tt^Tt : Atn>iiiion dei octr^ tifmmtfi^ia ra Bcf^fv
d^umtnij £i di^JfUf JKttu pctlemcfUAires,. (T< h- Li
OXtlRRir* EUGBKB {xr^i^t), IHsb scholar, wis bon 11
Dunaha^ OTunty Clare, in 1796, the son of a fanner who wasA ma
of unu&ual ititeUigence, Alter being eimployied for vhhk tin ia
the topoji^apliical and hi$tonc2l section of Lhe Itkh ordnjuff
survey. O 'Curry tarncd hii Jising by traiUklalinjt ind ci&p>th| Irisli
manuscripts. TKt catalogue dI Irish manuscripts in the finLit^
J^tuseum was compiled by hlni. On the founding of the Rooiu
Catholic Univeruiy of IrelaDd (1S54) he was appoinced prcraso-
of Irish history and arcti^cobgy. His lectures were puUi^M
by lhe univcryty in i£&d, and give n better knovltdgr o( Insfa
tnediEVa] Literature than can be obtainrd from any fHlvT du
source. Hiree other volumes oE lectures were pubjubrd poM^uB-
ou$1y^ under the title On Ike Mcmurs smd Ctuiami ej ike Avtittii
Irish (1^73). His voluminous transcripts, notably tight impi
voluma of ancient Irish law, testify To his unntmitting todaao-
The Celtic Sodeiy> ol the cou&tU q( which he wii 1 laembe,
pubU^hcd two of hb lrim$latioDs of medieval ulcs. He did i&
Dublin In i&6i.
OCYDROME, a wotd formed from Ckydrffmmt^ aMuiDg
" s^'ift-nmner," and sugge&tcd by J Wagl^r in i£ja 34 a fEunc
term for the New Zealand bird calkd in the tben unpuhbtcd
manuscripts of J. K* Forster iCuMm trogi^ytts, and so deucna^l^
in 178* by S. G. GisieUn, who koe* of it ihiwigh J Lattam*
En^sb descripLion* Wagler'a siigg«»tion has since been eeoeiilJy
adapt «], jind the genu^ Ocydromits is accrpted by most oraiTJ^
dlogi^ts AS a valid group of RaUidai\ but the number of ipeca
it contains is admittedly doubtful, owiog to the vanahuity is
size and plumage which ibey exhibit, and their correct uoineadi*
tunc must for the ppcscnt be considered unccrtajD. Sir W
Bullcr in his Birdr 0/ Nrv ZioiAnd idcfltlfies the " Wood-tm,"
observed in great abundance on the shon^ of Dusiy Biy b
1 77 J by Cook and his compamons on his second v&y-M^, inth tJx
GaUifaHus fuscus docribed and tigured by Du Bus in iS^r.
and accordingly calls it O. /hj^uj- but it cannot be qucstioncJ
that the species from iHs locality— -which appears to Uvt
a somewhat ILrnited range in the Middle UUsd,^ and oevc to he
met with far from the sea-coast, wherr it lives »boUy 08 ma-
taceans and other marine animals — is identical with ihit of the
older author just mentioned, tn 17S15 Spanmaa, « ho bad
ako been of Cook's company ^ figured and described as RiHas
liitstralis a bird which, though said by him to be that of f^
southern coast of New Zcalaidd, differs so much from the X.
tro^ladyks as to compel a belief in it^ specific distloet^uss, lad
indeed his species ha* generally been identified »ilh the coasjoa
" Weka "of the Maories of the Middle Island, which can tcucdy
be the ease if his sutement is absolutely true, since the latter
does not appear to reach so far to the southward, or to aSert
the sfiihort. It may therefore be fairly inferred that his nibject
was obtained from some other locality. The North Island d
New Zealand has what b allowed to be a third specks, to which
the name of Ckydnmm earli is attached^ and thb mis foiiMrly
very plentiful; but Ita numbers ha^^e rapidly decreased, and
there h every ch^Jice of its soon beinf as extinct ^ h the fftedcs
which tetiaaied Norfolk Inland on iu discovery by Cook ib t;:4,
^ It also occun in Stewart liUvd, and wwulariy taaa^ « t)m
more distant group known ai the Snaraf. The C&Uiruiitu k«*^
fihtits of Lafrepiuye, of whicli the typlcjkl (and unique?) iwomM
from an unknown locality i* jn the Cach Mutcum. hi* j,l-o hct*
referred to thii ipectea* but the propriety of the act niay be doubtsl
ODAENATHUS— ODDE
995
and which was doobtlot d&tinct bom all the rest, thoa^ ao
specimen of it is known to exist in any museum.* Another
species, O. syhestris, smaller and lighter in Colour than any of
the rest, was foimd in 1869 to linger yet in Lord Howe's Island
{Froc. Zocl. Society, 1869, p. 473, pL xzxv.). Somewhat differing
from Ocydromus, but apparently very neariy allied to it, is a
little bird peculiar, it is believed, to the Chatham Islands (/Mf ,
1873, p. 247), and regarded by Captain Hutton »s the type of
a genus Cabalus under the name of C. modestus, while other
naturalists consider it to be the young of the rare RaUus dteffen-
backi. So far the distribution of the Ocydromine form is wholly
in accordance with that of most others characteristic of the New
Zeabnd sub-region; but a curious exception is asserted to have
been found in the GaUiraOus lajresnayanus of New Caledonia,
which, though presenting some structural differences, has been
referred to the genus Ocydromus.
The chief interest attaching to the Ocydromes is their inability
to use in flight the wings with which they are furnished, and
hence an extreme probability of the form becoming wholly
extinct in a short time. Of this inability there are other instances
among the RailUac (see Moor-hen); but here we have coupled
with it the curious fact that in the skeleton the angle which the
scapula makes ^th the concoid is greater than a right angle,
a peculiarity shared only, so far as is known, among the Carinctae
by the dodo. The Ot^dromes are birds of dull plumage, and
mostly of retiring habits, though the common species is said to
show great boldness towards man, and, from the accounts of
Cook and the younger Forster, the birds seen by them displayed
little fear. They are extremely destructive to eggs and to any
other birds they can master. (A. N.)
ODAENATHUS. or Odenatus (Gr. 'OdaUaBot, Pahn, nrwi
** little ear "), the Latinized form of Odainath, the name of a
famous prince of Palmyra, in the second half of the 3rd century
A.O., who succeeded in recovering the Roman East from the
Persians and restoring it to the Empire. He belonged to the
leading family of Palmyra, which bore, in token of Roman
citizenship, the gerUilicium of Septimius; hence his full name
was Septimius Odainath (Vog(i6, Syrie centrales Nos. 23, 28 ■■
Cooke, North-Semitic Inscrr. Nos. 126, 130). It is practically
certain that he was the son of Septimius Qairfln the " senator
and chief of Ta^or," the son of Septimius Odainath "the
senator " {N.SJ. p. 285). The year when he became chief of
Palmyra is not known, but already in an inscription dated a.d.
358 he is styled " the illustrious consul our lord " (AT-S./. No.
126). He possessed the characteristic vigour and astuteness of
the old Arab stock from, which he sprang; and in his wife, the
renowned Zenobia (q.v.), he found an able supporter of his poUcy.
The defeat amd captivity of the emperor Valerian (a.d. 260)
left the eastern provinces largely at the mercy of the Persians;
the prospect of Persian supremacy was not one which Palmyra
or its prince had any reason to desire. At first, it seems, Odainath
atten^ted to propitiate the Parthian monarch ShapOr (Sapor)
I.; but when his gifts were contemptuously rejected (Petr.
Patridus, f 10) he decided to throw in his lot with the cause of
Rome. The neutrality which had made Palmyra's fortune was
abandoned for an active military policy which, while it added
to Odainath's fame, in a short time brought his native city to
its ruin. He fell upon the victorious Persians returning home
after the sack of Antioch, and before they could cross the
Euphrates inflicted upon them a considerable defeat. Then,
when two usurping emperors were proclaimed in the East
(a.d. 261), Odainath took the side of Gallienus the son and
successor of Valerian, attacked and put to death the usurper
Quietus at Emesa (95m$), and was rewarded for his loyalty
by the grant of an exceptional position (a.d. 262). He may have
" The younger Forster remarked that the birds of Norfolk Island,
though believed by the other naturalists of Cook's ship to be generally
the same as those of New Zealand, were distinsuished oy their
brighter colourinc (see also Nestor). There can be no doubt that
all the land-birds were specifically distinct. It is possible that
Sparrman't R. ausrralis, which cannot very confidently be referred
to anv known spedes of Ocydromus, may havt been from Norfolk
anumed the title of king before; but he now became " totius
Orientis imperator," not indeed joint-ruler, nor Augustus,
but "independent lieutenant of the emperor for the East"
(Mommsen, Provinces, ii. p. Z03).* In a series of rapid and
successful campaigns, during which he left Palmyra under the
charge of Septimius Worod his deputy (N^J. Nos. z 37-1 39),
he crossed the Euphrates and relieved Edessa, recovered Nislbis
and Carrhae, and even took the offensive against the power of
Persia, and twice invested Ctesiphon itielf, the capital; probably
also he brought back Armenia into the Empire. These brilliant
successes restored the Roman rule in the East; and Gallienus
did not disdain to hold a triumph with the captives and trophies
which Odainath had won (aj>. 264). While observing all due
formalities towards his overlord, there can be little doubt that
Odainath aimed at independent empire; but during his life-
time no breach with Rome occurred. He was about to start for
Cappadoda against the Goths when he was assassinated, together
with HerOdes his eldest son, by his nephew Maconius; there
is no reason to suppose that this deed of violence was in-
stigated from Rome. After his death (aj>. 266-267) Zenobia
succeeded to his position, and practically governed Palmyra on
behalf of her young son Wahal>^dlath or Athenodorus (see
Palmyia). (G. a. C.*)
ODAUSQUB, a slave-woman who is a member of an oriental
harem, especially one in the harem or seraglio of the sultan of
Turkey. The word is the French adaptation of the Turkish
ddaliq, formed from 9dah, chamber or room in a harem.
ODD (in middle English oddc, from old Norwegian oddi, am
angle of a triangle; the old Norwegian oddamann is used of the
third man who gives a casting vote in a dispute), that which
remains over after an equal division, the unit in excess of an even
number; thus in numeration the word is used of a number
dther above or below a round number, am indefinite cardinal
number, as " eighty and odd," or " eighty odd." As apph'ed
to individuals, the sense of " one left after a division " leads to
that of " solitary," and thus of " uncommon " or " strange."
In the plural, " odds " was originally used to denote inequalities
especially in the phrase " to make odds even." The sense of a
difference in benefit leads to such colloquialisms as " makes
no odds," while that of variance appears in the expression
". to be at odds." In betting " the odds " is the advantage given
by one person to another in proportion to the supposed chances
of success.
ODDS, or Odda, a village of Norway, in South Bergenhus
anU (county), on the S&r Fjord, a head-branch of the great
Hardanger Fjord. It is 48 m. directly S.E. of Bergen, but 123
by water (to Eide) , road (to Vosscvangen) , and rail thenceforward,
or about the same distance by water alone. It is one of the
prindpal tourist-centres in southern Norway, being at the end
of the road from Breifond (27 m.) near which the routes join from
Stavanger by Sand, Lake Suldal, and the Bratlandsdal, and
fromthe south-eastern coast towns by the Telemark. This road,
descending from the Horrebrackke, passes through the gorge
of Seljestadjuvet, passes the Espelandsfos and Lotefos falls,
and skirts the Sandven lake. Odde is also a centre for several
favourite excursions, as to the Buarbrae, one of the gladers
descending from the great Folgefond snowfield, situated in a
precipitous valley (Jordal) to the west of Sandven lake; to the
Skjaeggedalsfos, a magnificent fall (535 ft.); or across the
Folgefond to Suldal, a station on the Mauranger branch of the
Hardanger fjord. Touring 'steamers and frequent local
steamers from Bergen call at Odde, and there are several large
hotels.
*The late Roman chronicler Trebellius Pollio goes further and
asserts " Odenatus rex Palmyrenorum optinuit totius Orientis
imperium. . . . Gallienus Odenatum participato imperio Augustum
vocavit," Hist, Aug. xxiii. 10 and 12. This is not borne out by the
evidence. The highest rank claimed for him by his own people
is recorded in ^|, inscription dated 271 {N.S.I. No. 130) set up by
the two general q{ the Palmyrene army; Odainath is styled " king
of kings and r»^*-rcT ol t\^e ^\\o\e city " ; but this does not mean that
he ever held ^^ »Vi\e ol Mfustus, and the inscription was set up
after his de^^|^ *a ^unog the revoU ol Palmyra.
996
ODDFELLOWS
ODDFELLOWS, ORDER OF, a secret benevolent and sodal
society, having mystic signs of recognition, initiatory rites and
ceremonies,, and various grades of dignity and honour. Great
antiquity has been claimed for the order of OddfeUow»— the
most popular .tradition ascribing it to the Jewish legion under
Titus, who, it is asserted, received from the emperor its first
charter written on a golden tablet. Oddfellows themselves,
however, now generally admit that the institution cannot be
traced back beyond the first half of the z8th century, and explain
the name as adopted at a time when the severance into sects
and classes was so wide that persons aiming at social union and
mutual help were a marked exception to the general rule.
Mention is made by Defoe of the society of Oddfellows, but the
oldest lodge of which the name has been handed down b the
Loyal Aristarcus, No. 9, which met in 1745 "at the Oakley
Arms, Borough of Southwark; Globe Tavern, Hatton Garden;
or the Boar's Head in Smithfield, as the noble master may direct."
The earliest lodges were supported by each 'member and visitor
paying a penny to the secretary on entering the lodge, and special
sums were voted to any brother in need. If out of work he was
supplied with a card and funds to reach the next lodge, and he
went from lodge to lodge until he found employment. The lodges
gradually adopted a definite common ritual and became confeder-
ated under the name of the Patriotic Order. Towards the end of
the century many of the lodges were broken up by State prosecu-
tions on the suspicion that their purposes were " seditious," 6ut
the society continued to exist as the Union Older of Oddfellows
until x8oo. In 1813, at a convention in Manchester, was formed
the Independent Order pf Oddfellows, Manchester Unity, which
now overshadows all the minor sodeties in En^^and. Oddfellow,
ship was introduced into the United SUtes from the Manchester
Unity in 1819, and the grand lodge of Maryland and the United
States was constituted on the asnd of February i8ai. It now
rivals in membership and influence the Manchester Unity, from
which it severed its connexion in 1842. In 1843 it isaed a dis-
pensation for opening the Prince of Wales Lodge No. i at Montreal,
Canada. The American society, including Canada and the United
States, has its headquarters at Baltimore. Organixattons,
connected either with the United States or En^and, have been
founded in France, Germany, Switzerland, Gibraltar and Malta,
Australia, New Zealand,, the Fiji Islands, the Hawaiian Islands,
South Africa, South America, the West Indies and Barbados,
and elsewhere.
The rules of the different societies, various sot^-bookSk and a
number of minor boola on Oddfcllowship have been ptiblished. but
the most complete and trustworthy account of the institution is
that in The CompUU Manual cf OddfeUawskip. its History, Prinaptts,
Ceremonies and Symbolism, privately printed (1879). See also
FaiENDLY SOCISTIBS.
END OP NINBTBBNTH VOLiniB.
Ulh Ulj
n >. >.Mnnusv * mm oMirAinr, enoMia
TBB J. r. UPUT OOKPAMT, MB* TOUC,
■"■"•"■*" ^ -'— " -*itp*inf, CBiCAoe.
. B. DonnuBT a 1
3 2044 038 447 041